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Hydraulics

Training Manual 1

BASIC HYDRAULICS AND HYDRAULIC PLUMBING

TABLE OF CONTENTS


Section Page

Subcourse Overview ................................................. i

Administrative Instructions ....................................... iv

Grading and Certification Instructions ............................ iv

Lesson 1: Basic Hydraulics ....................................... 1

Practice Exercise ..................................... 19

Answer Key and Feedback ............................... 22

Lesson 2: Hydraulic Plumbing .................................... 25

Practice Exercise ..................................... 69

Answer Key and Feedback ............................... 71

Appendix A: Proof Testing of Hose Assemblies ...................... 72

Appendix B: Glossary .............................................. 73

Examination ....................................................... 78

Student Inquiry Sheet

















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LESSON 1

BASIC HYDRAULICS

STP TASK: 551-758-1071

OVERVIEW

LESSON DESCRIPTION: In this lesson you will learn the definition of
hydraulics, its basic applications and
characteristics, and the types of hydraulic
fluid used.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE:

ACTION: After this lesson you will demonstrate a knowledge of
the principles of hydraulics, its characteristics and
applications, and the fluids used in the system.

CONDITIONS: You will study the material in this lesson in a
classroom environment or at home.

STANDARD: You will correctly answer all the questions in the
practice exercise before you proceed to the next
lesson.

REFERENCES: The material contained in this lesson was derived from
the following publications, FM 1-509, FM 10-69, and TM
1-1500-204-23 Series


INTRODUCTION

Hydraulics has proven to be the most efficient and economical system
adaptable to aviation. First used by the ancient Greeks as a means
of elevating the stages of their amphitheaters, the principles of
hydraulics were explained scientifically by the seventeenth century
scholars Pascal and Boyle. The laws










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discovered by these two men regarding the effects of pressure and
temperature on fluids and gases in confined areas form the basis of
the principle of mechanical advantage; in other words, the "why and
how" of hydraulics.

This chapter explains to you the basic applications of hydraulics in
Army aviation and the characteristics of these systems. The
explanations include detailed definitions of the terminology peculiar
to hydraulics with which you must be familiar to fully understand
this subject.

In aviation, hydraulics is the use of fluids under pressure to
transmit force developed in one location on an aircraft or other
related equipment to some other point on the same aircraft or
equipment. Hydraulics also includes the principles underlying
hydraulic action and the methods, fluids, and equipment used in
implementing those principles.

HYDRAULIC AND HYDRAULICS

The word "hydraulic" is derived from two Greek words: "hydro" meaning
liquid or water and "aulos" meaning pipe or tubing. "Hydraulic,"
therefore, is an adjective implying that the word it modifies is in
some major way concerned with liquids. Examples can be found in the
everyday usage of "hydraulic" in connection with familiar items such
as automobile jacks and brakes. As a further example, the phrase
"hydraulic freight elevator" refers to an elevator ascending and
descending on a column of liquid instead of using cables and a drum.

On the other hand, the word "hydraulics" is the generic name of a
subject. According to the dictionary "hydraulics" is defined as a
branch of science that deals with practical applications (such as the
transmission of energy or the effects of flow) of a liquid in motion.

USES OF HYDRAULICS ON ARMY AIRCRAFT

On fixed-wing aircraft, hydraulics is used to operate retractable
landing gear and wheel brakes and to control wing flaps and propeller
pitch. In conjunction with gases, hydraulics is used in the
operation of--

Rotor and wheel brakes.
Shock struts.
Shimmy dampers.
Flight control systems.


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Loading ramps.
Folding pylons.
Winch hoists.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

Hydraulic systems have many desirable features. However, one
disadvantage is the original high cost of the various components.
This is more than offset by the many advantages that make hydraulic
systems the most economical means of power transmission. The
following paragraphs discuss some of the advantages of hydraulic
systems.

Efficiency. Discounting any losses that can occur in its
mechanical linkage, practically all the energy transmitted through a
hydraulic system is received at the output end -- where the work is
performed. The electrical system, its closest competitor, is 15
percent to 30 percent lower in efficiency. The best straight
mechanical systems are generally 30 percent to 70 percent less
efficient than comparable hydraulic systems because of high inertia
factors and frictional losses. Inertia is the resistance to motion,
action, or change.

Dependability. The hydraulic system is consistently reliable.
Unlike the other systems mentioned, it is not subject to changes in
performance or to sudden unexpected failure.

Control Sensitivity. The confined liquid of a hydraulic system
operates like a bar of steel in transmitting force. However, the
moving parts are lightweight and can be almost instantaneously put
into motion or stopped. The valves within the system can start or
stop the flow of pressurized fluids almost instantly and require very
little effort to manipulate. The entire system is very responsive to
operator control.

Flexibility of Installation. Hydraulic lines can be run almost
anywhere. Unlike mechanical systems that must follow straight paths,
the lines of a hydraulic system can be led around obstructions. The
major components of hydraulic systems, with the exception of power-
driven pumps located near the power source, can be installed in a
variety of places. The advantages of this feature are readily
recognized when you study the many locations of hydraulic components
on various types of aircraft.

Low Space Requirements. The functional parts of a hydraulic
system are small in comparison to those of other systems; therefore,
the total space requirement is comparatively low.

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These components can be readily connected by lines of any length or
contour. They can be separated and installed in small, unused, and
out-of-the-way spaces. Large, unoccupied areas for the hydraulic
system are unnecessary; in short, special space requirements are
reduced to a minimum.

Low Weight. The hydraulic system weighs remarkably little in
comparison to the amount of work it does. A mechanical or electrical
system capable of doing the same job weighs considerably more. Since
nonpayload weight is an important factor on aircraft, the hydraulic
system is ideal for aviation use.

Self-Lubricating. The majority of the parts of a hydraulic system
operate in a bath of oil. Thus, hydraulic systems are practically
self-lubricating. The few components that do require periodic
lubrication are the mechanical linkages of the system.

Low Maintenance Requirements. Maintenance records consistently
show that adjustments and emergency repairs to the parts of hydraulic
systems are seldom necessary. The aircraft time-change schedules
specify the replacement of components on the basis of hours flown or
days elapsed and require relatively infrequent change of hydraulic
components.

FORCE

The word "force," used in a mechanical sense, means a push or pull.
Force, because it is a push or pull, tends to cause the object on
which it is exerted to move. In certain instances, when the force
acting on an object is not sufficient to overcome its resistance or
drag, no movement will take place. In such cases force is still
considered to be present.

Direction of Force. Force can be exerted in any direction. It
may act downward: as when gravity acts on a body, pulling it towards
the earth. A force may act across: as when the wind pushes a boat
across the water. A force can be applied upwards: as when an athlete
throws (pushes) a ball into the air. Or a force can act in all
directions at once: as when a firecracker explodes.

Magnitude of Force. The extent (magnitude) of a given force is
expressed by means of a single measurement. In the United States,
the "pound" is the unit of measurement of force. For example, it
took 7.5 million pounds of thrust (force) to lift the Apollo moonship
off its launch pad. Hydraulic force is measured in the amount of
pounds required to displace an object within a specified area such as
in a square inch.

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PRESSURE

The word "pressure," when used in conjunction with mechanical and
hydromechanical systems, has two different uses. One is technical;
the other, nontechnical. These two uses can be easily distinguished
from each other by the presence or absence of a number. In technical
use, a number always accompanies the word "pressure." In
nontechnical use no number is present. These definitions are further
explained in the following paragraphs.

Technical. The number accompanying pressure conveys specific
information about the significant strength of the force being
applied. The strength of this applied force is expressed as a rate
at which the force is distributed over the area on which it is
acting. Thus, pounds per square inch (psi) expresses a rate of
pressure just as miles per hour (mph) does of speed. An example of
this is: "The hydraulic system in UH-1 aircraft functions at 1500
psi."

Nontechnical. The word "pressure," when used in the nontechnical
sense simply indicates that an unspecified amount of force is being
applied to an object. Frequently adjectives such as light, medium,
or heavy are used to remove some of the vagueness concerning the
strength of the applied force.

PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

When used in the technical sense, pressure is defined as the amount
of force per unit area. To have universal, consistent, and definite
meaning, standard units of measurement are used to express pressure.
In the United States, the pound is the unit of measurement used for
force, and the square inch is the unit for area. This is comparable
with the unit of measurement used for speed: the mile is the unit of
measurement for distance, and the hour is the measurement for time.

A pressure measurement is always expressed in terms of both units of
measurement just explained: amount of force and unit area. However,
only one of these units, the amount of force, is variable. The
square inch is used only in the singular -- never more or less than
one square inch.

A given pressure measurement can be stated in three different ways
and still mean the same thing. Therefore, 50 psi pressure, 50 pounds
pressure, and 50 psi all have identical meanings.




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Examples of Pressure Measurement. A table with a 10-inch by 10-
inch flat top contains 100 square inches of surface. If a 100-pound
slab of exactly the same dimensions is placed on the table top, one
pound per square inch pressure is exerted over the entire table
surface.

Now, think of the same table (100 square inches) with a 100-pound
block instead of the slab resting on its top. Assume this block has
a face of only 50 square inches contacting the table. Because the
area of contact has been cut in half and the weight of the block
remains the same, the pressure exerted on the table doubles to 2 psi.

As a final example, suppose a long rod weighing 100 pounds with a
face of 1 square inch is balanced upright on the table top. The
pressure now being exerted on the table is increased to 100 psi,
since the entire load is being supported on a single square inch of
the table surface. These examples are illustrated in Figure 1-1.

Force-Area-Pressure Formulas. From the preceding discussion, you
can see that the formula to find the pressure acting on a surface is
"pressure equals force divided by area." If "P" is the symbol for
pressure, "A" the symbol for area, and F" the symbol for force, the
formula can be expressed as follows:



By transposing the symbols in this formula, two other important
formulas are derived: one for area; one for force. Respectively,
they are--



However, when using any of these formulas, two of the factors must
be known to be able to determine the third unknown factor.












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Figure 1-1. Measuring Pressure.



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The triangle shown in Figure 1-2 is a convenient memory device for
the force-area-pressure formulas. It helps you recall the three
factors involved: F, A, and P. Because the F is above the line in
the triangle, it also reminds you that in both formulas indicating
division, F is always divided by one of the other two factors.


Figure 1-2. Relationship of Force, Area, and Pressure.

TRANSMISSION OF FORCE

Two means of transmitting force are through solids and through
liquids. Since this text is on hydraulics, the emphasis is on
fluids. Force transmission through solids is presented only as a
means of comparison.

Transmission of Force Through Solids. Force applied at one point
on a solid body follows a straight line undiminished to an opposite
point on the body. This is illustrated in Figure 1-3.

Transmission of Force Through Confined Liquids. Applied forces
are transmitted through bodies of confined liquids in the manner
described by Pascal's Law. This law of physics, formulated in the
seventeenth century by the French mathematician Blaise Pascal,
states: pressure applied to any part of a confined liquid is
transmitted without change in intensity to all parts of the liquid.
This means that wherever it is applied on the body of liquid,

pressure
pushes equal force against every square inch of the interior surfaces
of the

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liquid's container. When pressure is applied to a liquid's container
in a downward direction, it will not only act on the bottom surface;
but on the sides and top as well.


Figure 1-3. Transmission of Force Through Solids.

The illustration in Figure 1-4 helps to better understand this
explanation. The piston on the top of the tube is driven downward
with a force of 100 psi. This applied force produces an identical
pressure of 100 psi on every square inch of the interior surface.
Notice the pressure on the interior surface is always applied at
right angles to the walls of the container, regardless of its shape.
From this it can be seen that the forces acting within a body of
confined liquid are explosive in pattern. If all sides are equal in
strength, they will burst simultaneously if sufficient force is
applied.









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Figure 1-4. Transmission of Force Through
Confined Liquids.

CHARACTERISTICS OF FLUIDS

The vast difference in the manner in which force is transmitted
through confined liquids, as compared with solid bodies, is due to
the physical characteristics of fluids -- namely, shape and
compressibility. Liquids have no definite shape; they readily and
instantly conform to the form of the container. Because of this
characteristic the entire body of confined fluid tends to move away
from the point of the initial force in all directions until stopped
by something solid such as the walls of the container. Liquids are
relatively incompressible. That is, they can only be compressed by
approximately 1 percent of their volume. Because liquids lack their
own shape and are incompressible, an applied force transmitted
through a body of liquid confined in a rigid container results in no
more compression than if it were transmitted through solid metal.

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Movement of Fluid Under Pressure. Force applied to a confined
liquid can cause the liquid to move only when that force exceeds any
other force acting on the liquid in an opposing direction. Fluid
flow is always in the direction of the lowest pressure. If the
opposing forces are equal, no movement of fluid takes place.

Fluid under pressure can flow into already filled containers only
if an equal or greater quantity simultaneously flows out of them.
This is an obvious and simple principle, but one that is easily
overlooked.

Effects of Temperature on Liquids. As in metals, temperature
changes produce changes in the size of a body of liquid. With the
exception of water, whenever the temperature of a body of liquid
falls, a decrease (contraction) in size of the body of fluid takes
place. The amount of contraction is slight and takes place in direct
proportion to the change in temperature.

When the temperature rises, the body of liquid expands. This is
referred to as "thermal expansion." The amount of expansion is in
direct proportion to the rise in temperature. Although the rate of
expansion is relatively small, it is important; some provision is
usually necessary in a hydraulic system to accommodate the increase
in size of the body of liquid when a temperature rise occurs.

MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE

By simple definition, mechanical advantage is equal to the ratio of a
force or resistance overcome by the application of a lesser force or
effort through a simple machine. This represents a method of
multiplying forces. In mechanical advantage, the gain in force is
obtained at the expense of a loss in distance. Discounting
frictional losses, the percentage gain in force equals the percentage
loss in distance. Two familiar applications of the principles of
mechanical advantage are the lever and the hydraulic jack. In the
case of the jack, a force of just a pound or two applied to the jack
handle can raise many hundreds of pounds of load. Note, though, that
each time the handle is moved several inches, the load is raised only
a fraction of an inch.

Application in Hydraulics. The principle used in hydraulics to
develop mechanical advantage is simple. Essentially it is obtained
by fitting two movable surfaces of different sizes to a confining
vessel, such as pistons within cylinders. The vessel is filled with
fluid, and force (input) is applied to



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the smaller surface. This pressure is then transferred, by means of
the fluid, to the larger surface where a proportional force (output)
is produced.

Rate. The rate mechanical advantage is produced by hydraulic
means is in direct proportion to the ratio of the size of the smaller
(input) area to the size of the larger (output) area. Thus, 10
pounds of force applied to one square inch of surface of a confined
liquid produces 100 pounds of force on a movable surface of 10 square
inches. This is illustrated in Figure 1-5. The increase in force is
not free, but is obtained at the expense of distance. In this case,
the tenfold increase in output force is gained at the expense of a
tenfold increase in distance over which the initial force is applied.


Figure 1-5. Hydraulics and Mechanical Advantage.

THE ROLE OF AIR IN HYDRAULICS

Some hydraulic components require air as well as hydraulic oil for
their operation. Other hydraulic components do not, and instead
their performance is seriously impaired if air accidentally leaks
into the system.

Familiarization with the basic principles of pneumatics aids in
understanding the operation of both the hydraulic components
requiring air as well as those that do not. It aids, also, in
understanding how air can upset the normal operation of a hydraulic
system if it is present in the system where it must not be.


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Air. When used in reference to hydraulics, air is understood to
mean atmospheric air. Briefly, air is defined as a complex,
indefinite mixture of many gases. Of the individual gases that make
up atmospheric air, 90 percent or more is oxygen and nitrogen.

Some knowledge of the physical characteristics of air is quite
important to this instruction. Because the physical properties of
all gases, including air, are the same, a study of these properties
is made with reference to gases in general. It is important to
realize, however, though similar in physical characteristics, gases
differ greatly in their individual chemical composition. This
difference makes some gases extremely dangerous when under pressure
or when they come in contact with certain substances.

Air and Nitrogen. Air and pure nitrogen are inert gases and are
safe and suitable for use in hydraulic systems.



Most frequently the air used in hydraulic systems is drawn out of the
atmosphere and forced into the hydraulic system by means of an air
compressor. Pure nitrogen, however, is available only as a
compressed bottle gas.

Application in Hydraulics. The ability of a gas to act in the
manner of a spring is important in hydraulics. This characteristic
is used in some hydraulic systems to enable these systems to absorb,
store, and release fluid energy as required. These abilities within
a system are often provided by means of a single component designed
to produce a springlike action. In most cases, such components use
air, even though a spring might be equally suitable from a
performance standpoint. Air is superior to a spring because of its
low weight and because it is not subject to failure from metal
fatigue as is a spring. The most common use of air in hydraulic
systems is found in accumulators and shock struts.





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Malfunctions Caused by Air. In general, all components and
systems that do not require gases in their operation are to some
extent impaired by the presence of air. Examples are excessive
feedback of loud noises from flight controls during operation, and
the failure of wheel and rotor brakes to hold. These malfunctions
can be readily corrected by "bleeding the system": a controlled way
of allowing the air to escape. The process is explained in detail in
the -20 TMs of the particular aircraft involved.

FLUIDS USED IN HYDRAULICS

Two general types of fluids can be used in the operation and
maintenance of hydraulic systems and equipment: vegetable-base and
mineral-base. Although both types of fluids possess characteristics
suitable for hydraulic use, they are not interchangeable, nor are
they compatible as mixtures. At present, only mineral base fluids
are used for the maintenance and operation of hydraulic systems and
self-contained hydraulic components of Army aircraft. Despite this,
vegetable-base hydraulic fluids cannot be left entirely out of this
discussion.

In the past, some Army aircraft have used vegetable-base fluids for
hydraulic system maintenance and operation. Also, all known brake
systems in automotive vehicles are currently being operated on
vegetable-base fluid. It is quite possible that a supply of this
type of fluid may erroneously fall into the aviation supply system.
Therefore, maintenance personnel must be familiar with both types of
fluids so they can recognize the error and avoid use of the improper
fluid. Moreover, knowledge of the effects of using the improper
fluid and the corrective action to take if this occurs is as
important as knowledge of the system itself.

Rubber parts of hydraulic systems are particularly sensitive to
incorrect fluids. The rubber parts used in systems operating on
vegetable-base fluids are made of natural rubber; those operating on
mineral-base fluids are made of synthetic rubber. Both types of
rubber are seriously damaged by contact with the wrong type of fluid.

Vegetable-Base Hydraulic Fluids. Vegetable-base hydraulic fluids
are composed essentially of castor oil and alcohol. These fluids
have an easily recognized pungent odor, suggestive of their alcohol
content.

There are two types of vegetable-base hydraulic fluids that
aviation personnel can be issued in error; aircraft and automotive
types. Their descriptions follow:


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The aircraft vegetable-base fluid is colored with a blue dye
for identification and is designated MIL-H-7644.

The vegetable-base hydraulic fluid currently used for
automotive hydraulic systems is amber in color. The military
designation of this fluid is MIL-F-2111.

Remember: Neither of these fluids are acceptable for use in
aircraft hydraulic systems, and are NOT to be used in hydraulic jacks
or other aircraft ground-handling equipment.

Mineral-Base Hydraulic Fluids. Three categories of mineral base
hydraulic fluids are used in Army aviation today: operational,
preservative, and cleaning.

Operational Fluid. During extreme cold weather the operational
fluid now used in aircraft hydraulic systems and components is MIL-H-
5606. This fluid is colored with a red dye for identification and
has a very distinctive odor. MIL-H-83282 is to be used in components
and systems as prescribed in TB 55-1500-334-25.

Preservative Fluid. Preservative fluid contains a special
corrosion-inhibiting additive. Its primary purpose is to fill
hydraulic components as a protection against corrosion during
shipment or storage. Designated as MIL-H-6083A, preservatite fluid
is very similar to operational fluid in viscosity, odor, and color.
Operational fluid, MIL-H-5606, and preservative fluid, MIL-H-6083A,
are compatible but not interchangeable. Therefore, when preparing to
install components preserved with 6083A, the preservative fluid must
be drained to the drip point before installation, and the components
refilled with operational fluid. The preservative fluid, 6083A, need
not be flushed out with 5606. When using MIL-H-83282, the
preservative must be flushed as prescribed in TB 55-1500-334-25.

Cleaning Fluid. TM 55-1500-204-23-2 contains a list of authorized
cleaning agents and details their use in hydraulic systems and
components. Because of constant improvement of cleaning agents,
changes to the basic technical manual are printed and distributed as
necessary. For that reason, always refer to the current technical
manual and its latest changes, for the authorized cleaning agent to
be used on types of hydraulic systems and components.

Table of Fluid Uses. The following table is a brief summary of
the permissible uses of mineral-base hydraulic fluids.




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Table 1-1. Uses of Mineral-Base Hydraulic Fluids.



Corrective Action Following Improper Servicing. If a hydraulic
system or component is erroneously serviced with vegetable-base
fluid, the system must be drained immediately and then flushed with
lacquer thinner: military specification MIL-T-6094A. Following this,
the components of the system must be removed and disassembled to the
extent necessary to remove all seals. The components are washed,
seals are replaced with new ones, and the system is reassembled for
return to operation.

HANDLING OF FLUIDS

Trouble-free operation of hydraulic systems depends largely on the
efforts made to ensure the use of pure hydraulic fluid in a clean
system. Bulk containers of fluids must be carefully opened and
completely closed immediately after dispensing any fluid. After
dispensing, unused fluid remaining in gallon and quart containers
must be disposed of according to TM 10-1101. Dispensing equipment
must be absolutely clean





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during use. Filler plugs and caps and the bosses in which they are
installed must be carefully cleaned before removal and dispensing any
fluid.

Besides taking precautions while dispensing hydraulic fluids, you
must also ensure safe storage of fluids and observation of safety
regulations by the fluid handlers.

Fire Hazards. Hydraulic fluids are quite flammable and must be
kept away from open flames, sparks, and objects heated to high
temperatures. Fluid leaks in aircraft are a definite fire hazard and
must be constantly looked for and promptly corrected. The flash
point for MIL-H-5606 is 275 Fahrenheit. Because MIL-H-83282 has a
flash point of 400 Fahrenheit, it is much safer to use and is
replacing MIL-H-5606. Although the two fluids are compatible, care
must be taken so that a mixture of the two types has a volume of no
more than 3 percent MIL-H-5606. A mixture with a volume of more than
3 percent MIL-H-5606, degrades the flash point of MIL-H-83282.

The regulations for storing hydraulic fluids are the same as those
for other POL products, and their enforcement is equally as
important.

Toxicity. Hydraulic fluids are not violently poisonous but are
toxic to an extent. Unnecessary breathing of the fumes and prolonged
contact of quantities of fluid with bare skin must be avoided.

SUMMARY

Hydraulics is the use of fluid under pressure to transmit force. In
Army aviation, hydraulics is used to operate retractable landing
gear, brakes, flight controls, propeller pitch, and loading ramps.

The characteristics of hydraulic systems are efficiency,
dependability, control sensitivity, flexibility of installation, low
space requirements, light weight, self-lubrication, and low
maintenance requirements.

Hydraulics operates on the principles of force and pressure. The
unit of measurement of force is the pound, and the area of pressure
measurement is the square inch. Thus, force-pressure measurement is
expressed in pounds per square inch (psi). Force is transmitted
through confined liquids without change in intensity to all parts of
the liquid.




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Mechanical advantage is equal to the ratio of a force or resistance
overcome by the application of a lesser force or effort through a
simple machine. Gain in force is obtained at the expense of loss in
distance. The rate at which mechanical advantage is produced by
hydraulic means is in direct proportion to the ratio of the size of
the smaller (input) area to the size of the larger (output) area.

Some hydraulic components, like shock struts and accumulators,
require air with the hydraulic fluid for their operation.
Atmospheric air and pure nitrogen are the only gases authorized for
use in Army aircraft.

Only mineral-base hydraulic fluids are authorized for use in aircraft
hydraulic systems. Operational fluid MIL-H-83282 is replacing MIL-H-
5606; the preservative fluid is MIL-H-6083A.

Care must be taken to ensure no contamination is allowed to enter the
hydraulic system. Hydraulic fluids are quite flammable and must be
handled and stored with the same precautions as other POL products.





























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LESSON 1

PRACTICE EXERCISE

The following items will test your grasp of the material covered in
this lesson. There is only one correct answer for each question.
When you have completed the exercise, check your answers with the
answer key that follows. If you answer any item incorrectly, study
again that part of the lesson which contains the portion involved.

1. What is the unit of area for pressure measurement in the United
States?

___ A. Inch-pounds.
___ B. Square inch.
___ C. Foot-pounds.
___ D. Square foot.

2. What happens to a body of liquid when a rise in its temperature
takes place?

___ A. It decreases in size.
___ B. It increases in size.
___ C. It stays the same.
___ D. It builds up static pressure.

3. How much of the energy transmitted through a hydraulic system is
received at the output end?

___ A. 88 percent.
___ B. 99 percent.
___ C. Practically none.
___ D. Practically all.

4. What formula is used to find the amount of pressure exerted?

___ A.
___ B.

___ C.

___ D.





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5. Fluid under pressure always flows in the direction of--

A. Equal pressure.
B. Medium pressure.
C. Highest pressure.
D. Lowest pressure.

6. What gases can be used when servicing a hydraulic system or
related equipment?

A. Oxygen and pure nitrogen.
B. Air and pure nitrogen.
C. Acetylene and pure oxygen.
D. Nitrogen and acetylene.

7. How many general types of hydraulic fluids are there?

A. One.
B. Two.
C. Three.
D. Six.

8. What is the military designation number for preservative fluid?

A. MIL-H-8063A.
B. MIL-H-6380A.
C. MIL-H-6083A.
D. MIL-H-5083A.

9. What technical manual covers the disposal of used fluid left in
gallon or quart containers?

A. TM 10-1001.
B. TM 10-1011.
C. TM 10-1101.
D. TM 10-1110.

10. In what technical manual can you find a list of authorized
cleaning agents and details of their use in hydraulics and
components?

A. TM 10-1101.
B. TM 1-1500-204-23-2.
C. TM 55-1500-334-25.
D. TM 750-125.



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LESSON 1

PRACTICE EXERCISE

ANSWER KEY AND FEEDBACK

Item Correct Answer and Feedback

1. B. Square inch.

In the United States the square inch is the measurement used
when expressing applied force to an area. (Page 5)

2. B. It increases in size.

Temperatures have an effect on liquids. Applied heat causes
liquids to expand slightly, while cold has the opposite
effect. (Page 11)

3. D. Practically all.

A hydraulic system is very efficient. There is virtually no
loss except that which may be in the mechanical linkage.
(Page 3)

4. A.

Pressure exerted can be determined by dividing force by area.
(Page 6)

5. D. Lowest pressure.

Fluid flows toward the area of least resistance. (Page 11)

6. B. Air and pure nitrogen.

Using the wrong combination of gases could cause an
explosion. You should use only air and pure nitrogen. (Page
13)

7. B. Two.

You may use either vegetable-base or mineral-base hydraulic
fluids; however, you must not mix them or switch from one to
the other. (Page 14)


22 AL0907

8. C. MIL-H-6083A.

MIL-H-6083A is a preservative fluid. Care must be taken not
to confuse it with an operational fluid. (Page 15)

9. C. TM 10-1101.

TM 10-1101 tells you how to get rid of unused fluid remaining
in gallon and quart containers. (Page 16)

10. B. TM 1-1500-204-23-2.

If you want to know what cleaning agent to use, check TM 1-
1500-204-23-2. Be sure the technical manual is current with
all changes. (Page 15)

































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24 AL0907

LESSON 2

HYDRAULIC PLUMBING

STP TASKS: 551-758-1007, 551-758-1008,
551-758-1012, and 551-758-1071

OVERVIEW


LESSON DESCRIPTION:

In this lesson you will learn the identification, fabrication,
installation, and storage requirements for tubes and hoses. You will
also learn the types of seals and gaskets.

TERMINAL LEARNING OBJECTIVE:

ACTION: After this lesson you will demonstrate a knowledge of
the identification, fabrication, installation and
storage requirements for tubes and hoses, along with
the types of seals and gaskets.

CONDITIONS: You will study the material in this lesson in a
classroom environment or at home.

STANDARD: You will correctly answer all the questions in the
practice exercise before you proceed to the
examination.

REFERENCES: The material contained in this lesson was derived from
the following publications:

AR 310-25 (Dictionary of United States Army Terms).
AR 310-50 (Authorized Abbreviations and Brevity
Codes).
FM 1-563 (Fundamentals of Airframe Maintenance).
FM 1-509 (Fundamentals of Aircraft Pneudraulics).
TM 1-1500-204-23 Series (General Aircraft Maintenance
Manual).








25 AL0907

INTRODUCTION

Aircraft plumbing is that phase of aircraft maintenance dealing with
the metal tubing, flexible hoses, and necessary fittings and seals
providing a pathway for the fluids and gases to move between the
components on aircraft.

Although this text deals mainly with the hydraulic system, the
plumbing principles explained herein apply to the plumbing
requirements for the fuel, ventilation,

pneumatic, and Pitot-static
systems as well. Because of this similarity, the maintenance
personnel responsible for hydraulic plumbing are usually required to
perform the repair and maintenance of all aircraft plumbing systems.

For the mechanic to repair aircraft plumbing, or for the NCO or
maintenance officer to supervise this work effectively, he must be
familiar with the material, equipment, and fabrication techniques
necessary to repair and install these lines.

Part A of this lesson deals with the identification and methods of
fabricating the tubes that connect the components of hydraulic
systems. In Part B, the uses and advantages of hose or flexible
tubing are explained, including the markings, fabrication and
installation methods, and storage requirements of these materials.
Part C describes the different types of seals and gaskets used to
prevent leaks in the interconnecting tubes, hoses, and fittings of
plumbing systems.

VARIETY OF LINES

Throughout this lesson you will see terms such as plumbing lines,
tubing, flexible tubing, and hose used extensively. By definition,
plumbing lines refer to any duct work used to transfer fluids or
gases from one location to another. These lines may fall into one of
two general categories: tubes (rigid lines), and hose (flexible
lines). Many materials are used to fabricate these lines; each one
offers a different advantage. When replacing a damaged or defective
line, make every effort to duplicate the original line as closely as
possible. Under some circumstances, however, field expediency
requires replacement of the damaged line with a similar, but not
identical, line. In choosing what size and type of line to use,
evaluate the following important elements:

Type of fluid or gas the line is to conduct.
Pressure it must operate under.
Temperatures it must operate under.

26 AL0907

Temperatures it must withstand.
Vibrations it is subject to.

IDENTIFICATION OF LINES

Except for the inlet and exhaust sections of the engine compartment,
plumbing lines are identified with adhesive bands of different colors
coded to the particular system to which each line belongs. In the
Army, two types of identification code systems are used: the print-
symbolized tape system (the preferred method), and the solid-color
tape system (the alternate method). The preferred system uses tape
bands of two or more colors printed with identifying geometrical
symbols and the name of the system. Examples of these bands are
shown in Figure 2-1. The alternate method uses one, two, or three
bands of 1/2-inch solid-color tape wrapped on the various lines for
identification. The color code used with this system is shown in
Figure 2-2.

In areas near the inlet section of the engine compartment where the
tape might be ingested (sucked in) or near the exhaust section where
high temperatures might burn the tape, suitable paints conforming to
the color codes in Figure 2-2 mark plumbing lines.

Additional white tapes labeled "pressure," "drain," or "return" can
be used next to the color bands of either code system to identify the
lines. These tapes are also printed with arrows indicating the
direction of fluid flow.





















27 AL0907


Figure 2-1. Color-Coded Tape.


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Figure 2-2. Solid-Color Band System.

PART A - TUBING

The procedures, fabrication techniques, and use of proper tools are
as important as the selection of the tubing material in repairing and
replacing damaged plumbing lines. Unless you take extreme care
during all phases of line repair, the finished product is likely to
be as defective as the original. This part discusses--

Criteria for selecting the proper type of tubing.
Correct procedure for routing lines and for cutting and bending
tubing.


29 AL0907

Types of tube fittings.
Methods of tube flaring and installation.
Techniques of tube repair if tubes are not extensively damaged.

TUBING

In Army aviation three types of metal tubing are used: aluminum
alloy, stainless steel, and copper. Generally, determine the type of
metal visually. If this is not possible, mark the tubing at three-
foot intervals with the manufacturer's name or trademark, the tubing
material, and its specification number. Tubing that is too small to
be marked in this manner, identify by attaching a tag with this
information to it.

Aluminum. In aircraft plumbing, the most widely used metal tubing
is made of aluminum alloy. This general-purpose tubing has the
advantages of workability, resistance to corrosion, and light weight.
A list of the aluminum tubing authorized for use in Army aircraft is
found in TM 1-1500-204-23-2.

The aluminum tubing generally used in Army aircraft hydraulic
systems operating at pressures of 1,500 psi and below is type 5052,
Military Specification WW-T-700/4. Because of the workability of
this tubing, assemblies can be readily fabricated in the field. For
those hydraulic systems operating at pressures above 1,500 psi,
aluminum alloy tubing types 6061 and 6062, both Military
Specification T-7081, are used. To process this tubing into tubing
assemblies requires special procedures and equipment not generally
available in the field. Therefore, assemblies made from this
aluminum must be obtained through supply channels as factory
prefabricated parts or through depot maintenance shops.

Stainless Steel. Tubing of stainless steel can also be used where
pressures exceed 1,500 psi. Stainless steel must be used for outside
lines, such as brake lines attached to landing gear struts or other
exposed lines that can be damaged by flying objects or ground-
handling mishaps. Stainless steel tubing, like the high-pressure
aluminum alloy tubing, is difficult to form without special tools and
is obtained through supply channels or depot repair facilities.

Copper. Copper tubing is primarily used in high-pressure oxygen
systems. The fittings on copper tubing are soldered on with silver.
Copper tubing used for high-pressure oxygen systems is 3/16-inch
diameter, 0.032-inch wall thickness,



30 AL0907

Federal Specification WW-T-799, Type N. Low-pressure oxygen systems
use a larger diameter aluminum tubing with flared aluminum fittings.
Only in case of an emergency can copper tubing with the same diameter
and wall thickness of the aluminum tubing be used to replace it. It
must then conform to Federal Specification WW-T-799, Type N. Steel
tubing must not be used to replace high-pressure oxygen system copper
tubing because it loses ductility and becomes brittle at low
temperatures.

ROUTING OF LINES

If a damaged line is discovered, the first step for repair is to
determine the cause of the damage. If it was caused by chafing
structural members of the aircraft or poor layout planning, the
condition must be corrected. If the line was defective and the same
layout is acceptable, carefully remove the damaged tube and use it as
a pattern for fabrication of the replacement tube.

Generally, replacement lines follow the path of the original line;
however, when the line must be rerouted use the standards that are
discussed in the paragraphs that follow.

Number of Bends. When fluid flows around a bend, it creates
friction which generates heat and causes an overall loss in system
efficiency. With this in mind, tubing layout must always follow a
path that results in gradual bends. On the other hand, a path with
no bends is likely to result in even more problems. First, to cut a
replacement line to an exact length is virtually impossible. This
can result in a mechanical strain being exerted on the tube when the
attaching nut is drawn up on the fitting. Because the greatest
amount of strain is already concentrated on the flared portion of the
tube as a result of the flaring operation, this additional strain is
likely to weaken the tube beyond tolerances. Second, if the tube has
no bends it cannot flex when subjected to vibrations. This lack of
flexibility promotes fatigue of the tubing metal and makes it more
susceptible to failure. Third, a straight line installation allows
no provision for the normal contraction and expansion of the tubing
caused by temperature change. Examples of correct and incorrect tube
layout are shown in Figure 2-3.









31 AL0907


Figure 2-3. Correct and Incorrect Tube Layout.

Minimum Bend Radius. The metal at the heel of a bend in tubing is
always stretched to some extent. This stretching weakens the tubing
and must be kept within limits. The radius of the sharpest bend
permissible in a given size tubing is designated the "minimum bend
radius." If this limit is exceeded, the metal at the bend is subject
to rupture under operating pressure. Bends of a greater radii than
the minimum allowed are always preferred. The methods of tube
bending and the tools used in bending operations are discussed later
in this section.

The table of minimum bend radii for various types and sizes of
tubing is contained in TM 1-1500-204-23-2. A copy of this table is
shown in Table 2-1 on the following page.








32 AL0907

Table 2-1. Table of Bend Radii.



Supports. Supports are used in tube layout to limit the sideward
movement of the tube due to pressure surges or vibrations. The
maximum distance between supports is determined by the tube material
and its outside diameter (OD). Rules governing the specifications of
these supports are found in Chapter 4 of TM 1-1500-204-23-2.

TEMPLATES

If the damaged tube cannot be used as a pattern for the replacement
line, use wire to make a template. Do this by running a wire between
the fittings where the line must be installed and bending the wire to
conform with the tube layout standards previously described.

TUBING CUTTING

When making replacement tubing from stock material, the stock must be
measured and cut approximately 10 percent longer than the damaged
tube. This ensures sufficient length for forming the flares and for
small deviations in bending the tube to the pattern. Any extra
length must be cut off before forming the last flare.



33 AL0907

There are two accepted methods of tube cutting: one using the
standard tube cutting tool shown in Figure 2-4, the other using a
hacksaw. After completion of the tube cutting in either of these
processes, remove all residue produced. To do this, ream the end of
the tube slightly and flush the entire piece of tubing thoroughly.
These methods are discussed in detail further in this text.


Figure 2-4. Standard Tube-Cutting Tool.

Standard Tube-Cutting Tool. The ideal method of cutting tubing is
with a standard cutting tool. The tube is slipped through the
cutting tool at a right angle, and the cutting wheel is adjusted
against the tube. Take care not to force the wheel against the tube
too tightly, as this forces the tube out-of-round. While the tool is
being rotated, the cutting-wheel feed must be tightened a little with
each turn until the wheel has cut through the tube. The tube cutter
must be rotated in only one direction, with its handle being swung in
the same direction that the opening faces. When properly used, this
tool leaves a smooth end on the tube square with its axis.





34 AL0907

Hacksaw. If a cutting tool is not available, use a fine-tooth
hacksaw, preferably one with 32 teeth per inch. Since it is
difficult to get a good, square, flush cut on the tube with this
method, the tube end must be filed after the cut is made. During
hacksaw cutting and filing, the tube must be clamped in tube blocks
or other suitable holders to prevent scratching or bending and to aid
in producing a 900 cut on the tube end.

METHODS OF TUBE BENDING

Tube bending can be done with any one of a variety of hand or power
bending tools. Regardless of method used, the object is to obtain a
smooth,

even bend without flattening or buckling. Examples of these
results are shown in Figure 2-5.


Figure 2-5. Acceptable and Unacceptable Tube Bends.

Hand Bending Methods. Tubes less than 1/4-inch in diameter can be
bent with hands,

but take care to work the bend gradually. For sizes
larger than 1/4-inch in diameter, use a bending tool; however, this
tool is only effective on thin-walled tubing of soft material. Two
common bending tools are--


35 AL0907

Bending springs. They are used by matching the inside diameter
(ID) of the spring with the outside diameter (OD) of the tube
to be bent. The tubing is then inserted and centered on the
heel of the bend. The bend must be started larger than desired
and gradually worked down to the correct size. The coiled
spring adds structural strength to the tubing wall during
bending and prevents the tube from crushing or kinking.

Roller Bending Tool. This tool bends a tube to a desired
radius very efficiently. It consists of a grooved roller with
a degree scale marked on the outside and a slide bar on the
handle to point to the degree mark where the tube is bent. To
use the tool, the straight tubing must be secured in the tool,
and the incidence mark set to indicate zero degree of bend on
the scale. Then, pressure is applied to the slide bar, bending
the tube as shown in Figure 2-6 to the desired degree.

Power Bending Tool. Tube bending machines are generally used in
depot maintenance shops. With such equipment, proper bends can be
made in tubing of large diameters and hard materials. The production
tube bender is an example of this type of machine.

Alternate Methods. Tubing that has a 1/2-inch or large OD is
difficult to bend with hand tools. For this type tubing, power tools
must be used whenever possible, since they have an internal support
to prevent flattening and wrinkling. However, when power tools are
not available, a filler method using sand, shot, or fusible alloy can
be used. The steps involved are quite similar regardless of the
filler material used. Because the process using the fusible alloy is
the most complex, and the most accurate, it is presented in detail in
the following paragraphs.

Fusible alloy is a metal alloy with a melting point of
approximately 160F. The material must be melted under hot water at
or near the boiling point to ensure that the molten metal flows
freely. NEVER APPLY A FLAME TO THE TUBING OR TO THE FUSIBLE ALLOY.
EXCESS HEAT DESTROYS THE STRENGTH OF HEAT-TREATED TUBING AND THE
MELTING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FUSIBLE ALLOY. Boiling water will not
melt fusible alloy after the flame has been applied. Furthermore, if
the tubing is held over a direct flame to remove the alloy, particles
of this metal can stick to the inside of the tube and cause
corrosion.





36 AL0907


Figure 2-6. Roller Bending Tool.


37 AL0907

The six steps taken in the fusible alloy process are as follows:

Coat the inner surface of the tube to be bent with a light
engine oil, specifications MIL-L-6082A.

Close one end of the tube.

Place fusible alloy in a clean steel ladle and submerge both
tube and ladle in a hot water tank. The fusible alloy stays in
the ladle, not combining with the hot water.

When the alloy has melted, pour it into the tube to be bent,
keeping both the tube and ladle under water. As it fills the
tube, the alloy displaces the water from the tube. After the
tube is full of alloy, remove it from the water and quench it
in cold water or air cool until the alloy is completely
solidified.

The tube is now solid and can be bent with any suitable bending
tool. As this alloy bends readily when cold but breaks when
warm or under suddenly applied loads, care must be taken that
the alloy in the tube is bent slowly.

When the bending is completed submerge the tube in hot water
and allow the alloy to run out of the tube into the ladle or
other suitable container. All of the alloy must be removed
from the bent tubing, as the alloy will cause corrosion. Also,
any alloy left in the tube will obstruct the tube and alter the
flow characteristics of the fluid.

TUBE CONNECTIONS

Three basic types of connections are used with aircraft tubing. The
two most common, the military standard (MS) flareless connection and
the flared connection, are depicted in Figure 2-7. The third, less
frequently used is the beaded connection.

NOTE: Army-Navy standards (AN) designated for
government standards were changed over to
military standard (MS) designations.







38 AL0907


Figure 2-7. Flareless and Flared Fittings.

The MS Flareless Connection. This connection is being used
extensively on newer model aircraft. This fitting is designated
primarily for high-pressure gas or liquid systems and for service
where it is subjected to severe vibrations or fluctuating pressures.
This connection retains a seal under these conditions better than any
of the other types. The MS flareless connection consists of a
connector, sleeve, and nut, as shown in Figure 2-8. The tail on the
sleeve dampens out tube vibrations, preventing fatigue and breakage,
while the spring washer action of the sleeve prevents the nut from
loosening, keeping a better seal.



39 AL0907


Figure 2-8. Flareless Fitting.

The Flared Connection. This connection withstands high pressure
and is used extensively in hydraulic systems. The component pieces
necessary to form a flared connection are a nut, sleeve, and properly
formed (flared) tube end. These pieces are assembled with the nut
screwed on a threaded fitting. These nuts and sleeves are available
in both steel and aluminum alloy; the use varies with the material of
the tube. Two types of flares can be made on tubing:

40 AL0907

The single flare. Single flares are used for all sizes of
stainless steel tubing, for 6061 aluminum alloy tubing, and for
5052 aluminum alloy tubing larger than 1/2-inch OD.

The double flare. Double flares are specified for 5052 tubing
1/2-inch OD and smaller.

The Beaded Connection. This connection is used only to tubing or
to fittings. This type of connection is not capable of withstanding
high pressures and is used only in low-pressure systems. No picture
of beading is included here, but Figure 2-12, which illustrates a
low-pressure tube splice, shows an example of a beaded connection.

PREPARING TUBING FOR FLARING

Two steps are used to prepare tubing for flaring: reaming and
cleaning. They must be followed carefully so the tube is not damaged
or weakened, and to prevent foreign object damage when the tube is
installed.

Reaming. After a square cut has been made bylations, marks,
seams, and excessive graphite. Check the fittings for mutilations to
the threaded areas, nicks,

Cleaning. Three prescribed methods of cleaning tubing are given
in TM 1-1500-204-23 series manuals. Refer to the TM for materials
and how they are to be used because cleaning chemicals are constantly
improved. These improvements are incorporated in the TM through
printed changes. An example is the use of solvent PS-661 which has
been changed to the use of naptha TT-N-95. The list can go on and
on. Therefore, when using a cleaning agent on or in hydraulic
system, always refer to the latest applicable publications for the
correct material and usage. The tube must be free of all dirt and
grease before clamping it in the flaring tool. The flaring tool die
block must be properly cleaned to prevent slips and deformation of
the tubing.

FLARING TOOLS

Two basic types of hand flaring tools provide a single flare: the
screw and the combination. These tools are described in the
following paragraphs.






41 AL0907

The Screw Flaring Tool. There are two kinds of screw flaring
tools: one threaded and the other with a plain die. The stem of the
plunger on the screw flaring tool is threaded so that its pointed end
is forced into the tube by turning instead of by tapping with a
hammer. The screw flaring tool also has the advantage of the tube
being visible, so it is easy to determine when the flare is
completed.



The Combination Flaring Tool. The combination flaring tool is
designed to single-flare all grades of aircraft tubing including
stainless steel. This tool can also form double-lap flare in
aluminum and copper tubing. The component parts of the combination
flaring tool are: clamp blocks, a rotor that incorporates a punch for
forming double-lap flares, and a cone-shaped punch for forming single
flares. With each tool, there are two sets of die blocks; each set
has four accurately machined grooves to accommodate four different
sizes of tubing. The two sets of die blocks make it possible to
flare eight different sizes of tubing. A clamp screw is used to hold
the tube between the die blocks, and a compression screw is located
in front of the dial containing the flaring punches. A slide stop is
used for setting the tube for the proper depth of flare.

DOUBLE FLARES

Double flaring is required on all 5052 aluminum alloy tubing with
less than 1/2-inch OD. The double flare provides a double thickness
of metal at the flare itself. This double thickness reduces the
danger of cutting the flare by overtorquing during assembly and also
minimizes the danger of flare failure. Examples of correct and
incorrect double flares are shown in Figure 2-9.


Figure 2-9. Correct and Incorrect Double Flares.


42 AL0907

Double flares can be formed by double-lap flaring tools of the shock
or rotary type or by the combination flaring tool previously
described.

The steps in the formation of a double-lap flare are described in the
following paragraphs and illustrated in Figure 2-10.


Figure 2-10. Double Flaring.


43 AL0907

First Step. The tube is gripped between the halves of the die
block with the end of the tube projecting slightly above the bevel of
the die block hole. Then, the first-step die plunger is placed
against the tube with the end of the tubing resting in the plunger
recess. The plunger is then forced toward the die block, causing a
bead-like swelling at the end of the tubing. The first-step plunger
is then removed, leaving the tube in the die block.

Second Step. The cone is placed at the beaded end of the tubing.
This plunger is then forced against the bead, causing the metal at
the upper half of the bead to fold into the lower half. This forms a
flare with a double thickness of metal at the lip.

FAULTY FLARES

Lack of care and attention to detail in forming flares is likely to
result in producing a faulty flare. If the tubing is not cut
squarely, a lopsided flare results. A faulty flare is also produced
if the tube is not inserted far enough into the die block resulting
in an underflared condition. An underflared tube has a small
gripping area and will pull apart under pressure. If the tube is
inserted until it protrudes too far past the edge of the die block,
an overflared condition results. This can cause the flare to crack
or break. Use of the stop will prevent this type of overflare. Too
much force used on the forming tool when making a flare results in a
cracked or flushed flare.

CLEANING TUBING

After the tubing has been formed and flared, all oil, grease, and
other foreign material must be removed before installation. Removal
of every trace of oil and grease from oxygen tubing is a matter of
critical importance because contact between bottled oxygen (used for
breathing) and oil or grease results in spontaneous combustion and
explosion.

PLUMBING FITTINGS

Fittings are used to assemble and interconnect tubes and hoses to
plumbing components and for connecting lines through bulkheads.
Examples of these fittings are shown in Figure 2-11.

Prior to installation, all fittings must be carefully examined to
ensure that their surfaces are smooth. Smoothness consists of
freedom from burrs, nicks, scratches, and tool marks.



44 AL0907

Following inspection of the fittings, a thin coat of antiseize
compound, Federal Specification TT-A-580, must be applied to the
threads of the fittings, except for hydraulic and oxygen fittings.
Hydraulic fluid must be used to lubricate fittings of hydraulic
plumbing lines. Antiseize compound MIL-T-5542 is used to lubricate
the fittings of oxygen systems.

FITTING NUTS

Aircraft plain checknuts are used to secure the tubing and fitting
assembly together and to connect the entire tube assembly to
components of the plumbing system. Only special-fitting nut wrenches
of the torque-indicating type should be used for installing tube
assemblies. If not available, open-end wrenches can be used.

Tightening the fitting nuts to the proper torque during installation
is very important. Overtorquing these nuts can severely damage the
tube flare, the sleeve, and the nut. Undertorquing is equally
serious; it can allow the line to blow out of the fitting or to leak
under pressure. When fittings are properly torqued, a tube assembly
can be removed and installed many times before reflareing becomes
necessary.

When installing a fitting, through a bulkhead. Take care to ensure
that the nuts are tight enough to prevent any movement between the
bulkhead and the fitting. If any movement takes place, vibrations
can cause the fittings to enlarge the hole through the bulkhead
beyond tolerance and damage the fitting.

CAUTION: A FITTING NUT MUST NEVER BE TIGHTENED WHEN
THERE IS PRESSURE IN THE SYSTEM, AS THIS
RESULTS IN AN UNDERTORQUES CONDITION AND
TENDS TO CUT THE FLARE.

INSTALLATION OF TUBING ASSEMBLIES

Before the tubing assembly is installed in the aircraft, it must be
carefully inspected, and all dents and nicks must be removed.
Sleeves must be snug-fitting with 1/16 to 1/8 inch of the tube
protruding above the top sleeve. The line assembly must be clean and
free from all foreign matter as described in an earlier paragraph.
During installation, the fitting nuts must be screwed down by hand
until they are seated and then properly torqued. The tubing
assemblies must not have to be pulled into place with the nut, but
must be aligned before tightening.



45 AL0907


Figure 2-11 Typical Fittings.

46 AL0907

If the tubing is to be run through a bulkhead, instead of being
connected through the bulkhead by a fitting, take extra care so that
the tubing is not scratched. For added protection in this operation,
the edges of the cutout must be taped before the line is installed.

TUBE REPAIR

A large percent of minor damage to aircraft plumbing is a result of
careless maintenance practices. A misplaced foot or tool can
scratch, nick, or dent the tubing beyond tolerances. Therefore,
caution on the part of maintenance personnel can prevent a great deal
of work.

When a damaged tube is discovered, the ideal solution is to replace
the complete section of tubing. In some instances, however, this may
not be possible. In these cases minor damages can usually be
repaired, providing the damages are within specified limits. Minor
repair techniques are described in the paragraphs that follow.

Dents. Any dent less than 20 percent of tubing diameter is not
objectionable unless it is on the heel of a short bend radius in
which case the tubing is discarded. Dents exceeding 20 percent of
tube diameter must be replaced. Burnishing is not allowed in the
heel of bends where material has already been stretched thin during
forming.

Nicks. A nick in a piece of tubing subjects the tubing to failure
because of stress concentration caused by vibrations at the point of
the nick. Nicks weaken tubing against internal pressure, and such
nicks must be burnished out to reduce a notch effect. A nick no
deeper than 15 percent of wall thickness of aluminum, aluminum alloy,
copper, or steel tubing may be reworked by burnishing with hand
tools. Any aluminum alloy, copper, or steel tubing with nicks in
excess of 15 percent of its wall thickness should be rejected.
Tubing which is nicked in a bend should be replaced if it is carrying
over 100 psi pressure. For tubing carrying pressure of 100 psi or
less, a nick no deeper than 20 percent of wall thickness of aluminum,
aluminum alloy, copper, or steel may be reworked by burnishing with
hand tools.

Splicing. When tube damages exceed the tolerances for repair
described in the preceding paragraphs and when it is not possible to
replace the entire section of tubing, a splice can be installed.
There are two different methods of splicing damaged tubing: one for
repairing low-pressure tubing, the other for repairing high-pressure
tubing. The steps involved in


47 AL0907

each of these methods are shown along with graphic illustrations of
the process in Figure 2-12 for low-pressure tubing, and in Figure
2-13 for high-pressure tubing. Whenever this type of tube repair is
used, particular attention must be paid to ensure compliance with
tube tolerances and torque limitations of the clamp connections.


Figure 2-12. Low-Pressure Tube Splice.












48 AL0907


Figure 2-13. High-Pressure Tube Splice.

SUMMARY

Three types of metal tubing are used in aircraft plumbing systems:
aluminum alloy, stainless steel, and copper. Aluminum alloy tubing
is the most widely used because of its workability, resistance to
corrosion, and light weight. Stainless steel tubing is used in high-
pressure systems and in places where the tubing is exposed to
possible flying-object damage or ground-handling mishaps. Copper
tubing is normally used only in high-pressure oxygen systems.

In routing replacement lines, the path of the original line is
usually followed. However, when a different route must be used, care
must be taken in planning the layout to ensure the bends in the
tubing do not exceed the minimum bend radius specified for the
particular type of tubing. Care must also be taken not to route the
tubing without bends as this allows for no flexibility in response to
vibrations or pressure fluctuations.


49 AL0907

The Army has two acceptable methods of tube cutting. The most
accurate and commonly used method is with the standard tube cutting
tool. When properly used, this tool leaves a smooth end on the tube
square with its axis. The second method of tube cutting is by using
a fine tooth hacksaw. This method does not provide the square cut
produced with the standard cutting tool and necessitates filing the
tube end after cutting a square off the ends.

A variety of tools and methods are available for tube bending, each
having capabilities and advantages applicable to a particular type or
size of tubing. Regardless of the method used, the object is to
obtain a smooth, even bend without flattening or buckling.

The two most common types of connection used with aircraft tubing are
the MS flareless and the flared connection. The MS flareless
connection has distinct advantages over the flared connection: it is
easier to construct, has three load points to prevent leaks (as
opposed to one for flared connections), and can be used many times
without danger of cracking. Flared connections are formed by means
of a flaring tool. When properly formed, they are capable of
withstanding high pressures and are used extensively in hydraulic
systems. One of two kinds of flares can be used depending on the
type of tubing being used. Single flares are used for all sizes of
5052 aluminum alloy tubing with outside diameters greater than 1/2
inch. Double flares are used on all sizes of tubing with an outside
diameter of 1/2 inch or less. The third type of connection used in
aircraft plumbing systems is the beaded connection. This type of
connection is not capable of withstanding high pressures and is used
only in low-pressure systems.

Fittings are used in aircraft plumbing systems to connect the various
lines with each other and with the components they operate. Prior to
installation all fittings must be inspected to ensure their surfaces
are smooth and then coated with the appropriate lubricant.

Fitting nuts must always be tightened with torque-indicating wrenches
to ensure the proper seal. Overtorquing of these nuts can severely
damage the tubing assembly. Likewise, under-torquing can allow the
line to blow out of the fitting or to leak under pressure.

When a damaged tube is discovered, the ideal solution is to replace
the complete section of tubing. When this is not possible, minor
dents, nicks, and scratches can usually be





50 AL0907

repaired, providing the damages are within specified limits. If tube
damages are extensive or exceed repair limitations, a tube splice can
be installed as a temporary repair measure.

PART B - HOSE

Hose, flexible line, is used in aircraft plumbing whenever the
connected components must be free to move, or wherever extreme
vibrations are a problem. This part deals with the different types
of hose used on Army aircraft, the materials from which they are
manufactured, and the methods of fabricating hose assemblies. Also
explained are the proper methods of hose installation and the
requirements for storing the different types of hose. Hose
assemblies are used to conduct air, fuel, engine oil, hydraulic
fluid, water, and antifreeze. Hose pressure capabilities range from
vacuums found in some instrument lines to several thousand psi found
in some hydraulic systems. Hose assemblies, however, are never used
in aircraft oxygen systems.

TYPES OF HOSE

Aircraft hose is composed of two or more layers of differing
materials. The inner layer, or liner, is a leak-tight nonmetallic
tube made from either synthetic rubber or teflon. The liner is
reinforced against swelling or bursting by one or more outer layers
of braid that encircle it. The kind and number of layers of braid
depend on the intended operating pressure range of the hose assembly.
The two materials used as inner liner for flexible hoses are
synthetic rubber and teflon. The two materials and their uses are
discussed in the paragraphs that follow.

Rubber Hose. The inner liner of rubber hose used in aircraft
plumbing systems is made of synthetic rubber. Various compounds of
rubber are used for these inner liners. Each compound provides the
hose with some special capability, such as usability with certain
fluids or operability within certain ranges of temperature. The
outer covering of rubber hose is made of either fabric or rubber.

Rubber hose is used in aircraft plumbing systems only in the form
of assemblies. An assembly is formed by attaching metal end
connections to each end of a section of bulk hose.

Teflon Hose. Teflon is the registered name for
tetrafluoroethylene, which is a synthetic resin. Teflon hose has a
flexible leak-proof inner tube, reinforced on the outside with one or
more layers of stainless steel braid. The teflon


51 AL0907

linear is chemical inert to all fuel, oil, alcohol, water, acid, and
gas. The linear can withstand fluid temperatures ranging from -100 F
to + 500 F (-73 C to +260 C). Like rubber hose, teflon hose is used
in aircraft plumbing systems only as assemblies.

PRESSURE CAPABILITIES

The type of material and the number of layers used as reinforcement
braid determine the pressure range of the hose. The two pressure-
range classifications of aircraft hose are medium pressure and high
pressure.

Medium Pressure. The medium-pressure range includes operating
pressures of 1,500 psi and below.

High Pressure. High-pressure hose is designated for operating
pressure systems up to but not exceeding 3,000 psi.

HOSE MARKINGS

Aircraft hose and hose assemblies can be readily identified by
markings found either stenciled along the length of the hose or
imprinted on an affixed metal band. These markings include the date
of manufacture or fabrication, size, military specification number,
and date of pressure test, as illustrated in Figure 2-14.


Figure 2-14. Hose Markings.

Marking on Rubber Hose. Bulk rubber hose has ink or paint
markings on its outer cover for identification. The information
provided by these markings include the identity of the manufacturer,
date made, size, and military specification number. The military
specification (MS) number provides additional information when
referenced with a specification table in chapter 7 of TM 1-1500-204-
23-2. This information includes the hose-pressure capability,
temperature limitations,

52 AL0907

and the fluids that can be used. On some hose, a lay strip provides
an easy method to determine if an installed hose is twisted.

To identify field-fabricated rubber hose assemblies, a metal band is
placed around the hose to identify the federal or national stock
number of the assembly and to give the operating pressure and
pressure test date.

Marking on Teflon Hose. Bulk teflon hose is identified by brass
bands spaced at 3-foot intervals marked with the specification number
and manufacturers code number.

Factory-fabricated teflon hose assemblies are identified by
permanently attached metal bands marked with the military
specification, operating pressure in PSI, assembly part number, date
of proof test, and the hose manufacturers code number.

Locally manufactured teflon hose assemblies are identified by an
aluminum band. The markings on the band can be impression-stamped,
etched, or engraved to include the federal or national stock number
of the hose assembly, part number, manufacturers part number or depot
code, operating pressure, and date of pressure test.

HOSE SIZE

The size of a hose is expressed as a dash number. This refers to the
inside diameter (ID) of the hose and is expressed in sixteenths of an
inch; for example, -2 is 2/16, -3 is 3/16, -4 is 4/16.

Whenever hose is used in conjunction with tubing, both the hose and
the tube must be equal in size. For example, if the tube size is 1/4
inch OD, a -4 (4/16) hose must be used with it.

CAUSES FOR HOSE REPLACEMENT

Replacement of rubber hose assemblies must be accomplished at
inspection intervals prescribed in the applicable aircraft
maintenance manual. Teflon hose does not deteriorate as a result of
age; therefore, periodic replacement is not required. However, both
rubber and teflon hose assemblies are subject to damage during
operation that can be cause for replacement of the line.

In any case, the replacement of the hose assembly must duplicate the
original hose in length, OD, ID, and contour, unless the line must be
rerouted for reasons specified in the paragraph which discusses
routing of lines near the beginning of this lessons.


53 AL0907

Rubber Hose. Evidence of deterioration of rubber hose assemblies
is urgent cause for hose replacement. Examples of such deterioration
are separation of rubber covers or braid from the liner, cracks,
hardening, and lack of flexibility.

Other types of damage that are cause for replacement of rubber
hose are--

Cold flow -- a deep permanent impression or crack produced by
pressure of the hose clamp.
Weather check -- weather damage that is deep or wide enough to
expose the fabric.
Broken wires -- two or more broken wires per plait, six or more
broken wires per linear foot, or any broken wire in a position
where kinking is suspected. (For pressures of 500 psi and
over)

Teflon Hose. Installed teflon hose assemblies must be inspected
for evidence of deterioration due to wire fatigue or chafing at the
periods prescribed in the applicable aircraft inspection or
maintenance manuals. Replacement of these lines must be made when
any of the following conditions are found:

Leaking -- static leaks exceeding one drop per hour.
Excessive wire damage -- two or more broken wires in a single
plait, more than six wires pre linear foot, or any broken wire
in a position where kinking is suspected.
Distortion -- any evidence of abrasion, kinking, bulging, or
sharp bending.

FABRICATION OF HOSE ASSEMBLIES

Hose assemblies, for the most part, are available through supply
channels as factory prefabricated parts. For field expediency or
when the required assemblies are not available they can be field
fabricated in accordance with the following specifications and
procedures.

Fabricating Medium-Pressure Rubber Hose Assemblies. Medium-
pressure rubber hose assemblies are fabricated from bulk hose
conforming to military specification MIL-H-8794 and fittings
conforming to military standard MS 28740. Prior to the assembly
process and before cutting, visually check the bulk hose for any
mutilations, marks, seams, and excessive graphite. Check the
fittings for mutilations to the threaded areas, nicks,


54 AL0907

distortions, scratches, or any other damage to the cone seat sealing
surface, or to the finish that can affect the corrosion resistance of
the fitting.



After the hose and fittings have been inspected, determine the
correct length of hose required as shown in Figure 2-15. Cut the
hose squarely, using a fine tooth hacksaw; then, using compressed
air, clean the hose to remove all cutting residue.


Figure 2-15. Determination of Correct Hose Length.

Assembly of the hose and fittings is illustrated in Figure 2-16,
and outlined in the following steps:

Place the socket in a vise and screw the hose into the socket
counterclockwise until it bottoms out; then back off the hose
1/4 of a turn. CAUTION: DO NOT OVERTIGHTEN THE VISE ON THIN-
WALLED SOCKETS OF LIGHTWEIGHT FITTINGS.

Tighten the nipple and the nut on the appropriate assembly tool
from Aeroquip Kit, Part No. S-1051.

Lubricate the nipple threads and the inside of the hose
liberally, using a lightweight motor oil or hydraulic fluid,
MIL-H-5605 or MIL-H-83282.

55 AL0907

Screw the nipple into the socket and hose using a wrench on the
nipple hex nut. The nut must swivel freely when the assembly
tool is removed.

After the fabrication process is completed, inspect the hose
assembly externally for cuts or bulges of the inner liner. The final
step of any hose fabrication process is to proof-test the hose
assembly to insure its pressure capabilities. This step is discussed
in the paragraph on testing hose assemblies.

Fabricating High-Pressure Rubber Hose Assemblies. High-pressure
rubber hose assemblies MS 28759 an MS 28762, are fabricated from
high-pressure bulk hose conforming to military specifications MIL-H-
8788 or MIL-H-8790, and fittings conforming to military standard MS
28760 or MS 28761.

The fabrication techniques and tools for assembling high-pressure
hose are the same as those outlined for medium-pressure hose
fabrication.

CAUTION: DO NOT REUSE HIGH-PRESSURE HOSE OR HIGH-
PRESSURE HOSE FITTINGS. ALSO, NEVER
REINSTALL A FITTING ON THE SAME AREA OF HOSE
WHERE IT WAS FIRST INSTALLED. IF AN ERROR
IS MADE DURING ASSEMBLY, CUT AWAY THE OLD
AREA OR USE A NEW LENGTH OF HOSE AND
REINSTALL THE FITTING.

Fabricating Medium-Pressure Teflon Hose Assemblies. Medium-
pressure teflon hose assemblies are manufactured to the requirements
of military specification MIL-H-25579 from bulk hose conforming to
military specification MIL-H-27267 and end-fittings conforming to
military specification MIL-F-27272.

All field-fabricated teflon hose assemblies must be identified by
aluminum-alloy tags, NSN 9535-00-232-7600.

The composition and dimensions of these tags are found on chapter
4 of TM 1-1520-204-23-2. The tags are marked to show the federal or
national stock number or part number, depot or unit code, operating
pressure, and date of pressure test.

The steps to be followed when fabricating these hose assemblies
are described in TM 1-1500-204-23-2.

Fabricating High-Pressure Teflon Hose Assemblies. High-pressure
teflon hose assemblies are manufactured from bulk hose conforming to
MIL-H-83298 and end fittings conforming to MIL-H-83296.

56 AL0907

Figure 2-16. Assembly of Hose and End Fitting.

57 AL0907

TESTING HOSE ASSEMBLIES

Prior to installation, all field fabricated hose assemblies must be
pressure-tested. This applies regardless of whether they were just
fabricated or were previously fabricated, tested, and placed in
storage. All factory or depot fabricated assemblies must be
pressure-tested prior to installation.

Hose assemblies to be used in hydraulic, pneumatic, fuel, oil, or
coolant systems are tested on a hydrostatic test unit filled with
hydraulic fluid conforming to military specification MIL-H-5606, MIL-
H-83282, or MIL-H-6083; lubricating oil conforming to military
specification MIL-H-6082; or water. Hose assemblies to be used in
instrument systems are tested using dry, oil-free air, or nitrogen,
federal specification 1313-N-411, grade A, type 1.

The steps involved in the testing process are explained in detail in
TM 1-1500-204-23-2.

INSTALLING HOSE ASSEMBLIES

During operation, the hose assemblies changes in length from +2
percent to -4 percent because of pressurization. To compensate for
this, slack equal to at least five percent of the hose length must be
allowed for expansion and shrinkage. The five percent allowance must
be provided during cutting and fabricating. In addition to hose
length, care must be taken not to twist the hose or to exceed the
allowed bend radius. Supports and grommets must be used, fittings
lubricated, and protection against temperature provided. Each of
these is discussed in the paragraphs that follow and illustrated in
Figure 2-17.

Twisting. Most hose is marked with a lengthwise solid line (lay
strip) for ease in detecting any twists of the line during
installation. A twisted hose tends to untwist when pressurized
causing the end fitting to become loosened or sheared. To avoid
twisting hose assemblies when connecting the second end, use two
wrenches: one to hold the stationary fitting and one to turn the
swivel nut.

Bend Radius. Hose, like rigid tubing, has a limit to its bend
allowance. Bends exceeding the permissible limit lead to early
failure of the hose assembly. The radius of the sharpest bend
permissible for a hose is referred to as the minimum bend radius for
that hose. This bend radius is measured in the same manner as the
minimum bend radius of rigid tubing as described in the paragraph of
this lesson entitled "routing of lines".

58 AL0907

Supports and Grommets. Teflon hose requires a different kind of
support than that used for rubber hose. However, the following
principles in using supports apply to both rubber and teflon hose.
Hose must be supported along its length at intervals of 24 inches or
less, depending on the size of the hose. These supports, shown in
Figure 2-18, must be installed in such a manner that they do not
cause deflection of any rigid lines where they are connected.

When a hose is connected to an engine by a hose clamp, a support
must be placed approximately three inches from the connection, and at
least 1-1/2 inches of hose slack provided between the connection and
the engine, to keep vibration and torsion from damaging the
connections.

When a hose passes through a bulkhead, a grommet must be installed
in the bulkhead hole to provide support for the hose and to prevent
it from chafing. As an alternative, a cushioned clamp can be used at
the hole if the hole is large enough to provide adequate clearance
around the hose.

A hose assembly connecting two rigidly mounted fittings must be
supported firmly but not rigidly.

Lubrication. The swiveling parts and mating surfaces-of hose
assemblies must be lubricated before installation. This ensures
effective seating and tightening of the component parts. Oil or
water can be used on all, types of fuel, oil, and coolant hose when
installation is made except for self-sealing hose which must never be
lubricated during installation. However, only oil or the operational
fluid of the system must be used on hydraulic and pneumatic hose.


















59 AL0907


Figure 2-17. Connecting Hose Assemblies.

60 AL0907


Figure 2-18. Hose Support.

Temperature Protection. Hose must be protected from high
temperatures such as exhaust blast and hot engine parts. In these
areas the hose must either be shielded or relocated. A shield for
temperature protection is shown in Figure 2-19.



61 AL0907


Figure 2-19. Temperature Protection.

STORAGE

Proper storage and handling of aircraft hose and hose assemblies are
the responsibility of all activities engaged in aircraft maintenance.
Aircraft hose and associated rubber components must be stored in a
dark, cool, dry place protected from exposure to strong air currents
and dirt. Stored rubber hose and seals must also be protected from
electric motors or other equipment emitting heat or ozone. Hose and
hose components must be stored in the original packing and issued so
that the oldest items are issued first.

Neither teflon nor rubber hose has limited shelf life. However,
prior to installation all hose assemblies must be inspected to ensure
serviceability and tested according to the procedures listed in the
paragraph on testing hose assemblies.

Bulk Hose. Prior to being placed in storage, the ends of the hose
must be capped to prevent flareout and dirt contamination. Storage
in a straight position is the preferred manner; however, if coiling
is necessary, large loose coils must be made.




62 AL0907

Hose Assemblies. The ends of all hose assemblies must be capped
during storage with polyethylene protective plugs conforming to
National Aerospace Standard (NAS) 815 or equivalent to prevent
contamination.

SUMMARY

Hose is used in aircraft plumbing whenever the connected components
must be free to move or whenever extreme vibrations are a problem.
Aircraft hose is composed of two or more layers of differing
materials. The inner layer, or liner, is a leak-tight nonmetallic
tube made from either synthetic rubber or teflon. The liner is
reinforced against swelling or bursting by one or more outer layers
of braid. The kind and number of braid layers depend on the intended
operating pressure range of the hose assembly.

The pressure capabilities of hose assemblies are divided into two
general categories: medium pressure and high pressure. The medium-
pressure range includes operating pressures of 1,500 psi and below.
High-pressure hose is designated for operating pressure systems up to
but not exceeding 3,000 psi.

Aircraft hose and hose assemblies can be readily identified by
markings found either stenciled along the length of the hose or
imprinted on an affixed, metal band. These markings include the date
of manufacture or fabrication, size, military specification number,
and date of pressure test.

Hose size is expressed in sixteenths of an inch by a dash number
referring to the inside diameter (ID) of the hose.

Replacement of rubber hose assemblies must be accomplished at
inspection intervals prescribed in the applicable aircraft
maintenance manual. Teflon hose does not deteriorate as a result of
age; therefore, periodic replacement is not required. Both rubber
and teflon hose assemblies are subject to damage during operation
that can be cause for replacement. Examples of these damages are:
cold flow, weather checking, leaks, or broken wires exceeding
limitations.

For the most part, hose assemblies are available through supply
channels as factory prefabricated parts. For expediency, however,
they can be field fabricated in accordance with the outlined
specifications. High-pressure teflon hose is available in
prefabricated assemblies only. Field fabrication is not authorized.



63 AL0907

Prior to installation, all field-fabricated hose assemblies must be
pressure tested; factory or depot lubricated assemblies must be
pressure tested regardless of whether they were tested at the time of
manufacture.

During installation, care must be taken to ensure the line is not
twisted or bent to exceed limitations. Hose must be supported along
its length at intervals of 24 inches or less, depending on the size
of the hose.

The swiveling parts and mating surfaces of hose assemblies must be
lubricated before installation to ensure effective seating of the
component parts. Self-sealing hose must never be lubricated.

Aircraft hose and rubber components must be stored in a dark, cool,
dry place protected from exposure to strong air currents and dirt.
Neither Teflon nor rubber hose is limited in its shelf life; however,
prior to installation all hose assemblies and seals must be inspected
to ensure serviceability.

PART C - SEALS AND GASKETS

Seals and gaskets are used throughout aircraft plumbing systems to
prevent leaks when two components are joined together. The material
from which the seals are manufactured varies depending upon the fluid
or gas being conducted and the operating pressure range of the
system. Using the proper type of seal and exercising care during
installation are two of the most important phases of plumbing
maintenance. Lack of care during this phase of maintenance is one of
the most frequent causes of system failure or leaks. In this part,
the types of seals and gaskets used in aircraft plumbing systems are
discussed; and their capabilities, advantages, limitations, and
installation procedures are presented.



SEALS

The seals or packings used in hydraulic systems are manufactured from
rubber, leather, teflon, metal, or a combination of any of these.
Two types of rubber, natural and synthetic, are used for making
hydraulic seals; however, only synthetic rubber seals can


64 AL0907

be used with mineral-base hydraulic fluid. Examples of some of the
different kinds of seals used in plumbing systems are shown in Figure
2-20 and discussed in the following paragraphs.


Figure 2-20. Seals Used in Plumbing Systems.

O-Rings. In Army aircraft, the O-ring is the most commonly used
type of hydraulic seal. It is designed to control leaks against
pressures coming from any direction and can be used where there is
either rotative- or linear-relative movement between parts. An O-
ring can also be used between nonmoving parts to eliminate leaks such
as in the joint between two parts of a housing. When used in this
manner the O-ring is called an O-ring gasket.

Backup Rings. When the pressure to be retained by an O-ring
exceeds 1,500 psi, a backup ring is used in the groove along with the
O-ring. Backup rings prevent O-ring material from extruding into the
clearance gap between the sealed surfaces.


65 AL0907

Extrusions tend to cause the moving parts to bind, the O-ring seal to
fail, and particles of the O-ring seal to contaminate the fluid.
Backup rings can also be used with lower pressure systems to extend
O-ring life.

When installed, a backup ring is placed on the side of the O-ring
not subjected to pressure. In cases where the O-ring is subject to
pressure from both sides, two backup rings are used, one on each side
of the O-ring.

V-Rings. The use of V-rings is rather limited in hydraulic
systems; however, they are used in some shock struts. A V-ring can
seal in only one direction and can be used to seal surfaces
regardless of whether there is movement between the parts.

U-Rings. Similar to V-rings in design and function, U-rings are
used to seal pistons and shafts on some master brake cylinders.

Cup Seals. Another type of seal used frequently on master brake
cylinders is cup seals. They are effective in controlling leaks in
only one direction, and when installed the lip of the cup must be
facing the fluid to be contained.

Oil Seals. Composite seals made from both rubber and metal are
called oil seals, and they are used to seal hydraulic pump and motor
drive shafts. Their outer body, or case, is made from pressed steel
and is force-fitted into the component housing. Inside the metal
case is a lipped rubber seal and a spring. The rubber seal is
securely anchored against movement to the metal case, and the spring
encircles the lip, holding it firmly to the surface it seals and is
commonly referred to as a Garloc Seal. During installation, the
housing must be free from foreign matter or burrs, and the seals must
be seated squarely with proper special tools.

Wiper Seals. Scrapers or wiper seals are made of metal, leather,
or felt and used to clean and lubricate the exposed portion of piston
shafts. When installed and operating properly, wiper seals prevent
dirt from entering the system and aid in preventing piston shafts
from binding.

INSTALLING SEALS

Prior to use, all seals must be examined to ensure they are made from
the correct material, in the proper shape and size, and free from
nicks, cracks, rough spots, or other defects. Immediately prior to
assembly, clean and lubricate the seals and contact surfaces with the
operational fluid of the system.

66 AL0907

When installing seals, care must be taken so they are not stretched
or distorted. Any twists or strains to the seal can lead to its
early failure and must be prevented by gently working the seal into
place.

GASKETS

A gasket is a piece of material placed between two parts where there
is no movement. The gasket is used as a filler to compensate for
irregularities on the surfaces of the two mating parts permitting
possible leaks. Many different materials are used for making
gaskets. For use in hydraulic systems the gaskets may be made from
treated paper, synthetic rubber, copper, or aluminum.

O-Ring Gaskets. The most common type of gasket used in aircraft
hydraulic systems is the O-ring. When used as a gasket the O-ring
has the same advantage as when used as a seal, as explained in a
previous paragraph.

Crush Washers. The second most commonly used gasket is the crush
washer, used in hydraulic systems and made from aluminum or copper.
Fittings using these washers have concentric grooves and ridges that
bear against or crush the washer. These grooves and ridges seal the
washer and fitting as the connecting parts are tightened together.

FABRICATING GASKETS

Some types of gaskets can be field-fabricated as long as the bulk
material conforms to the required military specifications. When you
cut replacement gaskets from bulk material, the most important
consideration is the exact duplication of the thickness of the
original gasket.

INSTALLING GASKETS

Like seals, gaskets must be examined before installation to ensure
their serviceability. The component surfaces to be connected must be
thoroughly cleaned. During assembly, care must be taken not to crimp
or twist the gaskets. When tightening the components, the gaskets
must not be compressed into the threads where they can be cut,
damaged, or block mating surfaces from being flush.

STORING SEALS AND GASKETS

Seals and gaskets must be stored in accordance with the same
specifications outlined for hose and hose assemblies in a previous
paragraph. By way of review, those specifications

67 AL0907

require that seals and gaskets be stored in a cool, dark, dry place;
they must be protected from dirt, heat, strong air currents,
dampness, petroleum products, and electric motors or equipment giving
off ozone.

SUMMARY

Seals and gaskets are used in aircraft plumbing systems to prevent
leaks when two components are joined together. The fluid being
conducted and the operating pressure of the system determine the type
of seal or gasket to be used and the material to be used in its
manufacture. Once a seal or gasket has been removed from service it
must never be reused, even if removal was only incidental to the
disassembly of a component.

In hydraulic systems, seals manufactured from rubber, leather, felt,
cork, paper, teflon, or metal are used. The O-ring is the most
widely used type of hydraulic seal. It is effective in controlling
pressures coming from any direction or for use where there is either
linear or rotative motion. Backup rings are used with O-rings as a
means of preventing O-ring extrusions, prolonging O-ring life, or
when system pressure exceeds 1,500 psi. Other types of seals used in
hydraulic systems are: V-rings, U-rings, cup seals, oil seals, and
wiper seals. These are special seals, used to contain fluid or
prevent leaks in the various components of the aircraft plumbing
systems.

All seals must be inspected for serviceability prior to installation,
and care must be taken not to damage them during assembly.

A seal placed between two components where there is no relative
movement is termed a gasket. Its function is to compensate for any
irregularities on the surfaces of two mating parts and thus to
prevent leaks.

Crush washers and O-ring gaskets are the most common types of gaskets
used in aircraft hydraulic systems. If a gasket is to be field
fabricated, ensure that the exact thickness of the original gasket is
duplicated.

Gaskets, like seals, must be examined prior to installation to ensure
their serviceability. During assembly, do not exceed the recommended
torque value of the components. Overtightening is likely to crimp
the gasket or compress it into the threads of the component, and
hence, break the seal.

When stored, seals and gaskets must be protected from excessive heat,
dampness, air currents, dirt, petroleum products, and equipment
emitting ozone.

68 AL0907

LESSON 2

PRACTICE EXERCISE

The following items will test your grasp of the material covered in
this lesson. There is only one correct answer for each item. When
you have completed the exercise, check your answers with the answer
key that follows. If you answer any item incorrectly, study again
that part of the lesson which contains the portion involved.

1. How many types of identification code systems are used to
identify tube assemblies?

___ A. One.
___ B. Two.
___ C. Three.
___ D. Four.

2. What pressure application is the beaded connection used for?

___ A. Low pressure.
___ B. Medium pressure.
___ C. High pressure.
___ D. Extreme high pressure.

3. How many prescribed methods of cleaning tubing are there?

___ A. One.
___ B. Two.
___ C. Three.
___ D. Four.

4. Compared to the diameter of a tube, which of the following
percentages represents unacceptable dent depth?

___ A. 5.
___ B. 10.
___ C. 15.
___ D. 25.

5. Which is an unacceptable percentage of depth for a nick on a
tube assembly carrying less than 100 psi?

___ A. 5.
___ B. 10.
___ C. 15.
___ D. 25.

69 AL0907

6. What type of material is used in high pressure oxygen systems?

A. Aluminum tubing.
B. Copper tubing.
C. Stainless steel tubing.
D. High-pressure teflon hose.

7. When installing a tube assembly on an aircraft, you should
tighten the fitting nut when the system is at--

A. 0 psi.
B. 500 psi.
C. 750 psi.
D. 1,000 psi

8. How many types of seals or packing are used in hydraulic
systems?

A. Two.
B. Three.
C. Four.
D. Seven

9. When can seals be reused after they have been removed from
service?

A. After inspection when no defects are found.
B. When you are told to by higher authority.
C. In emergencies.
D. Never.

10. When cutting gaskets from bulk material, how much leeway are you
allowed to use between the thickness of the bulk material and
the original gasket?

A. None.
B. 2 percent.
C. 3 percent.
D. 5 percent.









70 AL0907

LESSON 2
PRACTICE EXERCISE
ANSWER KEY AND FEEDBACK

Item Correct Answer and Feedback

1. B. Two. The two types of identification code systems are
the solid color band system and the tape system. (Page 27)
2. A. Low pressure. The beaded connection is not
constructed to be reliable in high-pressure systems. It
should be used only in a system that is designated low
pressure. (Page 41)
3. C. Three. There are three methods of cleaning tubing
according to TM 1-1500-204-23-Series: vapor degreasing
method, naptha method, and hot inhibited alkaline cleaner
method. Always check the technical manual for proper usage.
(Page 41)
4. D. 25. Any dent that exceeds 20 percent of the tube
diameter will cause a construction in the tube resulting in a
reduction in the fluid traveling through the line. (Page 47)
5. D. 25. The criteria for tubing carrying less than 100
psi is not as critical. These tubes are usually only return
or drain lines. (Page 25)
6. B. Copper tubing. Copper tubing is used in oxygen
systems because it is a nonferrous metal and will not cause
any sparks when a wrench is applied to any fittings. (Page
30)
7. A. 0 psi. You should never tighten a fitting under
pressure because the pressure causes resistance which results
in an undertorqued condition. (pg 45)
8. D. Seven. The types of seals or packing are o-rings,
backup rings, V-rings, U-rings, cup seals, oil seals, and
wiper seals. Each serves a special purpose. (pg 65-66)
9. D. Never. Seals or gaskets must never be reused after
being removed due to the possibility of their being damaged
during removal. Once damaged, they cannot serve the original
purpose. (pg 64)
10. A. None. When you cut replacement gaskets from bulk
material, the most important consideration is the exact
duplication of the thickness of the original gasket due to
the close-tolerance machining of the parts. (pg 67)


71 AL0907

Training Solutions

Training Solutions

Hydraulics

Training Manual 2

HYDRAULICS

FM 5-499

FM 5-499
Manual Headquarters
No. 5-499


Hydraulics
Table of Contents

Page
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES . . . . . .vii
Figures . . . . . .vii
Tables . . . . . xiii
PREFACE . . . . . xiv
CHAPTER 1. Hydraulic Basics . . . . . 1-1
1-1. Pressure and Force. . . . . 1-1
Pressure . . . . . 1-1
Force . . . . . 1-3
1-2. Pascals Law . . . . . 1-4
1-3. Flow . . . . . 1-6
Velocity . . . . . 1-6
Flow Rate . . . . . 1-6
1-4. Energy, Work, and Power . . . . . 1-6
Potential Energy . . . . . 1-6
Kinetic Energy . . . . . 1-6
Heat Energy and Friction . . . . . 1-6
Relationship Between Velocity and Pressure . . . 1-7
Work . . . . . 1-8
Power . . . . . 1-8
CHAPTER 2. Hydraulic Systems. . . . . 2-1
2-1. Basic Systems . . . . . 2-1
Hydraulic Jack . . . . . 2-1
Motor-Reversing System . . . . 2-1
Open-Center System . . . . . 2-2
Closed-Center System . . . . . 2-5


OS-Software



i

FM 5-499
ii
Page
2-2. Color Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-9
2-3. Reser voir s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-9
Const r uct ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-9
Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-10
Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-10
Locat ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-10
Vent ilat ion and Pr essur izat ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-11
Line Connect ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-11
Maint enance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-11
2-4. St r ainer s and Filt er s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-11
St r ainer s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12
Filt er s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12
2-5. Filt er ing Mat er ial and Element s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14
2-6. Accumulat or s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14
Spr ing-Loaded Accumulat or . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14
Bag-Type Accumulat or . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-15
Pist on-Type Accumulat or . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-15
Maint enance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-15
2-7. Pr essur e Gauges and Volume Met er s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-17
Pr essur e Gauges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-17
Met er s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-17
2-8. Por t able Hydr aulic-Cir cuit Test er s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-18
Test er s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-18
Impr oper Oper at ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-18
2-9. Cir culat or y Syst ems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-18
Tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-19
Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-19
Flexible Hosing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-19
Inst allat ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-21
2-10. Fit t ings and Connect or s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-21
Thr eaded Connect or s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-21
Flar ed Connect or s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-23
Flexible-Hose Couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-25
Reusable Fit t ings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-25
2-11. Leakage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-29
Int er nal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-29
Ext er nal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-30
Pr event ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-30
2-12. Seals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-30
St at ic Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-31
Dynamic Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-31
Packing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-33
Seal Mat er ials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-34
FM 5-499
iii
Page
CHAPTER 3. Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
3-1. Pump Classificat ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
Nonposit ive-Displacement Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
Posit ive-Displacement Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
Char act er ist ics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
3-2. Per for mance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
3-3. Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
Fixed-Displacement Pump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3
Var iable-Displacement Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3
3-4. Slippage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3
3-5. Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3
Cent r ifugal Pump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3
Rot ar y Pump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
Recipr ocat ing Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
3-6. Gear Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
Ext er nal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
Int er nal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
Lobe Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
3-7. Vane Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
Char act er ist ics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
Unbalanced Vane Pumps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
Balanced Vane Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7
Double Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7
Two-St age Pumps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9
3-8. Pist on Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10
Radial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10
Axial Pist on Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11
3-9. Pump Oper at ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14
Over loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14
Excess Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14
Cavit at ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14
Oper at ing Pr oblems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-15
CHAPTER 4. Hydrauli c Ac tuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
4-1. Cylinder s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
Single-Act ing Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
Double-Act ing Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
Differ ent ial Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
Nondiffer ent ial Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2
Ram-Type Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2
Pist on-Type Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3
Cushioned Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4
Lockout Cylinder s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4
4.2 Const r uct ion and Applicat ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4
FM 5-499
iv
Page
4-3. Maint enance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
Ext er nal Leakage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
Int er nal Leakage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
Cr eeping Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
Sluggish Oper at ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
Loose Mount ing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
Misalignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
Lack of Lubr icat ion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7
Abr asives on a Pist on Rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7
Bur r s on a Pist on Rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7
Air Vent s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7
4-4. Hydr aulic Mot or s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7
Gear -Type Mot or s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8
Vane-Type Mot or s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8
Pist on-Type Mot or s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10
CHAPTER 5. Valve s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1
5-1. Pr essur e-Cont r ol Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1
Relief Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2
Pr essur e-Reducing Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3
Sequence Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5
Count er balance Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7
Pr essur e Swit ches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-8
5-2. Dir ect ional-Cont r ol Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-8
Poppet Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-9
Sliding-Spool Valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10
Check Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10
Two-Way Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-14
Four -Way Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-14
5-3. Flow-Cont r ol Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-19
Gat e Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-19
Globe Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-21
Needle Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-22
Rest r ict or . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-22
Or ifice Check Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-23
Flow Equalizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-23
5-4. Valve Inst allat ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-25
Met er -In Cir cuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-25
Met er -Out Cir cuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-25
Bleed-Off Cir cuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26
Compensat ed Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26
5-5. Valve Failur es and Remedies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26
Ser vicing Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-27
Disassembling Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-27
Repair ing Valves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-28
FM 5-499
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5-6. Valve Assembly. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-29
5-7. Tr oubleshoot ing Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-30
Pr essur e-Cont r ol Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-30
Dir ect ional-Cont r ol Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-32
Volume-Cont r ol Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-33
CHAPTER 6. Ci rcui t Di agrams and Troubleshooti ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1
6-1. Hydr aulic-Cir cuit Diagr ams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1
6-2. Unit ed St at es of Amer ican St andar ds Inst it ut e (USASI) Gr aphical . . . . . . . 6-1
Symbols
Reser voir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4
Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4
Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4
Mot or . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5
Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5
Pr essur e-Cont r ol Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5
Flow-Cont r ol Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7
Dir ect ional-Cont r ol Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7
Accessor ies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9
6-3. Typical Mobile Cir cuit s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11
Hydr aulic-Lift Cir cuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11
Power -St eer ing Cir cuit s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12
Road-Pat r ol-Tr uck Cir cuit s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12
6-4. Tr oubleshoot ing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13
Causes of Impr oper Oper at ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13
Test ing a Hydr aulic Cir cuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13
Compar ing Test Result s wit h Specificat ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13
Slippage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15
Flow and Pr essur e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15
Ot her Condit ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15
Specific Tr oubles, Causes, and Solut ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16
CHAPTER 7. El ect ri c al De vi c es: Troubleshoot i ng and Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1
7-1. Hydr aulics and Elect r icit y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1
7-2. Tr oubleshoot ing Elect r ical Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1
Pr ocedur e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5
Test ing Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6
7-3. Gr ound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8
Ear t h Gr ound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8
Chassis or Common Gr ound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9
Zer o Refer ence Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9
Isolat ion Bet ween Ear t h and Chassis Gr ound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-10
7-4. Safet y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-10
Infor mat ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-10
Pr act ices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-11
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APPENDIX A. Metri c Conversi on Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix-1
GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Glossar y-1
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Refer ences-1
INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Index-1
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Li st of Fi gures and Tables
Figures
Page
Fi gure 1-1. Basic hydraulic device. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
Fi gure 1-2. Compressibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2
Fi gure 1-3. Water column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3
Fi gure 1-4. Pump pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4
Fi gure 1-5. Interaction of hydraulic and atmospheric pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4
Fi gure 1-6. Force, pressure, and area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5
Fi gure 1-7. Pascals Law apparatus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5
Fi gure 1-8. Laminar and turbulent flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-7
Fi gure 1-9. Effect of friction on pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-7
Fi gure 1-10. Bernouillis Principle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8
Fi gure 1-11. Combined effects of friction and velocity changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9
Fi gure 2-1. Hydraulic jack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
Fi gure 2-2. Motor-reversing system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3
Fi gure 2-3. Open-center system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4
Fi gure 2-4. Open-center system wit h a series connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4
Fi gure 2-5. Open-center system wit h a series/ parallel connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5
Fi gure 2-6. Open-center system wit h a flow divider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6
Fi gure 2-7. Closed-center system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6
Fi gure 2-8. Fixed-displacement pump and accumulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7
Fi gure 2-9. Variable-displacement pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8
Fi gure 2-10. Closed-center system with charging pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8
Fi gure 2-11. Design feat ures of a reservoir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-10
Fi gure 2-12. Hydraulic-system stainers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12
Fi gure 2-13. Full-flow hydraulic filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13
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Fi gure 2-14. Proportional-flow filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13
Fi gure 2-15. S pring-loaded accumulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-15
Fi gure 2-16. Bag-type accumulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-16
Fi gure 2-17. Piston-type accumulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-16
Fi gure 2-18. Pressure gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-17
Fi gure 2-19. Nut at ing-piston-disc flowmeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-17
Fi gure 2-20. Portable hydraulic-circuit tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-18
Fi gure 2-21. Method of installing tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-19
Fi gure 2-22. Flexible rubber hose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-20
Fi gure 2-23. Installing flexible hose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-20
Fi gure 2-24. Threaded-pipe connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-22
Fi gure 2-25. Flared-t ube connector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-23
Fi gure 2-26. Flared-t ube fit tings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-24
Fi gure 2-27. Field-at t achable couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-25
Fi gure 2-28. Hose-length measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-25
Fi gure 2-29. Hose cut t ing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-25
Fi gure 2-30. Permanently attached couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-26
Fi gure 2-31. S kived fit t ing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-26
Fi gure 2-32. Trimming a hose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-27
Fi gure 2-33. Female portion of a fit ting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-27
Fi gure 2-34. Male and female portions of a fitt ing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-28
Fi gure 2-35. Tightening a fit ting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-28
Fi gure 2-36. Nonskived fitt ing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-28
Fi gure 2-37. Fitt ings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-28
Fi gure 2-38. Assembly of clamp-type coupling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-29
Fi gure 2-39. S tatic seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-31
Fi gure 2-40. O-ring placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-31
Fi gure 2-41. O-ring removal tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-32
Fi gure 2-42. Backup ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-32
Fi gure 2-43. T-ring seal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-33
Fi gure 2-44. Lip seal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-33
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Fi gure 2-45. Cup seal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-33
Fi gure 2-46. Piston ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-33
Fi gure 2-47. Face seal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-34
Fi gure 2-48. Compression packing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-34
Fi gure 3-1. Nonpositive-displacement pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
Fi gure 3-2. Reciprocat ing-type, positive-displacement pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
Fi gure 3-3. Positive-displacement pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
Fi gure 3-4. Volute pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
Fi gure 3-5. Diffuser pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
Fi gure 3-6. External gear pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
Fi gure 3-7. Internal gear pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
Fi gure 3-8. Lobe pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
Fi gure 3-9. Unbalanced vane pump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7
Fi gure 3-10. Balanced vane pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7
Fi gure 3-11. Vane-type double pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8
Fi gure 3-12. Fluid flow from vane-type double pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8
Fi gure 3-13. Vane-type, two-stage pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9
Fi gure 3-14. S implified radial piston pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10
Fi gure 3-15. Nine-piston radial piston pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11
Fi gure 3-16. Pint le for a radial piston pump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11
Fi gure 3-17. Cylinder block for a radial piston pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12
Fi gure 3-18. Pistons for a radial piston pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12
Fi gure 3-19. In-line piston pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13
Fi gure 3-20. Bent-axial piston pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14
Fi gure 4-1. S ingle-acting cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
Fi gure 4-2. Double-acting cylinder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2
Fi gure 4-3. Nondifferent ial cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2
Fi gure 4-4. Telescoping, ram-type, actuating cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3
Fi gure 4-5. S ingle-acting, spring-loaded, piston-type cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3
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Fi gure 4-6. Double-acting, piston-type cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4
Fi gure 4-7. Cushioned, actuat ing cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4
Fi gure 4-8. Applications of cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6
Fi gure 4-9. Basic operat ions of a hydraulic motor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7
Fi gure 4-10. Gear-type motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8
Fi gure 4-11. Vane-type motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8
Fi gure 4-12. Pressure different ial on a vane-type motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9
Fi gure 4-13. Flow condition in a vane-type pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9
Fi gure 4-14. Rocker arms pushing vanes in a pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10
Fi gure 4-15. In-line-axis, piston-type motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10
Fi gure 4-16. S wash plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-11
Fi gure 4-17. Bent-axis, piston-type motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-11
Fi gure 5-1. Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1
Fi gure 5-2. S imple relief valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2
Fi gure 5-3. Compound relief valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3
Fi gure 5-4. Pressure-reducing valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3
Fi gure 5-5. X-series, pressure-reducing valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4
Fi gure 5-6. Internal construction of an XC-series valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5
Fi gure 5-7. S equence valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6
Fi gure 5-8. Application of sequence valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6
Fi gure 5-9. Counterbalance valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7
Fi gure 5-10. Pressure switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-8
Fi gure 5-11. S pool valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-9
Fi gure 5-12. Operation of a simple poppet valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10
Fi gure 5-13. Operation of sliding-spool, directional-control valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10
Fi gure 5-14. S wing-type check valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-11
Fi gure 5-15. Vertical check valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-11
Fi gure 5-16. S pring-loaded check valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-11
Fi gure 5-17. S tandard check valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-12
Fi gure 5-18. Restriction check valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-12
FM 5-499
xi
Page
Fi gure 5-19. Pilot-operated check valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-13
Fi gure 5-20. Pilot-operated check valve, second type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-13
Fi gure 5-21. Two-way valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-14
Fi gure 5-22. Flow condit ions in a circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-15
Fi gure 5-23. Working view of poppet-type, four-way valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-16
Fi gure 5-24. S chematic of a four-way, directional-control, sliding-spool valve. . . 5-17
Fi gure 5-25. Closed-center spool valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-18
Fi gure 5-26. Open-center spool valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-18
Fi gure 5-27. S hifting spool by hand lever . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-20
Fi gure 5-28. S pool shifted by pilot pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-21
Fi gure 5-29. S olenoid-operated, sliding-spool, directional-control valve. . . . . . . . 5-21
Fi gure 5-30. Cross section of a gate valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-22
Fi gure 5-31. Operation of a globe valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-22
Fi gure 5-32. S ectional view of a needle valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-22
Fi gure 5-33. Fixed restrictor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-23
Fi gure 5-34. Variable restrictor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-23
Fi gure 5-35. Orifice check valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-23
Fi gure 5-36. Flow equalizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-24
Fi gure 5-37. Typical meter-in circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-25
Fi gure 5-38. Typical meter-out circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26
Fi gure 5-39. S pring tester. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-28
Fi gure 5-40. Valve inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-29
Fi gure 5-41. Volume-control valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-29
Fi gure 5-42. Pressure-control valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-29
Fi gure 5-43. Cartridge-type relief valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-30
Fi gure 5-44. Readings on a cartridge-type relief valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-30
Fi gure 6-1. Graphical-circuit diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1
Fi gure 6-2. US AS I graphical symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2
Fi gure 6-3. Reservoir symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4
Fi gure 6-4. Hydraulic line symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4
FM 5-499
xii
Page
Fi gure 6-5. Crossing lines A and B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5
Fi gure 6-6. Pump symbols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5
Fi gure 6-7. Motor symbols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6
Fi gure 6-8. Cylinder symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6
Fi gure 6-9. Pressure-control-valve symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6
Fi gure 6-10. Relief-valve symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7
Fi gure 6-11. S equence-valve symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7
Fi gure 6-12. Check-valve symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8
Fi gure 6-13. Counterbalance-valve symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8
Fi gure 6-14. Pressure-reducing-valve symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9
Fi gure 6-15. Flow-control-valve symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9
Fi gure 6-16. Unloading-valve symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9
Fi gure 6-17. Four-way, directional-control-valve symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10
Fi gure 6-18. Mobile directional-control-valve symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10
Fi gure 6-19. Fluid-condit ioner symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11
Fi gure 6-20. Accumulator symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11
Fi gure 6-21. Hydraulic-lift circuit in neutral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11
Fi gure 6-22. Manual-steering-gear layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12
Fi gure 6-23. Power-steering layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12
Fi gure 6-24. S emi-integral power-steering system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13
Fi gure 6-25. Hydraulic circuit diagram for a road-patrol truck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14
Fi gure 6-26. Hydraulic tester connected to a pumps output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15
Fi gure 7-1. Common electrical schematic symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2
Fi gure 7-2. Comparison of electrical and hydraulic components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3
Fi gure 7-3. Comparison of electrical and hydraulic circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4
Fi gure 7-4. S chematic diagrams illustrating zero reference point . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9
Fi gure 7-5. Battery installed between earth ground and chassis ground . . . . . . . 7-11
FM 5-499
xiii
Table s
Page
Table 2-1. Figure colors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-9
Table 5-1. Classificat ions of directional-control valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-16
Table 6-1. Problems and solutions with pump operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17
Table 6-2. Problems and solutions with actuat ing mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-19
Table 6-3. Problems and solutions with heating oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-20
Table 6-4. Problems and solutions with fluid motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-21
Table 6-5. Problems and solutions with accumulator operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-21
Table A-1. Metric conversion chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix-1
FM 5-499
xiv
Preface
This field manual (FM) ser ves as a guide for per sonnel who oper at e and maint ain milit ar y
equipment using hydr aulic-power ed cont r ol syst ems. It includes gener al infor mat ion cover -
ing basic hydr aulics and descr ibes t he pr oper t ies and char act er ist ics of fluids and sever al
t ypes of pumps, mot or s, valves, and cont r ols. This manual also deals wit h piping, t ubing,
and hoses used t o convey fluid under pr essur e. It descr ibes t he funct ions and t ypes of r eser -
voir s, st r ainer s, filt er s, and accumulat or s. It discusses t he pur poses and t ypes of seals and
packings used in fluid power syst ems.
The cont ent s of t his manual ar e applicable t o bot h nuclear and nonnuclear war far e.
The Appendix cont ains an English t o met r ic measur ement conver sion char t .
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Acknowledgment is gr at efully made t o t he or ganizat ions list ed below for per mit t ing t he use
of copyr ight ed mat er ial in pr epar ing t his manual.
Deer e & Company
Moline, Illinois
Hydraulics. "Repr oduced by per mission of Deer e & Company. c 1997. Deer e & Company. All
r ight s r eser ved."
Vicker s, Inc.
Rochest er Hills, Michigan
Industrial Hydraulics Manual, Thir d Edit ion 1993.
The pr oponent for t his publicat ion is Headquar t er s (HQ), Unit ed St at es Ar my Tr aining and
Doct r ine Command (TRADOC). Submit changes for impr oving t his publicat ion on Depar t -
ment of t he Ar my (DA) For m 2028 (Recommended Changes t o Publicat ions and Blank
For ms) and for war d it t o Commandant , USAES, ATTN: ATSE-TD-D-P, For t Leonar d Wood,
MO 65473-6650.
Unless ot her wise st at ed, masculine nouns and pr onouns do not r efer exclusively t o men.
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Basics 1-1
CHAPTER 1
Hydrauli c Basi cs
Hydraulics is the science of transmitting force and/ or motion through t he medium of a
confined liquid. In a hydraulic device, power is transmitted by pushing on a confined liquid.
Figure 1-1 shows a simple hydraulic device. The transfer of energy tak es place because a
quantit y of liquid is subject to pressure. To operate liquid-powered systems, the operator
should have a knowledge of the basic nat ure of liquids. This chapter covers the properties of
liquids and how they act under different conditions.
1-1. Pre s s ure and Force . Pr essur e is for ce exer t ed against a specific a r ea (for ce per unit
ar ea ) expr essed in pounds per squa r e inch (psi). Pr essur e can ca use an expansion, or r esis-
t a nce t o compr ession, of a fluid t hat is being squeezed. A fluid is any liquid or gas (va por ).
For ce is anyt hing t hat t ends t o pr oduce or modify (push or pull) mot ion a nd is expr essed in
pounds.
a. Pressure. An exa mple of pr essur e is t he air (gas) t ha t fills an aut omobile t ir e. As a
t ir e is inflat ed, mor e a ir is squeezed int o it t han it ca n hold. The air inside a t ir e r esist s t he
squeezing by pushing out wa r d on t he casing of t he t ir e. The out wa r d push of t he air is pr es-
sur e. Equa l pr essur e t hr oughout a confined a r ea is a char a ct er ist ic of any pr essur ized fluid.
For example, in an infla t ed t ir e, t he out war d push of t he air is unifor m t hr oughout . If it
wer e not , a t ir e would be pushed int o odd shapes beca use of it s elast icit y.
Ther e is a
ma jor differ ence
bet ween a ga s and a
liquid. Liquids ar e
slight ly compr ess-
ible (Figur e 1-2,
page 1-2). When a
confined liquid is
pushed on, pr essur e
builds up. The
pr essur e is st ill
t r ansmit t ed
equally t hr oughout
t he cont ainer . The
fluid's behavior
ma kes it possible t o
t r ansmit a push
t hr ough pipes,
ar ound cor ner s, and
up and down. A
hydr aulic syst em
uses a liquid
Confined liquid is
subject to pressure
Weight
Fi gure 1-1. Basi c hydrauli c devi c e
FM 5-499
1-2 Hydraulic Basics
beca use it s near incompr essibilit y ma kes t he a ct ion inst a nt a neous a s long a s t he syst em is
full of liquid.
Pr essur e ca n be cr eat ed by squeezing or pushing on a confined fluid only if t her e is a
r esist ance t o flow. The t wo ways t o push on a fluid ar e by t he a ct ion of a mechanica l pump
or by t he weight of t he fluid. An example of pr essur e due t o a fluid's weight would be in a n
ocean's dept hs. The wat er 's weight cr ea t es t he pr essur e, which incr ea ses or decr ea ses,
depending on t he dept h.
By knowing t he weight of a cubic foot of wa t er , you can ca lculat e t he pr essur e at any
dept h. Figur e 1-3 shows a column of wa t er 1 foot squar e a nd 10 feet high, which equa t es t o
10 cubic feet . (One cubic foot of wa t er weighs 52.4 pounds.) The t ot al weight of wa t er in t his
column is 624 pounds. The weight a t t he bot t om cover s 1,445 squar e inches (1 squa r e foot ).
Each squa r e inch of t he bot t om is subject t o 1/144 of t he t ot al weight , or 4.33 pounds. Thus,
t he pr essur e at t his dept h is 4.33 psi. You ca n also cr eat e an equa l pr essur e of 4.33 psi in a
liquid using t he pump and figur es shown in Figur e 1-4, pa ge 1-4.
Befor e pr essur e, hea d wa s t he only wa y t o expr ess pr essur e measur ement . It was
expr essed as feet of wa t er . Today, hea d is st ill t he ver t ical dist ance bet ween t wo levels in a
fluid. In Figur e 1-3, t he head bet ween t he t op and bot t om of t he wa t er is 10 feet , which is
equiva lent t o 4.33 psi. Ther efor e, each foot of wa t er is equa l t o 0.433 psi.
The eart h has an at mosphere of air ext ending 50 miles up, and t his air has weight . This air
cr eat es a head of pr essur e t hat is called at mospheric pr essur e. A column of air 1 square inch in
cr oss sect ion a nd t he height of t he a t mospher e would weigh 14.7 pounds at sea level. Thus,
t he ear t h's at mospher ic pr essur e is 14.7 psi a t sea level. The r ole of a t mospher ic pr essur e in
A gas is compressible
A liquid resists compression
Fi gure 1-2. Compre s s ibi li t y
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Basics 1-3
most hydr a ulic syst ems is significant . Fig-
ur e 1-5, pa ge 1-4, shows t he int er a ct ion of
hydr aulic a nd at mospher ic pr essur es under
t he t hr ee set s of condit ions list ed below:
(1) Dia gr am A. In t he diagr am, t he t ube
is open at bot h ends. When it is placed in a
liquid, t he liquid will r ise, inside and out -
side, in pr opor t ion t o t he amount of liquid
displa ced by t he submer ged t ube wall.
(2) Dia gr a m B. In t he diagr a m, ends of
t he t ube a r e closed. When pla ced in a liquid,
t he liquid level in t he t ube is for ced down
beca use t he air in t he t ube must occupy a
spa ce. Ther efor e, t he liquid is displa ced.
The liquid level out side t he t ube r ises in pr o-
por t ion t o t he volume of t he cylinder wall
and t he volume of t he t r apped air below t he
or igina l liquid level. The at mospher ic pr es-
sur e (14.7 psi) on t he liquid out side t he t ube
is not hea vy enough t o for ce t he liquid inside
t he t ube upwar d against t he pr essur e of t he
t r apped air , which is mor e t han 14.7 psi.
(3) Dia gr a m C. In t he diagr a m, t he
upper end of t he t ube is closed, but some of
t he air has been r emoved fr om t his t ube so
t ha t t he pr essur e wit hin t he t ube is less t han
14.7 psi (a par t ial vacuum). A per fect vac-
uum would exist if all pr essur e wit hin t he
t ube could be eliminat ed, a condit ion t hat
never happens. Beca use t he liquid out side
t he t ube is subject t o full a t mospher ic pr es-
sur e, t he liquid is for ced up int o t he t ube t o
sat isfy t he vacuum. How fa r t he liquid r ises
depends on t he differ ence in a ir pr essur e
bet ween t he t r apped air and t he at mospher e.
b. Force. The r elat ionship of for ce, pr es-
sur e, a nd ar ea is a s follows:
F = PA
wher e
F = force, in pounds
P = pressure, in psi
A = area, in square inches
Fi gure 1-3. Wat er c olumn
1 cu ft
weighs
62.4 lb
Total
weight
624 lb
10 ft
4.33 psi
2.165 psi
0.433 psi
1 ft
1 ft
1 ft
144 sq in
FM 5-499
1-4 Hydraulic Basics
Example :
Figur e 1-6 shows a pr essur e of 50 psi being
applied t o an a r ea of 100 squar e inches. The
t ot a l for ce on t he a r ea is
F = PA
F = 50 x 100 = 5,000 pounds
1-2. Pasc al's Law. Blaise Pascal for mula t ed
t he basic la w of hydr aulics in t he mid 17t h cen-
t ur y. He discover ed t hat pr essur e exer t ed on a
fluid act s equally in a ll dir ect ions. His law
st at es t hat pr essur e in a confined fluid is t r ans-
mit t ed undiminished in ever y dir ect ion and act s
wit h equal for ce on equal a r eas a nd at r ight
angles t o a cont ainer 's walls.
Figur e 1-7 shows t he a ppa r at us t hat Pa sca l
used t o develop his law. It consist ed of t wo con-
nect ed cylinder s of differ ent dia met er s wit h a
liquid t r a pped bet ween t hem. Pa sca l found t ha t
t he weight of a sma ll pist on will ba la nce t he
weight of a la r ger pist on as long as t he pist ons
ar ea s ar e in pr opor t ion t o t he weight s. In t he
small cylinder , a for ce of 100 pounds on a 1-squar e-
inch pist on cr eat es a pr essur e of 100 psi. Accor d-
ing t o Pa sca l's Law, t his pr essur e is t r a nsmit t ed
undiminished in ever y dir ect ion. In t he lar ger
A B C
Atmospheric
pressure
Atmospheric
pressure
Fi gure 1-5. Inte rac ti on of hydrauli c and at mosphe ri c pre ss ure s
Fi gure 1-4. Pump pre s s ure
Weight
Pump
Area = 10 sq in
Area = 10 sq in
Force = 43.3 lb
Pressure = 4.33 psi
Pressure = 4.33 psi
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Basics 1-5
cylinder , t he 100 psi of pr essur e fr om t he
small cylinder is t r a nsmit t ed t o an a r ea of 5
squar e inches, which r esult s in a for ce of 500
pounds on t he second pist on. The for ce has
been mult iplied 5 t imesa mecha nica l adva n-
t age of 5 t o 1. Using t he same fact or s, you ca n
det er mine t he dist ance t he pist ons move. For
exa mple, if t he sma ll pist on moves down 10
inches, t he lar ger pist on will move up 2
inches. Use t he following t o det er mine t he
dist ance:
wher e
F
1
= force of the small piston, in pounds
D
1
= distance the small piston moves, in
inches
D
2
= distance the larger piston moves, in
inches
F
2
= force of the larger pist on, in pounds
Example : Det er mine D
2

D
2
F
1
D
1

F
2
------------------- =
D
2
F
1
D
1

F
2
------------------- = D
2
100 10
500
--------------------- = D
2
2 in =
5
,
0
0
0

p
o
u
n
d
s
f
o
r
c
e
10
10
5
0

p
s
i
100 sq in
100psi
500 lb
100 lb
P
10
1 sq in
5 sq in
W
2
Fi gure 1-7. Pascal s Law apparat us
Fi gure 1-6. Forc e, pressure, and area
FM 5-499
1-6 Hydraulic Basics
1-3. Fl ow. Flow is t he movement of a hydr aulic fluid caused by a differ ence in t he pr essur e
at t wo point s. In a hydr a ulic syst em, flow is usually pr oduced by t he a ct ion of a hydr a ulic
pumpa device used t o cont inuously push on a hydr aulic fluid. The t wo wa ys of measur ing
flow ar e velocit y and flow r a t e.
a. Velocit y. Velocit y is t he aver age speed at which a fluid's par t icles move pa st a given
point , mea sur ed in feet per second (fps). Velocit y is an impor t ant consider at ion in sizing t he
hydr aulic lines t ha t car r y a fluid bet ween t he component s.
b. Flow Rate. Flow r at e is t he mea sur e of how much volume of a liquid passes a point in
a given t ime, measur ed in ga llons per minut e (GPM). Flow r at e det er mines t he speed a t
which a load moves and, t her efor e, is impor t ant when consider ing power .
1-4. Energy, Work, and Powe r. Ener gy is t he a bilit y t o do wor k and is expr essed in foot -
pound (ft lb). The t hr ee for ms of ener gy ar e pot ent ia l, kinet ic, and hea t . Wor k mea sur es
accomplishment s; it r equir es mot ion t o ma ke a for ce do wor k. Power is t he r a t e of doing
wor k or t he r at e of ener gy t r ansfer .
a. Pot ential Energy. Pot ent ia l ener gy is ener gy due t o posit ion. An object has pot ent ial
ener gy in pr opor t ion t o it s ver t ica l dist ance a bove t he ea r t h's sur face. For example, wat er
held ba ck by a da m r epr esent s pot ent ial ener gy because unt il it is r elea sed, t he wat er does
not wor k. In hydr aulics, pot ent ial ener gy is a st at ic fact or . When for ce is a pplied t o a con-
fined liquid, as shown in Figur e 1-4 (pa ge 1-4), pot ent ial ener gy is pr esent beca use of t he
st at ic pr essur e of t he liquid. Pot ent ial ener gy of a moving liquid can be r educed by t he heat
ener gy r eleased. Pot ent ia l ener gy ca n a lso be r educed in a moving liquid when it t r a nsfor ms
int o kinet ic ener gy. A moving liquid ca n, t her efor e, per for m wor k as a r esult of it s st at ic
pr essur e a nd it s moment um.
b. Kinetic Energy. Kinet ic ener gy is t he ener gy a body possesses because of it s mot ion.
The gr eat er t he speed, t he gr eat er t he kinet ic ener gy. When wa t er is r eleased fr om a da m, it
r ushes out a t a high velocit y jet , r epr esent ing ener gy of mot ionkinet ic ener gy. The
amount of kinet ic ener gy in a moving liquid is dir ect ly pr opor t iona l t o t he squa r e of it s veloc-
it y. Pr essur e caused by kinet ic ener gy may be called velocit y pr essur e.
c. Heat Energy and Friction. Hea t ener gy is t he ener gy a body possesses beca use of it s
hea t . Kinet ic ener gy a nd hea t ener gy a r e dynamic fa ct or s. Pa sca l's Law dealt wit h st at ic
pr essur e a nd did not include t he fr ict ion fa ct or . Fr ict ion is t he r esist a nce t o r elat ive mot ion
bet ween t wo bodies. When liquid flows in a hydr aulic cir cuit , fr ict ion pr oduces hea t . This
causes some of t he kinet ic ener gy t o be lost in t he for m of hea t ener gy.
Alt hough fr ict ion ca nnot be elimina t ed ent ir ely, it can be cont r olled t o some ext ent . The
t hr ee main causes of excessive fr ict ion in hydr a ulic syst ems ar e
Ext r emely long lines.
Numer ous bends and fit t ings or impr oper bends.
Excessive velocit y fr om using under sized lines.
In a liquid flowing t hr ough st r a ight piping at a low speed, t he pa r t icles of t he liquid
move in st r a ight lines par allel t o t he flow dir ect ion. Hea t loss fr om fr ict ion is minima l. This
kind of flow is ca lled lamina r flow. Figur e 1-8, dia gr am A, shows laminar flow. If t he speed
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Basics 1-7
incr eases beyond a given
point , t ur bulent flow devel-
ops. Figur e 1-8, dia gr am B,
shows t ur bulent flow.
Figur e 1-9 shows t he
differ ence in hea d beca use
of pr essur e dr op due t o fr ic-
t ion. Point B shows no flow
r esist ance (fr ee-flow condi-
t ion); t he pr essur e at point
B is zer o. The pr essur e a t
point C is a t it s maximum
because of t he head a t
point A. As t he liquid flows
fr om point C t o point B,
fr ict ion ca uses a pr essur e
dr op fr om maximum pr es-
sur e t o zer o pr essur e. This
is r eflect ed in a succeed-
ingly decr eased head at
point s D, E, and F.
d. Relationship
Between Velocit y and Pres-
sure. Figur e 1-10, pa ge 1-8,
expla ins Ber nouilli's Pr in-
ciple, which st at es t hat t he
Laminar flow
Turbulent flow
A
B
Fi gure 1-8. Lami nar and t urbule nt flow
A
B
C
D E F
Fi gure 1-9. Effe c t of fri ct i on on pre ssure
FM 5-499
1-8 Hydraulic Basics
st a t ic pr essur e of a moving liquid va r ies inver sely wit h it s velocit y; t hat is, a s velocit y
incr ea ses, st at ic pr essur e decr eases. In t he figur e, t he for ce on pist on X is sufficient t o cr eat e
a pr essur e of 100 psi on chamber A. As pist on X moves down, t he liquid t ha t is for ced out of
chamber A must pass t hr ough passage C t o r each chamber B. The velocit y incr eases a s it
passes t hr ough C because t he sa me quant it y of liquid must pa ss t hr ough a na r r ower ar ea in
t he same t ime. Some of t he 100 psi st at ic pr essur e in chamber A is conver t ed int o velocit y
ener gy in passage C so t hat a pr essur e ga uge at t his point r egist er s 90 psi. As t he liquid
passes t hr ough C a nd r ea ches chamber B, velocit y decr ea ses t o it s for mer r at e, a s indica t ed
by t he st at ic pr essur e r ea ding of 100 psi, a nd some of t he kinet ic ener gy is conver t ed t o
pot ent ial ener gy.
Figur e 1-11 shows t he combined effect s of frict ion and velocit y changes. As in Figur e 1-9,
page 1-7, pr essur e dr ops fr om ma ximum at C t o zer o a t B. At D, velocit y is incr eased, so t he
pr essur e hea d decr ea ses. At E, t he head incr eases a s most of t he kinet ic ener gy is given up
t o pr essur e ener gy because velocit y is decr eased. At F, t he hea d dr ops as velocit y incr eases.
e. Work . To do wor k in a hydr aulic syst em, flow must be pr esent . Wor k, t her efor e,
exer t s a for ce over a definit e dist a nce. It is a mea sur e of for ce mult iplied by dist a nce.
f. Power. The st anda r d unit of power is hor sepower (hp). One hp is equal t o 550 ft lb of
wor k ever y second. Use t he following equat ion t o find power :
P = f x d/ t
wher e
P = power, in hp
f = force, in GPM
d = distance, in psi
t = time (1,714)
100 psi
100 psi
90 psi
Chamber A
100 psi
Passage C
Chamber B
X
Fi gure 1-10. Be rnoui lli s Pri nc i ple
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Basics 1-9
F E D
C
B
A
Fi gure 1-11. Combi ne d e ffe c ts of fri ct ion and veloc i ty c hange s
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Systems 2-1
CHAPTER 2
Hydrauli c Systems
A hydraulic system contains and confines a liquid in such a way that it uses the laws
governing liquids t o transmit power and do work. This chapter describes some basic systems
and discusses components of a hydraulic system that store and condit ion the fluid. The oil
reservoir (sump or tank) usually serves as a storehouse and a fluid conditioner. Filters,
strainers, and magnetic plugs condition the fluid by removing harmful impurities that could
clog passages and damage parts. Heat exchanges or coolers often are used t o keep the oil tem-
perature wit hin safe limits and prevent deterioration of the oil. Accumulators, though techni-
cally sources of stored energy, act as fluid st orehouses.
2-1. Basi c Syste ms . The adva nt a ges of hydr a ulic syst ems over ot her met hods of power
t r ansmission ar e
Simpler design. In most cases, a few pr e-engineer ed component s will r epla ce compli-
cat ed mechanica l linkages.
Flexibilit y. Hydr aulic component s ca n be locat ed wit h consider able flexibilit y. Pipes
and hoses in place of mechanical element s vir t ua lly eliminat e loca t ion pr oblems.
Smoot hness. Hydr aulic syst ems a r e smoot h a nd quiet in oper a t ion. Vibr at ion is kept
t o a minimum.
Cont r ol. Cont r ol of a wide r ange of speed a nd for ces is easily possible.
Cost . High efficiency wit h minimum fr ict ion loss keeps t he cost of a power t r ansmis-
sion at a minimum.
Over loa d pr ot ect ion. Aut omat ic va lves gua r d t he syst em a ga inst a br eakdown fr om
over loading.
The ma in disadva nt a ge of a hydr a ulic syst em is maint a ining t he pr ecision pa r t s when
t hey ar e exposed t o bad climat es and dir t y at mospher es. Pr ot ect ion against r ust , cor r osion,
dir t , oil det er ior a t ion, a nd ot her a dver se envir onment is ver y impor t ant . The following
par agr aphs discuss sever al basic hydr a ulic syst ems.
a. Hydraulic J ack. In t his syst em (Figur e 2-1, page 2-2), a r eser voir and a syst em of
va lves ha s been added t o Pascal's hydr aulic lever t o st r oke a sma ll cylinder or pump cont in-
uously a nd r a ise a la r ge pist on or an act ua t or a not ch wit h each st r oke. Diagr a m A shows
an int ake st r oke. An out let check valve closes by pr essur e under a load, and a n inlet check
va lve opens so t hat liquid fr om t he r eser voir fills t he pumping cha mber . Dia gr am B shows
t he pump st r oking downwa r d. An inlet check valve closes by pr essur e and a n out let valve
opens. Mor e liquid is pumped under a la r ge pist on t o r a ise it . To lower a load, a t hir d va lve
(needle valve) opens, which opens a n ar ea under a la r ge pist on t o t he r eser voir . The load
t hen pushes t he pist on down a nd for ces t he liquid int o t he r eser voir .
b. Motor-Reversing S ystem. Figur e 2-2, pa ge 2-3, shows a power -dr iven pump oper a t ing
a r ever sible r ot ar y mot or . A r ever sing valve dir ect s fluid t o eit her side of t he mot or a nd back
FM 5-499
2-2 Hydraulic Systems
t o t he r eser voir . A r elief valve pr ot ect s t he syst em against excess pr essur e and can bypa ss
pump out put t o t he r eser voir , if pr essur e r ises t oo high.
c. Open-Center S ystem. In t his syst em, a cont r ol-va lve spool must be open in t he cent er
t o a llow pump flow t o pa ss t hr ough t he va lve and r et ur n t o t he r eser voir . Figur e 2-3, pa ge
2-4, shows t his syst em in t he neut r al posit ion. To oper at e sever a l funct ions simult aneously,
an open-cent er syst em must have t he cor r ect connect ions, which a r e discussed below. An
open-cent er syst em is efficient on single funct ions but is limit ed wit h mult iple funct ions.
(1) Ser ies Connect ion. Figur e 2-4, page 2-4, shows an open-cent er syst em wit h a ser ies
connect ion. Oil fr om a pump is r out ed t o t he t hr ee cont r ol valves in ser ies. The r et ur n fr om
t he fir st va lve is r out ed t o t he inlet of t he second, a nd so on. In neut r al, t he oil pa sses
t hr ough t he valves in ser ies and r et ur ns t o t he r eser voir , as t he ar r ows indica t e. When a
cont r ol valve is oper at ed, t he incoming oil is diver t ed t o t he cylinder t ha t t he va lve ser ves.
Ret ur n liquid fr om t he cylinder is dir ect ed t hr ough t he r et ur n line and on t o t he next va lve.
This syst em is sa t isfa ct or y as long a s only one va lve is oper a t ing a t a t ime. When t his
happens, t he full out put of t he pump a t full syst em pr essur e is a va ila ble t o t hat funct ion.
However , if mor e t ha n one va lve is oper a t ing, t he t ot al of t he pr essur es r equir ed for each
funct ion ca nnot exceed t he syst ems r elief set t ing.
Fi gure 2-1. Hydrauli c jac k
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Systems 2-3
Fi gure 2-2. Mot or-reversi ng syste m
FM 5-499
2-4 Hydraulic Systems
Fi gure 2-3. Ope n-ce nte r syst em
Fi gure 2-4. Ope n-c ent er system wi t h a s e ri e s connect i on
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Systems 2-5
(2) Ser ies/Par a llel Connect ion. Figur e 2-5 shows a var iat ion on t he ser ies-connect ed
t ype. Oil fr om t he pump is r out ed t hr ough t he cont r ol valves in ser ies, as well a s in pa r a llel.
The va lves a r e somet imes st a cked t o a llow for ext r a pa ssa ges. In neut r al, a liquid pa sses
t hr ough t he valves in ser ies, a s t he a r r ows indica t e. However , when a ny valve is oper at ing,
t he r et ur n is closed and t he oil is available t o a ll t he va lves t hr ough t he pa r a llel connect ion.
When t wo or mor e valves ar e oper at ed at once, t he cylinder t ha t needs t he least pr essur e
will oper a t e fir st , t hen t he cylinder wit h t he next least , and so on. This a bilit y t o oper a t e t wo
or mor e valves simult a neously is an adva nt a ge over t he ser ies connect ion.
(3) Flow Divider . Figur e 2-6, page 2-6, shows an open-cent er syst em wit h a flow divider .
A flow divider t akes t he volume of oil fr om a pump and divides it bet ween t wo funct ions. For
example, a flow divider might be designed t o open t he left side fir st in case bot h cont r ol
valves wer e act ua t ed simult aneously. Or , it might divide t he oil t o bot h sides, equally or by
per cent age. Wit h t his syst em, a pump must be lar ge enough t o oper at e all t he funct ions
simult aneously. It must a lso supply a ll t he liquid a t t he ma ximum pr essur e of t he highest
funct ion, mea ning lar ge amount s of HP ar e wast ed when oper a t ing only one cont r ol va lve.
d. Closed-Center S ystem. In t his syst em, a pump can r est when t he oil is not r equir ed t o
oper at e a funct ion. This means t hat a cont r ol valve is closed in t he cent er , st opping t he flow
of t he oil fr om t he pump. Figur e 2-7, page 2-6, shows a closed-cent er syst em. To oper at e sev-
er al funct ions simult a neously, a closed-cent er syst em have t he following connect ions:
(1) Fixed-Displacement Pump and Accumulat or . Figur e 2-8, page 2-7, shows a closed-
cent er syst em. In t his syst em, a pump of sma ll but const a nt volume cha r ges a n a ccumulat or .
Fi gure 2-5. Ope n-c ent er system wi t h a s e ri e s/paral lel c onne ct ion
FM 5-499
2-6 Hydraulic Systems
Fi gure 2-6. Ope n-c ent er sys te m wit h a fl ow di vi de r
Fi gure 2-7. Close d-ce nte r syst em
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Systems 2-7
When a n a ccumula t or is cha r ged t o full pr essur e, a n unloading valve diver t s t he pump flow
ba ck t o a r eser voir . A check va lve t r a ps t he pr essur ed oil in t he cir cuit .
When a cont r ol va lve is oper at ed, an accumula t or dischar ges it s oil a nd act ua t es a cylin-
der . As pr essur e begins t o dr op, a n unloa ding va lve dir ect s t he pump flow t o a n accumulat or
t o r echar ge t he flow. This syst em, using a small ca pacit y pump, is effect ive when oper at ing
oil is needed only for a shor t t ime. However , when t he funct ions need a lot of oil for longer
per iods, a n accumulat or syst em ca nnot ha ndle it unless t he accumulat or is ver y lar ge.
(2) Va r ia ble-Displacement Pump. Figur e 2-9, pa ge 2-8, shows a closed-cent er syst em
wit h a var ia ble-displa cement pump in t he neut r a l mode. When in neut r a l, oil is pumped
unt il t he pr essur e r ises t o a pr edet er mined level. A pr essur e-r egulat ing va lve a llows t he
pump t o shut off by it self a nd ma int ain t his pr essur e t o t he valve. When t he cont r ol valve is
oper at ing, oil is diver t ed fr om t he pump t o t he bot t om of a cylinder . The dr op in pr essur e
caused by connect ing t he pumps pr essur e line t o t he bot t om of t he cylinder causes t he pump
t o go back t o wor k, pumping oil t o t he bot t om of t he pist on a nd r aising t he loa d.
When t he va lve moves, t he t op of t he pist on connect s t o a r et ur n line, which a llows t he
r et ur n oil t hat wa s for ced fr om t he pist on t o r et ur n t o t he r eser voir or pump. When t he va lve
r et ur ns t o neut r al, oil is t r a pped on bot h sides of t he cylinder , a nd t he pr essur e pa ssa ge fr om
t he pump is dead-ended. Aft er t his sequence, t he pump r est s. Moving t he spool in t he down-
wa r d posit ion dir ect s oil t o t he t op of t he pist on, moving t he loa d downwa r d. The oil fr om t he
bot t om of t he pist on is sent int o t he r et ur n line.
Figur e 2-10, pa ge 2-8, shows t his closed-cent er syst em wit h a char ging pump, which
pumps oil fr om t he r eser voir t o t he va r iable-displacement pump. The char ging pump supplies
Fi gure 2-8. Fi xe d-di s placeme nt pump and ac cumulat or
FM 5-499
2-8 Hydraulic Systems
Fi gure 2-9. Vari able-di splac eme nt pump
Fi gure 2-10. Clos e d-c ent er system wi t h c hargi ng pump
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Systems 2-9
only t he makeup oil requir ed in a syst em and pr ovides some inlet pr essur e to make a variable-
displa cement pump mor e efficient . The r et ur n oil fr om a syst em's funct ions is sent dir ect ly
t o t he inlet of a va r iable-displacement pump.
Because t oda ys ma chines need mor e hydr a ulic power , a closed-cent er syst em is mor e
advant a geous. For exa mple, on a t r a ct or , oil may be r equir ed for power st eer ing, power
br a kes, r emot e cylinder s, t hr ee-point hit ches, loa der s, and ot her mount ed equipment . In
most ca ses, ea ch funct ion r equir es a differ ent quant it y of oil. Wit h a closed-cent er syst em,
t he qua nt it y of oil t o each funct ion ca n be cont r olled by line or va lve size or by or ificing wit h
less heat build up when compar ed t o t he flow dividers necessary in a comparable open-center
syst em. Ot her advant a ges of a closed-cent er syst em a r e as follows:
It does not r equir e r elief valves because t he pump simply shut s off by it self when
st andby pr essur e is r ea ched. The pr event s hea t buildup in syst ems wher e r elief
pr essur e is fr equent ly r ea ched.
The size of t he lines, valves, a nd cylinder s ca n be t ailor ed t o t he flow r equir ement s
of ea ch funct ion.
Reser ve flow is a va ila ble, by using a la r ger pump, t o ensur e full hydr aulic speed a t
low engine r evolut ions per minut e (r pm). Mor e funct ions ca n be ser ved.
It is mor e efficient on funct ions such as br a kes, which r equir e for ce but ver y lit t le
pist on movement . By holding t he va lve open, st andby pr essur e is const a nt ly
applied t o t he br ake pist on wit h no efficiency loss because t he pump ha s r et ur ned
t o st a ndby.
2-2. Color Codi ng. In t his manua l, t he figur es t hat show oil-flow condit ions or pa t hs a r e
pr epa r ed wit h indust r ial st anda r dized color codes. Table 2-1 list s t he color s for t he hydr au-
lic lines a nd passages t ha t a r e in many of t he figur es:
2-3. Re se rvoi rs . A r eser voir st or es a liquid t hat is not being used in a hydr aulic syst em. It
also a llows gases t o expel a nd for eign ma t t er t o set t le out fr om a liquid.
a. Const ruction. A pr oper ly const r uct ed r eser voir should be a ble t o dissipa t e heat fr om
t he oil, separ a t e air fr om t he oil, and set t le out cont a minat es t hat a r e in it . Reser voir s r ange
in const r uct ion fr om small st eel st a mpings t o lar ge ca st or fabr icat ed unit s. The lar ge t anks
should be sandblast ed aft er all t he welding is complet ed and t hen flushed and st eam cleaned.
Doing so r emoves welding sca le and scale left fr om hot -r olling t he st eel. The inner sur face
t hen should be sealed wit h a paint compat ible wit h t he hydr aulic fluid. Nonbleeding r ed
engine enamel is suit able for pet r oleum oil a nd seals in any r esidual dir t not r emoved by
flushing and st eam-clea ning.
Table 2-1: Figure colors
Line/Passage Color
Operating pressure Red
Exhaust Blue
Intake or drain Green
Metered flow Yellow
FM 5-499
2-10 Hydraulic Systems
b. S hape. Figur e 2-11 shows some of t he design feat ur es of a r eser voir . It should be
high a nd nar r ow r a t her t ha n shallow a nd br oa d. The oil level should be a s high a s possible
above t he opening t o a pump's suct ion line. This pr event s t he va cuum at t he line opening
fr om causing a vor t ex or whir lpool effect , which would mea n t ha t a syst em is pr obably t a k-
ing in air . Aer at ed oil will not pr oper ly t r ansmit power because air is compr essible. Aer at ed
oil ha s a t endency t o br ea k down and lose it s lubr icat ing abilit y.
c. S ize. Reser voir sizes will va r y. However , a r eser voir must be la r ge enough so t hat it
has a r eser ve of oil wit h all t he cylinder s in a syst em fully ext ended. An oil r eser ve must be
high enough t o pr event a vor t ex a t t he suct ion line's opening. A r eser voir must have suffi-
cient spa ce t o hold a ll t he oil when t he cylinder s ar e r et r act ed, as well a s allow space for
expa nsion when t he oil is hot .
A common-size r eser voir on a mobile machine is a 20- or 30-ga llon t ank used wit h a 100-
GPM syst em. Ma ny 10-GPM syst ems oper at e wit h 2- or 3-gallon t a nks because t hese mobile
syst ems oper at e int er mit t ent ly, not const ant ly. For st at iona r y machiner y, a r ule of t humb is
t ha t a r eser voir s size should be t wo t o t hr ee t imes a pumps out put per minut e.
A lar ge size t ank is highly desir a ble for cooling. The lar ge sur fa ce ar ea s exposed t o t he
out side air t r ansfer heat fr om t he oil. Also, a la r ge t a nk helps set t le out t he cont a minat es
and sepa r a t es t he air by r educing r ecir culat ion.
d. Location. Mos t mobile equipment r eser voir s a r e loca t ed a bove t h e pumps. This
cr ea t es a flooded-pump-inlet condit ion. This con dit ion r educes t he possibilit y of pump
Fi gure 2-11. De si gn features of a reservoi r
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Systems 2-11
cavit a t iona condit ion wher e all t he a va ilable space is not filled and oft en met al par t s will
er ode. Flooding t he inlet also r educes t he vor t ex t endency at a suct ion pipe's opening.
The loca t ion of a r eser voir a ffect s heat dissipat ion. Idea lly, all t a nk wa lls should be
exposed t o t he out side a ir . Heat moves fr om a hot subst ance t o a cold subst ance; hea t t r a ns-
fer is gr ea t est when t her e is a la r ge t emper a t ur e differ ence. Reser voir s t hat ar e built int o
fr ont -end loa der ar ms a r e ver y effect ive in t r a nsfer r ing hea t .
e. Ventilation and Pressurization. Most r eser voir s ar e vent ed t o t he a t mospher e. A
vent opening a llows air t o lea ve or ent er t he space a bove t he oil as t he level of t he oil goes up
or down. This maint ains a const ant at mospher ic pr essur e above t he oil. A r eser voir filt er
cap, wit h a filt er element , is oft en used as a vent .
Some r eser voir s a r e pr essur ized, using a simple pr essur e-cont r ol valve r a t her t ha n a
vent ed one. A pr essur e-cont r ol va lve a ut omat ically let s filt er ed air int o a t ank but pr event s
air r elease unless t he pr essur e r eaches a pr eset level. A pr essur ized r eser voir t akes place
when t he oil and a ir in a t a nk expa nd fr om hea t .
f. Line Connect ions. A pump suct ion a nd a t ank's r et ur n lines should be at t ached by
fla nges or by welded heavy-dut y couplings. St andar d couplings usua lly ar e not suit a ble
beca use t hey spr ea d when welded. If a suct ion line is connect ed a t t he bot t om, a coupling
should ext end well a bove t he bot t om, inside t he t ank; r esidual dir t will not get in a suct ion
line when a t a nk or st r a iner is cleaned. A r et ur n line should dischar ge near a t ank's bot t om
alwa ys below t he oil level. A pipe is usua lly cut at a 45-degr ee a ngle and t he flow a imed
away fr om a suct ion line t o impr ove cir cula t ion and cooling.
A baffle plat e is used t o separ a t e a suct ion line fr om a r et ur n line. This ca uses t he
r et ur n oil t o cir cula t e a r ound an out er wa ll for cooling befor e it get s t o t he pump again. A
ba ffle plat e should be a bout t wo-t hir ds t he height of a t a nk. The lower cor ner s ar e cut diag-
ona lly t o allow cir culat ion. They must be la r ger in ar ea t ha n a suct ion line's cr oss sect ion.
Ot her wise t he oil level bet ween a r et ur n a nd a suct ion side might be uneven. Ba ffling also
pr event s oil fr om sloshing ar ound when a machine is moving. Ma ny la r ge r eser voir s a r e
cr oss-ba ffled t o pr ovide cooling and pr event sloshing.
g. Maintenance. Ma int enance pr ocedur es include dr a ining and clea ning a r eser voir . A
t ank should have a dished bot t om t hat is fit t ed wit h a dr ain plug at it s lowest point ; a plug
fit t ing should be flushed wit h t he inside of a t ank t o a llow for full dr ainage. On lar ge t anks,
access pla t es ma y be bolt ed on t he ends for easy r emoval and ser vicing. A r eser voir should
have a sight gauge or dipst ick for checking t he oil level t o pr event da mage fr om lubr icat ion
loss.
The st r a iner s on a pump's suct ion line may not r equir e a s much ma int enance. However ,
an element in a filt er in a r et ur n line will r equir e r egular changing. Ther efor e, t hat filt er
should not be inside a r eser voir . When a r eser voir is pr essur ized by compr essed a ir , mois-
t ur e can become a maint ena nce pr oblem. A t a nk should have a wa t er t r ap for moist ur e
r emoval; it should be placed wher e it can be inspect ed da ily.
2-4. Strai ne rs and Fi lters . To keep hydr a ulic component s per for ming cor r ect ly, t he
hydr aulic liquid must be kept a s clea n a s possible. For eign mat t er and t iny met al par t icles
fr om nor ma l wea r of va lves, pumps, a nd ot her component s ar e going t o ent er a syst em.
St r ainer s, filt er s, a nd ma gnet ic plugs ar e used t o r emove for eign par t icles fr om a hydr aulic
FM 5-499
2-12 Hydraulic Systems
liquid a nd ar e effect ive a s safeguar ds against cont amina t ion. Ma gnet ic plugs, locat ed in a
r eser voir , a r e used t o r emove t he ir on or st eel par t icles fr om a liquid.
a. S trainers. A st r a iner is t he pr ima r y filt er ing syst em t ha t r emoves lar ge par t icles of
for eign mat t er fr om a hydr aulic liquid. Even t hough it s scr eening act ion is not a s good as a
filt er 's, a st r a iner offer less r esist ance t o flow. A st r ainer usually consist s of a met al fr ame
wr apped wit h a fine-mesh wir e scr een or a scr eening element made up of var ying t hickness
of specially pr ocessed wir e. St r ainer s ar e used t o pump inlet lines (Figur e 2-11, page 2-10)
wher e pr essur e dr op must be kept t o a minimum.
Figur e 2-12 shows a st r ainer in t hr ee possible ar r angement s for use in a pump inlet
line. If one st r a iner ca uses excessive flow fr ict ion t o a pump, t wo or mor e ca n be used in par -
allel. St r ainer s and pipe fit t ings must a lways be below t he liquid level in t he t ank.
b. Filt ers. A filt er r emoves sma ll for eign par t icles fr om a hydr aulic fluid and is most
effect ive as a safeguar d a gainst cont a minat es. Filt er s a r e loca t ed in a r eser voir , a pr essur e
line, a r et ur n line, or in a ny ot her loca t ion wher e necessa r y. They ar e classified as full flow
or pr opor t ional flow.
(1) Full-Flow Filt er (Figur e 2-13). In a full-flow filt er , a ll t he fluid ent er ing a unit
pa sses t hr ough a filt er ing element . Alt hough a full-flow t ype pr ovides a mor e posit ive filt er -
ing a ct ion, it offer s gr eat er r esist ance t o flow, par t icular ly when it becomes dir t y. A hydr a u-
lic liquid ent er s a full-flow filt er t hr ough an inlet por t in t he body a nd flows ar ound an
Oil level
Pump intake
connection
Oil level
Pipe joints submerged
Disconnect union to remove
strainers for cleaning
Access opening should be provided so strainers may be
removed for cleaning without draining tank
Fi gure 2-12. Hydrauli c -system strai ners
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Systems 2-13
element inside a bowl. Filt er ing
occur s a s a liquid passes t hr ough
t he element and int o a hollow cor e,
leaving t he dir t and impur it ies on
t he out side of t he element . A fil-
t er ed liquid t hen flows fr om a hol-
low cor e t o an out let por t and int o
t he syst em.
A bypass r elief valve in a body
allows a liquid t o bypass t he ele-
ment and pa ss dir ect ly t hr ough an
out let por t when t he element
becomes clogged. Filt er s t hat do
not have a bypass r elief valve ha ve
a cont amina t ion indicat or . This
indicat or wor ks on t he pr inciple of
t he differ ence in pr essur e of a fluid
as it ent er s a filt er and a ft er it
leaves an element . When cont a mi-
nat ing par t icles collect on t he ele-
ment , t he differ ent ia l pr essur e
acr oss it incr eases. When a pr es-
sur e incr ease r ea ches a specific
va lue, a n indicat or pops out , signi-
fying t hat t he element must be
clea ned or r epla ced.
(2) Pr opor t iona l-Flow Filt er s
(Figur e 2-14). This filt er oper a t es
on t he vent ur i pr inciple in which a
t ube ha s a nar r owing t hr oa t (ven-
t ur i) t o incr ea se t he velocit y of
fluid flowing t hr ough it . Flow
t hr ough a vent ur i t hr oat ca uses a
pr essur e dr op at t he na r r owest
point . This pr essur e decr ease
causes a sucking a ct ion t ha t dr aws
a por t ion of a liquid down ar ound a
car t r idge t hr ough a filt er element
and up int o a vent ur i t hr oat . Fil-
t er ing occur s for eit her flow dir ec-
t ion. Alt hough only a por t ion of a
liquid is filt er ed dur ing each cycle,
const ant r ecir culat ion t hr ough a
syst em event ually causes a ll of a
liquid t o pa ss t hr ough t he element .
Repla ce t he element a ccor ding t o
applicable r egulat ions a nd by
doing t he following:
Fi gure 2-13. Full-flow hydrauli c fi lt er
Fi gure 2-14. Proporti onal-flow fil ter
FM 5-499
2-14 Hydraulic Systems
Relieve t he pr essur e.
Remove t he bowl fr om t he filt er s body.
Remove t he filt er element fr om t he body, using a slight r ocking mot ion.
Clea n or r epla ce t he element , depending on it s t ype.
Repla ce all old O-r ing pa ckings a nd backup washer s.
Reinst a ll t he bowl on t he body assembly. Do not t ight en t he bowl excessively;
check t he appr opr iat e r egula t ions for specifica t ions, a s some filt er element s r equir e
a specific t or que.
Pr essur ize t he syst em and check t he filt er assembly for leaks.
2-5. Fi lteri ng Materi al and Eleme nt s. The gener al classes of filt er mat er ials are mechani-
cal, absor bent inact ive, and absor bent act ive.
Mecha nica l filt er s cont ain closely woven met a l scr eens or discs. They gener a lly
r emove only fair ly coar se par t icles.
Absor bent inact ive filt er s, such a s cot t on, wood pulp, yar n, clot h, or r esin, r emove
much sma ller par t icles; some r emove wa t er a nd wa t er -soluble cont a minant s. The
element s oft en ar e t r ea t ed t o ma ke t hem st icky t o a t t r act t he cont amina nt sfound
in hydr a ulic oil.
Absor bent act ive ma t er ia ls, such a s char coal a nd Fuller 's Ear t h (a cla ylike ma t e-
r ial of ver y fine pa r t icles used in t he pur ificat ion of miner a l or veget a ble-ba se oils),
ar e not r ecommended for hydr aulic syst ems.
The t hr ee basic t ypes of filt er element s ar e sur face, edge, and dept h.
A sur fa ce-t ype element is made of closely woven fa br ic or t r ea t ed pa per . Oil flows
t hr ough t he por es of t he filt er mat er ial, and t he cont aminant s ar e st opped.
An edge-t ype filt er is made up of paper or met al discs; oil flows t hr ough t he spaces
bet ween t he discs. The fineness of t he filt r at ion is det er mined by t he closeness of
t he discs.
A dept h-t ype element is made up of t hick layer s of cot t on, felt , or ot her fiber s.
2-6. Ac cumulat ors . Like a n elect r ical st or age bat t er y, a hydr a ulic accumulat or st or es
pot ent ial power , in t his ca se liquid under pr essur e for fut ur e conver sion int o useful wor k.
This wor k can include oper a t ing cylinder s a nd fluid mot or s, maint a ining t he r equir ed sys-
t em pr essur e in ca se of pump or power fa ilur e, a nd compensat ing for pr essur e loss due t o
lea kage. Accumulat or s ca n be employed a s fluid dispenser s and fluid bar r ier s and ca n pr o-
vide a shock-absor bing (cushioning) act ion.
On milit ar y equipment , accumulat or s a r e used ma inly on t he lift equipment t o pr ovide
posit ive cla mping act ion on t he hea vy loa ds when a pumps flow is diver t ed t o lift ing or ot her
oper a t ions. An accumulat or a ct s as a sa fet y device t o pr event a load fr om being dr opped in
ca se of a n engine or pump failur e or fluid lea k. On lift s a nd ot her equipment , a ccumula t or s
absor b shock, which r esult s fr om a loa d st ar t ing, st opping, or r ever sal.
a. S pring-Loaded Accumulator. This accumulat or is used in some engineer equipment
hydr aulic syst ems. It uses t he energy st or ed in springs t o creat e a const ant force on t he liquid
cont ained in an adjacent r am assembly. Figure 2-15 shows t wo spring-loaded accumulator s.
The loa d char act er ist ics of a spr ing a r e such t hat t he ener gy st or a ge depends on t he
for ce r equir ed t o compr ess s spr ing. The fr ee (uncompr essed) lengt h of a spr ing r epr esent s
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Systems 2-15
zer o ener gy st or age. As a spr ing is compr essed t o t he maximum inst alled lengt h, a mini-
mum pr essur e value of t he liquid in a r am a ssembly is est ablished. As liquid under pr essur e
ent er s t he r a m cylinder , causing a spr ing t o compr ess, t he pr essur e on t he liquid will r ise
beca use of t he incr eased loading r equir ed t o compr ess t he spr ing.
b. Bag-Type Accumulator. This a ccumulat or (Figur e 2-16, page 2-16) consist s of a
seamless high-pr essur e shell, cylindr ical in shape, wit h domed ends and a synt het ic r ubber
ba g t ha t sepa r a t es t he liquid a nd gas (usua lly nit r ogen) wit hin t he accumulat or . The ba g is
fully enclosed in t he upper end of a shell. The ga s syst em cont ains a high-pr essur e ga s
va lve. The bot t om end of t he shell is sea led wit h a special plug assembly cont aining a liquid
por t a nd a sa fet y fea t ur e t ha t ma kes it impossible t o disassemble t he a ccumula t or wit h
pr essur e in t he syst em. The bag is la r ger a t t he t op a nd t aper s t o a smaller diamet er a t t he
bot t om. As t he pump for ces liquid int o t he accumulat or shell, t he liquid pr esses against t he
ba g, r educes it s volume, a nd incr eases t he pr essur e, which is t hen available t o do wor k.
c. Piston-Type Accumulat or. This a ccumula t or consist s of a cylinder assembly, a pist on
assembly, a nd t wo end-cap assemblies. The cylinder assembly houses a pist on a ssembly and
incor por a t es pr ovisions for secur ing t he end-cap a ssemblies. An accumula t or cont a ins a
fr ee-float ing pist on wit h liquid on one side of t he pist on a nd pr echar ged air or nit r ogen on
t he ot her side (Figur e 2-17, page 2-16). An incr ease of liquid volume decreases t he gas volume
and incr eases gas pr essur e, which pr ovides a wor k pot ent ial when t he liquid is allowed t o dis-
charge.
d. Maintenance. Befor e r emoving a n accumulat or for r epair s, r elieve t he int er na l pr es-
sur e: in a spr ing-loaded t ype, r elieve t he spr ing t ension; in a pist on or bag t ype, r elieve t he
ga s or liquid pr essur e.
MULTIPLE SPRINGS SINGLE SPRING
Spring
Spring
Piston
Packing Ram
assembly
Ram
Cylinder
To hydraulic
system
To hydraulic
system
Fi gure 2-15. Spri ng-loaded accumulat or
FM 5-499
2-16 Hydraulic Systems
Gas valve
Gas bag
Shell
Plug
assembly
Liquid inlet
Gas charging inlet
Compressed
gas
Liquid
Spring-loaded
check valve
(normally open)
PRECHARGED
POSITION
FULLY CHARGED
POSITION
STATIC
POSITION
Fi gure 2-16. Bag-type ac cumulator
Hydraulic liquid port Hydraulic liquid port
Barrell assembly
End cap
assembly
Packing and
backup ring
Lubrication passage
Piston assembly
Gas port
Fi gure 2-17. Pis t on-t ype acc umulator
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Systems 2-17
2-7. Pressure Gauges and Volume
Me te rs. Pr essur e ga uges a r e used in
liquid-power ed syst ems t o measur e
pr essur e t o ma int ain efficient and sa fe
oper at ing levels. Pr essur e is mea-
sur ed in psi. Flow measur ement may
be expr essed in unit s of r a t e of flow
GPM or cubic feet per second (cfs). It
ma y also be expr essed in t er ms of t ot al
qua nt it yga llons or cubic feet .
a. Pressure Gauges. Figur e 2-18
shows a simple pr essur e gauge. Gauge
r eadings indicat e t he fluid pr essur e set
up by a n opposit ion of for ces wit hin a
syst em. At mospher ic pr essur e is neg-
ligible beca use it s act ion at one place is
ba lanced by it s equal act ion at a not her
pla ce in a syst em.
b. Meters. Measur ing flow
depends on t he quant it ies, flow r a t es, and t ypes of liquid involved. All liquid met er s (flow-
met er s) a r e ma de t o measur e specific liquids a nd must be used only for t he pur pose for
which t hey wer e made. Each met er is t est ed a nd ca libr a t ed.
In a nut at ing-pis-
t on-disc flowmet er , liq-
uid pa sses t hr ough a
fixed volume measur -
ing chamber , which is
divided int o upper and
lower compar t ment s
by a pist on disc (Figur e
2-19). Dur ing oper a-
t ion, one compar t ment
is cont inua lly being
filled while t he ot her is
being empt ied. As a
liquid passes t hr ough
t hese compa r t ment s,
it s pr essur e causes a
pist on disc t o r oll
ar ound in t he cha mber .
The disc's movement s
oper at e a dial (or
count er ) t hr ough gea r -
ing element s t o indi-
cat e t hat a column of
fluid t ha t ha s pa ssed
t hr ough t he met er .
Pointer
Red hand
Fi gure 2-18. Pre s s ure gauge
Fi gure 2-19. Nut at i ng-pi ston-di sc flowmete r
FM 5-499
2-18 Hydraulic Systems
2-8. Port able Hydrauli c -Circ ui t Te ste rs. Hydr aulic power is a n efficient met hod of
deliver ing HP by pumping a fluid t hr ough a closed syst em. If t he amount of flow or t he pr es-
sur e unknowingly decr eases, t he a mount of HP deliver ed t o a wor king unit will be r educed,
and a syst em will not per for m as it should.
a. Test ers. Por t able h ydr a ulic-cir cuit t est er s (Figur e 2-20) ar e light weight unit s you
ca n use t o check or t r oubleshoot a hydr a ulic-power ed syst em on t he job or in a ma int ena nce
shop. Con nect a t est er int o a syst em's cir cuit t o det er mine it s efficiency. Cur r ent ly, sev-
er al hydr aulic-cir cuit t est er s ar e on t he mar ket . Oper at ing pr ocedur es ma y var y on differ -
ent t est er s. Ther efor e, you must follow t he oper a t ing dir ect ions fur nished wit h a t est er t o
check or t r oubleshoot a cir cuit accur a t ely.
b. Improper Operation. When a hydr aulic syst em does not oper at e pr oper ly, t he t r ouble
could be one of t he following:
The pump t hat pr opels t he fluid may be slipping because of a wor n or a n impr op-
er ly set spr ing in t he r elief valve.
The fluid may be leaking a r ound t he cont r ol va lves or past t he cylinder pa cking.
Since hydr aulic syst ems a r e confined, it is difficult t o ident ify which component in a sys-
t em is not wor king pr oper ly. Measur e t he flow, pr essur e, and t emper at ur e of a liquid at
given point s in a syst em t o isolat e t he malfunct ioning unit . If t his does not wor k, t ake t he
syst em apar t a nd check ea ch unit for wor n pa r t s or ba d pa cking. This t ype of inspect ion can
be cost ly fr om t he st a ndpoint of ma int enance t ime and downt ime of t he power syst em.
2-9. Ci rculat ory Syst ems . Pipes a nd fit t ings, wit h t heir necessa r y sea ls, make up a cir cu-
la t or y syst em of liquid-power ed equipment . Pr oper ly select ing and inst alling t hese compo-
nent s ar e ver y impor t ant . If impr oper ly
select ed or inst a lled, t he r esult would be
ser ious power loss or ha r mful liquid con-
t a minat ion. The following is a list of some
of t he ba sic r equir ement s of a cir culat or y
syst em:
Lines must be st r ong enough t o con-
t a in s liquid a t s desir ed wor king
pr essur e a nd t he sur ges in pr essur e
t ha t may develop in s syst em.
Lines must be st r ong enough t o sup-
por t t he component s t ha t a r e
mount ed on t hem.
Ter mina l fit t ings must be a t a ll junc-
t ions wher e pa r t s must be r emoved
for r epa ir or r eplacement .
Line suppor t s must be ca pa ble of
damping t he shock caused by pr es-
sur e sur ges.
Lines should have smoot h int er ior s
t o r educe t ur bulent flow.
Lines must have t he cor r ect size for
t he r equir ed liquid flow.
Portable tester
series
Fi gure 2-20. Portable hydrauli c -ci rc ui t
test er
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Systems 2-19
Lines must be kept clea n by r egula r flushing or pur ging.
Sour ces of cont amina nt s must be eliminat ed.
The t hr ee common t ypes of lines in liquid-power ed syst ems ar e pipes, t ubing, and flexi-
ble hose, which ar e also r efer r ed t o as r igid, semir igid, a nd flexible line.
a. Tubing. The t wo t ypes of t ubing used
for hydr aulic lines ar e sea mless and elect r ic
welded. Bot h ar e suit a ble for hydr aulic sys-
t ems. Sea mless t ubing is made in lar ger sizes
t han t ubing t hat is elect r ic welded. Seamless
t ubing is flar ed a nd fit t ed wit h t hr ea ded com-
pr ession fit t ings. Tubing bends ea sily, so
fewer pieces and fit t ings a r e r equir ed. Unlike
pipe, t ubing can be cut a nd flar ed and fit t ed in
t he field. Gener a lly, t ubing ma kes a neat er ,
less cost ly, lower -maint ena nce syst em wit h
fewer flow r est r ict ions and less chances of
leakage. Figur e 2-21 shows t he pr oper
met hod of inst a lling t ubing.
Knowing t he flow, t ype of fluid, fluid
velocit y, and syst em pr essur e will help det er -
mine t he t ype of t ubing t o use. (Nominal
dimensions of t ubing a r e given as fr act ions in
inches or a s dash numbers. A dash number
r epr esent s a t ubes out side diamet er [OD] in
sixt eent hs of an inch.) A syst ems pr essur e
det er mines t he t hickness of t he var ious t ubing wa lls. Tubing a bove 1/2 inch OD usua lly is
inst alled wit h eit her fla nge fit t ings wit h met a l or pr essur e seals or wit h welded joint s. If
joint s a r e welded, t hey should be st r ess-r elieved.
b. Piping. You can use piping t ha t is t hr ea ded wit h scr ewed fit t ings wit h dia met er s up
t o 1 1/4 inches a nd pr essur es of up t o 1,000 psi. Wher e pr essur es will exceed 1,000 psi and
r equir ed diamet er s ar e over 1 1/4 inches, piping wit h welded, flanged connect ions a nd
socket -welded size a r e specified by nomina l inside dia met er (ID) dimensions. The t hr ead
r emains t he same for any given pipe size r ega r dless of wa ll t hickness. Piping is used eco-
nomically in la r ger -sized hydr aulic syst ems wher e lar ge flow is car r ied. It is pa r t icular ly
suit ed for long, per manent st r aight lines. Piping is t aper -t hr eaded on it s OD int o a t a pped
hole or fit t ing. However , it cannot be bent . Inst ead, fit t ings ar e used wher ever a joint is
r equir ed. This r esult s in addit iona l cost s a nd an incr eased cha nce of leakage.
c. Flexible Hosing. When flexibilit y is necessa r y in liquid-power ed syst ems, use hose.
Exa mples would be connect ions t o unit s t hat move while in oper at ion t o unit s t ha t a r e
at t ached t o a hinged por t ion of t he equipment or a r e in locat ions t hat ar e subject ed t o sever e
vibr a t ion. Flexible hose is usually used t o connect a pump t o a syst em. The vibr at ion t ha t is
set up by an oper at ing pump would ult imat ely cause r igid t ubing t o fa il.
(1) Rubber Hose. Rubber hose is a flexible hose t hat consist s of a seamless, synt het ic
r ubber t ube cover ed wit h la yer s of cot t on br aid and wir e br aid. Figur e 2-22, page 2-20,
shows cut -away views of t ypical rubber hose. An inner t ube is designed t o wit hst and mat er ial
Right Wrong
Figure 2-21. Method of installing tubing
FM 5-499
2-20 Hydraulic Systems
passing t hr ough it . A br a id, which may con-
sist of sever a l la yer s, is t he det er mining fa ct or
in t he st r engt h of a hose. A cover is designed
t o wit hst and ext er nal a buse.
When inst a lling flexible hose, do not t wist
it . Doing so r educes it s lift a nd ma y ca use it s
fit t ings t o loosen. An ident ifica t ion st r ipe t ha t
r uns along t he hose lengt h should not spir a l,
which would indicat e t wist ing (Figur e 2-23).
Pr ot ect flexible hose fr om chafing by wr apping
it light ly wit h t ape, when necessa r y.
The minimum bend r adius for flexible
hose var ies accor ding t o it s size and const r uc-
t ion a nd t he pr essur e under which a syst em
will oper a t e. Consult t he a pplica ble publica -
t ions t hat cont ain t he t a bles a nd gr aphs which show t he minimum bend r a dii for t he differ -
ent t ypes of inst alla t ions. Bends t hat ar e t oo shar p will r educe t he bur st ing pr essur e of
flexible hose consider ably below it s r at ed value.
Do not inst all flexible hose so t hat it will be subject ed t o a minimum of flexing dur ing
oper at ion. Never st r et ch hose t ight ly bet ween t wo fit t ings. When under pr essur e, flexible
hose cont r act s in lengt h and expands in dia met er .
(2) Teflon-Type Hose. This is a flexible hose t ha t is designed t o meet t he r equir e-
ment s of higher oper a t ing pr essur es a nd t emper a t ur es in t oday's fluid-power ed syst ems.
The hose consist s of a chemical r esin t hat is pr ocessed a nd pulled int o a desir ed-size t ube
Fi gure 2-22. Flexi ble rubber hos e
RIGHT
WRONG
Fi gure 2-23. Inst alli ng flexi ble hos e
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Systems 2-21
shape. It is cover ed wit h st a inless-st eel wir e t hat is br aided over t he t ube for st r engt h a nd
pr ot ect ion. Teflon-t ype hose will not a bsor b moist ur e and is unaffect ed by a ll fluids used in
t oda ys fluid-power ed syst ems. It is nonflammable; however , use an asbest os fir e sleeve
wher e t he possibilit y of an open flame exist s.
Car efully ha ndle a ll Teflon-t ype hose dur ing r emova l or inst a llat ion. Sha r p or excessive
bending will kink or dama ge t he hose. Also, t he flexible-t ype hose t ends t o for m it self t o t he
inst alled posit ion in a cir culat or y syst em.
d. Installation. Fla r ing and br azing a r e t he most common met hods of connect ing t ub-
ing. Pr epar ing a t ube for inst allat ion usua lly involves cut t ing, flar ing, and bending. Aft er
cut t ing a t ube t o t he cor r ect lengt h, cut it squar ely a nd ca r efully r emove a ny int er na l or
ext er nal bur r s.
If you use flar e-t ype fit t ings, you must flar e t he t ube. A flar e angle should ext end 37
degr ees on ea ch side of t he cent er line. The ar eas out er edge should ext end beyond t he ma x-
imum sleeve's ID but not it s OD. Flar es t ha t a r e t oo shor t ar e likely t o be squeezed t hin,
which could r esult in leaks or br eaks. Flar es t ha t a r e t oo long will st ick or ja m dur ing
a ssembly.
Keep t he lines as shor t a nd fr ee of bends as possible. However , bends ar e pr efer r ed t o
elbows or shar p t ur ns. Tr y not t o assemble t he t ubing in a st r aight line because a bend
t ends t o eliminat e st r ain by a bsor bing vibr a t ion and compensa t ing for t emper a t ur e expa n-
sion and cont r a ct ion.
Inst a ll all t he lines so you can r emove t hem wit hout dismant ling a cir cuit s component s
or wit hout bending or spr inging t hem t o a ba d angle. Add suppor t s t o t he lines at fr equent
int er va ls t o minimize vibr at ion or movement ; never weld t he lines t o t he suppor t s. Since
flexible hose ha s a t endency t o shor t en when subject ed t o pr essur e, allow enough slack t o
compensat e for t his pr oblem.
Keep a ll t he pipes, t ubes, or fit t ings clean a nd fr ee fr om scale and ot her for eign ma t t er .
Clea n ir on or st eel pipes, t ubes, a nd fit t ings wit h a boiler -t ube wir e br ush or wit h com-
mer cia l pipe-clea ning equipment . Remove r ust a nd sca le fr om shor t , st r a ight pieces by
sandbla st ing t hem, a s long a s no sa nd par t icles will r ema in lodged in blind holes or pocket s
a ft er you flush a piece. In t he case of long pieces or pieces bent t o complex sha pes, r emove
r ust a nd sca le by pickling (cleaning met a l in a chemical bat h). Cap a nd plug t he open ends
of t he pipes, t ubes, and fit t ings t hat will be st or ed for a long per iod. Do not use r ags or wa st e
for t his pur pose because t hey deposit har mful lint t hat can ca use sever e da mage in a
hydr aulic syst em.
2-10. Fi tt ings and Connec tors . Fit t ings ar e used t o connect t he unit s of a fluid-power ed
syst em, including t he individua l sect ions of a cir culat or y syst em. Ma ny differ ent t ypes of
connect or s ar e a va ilable for fluid-power ed syst ems. The t ype t hat you will use will depend
on t he t ype of cir culat or y syst em (pipe, t ubing, or flexible hose), t he fluid medium, and t he
ma ximum oper at ing pr essur e of a syst em. Some of t he most common t ypes of connect or s ar e
descr ibed below:
a . Threaded Connectors. Thr ea ded connect or s a r e used in some low-pr essur e liquid-
power ed syst ems. They ar e usua lly made of st eel, copper , or br ass, in a var iet y of designs
(Figur e 2-24, pa ge 2-22). The connect or s ar e made wit h st anda r d female t hr ea ding cut on
t he inside sur face. The end of t he pipe is t hreaded wit h outside (male) t hr ea ds for connect ing.
FM 5-499
2-22 Hydraulic Systems
Fi gure 2-24. Threade d-pi pe conne c tors
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Systems 2-23
St a ndar d pipe t hr ea ds ar e t a per ed slight ly
t o ensur e t ight connect ions.
To pr event seizing (t hr eads st icking),
apply a pipe-t hr ead compound t o t he
t hr eads. Keep t he t wo end t hr ea ds fr ee of
t he compound so t hat it will not cont a minat e
t he fluid. Pipe compound, when impr oper ly
applied, may get inside t he lines a nd har m
t he pumps a nd t he cont r ol equipment .
b. Flared Connectors. The common con-
nect or s used in cir culat or y syst ems consist
of t ube lines. These connect or s pr ovide safe,
st r ong, dependa ble connect ions wit hout hav-
ing t o t hr ead, weld, or solder t he t ubing. A
connect or consist s of a fit t ing, a sleeve, and
a nut (see Figur e 2-25).
Fit t ings a r e ma de of st eel, a luminum a lloy, or br onze. The fit t ings should be of a mat e-
r ia l t hat is similar t o t hat of a sleeve, nut , a nd t ubing. Fit t ings ar e made in unions, 45- a nd
90-degr ee elbows, Ts, a nd va r ious ot her shapes. Figur e 2-26, page 2-24, shows some of t he
most common fit t ings used wit h flar ed connect or s.
Fit t ings ar e a vailable in many differ ent t hr ea d combinat ions. Unions have t ube connec-
t ions on ea ch end; elbows ha ve t ube connect ions on one end a nd a ma le pipe t hr ead, female
pipe t hr ea d, or a t ube connect ion on t he opposit e end; cr osses a nd Ts have sever a l differ ent
combina t ions.
Tubing used wit h flar ed connect or s must be flar ed befor e being assembled. A nut fit s
over a sleeve and, when t ight ened, dr aws t he sleeve and t ubing flar e t ight ly against a male
fit t ing t o for m a sea l. A male fit t ing ha s a cone-sha ped sur face wit h t he sa me angle as t he
inside of a fla r e. A sleeve suppor t s t he t ube so t hat vibr at ion does not concent r at e at t he
edge of a flar e but t hat it does dist r ibut e t he shea r ing act ion over a wider a r ea for a dded
st r engt h. Tight en t he t ubing nut s wit h a t or que wr ench t o t he va lue specified in a pplicable
r egulat ions.
If a n a luminum alloy flar ed connect or leaks a ft er t ight ening t o t he specified t or que, do
not t ight en it fur t her . Disa ssemble t he leaking connect or a nd cor r ect t he fault . If a st eel
connect or lea ks, you ma y t ight en it 1/6 t ur n beyond t he specified t or que in a n a t t empt t o
st op t he lea k. If you ar e unsuccessful, disa ssemble it a nd r epair it .
Flar ed connect or s will lea k if
A fla r e is dist or t ed int o t he nut t hr ea ds.
A sleeve is cr acked.
A fla r e is cr a cked or split .
A fla r e is out -of-r ound.
A fla r e is eccent r ic t o t he t ubes OD.
A fla r e's inside is r ough or scr at ched.
A fit t ing cone is r ough or scr at ched.
Fitting
Nut
Sleeve
Tubing
Fi gure 2-25. Flared-t ube c onne ctor
FM 5-499
2-24 Hydraulic Systems
Fi gure 2-26. Fl are d-t ube fi tt i ngs
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Systems 2-25
The t hr ea ds of a fit t ing or
nut ar e dir t y, dama ged, or
br oken.
c. Flexible-Hose Couplings. If
a hose a ssembly is fabr icat ed wit h
field at t acha ble couplings (Figur e
2-27), use t he same couplings when
fabr icat ing t he r epla cement assem-
bly, as long a s t he fa ilur e (lea k or
br ea k) did not occur a t a coupling.
If fa ilur e occur r ed at a coupling,
discar d it .
When measur ing a r epla ce-
ment hose a ssembly for scr ew-on
couplings, measur e fr om t he edge
of a r et aining bolt (Figur e 2-28).
Place t he hose in hose blocks and
t hen in a bench vice (Figur e 2-29).
Use t he fr ont or r ea r por t ion of a
hacksaw bla de for cut t ing. (If you
use t he middle por t ion of a blade, it could t wist and br eak.) For effect ive cut t ing, a blade
should ha ve 24 or 32 t eet h per inch. To r emove a n old coupling on a hose assembly t ha t is
fabr icat ed wit h per manent ly at t ached couplings, you just disca r d t he ent ir e assembly (see
Figur e 2-30, pa ge 2-26).
d. Reusable Fit tings. To use a skived fit t ing (Figur e 2-31, page 2-26), you must st r ip
(skive) t he hose t o a lengt h equa l t o t ha t fr om a not ch on a fit t ing t o t he end of t he fit t ing. (A
not ch on a female por t ion of a fit t ing in Figur e 2-31 indicat es it t o be a skived fit t ing.) To
assemble a conduct or using skived fit t ings
Straight 45bent tube
90bent tube
long drop
90bent tube
short drop
Fi gure 2-27. Fi e ld-at tac hable c oupli ngs
Measure from edge
of hex
Length
measurement
Measure from edge
of retaining bolt
Fi gure 2-28. Hos e -le ngth meas ureme nt
Fi gure 2-29. Hose c ut ti ng
FM 5-499
2-26 Hydraulic Systems
Fi gure 2-30. Pe rmanent ly at tac hed coupli ngs
Fi gure 2-31. Ski ved fi t ti ng
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Systems 2-27
Det er mine t he lengt h of t he skive.
Make a cut ar ound t he hose wit h a sha r p knife. Make sur e t hat you cut complet ely
t hr ough t he r ubber cover of t he hose.
Cut lengt hwise t o t he end of t he hose (Figur e 2-32). Lift t he hose fla p and r emove
it wit h plier s.
Repeat t he pr ocess on t he opposit e end of t he hose.
Place t he female por t ion of t he fit t ing in a bench vice (Figur e 2-33) and secur e it in
pla ce.
Lubr icat e t he skived por t ion of t he hose wit h hose lubr icant (hydr aulic fluid or
engine oil, if necessa r y).
Inser t t he hose int o t he female socket and t urn t he hose count er clockwise unt il it
bot t oms on t he shoulder of t he female socket , t hen back off 1/4 t ur n.
Place t he fema le socket in an upr ight posit ion (Figur e 2-34, page 3-28) and inser t
t he male nipple int o t he fema le socket .
Tur n t he ma le nipple clockwise (Figur e 2-35, pa ge 3-28) unt il t he hex is wit hin 1/32
inch of t he fema le socket .
Repeat t he a bove pr ocess on t he opposit e end of t he hose.
When a ssembling conduct or s using nonskived-t ype fit t ings, follow t he above pr oce-
dur es. However , do not skive a hose. Nonskived fit t ings do not have a not ch on t he female
por t ion of a fit t ing (Figur e 2-36, page 2-28).
Figur e 2-37, pa ge 2-28, diagr am A, shows a female hose coupling. One end of t he hose
has a spir al r idge (cour se t hr ead) t ha t pr ovides a gr ipping a ct ion on t he hose. The ot her end
(small end) has machine t hr eads int o which t he ma le, fixed or swivel nipple, is inser t ed.
Figur e 2-37, diagr a m B shows t he ma le adapt er , and diagr a m C shows t he ma le and t he
fema le swivel body. These fit t ings cont ain a fixed or swivel hex-nut connect or on one end.
The opposit e end is t a per ed and has ma chine t hr eads t hat mat e wit h t he t hr ea ds in a female
fit t ing. Wit h a long t aper inser t ed int o a hose and scr ewed int o a female coupling, t he t a per
Fi gure 2-32. Tri mmi ng a hos e Fi gure 2-33. Femal e port i on of a fi tt i ng
FM 5-499
2-28 Hydraulic Systems
Fi gure 2-34. Male and fe male porti ons
of a fi tt i ng
Fi gure 2-35. Ti ght e ni ng a fi tt i ng
Fi gure 2-36. Nonski ve d fi t ti ng
Female hose
coupling
A
Male
adapter
B
(Male and female)
swivel body
C
Fi gure 2-37. Fi t ti ngs
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Systems 2-29
t ends t o expand a hose, for cing it a ga inst t he
inside dia met er of a female fit t ing.
Figur e 2-38 shows t he assembly of a
cla mp-t ype coupling. If you use t his coupling,
do not skive t he hose. Lubr ica t e t he ID of a
hose a nd t he OD of a st em. Clamp a hose st em
in a bench vice a nd inst all a hose. Tur n t he
hose count er clockwise unt il it bot t oms a ga inst
t he shoulder of t he st em (Figur e 2-38, diagr a m
A). If you do not ha ve a vice, for ce t he st em
int o t he hose by pushing or st r iking t he st em
wit h a wooden block. Place t he cla mp ha lves in
posit ion (Figur e 2-38, diagr am B) and dr aw
t hem t oget her wit h a vice or wit h ext r a long
bolt s unt il t he st andar d bolt s pr ot r ude far
enough t o gr ip t he nut s. Remove t he ext r a long
bolt s and place r et aining bolt s t hrough t he
clamp. Tight en t he nut s unt il you get t he
requir ed t orque (Figur e 2-38, diagr am C).
NOTE: You may have t o
re ti ght e n the bolts aft er the
hose asse mbly has be en operat-
i ng about 10 t o 20 hours. Use
clamp-t ype c oupli ngs on hos e
ass e mbl ie s wi t h di amet ers of 1
i nch or gre ate r. Us e re usable
screw-type fi t ti ngs on hos e
ass e mbl ie s wi t h di amet ers le s s
than 1 i nch.
2-11. Leakage . Any hydr a ulic syst em will
have a cer t ain amount of leaka ge. Any lea kage
will r educe efficiency and ca use power loss.
Some leaka ge is built in (pla nned), some is not .
Lea kage may be int er na l, ext er nal, or bot h.
a. Internal. This t ype of leaka ge (nonposi-
t ive) must be built int o hydr aulic component s
t o lubr icat e va lve spools, shaft s, pist ons, bear -
ings, pumping mecha nisms, a nd ot her moving
par t s. In some hydr a ulic valves a nd pump a nd
mot or compensa t or cont r ols, leaka ge pa t hs a r e
built in t o pr ovide pr ecise cont r ol and t o avoid
hunt ing (oscillat ion) of spools and pist ons. Oil
is not lost in int er nal leaka ge; it r et ur ns t o a r eser voir t hr ough r et ur n lines or specia lly pr o-
vided dr a in pa ssa ges.
Too much int er na l leakage will slow down a ct uat or s. The power loss is accompanied by
t he heat gener at ed at a lea kage pat h. In some inst a nces, excess leaka ge in a valve could
cause a cylinder t o dr ift or even cr eep when a valve is supposedly in neut r a l. In t he ca se of
A
B
C
Fi gure 2-38. Asse mbly of clamp-t ype
c oupli ng
FM 5-499
2-30 Hydraulic Systems
flow or pr essur e-cont r ol valves, lea kage can oft en r educe effect ive cont r ol or even cause con-
t r ol t o be lost .
Nor mal wea r incr eases int er na l lea kage, which pr ovides la r ger flow pat hs for t he leak-
ing oil. An oil t ha t is low in viscosit y lea ks mor e r ea dily t han a hea vy oil. Ther efor e a n oils
viscosit y and viscosit y index a r e impor t a nt consider a t ions in pr oviding or pr event ing int er -
nal lea kage. Int er na l leaka ge also incr eases wit h pr essur e, just a s higher pr essur e ca uses a
gr eat er flow t hr ough an or ifice. Oper at ing above t he r ecommended pr essur es a dds t he dan-
ger of excessive int er na l lea kage a nd heat gener a t ion t o ot her possible ha r mful effect s.
A blown or r upt ur ed int er na l seal ca n open a la r ge enough leaka ge pa t h t o diver t all of a
pump's deliver y. When t his ha ppens, ever yt hing except t he oil flow a nd hea t gener a t ion at a
lea kage point can st op.
b. External. Ext er na l lea kage can be ha zar dous, expensive, a nd unsight ly. Fa ult y
inst a lla t ion and poor maint ena nce ar e t he pr ime ca uses of ext er na l leakage. J oint s may
leak because t hey wer e not put t oget her pr oper ly or because shock and vibr at ion in t he lines
shook t hem loose. Adding suppor t s t o t he lines pr event s t his. If a ssembled and inst a lled
cor r ect ly, component s seldom lea k. However , failur e t o connect dr a in lines, excessive pr es-
sur es, or cont amina t ion can cause seals t o blow or be da ma ged, r esult ing in ext er nal leakage
fr om t he component s.
c. Prevention. Pr oper inst a llat ion, cont r ol of oper a t ing condit ions, and pr oper maint e-
nance help pr event lea kage.
(1) Inst alla t ion. Inst a lling piping a nd t ubing a ccor ding t o a manufact ur er 's r ecommen-
da t ions will pr omot e long life of ext er na l seals. Vibr a t ion or st r esses t hat r esult fr om
impr oper inst alla t ion can shake loose connect ions and cr eat e puddles. Avoid pinching, cock-
ing, or incor r ect ly inst alling seals when assembling t he unit s. Use a ny special t ools t ha t t he
ma nufa ct ur er r ecommends for inst a lling t he seals.
(2) Oper a t ing Condit ions. To ensur e cor r ect sea l life, you must cont r ol t he oper at ing
condit ions of t he equipment . A shaft sea l or pist on-r od sea l exposed t o moist ur e, salt , dir t , or
any ot her a br a sive cont amina t e will have a shor t ened life span. Also, oper at or s should
alwa ys t r y t o keep t heir loa ds wit hin t he r ecommended limit s t o pr event lea kage caused by
excessive pr essur es.
(3) Maint enance. Regular filt er and oil changes, using a high-qualit y hydr aulic oil, add
t o sea l life. Using infer ior oil could wear on a sea l and int er fer e wit h desir able oil pr oper t ies.
Pr oper ma int enance pr event s impur it y deposit s a nd cir culat ing ingr edient s t ha t could wear
on a dyna mic sea l.
Never use a ddit ives wit hout appr ova l fr om t he equipment a nd oil supplier s. Lubr ica -
t ion can be cr it ica l t o a seal's life in dynamic a pplica t ions. Synt het ics do not absor b much oil
and must be lubr icat ed quickly or t hey will r ub. Leat her and fiber do a bsor b oil. Manufa c-
t ur er s r ecommend soaking a sea l over night in oil befor e inst alling it . Do not inst all a sea l
dr y. Alwa ys coa t it in clea n hydr a ulic oil befor e inst alling it .
2-12. Se al s . Sea ls a r e packing mat er ials used t o pr event leaks in liquid-power ed syst ems.
A seal is any gasket , pa cking, seal r ing, or ot her par t designed specifica lly for sea ling. Seal-
ing a pplicat ions a r e usually st a t ic or dynamic, depending if t he pa r t s being sea led move in
r ela t ion t o one anot her . Sea ling keeps t he hydr aulic oil flowing in pa ssa ges t o hold pr essur e
and keep for eign mat er ials fr om get t ing int o t he hydr aulic pa ssages. To pr event lea kage,
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Systems 2-31
use a posit ive sealing met hod, which
involves using a ct ual sea ling pa r t s or
ma t er ia ls. In most hydr a ulic compo-
nent s, you can use nonposit ive sealing
(lea kage for lubr ica t ion) by fit t ing t he
par t s closely t oget her . The st r engt h
of a n oil film t ha t t he par t s slide
against pr ovides an effect ive sea l.
a. S tatic S eals. Pipe-t hr eaded
seals, sea l r ings used wit h t ube fit -
t ings, valve end-ca p seals, a nd ot her
seals on nonmoving pa r t s ar e st at ic
seals. Mount ing ga sket s and seals
ar e st a t ic, as a r e seals used in making
connect ions bet ween component s. A
st at ic seal or ga sket is placed bet ween
par t s t ha t do not move in r elat ion t o
each ot her . Figur e 2-39 shows some
t ypical st at ic sea ls in flanged connec-
t ions.
b. Dynamic S eals. In a dynamic
sealing a pplica t ion, eit her a r ecipr o-
cat ing or a r ot a r y mot ion occur s bet ween t he t wo
par t s being sealed; for example, a pist on-t o-bar -
r el sea l in a hydr a ulic cylinder or a dr ive-sha ft
seal in a pump or mot or .
(1) O-Ring (Figur e 2-40). An O-r ing is a
posit ive seal t ha t is used in st at ic and dynamic
applicat ions. It has r epla ced t he flat gasket on
hydr a ulic equipment . When being inst a lled,
an O-r ing is squeezed a t t he t op a nd bot t om in
it s gr oove and a ga inst t he mat ing par t . It is
capable of sealing ver y high pr essur e. Pr essur e
for ces t he seal a ga inst t he side of it s gr oove,
and t he r esult is a posit ive seal on t hr ee sides.
Dynamic a pplicat ions of an O-r ing ar e usua lly
limit ed t o r ecipr oca t ing par t s t hat have r ela -
t ively shor t mot ion.
To r emove an O-r ing seal, you need a spe-
cia l t ool ma de of soft ir on or aluminum or a
br a ss r od (Figur e 2-41, pa ge 2-32). Ma ke sur e
t ha t t he t ools edges a r e flat a nd t ha t you polish
any bur r s a nd r ough sur faces.
(2) Backup Ring (Figur e 2-42, page 2-32).
Usua lly, ma de of st iff nylon, you can use a
ba ckup r ing wit h an O-r ing so t hat it is not
BASIC FLANGE JOINTS
Gasket
Simple
METAL-TO-METAL JOINTS
Tongue-and groove
Tongue-and groove
Fi gure 2-39. Stat i c seal s
No
pressure
Pressure
Figure 2-40. O-ri ng place ment
FM 5-499
2-32 Hydraulic Systems
for ced int o t he spa ce bet ween t he mat ing
pa r t s. A combinat ion of high pr essur e a nd
clea r a nce bet ween t he pa r t s could call for a
ba ckup r ing.
(3) Lat he-Cut Sea l. This sea l is like an O-
r ing but is squar e in cr oss-sect ion r at her t han
r ound. A lat he-cut r ing is cut fr om ext r uded
t ubes, while an O-r ing must be individua lly
molded. In ma ny st a t ic applica t ions, r ound-
and squa r e-sect ion seals ar e int er changeable, if
ma de fr om t he sa me mat er ial.
(4) T-Ring Sea l (Figure 2-43). This seal is
r einfor ced wit h back-up r ings on ea ch side. A T-
r ing seal is used in r ecipr oca t ing dynamic a ppli-
ca t ions, par t icula r ly on cylinder pist ons and
ar ound pist on r ods.
(5) Lip Seal (Figur e 2-44). This a dynamic
seal used ma inly on r ot a t ing shaft s. A sea ling
lip pr ovides a posit ive seal a ga inst low pr es-
sur e. A lip is inst alled t owa r d t he pr essur e
sour ce. Pr essur e against a lip ba lloons it out t o
aid in sealing. Ver y high pr essur e, however ,
ca n get pa st t his kind of seal because it does not
have t he ba ckup suppor t t ha t a n O-r ing ha s.
Somet imes, double-lip seals a r e
used on t he shaft s of r ever sible pumps
or mot or s. Rever sing a unit can give
an alt er nat ing pr essur e and vacuum
condit ion in t he cha mber adja cent t o a
seal. A double-lip seal, t her efor e, pr e-
vent s oil fr om get t ing out or a ir a nd
dir t fr om get t ing in.
(6) Cup Sea l (Figur e 2-45). This is
a posit ive sea l t ha t is used on hydr a ulic
cylinder pist ons a nd seals much like a
lip seal. A cup seal is backed up so t ha t
it ca n ha ndle ver y high pr essur es.
(7) Pist on Ring (Figur e 2-46). A
pist on r ing is used t o seal pr essur e a t
t he end of a r ecipr ocat ing pist on. It
helps keep fr ict ion a t a minimum in a
hydr aulic cylinder a nd offer s less r esis-
t ance t o movement t ha n a cup seal. A
pist on r ing is used in ma ny complex
component s a nd syst ems t o seal fluid
pa ssages lea ding fr om hollow r ot a t ing
Surface must be smooth and
free from scratches.
Corners must not be dented
or bumped.
0.005 radius desired.
Flatten as shown and polish
off burrs and edges.
Fi gure 2-41. O-ri ng re moval tool
O ring
Pressure
Back-up ring
Fi gure 2-42. Bac kup ri ng
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Systems 2-33
shaft s. It is fine for high pr essur es but may not pr ovide a posit ive seal. A posit ive sea l is
mor e likely t o occur when pist on r ings a r e placed side by side. Oft en, a pist on r ing is
designed t o a llow some leaka ge for lubr icat ion.
(8) Fa ce Seal (Figur e 2-47, page 2-34). This sea l has t wo smoot h, flat element s t hat r un
t oget her t o seal a r ot at ing shaft . One element is met allic and t he ot her is nonmet allic. The
element s a r e at t a ched t o a sha ft and a body so t hat one fa ce is st a t ionar y a nd t he ot her t ur ns
against it . One element is oft en spr ing-loa ded t o t a ke up wear . A fa ce seal is used pr imar ily
when t her e is high speed, pr essur e, and t emper a t ur e.
c. Pack ing. Pa cking is a t ype of t wist ed or woven fiber or soft met a l st r a nds t ha t a r e
packed bet ween t he t wo par t s being sea led. A packing gla nd suppor t s a nd ba cks up t he
packing. Pa cking (Figur e 2-48) ca n be eit her st at ic or dynamic. It has been and is used as a
r ot at ing sha ft seal, a r ecipr ocat ing pist on-r od seal, and a gasket in many st at ic applicat ions.
In st at ic applicat ions, a sea l is r epla cing a pa cking. A compr ession packing is usually
pla ced in a coil or la yer ed in a bor e a nd compr essed by t ight ening a flanged member . A
molded pa cking is molded int o a pr ecise cr oss-sect ional for m, such a s a U or V. Sever al
Seal
Back-up ring
Fi gure 2-43. T-ri ng seal
Spring
lip
High
pressure
Seal housing
Fi gure 2-44. Li p s e al
Cylinder
Cup seals
Piston
Fi gure 2-45. Cup seal
Piston
Seal ring
Cylinder
barrel
O ring
Fi gure 2-46. Pi ston ri ng
FM 5-499
2-34 Hydraulic Systems
pa ckings can be used t oget her , wit h a backup
t hat is spr ing-loaded t o compensat e for wea r .
d. S eal Materials. The ea r liest sealing
mat er ials for hydr aulic component s wer e
mainly leat her , cor k, and impr egna t ed fiber s.
Cur r ent ly, most sea ling mat er ia ls in a hydr au-
lic syst em a r e ma de fr om synt het ic mat er ials
such a s nit r ile, silicone, a nd neopr ene.
(1) Leat her Seals. Lea t her is st ill a good
sea ling ma t er ia l and ha s not been complet ely
r eplaced by elast omer s. It is t ough, r esist s
a br a sion, and ha s t he abilit y t o hold lubr icat -
ing fluids in it s fiber s. Impr egna t ing leat her
wit h synt het ic r ubber impr oves t he lea t her 's
sea ling abilit y and r educes it s fr ict ion.
Leat her 's disa dva nt ages a r e t hat it t ends t o
squeal when it is dr y, and it ca nnot st and high
t emper at ur es.
(2) Nit r ile Seals. Nit r ile is a compar a-
t ively t ough ma t er ia l wit h excellent wear abil-
it y. It s composit ion var ies t o be compa t ible
wit h pet r oleum oils, a nd it can easily be
molded int o differ ent sea l shapes. Some
nit r ile sea ls ca n be used, wit hout difficult y, in
t emper a t ur es r anging fr om -40 degr ees Fahr -
enheit t o +230 F.
(3) Silicone Sea ls. Silicone is an ela s-
t omer t ha t ha s a much wider t emper at ur e
r ange t han some nit r ile seals ha ve. Silicone
cannot be used for r ecipr oca t ing seals because
it is not as t ough. It t ear s, elongat es, and
a br a des fa ir ly ea sily. Many lip-t ype sha ft
sea ls made fr om silicone a r e used in ext r eme
t emper a t ur e applicat ions. Silicone O-r ings a r e
used for st at ic a pplica t ions. Silicone has a t en-
dency t o swell since it absor bs a fair volume of
oil while r unning hot . This is an advant age, if
t he swelling is not object iona ble, because a sea l ca n r un dr y for a longer t ime at st ar t -up.
(4) Neopr ene. At ver y low t emper at ur es, neopr ene is compa t ible wit h pet r oleum oil.
Above 150 degr ees, it has a ha bit of cooking or vulca nizing, ma king it less useful.
(5) Nylon. Nylon is a plast ic (also known as fluor o-ela st omer ) t ha t combines fluor ine
wit h a synt het ic r ubber . It is used for backup r ings, ha s sealing mat er ia ls in specia l applica -
t ions, and has a ver y high hea t r esist ance.
Housing
Sealing face
Preloading
spring
Shaft
High pressure
Low pressure
Fi gure 2-47. Face seal
Compression
packings
Pressure
Figure 2-48. Compre ssi on packing
FM 5-499
Pumps 3-1
CHAPTER 3
Pumps
Hydraulic pumps convert mechanical energy from a prime mover (engine or electric
motor) int o hydraulic (pressure) energy. The pressure energy is used t hen t o operat e an actu-
ator. Pumps push on a hydraulic fluid and create flow.
3-1. Pump Clas s ifi c ati ons . All pumps cr eat e flow. They oper a t e on t he displacement
pr inciple. Fluid is t aken in and displa ced t o a not her point . Pumps t ha t dischar ge liquid in a
cont inuous flow a r e nonposit ive-displa cement t ype. Pumps t hat dischar ge volumes of liquid
separ at ed by per iods of no discha r ge a r e posit ive-displacement t ype.
a. Nonpositive-Displacement Pumps. Wit h t his pump, t he volume of liquid deliver ed for
each cycle depends on t he r esist ance offer ed t o flow. A pump pr oduces a for ce on t he liquid
t ha t is const ant for each par t icula r speed of t he pump. Resist a nce in a discha r ge line pr o-
duces a for ce in t he opposit e dir ect ion. When t hese for ces ar e equal, a liquid is in a st at e of
equilibr ium and does not flow.
If t he out let of a nonposit ive-displa cement pump is complet ely closed, t he discha r ge
pr essur e will r ise t o t he ma ximum for a pump oper a t ing a t a ma ximum speed. A pump will
chur n a liquid and pr oduce heat . Figur e 3-1 shows a nonposit ive-displa cement pump. A
wat er wheel picks up t he fluid and moves it .
b. Positive-Displacement Pumps. Wit h t his pump, a definit e volume of liquid is deliv-
er ed for each cycle of pump oper a t ion, r ega r dless of r esist ance, a s long as t he capa cit y of t he
power unit dr iving a pump is not exceeded. If a n out let is complet ely closed, eit her t he unit
dr iving a pump will st all or somet hing will br eak. Ther efor e, a posit ive-displacement -t ype
pump r equir es a pr essur e r egulat or or pr essur e-r elief valve in t he syst em. Figur e 3-2, pa ge
3-2, shows a r ecipr ocat ing-t ype, posit ive-displacement pump.
Figur e 3-3, page 3-2, shows
anot her posit ive-displacement
pump. This pump not only cr ea t es
flow, but it a lso ba cks it up. A
sealed case a r ound t he gear t r a ps
t he fluid a nd holds it while it
moves. As t he fluid flows out of
t he ot her side, it is sea led aga inst
ba ckup. This sea ling is t he posi-
t ive pa r t of displa cement . Wit h-
out it , t he fluid could never
over come t he r esist a nce of t he
ot her par t s in a syst em.
c. Characteristics. The t hr ee
cont r ast ing cha r a ct er ist ics in t he
Fi gure 3-1. Nonpos i t i ve-di splace ment pump
FM 5-499
3-2 Pumps
oper a t ion of posit ive- and nonposit ive-displa cement pumps a r e as follows:
Nonposit ive-displa cement pumps pr ovide a smoot h, cont inuous flow; posit ive-
displa cement pumps ha ve a pulse wit h ea ch st r oke or each t ime a pumping cha m-
ber opens t o an out let por t .
Pr ess ur e ca n r educe a nonposit ive pumps deliver y. High out let pr essur e ca n
st op a ny ou t put ; t he liquid simply r ecir cula t es inside t he pump. I n a posit ive-
displa cement pump, pr essur e affect s t he out put only t o t he ext ent t ha t it
incr eases int er nal lea ka ge.
Nonposit ive-displa cement pumps, wit h t he inlet s a nd out let s connect ed hydr auli-
cally, cannot cr eat e a vacuum sufficient for self-pr iming; t hey must be st ar t ed
wit h t he inlet line full of liquid and fr ee of air . Posit ive-displacement pumps oft en
ar e self-pr iming when st ar t ed pr oper ly.
3-2. Pe rformanc e . Pumps ar e usua lly r a t ed a ccor ding t o t heir volumet r ic out put and pr es-
sur e. Volumet r ic out put (deliver y r at e or ca pacit y) is t he a mount of liquid t hat a pump ca n
deliver a t it s out let por t per unit of t ime at a given dr ive speed, usua lly expr essed in GPM or
cubic inches per minut e. Because cha nges in pump dr ive affect volumet r ic out put , pumps
a r e somet imes r at ed accor ding t o displace-
ment , t hat is t he a mount of liquid t ha t
t hey ca n deliver per cycle or cubic inches
per r evolut ion.
Pr essur e is t he for ce per unit a r ea of a
liquid, usually expr essed in psi. (Most of
t he pr essur e in t he hydr aulic syst ems cov-
er ed in t his ma nual is cr eat ed by r esis-
t ance t o flow.) Resist ance is usually
ca used by a r est r ict ion or obst r uct ion in a
pat h or flow. The pr essur e developed in a
syst em ha s an effect on t he volumet r ic
out put of t he pump supplying flow t o a
syst em. As pr essur e incr eases, volumet r ic
out put decr ea ses. This dr op in out put is
caused by an incr ease in int er nal leaka ge
(slippa ge) fr om a pump's out let side t o it s
inlet side. Slippage is a mea sur e of a
pumps efficiency a nd usually is expr essed
in per cent . Some pumps ha ve gr eat er
int er nal slippage t ha n ot her s; some
pumps a r e r a t ed in t er ms of volumet r ic
out put at a given pr essur e.
3-3. Di splac eme nt . Displacement is t he
a mount of liquid t r a nsfer r ed fr om a
pumps inlet t o it s out let in one r evolut ion
or cycle. In a r ot a r y pump, displacement
is expr essed in cubic inches per r evolut ion
a nd in a r ecipr ocat ing pump in cubic
inches per cycle. If a pump has mor e t han
Fi gure 3-2. Rec i procat i ng-t ype , posi ti ve -
di spl aceme nt pump
Fi gure 3-3. Posi ti ve -di splace ment pump
FM 5-499
Pumps 3-3
one pumping cha mber , it s displa cement is equal t o t he displacement of one cha mber mult i-
plied by t he number of chamber s. Displa cement is eit her fixed or var ia ble.
a. Fixed-Displacement Pump. In t his pump, t he GPM out put can be cha nged only by
va r ying t he dr ive speed. The pump can be used in a n open-cent er syst ema pumps out put
has a fr ee-flow pat h ba ck t o a r eser voir in t he neut r al condit ion of a cir cuit .
b. Variable-Displacement Pump. In t his pump, pumping-cha mber sizes ca n be changed.
The GPM deliver y ca n be changed by moving t he displa cement cont r ol, cha nging t he dr ive
speed, or doing bot h. The pump can be used in a closed-cent er syst ema pump cont inues t o
oper at e against a load in t he neut r al condit ion.
3-4. Sli ppage . Slippage is oil leaking fr om a pr essur e out let t o a low-pr essur e ar ea or back
t o a n inlet . A dr ain passage allows lea king oil t o r et ur n t o a n inlet or a r eser voir . Some slip-
page is designed int o pumps for lubr ica t ion pur poses. Slippage will incr ea se wit h pr essur e
and as a pump begins t o wea r . Oil flow t hr ough a given or ifice size depends on t he pr essur e
dr ip. An int er na l lea kage pat h is t he same a s an or ifice. Ther efor e, if pr essur e incr ea ses,
mor e flow will occur t hr ough a leakage pa t h a nd less fr om a n out let por t . Any incr ease in
slippa ge is a loss of efficiency.
3-5. Desi gns . In most r ot ar y hydr a ulic pumps (Figur e 3-3), t he design is such t hat t he
pumping chamber s incr ease in size a t t he inlet , t her eby cr eat ing a va cuum. The chamber s
t hen decr ease in size at t he out let t o push fluid int o a syst em. The vacuum at t he inlet is
used t o cr eat e a pr essur e differ ence so t hat fluid will flow fr om a r eser voir t o a pump. How-
ever , in many syst ems, a n inlet is cha r ged or super char ged; t ha t is, a posit ive pr essur e
r at her t ha n a vacuum is cr eat ed by a pr essur ized r eser voir , a hea d of fluid above t he inlet , or
even a low-pr essur e-char ging pump. The essent ials of a ny hydr a ulic pump a r e
A low-pr essur e inlet por t , which car r ys fluid fr om t he r eser voir .
A high-pr essur e out let por t connect ed t o t he pr essur e line.
Pumping chamber (s) t o car r y a fluid fr om t he inlet t o t he out let por t .
A mecha nica l means for a ct ivat ing t he pumping cha mber (s).
Pumps may be classified accor ding t o t he specific design used t o cr eat e t he flow of a liq-
uid. Most hydr a ulic pumps ar e eit her cent r ifugal, r ot a r y, or r ecipr ocat ing.
a. Centrifugal Pump. This pump gener a lly is used wher e a la r ge volume of flow is
r equir ed at r ela t ively low pr essur es. It can be connect ed in ser ies by feeding a n out let of one
pump int o a n inlet of anot her . Wit h t his a r r a ngement , t he pumps can develop flow against
high pr essur es. A cent r ifuga l pump is a nonposit ive-displa cement pump, and t he t wo most
common t ypes a r e t he volut e a nd t he diffuser .
(1) Volut e Pump (Figur e 3-4, page 3-4). This pump has a cir cular pumping chamber
wit h a cent r al inlet por t (suct ion pipe) and an out let por t . A r ot at ing impeller is locat ed in a
pumping chamber . A chamber bet ween t he ca sing and t he cent er hub is t he volut e. Liquid
ent er s a pumping chamber t hr ough a cent r a l inlet (or eye) a nd is t r apped bet ween t he whir l-
ing impeller bla des. Cent r ifugal for ce t hr ows a liquid out wa r d at a high velocit y, a nd a con-
t our of a casing dir ect s a moving liquid t hr ough an out let por t .
(2) Diffuser Pump (Figur e 3-5). Similar t o a volut e t ype, a diffuser pump ha s a ser ies of
st at iona r y bla des (t he diffuser ) t hat cur ve in t he opposit e dir ect ion fr om whir ling impeller
FM 5-499
3-4 Pumps
blades. A diffuser r educes t he veloc-
it y of a liquid, decreases slippage, and
increases a pump's abilit y to develop
flow against resist ance.
b. Rotary Pump. In t his posit ive-
displacement -t ype pump, a r ot a r y
mot ion car r ies a liquid fr om a pumps
inlet t o it s out let . A r ot ar y pump is
usua lly cla ssified a ccor ding t o t he
t ype of element t ha t a ct ually t r a ns-
mit s a liquid, t ha t is, a gear -, vane-,
or pist on-t ype r ot ar y pump.
c. Reciprocating Pump. A r ecip-
r oca t ing pump depends on a r ecipr o-
ca t ing mot ion t o t r a nsmit a liquid
fr om a pumps inlet t o it s out let . Fig-
ur e 3-2, page 3-2, shows a simplified
r ecipr ocat ing pump. It consist s of a
cylinder t ha t houses a r ecipr oca t ing
pist on, Figur e 3-2, 1; an inlet valve,
Figur e 3-2, 2; and an out let va lve, Fig-
ur e 3-2, 3, which dir ect fluid t o a nd
fr om a cylinder . When a pist on moves
t o t he left , a par t ial vacuum t hat is
cr ea t ed dr aws a ba ll off it s sea t , allow-
ing a liquid t o be dr awn t hr ough an
inlet va lve int o a cylinder . When a
pist on moves t o t he r ight , a ball
r eseat s a nd closes a n inlet va lve.
However , t he for ce of a flow unsea t s a
ball, allowing a fluid t o be for ced out
of a cylinder t hr ough an out let va lve.
3-6. Gear Pumps . Gear pumps a r e
ext er na l, int er nal, or lobe t ypes.
a. Ext ernal. Figur e 3-6 shows
t he oper at ing pr inciple of a n ext er na l
gear pump. It consist s of a dr iving
gea r and a dr iven gear enclosed in a closely fit t ed housing. The gear s r ot at e in opposit e
dir ect ions and mesh at a point in t he housing bet ween t he inlet a nd out let por t s. Bot h set s
of t eet h pr oject out war d fr om t he cent er of t he gear s. As t he t eet h of t he t wo gea r s sepa r a t e,
a pa r t ia l va cuum for ms and dr aws liquid t hr ough an inlet por t int o cha mber A. Liquid in
cha mber A is t r apped bet ween t he t eet h of t he t wo gea r s and t he housing so t ha t it is car r ied
t hr ough t wo sepa r a t e pa t hs ar ound t o chamber B. As t he t eet h a ga in mesh, t hey pr oduce a
for ce t hat dr ives a liquid t hr ough a n out let por t .
Fi gure 3-4. Volut e pump
Fi gure 3-5. Di ffuse r pump
FM 5-499
Pumps 3-5
b. Internal. Figur e 3-7
shows a n int er nal gear
pump. The t eet h of one gea r
pr oject out war d, while t he
t eet h of t he ot her gear pr oject
inwar d t owar d t he cent er of
t he pump. One gea r wheel
st ands inside t he ot her . This
t ype of gea r ca n r ot a t e, or be
r ot at ed by, a suit ably con-
st r uct ed companion gear . An
ext er na l gea r is dir ect ly
at t ached t o t he dr ive shaft of
a pump and is pla ced off-cen-
t er in r ela t ion t o an int er na l
gea r . The t wo gea r s mesh on
one side of a pump chamber ,
bet ween an inlet a nd t he dis-
char ge. On t he opposit e side
of t he cha mber , a cr escent -
shaped for m st a nds in t he
spa ce bet ween t he t wo gear s t o pr ovide a close t oler a nce.
The r ot at ion of t he int er nal gear by a sha ft causes t he ext er na l gea r t o r ot a t e, since t he
t wo ar e in mesh. Ever yt hing in t he cha mber r ot at es except t he cr escent , ca using a liquid t o
be t r a pped in t he gea r spa ces a s t hey pass t he cr escent . Liquid is ca r r ied fr om a n inlet t o t he
dischar ge, wher e it is for ced out of a pump by t he gear s meshing. As liquid is car r ied a wa y
Fi gure 3-6. Ext ernal ge ar pump
Fi gure 3-7. Internal gear pump
FM 5-499
3-6 Pumps
fr om a n inlet side of a pump, t he pr essur e
is diminished, and liquid is for ced in fr om
t he supply sour ce. The size of t he cr escent
t ha t separ a t es t he int er na l and ext er nal
gear s det er mines t he volume deliver y of
t his pump. A small cr escent a llows mor e
volume of a liquid per r evolut ion t ha n a
lar ger cr escent .
c. Lobe. Figur e 3-8 shows a lobe
pump. It differ s fr om ot her gea r pumps
beca use it uses lobed element s inst ead of
gear s. The element dr ive also differ s in a
lobe pump. In a gea r pump, one gea r
dr ives t he ot her . In a lobe pump, bot h ele-
ment s ar e dr iven t hr ough suit able ext er na l
gear ing.
3-7. Vane Pumps . In a va ne-t ype pump,
a slot t ed r ot or splined t o a dr ive shaft
r ot at es bet ween closely fit t ed side plat es
t hat ar e inside of an ellipt ical- or cir cula r -shaped r ing. Polished, har dened va nes slide in
and out of t he r ot or slot s a nd follow t he r ing cont our by cent r ifuga l for ce. Pumping cha m-
ber s ar e for med bet ween succeeding va nes, car r ying oil fr om t he inlet t o t he out let . A pa r t ia l
va cuum is cr eat ed a t t he inlet a s t he space bet ween vanes incr eases. The oil is squeezed out
at t he out let as t he pumping chamber s size decr eases.
Beca use t he nor mal wear point s in a va ne pump a r e t he vane t ips a nd a r ings sur fa ce,
t he va nes a nd r ing ar e specially har dened a nd gr ound. A vane pump is t he only design t ha t
has a ut omat ic wea r compensat ion built in. As wea r occur s, t he vanes simply slide far t her
out of t he r ot or slot s and cont inue t o follow a r ings cont our . Thus efficiency r ema ins high
t hr oughout t he life of t he pump.
a. Characteristics. Displacement of a va ne-t ype pump depends on t he widt h of t he r ing
and r ot or a nd t he t hr ow of t he cam r ing. Int er cha ngea ble r ings a r e designed so a ba sic
pump conver t s t o sever a l displacement s. Ba la nced design vane pumps a ll ar e fixed displace-
ment . An unba la nced design ca n be built in eit her a fixed- or var iable-displacement pump.
Vane pumps have good efficiency and dur abilit y if oper a t ed in a clea n syst em using t he cor -
r ect oil. They cover t he low t o medium-high pr essur e, ca pa cit y, a nd speed r a nges. Package
size in r elat ion t o out put is sma ll. A vane pump is gener ally quiet , but will whine at high
speeds.
b. Unbalanced Vane Pumps. In t he unba la nced design, (Figur e 3-9), a cam r ings sha pe
is a t r ue cir cle t ha t is on a differ ent cent er line fr om a r ot or s. Pump displacement depends
on how far a r ot or and r ing ar e eccent r ic. The advant age of a t r ue-cir cle r ing is t hat cont r ol
ca n be a pplied t o va r y t he eccent r icit y a nd t hus va r y t he displa cement . A disadva nt age is
t hat an unbalanced pr essur e at t he out let is effect ive a ga inst a small a r ea of t he r ot or s edge,
imposing side loads on t he shaft . Thus t her e is a limit on a pumps size unless ver y lar ge
hear ings and heavy suppor t s ar e used.
c. Balanced Vane Pumps. In t he ba lanced design (Figur e 3-10), a pump has a st a t ion-
ar y, ellipt ical cam r ing a nd t wo set s of int er nal por t s. A pumping cha mber is for med
Fi gure 3-8. Lobe pump
FM 5-499
Pumps 3-7
bet ween any t wo va nes t wice
in each r evolut ion. The t wo
inlet s a nd out let s a r e 180
degr ees a pa r t . Back pr es-
sur es against t he edges of a
r ot or cancel each ot her .
Recent design impr ovement s
t ha t a llow high oper at ing
speeds a nd pr essur es ha ve
ma de t his pump t he most
univer sal in t he mobile-
equipment field.
d. Double Pumps. Va ne-
t ype double pumps (Figur e 3-
11, pa ge 3-8) consist of t wo
separ at e pumping devices.
Each is cont a ined in it s own r espec-
t ive housing, mount ed in t a ndem, and
dr iven by a common shaft . Each pump
also has it s own inlet and out let por t s, which may be combined by using manifolds or piping.
Design var iat ions a r e available in which bot h ca r t r idges a r e cont ained wit hin one body. An
addit iona l pump is somet imes a t t ached t o t he head end t o supply auxilia r y flow r equir e-
ment s.
Double pumps ma y be used t o pr ovide fluid flow for t wo separ a t e cir cuit s or combined
for flow r equir ement s for a single cir cuit . Combining pump deliver ies does not a lt er t he
ma ximum pr essur e r at ing of eit her ca r t r idge. Sepa r a t e cir cuit s r equir e separ at e pr essur e
cont r ols t o limit maximum pr essur e in ea ch cir cuit .
Figur e 3-12, pa ge 3-8, shows a n
inst alla t ion in which double pumps
ar e used t o pr ovide fluid flow for oper -
at ion of a cylinder in r a pid a dvance
and feed. In cir cuit B, t wo r elief
va lves a r e used t o cont r ol pumping
oper at ion. In cir cuit A, one r elief valve
and one unloading valve ar e used t o
cont r ol pumping oper a t ions. In bot h
cir cuit s, t he deliver ies of t he pump
car t r idges ar e combined aft er passing
t hr ough t he valves. This combined
flow is dir ect ed t o a four -way valve
and t o t he r est of t he cir cuit .
In cir cuit B, an upper r elief valve
is vent ed when a cylinder r od r eaches
and t r ips a pilot valve. A vent ed r elief
va lve dir ect s t he deliver y of a shaft -
end pump car t r idge fr eely ba ck t o a
t a nk. Anot her r elief valve cont r ols t he
ma ximum pr essur e of a cir cuit . An
Fi gure 3-10. Balance d vane pump
Fi gure 3-9. Unbalanc ed vane pump
FM 5-499
3-8 Pumps
Head
Packing
Body
Bearing
Flange
Head
Bushing
Ring
Rotor
Bushing
Shaft
Flange
Gasket
Bearing
Packing
Gaskets
Bushing Ring Rotor
Bushing
Fi gure 3-11. Vane -type double pump
A
CIRCUIT USING REMOTE-
CONTROLLED UNLOADING VALVE
B
CIRCUIT USING VENTING-
TYPE RELIEF VALVE
Fi gure 3-12. Flui d fl ow from vane -type double pumps
FM 5-499
Pumps 3-9
unloading valve and a r elief va lve in cir cuit A do t he same oper at ion. The out put of bot h
pump car t r idges combines t o supply fluid for a r a pid a dvance por t ion of a cycle. When t he
out put of one cir cuit r et ur ns t o t he t ank, aft er r eaching a cer t a in point in t he cycle, t he ot her
cir cuit complet es t he advance por t ion of a cycle. Bot h pump out put s are then combined for r apid
ret urn.
e. Two-S tage Pumps. Two-st age pumps consist of t wo separ at e pump assemblies con-
t ained in one housing. The pump assemblies ar e connect ed so t hat flow fr om t he out let of
one is dir ect ed int er nally t o t he inlet of t he ot her . Single inlet and out let por t s ar e used for
syst em connect ions. In const r uct ion, t he pumps consist of separ a t e pumping ca r t r idges
dr iven by a common dr ive sha ft cont ained in one housing. A dividing va lve is used t o equa l-
ize t he pr essur e loa d on ea ch st age a nd cor r ect for minor flow differ ences fr om eit her car -
t r idge.
In oper a t ion, developing
fluid flow for each ca r t r idge
is t he same a s for single
pumps. Figur e 3-13 shows
fluid flow in a va ne-t ype,
t wo-st a ge pump. Oil fr om a
r eser voir ent er s a pumps
inlet por t and passes t o t he
out let s of t he fir st -st age
pump ca r t r idge. (Passa ges in
a pumps body car r y t he dis-
char ge fr om t his st age t o an
inlet of t he second st a ge.)
Out let pa ssages in t he sec-
ond st a ge dir ect t he oil t o a n
out let por t of t he pump. Pa s-
sage U connect s bot h cham-
ber s on t he inlet side of a
second-st a ge pump and
assur es equal pr essur e in
bot h chamber s. (Pr essur es
ar e t hose t ha t a r e imposed on
a pump fr om ext er na l
sour ces.)
A dividing valve (see Figur e 3-13) consist s of sliding pist ons A and B. Pist on A is
exposed t o out let pr essur e t hr ough passa ge V. Pist on B is exposed t o t he pr essur e bet ween
st ages t hr ough pa ssage W. The pist ons r espond t o ma int ain a pr essur e loa d on a fir st -st a ge
pump equal t o half t he out let pr essur e a t a second-st a ge pump. If t he dischar ge fr om t he
fir st st a ge exceeds t he volume t ha t ca n be accept ed at t he second st a ge, a pr essur e r ise
occur s in pa ssa ge W. The unba la nced for ce act ing on pist on B causes t he pist ons t o move in
such a manner t hat excess oil flows past pist on B t hr ough pa ssage Y t o t he inlet cha mber of
a fir st -st age car t r idge. Fluid t hr ot t ling acr oss pist on B in t his manner maint ains pr essur e
in passage V.
If t he dischar ge fr om a fir st -st a ge pump is less t ha n t he volume r equir ed a t a second-
st age pump, a r educed pr essur e occur s a t pist on B. An unbalanced for ce act ing on pist on A
Fi gure 3-13. Vane -type , two-st age pump
FM 5-499
3-10 Pumps
ca uses t he pist ons t o move so t hat oil flows pa st pist on A int o passages X and W t o r eplenish
a second-st a ge pump and cor r ect t he unbala nced condit ion. Passages Z a nd Y pr ovide a
means for leaka ge ar ound t he pist ons t o r et ur n t o t he inlet cha mber of a fir st -st age pump.
Pist ons A and B alwa ys seek a posit ion t hat equally divides t he loa d bet ween t he t wo pump-
ing unit s.
3-8. Pi ston Pumps . Pist on pumps ar e eit her r a dial or a xial.
a . Radial. In a r adial piston pump (Figure 3-14), t he pist ons a r e a r r anged like wheel
spokes in a shor t cylindr ical block. A dr ive shaft , which is inside a cir cula r housing, r ot a t es
a cylinder block. The block
t ur ns on a st a t ionar y pint le
t ha t cont a ins t he inlet and
out let por t s. As a cylinder
block t ur ns, cent r ifugal for ce
slings t he pist ons, which fol-
low a cir cular housing. A
housings cent er line is offset
fr om a cylinder blocks cent er -
line. The amount of eccent r ic-
it y bet ween t he t wo
det er mines a pist on st r oke
a nd, t her efor e, a pumps dis-
pla cement . Cont r ols can be
a pplied t o change a housings
loca t ion and t her eby var y a
pumps deliver y fr om zer o t o
ma ximum.
Figur e 3-15 shows a nine-
pist on, r adial pist on pump.
When a pump has an uneven
number of pist ons, no mor e
t han one pist on is complet ely blocked by a pint le a t one t ime, which r educes flow pulsa t ions.
Wit h a n even number of pist ons spa ced a r ound a cylinder block, t wo pist ons could be blocked
by a pint le a t t he sa me t ime. If t his happens, t hr ee pist ons would dischar ge at one t ime and
four a t anot her t ime, and pulsat ions would occur in t he flow. A pint le, a cylinder block, t he
pist ons, a r ot or , a nd a dr ive sha ft const it ut e t he ma in wor king par t s of a pump.
(1) Pint le. A pint le is a r ound ba r t ha t ser ves a s a st at iona r y shaft ar ound which a cyl-
inder block t ur ns. A pint le sha ft (Figur e 3-16) has four holes bor ed fr om one end lengt hwise
t hr ough par t of it s lengt h. Two holes ser ve a s an int ake a nd t wo as a discha r ge. Two slot s
a r e cut in a side of t he shaft so t hat each slot connect s t wo of t he lengt hwise holes. The slot s
a r e in-line wit h t he pist ons when a cylinder block is assembled on a pint le. One of t hese
slot s pr ovides a pa t h for a liquid t o pa ss fr om t he pist ons t o t he discha r ge holes bor ed in a
pint le. Anot her slot connect s t he t wo inlet holes t o t he pist ons when t hey a r e dr awing in liq-
uid. The discha r ge holes a r e connect ed t hr ough a ppr opr ia t e fit t ings t o a discha r ge line so
t hat a liquid can be dir ect ed int o a syst em. The ot her pair of holes is connect ed t o an inlet
line.
Fi gure 3-14. Si mpli fi e d radi al pi ston pump
FM 5-499
Pumps 3-11
(2) Cylinder Block. A cylinder
block (Figur e 3-17, page 3-12) is a
block of met al wit h a hole bor ed
t hr ough it s cent er t o fit t he pint les
and cylinder s holes t ha t a r e bor ed
equal dist a nces apar t ar ound it s
out side edge. The cylinder s holes
connect wit h t he hole t hat r eceives
a pint le. Designs differ ; some cylin-
der s appear t o be almost solid,
while ot her s ha ve spokelike cylin-
der s r a dia t ing out fr om t he cent er .
A cylinder s and pint les holes a r e
accur at ely machined so t ha t liquid
loss a r ound a pist on is minimal.
(3) Pist ons. Pist ons ar e ma nu-
fact ur ed in differ ent designs (see
Figur e 3-18, page 3-12). Diagr am A
shows a pist on wit h sma ll wheels
t ha t r oll a r ound t he inside cur ve of
a r ot or . Dia gr am B shows a pist on
in which a conical edge of t he t op
bear s dir ect ly a ga inst a r ea ct ion
r ing of t he r ot or . In t his design, a
pist on goes ba ck a nd for t h in a cylinder while it r ot at es a bout it s a xis so t hat t he t op sur face
will wear unifor mly. Diagr a m C shows a pist on a t t a ched t o cur ved plat es. The cur ved
pla t es bear a ga inst and slide a r ound t he inside sur face of a r ot or . The pist ons sides a r e
accur at ely machined t o fit t he cylinder s so
t ha t t her e is a minimum loss of liquid
bet ween t he walls of a pist on a nd cylinder .
No pr ovision is ma de for using pist on r ings
t o help sea l aga inst pist on lea kage.
(4) Rot or s. Rot or designs may differ
fr om pump t o pump. A r ot or consist s of a
cir cula r r ing, ma chine finished on t he
inside, a ga inst which t he pist ons bea r . A
r ot or r ot a t es wit hin a slide block, which can
be shift ed fr om side t o side t o cont r ol t he
pist ons lengt h of st r oke. A slide block has
t wo pair s of machined sur faces on t he ext e-
r ior so t hat it ca n slide in t r acks in t he
pump case.
(5) Dr ive Sha ft . A dr ive sha ft is connect ed t o a cylinder block a nd is dr iven by a n out -
side for ce such as a n elect r ic mot or .
b. Axial Piston Pumps. In axia l pist on pumps, t he pist ons st r oke in t he same dir ect ion
on a cylinder blocks cent er line (axia lly). Axial pist on pumps ma y be a n in-line or a ngle
Case
Slide block
Rotor
Cylinder
Piston
Pintle
Figure 3-15. Ni ne-pi ston radi al pi ston pump
Port
Port
Fi gure 3-16. Pintle for a radi al pi st on
pump
FM 5-499
3-12 Pumps
design. In ca pacit y, pist on pumps r ange fr om
low t o ver y high. Pr essur es a r e as high as
5,000 psi, a nd dr ive speeds a r e medium t o
high. Efficiency is high, a nd pumps gener ally
have excellent dur a bilit y. Pet r oleum oil fluids
ar e usually r equir ed. Pulsat ions in deliver y
ar e small a nd of medium fr equency. The
pumps ar e quiet in oper at ion but may have a
gr owl or whine, depending on condit ion.
Except for in-line pumps, which ar e compa ct
in size, pist on pumps a r e heavy and bulky.
(1) In-Line Pump. In an in-line pist on
pump (Figur e 3-19, dia gr a m A), a dr ive shaft
and cylinder block ar e on t he sa me cent er line.
Recipr ocat ion of t he pist ons is caused by a
swash plat e t ha t t he pist ons r un a ga inst as a
cylinder block r ot at es. A dr ive sha ft t ur ns a
cylinder block, which car r ies t he pist ons
ar ound a shaft . The pist on shoes slide a ga inst
a swash plat e and a r e held against it by a
shoe pla t e. A swash pla t es a ngle causes t he
cylinder s t o r ecipr oca t e in t heir bor es. At t he
point wher e a pist on begins t o r et r act , an
opening in t he end of a bor e slides over an
inlet slot in a valve plat e, a nd oil is dr a wn int o
a bor e t hr ough somewhat less t han half a r ev-
olut ion. Ther e is a solid a r ea in a valve plat e
as a pist on becomes fully r et r a ct ed. As a pis-
t on begins t o ext end, an opening in a cylinder
ba r r el moves over an out let slot , a nd oil is
for ced out a pr essur e por t .
(a) Displa cement . Pump displa cement
depends on t he bor e a nd st r oke of a pist on and
t he number of pist ons. A swash plat es angle
(Figur e 3-19, dia gr am B) det er mines t he
st r oke, which can var y by changing t he a ngle.
In a fixed a ngles unit , a swash plat e is st at iona r y in t he housing. In a va r ia ble unit s, it is
mount ed on a yoke, which can t ur n on pint les. Differ ent cont r ols can be at t ached t o t he pin-
t les t o va r y pump deliver y fr om zer o t o t he ma ximum. Wit h cer t a in cont r ols, t he dir ect ion of
flow ca n be r ever sed by swinging a yoke past cent er . In t he cent er posit ion, a swa sh plat e is
per pendicular t o t he cylinder s, a nd t her e is no pist on r ecipr oca t ion; no oil is pumped.
(b) Component s. The major component s of a t ypical, fixed-displa cement in-line pump
ar e t he housing, a bear ing-suppor t ed dr ive shaft , a r ot at ing gr oup, a shaft seal, a nd a va lve
pla t e. A va lve plat e cont ains an inlet and a n out let por t a nd funct ions as t he ba ck cover . A
r ot at ing gr oup consist s of a cylinder block t hat is splined t o a dr ive shaft , a splined spher ica l
wa sher , a spr ing, nine pist ons wit h shoes, a swa sh pla t e, a nd a shoe plat e. When a gr oup is
assembled, a spr ing for ces a cylinder block a ga inst a va lve pla t e a nd a spher ica l wa sher
Fi gure 3-17. Cyli nder block for a radi al
pi ston pump
Fi gure 3-18. Pi stons for a radi al pi st on
pump
FM 5-499
Pumps 3-13
against a shoe plat e. This a ct ion holds t h e pist on shoes a ga inst a swa sh pla t e, ensur ing
t h a t t he pist ons will r ecipr oca t e as t he cylinder t ur ns. A swa sh pla t e is st a t ionar y in a fixed-
displa cement design.
(c) Oper at ion. A va r ia ble-displa cement in-line pump oper at es t he sa me as a fixed angle
except t hat a swash plat e is mount ed on a pivot ed yoke. A yoke can be swung t o change a
pla t e a ngle a nd t hus change a pumps displacement . A yoke ca n be posit ioned manua lly
wit h a scr ew or lever or by a compensa t or cont r ol, which posit ions a yoke aut omat ically t o
ma int ain const ant out put pr essur e under var iable flow r equir ement s. A compensat or con-
t r ol consist s of a va lve t hat is balanced bet ween a spr ing a nd syst em pr essur e and a spr ing-
loaded, yoke-act uat ing pist on t hat is cont r olled by a va lve. A pumps compensa t or cont r ol
t hus r educes it s out put only t o t he volume r equir ed t o ma int a in a pr eset pr essur e. Ma xi-
mum deliver y is a llowed only when pr essur e is less t han a compensat or s set t ing.
(2) Wobble-Pla t e In-Line Pump. This is a va r ia t ion of a n in-line pist on pump. In t his
design, a cylinder ba r r el does not t ur n; a plat e wobbles as it t ur ns, a nd t he wobbling pushes
t he pist ons in and out of t he pumping chamber s in a st at iona r y cylinder bar r el. In a wobble-
pla t e pump, separ at e inlet and out let check va lves a r e r equir ed for each pist on, since t he pis-
t ons do not move past a por t .
A
B
Fi gure 3-19. In-li ne pi ston pump
FM 5-499
3-14 Pumps
(3) Bent -Axis Axial Pist on Pump. In an angle- or a bent -axis-t ype pist on pump (Figur e
3-20), t he pist on r ods a r e at t ached by ba ll joint s t o a dr ive sha ft s fla nge. A univer sal link
keys a cylinder block t o a shaft so t ha t t hey r ot a t e t oget her but at an offset a ngle. A cylinder
ba r r el t ur ns a ga inst a slot t ed valve plat e t o which t he por t s connect . Pumping act ion is t he
same as an in-line pump. The a ngle of offset det er mines a pumps displacement , just a s t he
swash plat es a ngle det er mines a n in-line pump's displa cement . In fixed-deliver y pumps,
t he a ngle is const ant . In var iable models, a yoke mount ed on pint les swings a cylinder block
t o var y displa cement . Flow dir ect ion ca n be r ever sed wit h a ppr opr ia t e cont r ols.
3-9. Pump Ope rat i on. The following par agr aphs a ddr ess some of t he pr oblems t ha t could
occur when a pump is oper a t ing:
a. Overloading. One r isk of over loading is t he da nger of excess t or que on a dr ive shaft .
Tor que is cir cular for ce on a n object . An incr ea se in pr essur e/pump displacement will
incr ease t he t or que on a sha ft if pump displacement /pr essur e r emains const ant . Oft en in a
given package size, a higher GPM pump will ha ve a lower pr essur e r a t ing t han a lower GPM
pump. Somet imes a field conver sion t o get mor e speed out of an act ua t or will ca use a pump
t o be over loa ded. You may need a lar ger pump.
b. Excess S peed. Running a pump at t oo high a speed causes loss of lubr ica t ion, which
ca n ca use ea r ly failur e. If a needed deliver y r equir es a higher dr ive speed t han a pump's r a t -
ing, use a higher displacement pump. Excess speed also r uns a r isk of dama ge fr om cavit a -
t ion.
c. Cavitation. Ca vit at ion occur s wher e a va ilable fluid does not fill a n exist ing space. It
oft en occur s in a pumps inlet when condit ions a r e not r ight t o supply enough oil t o keep a n
inlet flooded. Cavit a t ion ca uses t he met al in a n inlet t o er ode a nd t he hydr aulic oil t o det er i-
or at e quicker . Cavit at ion ca n occur if t her e is t oo much r esist a nce in an inlet s line, if a r es-
Figure 3-20. Be nt-axi s axial pi st on pump
FM 5-499
Pumps 3-15
er voir s oil level is t oo far below t he inlet , or if an oils viscosit y is t oo high. It ca n a lso occur
if t her e is a va cuum or even a slight posit ive pr essur e a t t he inlet . A badly cavit at ing pump
has oil bubbles exploding in t he void. The only way t o be sur e a pump is not cavit a t ing is t o
check t he inlet wit h a vacuum gauge.
To pr event cavit at ion, keep t he inlet clean a nd fr ee of obst r uct ions by using t he cor r ect
lengt h of an inlet s line wit h minimum bends. Anot her met hod is t o cha r ge a n inlet. The eas-
iest way t o do t his is t o flood it by locat ing t he reser voir above the pumps inlet . If t his is not
possible a nd you cannot cr ea t e good inlet condit ions, use a pr essur ized r eser voir . You ca n
also use a n auxilia r y pump t o maint a in a supply of oil t o an inlet a t low pr essur e. You could
use a cent r ifuga l pump, but it is mor e common t o use a posit ive-displa cement gea r pump
wit h a pr essur e-r elief va lve t hat is set t o ma int ain t he desir ed char ging pr essur e.
d. Operating Problems. Pr essur e loss, slow oper at ion, no deliver y, a nd noise ar e com-
mon oper a t ing pr oblems in a pump.
(1) Pr essur e Loss. Pr essur e loss mea ns t hat t her e is a high lea kage pa t h in a syst em. A
ba dly wor n pump could cause pr essur e loss. A pump will lose it s efficiency gr a dua lly. The
act ua t or speed slows down a s a pump wear s. However , pr essur e loss is mor e oft en caused by
leaks somewher e else in a syst em (r elief valve, cylinder s, mot or s).
(2) Slow Oper a t ion. This can be ca used by a wor n pump or by a par t ial oil lea k in a sys-
t em. Pr essur e will not dr op, however , if a load moves at all. Ther efor e, hp is st ill being used
and is being conver t ed int o heat at a lea kage point . To find t his point , feel t he component s
for unusual hea t .
(3) No Deliver y. If oil is not being pumped, a pump
Could be assembled incor r ect ly.
Could be dr iven in t he wr ong dir ect ion.
Has not been pr imed. The r easons for no pr ime a r e usually impr oper st a r t -up,
inlet r est r ict ions, or low oil level in a r eser voir .
Has a br oken dr ive sha ft .
(4) Noise. If you hear any unusual noise, shut down a pump immediat ely. Ca vit at ion
noise is ca used by a r est r ict ion in a n inlet line, a dir t y inlet filt er , or t oo high a dr ive speed.
Air in a syst em also causes noise. Air will sever ely da mage a pump because it will not ha ve
enough lubr icat ion. This can occur fr om low oil in a r eser voir , a loose connect ion in an inlet ,
a lea king shaft seal, or no oil in a pump befor e st ar t ing. Also, noise can be ca used by wor n
or da ma ged par t s, which will spr ea d har mful pa r t icles t hr ough a syst em, causing mor e da m-
age if an oper a t ion cont inues.
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Actuators 4-1
CHAPTER 4
Hydrauli c Actuators
A hydraulic actuat or receives pressure energy and converts it to mechanical force and
motion. An actuator can be linear or rot ary. A linear actuator gives force and mot ion outputs
in a straight line. It is more commonly called a cylinder but is also referred to as a ram,
reciprocating motor, or linear motor. A rotary act uator produces torque and rotating motion.
It is more commonly called a hydraulic motor or motor.
4-1. Cyli nders . A cylinder is a hydr a ulic a ct uat or t hat is const r uct ed of a pist on or plunger
t ha t oper at es in a cylindr ica l housing by t he act ion of liquid under pr essur e. Figur e 4-1
shows t he basic pa r t s of a cylinder . A cylinder housing is a t ube in which a plunger (pist on)
oper at es. In a r a m-t ype cylinder , a r a m a ct uat es a loa d dir ect ly. In a pist on cylinder , a pis-
t on r od is connect ed t o a pist on t o act uat e a load. An end of a cylinder fr om which a r od or
plunger pr ot r udes is a r od end. The opposit e end is a hea d end. The hydr a ulic connect ions
ar e a hea d-end por t and a r od-end por t (fluid supply).
a. S ingle-Acting Cylinder. This cylinder (Figur e 4-1) only has a hea d-end por t and is
oper at ed hydr a ulically in one dir ect ion. When oil is pumped int o a por t , it pushes on a
plunger , t hus ext ending it . To r et ur n or r et r a ct a cylinder , oil must be r eleased t o a r eser -
voir . A plunger r et ur ns eit her beca use of t he weight of a load or fr om some mecha nical for ce
such as a spr ing. In mobile equipment , flow t o and fr om a single-act ing cylinder is cont r olled
by a r ever sing dir ect ional valve of a single-act ing t ype.
b. Double-Acting Cylinder. This cylin-
der (Figur e 4-2, pa ge 4-2) must have por t s
at t he hea d a nd r od ends. Pumping oil int o
t he head end moves a pist on t o ext end a
r od while any oil in t he r od end is pushed
out and r et ur ned t o a r eser voir . To r et r act
a r od, flow is r ever sed. Oil fr om a pump
goes int o a r od end, and a head-end por t is
connect ed t o a llow r et ur n flow. The flow
dir ect ion t o a nd fr om a double-act ing cylin-
der can be cont r olled by a double-act ing
dir ect ional va lve or by act ua t ing a cont r ol
of a r ever sible pump.
c. Different ial Cylinder. In a differ en-
t ial cylinder , t he ar ea s wher e pr essur e is
applied on a pist on a r e not equal. On a
hea d end, a full pist on a r ea is available for
applying pr essur e. At a r od end, only an
annula r ar ea is a va ila ble for applying
pr essur e. A r ods a r ea is not a fa ct or , and
Fluid
supply
Rod end
Ram
Gland nut
Cylinder
housing
Head end
Packed
gland
Fi gure 4-1. Si ngl e-act i ng c yli nder
FM 5-499
4-2 Hydraulic Actuators
wha t space it does t ake up r educes
t he volume of oil it will hold. Two
gener a l r ules a bout a differ ent ia l
cylinder ar e t hat
Wit h a n equal GPM
deliver y t o eit her end, a
cylinder will move
fast er when r et r act ing
beca use of a r educed vol-
ume ca pacit y.
Wit h equal pr essur e a t
eit her end, a cylinder
can exer t mor e for ce
when ext ending because
of t he gr eat er pist on
ar ea . In fa ct , if equa l
pr essur e is applied t o
bot h por t s at t he sa me
t ime, a cylinder will
ext end beca use of a
higher r esult ing for ce
on a head end.
d. Nondifferential Cylinder.
This cylinder (Figur e 4-3) ha s a pis-
t on r od ext ending fr om ea ch end. It
has equa l t hr ust and speed eit her
way, pr ovided t hat pressure and flow
ar e unchanged. A nondiffer ent ial cylinder is r a r ely used on mobile equipment .
e. Ram-Type Cylinder. A r a m-t ype cylinder is a cylinder in which a cr oss-sect iona l a r ea
of a pist on r od is mor e t han one-ha lf a cr oss-sect ional a r ea of a pist on hea d. In ma ny cylin-
der s of t his t ype, t he r od a nd pist on heads ha ve equal ar ea s. A r am-t ype a ct uat ing cylinder
is used mainly for push
funct ions r at her t han
pull.
Figur e 4-1, pa ge 4-1,
shows a single-a ct ing,
r a m-t ype cylinder . A sin-
gle-act ing r am a pplies
for ce in one dir ect ion.
This cylinder is oft en
used in a hydr a ulic ja ck.
In a double-a ct ing, r am-
t ype cylinder , bot h
st r okes of a r a m a r e pr o-
duced by pr essur ized
fluid. Figur e 4-2 shows
t his cylinder .
Fi gure 4-2. Double-ac ti ng cyli nder
Fi gure 4-3. Nondi ffe re nt i al c yli nde r
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Actuators 4-3
Figur e 4-4 shows a t elescop-
ing, r a m-t ype, act ua t ing cylinder,
which can be a single- or double-
a ct ing t ype. In t his cylinder , a
ser ies of r ams ar e nest ed in a t ele-
scoping assembly. Except for t he
sma llest r am, ea ch r am is hollow
a nd ser ves as a cylinder housing
for t he next smaller r a m. A r am
a ssembly is cont a ined in a ma in
cylinder housing, which also pr o-
vides t he fluid por t s. Alt hough an
a ssembly r equir es a sma ll space
wit h all of t he r ams r et r act ed, a
t elescoping act ion of a n a ssembly
pr ovides a r elat ively long st r oke
when t he r a ms a r e ext ended.
f. Piston-Type Cylinder. In
t his cylinder , a cr oss-sect iona l
a r ea of a pist on head is r efer r ed t o
a s a pist on-t ype cylinder . A pis-
t on-t ype cylinder is used mainly
when t he push a nd pull funct ions
a r e needed.
A single-act ing, pist on-t ype cylinder uses fluid pr essur e t o a pply for ce in one dir ect ion.
In some designs, t he for ce of gr a vit y moves a pist on in t he opposit e dir ect ion. However , most
cylinder s of t his t ype apply for ce in bot h dir ect ions. Fluid pr essur e pr ovides for ce in one
dir ect ion and spr ing t ension pr ovides for ce in t he opposit e dir ect ion.
Figur e 4-5 shows a single-
a ct ing, spr ing-loaded, pist on-
t ype cylinder . In t his cylinder , a
spr ing is locat ed on t he r od side
of a pist on. In some spr ing-
loaded cylinder s, a spr ing is
loca t ed on a blank side, a nd a
fluid por t is on a r od end of a cyl-
inder .
Most pist on-t ype cylinder s
a r e double-act ing, which means
t ha t fluid under pr essur e ca n be
a pplied t o eit her side of a pist on
t o pr ovide movement and apply
force in a cor responding dir ec-
t ion. Figur e 4-6 shows a double-
a ct ing pist on-t ype cylinder .
Fi gure 4-4. Te le sc opi ng, ram-t ype , act uati ng
c yli nder
Fluid port
Piston
Return spring
Piston rod
Air vent
Seals
Fi gure 4-5. Si ngle -act ing, s pri ng-loade d, pi s t on-
t ype cyli nder
FM 5-499
4-4 Hydraulic Actuators
This cylinder cont ains one pist on a nd pist on-r od assembly a nd oper at es fr om fluid flow in
eit her dir ect ion. The t wo fluid por t s, one near ea ch end of a cylinder , a lt er na t e as a n inlet
and a n out let , depending on t he dir ect iona l-cont r ol va lve flow dir ect ion. This is an unba l-
anced cylinder , which means t hat t her e is a differ ence in t he effect ive wor king a r ea on t he
t wo sides of a pist on. A cylinder is nor mally inst a lled so t ha t t he hea d end of a pist on car r ies
t he gr eat er loa d; t ha t is, a cylinder car r ies t he gr ea t er load dur ing a pist on-r od ext ension
st r oke.
Figur e 4-6 shows a bal-
a nced, double-act ing, pist on-
t ype cylinder . The effect ive
wor king a r ea on bot h sides of
a pist on is t he same, a nd it
exer t s t he sa me for ce in bot h
dir ect ions.
g. Cushioned Cylinder.
To slow an act ion a nd pr event
shock at t he end of a pist on
st r oke, some act ua t ing cylin-
der s ar e const r uct ed wit h a
cushioning device at eit her or bot h ends of a cylinder . This cushion is usually a met er ing
device built int o a cylinder t o r est r ict t he flow a t a n out let por t , t her eby slowing down t he
mot ion of a pist on. Figur e 4-7 shows a cushioned act uat ing cylinder .
h. Lockout Cylinders. A
lockout cylinder is used t o
lock a suspension mechanism
of a t r acked vehicle when a
vehicle funct ions as a st a ble
pla t for m. A cylinder also
ser ves as a shock a bsor ber
when a vehicle is moving.
Each lockout cylinder is con-
nect ed t o a r oa d ar m by a
cont r ol lever . When each
r oad wheel moves up, a con-
t r ol lever for ces t he r espec-
t ive cylinder t o compr ess.
Hydr a ulic fluid is for ced
ar ound a pist on hea d t hr ough r est r ict or por t s causing a cylinder t o act as a shock a bsor ber .
When hydr aulic pressure is applied t o an inlet por t on each cylinder s connect ing eye, an inner
cont r ol-valve pist on is for ced against a spr ing in each cylinder . This a ct ion closes t he r est r ic-
t or por t s, blocks t he main pist ons mot ion in ea ch cylinder , and locks t he suspension syst em.
4-2. Construc ti on and Appli cat i on. A cylinder is const r uct ed of a ba r r el or t ube, a pist on
and rod (or ram), t wo end caps, and suit able oil seals. A barr el is usually seamless steel t ubing,
or ca st , and t he int er ior is finished ver y t r ue and smoot hly. A st eel pist on r od is highly pol-
ished a nd usually ha r d chr ome-pla t ed t o r esist pit t ing a nd scor ing. It is suppor t ed in t he
end cap by a bushing or polished sur fa ce.
Figure 4-6. Double-ac ti ng, pi ston-type c yl i nde r
Fi gure 4-7. Cushi one d, act uat i ng c yl i nde r
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Actuators 4-5
The cylinder 's por t s a r e built int o t he end caps, which can be scr ewed on t o t he t ubes,
welded, or a t t a ched by t ie bolt s or bolt ed fla nges. If t he cylinder bar r el is cast , t he hea d-end
cap ma y be int egr al wit h it . Mount ing pr ovisions oft en a r e made in t he end caps, including
fla nges for st a t ionar y mount ing or clevises for swinging mount s.
Sea ls a nd wiper s ar e inst alled in t he r od's end ca p t o keep t he r od clean and t o pr event
ext er nal leakage ar ound t he r od. Ot her point s wher e seals ar e used ar e at t he end cap and
joint s a nd bet ween t he pist on and ba r r el. Depending on how t he r od is a t t a ched t o t he pis-
t on, a sea l ma y be needed. Int er na l leakage should not occur pa st a pist on. It wa st es ener gy
and ca n st op a load by a hydr ost a t ic lock (oil t r a pped behind a pist on).
Figur e 4-8, page 4-6, shows for ce-and-mot ion a pplica t ions of cylinder s. Beca use fluid
power syst ems have many r equir ement s, act uat ing cylinder s ar e ava ila ble in differ ent
shapes a nd sizes. A cylinder -t ype a ct uat or is ver sa t ile and ma y be t he most t r ouble-fr ee
component of fluid-power ed syst ems. A cylinder and a mecha nical member of a unit t o be
act ua t ed must be aligned cor r ect ly. Any misalignment will ca use excessive wear of a pist on,
a pist on r od, and t he seals. Also, a pist on r od and a n a ct uat ing unit must st a y pr oper ly
adjust ed. Clean t he exposed ends of t he pist on r ods t o ensur e t hat for eign mat t er does not
get int o t he cylinder s.
4-3. Mai nt enance . Hydr aulic cylinder s ar e compa ct and r ela t ively simple. The key point s
t o wat ch ar e t he seals and pivot s. The following list s ser vice t ips in ma int aining cylinder s:
a. External Leakage. If a cylinder s end ca ps ar e leaking, t ight en t hem. If t he lea ks st ill
do not st op, r epla ce t he gasket . If a cylinder leaks ar ound a pist on r od, r eplace t he pa cking.
Make sur e t hat a sea l lip faces t owar d t he pr essur e oil. If a seal cont inues t o leak, check
par agr aphs 4-3e t hr ough i.
b. Internal Leakage. Lea kage pa st t he pist on seals inside a cylinder ca n ca use sluggish
movement or set t ling under load. Pist on leakage can be ca used by wor n pist on sea ls or r ings
or scor ed cylinder walls. The lat t er may be caused by dir t and gr it in t he oil.
NOTE: Whe n repai ri ng a c yli nder, replac e all the seals and packi ngs
be fore re ass e mbly.
c. Creeping Cylinder. If a cylinder cr eeps when st opped in midst r oke, check for int er na l
leakage (par a gr aph 4-3b). Anot her ca use could be a wor n cont r ol valve.
d. S luggish Operation. Air in a cylinder is t he most common cause of sluggish act ion.
Int er na l lea kage in a cylinder is anot her ca use. If an act ion is sluggish when st ar t ing up a
syst em, but speeds up when a syst em is wa r m, check for oil of t oo high a viscosit y (see t he
ma chine's oper at ing ma nual). If a cylinder is st ill sluggish aft er t hese checks, t est t he whole
cir cuit for wor n component s.
e. Loose Mount ing. Pivot point s and mount s ma y be loose. The bolt s or pins ma y need
t o be t ight ened, or t hey may be wor n out . Too much slop or float in a cylinder s mount ings
dama ges t he pist on-r od sea ls. Per iodically check all t he cylinder s for loose mount ings.
f. Misalignment . Pist on r ods must wor k in-line at a ll t imes. If t hey ar e side-loa ded, t he
pist on r ods will be galled and t he packings will be damaged, causing lea ks. Event ually, t he
pist on r ods may be bent or t he welds br oken.
FM 5-499
4-6 Hydraulic Actuators
Fi gure 4-8. Appli cat i ons of cyli nde rs
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Actuators 4-7
g. Lack of Lubrication. If a pist on r od ha s no lubr ica t ion, a r od packing could seize,
which would r esult in an er r at ic st r oke, especia lly on single-act ing cylinder s.
h. Abrasives on a Pist on Rod. When a pist on r od ext ends, it can pick up dir t a nd ot her
ma t er ia l. When it r et r act s, it car r ies t he gr it int o a cylinder , da ma ging a r od sea l. For t his
r eason, r od wiper s a r e oft en used a t t he r od end of a cylinder t o clean t he r od as it r et r act s.
Rubber boot s a r e also used over t he end of a cylinder in some ca ses. Pist on r ods r ust ing is
anot her pr oblem. When st or ing cylinder s, alwa ys r et r act t he pist on r ods t o pr ot ect t hem. If
you ca nnot r et r a ct t hem, coat t hem wit h gr ea se.
i. Burrs on a Piston Rod. Exposed pist on r ods ca n be damaged by impact wit h har d
object s. If a smoot h sur face of a r od is mar r ed, a r od seal may be da ma ged. Clea n t he bur r s
on a r od immediat ely, using cr ocus clot h. Some r ods a r e chr ome-plat ed t o r esist wea r .
Repla ce t he sea ls aft er r est or ing a r od sur face.
j. Air Vents. Single-a ct ing cylinder s (except r a m t ypes) must have an air vent in t he dr y
side of a cylinder . To pr event dir t fr om get t ing in, use differ ent filt er devices. Most ar e self-
clea ning, but inspect t hem per iodically t o ensur e t ha t t hey oper at e pr oper ly.
4-4. Hydrauli c Mot ors. Hydr aulic mot or s conver t hydr a ulic ener gy int o mechanica l
ener gy. In indust r ial hydr aulic cir cuit s, pumps a nd mot or s a r e nor ma lly combined wit h a
pr oper valving a nd piping t o for m a hydr aulic-power ed t r ansmission. A pump, which is
mechanically linked t o a pr ime mover , dr aws fluid fr om a r eser voir and for ces it t o a mot or .
A mot or , which is mechanically linked t o t he wor kloa d, is act uat ed by t his flow so t hat
mot ion or t or que, or bot h, ar e conveyed t o t he wor k. Figur e 4-9 shows t he basic oper at ions of
a hydr aulic mot or .
Fi gure 4-9. Basi c operat i ons of a hydrauli c motor
FM 5-499
4-8 Hydraulic Actuators
The pr incipal r at ings of a mot or a r e t or que, pr essur e, a nd displa cement . Tor que a nd
pr essur e r at ings indicat e how much load a mot or can handle. Displacement indicat es how
much flow is r equir ed for a specified dr ive speed a nd is expr essed in cubic inches per r evolu-
t ions, t he sa me as pump displacement . Displacement is t he a mount of oil t hat must be
pumped int o a mot or t o t ur n it one r evolut ion. Most mot or s ar e fixed-displa cement ; how-
ever , var ia ble-displa cement pis-
t on mot or s a r e in use, mainly in
hydr ost a t ic dr ives. The main
t ypes of mot or s a r e gear , vane,
a nd pist on. They ca n be unidi-
r ect ional or r ever sible. (Most
mot or s designed for mobile
equipment a r e r ever sible.)
a . Gear-Type Motors. Fig-
ur e 4-10 shows a gear -t ype
mot or . Bot h gear s ar e dr iven
gear s, but only one is connect ed
t o t he out put sha ft . Oper at ion is
essent ially t he r ever se of t hat of
a gear pump. Flow fr om t he
pump ent er s cha mber A and
flows in eit her dir ect ion ar ound
t he inside sur fa ce of t he ca sing,
for cing t he gear s t o r ot at e as
indicat ed. This r ot ar y mot ion is
t hen availa ble for wor k at t he
out put shaft .
b. Vane-Type Motors. Fig-
ur e 4-11 shows a vane-t ype
mot or . Flow fr om t he pump
ent er s t he inlet , for ces t he r ot or
a nd va nes t o r ot a t e, and pa sses
out t hr ough t he out let . Mot or
r ot a t ion ca uses t he out put sha ft
t o r ot at e. Since no cent r ifuga l
for ce exist s unt il t he mot or
begins t o r ot a t e, somet hing,
usually spr ings, must be used t o
init ia lly hold t he va nes against
t he ca sing cont our . However ,
spr ings usua lly ar e not neces-
sar y in va ne-t ype pumps
beca use a dr ive shaft init ia lly
supplies cent r ifuga l for ce t o
ensur e va ne-t o-casing cont a ct .
Fi gure 4-10. Ge ar-type mot or
Fi gure 4-11. Vane-t ype motor
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Actuators 4-9
Vane mot or s a r e ba lanced
hydr aulica lly t o pr event a r ot or
fr om side-loading a shaft . A
shaft is suppor t ed by t wo ba ll
bear ings. Tor que is developed
by a pr essur e differ ence as oil
fr om a pump is for ced t hr ough a
mot or . Figur e 4-12 shows pr es-
sur e differ ent ia l on a single
va ne a s it passes t he inlet por t .
On t he t r a iling side open t o t he
inlet por t , t he vane is subject t o
full syst em pr essur e. The
chamber leading t he va ne is
subject t o t he much lower out let
pr essur e. The differ ence in
pr essur e exer t s t he for ce on t he
va ne t hat is, in effect , t angen-
t ial t o t he r ot or . This pr essur e
differ ence is effect ive a cr oss
va nes 3 and 9 a s shown in Fig-
ur e 4-13. The ot her vanes ar e
subject t o essent ia lly equal for ce
on bot h sides. Ea ch will develop
t or que as t he r ot or t ur ns. Fig-
ur e 4-13 shows t he flow condi-
t ion for count er clockwise
r ot at ion as viewed fr om t he
cover end. The body por t is t he
inlet , and t he cover por t is t he
out let . Rever se t he flow, a nd
t he r ot at ion becomes clockwise.
In a vane-t ype pump, t he
vanes ar e pushed out against a
cam r ing by cent r ifuga l for ce
when a pump is st a r t ed up. A
design mot or uses st eel-wir e
r ocker a r ms (Figur e 4-14, page
4-10) t o push t he vanes against
t he cam r ing. The a r ms pivot on
pins a t t a ched t o t he r ot or . The
ends of ea ch ar m suppor t t wo
va nes t ha t a r e 90 degr ees a par t .
When t he cam r ing pushes va ne
A int o it s slot , va ne B slides out .
The r ever se a lso happens. Amo-
t or s pr essur e pla t e funct ions t he
same as a pump's. It sea ls t he
side of a r ot or a nd r ing against
Fi gure 4-12. Pre ss ure di ffe re nti al on a vane -type
mot or
Fi gure 4-13. Flow condi ti on i n a vane-t ype pump
FM 5-499
4-10 Hydraulic Actuators
int er na l lea kage, a nd it feeds syst em
pr essur e under t he va nes t o hold t hem
out a gainst a r ing. This is a simple
oper a t ion in a pump because a pr es-
sur e plat e is r ight by a high-pr essur e
por t in t he cover .
c. Piston-Type Motors. Pist on-
t ype mot or s ca n be in-line-axis or
bent -a xis t ypes.
(1) In-Line-Axis, Pist on-Type
Mot or s. These motor s (Figure 4-15) ar e
a lmost ident ica l t o t he pumps. They
a r e built -in, fixed- and var ia ble-dis-
placement models in sever al sizes.
Tor que is developed by a pr essur e dr op
t hr ough a mot or . Pr essur e exer t s a
for ce on t he ends of t he pist ons, which
is t r anslat ed int o shaft r ot a t ion. Shaft
r ot at ion of most models can be
r ever sed anyt ime by r ever sing t he flow
dir ect ion.
Oil fr om a pump is for ced int o t he cylinder bor es t hr ough a mot or s inlet por t . For ce on
t he pist ons at t his point pushes t hem against a swash plat e. They can move only by sliding
along a swash plat e t o a point fur t her away fr om a cylinder s bar r el, which causes it t o
r ot at e. The bar r el is t hen splined t o a shaft so t ha t it must t ur n.
Fi gure 4-14. Roc ker arms pus hi ng vane s
i n a pump
Fi gure 4-15. In-li ne-axi s, pi ston-type mot or
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Actuators 4-11
A mot or 's displacement depends on t he a ngle of a swash plat e (Figur e 4-16). At maxi-
mum angle, displacement is at it s highest because t he pist ons t r avel at maximum lengt h.
When t he a ngle is r educed, pist on t r avel shor t ens, r educing displacement . If flow r ema ins
const ant , a mot or r uns fast er , but t or que is decr eased. Tor que is gr eat est at maximum dis-
pla cement because t he component of pist on for ce par a llel t o a swa sh pla t e is gr ea t est .
(2) Bent -Axis, Pist on-Type Mot or s. These mot or s ar e a lmost ident ical t o t he pumps.
They ar e a va ilable in fixed- a nd va r iable-displacement models (Figur e 4-17), in sever a l sizes.
Var iable-displacement mot or s can be cont r olled mechanically or by pr essur e compensa -
t ion. These mot or s oper a t e similar ly t o in-line mot or s except t ha t pist on t hr ust is a ga inst a
dr ive-shaft fla nge. A par a llel component of t hr ust ca uses a fla nge t o t ur n. Tor que is ma xi-
mum at ma ximum displacement ; speed is at a minimum. This design pist on mot or is ver y
hea vy and bulky, par t icula r ly t he var iable-displacement mot or . Using t hese mot or s on
mobile equipment is limit ed.
Alt hough some pist on-
t ype mot or s a r e cont r olled by
dir ect ional-cont r ol va lves, t hey
ar e oft en used in combina t ion
wit h var iable-displacement
pumps. This pump-mot or
combina t ion (hydr a ulic t r ans-
mission) is used t o pr ovide a
t r ansfer of power bet ween a
dr iving element , such a s an
elect r ic mot or , and a dr iven
element . Hydr aulic t r a nsmis-
sions may be used for applica-
t ions such as a speed r educer ,
va r ia ble speed dr ive, const ant
speed or const ant t or que
Figure 4-16. Swas h plate
Cylinder block
C
y
lin
d
e
r

b
lo
c
k
a
x
is
Output shaft
axis
Output shaft
Pistons
Valve plate
Figure 4-17. Be nt-axi s, pi ston-type mot or
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Actuators 4-12
dr ive, and t or que conver t er . Some a dvant ages a hydr aulic t r a nsmission has over a mecha n-
ica l t r a nsmission is t ha t it ha s
Quick, ea sy speed adjust ment over a wide r a nge while t he power sour ce is oper a t -
ing a t const ant (most efficient ) speed.
Rapid, smoot h acceler a t ion or deceler at ion.
Cont r ol over maximum t or que a nd power .
A cushioning effect t o r educe shock loa ds.
A smoot h r ever sal of mot ion.
FM 5-499
Valves 5-1
CHAPTER 5
Val ves
Valves are used in hydraulic systems t o control the operation of t he actuators. Valves reg-
ulate pressure by creating special pressure conditions and by controlling how much oil will
flow in portions of a circuit and where it will go. The t hree categories of hydraulic valves are
pressure-control, flow- (volume-) control, and directional -control (see Figure 5-1). S ome
valves have multiple funct ions, placing them into more than one cat egory. Valves are rated
by their size, pressure capabilities, and pressure drop/ flow.
5-1. Pre ssure -Control Valve s . A pr essur e-cont r ol valve may limit or r egulat e pr essur e,
cr ea t e a par t icular pr essur e condit ion r equir ed for cont r ol, or cause act ua t or s t o oper at e in a
specific or der . All pur e pr essur e-cont r ol valves oper a t e in a condit ion a ppr oaching hydr aulic
ba lance. Usually t he ba la nce is ver y simple: pr essur e is effect ive on one side or end of a ball,
poppet , or spool and is opposed by a spr ing. In oper at ion, a va lve t a kes a posit ion wher e
hydr aulic pr essur e ba la nces a spr ing for ce. Since spr ing for ce var ies wit h compr ession, dis-
t a nce a nd pr essur e a lso ca n var y. Pr essur e-cont r ol valves a r e sa id t o be infinit e posit ioning.
This mea ns t ha t t hey ca n t a ke a posit ion a nywher e bet ween t wo finit e flow condit ions,
which changes a lar ge volume of flow t o a small volume, or pass no flow.
Most pr essur e-cont r ol valves ar e cla ssified as nor ma lly closed. This mea ns t hat flow t o
a va lve's inlet por t is blocked fr om an out let por t unt il t her e is enough pr essur e t o ca use a n
unbalanced oper at ion. In nor mally open valves, fr ee flow occur s t hr ough t he valves unt il
t hey begin t o oper at e in balance. Flow is par t ially r est r ict ed or cut off. Pr essur e over r ide is
a cha r act er ist ic of nor ma lly closed-pr essur e cont r ols when t hey ar e oper a t ing in balance.
Because t he for ce of a compr ession spr ing incr ea ses as it lower s, pr essur e when t he valves
fir st cr ack is less t ha n when t hey a r e pa ssing a la r ge volume or full flow. The differ ence
bet ween a full flow and cr acking pr essur e is called over r ide.
Figure 5-1. Valve s
FM 5-499
5-2 Valves
a. Relief Valves. Relief valves a r e t he most common t ype of pr essur e-cont r ol valves.
The r elief valves funct ion may var y, depending on a syst em's needs. They can pr ovide over -
loa d pr ot ect ion for cir cuit component s or limit t he for ce or t or que exer t ed by a linea r act ua -
t or or r ot ar y mot or .
The int er na l design of all r elief valves is basica lly simila r . The valves consist of t wo sec-
t ions: a body sect ion cont aining a pist on t ha t is r et ained on it s sea t by a spr ing(s), depend-
ing on t he model, a nd a cover or pilot -valve sect ion t ha t hydr a ulically cont r ols a body
pist ons movement . The adjust ing scr ew a djust s t his cont r ol wit hin t he r ange of t he valves.
Valves t hat pr ovide emer gency over loa d pr ot ect ion do not oper at e a s oft en since ot her
va lve t ypes ar e used t o loa d and unloa d a pump. However , r elief valves should be cleaned
r egular ly by r educing t heir pr essur e adjust ment s t o flush out any possible sludge deposit s
t hat ma y accumula t e. Oper at ing
under r educed pr essur e will clean
out sludge deposit s and ensur e t ha t
t he valves oper a t e pr oper ly aft er t he
pr essur e is a djust ed t o it s pr escr ibed
set t ing.
(1) Simple Type. Figur e 5-2
shows a simple-t ype r elief va lve.
This va lve is inst alled so t hat one
por t is connect ed t o t he pr essur e line
or t he inlet a nd t he ot her por t t o t he
r eser voir . The ball is held on it s sea t
by t hr ust of t he spr ing, which ca n be
cha nged by t ur ning t he adjust ing
scr ew. When pr essur e at t he valves
inlet is insufficient t o over come
spr ing for ce, t he ba ll r ema ins on it s
seat and t he va lve is closed, pr event -
ing flow t hr ough it . When pr essur e
at t he valves inlet exceeds t he
adjust ed spr ing for ce, t he ba ll is
for ced off it s seat and t he va lve is
opened. Liquid flows fr om t he pr es-
sur e line t hr ough t he valve t o t he
r eser voir . This diver sion of flow pr e-
vent s fur t her pr essur e incr ease in
t he pr essur e line. When pr essur e
decr ea ses below t he valves set t ing,
t he spr ing r eseat s t he ball and t he
va lve is again closed.
The pr essur e at which a va lve fir st begins t o pa ss flow is t he cr a cking pr essur e of a
va lve. The pr essur e at which a valve passes it s full-r a t ed capacit y is t he full-flow pr essur e
of a va lve. Beca use of spr ing r a t e, a full-flow pr essur e is higher t han a cr acking pr essur e.
This condit ion is r efer r ed t o as pr essur e over r ide. A disadvant a ge of a simple-t ype r elief
va lve is it s r elat ively high-pr essur e over r ide at it s r a t ed capa cit y.
Fi gure 5-2. Simple re li e f valve
FM 5-499
Valves 5-3
(2) Compound
Type. Figur e 5-3
shows a compound-
t ype r elief va lve.
Pa ssage C is used
t o keep t he pist on
in hydr aulic bal-
ance when t he
va lve's inlet pr es-
sur e is less t ha n it s
set t ing (diagr a m
A). The valve set -
t ing is det er mined
by a n adjust ed
t hr ust of spr ing 3
against poppet 4.
When pr essur e at
t he valves inlet
r eaches t he va lves
set t ing, pr essur e in
passage D also
r ises t o over come t he t hr ust of spr ing 3. When flow t hr ough pa ssage C cr eat es a sufficient
pr essur e dr op t o over come t he t hr ust of spr ing 2, t he pist on is r aised off it s sea t (dia gr am B).
This allows flow t o pass t hr ough t he dischar ge por t t o t he r eser voir and pr event s fur t her r ise
in pr essur e.
b. Pressure-Reducing Valves. These va lves limit pr essur e on a br a nch cir cuit t o a lesser
amount t han r equir ed in a main cir cuit . For exa mple, in a syst em, a br a nch-cir cuit pr essur e
is limit ed t o 300 psi, but a ma in cir cuit must oper at e at 800 psi. A r elief va lve in a ma in cir -
cuit is adjust ed t o a set t ing above 800 psi t o meet a ma in cir cuit 's r equir ement s. However , it
would sur pa ss a br anch-cir cuit pr essur e of 300 psi. Ther efor e, besides a r elief va lve in a
ma in cir cuit , a
pr essur e-r educ-
ing valve must be
inst alled in a
br a nch cir cuit
and set at 300
psi. Figur e 5-4
shows a pr essur e-
r educing valve.
In a pr essur e-
r educing valve
(diagr am A),
adjust ing t he
spr ings compr es-
sion obt ains t he
ma ximum br anch-
cir cuit pr essur e.
The spr ing a lso
holds spool 1 in
Fi gure 5-3. Compound re l i e f valve
Fi gure 5-4. Pre s sure-re duci ng valve
FM 5-499
5-4 Valves
t he open posit ion. Liquid fr om t he main cir cuit ent er s t he va lve a t t he inlet por t C, flows
pa st t he va lve spool, a nd ent er s t he br anch cir cuit t hr ough t he out let por t D. Pr essur e at
t he out let por t act s t hr ough t he pa ssage E t o t he bot t om of spool. If t he pr essur e is insuffi-
cient t o over come t he t hr ust of t he spr ing, t he va lve r ema ins open.
The pr essur e at t he out let por t (diagr am B) and under t he spool exceeds t he equivalent
t hr ust of t he spr ing. The spool r ises a nd t he va lve is pa r t ia lly closed. This incr eases t he
va lve's r esist a nce t o flow, cr eat es a gr ea t er pr essur e dr op t hr ough t he va lve, a nd r educes t he
pr essur e at t he out let por t . The spool will posit ion it self t o limit maximum pr essur e a t t he
out let por t r egar dless of pr essur e fluct ua t ions at t he inlet por t , as long a s wor kloa d does not
ca use back flow a t t he out let por t . Back flow would close t he valve and pr essur e would
incr ease.
(1) X-Ser ies Type. Figur e 5-5 shows t he int er na l const r uct ion of a n X-ser ies pr essur e-
r educing valve. The t wo ma jor a ssemblies ar e a n a djust able pilot -va lve a ssembly in t he
cover , which det er mines t he oper a t ing pr essur e of t he valve, and a spool assembly in t he
body, which r esponds t o t he a ct ion of t he pilot va lve t o limit ma ximum pr essur e a t t he out let
por t .
The pilot -valve assembly consist s of a poppet 1, spr ing 2, a nd adjust ing scr ew 3. The
posit ion of t he adjust ing scr ew set s t he spr ing load on t he poppet , which det er mines t he set -
t ing of t he va lve. The spool a ssembly consist s of spool 4 and spr ing 5. The spr ing is a low-
r a t e spr ing, which t ends t o for ce t he spool downwa r d and hold t he valve open. The posit ion
of t he spool det er mines t he size of pa ssa ge C.
Fi gure 5-5. X-s e ri e s , pre s s ure -re duci ng valve
FM 5-499
Valves 5-5
When pr essur e at t he valve inlet (dia gr a m A) does not exceed t he pr essur e set t ing, t he
va lve is complet ely open. Fluid pa sses fr om t he inlet t o t he out let wit h minimal r esist a nce
in t he r a t ed capacit y of t he valve. Passage D connect s t he out let por t t o t he bot t om of t he
spool. Passage E connect s t he cha mber s at each end of t he spool. Fluid pr essur e a t t he out -
let por t is pr esent on bot h ends of t he spool. When t hese pr essur es a r e equa l, t he spool is
hydr aulica lly ba la nced. The only effect ive for ce on t he spool is t he downwar d t hr ust of t he
spr ing, which posit ions t he spool a nd t ends t o maint ain pa ssa ge C at it s ma ximum size.
When t he pr essur e a t t he va lves out let (dia gr am B) appr oaches t he pr essur e set t ing of
t he valve, t he liquid's pr essur e in cha mber H is sufficient t o over come t he t hr ust of t he
spr ing a nd for ce t he poppet off it s seat . The pilot valve limit s t he pr essur e in chamber F.
Mor e pr essur e r ises a s t he out let pushes t he spool upwa r d against t he combined for ce of t he
spr ing a nd t he pr essur e in cha mber F.
As t he spool moves upwa r d, it r est r ict s t he opening t o cr eat e a pr essur e dr op bet ween
t he inlet a nd out let por t s. Pr essur e at t he out let is limit ed t o t he sum of t he equivalent
for ces of spr ings 2 and 5. In nor ma l oper a t ion, pa ssa ge C never closes complet ely. Flow
must pass t hr ough t o meet a ny wor k r equir ement s on t he low-pr essur e side of t he valve plus
t he flow r equir ed t hr ough passa ge E t o maint a in t he pr essur e dr op needed t o hold t he spool
at t he cont r ol posit ion. Flow t hr ough r est r ict ed pa ssage E is cont inua l when t he valve is
cont r olling t he r educed pr essur e. This flow is out t he dr a in por t and should be r et ur ned
dir ect ly t o t he t ank.
(2) XC-Ser ies Type. An
XC-ser ies pr essur e-r educing
valve limit s pr essur e at t he out -
let in t he sa me wa y t he X-ser ies
does when flow is fr om it s inlet
por t t o it s out let por t . An int e-
gr al check va lve a llows r ever se
fr ee flow fr om out let t o inlet
por t even at pr essur es above t he
va lve set t ing. However , t he
same pr essur e-r educing a ct ion
is not pr ovided for t his dir ect ion
of flow. Figur e 5-6 shows t he
int er nal const r uct ion of a n XC-
ser ies valve.
c. S equence Valves.
Sequence va lves cont r ol t he
oper at ing sequence bet ween t wo
br a nches of a cir cuit . The
va lves a r e commonly used t o
r egulat e an oper a t ing sequence
of t wo separ at e wor k cylinder s
so t ha t one cylinder begins
st r oking when t he ot her com-
plet es st r oking. Sequence
va lves used in t his manner ensur e t hat t her e is minimum pr essur e equal t o it s set t ing on t he
fir st cylinder dur ing t he subsequent oper at ions a t a lower pr essur e.
Fi gure 5-6. Inte rnal c onstruc ti on of an XC-se ri e s
val ve
FM 5-499
5-6 Valves
Figur e 5-7, diagr am A, shows how t o obt ain t he oper at ion of a sequencing pr essur e by
adjust ing a spr ing's compr ession, which holds pist on 1 in t he closed posit ion. Liquid ent er s
t he valve at inlet por t C, flows fr eely past pist on 1, a nd ent er s t he pr imar y cir cuit t hr ough
por t D. When pr essur e of t he liquid flowing t hr ough t he valve is below t he va lves set t ing,
t he for ce act ing upwar d on pist on 1 is less t ha n t he downwar d for ce of t he spr ing 2. The pis-
t on is held down a nd t he valve is in t he closed posit ion.
When r esist a nce in
t he pr imar y cir cuit
ca uses t he pr essur e t o
r ise so it over comes t he
for ce of spr ing 2, pist on 1
r ises. The valve is t hen
open (Figur e 5-7, dia-
gr am B). Liquid ent er -
ing t he va lve can now
flow t hr ough por t E t o
t he secondar y cir cuit .
Figur e 5-8 shows an
applicat ion of a
sequence valve. The
va lve is set a t a pr essur e
in excess of t hat r equir ed
t o st a r t cylinder 1 (pr i-
ma r y cylinder ). In it s
Fi gure 5-7. Se que nc e valve
Fi gure 5-8. Appli cat i on of s e que nc e valve
FM 5-499
Valves 5-7
fir st oper at ing sequence, pump flow goes t hr ough por t s A a nd C (pr ima r y por t s) t o for ce cyl-
inder 1 t o st r oke. The valve st ays closed because t he pr essur e of cylinder 1 is below t he
va lves set t ing. When cylinder 1 finishes st r oking, flow is blocked, a nd t he syst em pr essur e
inst ant ly incr eases t o t he valve set t ing t o open t he va lve. Pump flow t hen st a r t s cylinder 2
(seconda r y cylinder ).
Dur ing t his phase, t he flow of pilot oil t hr ough t he ba la nce or ifice gover ns t he posit ion of
t he ma in pist on. This pist on t hr ot t les flow t o por t B (seconda r y por t ) so t ha t pr essur e equa l
t o t he va lve set t ing is maint a ined on t he pr imar y cir cuit dur ing movement of cylinder 2 a t a
lower pr essur e. Back pr essur e cr eat ed by t he r esist ance of cylinder 2 cannot int er fer e wit h
t he t hr ot t ling act ion because t he seconda r y pr essur e below t he st em of t he main pist on also
is applied t hr ough t he dr ain hole t o t he t op of t he st em and t her eby canceled out . When cyl-
inder 2 is r et r a ct ed, t he r et ur n flow fr om it bypasses t he sequence valve t hr ough t he check
va lve.
d. Counterbalance Valves. A count er ba lance valve allows fr ee flow of fluid in one dir ec-
t ion a nd maint a ins a r esist ance t o flow in anot her dir ect ion unt il a cer t ain pr essur e is
r eached. A va lve is nor ma lly loca t ed in a line bet ween a dir ect iona l-cont r ol valve and an out -
let of a ver t ica lly mount ed act ua t ing cylinder , which suppor t s weight or must be held in posi-
t ion for a per iod of t ime. A
count er ba la nce va lve ser ves as a
hydr aulic r esist ance t o an act ua t -
ing cylinder . For example, a
count er ba la nce va lve is used in
some hydr a ulically oper at ed for k
lift s. It offer s a r esist ance t o t he
flow fr om a n act ua t ing cylinder
when a for k is lower ed. It a lso
helps suppor t a for k in t he up
posit ion.
Figur e 5-9 shows a count er -
ba lance va lve. The va lve element
is ba la nce-spool va lve 4 t ha t con-
sist s of t wo pist ons which ar e per -
ma nent ly fixed on eit her end of
t he sha ft . The inner pist on ar ea s
ar e equal; t her efor e, pr essur e a ct s
equally on bot h ar eas r egar dless
of t he posit ion of t he va lve, a nd
has no effect on t he movement of
t he valve, hence, t he t er m ba l-
anced. A sma ll pilot pist on is
at t ached t o t he bot t om of t he
spool valve.
When t he valve is in t he
closed posit ion, t he t op pist on of
t he spool valve blocks discha r ge
por t 8. If fluid fr om t he a ct uat ing
Fi gure 5-9. Counte rbalance val ve
FM 5-499
5-8 Valves
unit ent er s inlet por t 5, it ca nnot flow t hr ough t he va lve because dischar ge por t 8 is blocked.
However , fluid will flow t hr ough t he pilot passa ge 6 t o t he small pilot pist on. As t he pr es-
sur e incr eases, it act s on t he pilot pist on unt il it over comes t he pr eset pr essur e of spr ing 3.
This for ces t he spool up and a llows t he fluid t o flow ar ound t he sha ft of t he spool valve and
out t he dischar ge por t 8.
Dur ing r ever se flow, t he fluid ent er s por t 8. Spr ing 3 for ces spool valve 4 t o t he closed
posit ion. The fluid pr essur e over comes t he spr ing t ension of check valve 7. It opens and
allows fr ee flow a r ound t he sha ft of t he spool valve a nd out por t 5. The oper at ing pr essur e of
t he valve ca n be a djust ed by t ur ning a djust ment scr ew 1, which incr ea ses or decr ea ses t he
t ension of t he spr ing. This adjust ment depends on t he weight t ha t t he va lve must suppor t .
Small amount s of fluid will leak ar ound t he t op pist on of t he spool valve and int o t he
ar ea ar ound spr ing 3. An accumulat ion would ca use a hydr a ulic lock on t he t op of t he spool
va lve (since a liquid cannot be compr essed). Dr ain 2 pr ovides a passage for t his fluid t o flow
t o por t 8.
e. Pressure S wit ches.
Pr essur e swit ches ar e
used in var ious applica-
t ions t ha t r equir e a n a djus-
t able, pr essur e-act ua t ed
elect r ica l swit ch t o ma ke or
br ea k an elect r ica l cir cuit
at a pr edet er mined pr es-
sur e. An elect r ical cir cuit
ma y be used t o act uat e an
elect r ica lly cont r olled valve
or cont r ol a n elect r ic-
mot or st ar t er or a signal
light . Figur e 5-10 shows a
pr essur e swit ch. Liquid,
under pr essur e, ent er s
cha mber A. If t he pr essur e
exceeds t he adjust ed pr es-
sur e set t ing of t he spr ing behind ba ll 1, t he ball is unsea t ed. The liquid flows int o chamber
B and moves pist on 2 t o t he r ight , act ua t ing t he limit t o ma ke or br ea k a n elect r ical cir cuit .
When pr essur e in cha mber A falls below t he set t ing of t he spr ing behind ball 1, t he
spr ing r eseat s ball 1. The liquid in chamber B is t hr ot t led pa st va lve 3 a nd ba ll 4 beca use of
t he a ct ion of t he spr ing behind pist on 2. The t ime r equir ed for t he limit swit ch t o r et ur n t o
it s nor mal posit ion is det er mined by valve 3s set t ing.
5-2. Di rect i onal-Cont rol Valve s. Dir ect iona l-cont r ol va lves a lso cont r ol flow dir ect ion.
However , t hey va r y consider ably in physical char act er ist ics and oper a t ion. The valves may
be a
Poppet t ype, in which a pist on or ba ll moves on and off a seat .
Rot ar y-spool t ype, in which a spool r ot a t es a bout it s axis.
Fi gure 5-10. Pre ssure swi tch
FM 5-499
Valves 5-9
Sliding-spool t ype, in which a spool slides axia lly in a bor e. In t his t ype, a spool is
oft en classified accor ding t o t he flow condit ions cr eat ed when it is in t he nor mal or
neut r a l posit ion. A closed-cent er spool blocks all va lve por t s fr om ea ch ot her when in
t he nor mal posit ion. In an open-cent er spool, a ll valve por t s a r e open t o each ot her
when t he spool is in t he nor ma l posit ion.
Dir ect iona l-cont r ol va lves may also be classified accor ding t o t he met hod used t o act ua t e
t he va lve element . A poppet -t ype valve is usua lly hydr aulica lly oper a t ed. A r ot ar y-spool
t ype ma y be manua lly (lever or plunger a ct ion), mechanically (cam or t r ip a ct ion), or elect r i-
cally (solenoid act ion) oper at ed. A sliding-spool t ype may be manua lly, mechanica lly, elect r i-
cally, or hydr a ulically oper at ed, or it ma y be oper a t ed in combina t ion.
Dir ect iona l-cont r ol va lves ma y also be cla ssified a ccor ding t o t he number of posit ions of
t he va lve element s or t he t ot al number of flow pa t hs pr ovided in t he ext r eme posit ion. For
example, a t hr ee-posit ion, four -way va lve ha s t wo ext r eme posit ions a nd a cent er or neut r al
posit ion. In each of t he t wo ext r eme posit ions, t her e a r e t wo flow pat hs, making a t ot al of
four flow pat hs.
Spool va lves (see Figur e 5-11) a r e popular on moder n hydr aulic syst ems because t hey
Can be pr ecision-gr ound for fine-oil met er ing.
Can be ma de t o ha ndle flows in many dir ect ions by adding ext r a la nds a nd oil
por t s.
St a ck easily int o one compact cont r ol package, which is impor t ant on mobile sys-
t ems.
Spool va lves, however , r equir e good
ma int enance. Dir t y oil will da ma ge t he
ma t ing sur fa ces of t he valve lands, causing
t hem t o lose t heir a ccur acy. Dir t will ca use
t hese valves t o st ick or wor k er r at ically.
Also, spool va lves must be a ccur at ely
ma chined a nd fit t ed t o t heir bor es.
a. Poppet Valve. Figure 5-12, page 5-10,
shows a simple poppet valve. It consist s
pr ima r ily of a mova ble poppet t ha t closes
a ga inst a valve seat . Pr essur e fr om t he
inlet t ends t o hold t he valve t ight ly closed.
A slight for ce applied t o t he poppet st em
opens t he poppet . The act ion is similar t o
t he va lves of an aut omobile engine. The
poppet st em usua lly has an O-r ing sea l t o
pr event lea kage. In some va lves, t he pop-
pet s a r e held in t he seat ed posit ion by
spr ings. The number of poppet s in a valve
depends on t he pur pose of t he va lve.
Fi gure 5-11. Spool valve
FM 5-499
5-10 Valves
b. S liding-S pool Valve. Figur e 5-13 shows a
sliding-spool va lve. The valve element slides back
and for t h t o block and uncover por t s in t he housing.
Somet imes ca lled a pist on t ype, t he sliding-spool
va lve has a pist on of which t he inner ar ea s a r e equa l.
Pr essur e fr om t he inlet por t s act s equally on bot h
inner pist on a r ea s r ega r dless of t he posit ion of t he
spool. Sea ling is done by a machine fit bet ween t he
spool a nd va lve body or sleeve.
c. Check Valves. Check va lves a r e t he most commonly used in fluid-power ed syst ems.
They a llow flow in one dir ect ion and pr event flow in t he ot her dir ect ion. They ma y be
inst a lled independent ly in a line, or t hey may be incor por a t ed a s an int egr al par t of a
sequence, count er balance, or pr essur e-r educing valve. The valve element may be a sleeve,
cone, ball, poppet , pist on, spool, or disc. For ce of t he moving fluid opens a check valve; back-
flow, a spr ing, or gr avit y closes t he valve. Figur es 5-14, 5-15 and 5-16 show var ious t ypes of
check valves.
(1) St andar d Type (Figur e 5-17, pa ge 5-12). This va lve ma y be a r ight -angle or an in-
line t ype, depending on t he r ela t ive locat ion of t he por t s. Bot h t ypes oper a t e on t he sa me
pr inciple. The valve consist s essent ia lly of a poppet or ba ll 1 held on a seat by t he for ce of
spr ing 2. Flow dir ect ed t o t he inlet por t a ct s against spr ing 2 t o unsea t poppet 1 and open
t he valve for t hr ough flow (see Figur e 5-17, diagr a m B, for bot h va lve t ypes). Flow ent er ing
t he valve t hr ough t he out let por t combines wit h spr ing act ion t o hold poppet 1 on it s sea t t o
check r ever se flow.
These valves ar e a va ilable wit h var ious cr a cking pr essur es. Convent ional a pplicat ions
usually use t he light spr ing because it ensur es r esea t ing t he poppet r ega r dless of t he va lve's
Figure 5-12. Ope rat i on of a si m-
ple poppet valve
Fi gure 5-13. Ope rat i on of s li di ng-s pool ,
di re ct i onal-c ont rol val ve
FM 5-499
Valves 5-11
mount ing posit ion. Hea vy
spr ing unit s a r e gener a lly used
t o ensur e t he a va ila bilit y of at
least t he minimum pr essur e
r equir ed for pilot oper at ions.
(2) Rest r ict ion Type (Fig-
ur e 5-18, page 5-12). This
valve has or ifice plug 1 in t he
nose of poppet 2, which makes
it differ ent fr om a conven-
t iona l, r ight -angle check valve.
Flow dir ect ed t o t he inlet por t
opens t he va lve, allowing fr ee
flow t hr ough t he va lve.
Rever se flow dir ect ed in t hr ough
t he out let por t sea t s poppet 2.
Flow is r est r ict ed t o t he amount
of oil, which can be alt er ed, t o
a llow a suit a ble bleed when t he
poppet is closed. Uses of a
r est r ict ion check va lve can be t o
cont r ol t he lower ing speed of a
down-moving pist on a nd t he
r at e of decompr ession in lar ge
pr esses.
(3) Pilot -Oper a t ed Type
(Figur e 5-19, pa ge 5-13). In dia-
gr a m A, t he valve has poppet 1
sea t ed on st a t ionar y sleeve 2 by
spr ing 3. This valve opens t he sa me a s a
convent ional check valve. Pr essur e a t t he
inlet por t s must be sufficient t o over come
t he combined for ces of any pr essur e a t t he
out let por t and t he light t hr ust of spr ing 3
so t hat poppet 1 r aises a nd allows flow
fr om t he inlet por t s t hr ough t he out let
por t . In t his sit ua t ion, t her e is no pr essur e
r equir ed at t he pilot por t .
In dia gr am B, t he valve is closed t o
pr event r ever se flow. Pr essur e at t he out -
let por t a nd t he t hr ust of spr ing 3 hold pop-
pet 1 on it s seat t o block t he flow. In t his
case, t he pilot por t has no pr essur e.
In dia gr am C, pr essur e applied at t he
pilot por t is sufficient t o over come t he
t hr ust of spr ing 3. The net for ces exer t ed
Fi gure 5-14. Swi ng-type chec k valve
Figure 5-15. Ve rt i cal che ck valve
Fi gure 5-16. Spri ng-loade d che ck valve
FM 5-499
5-12 Valves
A
B
Fi gure 5-17. St andard c he c k valve
Fi gure 5-18. Re s t ri ct ion che ck valve
FM 5-499
Valves 5-13
by pr essur es a t t he ot her por t s r aise pist on 4 t o unseat poppet 1 and a llow cont r olled flow
fr om t he out let t o t he inlet por t s. Wit h no pr essur e a t t he inlet por t s, pilot pr essur e must
exceed 40 per cent of t hat imposed at out let t o open t he poppet .
Figur e 5-20 shows anot her pilot -oper a t ed check valve. This valve consist s of poppet 1
secur ed t o pist on 3. Poppet 1 is held against sea t 4 by t he act ion of spr ing 2 on pist on 3. In
diagr am A, t he valve is in t he fr ee-flow posit ion. Pr essur e at t he inlet por t , act ing downwar d
against poppet 1, is sufficient t o over come t he combined for ces of spr ing 2 against pist on 3
and t he pr essur e, if any, at t he out let por t . (The pr essur e a t t he out let por t is exer t ed over a
gr ea t er effect ive ar ea t ha n t ha t a t t he inlet beca use of t he poppet st em.) The dr ain post is
open t o t he t ank, a nd t her e is no pr essur e a t t he pilot por t . Diagr a m B shows t he valve in a
posit ion t o pr event r ever se flow, wit h no pr essur e a t t he pilot por t a nd t he dr ain opening t o
t he t ank.
Fi gure 5-19. Pi lot -operated chec k valve
Figure 5-20. Pi lot -operated c hec k valve , s e cond t ype
FM 5-499
5-14 Valves
Diagr a m C shows t he pilot oper at ion of t he valve. When sufficient pr essur e is applied at
t he pilot por t t o over come t he t hr ust of spr ing 2 plus t he net effect of pr essur e a t t he ot her
por t s, poppet 1 is unsea t ed t o allow r ever se flow. Pilot pr essur e must be equa l t o a bout 80
per cent of t hat imposed at t he out let por t t o open t he va lve a nd allow r ever se flow.
d. Two-Way Valve. A t wo-way valve is gener ally used t o cont r ol t he dir ect ion of fluid
flow in a hydr a ulic cir cuit and is a sliding-spool t ype. Figur e 5-21 shows a t wo-wa y, sliding-
spool, dir ect iona l-cont r ol va lve. As t he spool moves back and for t h, it eit her allows or pr e-
vent s fluid flow t hr ough t he va lve. In eit her shift ed posit ion in a t wo-way valve, a pr essur e
por t is open t o one cylinder por t , but t he opposit e cylinder por t is not open t o a t a nk. A t a nk
por t on t his va lve is used pr ima r ily for dr aining.
e. Four-Way Valves. Four -way, dir ect ional-cont r ol valves a r e used t o cont r ol t he dir ec-
t ion of fluid flow in a hydr aulic cir cuit , which cont r ols t he dir ect ion of movement of a wor k
cylinder or t he r ot a t ion of a fluid mot or . These valves a r e usually t he sliding-spool t ype. A
t ypica l four -wa y, dir ect ional-cont r ol valve has four por t s:
One pr essur e por t is connect ed t o a pr essur e line.
One r et ur n or exha ust por t is connect ed t o a r eser voir .
Two wor king por t s a r e connect ed, by lines, t o a n a ct uat ing unit .
Four -way va lves consist of a r ect a n-
gula r ca st body, a sliding spool, and a way
t o posit ion a spool. A spool is pr ecision-
fit t ed t o a bor e t hr ough t he longit udinal
a xis of a va lves body. The lands of a spool
divide t his bor e int o a ser ies of sepa r at e
chamber s. Por t s in a va lves body lead
int o a chamber so t hat a spool's posit ion
det er mines which por t s ar e open t o each
ot her and which ones ar e sea led off fr om
ea ch ot her . Por t s t hat ar e sealed off fr om
ea ch ot her in one posit ion ma y be int er -
connect ed in a not her posit ion. Spool posi-
t ioning is a ccomplished manua lly,
mecha nica lly, elect r ically, or hydr a uli-
cally or by combing any of t he four .
Figur e 5-22 shows how t he spool posi-
t ion det er mines t he possible flow condi-
t ions in t he cir cuit . The four por t s ar e
mar ked P, T, A, a nd B: P is connect ed t o
t he flow sour ce; T t o t he t a nk; a nd A and
B t o t he r espect ive por t s of t he wor k cylin-
der , hydr a ulic mot or , or some ot her va lve
in t he cir cuit . In dia gr am A, t he spool is
in such a posit ion t ha t por t P is open t o
por t A, a nd por t B is open t o por t T. Por t s
A and B a r e connect ed t o t he por t s of t he
cylinder , flow t hr ough por t P, a nd cause
Fi gure 5-21. Two-way valve
FM 5-499
Valves 5-15
t he pist on of t he cylinder t o move t o t he r ight . Ret ur n flow fr om t he cylinder passes t hr ough
por t s B and T. In diagr a m B, por t P is open t o por t B, and t he pist on moves t o t he left .
Ret ur n flow fr om t he cylinder passes t hr ough por t s A and T.
Ta ble 5-1, pa ge 5-16, list s some of t he classificat ions of dir ect ional-cont r ol valves. These
va lves could be ident ified a ccor ding t o t he
Number of spool posit ions.
Number of flow pat hs in t he ext r eme posit ions.
Flow pa t t er n in t he cent er or cr ossover posit ion.
Met hod of shift ing a spool.
Met hod of pr oviding spool r et ur n.
(1) Poppet -Type Valve. Figur e 5-23, page 5-16, shows a t ypical four -way, poppet -t ype,
dir ect ional-cont r ol valve. It is a manua lly oper a t ed valve a nd consist s of a gr oup of conven-
t ional spr ing-loaded poppet s. The poppet s ar e enclosed in a common housing and a r e int er -
connect ed by duct s so as t o dir ect t he fluid flow in t he desir ed dir ect ion.
The poppet s a r e a ct uat ed by ca ms on t he ca mshaft . They a r e a r r anged so t ha t t he
shaft , which is r ot a t ed by it s cont r olling lever , will open t he cor r ect poppet combinat ions t o
dir ect t he fluid flow t hr ough t he desir ed line t o t he act ua t ing unit . At t he same t ime, fluid
will be dir ect ed fr om t he opposit e line of t he act ua t ing unit t hr ough t he valve and back t o t he
r eser voir or exhaust ed t o t he at mospher e.
Fi gure 5-22. Flow condi ti ons in a c irc ui t
FM 5-499
5-16 Valves
Spr ings hold t he poppet s t o t heir
seat s. A camsha ft unsea t s t hem t o
allow fluid flow t hr ough t he valve.
The camshaft is cont r olled by moving
t he ha ndle. The va lve is oper at ed by
moving t he ha ndle manually or by
connect ing t he ha ndle, by mechanica l
linkage, t o a cont r ol ha ndle. On t he
ca mshaft ar e t hr ee O-r ing packings
t o pr event int er nal and ext er na l leak-
age. The ca mshaft has t wo lobes
(r a ised por t ions). The cont our
(sha pe) of t hese lobes is such t ha t
when t he shaft is placed in t he neu-
t r a l posit ion, t he lobes will not t ouch
any of t he poppet s.
Fi gure 5-23. Worki ng vi e w of poppet -type, four-
way valve
Table 5-1. Classi fi cati ons of di re c ti onal-cont rol valve s
Classification Description
Path-of-flow type Two way
Four way
Allows a total of two possible flow paths in two
extreme spool positions
Allows a total of four possible flow paths in two
extreme spool positions
Control type Manual operated
Pilot operated
Solenoid operated
Solenoid controlled, pilot oper-
ated
Hand lever is used to shift the spool.
Hydraulic pressure is used to shift the spool.
Solenoid action is used to shift the spool.
Solenoid action is used to shift the integral pilot
spool, which directs the pilot flow to shift the main
spool.
Position type Two position
Three position
Spool has two extreme positions of dwell.
Spool has two extreme positions plus one interme-
diate or center position.
Spring type Spring offset
No spring
Spring centered
Spring action automatically returns the spool to the
normal offset position as soon as shifter force is
released. (Spring offset is always a two-way
valve.)
Spool is not spring-loaded; it is moved only by
shifter force, and it remains where it is shifted (may
be two- or three-position type, but three-position
type uses detent).
Spring action automatically returns the spool to the
center position as soon as the shifter force is
released. (Spring-centered is always a three-
position valve.)
Spool type Open center
Closed center
Tandem center
Partially closed center
Semi-open center
These are five of the more common spool types.
They refer to the flow pattern allowed when the
spool is in the center position (three-position
valves) or in the cross-over position (two-position
valves).
FM 5-499
Valves 5-17
One cam lobe oper a t es t he t wo pr essur e poppet s; t he ot her lobe oper at es t he t wo r et ur n/
exha ust poppet s. To st op t he r ot at ing camsha ft a t t he exa ct posit ion, a st op pin is secur ed t o
t he body and ext ended t hr ough a cut out sect ion of t he ca mshaft flange. This st op pin pr e-
vent s over t r avel by ensur ing t ha t t he cam lobes st op r ot a t ing when t he poppet s ha ve
unseat ed as high as t hey can go.
Figur e 5-23 shows a wor king view of a poppet -t ype, four -wa y va lve. The ca mshaft
r ot at es by moving t he cont r ol ha ndle in eit her dir ect ion fr om neut r al. The lobes r ot at e,
unseat ing one pr essur e poppet and one r et ur n/exha ust poppet . The valve is now in a wor k-
ing posit ion. Pr essur e fluid, ent er ing t he pr essur e por t , t r avels t hr ough t he ver t ica l fluid
passages in bot h pr essur e poppet seat s. Since only one pr essur e poppet is unseat ed by t he
cam lobe, t he fluid flows past t he open poppet t o t he inside of t he poppet sea t . It t hen flows
out one wor king por t a nd t o t he a ct uat ing unit . Ret ur n fluid fr om t he a ct uat ing unit ent er s
t he ot her wor king por t . It t hen flows t hr ough t he dia gonal fluid pa ssa ges, past t he unseat ed
r et ur n poppet , t hr ough t he ver t ical fluid pa ssa ges, and out t he r et ur n/exhaust por t . By
r ot at ing t he ca mshaft in t he opposit e dir ect ion unt il t he st op pin hit s, t he opposit e pr essur e
and r et urn poppet s ar e unseat ed, and t he fluid flow is r ever sed. This causes t he act uat ing
unit t o move in t he opposit e dir ect ion.
(2) Sliding-Spool Va lve. The four -wa y, sliding-spool, dir ect ional-cont r ol valve is simple
in oper a t ion pr inciple a nd is pr oba bly t he most dur a ble and t r ouble fr ee of all four -wa y,
dir ect ional-cont r ol valves in cur r ent use. Figur e 5-24 shows a t ypical four -way, sliding-
spool, dir ect iona l-cont r ol va lve. The va lve body cont a ins four fluid por t s: pr essur e, r et ur n/
exha ust , and t wo wor king por t s (r efer r ed t o as cylinder por t s). A hollow st eel sleeve fit s int o
t he main bor e of t he body. Ar ound t he out side diamet er of t he sleeve a r e O-r ing ga sket s.
These O-r ings for m a sea l bet ween t he sleeve and t he body.
In Figur e 5-24, dia gr am A, t he valve is a t t he far r ight in it s cylinder . Liquid fr om t he
pump flows t o t he r ight end of t he cylinder por t , while liquid fr om t he left end r et ur ns t o t he
r eser voir . In diagr a m C, t he sit uat ion is r ever se. The pist on is t o t he far left in it s cylinder .
Liquid fr om t he pump flows t o t he left end of t he cylinder por t , while liquid fr om t he r ight
end r et ur ns t o t he r eser voir . In diagr am B, t he pist on is in a n int er media t e posit ion. Flow
t hr ough t he valve fr om t he pump is shut off, and bot h ends of t he cylinder can dr ain t o t he
Figure 5-24. Schemat i c of a four-way, di re ct ional-control, sli di ng-spool valve
FM 5-499
5-18 Valves
r eser voir unless ot her valves a r e set t o cont r ol t he flow.
In a closed-cent er spool valve, a pist on is solid, and all passages t hrough a valve ar e blocked
when a pist on is cent er ed in it s cylinder (see Figur e 5-24, diagr a m B). A closed-cent er va lve
is used when a single pump or a n accumulat or per for ms mor e t ha n one oper a t ion and wher e
t her e must be no pr essur e loss in shift ing a st r oke dir ect ion a t a wor k point .
In a n open-cent er spool va lve, t he spools on a pist on a r e slot t ed or channeled so t ha t a ll
pa ssages ar e open t o ea ch ot her
when a pist on is cent er ed (see Figur e
5-25). In some open-cent er va lves,
pa ssages t o a cylinder por t a r e
blocked when a valve is cent er ed a nd
liquid fr om a pump is ca r r ied
t hr ough a pist on a nd out t he ot her
side of a valve t o a r eser voir (see Fig-
ur e 5-26). Liquid must be ca r r ied t o
bot h ends of a pist on of a dir ect iona l
va lve t o keep it ba la nced. Inst ead of
dischar ging int o a r eser voir when a
va lve is cent er ed, liquid may be
dir ect ed t o ot her va lves so t ha t a set
of oper at ions is per for med in
sequence.
Open-cent er va lves ar e used
when a wor k cylinder does not have
t o be held in posit ion by pr essur e a nd
wher e power is used t o per for m a sin-
gle oper at ion. These va lves also
avoid shock t o a syst em when a va lve
spool is moved fr om one posit ion t o
anot her , since in t he int er media t e
Fi gure 5-25. Clos e d-ce nte r spool valve
Fi gure 5-26. Open-ce nt er spool valve
FM 5-499
Valves 5-19
posit ion, pr essur e is t empor ar ily r elieved by liquid passing fr om a pump dir ect ly t o t he r es-
er voir .
(3). Ma nually Oper a t ed Four -Way Valve. This valve is used t o cont r ol t he flow dir ect ion
ma nually. A spool is shift ed by oper a t ing a hand lever (Figur e 5-27, pa ge 5-20). In a spr ing-
offset model, a spool is nor ma lly in an ext r eme out posit ion and is shift ed t o a n ext r eme in
posit ion by moving a lever t owa r d a valve. Spr ing a ct ion aut omat ically r et ur ns bot h spool
and lever t o t he nor mal out posit ion when a lever is r elea sed. In a t wo-posit ion, no-spr ing
model, a spool is shift ed ba ck t o it s or iginal posit ion. (Figur e 5-27 does not show t his va lve.)
In a t hr ee-posit ion no-spr ing model, a det ent (a devise which locks t he movement ) r et ains a
spool in any one of t he t hr ee select ed posit ions aft er lever for ce is r eleased. In a t hr ee-posi-
t ion, spr ing-cent er ed model, a lever is used t o shift a spool t o eit her ext r eme posit ion away
fr om t he cent er . Spr ing a ct ion aut omat ically r et ur ns a spool t o t he cent er posit ion when a
lever is r elea sed.
(4) Pilot -Oper at ed, Four -Way Va lve. This t ype of va lve is used t o cont r ol t he flow dir ec-
t ion by using a pilot pr essur e. Figur e 5-28, page 5-21, shows t wo unit s in which t he spool is
shift ed by applying t he pilot pr essur e a t eit her end of t he spool. In t he spr ing-offset model,
t he spool is held in it s nor mal offset posit ion by spr ing t hr ust a nd shift ed t o it s ot her posit ion
by applying pilot pr essur e t o t he fr ee end of t he spool. Removing pilot pr essur e shift s t he
spool back t o it s nor mal offset posit ion. A det ent does not hold t his valve, so pilot pr essur e
should be maint a ined a s long a s t he valve is in t he shift ed posit ion.
(5) Solenoid-Oper at ed, Two- a nd Four -Way Va lves. These valves a r e used t o cont r ol t he
dir ect ion of hydr aulic flow by elect r ica l mea ns. A spool is shift ed by ener gizing a solenoid
t ha t is loca t ed a t one or bot h ends of t he spool. When a solenoid is ener gized, it for ces a push
r od a ga inst t he end of a spool. A spool shift s a wa y fr om t he solenoid and t owar d t he opposit e
end of t he valve body (see Figur e 5-29, page 5-21). In a spr ing-offset model, a single solenoid
shift s a spr ing-loaded spool. When a solenoid is deener gized, a spr ing r et ur ns a spool t o it s
or igina l posit ion.
5-3. Flow-Control Valve s. Flow-cont r ol va lves ar e used t o cont r ol an act uat or s speed by
met er ing flow. Met er ing is measur ing or r egulat ing t he flow r a t e t o or fr om an act ua t or . A
wa t er faucet is a n example of a flow-cont r ol valve. Flow r at e va r ies a s a faucet ha ndle is
t ur ned clockwise or count er clockwise. In a closed posit ion, flow st ops. Ma ny flow-cont r ol
va lves used in fluid-power ed syst ems ar e similar in design and oper at ion t o a wat er fa ucet s.
In hydr a ulic cir cuit s, flow-cont r ol valves a r e gener a lly used t o cont r ol t he speed of
hydr aulic mot or s and wor k spindles a nd t he t r a vel r a t es of t ool hea ds or slides. Flow-cont r ol
va lves incor por at e an int egr al pr essur e compensat or , which causes t he flow r at e t o r ema in
subst a nt ially unifor m r egar dless of cha nges in wor kloa d. A nonpr essur e, compensat ed flow
cont r ol, such as a needle va lve or fixed r est r ict ion, a llows cha nges in t he flow r at e when
pr essur e dr op t hr ough it cha nges.
Var iat ions of t he basic flow-cont r ol va lves ar e t he flow-cont r ol-a nd-check va lves and t he
flow-cont r ol-and-over load r elief valves. Models in t he flow-cont r ol-and-check-va lve ser ies
incor por a t e an int egr a l check valve t o a llow r ever se fr ee flow. Models in t he flow-cont r ol-
and-over load-r elief-valve ser ies incor por at e a n int egr al r elief valve t o limit syst em pr essur e.
Some of t hese valves ar e gasket -mount ed, and some a r e panel-mount ed.
FM 5-499
5-20 Valves
Figure 5-27. Shift i ng s pool by hand leve r
FM 5-499
Valves 5-21
a. Gate Valve. In t his t ype of valve, a wedge or ga t e cont r ols t he flow. To open and close
a passage, a ha ndwheel moves a wedge or ga t e up and down acr oss a flow line. Figur e 5-30,
page 5-22, shows t he pr incipal element s of a ga t e valve. Ar ea A shows t he line connect ion
and t he out side st r uct ur e of t he valve; ar ea B shows t he wedge or gat e inside t he va lve and
t he st em t o which t he gat e and t he ha ndwheel ar e at t a ched. When t he valve is opened, t he
ga t e st a nds up inside
t he bonnet wit h it s
bot t om flush wit h t he
wa ll of t he line. When
t he valve is closed, t he
ga t e blocks t he flow by
st anding st r a ight
acr oss t he line wher e it
r est s fir mly a ga inst
t he t wo sea t s t ha t
ext end complet ely
ar ound t he line.
A gat e va lve
allows a st r aight flow
and offer s lit t le or no
r esist ance t o t he fluid
flow when t he valve is
complet ely open.
Somet imes a ga t e
va lve is in t he par t ially
open posit ion t o
r est r ict t he flow r a t e.
Fi gure 5-28. Spool shi fted by pi lot pre ss ure
Pressure
In
Return Return
Valve
spool
Solenoid 2 Solenoid 1
Actuator
Fi gure 5-29. Solenoi d-operate d, sli ding-spool , di rect i onal-
c ontrol valve
FM 5-499
5-22 Valves
However , it s main use is in t he fully open or fully
closed posit ions. If t he valve is left pa r t ly open, t he
valve's face st ands in t he fluid flow, which will a ct on
t he face a nd cause it t o er ode.
b. Globe Valve. A disc, which is scr ewed dir ect ly
on t he end of t he st em, is t he cont r olling member of a
globe valve. A valve is closed by lower ing a disc int o a
valve sea t . Since fluid flows equally on a ll sides of t he
cent er of suppor t when a va lve is open, t her e is no
unbalanced pr essur e on a disc t o cause uneven wear .
Figur e 5-31 shows a globe va lve.
c. Needle Valve. A needle va lve is similar in
design a nd oper at ion t o a globe va lve. Inst ea d of a
disc, a needle valve has a long, t a per ed point a t t h e
end of a va lve st em. Figur e 5-32 shows a sect ional
view of a needle valve. A long t aper a llows a needle
valve t o open or close gr a dually. A needle va lve is
used t o cont r ol flow
Int o delica t e gauges, which could be da m-
a ged if high-pr essur e fluid wa s suddenly
deliver ed.
At t he end of an oper a t ion when wor k
mot ion should ha lt slowly.
At ot her point s wher e pr ecise flow a djust -
ment s ar e necessa r y.
At point s wher e a small flow r at e is desir ed.
Control
wheel
B
A
Seal
Bonnet
Gate
Control
screw
Seat
Fi gure 5-30. Cross s e ct i on of a
gate valve
Control screw
Disc
Seat
Fi gure 5-31. Operati on of a globe valve
Closed
Open
Fi gure 5-32. Se ct i onal vi e w of a
ne e dle valve
FM 5-499
Valves 5-23
d. Restrictor. A rest r ict or is used in liquid-powered
syst ems t o limit t he movement speed of cer t ain a ct u-
at ing devices by limit ing flow r a t e in a line. Figur e 5-
33 shows a fixed r est r ict or . Figur e 5-34 shows a var i-
able r est r ict or , which var ies t he r est r ict ion a mount
and is a modified needle va lve. This valve ca n be pr e-
adjust ed t o a lt er t he oper at ing t ime of a pa r t icula r
subsyst em. Also, it ca n be a djust ed t o meet t he
r equir ement s of a par t icula r syst em.
e. Orifice Check Valve. This valve is used in liquid-
power ed syst ems t o a llow nor mal speed of oper at ion
in one dir ect ion a nd limit ed speed in
anot her . Figur e 5-35 shows t wo or ifice
check valves.
f. Flow Equalizer. A flow equa l-
izer (flow divider ) is used in some
hydr aulic syst ems t o synchr onize t he
oper at ion of t wo a ct uat ing unit s. An
equalizer divides a single st r eam of
fluid fr om a dir ect iona l-cont r ol va lve
int o t wo equal st r eams. Ea ch act ua t -
ing unit r eceives t he sa me flow r at e;
bot h move in unison. When t he t wo
st r eams of r et ur n fluid oper at e in oppo-
sit e dir ect ions, a flow equalizer com-
bines t hem a t a n equal r at e. Thus, a
flow equalizer synchr onizes t he act ua t -
ing unit s' movement s dur ing bot h
oper at ional dir ect ions.
Figur e 5-36, pa ge 5-24, shows one
t ype of flow equalizer ; t he valve is in t he
split t ing (divided-flow) posit ion. Fluid,
under pr essur e fr om t he dir ect iona l-
cont r ol valve, ent er s por t 3. This pr es-
sur e over comes spr ing t ension and
Fi gure 5-33. Fi xed re s t ri ct or
Adjusting
screw
Bonnet
Fi gure 5-34. Vari able re s t ri c tor
Inlet
Inlet
Outlet
Outlet
3
4
2
1
5
A
B
1. Outlet port 4. Inlet port
2. Cone 5. Orifice
3. Orifice
Figure 5-35. Orifi c e c hec k valve
FM 5-499
5-24 Valves
Fi gure 5-36. Flow e quali zer
FM 5-499
Valves 5-25
for ces plug 4 down a nd uncover s t he t wo or ifices in sleeve 2. The fluid t hen split s a nd should
flow equally t hr ough side pa ssa ges 1 a nd 5. The fluid flows t hr ough
Split t ing check valves 7 a nd 15.
Met er ing gr ooves 10 a nd 14.
Por t s 9 a nd 13.
The connect ing lines t o t he a ct uat ing cylinder s.
Any differ ence in t he flow r at e bet ween t he t wo passages r esult s in a pr essur e differ en-
t ial bet ween t hese t wo pa ssa ges. Fr ee-floa t ing met er ing pist on 11 shift s t o equalize t he
int er nal pr essur e, equa lizing t he flow.
5-4. Valve Install at i on. Since a flow-cont r ol va lve met er s flow in one dir ect ion only, t he
inlet and out let por t s must be cor r ect ly connect ed in a cir cuit in r ela t ion t o t he flow dir ect ion
t o be met er ed. A va lve's dr ain connect ion must be piped t o a t a nk so t hat a connect ion will
not be subject ed t o possible pr essur e sur ges. The locat ion of a flow-cont r ol valve wit h
r espect t o wor kload ha s an affect on a cir cuit 's oper a t ing char a ct er ist ics. The t hr ee basic
t ypes of flow-cont r ol-
va lve inst allat ions
ar e t he met er -in,
met er -out , and bleed-
off cir cuit s.
a. Meter-In Cir-
cuit (Figur e 5-37).
Wit h t his cir cuit , a
flow-cont r ol valve is
inst alled in a pr es-
sur e line t hat lea ds t o
a wor k cylinder . All
flow ent er ing a wor k
cylinder is fir st
met er ed t hr ough a
flow-cont r ol valve.
Since t his met er ing
act ion involves r educ-
ing flow fr om a pump
t o a wor k cylinder , a
pump must deliver
mor e fluid t han is
r equir ed t o act ua t e a cylinder a t t he desir ed speed. Excess fluid r et ur ns t o a t a nk t hr ough a
r elief va lve. To conser ve power a nd avoid undue st r ess on a pump, a r elief va lves set t ing
should be only slight ly higher t han a wor king pr essur es, which a cylinder r equir es.
A met er -in cir cuit is ideal in a pplicat ions wher e a load a lways offer s a posit ive r esis-
t a nce t o flow dur ing a cont r olled st r oke. Examples would be feeding gr inder t ables, welding
ma chines, milling ma chines, and r ot a r y hydr aulic mot or dr ives. A flow-cont r ol-a nd-check
va lve used in t his t ype of cir cuit would allow r ever se fr ee flow for t he r et ur n st r oke of a cylin-
der , but it would not pr ovide cont r ol of r et ur n st r oke speed.
Fi gure 5-37. Typi cal me te r-in ci rc ui t
FM 5-499
5-26 Valves
b. Meter-Out
Circuit (Figur e 5-38,
pa ge 5-26). Wit h a
met er -out cir cuit , a
flow-cont r ol va lve is
inst alled on t he
r et ur n side of a cyl-
inder so t ha t it con-
t r ols a cylinder 's
a ct uat ion by met er -
ing it s discha r ge
flow. A r elief valve
is set slight ly above
t he oper at ing pr es-
sur e t hat is r equir ed
by t he t ype of wor k.
This t ype of cir -
cuit is ideal for over -
hauling load
applicat ions in which a wor kload t ends t o pull an oper a t ing pist on fast er t han a pump's
deliver y would wa r r ant . Examples would be for dr illing, r eaming, bor ing, t ur ning, t hr ead-
ing, t apping, cut t ing off, and cold sa wing machines. A flow-cont r ol-a nd-check valve used in
t his cir cuit would a llow r ever se fr ee flow, but it would not pr ovide a cont r ol of r et ur n st r oke
speed.
c. Bleed-Off Circuit. A t ypical bleed-off cir cuit is not inst alled dir ect ly in a feed line. It
is Td int o t his line wit h it s out let connect ed t o a r et urn line. A valve r egulat es flow t o a cyl-
inder by diver t ing an a djust able por t ion of a pumps flow t o a t ank. Since fluid deliver ed t o a
wor k cylinder does not have t o pa ss t hr ough a flow-cont r ol va lve, excess fluid does not ha ve
t o be dumped t hr ough a r elief va lve. This t ype of cir cuit usua lly involves less heat gener a -
t ion beca use pr essur e on a pump equa ls t he wor k r esist ance dur ing a feed oper a t ion.
d. Compensated Flow. The flow-cont r ol va lves pr eviously discussed do not compensat e
for cha nges in fluid t emper a t ur e or pr essur e a nd a r e consider ed noncompensa t ing valves.
Flow r a t e t hr ough t hese valves ca n va r y at a fixed set t ing if eit her t he pr essur e or t he fluid's
t emper at ur e cha nges. Viscosit y is t he int er na l r esist ance of a fluid t hat ca n st op it fr om
flowing. A liquid t ha t flows ea sily ha s a high viscosit y. Viscosit y changes, which can r esult
fr om t emper at ur e changes, can ca use low var iat ions t hr ough a valve. Such a valve can be
used in liquid-power ed syst ems wher e slight flow va r iat ions ar e not cr it ica l consider a t ion
fact or s.
However , some syst ems r equir e ext r emely a ccur a t e cont r ol of an act ua t ing device. In
such a syst em, a compensa t ed flow-cont r ol valve is used. This va lve a ut oma t ica lly changes
t he a djust ment or pr essur e dr op acr oss a r est r ict ion t o pr ovide a const ant flow at a given set -
t ing. A va lve met er s a const a nt flow r egar dless of var iat ion in syst em pr essur e. A compen-
sat ed flow-cont r ol va lve is used mainly t o met er fluid flowing int o a cir cuit ; however , it can
be used t o met er fluid as it leaves a cir cuit . For clar it y, t his manual will r efer t o t his valve
as a flow r egula t or .
Figure 5-38. Typi c al met er-out ci rc ui t
FM 5-499
Valves 5-27
5-5. Valve Fai lure s and Re me di e s. Hydr aulic valves a r e pr ecision-ma de and must be
ver y accur a t e in cont r olling a fluids pr essur e, dir ect ion, and volume wit hin a syst em. Gen-
er ally, no packings ar e used on va lves since leaka ge is slight , as long as t he va lves ar e ca r e-
fully fit t ed and kept in good condit ion.
Cont a minant s, such as dir t in t he oil, ar e t he ma jor pr oblems in valve failur es. Sma ll
amount s of dir t , lint , r ust , or sludge can ca use a nnoying malfunct ions and ext ensively dam-
age va lve par t s. Such ma t er ia l will ca use a valve t o st ick, plug small openings, or a br a de t he
ma t ing sur faces unt il a valve lea ks. Any of t hese condit ions will r esult in poor ma chine
oper at ion, or even complet e st oppa ge. This da ma ge may be elimina t ed if oper at or s use ca r e
in keeping out dir t .
Use only t he specified oils in a hydr aulic syst em. Follow t he r ecommenda t ions in a
ma chines oper a t or 's ma nua l. Beca use oxida t ion pr oduces r ust par t icles, use a n oil t ha t will
not oxidize. Change t he oil a nd ser vice t he filt er s r egular ly.
a. S ervicing Valves. Do t he following befor e ser vicing a va lve:
Disconnect t he elect r ical power sour ce befor e r emoving a hydr aulic va lves compo-
nent s. Doing so elimina t es st ar t ing t he equipment a ccident ally or shor t ing out
t he t ools.
Move a valve's cont r ol lever in all dir ect ions t o r elease t he syst ems hydr a ulic
pr essur e befor e disconnect ing any hydr aulic va lve component s.
Block up or lower all hydr a ulic wor king unit s t o t he gr ound befor e disconnect ing
any par t s.
Clean a va lve and it s sur r ounding ar ea befor e r emoving any par t for ser vice. Use
st eam-cleaning equipment if availa ble; however , do not a llow wa t er t o ent er a sys-
t em. Be cer t a in t hat all hose a nd line connect ions a r e t ight .
Use fuel oil or ot her suit a ble solvent s t o clea n wit h if st ea m cleaning is not possi-
ble. However , never use paint t hinner or a cet one. Plug t he por t holes immedi-
at ely aft er disconnect ing t he lines.
b. Disassembling Valves. Do t he following when disassembling a valve:
Do not per for m ser vice wor k on a hydr aulic valves int er ior on t he shop floor , on
t he gr ound, or wher e t her e is da nger of dust or dir t being blown int o t he par t s.
Use only a clean bench ar ea . Be cer t ain t hat a ll t ools a r e clea n and fr ee of gr ease
and dir t .
Be car eful t o ident ify t he pa r t s when disassembling for la t er r eassembly. Spools
ar e select ively fit t ed t o valve bodies and must be r et urned t o t hose same bodies.
You must r eassemble t he valve sect ions in t he same or der .
CAUTION
Be very careful when removing a backup plug on a
spring-loaded valve. Personal injury could result.
FM 5-499
5-28 Valves
Be ver y car eful when you ha ve t o clamp a valve housing in a vise. Do not da ma ge
t he component . If possible, use a vise equipped wit h lea d or br ass jaws, or pr ot ect
t he component by wr a pping it in a pr ot ect ive cover ing.
Make sur e t ha t you sea l all t he valve's housing openings when you r emove t he
component s dur ing ser vice wor k. Doing so will pr event for eign ma t er ial fr om
ent er ing t he housing.
Use a pr ess t o r emove spr ings t hat ar e under high pr essur e.
Wash a ll valve component s in a clea n miner al-oil solvent (or ot her noncor r osive
clea ner ). Dr y t he pa r t s wit h compr essed a ir , and place t hem on a clean sur face
for inspect ion. Do not wipe a valve wit h wast e pa per or r a gs. Lint deposit s on
any par t s may ent er t he hydr aulic syst em a nd ca use t r ouble.
Do not use car bon t et r a chlor ide as a clea ning solvent ; it can det er ior at e t he r ub-
ber sea ls.
Coat t he pa r t s wit h a r ust -inhibit ing hydr a u-
lic oil immedia t ely a ft er clea ning a nd dr ying
t hem. Ma ke sur e t o keep t he par t s clea n and
fr ee fr om moist ur e unt il you r einst all t hem.
Inspect t he va lve spr ings ca r efully when dis-
assembling t hem. Replace all t he spr ings
t ha t show signs of being cocked or cr ooked or
ones t hat cont ain br oken, fr a ct ur ed, or r ust y
coils.
Use a spr ing t est er t o check t he st r engt h of
t he spr ings, in pounds, compr essed t o a spec-
ified lengt h (see Figur e 5-39).
c. Repairing Valves. The following par agr aphs
addr ess r epa ir of dir ect ional-cont r ol, volume-cont r ol,
and pr essur e-cont r ol va lves:
(1) Dir ect ional-Cont r ol Valves. Dir ect iona l-con-
t r ol-valve spools ar e inst a lled in t he valve housing by a
select hone fit . This is done t o pr ovide t he closest possi-
ble fit bet ween a housing a nd a spool for minimum
int er na l leakage a nd ma ximum holding qualit ies. To
ma ke t his close fit , you would need specia l fact or y t ech-
niques a nd equipment . Ther efor e, most valve spools
and bodies a r e fur nished for ser vice only in ma t ched set s and a r e not availa ble individua lly
for r eplacement .
When r epair ing t hese valves, inspect t he valve spools a nd bor es for bur r s and scor ing a s
shown in Figur e 5-40. The spools may become coa t ed wit h impur it ies fr om t he hydr a ulic oil.
When scor ing or coat ing is not deep enough t o ca use a lea kage pr oblem, polish t he sur faces
wit h cr ocus clot h. Do not r emove any of t he valve mat er ial. Repla ce a valves body a nd spool
if scor ing or coa t ing is excessive. If a valves a ct ion was er r a t ic or st icky befor e you r emoved
it , it ma y be unba la nced because of wea r on t he spools or body; r eplace t he va lve.
Fi gure 5-39. Spri ng te st er
FM 5-499
Valves 5-29
(2) Volume-Cont r ol Va lve. On valve spools
wit h or ifices, inspect for clogging fr om dir t or
ot her for eign mat t er (see Figur e 5-41). Clean a
va lve wit h compr essed air or a sma ll wir e.
Rewa sh all t he pa r t s t hor oughly t o r emove a ll
emer y or met a l par t icles. Any such a br asives
could quickly damage a n ent ir e hydr aulic sys-
t em. Check a va lve spool for fr eedom of move-
ment in a bor e. When light ly oiled, a va lve
should slide int o a bor e fr om it s own weight .
(3) Pr essur e-Cont r ol Valve (Figur e 5-42).
Check for a weak r elief-valve spr ing wit h a
spr ing t est er if syst em checks have indicat ed
low pr essur e. You can r emedy t his by r eplacing
a spr ing or by adding shims t o incr ea se t he com-
pr ession of a spr ing, in some cases. Never add
so many shims t hat a spr ing is compr essed solid.
(4) Va lve Seat s a nd Poppet s. Check t he
va lve sea t s for possible leaka ge by scor ing.
Repla ce a va lve if flat spot s appear on a seat or
on t he poppet s. You can sur fa ce polish t he
met al va lve sea t s and poppet s if t he scor ing is
not deep. Do not r emove a ny va lve ma t er ia l.
Some seat s and valve poppet s a r e ma de of
nylon, which is long wear ing and ela st ic enough
t o confor m per fect ly t o mat ing sur fa ces, giving a
t ight sea l. The nylon seat s on t he poppet valves
will t ake wear , wit h no da mage t o t he mat ing
met al point . When r epa ir ing t hese va lves,
alwa ys r eplace t he nylon par t s wit h new nylon
ser vice pa r t s.
(5) Nona djust a ble, Ca r t r idge-Type Relief
Valves. If a r elief valve's scr een or or ifice
becomes plugged, oil cannot ent er it s body t o
equalize t he pr essur e in a n a r ea bet ween a n
or ifice plat e a nd a pilot assembly (see Figur e 5-
43, pa ge 5-30). This plugging causes a valve t o
open a t lower pr essur es t han it should. The
r esult is sluggish oper at ing hydr aulic unit s.
Keep a r elief valve's scr een and or ifice clean a t
all t imes. Also check t he O-r ings for da mage,
which might ca use leaka ge.
Each relief valve's cart r idge is st amped wit h
a par t number , a pr essur e limit , a nd t he dat e of
ma nufact ur e (see Figur e 5-44, pa ge 5-30). Use
Inspect seal
for leakage.
Check for
scoring
on lands.
Inspect for burring
of edges.
Look for coating
in this area.
Fi gure 5-40. Valve i nspe c ti on
Check orifice
for clogging.
Inspect valve
spool for scoring.
Inspect
spring.
Check for burring
at edges of ports.
Fi gure 5-41. Volume-c ontrol valve
Check mating
seats.
Look for scoring
on valve.
Inspect for burring
in housing bore.
Fi gure 5-42. Pre ss ure-c ont rol valve
FM 5-499
5-30 Valves
t his code when t est ing t he ca r t r idges. Test a
va lve's ca r t r idges for pr essur e set t ing by
inst a lling t hem in a syst em and oper a t ing it
unt il you r ea ch t he valve's opening pr es-
sur e. Rea d t he pr essur e on a ga uge t hat is
inst a lled in a va lve's cir cuit .
5-6. Valve Asse mbly. Do t he following
when assembling valves:
Ensur e t hat t he valves ar e clean.
Wash t heir pa r t s in ker osene, blow
dr y t hem wit h a ir , and t hen dip t hem
in hydr a ulic oil wit h r ust inhibit or t o
pr event r ust ing. Doing so will a id in
assembly a nd pr ovide init ia l lubr ica-
t ion. You ca n use pet r oleum jelly t o
hold t he sealing r ings in pla ce dur ing
assembly.
Double check t o ma ke sur e t ha t a va lve's ma t ing sur fa ces ar e fr ee of bur r s and paint .
Repla ce all t he sea ls a nd ga sket s when r epa ir ing a valve assembly. Soak t he new
seals and gasket s in clean hydr a ulic oil befor e a ssembling. Doing so will pr event
da ma ge and help seal a valves par t s.
Make sur e t ha t you inser t a va lves spools in t heir mat ched bor es. You must a ssem-
ble a valves sect ions in t heir cor r ect or der .
Make sur e t ha t t her e is no dist or t ion when mount ing va lves. Dist or t ion ca n be
ca used by uneven t ension on t he mount ing bolt s and oil-line fla nges, uneven mount -
ing sur fa ces, impr oper valve locat ion, or insufficient a llowance for line expansion
when t he oil t emper at ur e r ises. Any of t hese could r esult in va lve-spool binding.
Check t he a ct ion of a valves spools
aft er you t ight en t he bolt s. If t her e
is any st icking or binding, adjust t he
t ension of t he mount ing bolt s.
5-7. Troubleshooti ng Valve s . List ed
below ar e a r eas t hat you ca n dia gnose in
hydr aulic valves. When wor king on a spe-
cific machine, r efer t o a machine's t echnical
ma nual for mor e infor mat ion.
a. Pressure-Control Valves. The follow-
ing list s infor mat ion when t r oubleshoot ing
r elief, pr essur e-r educing, pr essur e-
sequence, and unloading valves:
(1) Relief Valves. Consider t he follow-
ing when t r oubleshoot ing r elief va lves
beca use t hey have low or er r a t ic pr essur e:
Check screen
for clogging.
Inspect O-rings
for damage.
Inspect for
clogged orifice.
Check seats
for damage.
Fi gure 5-43. Cart ri dge-t ype reli ef valve
Part number
Pressure limit
Date of manufacture
Fi gure 5-44. Readi ngs on a c art ri dge -type
re li ef valve
FM 5-499
Valves 5-31
Adjust ment is incor r ect .
Dir t , chip, or bur r s ar e holding t he va lve par t ially open.
Poppet s or sea t s a r e wor n or damaged.
Valve pist on in t he ma in body is st icking.
Spr ing is weak.
Spr ing ends ar e damaged.
Valve in t he body or on t he sea t is cocking.
Or ifice or balance hold is blocked.
Consider t he following when t r oubleshoot ing r elief valves because t hey have no pr es-
sur e:
Or ifice or balance hole is plugged.
Poppet does not sea t .
Valve has a loose fit .
Valve in t he body or t he cover binds.
Spr ing is br oken.
Dir t , chip, or bur r s ar e holding t he va lve par t ially open.
Poppet or sea t is wor n or da ma ged.
Valve in t he body or on t he sea t is cocking.
Consider t he following when t r oubleshoot ing r elief valves because t hey have excessive
noise or chat t er :
Oil viscosit y is t oo high.
Poppet or sea t is fault y or wor n.
Line pr essur e has excessive r et ur n.
Pr essur e set t ing is t oo close t o t ha t of a not her valve in t he cir cuit .
An impr oper spr ing is used behind t he valve.
Consider t he following when t r oubleshoot ing r elief valves because you ca nnot a djust
t hem pr oper ly wit hout get t ing excessive syst em pr essur e:
Spr ing is br oken.
Spr ing is fa t igued.
Valve has a n impr oper spr ing.
Dr ain line is r est r ict ed.
Consider t he following when t r oubleshoot ing r elief valves because t hey might be over -
hea t ing t he syst em:
Oper at ion is cont inuous a t t he r elief set t ing.
Oil viscosit y is t oo high.
Valve seat is lea king.
FM 5-499
Valves 5-32
(2) Pr essur e-Reducing Valves. Consider t he following when t r oubleshoot ing pr essur e-
r educing valves because t hey have er r at ic pr essur e:
Dir t is in t he oil.
Poppet or sea t is wor n.
Or ifice or balance hole is r est r ict ed.
Valve spool binds in t he body.
Dr ain line is not open fr eely t o a r eser voir .
Spr ing ends ar e not squa r e.
Valve has a n impr oper spr ing.
Spr ing is fa t igued.
Valve needs an adjust ment .
Spool bor e is wor n.
(3) Pr essur e-Sequence Valves. Consider t he following when t r oubleshoot ing pr essur e-
sequence valves beca use t he valve is not funct ioning pr oper ly:
Inst a llat ion wa s impr oper .
Adjust ment wa s impr oper .
Spr ing is br oken.
For eign mat t er is on a plunger seat or in t he or ifices.
Ga sket is lea ky or blown.
Dr ain line is plugged.
Valve cover s ar e not t ight ened pr oper ly or a r e inst a lled wr ong.
Valve plunger is wor n or scor ed.
Valve-st em seat is wor n or scor ed.
Or ifices ar e t oo lar ge, which causes a jer ky oper a t ion.
Binding occur s because moving par t s ar e coat ed wit h oil impur it ies (due t o over -
hea t ing or using impr oper oil).
Consider t he following when t r oubleshoot ing pr essur e-sequence valves beca use t her e is
a pr emat ur e movement t o t he secondar y oper a t ion:
Valve set t ing is t oo low.
An excessive loa d is on a pr imar y cylinder .
A high iner t ia loa d is on a pr imar y cylinder .
Consider t he following when t r oubleshoot ing pr essur e-sequence valves beca use t her e is
no movement or t he seconda r y oper at ion is slow:
Valve set t ing is t oo high.
Relief-va lve set t ing is t oo close t o t ha t of a sequence va lve.
Valve spool binds in t he body.
FM 5-499
Valves 5-33
(4) Unloading Valves. Consider t he following when t r oubleshoot ing t h ese valves
beca use a va lve fails t o complet ely unloa d a pump:
Valve set t ing is t oo high.
Pump does not build up t o t he unloading valve pr essur e.
Valve spool binds in t he body.
b. Directional-Control Valves. Dir ect iona l-cont r ol va lves include spool, r ot ar y, and
check valves. Consider t he following when t r oubleshoot ing t hese va lves because t her e is
fault y or incomplet e shift ing:
Cont r ol linkage is wor n or is binding.
Pilot pr essur e is insufficient .
Solenoid is bur ned out or fa ult y.
Cent er ing spr ing is defect ive.
Spool adjust ment is impr oper .
Consider t he following when t r oubleshoot ing dir ect ional-cont r ol valves because t he
act ua t ing cylinder cr eeps or dr ift s:
Valve spool is not cent er ing pr oper ly.
Valve spool is not shift ed complet ely.
Valve-spool body is wor n.
Lea kage occur s pa st t he pist on in a cylinder .
Valve seat s ar e leaking.
Consider t he following when t r oubleshoot ing dir ect ional-cont r ol valves because a cylin-
der loa d dr ops wit h t he spool in t he cent er ed posit ion:
Lines fr om t he va lve housing ar e loose.
O-r ings on lockout spr ings or plugs a r e leaking.
Lockout spr ing is br oken.
Relief valves a r e leaking.
Consider t he following when t r oubleshoot ing dir ect ional-cont r ol valves because a cylin-
der loa d dr ops slight ly when it is r a ised:
Check-valve spr ing or seat is defect ive.
Spool va lve's posit ion is adjust ed impr oper ly.
Consider t he following when t r oubleshoot ing dir ect iona l-cont r ol va lves beca use t he oil
hea t s (closed-cent er syst ems):
Valve seat lea ks (pr essur e or r et ur n cir cuit ).
Valves ar e not adjust ed pr oper ly.
c. Volume-Control Valves. Volume-cont r ol va lves include flow-cont r ol a nd flow-divider
va lves. Consider t he following when t r oubleshoot ing t hese valves because t her e a r e va r ia-
t ions in flow:
FM 5-499
Valves 5-34
Valve spool binds in t he body.
Cylinder or mot or leaks.
Oil viscosit y is t oo high.
Pr essur e dr op is insufficient a cr oss a valve.
Oil is dir t y.
Consider t he following when t r oubleshoot ing volume-cont r ol valves because of er r at ic
pr essur e:
Valve's poppet or sea t is wor n.
Oil is dir t y.
Consider t he following when t r oubleshoot ing volume-cont r ol valves because of impr oper
flow:
Valve wa s not a djust ed pr oper ly.
Valve-pist on t r avel is r est r ict ed.
Pa ssages or or ifice is r est r ict ed.
Valve pist on is cocked.
Relief valves lea k.
Oil is t oo hot .
Consider t he following when t r oubleshoot ing volume-cont r ol valves because t he oil
hea t s:
Pump speed is impr oper .
Hydr aulic funct ions ar e holding in r elief.
Connect ions ar e incor r ect .
FM 5-499
Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting 6-1
CHAPTER 6
Ci rcui t Di agrams and
Troubleshooti ng
Hydraulic-circuit diagrams are complete drawings of a hydraulic circuit. Included in
the diagrams is a description, a sequence of operations, notes, and a components list. Accu-
rate diagrams are essential t o the designer, the people who build the machine, and the person
who repairs it. Hydraulic mechanisms are precision units, and their cont inued smooth oper-
ation depends on frequent inspection and servicing. Personnel must maintain the equipment
and system by performing frequent inspections and servicing. The systems must be kept
clean, with the oil and filters changed at established int ervals.
6-1. Hydrauli c -Ci rc ui t Di agrams . The four t ypes of hydr aulic-cir cuit diagr a ms a r e block,
cut away, pict or ial, a nd gr a phical. These diagr a ms show t he
Component s and how t hey will int er act .
Manufa ct ur ing engineer and a ssembler how t o connect t he component s.
Field t echnician how t he syst em wor ks, wha t each component should be doing,
and wher e t he oil should be going so t hat t he t echnicia n can dia gnose a nd r epa ir
t he syst em.
a. Block Diagram. A block diagr am shows t he component s wit h lines bet ween t he
clocks, which indicat e connect ions a nd/or int er act ions.
b. Cut away Diagram. A cut a wa y diagr a m shows t he int er na l const r uct ion of t he com-
ponent s a s well as t he flow pat hs. Because t he dia-
gr am uses color s, sha des, or var ious pa t t er ns in t he
lines a nd passages, it can show t he ma ny differ ent
flow and pr essur e condit ions.
c. Pictorial Diagram. A pict or ial dia gr a m shows
a cir cuit s piping ar r angement . The component s ar e
seen ext er nally and ar e usually in a close r epr oduc-
t ion of t heir act ual shapes and sizes.
d. Graphical Diagram. A gr a phical diagr a m
(Figur e 6-1), t he shor t -hand syst em of t he indust r y,
is usua lly pr efer r ed for design a nd t r oubleshoot ing.
Simple geomet r ic symbols r epr esent t he component s
and t heir cont r ols and connect ions.
6-2. Uni t e d Stat e s of Ameri can Standards Insti -
tut e (USASI) Graphi c al Symbol s . The USASI, t he old Amer ican St a nda r ds Associa t ion
(ASA), and t he J oint Indust r y Confer ence (J IC) ar e t hr ee syst ems of symbols used in cir cuit
dia gr ams. This manua l uses t he USASI symbols shown in Figur e 6-2, pa ges 6-2 a nd 6-3.
Steering circuit
Lift
circuit
Double
pump
Reservoir
Fi gure 6-1. Graphi c al-ci rc ui t
di agram
FM 5-499
6-2 Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting
Fi gure 6-2. USASI graphi cal symbol s
FM 5-499
Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting 6-3
Fi gure 6-2. USASI graphi cal symbols (conti nued)
FM 5-499
6-4 Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting
a. Reservoir. The symbol for a r eser -
voir is a r ect angle; t he hor izont a l side is
t he longest side (see Figur e 6-3). If a r es-
er voir is vent ed t o t he a t mospher e, t he
t op of t he symbol is open. If a r eser voir
is pr essur ized, t he t op is closed. Lines
t hat connect t o a r eser voir usually a r e
dr a wn fr om t he t op, r egar dless of wher e
t hey connect . If t he line t er minat es
below t he fluid level, it is dr awn t o t he
bot t om of t he symbol. A line connect ed
t o t he bot t om of a r eser voir ma y be
dr a wn fr om t he bot t om of t he symbol, if
t he bot t om connect ion is essent ia l t o t he
syst em's oper at ion. For exa mple, when
t he pump's inlet must be char ged or flooded by a posit ive hea d of oil a bove t he inlet 's por t ,
t hey would be posit ioned above t he pump symbol and t he suct ion line dr awn out t he bot t om
of t he symbol. Ever y r eser voir has at least t wo hydr aulic lines connect ed t o it ; some have
mor e. The r eser voir is usually t he only component pict ur ed mor e t ha n once so t hat compo-
nent s a nd r et ur n or dr a in lines t o and fr om t he r eser voir a r e r epr esent ed cor r ect ly.
b. Lines. Figur e 6-4 shows t he symbols for hydr aulic lines, which ar e as follows:
Wor king line: A solid line t hat r epr esent s a hydr a ulic pipe, t ube, hose, or ot her
conduct or t hat car r ies t he liquid bet ween component s.
Pilot line: Long da shes t hat r epr esent cont r ol lines.
Dr ain line: Shor t dashes t hat r epr esent t he dr ain lines for leaking oil.
Flexible line: A solid, ar ced line t hat is dr awn bet ween t wo dot s which r epr esent s
a flexible line in t he syst em.
Figur e 6-5, diagr am A, shows cr ossed lines
t hat ar e not connect ed. Syst ems 1 a nd 2 r epr e-
sent t wo wa ys t o indica t e a n int er sect ion, one
wit h a loop, one wit hout a loop. Dia gr am B
shows lines t ha t a r e connect ed. The lines in
syst em 1 use a dot a t t he cr ossing, indica t ing
t hat loops a r e used t o designat e t he cr ossing.
The lines in syst em 2 do not use a dot a t t he
cr ossing, indicat ing t hat loops a r e not used at
t he cr ossing.
c. Pump. The ba sic symbol of a pump is a
cir cle wit h a black t r iangle in t he cir cle point -
ing out wa r d (see Figur e 6-6). The pr essur e line
fr om t he pump is dr awn fr om t he t ip of t he t r iangle; t he suct ion line is dr awn opposit e it .
The t r ia ngle indicat es t he flow dir ect ion. If a pump is r ever sible, it will ha ve t wo t r ia ngles,
one point ing out of ea ch por t . Por t connect ions t o t he pump (or any ot her component except
t he r eser voir ) ar e at t he point s wher e t he lines t ouch t he symbols. A var iable (or adjust able)
component is designat ed by an ar r ow dr awn t hr ough t he component s at a 45-degr ee angle.
Vented
reservoir
Pressurized
reservoir
Line terminating
above fluid level
Line terminating
below fluid level
Fi gure 6-3. Re se rvoi r symbol s
Working line
Pilot line
Drain line
Flexible line
Fi gure 6-4. Hydrauli c li ne symbol s
FM 5-499
Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting 6-5
d. Motor. Mot or symbols ar e cir cles wit h
black t r iangles point ing inwa r d, indicat ing t hat
t he mot or r eceives pr essur e ener gy (see Figur e
6-7, page 6-6). One t r ia ngle indicat es a nonr e-
ver sible mot or ; t wo t r ia ngles indicat e a r ever s-
ible mot or . Flow dir ect ion in a single t r iangle
is t he wa y t he t r iangle point s. In t he r ever sible
mot or , st udying t he pump and valve symbols is
t he way t o t r ace t he flow dir ect ion. The a r r ows
t ha t a r e out side t he lines show t he flow dir ec-
t ion, which is always awa y fr om t he pump's
pr essur e por t a nd int o t he mot or por t t ha t is
connect ed t o t he pr essur e line. The opposit e
por t t hen discha r ges back t o t he t a nk.
e. Cylinder. The ba sic cylinder symbol is a
simple r ect angle (a bar r el) and a T-sha ped fig-
ur e (a pist on a nd a r od). The symbol ca n be
dr a wn in any posit ion. The following descr ibes
four differ ent cylinder symbols (see Figur e 6-8,
page 6-6):
Single-act ing cylinder : One hydr aulic
line dr a wn t o t he basic cylinder symbol;
t he end opposit e t he por t is open.
Double-a ct ing cylinder : Bot h ends of
t he symbol ar e closed; t wo lines meet
t he ba sic cylinder symbol at t he por t
connect ions.
Double-end r od cylinder : A r od line
ext ends fr om each end of t he basic cylin-
der symbol.
Cushioned cylinder : Small r ect a ngles
ar e placed a ga inst t he pist on line. If t he
cushion ha s a n adjust able or ifice, a
sla nt ed a r r ow is dr awn a cr oss t he sym-
bol. Ther e is no symbol for flow dir ec-
t ion, so lines must be wat ched t o see
wher e t hey ar e connect ed, which should
help det er mine flow.
f. Pressure-Control Valves. The basic symbol
is a squa r e wit h ext er nal por t connect ions and
an ar r ow inside t o show t he flow dir ect ion (see
Figur e 6-9, page 6-6). This valve oper a t es by
ba lancing t he pump out let t o t he r eser voir .
System 1
to loop
System 2
not to loop
Nonconnecting lines
A
System 1 to dot
System 2 not to dot
Connecting lines
B
Figure 6-5. Cros si ng li ne s A and B
Fixed displacement
Variable
displacement
(simplified)
Variable displacement
pressure compensated
(complete)
Reversible with
lever control
Fi gure 6-6. Pump symbol s
FM 5-499
6-6 Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting
(1) Relief Va lve (Figur e 6-10). The r elief
va lve's symbol goes bet ween t he pr essur e line a nd
t he t a nk. The flow-dir ect ion a r r ow point s a wa y
fr om t he pr essur e-line por t and t owar d t he t ank
por t . When pr essur e in t he syst em over comes t he
va lve spr ing, flow is fr om t he pr essur e por t t o t he
t a nk por t .
(2) Sequence Va lve (Figur e 6-11). A sequence
va lve uses t he r elief va lve. However , t he inlet
por t is connect ed t o a pr ima r y cylinder line; t he
out let por t is connect ed t o t he secondar y cylinder
line. Pilot pr essur e fr om t he pr imar y cylinder
line sequences t he flow t o t he out let por t when it
r eaches t he va lve's set t ing. Since t he sequence
va lve is ext er nally dr a ined, a dr a in connect ion is
added t o t he symbol a t t he dr a in's locat ion in t he
va lve.
(3) Check Va lve (Figur e 6-12, page 6-8). A
check valve uses a sequence valve for fr ee r et ur n
flow when t he cylinder s a r e r ever sed. In Figur e
6-12, dia gr am A shows t he valves a s separ at e
unit s. Dia gr am B shows t he check va lve built int o
t he sequence valve. The box a r ound t he valves is
an enclosur e, which shows t he limit s of a compo-
nent or an assembly t ha t cont a ins mor e t ha n one
component . The enclosur e is an alt er nat e long
and shor t da shed line. Ext er na l por t s ar e
assumed t o be on t he enclosur e line a nd indica t e
connect ions t o t he component s.
Valves
Valves
Nonreversible
motor
Reversible
motor
Fi gure 6-7. Mot or symbol s
Ports
Double-acting
Port Port
or
Single-acting
Double end rod
Adjustable Nonadjustable
Cushioned
Fi gure 6-8. Cyli nder symbol s
Inlet
Inlet
Spring
Pilot
pressure
Outlet Outlet
NORMALLY
CLOSED
NORMALLY
OPEN
Fi gure 6-9. Pre ss ure -control-valve
symbol s
FM 5-499
Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting 6-7
(4) Count er ba la nce Valve (Figur e 6-
13, page 6-8). A count er ba la nce valve is
a nor mally closed pr essur e-cont r ol wit h
an int egral check valve. A dir ect ly con-
t rolled valve uses t he same symbol as in
Figur e 6-13, wit h t he pr imar y por t con-
nect ed t o t he bot t om por t of t he cylinder
and t he secondar y por t t o t he dir ec-
t ional valve. The va lve is dr a ined int er -
nally, so t he symbol shows no dr ain
connect ion. If t he valve body has t wo
pr ima r y por t s, t he symbol should show
one of t hem plugged.
(5) Pr essur e-Reducing Va lve. Fig-
ur e 6-14, page 6-9 shows t he nor ma lly
opened pr essur e-r educing valve. The
symbol shows t he out let pr essur e oppo-
sit e t he spr ing t o modula t e or shut off
t he flow when t he va lve set t ing is
r eached.
g. Flow-Control Valves. Figure 6-15,
page 6-9, shows t he symbols for t he
ba sic flow-cont r ol, adjust able and nonad-
justable va lves. The figur e a lso shows
t he symbol for a complet ely a djust a ble,
pr essur e-compensa t ed, flow-cont r ol
va lve wit h a built -in bypass.
h. Directional-Control Valves. A
dir ect ional-cont r ol-valve symbol uses a
mult iple envelope syst em t hat has a
separ at e r ect a ngle for ea ch posit ion. All
t he por t connect ions a r e made t o t he
envelope, which shows t he neut r al con-
dit ion of t he valve. Ar r ows in each
envelope show t he flow pa t hs when t he
va lve shift s t o t hat posit ion.
(1) Unloading Va lve (Figur e 6-16,
page 6-9). The symbol for t his va lve ha s
t wo envelopes. In t he nor ma lly closed
posit ion, flow is shown blocked inside
t he valve. The spr ing cont r ol is pla ced
adjacent t o t his envelope, indica t ing
t ha t t he spr ing cont r ols t his posit ion.
The ext er na l pilot pr essur e is pla ced
against t he bot t om envelope, indicat ing
t he flow condit ion when t he pilot pressure
Pressure line
Pump Relief valve
Fi gure 6-10. Reli ef-valve symbol
Relief valve Pump
Directional valve
Sequence valve
To primary
cylinder
To secondary
cylinder
Drain
Fi gure 6-11. Seque nce -val ve s ymbol
FM 5-499
6-8 Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting
A - SEPARATE UNITS
B - INTEGRAL SEQUENCE
AND CHECK
Directional
valve
Sequence
valve
To primary
cylinder
No-flow
direction
Free-flow
direction
To secondary
cylinder
Check
valve
Pump
Relief valve
Component enclosure
Fi gure 6-12. Check-valve symbol
Plugged
port
To directional valve
Enclosure
Counterbalance
and check valve
Fi gure 6-13. Count erbalance -valve s ymbol
FM 5-499
Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting 6-9
t a kes over . If t he lower envelope wer e super imposed on t he t op envelope, t he symbol would
show t hat t he flow pa t h's ar r ow connect s t he pump out let t o t he r eser voir .
(2) Or dinar y Four -Way Va lve (Figur e 6-17, page 6-10). If t his va lve is a t wo-posit ion
va lve, t he symbol will ha ve t wo envelopes. If t he valve has a cent er posit ion, t he symbol will
have t hr ee envelopes. The a ct uat ing-cont r ol symbols ar e pla ced at t he ends of t he envelopes.
The ext r eme envelopes show t he flow condit ions when t heir a dja cent cont r ols a r e act ua t ed.
(3) Mobile Dir ect ional-Va lve Sect ion (Figur e 6-18, page 6-10). The symbol for t his valve
sect ion r esembles a four -way-valve symbol; however , it ha s added connect ions and flow
pat hs t o r epr esent t he bypa ss pa ssa ge. Ther e is a separ a t e envelope for ea ch finit e posit ion,
and connect ions a r e shown t o t he cent er or neut r al posit ion. The symbol shows a ma nua l
lever cont r ol wit h cent er ing spr ings at
each end.
i. Accessories. The symbol for a fluid
condit ioner is a squar e (Figur e 6-19,
page 6-11) t hat is t ur ned 45 degr ees and
has t he por t connect ions t o t he cor ner s.
A dot t ed line at r ight a ngles t o t he por t
connect ions indica t es t ha t t he condi-
t ioner is a filt er or st r a iner . A cooler
symbol has a solid line at a r ight angle t o
t he fluid line wit h ener gy t r iangles (indi-
cat ing heat ) point ing out . An accumula-
t or (Figur e 6-20, pa ge 6-11) symbol is an
ova l, wit h added inside det ails t o indi-
cat e spr ing load, ga s char ge, or ot her fea-
t ur es.
Reduced-pressure outlet
Fi gure 6-14. Pre ss ure -re duci ng-valve
symbol
Nonadjustable
Adjustable
Fi gure 6-15. Flow-c ont rol-valve symbol
From pump
To pilot-pressure
source
Fi gure 6-16. Unloadi ng-valve symbol
FM 5-499
6-10 Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting
Two-position, controlled
by external pilot pressure
Two-position, controlled
by solenoids
Three-position, spring-centered,
closed-center controlled by soleniod
with internal pilot pressure
Solenoid-
control
symbol
Solenoid control
with internal pilot
pressure
A B
P T
Fi gure 6-17. Four-way, di re ct ional-c ontrol-val ve symbol
Manual control
Check valve in
pressure line
Float detent
Spring centered
By-pass passage
View A
Double-acting D-spool
View C
Floating C-spool
View B
Motor B-spool
View D
Single-acting T-spool
Fi gure 6-18. Mobi le di re c ti onal-cont rol-valve s ymbol
Other titles available online www.govmedia.com
FM 5-499
Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting 6-11
6-3. Typi c al Mobi le Ci rc ui t s. Hydr aulic-lift , power -st eer ing, and r oad-pat r ol-t r uck cir -
cuit s a r e consider ed t ypica l mobile cir cuit s.
a. Hydraulic-Lift Circuit . Figur e 6-21 shows t he lift por t ion of t he hydr a ulic syst em.
The cir cuit has t wo cylinder s: a single-act ing lift cylinder and a double-act ing t ilt cylinder .
The lift cylinder moves t he lift ing for k up and down. The t ilt cylinder t ilt s t he mast ba ck
and for t h t o suppor t or dump t he load.
A t wo-sect ion, mult iple-unit dir ect ional va lve cont r ols t he cylinder 's oper a t ion. The fir st
va lve ha s a double-act ing D-spool t o oper at e t he t ilt cylinder , hydr aulically, in eit her dir ec-
t ion. The out er envelopes show t he t ypical four flow pa t hs for r ever sing t he cylinder . The
second va lve has a single-act ing T-spool t o oper at e t he lift cylinder . This cylinder is
r et ur ned by gr a vit y;
t he bypa ss unloa ds
t he pump.
The pump is
dr iven by t he lift
t r uck's engine and
supplies t he cir cuit
fr om t he la r ge vol-
ume end. The enclo-
sur e ar ound t he t wo
pump symbols indi-
cat es t hat bot h
pumping unit s ar e
cont ained in a single
assembly. The sa me
applies t o t he t wo
dir ect ional va lves
and t he r elief valve
t ha t a r e enclosed.
They a r e in a single
assembly.
Filter or strainer
Fi gure 6-19. Flui d-condi t ioner
symbol s
Spring loaded
Gas charged
Fi gure 6-20. Accumulat or symbol
Lift cylinder
T-spool
section
D-spool section
To steering
circuit
Tilt cylinder
Fi gure 6-21. Hydrauli c -li ft c i rc ui t i n neut ral
FM 5-499
Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting 6-12
Figur e 6-21 shows t he cir cuit in neut r al; t he va lves a r e cent er ed. If t he figur e wer e t o
show t he oper at ing mode, t he out er envelopes on t he va lve symbols would be shift ed over t o
align wit h t he por t s at t he cent er envelopes. The ar r ows in t he envelopes would t hen show
t he flow pa t hs fr om t he pr essur e inlet t o t he cylinder s and/or t he r et ur n flow t o t ank.
b. Power-S teering Circuits. Hydr a ulic
power st eer ing incor por at es a hydr aulic boost
int o a ba sic manua l-st eer ing syst em. A basic
ma nual-st eer ing syst em is a n a r r a ngement of
gea r s in a box t hat mult iplies t he input t or que
fr om t he st eer ing wheel t o a much gr ea t er
t or que a t t he st eer ing sha ft (Figur e 6-22). The
st eer ing shaft , t hr ough t he pit ma n ar m (or
st eer ing-sha ft a r m), t r ansmit s t his incr ea sed
t or que t hr ough t he st eer ing linka ge t o t he
st eer ing a r ms t ha t t ur n t he wheels. The ba sic
syst em of ma nual-st eer ing gea r s and st eer ing
linkage is a st eer ing wheel, st eer ing gea r , a nd
linkage t o t he st eer ed wheel.
The hydr aulic boost , which is a mecha ni-
cally oper a t ed hydr aulic ser vo, may be a pplied
t o t he st eer ing linka ge (Figur e 6-23) or wit hin
t he st eer ing gea r . St eer ing-wheel movement
act ua t es t he st eer ing valve, which dir ect s t he
fluid under pr essur e t o t he st eer ing-va lve body
t ha t follows t he va lve spool. Hydr a ulic boost is
applied only when t he st eer ing wheel is being
moved.
An int egr al power -st eer ing syst em has t he
hydr aulic-boost subsyst em built int o t he
mechanical st eer ing gear . The st eer ing valve
is act uat ed by moving t he st eer ing shaft . The
va lve cont r ols t he oper at ion of t he power cylin-
der . Thr ust fr om t he power cylinder is t r a ns-
mit t ed dir ect ly t o t he st eer ing shaft . Roa d
shock t r ansmit t ed back fr om t he wheels is
t a ken up in t he st eer ing gea r .
Figur e 6-24, pa ge 6-13, shows t he semi-
int egr al power -st eer ing syst em, or valve-on-
gea r syst em. The st eer ing valve is built int o
t he st eer ing gea r . The power cylinder is
at t ached t o t he vehicle's fr ame and t o t he link-
age. Road shock a nd t hr ust ar e absor bed in
t he fr ame.
c. Road-Patrol-Truck Circuits. Figur e 6-25,
page 6-14, dia gr ams A and B r espect ively,
shows a r oad-pat r ol t r uck's hydr a ulic syst em
and a hydr a ulic cir cuit 's schemat ic, a s a com-
par ison. The t r uck needs t hr ee double-a ct ing
Wheel
Wheel pivot
(king pin or ball studs)
Steering arm
Linkage
Pitman arm Steering shaft
Steering gear
Steering wheel
Fi gure 6-22. Manual-st eeri ng-gear
layout
Integral steering unit
Pitman arm
C
A
D
B
Figure 6-23. Power-st eeri ng l ayout
FM 5-499
Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting 6-13
cylinder s t o oper at e it s bla des and dump body: a plow hoist cylinder for t he fr ont plow, an
under blade cylinder , and a dump-body hoist cylinder . The t r uck also ha s a power -st eer ing
syst em oper a t ed fr om one-ha lf of t he double pump. (The st eer ing syst em ha s been omit t ed
fr om dia gr am B). The schema t ic shows t ha t t he t hr ee cylinder s a r e oper a t ed t hr ough a
t hr ee-spool, mobile dir ect ional valve fed fr om t he lar ge volume end of t he double pump.
6-4. Troubleshooti ng. Per sonnel should follow a syst em when t r oubleshoot ing. The fol-
lowing shows t he STOP syst em:
St udy t he cir cuit diagr a ms.
Test by using a r elia ble t est er .
Or ganize t he knowledge gained fr om t he cir cuit -t est r esult s.
Per for m r epair s, t aking t ime t o do t he job well.
a. Causes of Improper Operat ions. If impr oper oper at ion does occur , t he ca use can gen-
er ally be t r aced t o one of t he following:
Use of t he wr ong oil viscosit y or t ype.
Insufficient fluid in t he syst em.
Pr esence of a ir in t he syst em.
Mechanica l da ma ge or st r uct ur al fa ilur e.
Int er na l or ext er na l lea kage.
Dir t , decomposed packing, wat er , sludge, r ust , a nd ot her for eign ma t t er in t he
syst em.
Impr oper adjust ment s.
Heat excha nger t ha t is plugged, dir t y, or leaking.
b. Testing a Hydraulic Circuit. To t est complet e or individua l pa r t s of a hydr aulic cir -
cuit , use a hydr aulic cir cuit t est er (see pa r a-
gr aph 2-8, page 2-18). The best t est er t o use is
a compact por t able unit t ha t can check flow,
pr essur e, a nd t emper a t ur e.
c. Comparing Test Results with S pecifica-
tions. Hydr aulic-power ed syst ems ar e power -
t r ansmission syst ems. The only pur pose of t he
component s a nd t he cir cuit is t he cont r olled
t r ansfer of power fr om t he mot or shaft t o t he
point of effect ive wor k.

wher e
HP = hydraulic horsepower
f = flow, in GPM
p = pressure, in psi
HP
fp
1 714 ,
--------------- =
Steering column
Steering valve
Steering gear
Fi gure 6-24. Se mi -i nt egral power-
s t eeri ng sys t em
FM 5-499
6-14 Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting
Figure 6-25. Hydrauli c ci rcui t di agram for a road-pat rol truck
FM 5-499
Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting 6-15
By measur ing t hose t wo fact or s at t he sa me t ime, it is possible t o r ead t he effect ive out -
put a t a ny point . Compar ing t est r esult s wit h specificat ions will give t he necessar y fa ult -
finding fa ct s.
d. S lippage. All hydr aulic syst ems ha ve some slippage (see par agr aph 3-4, pa ge, page
3-3) even when new. As wea r incr eases, slippa ge at wea r point s incr ea ses, causing a
decr ea se in GPM. However , syst em pr essur e is maint ained. In t ime, wear can be so great
t ha t a ll flow is lost . Only a t a complet e br ea kdown will a pr essur e ga uge show wher e t he
t r ouble is. Conduct ing a flow, pr essur e, a nd t emper at ur e (FPT) t est would have indicat ed
such a pr oblem and a voided a complet e br ea kdown.
NOTE: At low oi l t emperature and low pre s sure (or li ght loads ) the
machine wi ll c onti nue to operate but at le ss spe e d.
e. Flow and Pressure. Alwa ys t est flow and pr essur e t oget her . Connect a hydr a ulic
t est er int o t he hydr aulic cir cuit a t var ious point s t o isola t e a nd check component s (pumps,
va lves, or cylinder s) for efficiency. Figur e 6-26 shows a hydr aulic t est er , connect ed t o t he
pump's out put , checking t he flow at var ious pr essur es t ha t , in t ur n, checks t he pump's per -
for mance a ga inst t he r ecommended specifica t ion. When isola t ing a nd t est ing individua l
component s wit h a hydr aulic t est er , dir ect t he r et urn fluid t o t he r eser voir . If t he fluid
r et ur ns t o t he r eser voir t hr ough t he syst em's piping, you will not get a cor r ect r ea ding
beca use of buildup of ba ck pr essur e.
Test t he
whole cir cuit a s
descr ibed, a nd
t hen isolat e por -
t ions and t est
for a complet e
ana lysis of t he
syst em. If a t est
on a full cir cuit
indicat es a mal-
funct ion, isolat e
a por t ion a nd
t est t he r ema in-
ing por t ions
unt il you find
t he malfunct ion-
ing par t . Gener -
ally, cylinder s
will fa il fir st .
Pa cking will
wea r beca use of fr ict ion and loa ding against t he cylinder wa lls. Ther efor e, isola t e t he cylin-
der s fir st . If t est r esult s indica t e t hat t he cir cuit is oper a t ing pr oper ly, t he cylinder s ha ve a
pr oblem. Dur ing t est ing, det er mine t he set t ing a nd condit ion of t he r elief va lve. If fur t her
t est s a r e necessa r y, isolat e t he dir ect iona l-cont r ol va lve t o check t he pump's efficiency a nd
inlet hose.
f. Other Conditions. Ot her pr oblems could occur t ha t a r e not dir ect ly r ela t ed t o nor
caused by t he va r ious pa r t s of t he hydr a ulic syst em. These pr oblems could show t he same
TROUBLESHOOTING A HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
Isolate and check the following:
Directional-control valves
for leakage, efficiency.
Systems relief valves
for leakage, proper settings.
Pumps GPM flow at
various pressures.
Cylinders efficiency.
Fi gure 6-26. Hydraul ic t ester c onnect ed to a pumps out put
FM 5-499
6-16 Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting
gener a l malfunct ions of an impr oper ly oper a t ing syst em. Exa mples a r e leaking hose, pack-
ing gla nds, and sea ls, which would be visually evident ; a bind in t he dir ect ional-cont r ol
va lve or t he cylinder 's pist on r od; a dent ed or defor med hydr aulic cylinder ; or a cr imped or
r est r ict ed pr essur e line, which would be har der t o det ect .
g. S pecific Troubles, Causes, and S olutions. Ta bles 6-1 t hr ough 6-5, pa ges 6-17 t hr ough
6-21 list some possible pr oblems and solut ions in a hydr aulic syst em.
FM 5-499
Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting 6-17
Tabl e 6-1. Problems and soluti ons wi t h pump operat i ons
No Fuel Delivery
Problems Solutions
Fluid level in the reservoir is low. Add the recommended oil; check the level on both sides of
the tank's baffle to be certain that the pump suction is sub-
merged.
Oil intake pipe or inlet filter is plugged. Clean the filter; otherwise, remove the obstruction.
Air leak in the inlet line prevents priming or causes
noise and irregular action of the control circuit.
Repair the leaks.
The pump shaft turns too slowly to prime itself
(vane-type pumps only).
Check the appropriate manual's minimum speed recommen-
dations.
The oil viscosity is too heavy to pick up the prime. Use a lighter oil viscosity; follow the appropriate manual's
recommended temperatures and services.
Shaft rotates in the wrong direction. Reverse the rotation immediately to prevent seizure and
parts from breaking due to lack of oil.
Pump shaft is broken, parts are broken inside the
pump, or the shear pin or shear linkage is broken.
See the appropriate manual for replacement instructions.
Pump has dirt in it. Dismantle and clean the pump; flush the system.
The stroke is incorrect on variable delivery pumps. See the appropriate manual for instructions.
No Pressure in the System
Pump does not deliver oil for any reasons given in
above section.
Follow the remedies given.
Relief-valve setting is not high enough.
Relief valve leaks.
Relief-valve spring is broken.
Increase the pressure setting of the valve; check the
appropriate manual for the correct pressure.
Check the seat for score marks and reseat.
Replace the spring and readjust the valve.
Vane is stuck in the rotor slots (vane-type pumps
only).
Inspect for wedged chips; inspect the oil for excessive vis-
cosity.
The head is loose (very infrequent occurrence). Tighten the head; check the appropriate manuals before
tightening.
Oil to the tank recirculates freely through the sys-
tem.
Check to see if a return line is open due to either a direc-
tional valve set in the open-center neutral position or some
other valve is left open.
Control valves have internal leakage. Block off various parts of the circuit to determine where the
leak is; repair when located.
Noisy Pump
Intake line, filter, or restricted intake pipe is partially
clogged.
Clean out the intake or strainer, or eliminate the restrictions;
ensure that the inlet line is open.
FM 5-499
6-18 Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting
Table 6-1. Problems and sol uti ons wi t h pump ope rat i ons (c onti nued)
Noisy Pump (continued)
Problems Solutions
Air leaks occur at the pump's intake piping joints.
Air leaks are present at the pump's shaft packing.
Air is drawn in through the inlet pipe openings.
Pour oil on the joints while listening for a change in the
operating sounds; tighten the joints as required.
Pour oil around the shaft while listening for a change in
the operating sounds; follow the appropriate manual
instructions when changing the packing.
Ensure that the inlet and return lines are well below the oil
level in the reservoir; add oil to the reservoir if necessary.
Air bubbles are present in the intake oil. Use hydraulic oil that has a foam depressant.
Reservoir's air vent is plugged. Clean or replace the breather.
Pump is running too fast. See the appropriate manuals for recommended maximum
speeds.
Oil viscosity is too high. Use a lower oil viscosity; check the appropriate manuals for
the recommended temperatures and services.
Coupling is misaligned. Realign the coupling.
Pump vane is stuck (vane-type pump). Inspect the pump for wedged chips or sticky oil; reassemble.
Parts are worn or broken. Replace worn or broken parts.
External Oil Leaks
Shaft packing is worn. Replace the worn parts.
A head of oil is present on an inlet-pipe connection. Keep all the joints tight; slight leakage may be necessary.
Excessive Wear
Abrasive matter in the hydraulic oil is being circu-
lated through the pump.
Install an adequate filter or replace the oil more often.
Oil viscosity is too low for working conditions. Check the appropriate manual's recommendations or the
lubrication chart for information.
Sustained high pressure occurs above the maxi-
mum pump rating.
Check the relief or regular valve's maximum setting.
Drive is misaligned or belt drive is tight. Check the parts; correct the problem.
Air recirculation is causing a chatter in the system. Remove the air from the system.
Broken Parts Inside the Pump Housing
Excessive pressure above the maximum pump rat-
ing is present.
Check the relief or regulator valve's maximum setting.
Seizure occurs due to lack of oil. Check the reservoir level, oil filter, and possibility of restric-
tion in the inlet line.
Solid matter is being wedged in the pump. Install a filter in the suction line.
Head screws are too tight. Check appropriate manuals recommendations; adjust.
FM 5-499
Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting 6-19
Table 6-2. Probl ems and solut i ons wi th act uati ng mec hani sm
Inoperative System
Problems Solutions
System fails because of any problem listed in
Tables 6-1 through 6-5.
Follow recommened solution.
Mechanism Creeps (Stopped in Intermediate Position)
Internal leakage occurs in the actuating cylinders or
operating valves.
Replace the piston packing or cylinder, if the walls are
scored; replace or repair the valve.
Longer Operating Times Than Specified
Air is present in the system. Bleed the system.
Actuating cylinder or directional-control valve has
an internal leak.
Replace the piston packing or replace the cylinder if the
walls are scored; replace or repair the valve; clean the unit to
remove foreign matter; check the cam clearance.
Pump is worn. Repair or replace the pump.
Action is sluggish on start up but less so after oper-
ating temperatures have increased, or action slows
down after warm up. Depending on equipment and
circuit design, could indicate that the oil viscosity is
too high.
Check appropriate manuals lubrication order.
External Oil Leaks
End caps leak. Tighten caps, if possible, or replace the gasket.
Chevron seals leak. Adjust or replace the seals.
Abnormal Packing-Gland Wear
Cylinder is not securely fastened to the frame,
causing it to vibrate.
Tighten the cylinder; check it periodically.
Cylinder and piston-rod extension are misaligned. Check the parts; correct the problem.
Side load occurs on the piston rod. Check for cylinder alignment or worn pins or ball joints.
FM 5-499
6-20 Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting
Table 6-3. Problems and soluti ons wi t h heati ng oi l
Heating Caused by Power Unit (Reservoir, Pump, Relief Valve, Coolers)
Problems Solutions
Relief valve is set at a higher pressure than neces-
sary; excess oil dissipated through increased slip-
page in various parts or through the relief valve or
directional valve.
Check manual for the correct pressure; reset the relief valve.
Internal oil leaks occur due to wear in the pump. Repair or replace the pump.
Oil viscosity is too high. Check appropriate manual for correct oil viscosity to use at
various temperatures.
Overhauled pumps may be assembled too tightly,
which reduces clearances and increases friction.
Follow the appropriate manuals when rebuilding a pump.
Pump has leaking check or relief valves. Repair or replace the valves.
Oil cooler or coolant functions improperly in cut off. Inspect cooler; clean inside and outside; ensure that air flow
or coolant flow around fins is not cut off.
Conditions in System Cause Excessive Heating
Lines are restricted. Replace the lines if they are crimped; remove any obstruc-
tion if lines are partially plugged.
Large pump deliveries do not unload properly. Ensure that the open-center valves are neutralized and that
any pressure-relieving valves are in the correct position.
(Allow only small pumps to stay at high pressures when run-
ning idle for long periods.)
Radiation is insufficient. Use artificial cooling.
Pump has internal leaks. Locate leaks; replace the packing.
Reservoir is too small to provide adequate cooling. Replace unit with a larger reservoir.
Valves or piping is undersized. Check flow velocity through the lines and valves; compare
them with the manuals recommendations. If velocity is
excessive, install larger equipment.
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FM 5-499
Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting 6-21
Table 6-4. Problems and solut i ons wi th flui d motors
Motor Turns in the Wrong Direction
Problems Solutions
Conductors are crossed between the control valve
and the motor.
Check circuit to determine the correct conductor connection
between the control valve and motor.
Motor Does Not Turn or Does Not Develop Proper Speed or Torque
Systems overload-relief-valve adjustment is not set
high enough.
Check systems pressure; reset the relief valve.
Relief valve sticks open. Clean or replace the relief valve; adjust.
Oil to the reservoir freely recirculates through the
system.
Check control-valve linkage; directional-control valve may be
in open-center neutral.
Driven mechanism binds because of misalignment. Check the motor shaft for alignment.
Pump does not deliver enough GPM or pressure. Check pumps GPM and pressure; repair or replace.
Motor yoke is not set at the proper angle. Adjust the pumps yoke angle.
External Oil Leak From the Motor
Seals leak (drain may not be connected from motor
to tank).
Check motor for 3rd line (a drain line that must go to tank
used on piston and vane motors).
NOTE: See Table 6-1 for improper operation of pump.
Table 6-5. Problems and sol uti ons wi t h ac cumulat or operati on
Sudden Drop in Accumulator Pressure (Position of Selector Valve is Changed)
Problems Solutions
Accumulator has an internal or external leak. Repair the leak or replace the accumulator.
No Pressure When Pump Stops Running (Normal Pressure When Pump Was Running)
Hydraulic line has a leaking gas or check valve. Replace the check or the gas valve.
Sluggish Response for Accumulator
Oil screen in the accumulator stops. Dismantle the accumulator; clean the screen.
Gas precharge is not sufficient. Precharge according to recommendations in the manual;
check for gas leaks.
NOTE: Release all internal pressure before making repairs on accumulators.
FM 5-499
Electrical Devices: Troubleshooting and Safety 7-1
CHAPTER 7
Electri cal De vi ce s:
Trouble shooti ng and Safety
This chapter describes the process of locating the cause of malfunctions in electrical cir-
cuits associated with hydraulic-cont rol systems. The information includes testing devices
and types of grounding points. Also addressed in this chapt er are the safety measures person-
nel should tak e when work ing on or around electrical circuits.
7-1. Hydrauli c s and El ect ri ci ty. Hydr aulics a nd elect r icit y ar e oft en compar ed because
t he syst ems ha ve simila r it ies. A hydr aulic cir cuit r equir es a power sour ce (usually a pump),
a loa d device (act ua t or ), and conduct or s. The cir cuit s differ mainly in t he
Types of devices used t o cont r ol, dir ect , a nd r egulat e t he hydr a ulic fluid flow.
Type and ca pa cit y of t he act ua t or s used t o a ccomplish t he wor k, which va r ies,
depending on t he applica t ion.
An elect r ical cir cuit also r equir es a power sour ce (bat t er y, gener a t or ), a loa d device
(light , bell, mot or ), a nd pr oper connect ions. An a ssor t ment of devices a lso cont r ols, dir ect s,
and r egula t es t he flow of elect r ical cur r ent .
Hydr aulic a nd elect r ica l component s a r e usually r epr esent ed on dia gr ams by t heir own
set of st andar dized symbols. Elect r ical diagr ams ar e oft en called schemat ics. Figur e 7-1,
page 7-2, shows some of t he mor e common symbols. Hydr a ulic a nd elect r ica l syst ems a nd
cir cuit s ha ve many differ ences. For exa mple, elect r ical cur r ent is invisible, hydr a ulic fluid is
not ; elect r ica l cur r ent flows t hr ough solid wir es, hydr a ulic fluid flows t hr ough hollow lines.
Figur e 7-2, page 7-3, shows symbols for elect r ical a nd hydr aulic component s. Figur e 7-3,
page 7-4, compa r es a hydr a ulic cir cuit and a n elect r ical cir cuit .
7-2. Trouble shooti ng Ele c tri cal Devi c e s. Elect r ical t r oubleshoot ing is t he pr ocess of
loca t ing t he cause of malfunct ions in elect r ical cir cuit s. The following par agr aphs cont ain
some gener a l t r oubleshoot ing infor mat ion as well a s specific t est s for det er mining t he st at us
of some elect r ical devices. Skill in t r oubleshoot ing elect r ical equipment and cir cuit s
r equir es
Knowledge of elect r ical pr inciples t o under st a nd how a cir cuit or device should func-
t ion.
Skill in r eading a nd int er pr et ing elect r ical schema t ics, diagr ams, pr oduct dat a, and
so for t h.
Skill in oper a t ing t est equipment and int er pr et ing t est mea sur ement s.
Abilit y t o ana lyze pr oblems in a logica l manner .
Following syst ema t ic s t eps t ha t n a r r ow down t he pr oblem t o a s ma ller a r ea of t he
equipment is much mor e efficient t ha n t r ia l-a nd-er r or met hods. The t r ou bleshoot ing
FM 5-499
7-2 Electrical Devices: Troubleshooting and Safety
Fi gure 7-1. Common e lect ri cal sc hemat i c symbol s
FM 5-499
Electrical Devices: Troubleshooting and Safety 7-3
Fi gure 7-2. Compari son of e le c tri c al and hydrauli c c ompone nt s
FM 5-499
7-4 Electrical Devices: Troubleshooting and Safety
Power source
M
Pressure drop
(Restriction
orifice)
Directional valve
Load
(motor)
Regulation
(relief valve)
Pressure reference
(tank)
Pump
Motor
HYDRAULIC CIRCUIT
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
Power source
Power supply
Voltage drop
Directional switch
Load
(motor)
(Resistor)
Regulation
(zener diode)
Motor M
Generator
Voltage reference
(ground)
Fi gure 7-3. Compari son of e le ct ri c al and hydrauli c ci rcuit s
FM 5-499
Electrical Devices: Troubleshooting and Safety 7-5
pr ocedur e det a iled below can be ver y useful in or ganizing t he pr oblem-solving effor t and
r educing equipment downt ime:
a. Procedure. The following t r oubleshoot ing pr ocedur e consist s of five st eps t hat you
should per for m in or der . These st eps r epr esent t he most r eliable met hod of lea r ning and
applying a logical appr oa ch t o pr oblem solving and ca n be applied t o any equipment , r ega r d-
less of size.
(1) St ep One: Ident ify t he Sympt om. A sympt om is a n ext er nal indicat ion t hat a cir -
cuit or device is not funct ioning cor r ect ly. You ca n ident ify a sympt om by invest iga t ing t he
pr oblem by sight , sound, smell, a nd t ouch. For example, visua lly inspect ing t he equipment
ma y r eveal t ha t a cir cuit component ha s over heat ed a nd changed color or t hat an indict or
la mp which should be on is not . A peculiar odor ma y lead you t o discover melt ed insula t ion,
or a chat t er ing noise could indica t e t hat a solenoid is about t o fail. Moving cont r ols or
adjust ing knobs may change t he pr oblem or ha ve no effect at all. The fact t hat t he equip-
ment is not oper at ing is a sympt om.
If someone else wa s oper at ing t he equipment when it failed, ask t he per son if he
not iced anyt hing unusua l befor e it failed. Funny noises, t hings t hat do not look quit e r ight ,
and impr oper oper at ing sequences ar e sympt oms t ha t could lead t o t he ca use of t he pr oblem.
If you cannot find any immedia t ely ident ifia ble sympt oms, t r y oper at ing t he equipment once
you det er mine t hat it is safe t o do so. Wat ch what wor ks and wha t does not wor k. Not e a ny-
t hing t hat does not seem r ight , no ma t t er how small. Take t he t ime t o conduct a t hor ough
invest iga t ion.
(2) St ep Two: Analyze t he Sympt om. In t his st ep, you ident ify t he funct ions wher e
sympt oms indica t e a malfunct ion. Use t he infor mat ion you obt a ined dur ing your ident ifica -
t ion, a long wit h t he schema t ic and funct ional block dia gr ams and knowledge of how t he
equipment is supposed t o oper at e, t o ma ke logica l t echnica l deduct ions. For exa mple, a ft er
car eful exa minat ion, you find t hat a cla mp in a plast ic-inject ion molding machine will not
pr essur ize. Fur t her ana lysis, wit hout using t est equipment , nar r ows t he pr oblem t o a cla mp
t ha t is closed, clamp pr essur izat ion, or pr efill shift , a ny of which might cont a in t he fa ult y
cir cuit .
(3) St ep Thr ee: Isola t e t he Single Fa ult y Funct ion. In t his st ep, you use t est equip-
ment t o decide which fa ult y funct ion is act ua lly ca using t he malfunct ion. When making
t hese t est s, use t he following guidelines:
Make only t hose t est s t hat ar e sa fe t o make.
Make t he least difficult t est s fir st .
Test t hose funct ions fir st t ha t will eliminat e one or mor e of t he ot her possible
fault y funct ions.
For example, if t aking a n ohmmet er r eading ca n det er mine t he fault , do not t a ke a
volt met er r ea ding as t ha t r equir es power on t he equipment . If you must disa ssemble ha lf of
t he machine t o r each a t est point , per for m a simpler t est fir st . Test at a midway point in t he
cir cuit r y, if possible. A good r ea ding a t t he midwa y point eliminat es t he pr eceding funct ions
and indicat es t hat t he pr oblem is in t he r emaining cir cuit s. A fault y signal at t he midway
point mea ns t ha t t he pr oblem is in t he funct ions t hat pr ocess t he signal befor e t he midwa y
point .
FM 5-499
7-6 Electrical Devices: Troubleshooting and Safety
In t he inject ion molding example, t est t he clamp's pr essur izat ion cir cuit s wher e t he
clamp's fully closed signal input eit her eliminat es t hat funct ion or confir ms t hat t he ca use of
t he pr oblem is a cla mp t ha t is not fully closed and, t her efor e, cannot be pr essur ized. Con-
t inue t est ing input s and out put s of t he suspect funct ions unt il you ident ify and confir m t he
single fa ult y funct ion.
(4) St ep Four : Isolat e t he Fault y Cir cuit . In t his st ep, you locat e t he single ma lfunc-
t ioning cir cuit wit hin a funct ional gr oup of cir cuit s. Use t he accumulat ed sympt om and t est
da t a t o close in on t he single fa ult y cir cuit . Follow t he guidelines fr om st ep t hr ee, but a pply
t hem t o t he cir cuit s r elat ed t o t he fa ult y funct ion. Use schemat ic and block diagr a ms t o
loca t e t est point s.
In t he inject ion-molding-ma chine example, a ssume t hat t he clamp's fully closed signal
is not pr esent at t he input t o t he clamp's pr essur izat ion cir cuit s. Test wit hin t he clamps
closed cir cuit s unt il you ident ify a single fa ult y cir cuit . The fir st t est ma y r eveal t hat t he
out put of t he clamp's fully closed cir cuit is ba d. A check of t he input s t o t his cir cuit may indi-
ca t e t hat t he input fr om a cla mp's closed-limit swit ch is ba d but t hat all ot her s a r e good.
You can now ident ify t he pr oblem as being a ssociat ed wit h one of t he r elat ively few pa r t s
cont ained in a single cir cuit .
(5) St ep Five: Loca t e/Ver ify t he Cause of t he Malfunct ion. The t est s you make in t his
st ep ident ify t he failing par t wit hin t he fault y cir cuit . Test t he cir cuit unt il you find t he
cause of t he malfunct ion. Examine and t est t he fault y par t t o ver ify t hat it has caused t he
pr oblem and pr oduced t he obser ved sympt oms.
In checking out t he clamp's fully closed cir cuit , for exa mple, r emove t he suspect ed limit
swit ch fr om t he cir cuit a nd t est it wit h an ohmmet er t o det er mine if t he swit ch's cont a ct s a r e
closing cor r ect ly t o complet e t he cir cuit . Connect t he ohmmet er a cr oss t he cont act s of t he
swit ch and a ct uat e t he swit ch's ar m sever al t imes while checking t he met er r ea ding. If t he
cont act s close pr oper ly, t he met er should r ead zer o ohms when t he ar m is in one posit ion a nd
infinit y when t he ar m is in t he ot her posit ion.
If t he met er point er does not move when t he swit ch a r m is act ua t ed, disa ssemble and
exa mine t he swit ch. If t his last exa minat ion r evea ls t hat t he mecha nical linkage connect ing
t he swit ch's a r m t o t he cont a ct s is br oken, t hen you ha ve found t he cause of t he ma lfunct ion.
A fina l a nalysis should show t hat t his cause expla ins t he obser ved sympt oms. However , t he
pr ocedur e is not complet e unt il you ver ify t he findings. In t his exa mple, you would inst a ll a
new limit swit ch in t he cir cuit a nd oper a t e t he equipment t o confir m t hat you have fixed t he
pr oblem.
b. Test ing Devices. The following par agr aphs out line some ba sic elect r ical t est s t hat
you ca n conduct on specific pieces of equipment t hat wer e discussed ea r lier . As par t of a
t r oubleshoot ing t est , you should mechanica lly inspect t hese devices. Also, if spar e par t s ar e
availa ble, subst it ut e a good pa r t for a suspect pa r t a s a quick met hod of r et ur ning t he equip-
ment t o oper at ion. Test t he suspect par t and eit her r epair it or discar d it .
(1) Pot ent iomet er . Since a pot ent iomet er is a var ia ble-r esist a nce device, it should be
disconnect ed fr om it s cir cuit a nd t est ed wit h an ohmmet er , if it is suspect . Only t wo of t he
t hr ee leads need t o be disconnect ed for t his t est . Be ver y car eful when a djust ing small
pot ent iomet er s on pr int ed cir cuit boa r ds. They a r e quit e fr agile a nd can easily be br oken if
r ot at ed beyond t he end st ops. Test a pot ent iomet er a s follows:
FM 5-499
Electrical Devices: Troubleshooting and Safety 7-7
Det er mine t he expect ed r esist a nce va lue fr om a schemat ic dia gr am for t he cir cuit .
The va lue ma y a lso be pr int ed on t he case of t he device.
Connect t he ohmmet er acr oss t he ends of t he pot ent iomet er and confir m t ha t t he
r eading mat ches t he expect ed value.
Remove a t est lea d fr om one end and move it t o t he middle t er minal.
Rot a t e t he shaft or t ur n t he scr ew t hat var ies t he r esist ance of t he device. The
ohmmet er r eading should indicat e zer o ohms a t one end of t he shaft r ot a t ion a nd
t he full expect ed r esist a nce va lue of t he pot ent iomet er at t he ot her end. It should
also show a smoot h cha nge in r esist ance a s t he sha ft is t ur ned.
Move t he lead t hat is st ill connect ed t o an end t er minal over t o t he ot her end.
Rot a t e t he shaft a ga in while looking for t he same smoot h t r ansit ion fr om zer o t o
ma ximum r esist ance.
(2) Solenoid Coil. If a solenoid is t hought t o be fault y, do t he following:
Remove it fr om t he ma chine (plug t he opened por t s on t he va lves if necessa r y).
Disassemble and examine t he solenoid for signs of over heat ing or mecha nical
pr oblems.
Test t he solenoid coil by at t aching an ohmmet er (set t o a low r esist ance r ange)
acr oss t he coil t er minals. If t he coil is good, t he met er will show a r elat ively low
r eading (a few t housa nd ohms or less). A zer o r eading would indica t e t ha t t he coil
windings ar e shor t ed t o ea ch ot her , pr obably a s a r esult of melt ed insula t ion. An
infinit y r ea ding on t he ohmmet er mea ns t ha t t he coil has opened up and is defec-
t ive.
(3) Rela y. Test a suspect r elay as follows:
Act uat e t he r elay a r mat ur e, manually.
Remove t he r ela y fr om t he equipment .
Exa mine t he r ela y car efully for signs of mechanical pr oblems.
Check t he r elay coil in t he same wa y a s a solenoid coil, if you do not find a ny
mechanical pr oblems. Test t he elect r ical cont a ct s wit h a n ohmmet er a s you do
t he swit ch cont a ct s. The met er should r ea d zer o when t he cont a ct s a r e closed and
infinit y when t hey a r e open.
Test t he nor ma lly open a nd t he nor ma lly closed cir cuit s.
(4) Tr ansfor mer . When you det er mine, by volt age r eadings or sympt om infor mat ion,
t ha t a t r ansfor mer ma y be t he cause of a malfunct ion, check t he pr ima r y a nd t he secondar y
coil r esist a nce wit h a n ohmmet er . Disconnect one end of t he pr ima r y winding and one end of
t he secondar y winding fr om t he r est of t he cir cuit befor e t est ing. If t he failur e is t he r esult of
an open winding, t he ohmmet er will r ea d infinit y when connect ed acr oss t he defect ive wind-
ing. If t he fa ilur e is caused by shor t ed t ur ns wit hin a winding, t he pr oblem is mor e difficult
t o diagnose beca use t he ohmmet er will indicat e a ver y low r esist a nce. Since a winding con-
sist s of a lengt h of conduct or wound int o a coil, t he r esist a nce r eadings a r e nor mally quit e
low a nyway. If you suspect shor t ed t ur ns
Use t he expect ed pr imar y and secondar y oper a t ing volt ages t o det er mine t he
appr oximat e t ur ns r at io. Divide t he secondar y volt age int o t he pr imar y volt a ge t o
get t he r a t io. For exa mple, 120 volt s divided by 24 volt s equa ls a r a t io of 5:1.
FM 5-499
7-8 Electrical Devices: Troubleshooting and Safety
Use t his r a t io t o compa r e t he measur ed pr ima r y r esist a nce t o t he measur ed sec-
ondar y r esist a nce. In t he exa mple, if t he pr ima r y r esist ance is 20 ohms, t hen t he
seconda r y r esist a nce should be a bout 4 ohms (20/5).
Be sur e t o a djust t he zer o-ohms cont r ol befor e ma king t he measur ement ; hold t he t est
pr obes by t he insulat ed por t ion only. You may ha ve difficult y det er mining if t he r ea ding is
accur a t e since t he measur ement is so close t o t he low end of t he ohms scale. Compar e t he
r eadings t o a r epla cement t r ansfor mer s, if one is a va ilable. To posit ively ver ify t hat t he
t r ansfor mer is fa ult y, you may have t o subst it ut e a good t r ansfor mer for t he suspect one.
(5) Diode. You can use a simple r esist a nce check wit h a n ohmmet er t o t est a diode's
abilit y t o pass cur r ent in one dir ect ion only. To t est a suspect diode
Remove one end of t he diode fr om t he cir cuit .
Connect t he posit ive ohmmet er lead t o t he anode and t he negat ive lead t o t he
ca t hode. When t he ohmmet er is connect ed t his wa y, t he diode is for wa r d biased,
and t he measur ed r eading should be ver y low. Set t he ohmmet er for t he a ppr opr i-
at e diode t est r ange.
Rever se t he ohmmet er connect ions. When t he negat ive ohmmet er lead is
at t ached t o t he a node a nd t he posit ive lea d is at t ached t o t he ca t hode, t he diode is
r ever se bia sed, and t he met er should r ead a high r esist ance.
A good diode should have r eal low r esist ance when for wa r d bia sed a nd high r esist a nce
when r ever se biased. If t he diode r ea ds a high r esist ance in bot h dir ect ions, it is pr oba bly
open. If t he r eadings ar e low in bot h dir ect ions, t he diode is shor t ed. A defect ive diode could
show a differ ence in for war d and ba ckwar d r esist ance. In t his ca se, t he r at io of for wa r d t o
ba ckwar d r esist a nce is t he impor t ant fact or . The a ct ual r at io depends on t he t ype of diode.
As a r ule of t humb, a small signal diode should ha ve a r a t io of sever a l hundr ed t o one. A
power r ect ifier ca n oper at e wit h a r at io as low as t en t o one.
7-3. Ground. Ever y elect r ical cir cuit has a point of r efer ence t o which all cir cuit volt ages
ar e compa r ed. This r efer ence point is called gr ound, a nd cir cuit volt ages ar e eit her posit ive
or nega t ive wit h r espect t o gr ound. Connect ions t o gr ound t hat ar e made for sa fet y r ea sons
r efer t o ear t h gr ound. When volt a ge mea sur ement s a r e t aken, t he differ ence of pot ent ia l
bet ween a point in t he cir cuit a nd a gr ound point is mea sur ed by t he volt met er . This t ype of
gr ound is r efer r ed t o a s chassis or common gr ound.
a. Earth Ground. Init ia lly, gr ound r efer r ed t o t he ear t h it self and since has r epr esent ed
a point of zer o pot ent ial or zer o volt s. A shor t cir cuit wit hin a device t ha t connect s live volt -
age t o t he fr a me could ca use a ser ious shock t o anyone t ouching it . However , if t he fr a me is
connect ed t o ea r t h gr ound, it is held at t he sa fe pot ent ia l of zer o volt s, a s t he ear t h it self
absor bs t he volt age.
Toda y, a t hir d pr ong on gr ounded power plugs connect s most st a t ionar y equipment t o
ear t h gr ound t hr ough t he elect r ical wir ing syst em. Some equipment is connect ed t o ear t h
gr ound by a conduct or t hat goes fr om t he met a l fr a me of t he equipment t o a long copper r od
t hat is dr iven int o t he ea r t h. Some appliances ar e oft en gr ounded by connect ing t he conduc-
t or t o a wat er pipe r unning int o t he gr ound. In a ny ca se, t he fr a mes of all equipment con-
nect ed t o t he ea r t h ar e a t t he same zer o volt pot ent ial. This pr event s shocks t hat might
occur should a per son t ouch t wo pieces of ungr ounded equipment at t he sa me t ime.
FM 5-499
Electrical Devices: Troubleshooting and Safety 7-9
b. Chassis or Common Ground. In some ca ses, elect r ical cir cuit s used t oda y ar e not con-
nect ed dir ect ly t o ear t h gr ound; however , t hey st ill r equir e a point of r efer ence or a common
point t o which element s of ea ch cir cuit ar e connect ed. For example, a por t able bat t er y-oper -
at ed t r ansist or r adio does not have a gr ound conduct or connect ing it wit h t he ear t h. A st r ip
of conduct ing foil on t he int er nal cir cuit boar d is used a s t he common point . In an a ut omo-
bile bat t er y, t he negat ive t er minal is gener ally connect ed t o t he engine block or chassis
fr ame by a heavy ca ble. The connect ing point , a s well as ever y ot her point on t he met a l
fr ame, is consider ed t o be a gr ound for t he elect r ica l cir cuit s of t he vehicle. The r ubber t ir es
insula t e t he vehicle fr om t he ea r t h gr ound. In t hese exa mples, gr ound is simply a zer o r efer -
ence point in a n elect r ica l cir cuit and is r efer r ed t o a s chassis gr ound. All volt ages in t he cir -
cuit ar e measur ed wit h r espect t o t his common point .
c. Zero Reference Point . Wit hout a zer o r efer ence point , volt age could not be expr essed
a s a posit ive or negat ive va lue. The schema t ic diagr ams in Figur e 7-4 illust r at e t his point :
Diagr am A shows a volt met er connect ed t o t he t wo t er mina ls of a 6-volt , dr y-cell
bat t er y. Wit hout a gr ound in t he cir cuit , t he mea sur ed volt a ge is 6 volt s bet ween
t he t wo t er minals. It is neit her posit ive nor nega t ive.
Diagr am B shows t ha t t he negat ive bat t er y t er minal is connect ed t o gr ound. The
volt met er mea sur es t he differ ence of pot ent ia l bet ween t he posit ive t er minal and
6 V
battery
Voltmeter
indicates 6 V.
It is neither +
nor -.
V
V
+
+
+
+
-
-
- -
V
12 V
+
+
+
A
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
C
-
-
-
-
Voltmeter
indicates -6 V.
Voltmeter
indicates +6 V.
B
+6 V
-6 V
A. VOLTAGE READING
WITHOUT GROUND
B. NEGATIVE TERMINAL
GROUNDED
C. POSITIVE TERMINAL
GROUNDED
D. PLACEMENT OF GROUND PROVIDES
BOTH POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE VOLTAGE
Figure 7-4. Schemat i c di agrams i ll ustrat ing zero re fe renc e point
Other titles available online www.govmedia.com
FM 5-499
7-10 Electrical Devices: Troubleshooting and Safety
t he gr ound point . The mea sur ed volt age is +6 volt s because t he ungr ounded t er -
minal is 6 volt s mor e posit ive t ha n t he gr ound or zer o r efer ence point .
Diagr a m C shows t hat t he volt met er measur e -6 volt s when t he posit ive t er minal
of t he bat t er y is connect ed t o t he zer o r efer ence point . The ungr ounded bat t er y
t er minal is now 6 volt s mor e negat ive t ha n t he r efer ence point .
Diagr a m D shows t wo 6-volt bat t er ies t hat ar e connect ed in ser ies. The volt a ge
bet ween point s A a nd C is 12 volt s. When a gr ound is placed a t point B, which is
bet ween t he t wo bat t er ies, + 6 volt s a r e available bet ween point s A a nd B, a nd -6
volt s a r e availa ble bet ween point s C a nd B. (Many moder n elect r onic cir cuit s
r equir e bot h posit ive and negat ive volt a ge for pr oper oper a t ion. This would be
impossible wit hout a zer o r efer ence point in t he cir cuit .)
d. Isolation Between Earth and Chassis Ground. Indust r ial equipment oft en r equir es
an ear t h a nd a sepa r at e chassis gr ound for pr oper oper a t ion. The ear t h gr ound r epr esent s
an act ua l pot ent ia l of zer o volt s, while t he chassis gr ound is used only a s a r efer ence point
and may be at some pot ent ial above or below t he ear t h gr ound. In t hese cases, t he ear t h
gr ound and t he chassis gr ound ar e not connect ed t oget her a t a ny point in t he equipment .
However , dur ing inst alla t ion or r epair s, t he chassis gr ound ma y be ina dver t ent ly connect ed
t o t he ea r t h gr ound. To check for t his condit ion, use a 1.5-volt , D-cell ba t t er y and holder ,
connect ing wir es, and a volt met er . Make sur e t hat t he equipment is OFF befor e ma king t he
t est .
In Figur e 7-5, t he bat t er y is inst a lled bet ween t he chassis gr ound a nd t he ear t h gr ound.
The volt met er , set t o mea sur e 1.5 volt s dir ect cur r ent (DC), is connect ed acr oss t he ba t t er y.
If a connect ion exist s bet ween t he chassis and t he ea r t h gr ound, it will pla ce a shor t cir cuit
acr oss t he bat t er y, and t he volt met er will indica t e zer o volt s. If t his is t he ca se, t empor a r ily
disconnect one end of t he bat t er y t o keep it fr om dischar ging while looking for t he impr oper
connect ion bet ween t he gr ounds. When you find t he connect ion, r emove it a nd r econnect t he
ba t t er y and t he met er . The volt met er should r ea d t he bat t er y pot ent ia l of 1.5 volt s. If t he
volt met er r eading is st ill zer o volt s, an impr oper connect ion st ill exist s in t he equipment .
Repeat t he t est unt il t he volt met er r eads t he ba t t er y volt a ge. Remember t o disconnect t he
ba t t er y aft er complet ing t he t est .
7-4. Safe t y. Effect ive sa fet y mea sur es a r e a blend of common sense a nd t he knowledge of
ba sic elect r ical a nd hydr aulic pr inciples and of how a syst em or cir cuit oper at es, including
any da nger s associa t ed wit h t ha t oper a t ion. Gener a l sa fet y infor ma t ion and safet y pr a ct ices
ar e list ed below. The list is not all inclusive, is not int ended t o alt er or r epla ce cur r ent ly
est ablished safet y pr act ices, and does not include safet y pr a ct ices for hydr aulic equipment .
a. Information. When wor king wit h elect r ical equipment , consider t he following infor -
ma t ion r egar ding safet y:
Injur ies a ssociat ed wit h elect r ical wor k ma y include elect r ical shocks; bur ns; and
punct ur e, la cer a t ion, or a br a sion wounds.
Cur r ent flowing t hr ough t he body can be fa t a l. As lit t le as 0.01 a mp pr oduces
muscle pa r a lysis a nd ext r eme br eat hing difficult y in t he aver a ge per son; per ma-
nent physical damage and dea t h ca n r esult fr om 0.1 a mp flowing t hr ough t he
hear t .
The amount of cur r ent r eceived fr om an elect r ica l shock depends on t he volt a ge
applied and t he r esist a nce of t ha t pa r t of t he body t hr ough which t he cur r ent
FM 5-499
7-12 Electrical Devices: Troubleshooting and Safety
Never wor k on live cir cuit s when wet , a s t his lower s t he bodys r esist ance and
incr eases t he chance for a fat al shock.
Never wor k alone on elect r ical equipment . Shocks above 0.01 amp can par alyze
your muscles and leave you unable t o r emove your self fr om t he sour ce of t he cur -
r ent flow. Always be sur e someone else is ar ound t o help in a n emer gency.
Use t he pr oper equipment for cir cuit t est ing. Check for cor r ect junct ion set t ings,
r a nge swit ches, pr oper insula t ion on t est pr obes, a nd so for t h.
Remove a ll wat ches, r ings, cha ins, and any ot her met al jewelr y t hat ma y come in
cont act wit h a n elect r ical pot ent ial or get ca ught in moving mechanical par t s. Do
t his befor e you wor k on any elect r ical equipment , cir cuit , or bat t er y.
Have a good under st anding about t he cir cuit you a r e wor king on. Think about
what you need t o do befor e wor king on t he cir cuit . Ask for help if you do not know
enough about t he t a sk you ar e t o per for m.
FM 5-499
Appendix-225
Appendi x A
Metri c Conve rsi on Chart
A-1. Purpos e . This char t complies wit h cur r ent Ar my dir ect ives which st a t e t ha t t he Met r ic
Syst em will be incor por a t ed int o a ll new publicat ions. This Appendix will pr ovide a cha r t t o
conver t t he English mea sur ement s t o Met r ic.
Table A-1. Metric conversion chart
To Convert Into Multiply By
Cubic feet
Cubic Centimeters
28,320.0 x 10
4
Cubic Meters 0.02832
Liters 28.32
Cubic inches
Cubic Centimeters 28,320.0
Cubic Meters
1.639 x 10
-5
Liters 0.01639
Feet
Centimeters 6.0
Kilometers
3.048 x 10
4
Meters 0.3048
Millimeters 304.8
Foot pound
BTU
1.286 x 10
-3
Kilowatt-hours
3.766 x 10
-7
Gallons
Cubic Centimeters 3,785.0
Cubic Feet 0.1337
Cubic Inches 231.0
Cubic Meters
3.785 x 10
-3
Liters 3.785
horsepower
BTU per min 42.44
hp (metric) 1.014
FM 5-499
Appendix-226
Temper a t ur e Conver sion Char t : Celsius = 5/9 (F - 32)
Fa hr enheit = 9/5 (C + 32)
Inches
Centimeters 2.540
Meters
2.540 x 10
-2
Millimeters 25.40
Miles (statute)
Centimeters
1.6093 x 10
5
Meters 1,609.3
Kilometers 1.609.3
Miles/hr
cms/sec 44.70
kms/hr 1.609
kms/min 0.02682
Pounds Kilograms 0.4536
Pounds/sq in (psi) kgs/sq meter 703.1
Square Inches sq centimeters 6.452
Square feet
sq cms 929.0
sq meters 0.09290
sq millimeters
9.290 x 10
4
Square miles
sq kms 2.590
sq meters
2.590 x 10
6
Tons
Kilograms 907.1848
Tons (metric) .9078
Yards
Centimeters 91.44
Kilometers
9.144 x 10
-4
Meters 0.9144
Millimeters 914.4
Table A-1. Metric conversion chart
To Convert Into Multiply By
FM 5-499
Glossary-227
Glossary
F degr ee Fahr ehheit
AC alt er nat ing cur r ent
ASA Amer ica n St a ndar ds Associat ion
ATTN at t ent ion
axi al pi st on pump A pump in which t he pist ons st r oke in t he sa me dir ec-
t ion on t he cylinder block's cent er line; t hese pumps
ar e eit her a n in-line or a ngle design.
Be rnoulli 's Pri nci ple La w which st a t es t hat t he st at ic pr essur e of a moving
liquid va r ies inver sely wit h it s velocit y; t ha t is, a s ve-
locit y incr eases, st at ic pr essur e decr ea ses.
BTU Br it ish t her ma l unit
capaci ty Same a s volumet r ic out put .
cavi tat i on A condit ion t hat occur s in pumping when availa ble
fluid does not fill t he exist ing space; cavit at ion causes
er osion of t he met a l in t he inlet and speeds det er ior a-
t ion of t he hydr aulic oil.
ce ntri fugal pump A nonposit ive-displa cement pump t hat is used in a
hydr aulic syst em wher e a la r ge volume of flow is r e-
quir ed a t r elat ively low pr essur es; a cent r ifugal pump
is eit her a volut e or diffuser t ype.
cfs cubic foot (feet ) per second
chas s i s ground The differ ence of pot ent ial bet ween a point in t he cir -
cuit and a gr ound point t ha t is measur ed by t he volt -
met er . Also ca lled common ground. S ee also e art h
ground; ground; zero re fe re nce poi nt .
FM 5-499
Glossary-228
clos e d-c ent er system A pump syst em wher e t he pump cont inues t o oper a t e
against a load in t he neut r al condit ion.
common ground Same a s chas s i s ground.
cyl cylinder
cyli nder A hydr a ulic a ct uat or t hat is const r uct ed of a pist on or
plunger which oper a t es in a cylindr ica l housing by t he
act ion of liquid under pr essur e; a cylinder can be one
of sever al t ypes: single act ing, double act ing, differ en-
t ial, nondiffer ent ial, r a m t ype, pist on t ype, cushioned,
or lockout .
DA Depa r t ment of t he Ar my
DC dir ect cur r ent
de l ive ry rat e Same a s volumet r ic out put .
di rec ti onal-cont rol valve s Valves t hat cont r ol t he flow dir ect ion; t hey ca n be a
poppet , a sliding-spool, a check, a t wo-way, or a four -
wa y valve. S ee also flow-c ontrol val ve s , pre s s ure -
cont rol valves; valve s.
di s placeme nt The amount of liquid t hat is t r a nsfer r ed fr om t he
pump's inlet t o it s out let in one r evolut ion or cycle;
displa cement is eit her fixed or var ia ble. See also
fixed-displacement pump; var ia ble-displa cement
pump.
di s placeme nt pri nc i ple Pr inciple which expla ins how fluid is t a ken in at one
point and is displa ced t o a not her point ; displacement
is eit her nonposit ive or posit ive. S ee also nonposit ive-
displa cement pump; posit ive-displacement pump.
earth ground Connect ions t o gr ound t hat ar e made for safet y r ea -
sons. S ee also chass i s ground; ground; zero re fe r-
e nc e poi nt.
e ne rgy The abilit y t o do wor k, expr essed in ft lb. S ee also
fri c ti on; heat e nergy; kinet i c e nergy; pot ent i al
e ne rgy.
fi xe d-di splac eme nt pump A pump in which t he GPM out put can be cha nged only
by var ying t he dr ive speed. S ee also di splaceme nt ;
vari able -di spl aceme nt pump.
fl ow The movement of t he hydr a ulic fluid caused by a dif-
fer ence in t he pr essur e a t t wo point s; velocit y and
flow r at e a r e t he t wo wa ys t o mea sur e flow. S ee also
FM 5-499
Glossary-229
fl ow rat e ; velocit y.
fl ow rat e The mea sur e of how much volume of a liquid pa sses a
gpoint in a given t ime, measur e in GPM. S ee also
fl ow; veloc i ty.
fl ow-c ont rol valve s Valves t ha t a r e used t o cont r ol t he act uat or speed by
met er ing t he flow; t hey ca n be a ga t e, a globe, a nee-
dle, a r est r ict or , an or ifice-check, or a flow-equlizer
va lve. S ee also di re ct i onal-c ontrol val ve s ;
pre ssure -cont rol valve s; valve s.
FM field ma nual
forc e Anyt hing t hat t ends t o pr oduce or modify mot ion, ex-
pr essed in pounds.
fps foot (feet ) per second
FPT flow, pr essur e, and t emper a t ur e
fri c ti on The r esist ance t o r elat ive mot ion bet ween t wo bodies.
S ee also energy; heat ene rgy; ki net i c e nergy; po-
tenti al e nergy.
ft foot (feet )
ft lb foot -pound
GPM ga llon(s) per minut e
ground A point of r efer ence in a n elect r ica l cir cuit t o which a ll
cir cuit volt ages ar e compa r ed; cir cuit volt ages a r e ei-
t her posit ive or nega t ive wit h r espect t o gr ound. S ee
also c hassi s ground; e art h ground; zero re fe r-
e nc e poi nt.
head The ver t ica l dist a nce bet ween t wo levels in a fluid.
heat e nergy The ener gy a body possesses beca use of it s hea t ; con-
sider ed a dynamic fact or . S ee also e nergy; fri ct i on
ki ne ti c ene rgy; pote nti al energy.
hp hor sepower ; st a nda r d unit of power ; one HP is equal
t o 550 ft lb of wor k ever y second.
HP hydr aulic hp
HQ headquar t er s
hydrauli c ac tuat or A piece of equipment t hat r eceives pr essur e ener gy
FM 5-499
Glossary-230
and conver t s it t o mechnical for ce and mot ion.
hydrauli c mot ors A piece of equipment t hat conver t s hydr aulic ener gy
int o mecha nical ener gy; hydr a ulic mot or s can be gea r ,
va ne, or pist on t ypes.
hydrauli c te st ers light weight unit s used t o check or t r oubleshoot a hy-
dr a ulic-power ed syst em.
hydrauli cs The science of t r ansmit t ing for ce and/or mot ion
t hr ough t he medium of a confined liquid.
ID inside dia met er
JIC J oint Indust r y Confer ence
ki ne ti c e ne rgy The ener gy a body possesses beca use of it s mot ion; t he
amount of kinet ic ener gy in a moving liquid is dir ect ly
pr opor t ional t o t he squar e of it s velocit y; consider ed a
dyna mic fa ct or . S ee also fric ti on; heat e ne rgy; po-
tenti al e nergy; veloc i ty pre s sure .
lami nar flow Flow t hat occur s when par t icles of a liquid move in
st r aight lines par allel t o t he flow dir ect ion. S ee also
turbule nt flow.
lb pound
MO Missour i
N C nor mally closed
N O nor mally open
nonposi ti ve -di spl aceme nt pump This t ype of pump dischar ges liquid in a cont inuous
flow. S ee also di splac eme nt pri nci ple ; posi ti ve -
di splaceme nt pump.
OD out side diamet er
open-ce nt er system A pump syst em wher e t he pump's out put ha s a fr ee
flow pat h ba ck t o t he r eser voir in t he cir cuit 's neut r a l
condit ion.
Pas c al's Law Basic law of hydr aulics t hat Blaise Pa sca l for mulat ed
in t he 17t h cent ur y; Pa sca l st at es t hat pr essur e in a
FM 5-499
Glossary-231
confined fluid is t r ansmit t ed undiminished in ever y
dir ect ion and a ct s wit h equa l for ce on equa l a r ea a nd
at r ight a ngles t o t he cont ainer 's wa lls.
posi ti ve -di splace ment pump This t ype of pump dischar ges volumes of liquid t hat
ar e sepa r a t ed by per iods of no discha r ge. S ee also di s-
plac eme nt pri nc i ple ; nonposi ti ve -di splac eme nt
pump.
pot ent i al energy Ener gy due t o posit ion; in hydr aulics, pot ent ial ener -
gy is a st at ic fa ct or . S ee also e ne rgy; fri ct i on; heat
e ne rgy; ki ne t i c e ne rgy.
pre ssure The for ce exer t ed a ga inst a specific a r ea, expr essed in
psi.
pre ssure -cont rol valve s Valves t hat ma y limit or r egulat e pr essur e, cr eat e a
par t icular pr essur e condit ion r equir ed for cont r ol, or
cause a ct uat or s t o oper at e in a specific or der . Pr es-
sur e-cont r ol va lves can be a r elief, a pr essur e-r educ-
ing, a sequence, or a count er ba lance valve. S ee also
di re c ti onal-control valve s ; flow-control valve s ;
valve s.
ps i pound(s) per squa r e inch
radi al pi st on pump A pump in which t he pist ons a r e ar r anged like wheel
spokes in a shor t cylindr ica l block.
re ci proc ati ng pump A t ype of pump t ha t depends on a r ecipr oca t ing mo-
t ion t o t r ansmit liquid fr om it s inlet side t o it s out let
side.
re s is t anc e A condit ion in a hydr aulic syst em t hat is usua lly
caused by a r est r ict ion or obst r uct ion in t he pa t h or
flow.
rot ary pump A posit ive-displa cement pump in which r ot a r y mot ion
car r ies t he liquid fr om t he pump's inlet t o it s oulet .
rpm r evolut ion(s) per minut e
sli ppage The mea sur e of a pump's efficiency expr essed in per -
cent ; oil leaks fr om t he pr essur e out let t o a low-pr es-
sur e ar ea or back t o t he inlet ; some slippa ge is
designed int o pump syst ems for lubr ica t ion pur poses.
SPDT single pole-double t hr ow swit ch
SPST single pole-single t hr ow swit ch
sq i n squa r e inches
Other titles available online www.govmedia.com
FM 5-499
Glossary-232
STOP syste m Tr oubleshoot ing syst em in hydr aulics in which a per -
son should St udy t he cir ucit diagr a ms, Test by using
a r elia ble t est er , Or ganize t he knowledge ga ined fr om
t he cir cuit -t est r esult s, and Per for m r epa ir s, t aking
t ime t o do t he job well.
torque Cir cula r for ce on an object .
turbule nt fl ow Flow t ha t develops when flow speed incr ea ses beyond
a given point . S ee also lami nar flow.
two-stage pump A pump t ha t consist s of t wo sepa r at e pump assem-
blies t hat ar e cont ained in one housing.
typi cal mobi le c i rcui t s Hydr aulic-lift , power -st eer ing, a nd r oa d-pat r ol-t r uck
cir cuit s.
USAES Unit ed St at es Ar my Engineer School
USASI Unit ed St at es of Amer ica n St a ndar ds Inst it ut e
valve s Object s in a hydr aulic syst em t hat cont r ol t he oper a-
t ion of t he act ua t or s; valves r egula t e pr essur e by cr e-
at ing special pr essur e condit ions and by cont r olling
how much oil will flow in por t ions of t he cir cuit and
wher e it will go. S ee also di rec ti onal-cont rol
valve s ; flow-cont rol valve s ; pre s s ure -control
valve s .
vane-t ype pump A pump in which a slot t ed r ot or splined t o a dr ive
shaft r ot a t es bet ween closely fit t ed side pla t es t ha t
ar e inside of an ellipt ical- or cir cular -shaped r ing;
va ne pumps can be couble, unbalanced, or ba la nced.
vari able-di spl aceme nt pump A pump in which t he pumping-chamber sizes can be
changed; t he GPM deliver y can be changed by moving
t he displacement cont r ol, changing t he dr ive speed, or
doing bot h. S ee also di splac eme nt; fi xed-
di splaceme nt pump.
veloci t y The aver age speed of a fluid's par t icles past a given
point , mea sur ed in fps. S ee also flow; flow rat e .
veloci t y pre ss ure Pr essur e caused by kinet ic ener gy. S ee also ki ne ti c
e ne rgy.
volumet ri c output The a mount of liquid a pump can deliver at it s out let
por t per unit of t ime a t a given dr ive speed, usually
expr essed in GPM or cubic inches per minut e. Also
called deli very rate or c apac i ty.
FM 5-499
Glossary-233
V volt
VOM volt -ohm-milla mmet er
work The mea sur e of for ce mult iplied by dist ance.
zero refere nce poi nt volt a ge point in a n elect r ical cir cuit t ha t is neit her
nega t ive or posit ive. S ee also c has s i s ground, e art h
ground; ground.
FM 5-499
References-1
Re ferences
SOURCES USED
These ar e t he sour ces quot ed or pa r a phr a sed in t his publicat ion.
Nonmilitary Publications
Hydraulics. Deer e a nd Compa ny Ser vice Publica t ions, Moline, Illinois. 1997.
Indust rial Hyydraulics Manual. Vicker s Tr a ining Cent er , Rochest er Hills, Michiga n. 1993.
DOCUMENTS NEEDED
These document s must be a va ila ble t o t he user s of t his publica t ion;
Department of the Army Forms
DA For m 2028. Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms. Febr uar y 1974.
Index
A
accumulators (para 2-6)
bag-type (para 2-6b)
maintenance of (para 2-6d)
piston-type (para 2-6c)
spring-loaded (para2-6a)
actuator
air vents (para 4-3j)
American Standards Association (ASA) (para 6-2)
area (para 1-1b)
ASA. See American Standards Association (ASA)
assembling a clamp-type coupling (para 2-10d)
assembling a conductor (para 2-10d)
B
baffle plate (para 2-3f)
bends in tubing (para 2-9d)
Bernouillis principle (para 1-4d)
C
camshaft (para 5-2d(1))
capacity (para 3-2)
centrifugal force (para 4-4b)
cfs. See cubic foot (feet) per second (cfs)
circuits
hydraulic-lift (para 6-3a)
mobile (para 6-3a)
operation problems in (para 6-4a)
power-steering (para 6-3b)
road-patrol-truck (para 6-3c)
testing (para 6-4b)
troubleshooting (para 6-4)
circulatory system (para 2-9)
requirements (para 2-9)
colors in figures (para 2-2)
connecting tubing (para 2-9d)
connectors (para 2-10)
flared (para 2-10b)
threaded (para 2-10a)
couplings (para 2-3f)
flexible-hose (para 2-10c)
cubic foot (feet) per second (cfs) (para 2-7)
cylinder block (para 3-8a(2)), (para 3-8a(5))
cylinder housing (para 4-1)
cylinder ports (para 4-2)
cylinders (para 4-1)
construction of (para 4-2)
cushioned (para 4-1g)
differential (para 4-1c)
double-acting (4-1b)
lockout (para 4-1h)
nondifferential (para 4-1d)
piston (para 4-1)
piston-type (para 4-1f)
problems with, abrasives on a piston rod (para 4-3h)
problems with, burrs on a piston rod (para 4-3i)
problems with, creeping (para 4-3c)
problems with, loose mounting (para 4-3e)
problems with, misalignment (para 4-3f)
problems with, no lubrication (para 4-3g)
problems with, sluggish operation (para 4-3d)
ram-type (para 4-1), (para 4-1e)
single-acting (para 4-1a)
D
dash number of tubing (para 2-9a)
delivery rate (para 3-2)
diagrams
hydraulic-circuit (para 6-1)
hydraulic-circuit, block (para 6-1a)
hydraulic-circuit, cutaway (para 6-1b)
diode (para 7-2b(5))
displacement (para 3-3), (para 4-4), (para 4-4c(1))
distance (para 1-2)
drive shaft (para 3-8b(1))
E
electrical equipment (para 7-4a)
practices (para 7-4b)
safety (para 7-4)
energy (para 1-4)
heat (para 1-4c)
kinetic (para 1-4b), (para 1-4d)
potential (para 1-4a), (para 1-4d
F
filters (para 2-4b)
active, absorbent (para 2-5)
element, depth-type (para 2-5)
element, edge-type (para 2-5)
element, surface-type (para 2-5)
full-flow (para 2-4b(1))
inactive, absorbent (para 2-5)
mechanical (para 2-5)
proportional-flow (para 2-4b(2))
fittings (para 2-10)
crosses (para 2-10b)
elbows (para 2-10b)
skived (para 2-10d)
unions (para 2-10b)
flared connectors leaking (para 2-10b)
flaring a tube (para 2-9d)
flow (para 1-3), (para 2-7), (para 3-1), (para 5-2c(2)), (para 5-2e)
laminar (para 1-4c)
turbulent (para 1-4c)
flow, pressure, and temperature (FPT) (para 6-4d)
fluid pressure (para 4-1f)
foot (feet) per second (fps) (para 1-3a)
foot-pound (ft lb) (para 1-4)
force (para 1-1b), (para 1-2)
fps. See foot (feet) per second (fps)
FPT. See flow, pressure, and temperature (FPT)
friction (para 1-4c), (para 1-4d)
ft lb. See foot-pound (ft lb)
G
gallon(s) per minute (GPM) (para 1-3b)
gas (para 1-1)
gauges
pressure (para 2-7)
GPM. See gallon(s) per minute (GPM)
gravity (para 4-1f)
ground (para 7-3)
chassis or common (para 7-3b)
earth (para 7-3a)
zero reference point (para 7-3c)
H
head (para 1-1a), (para 1-4c)
horsepower (HP) (para 1-4f), (para 2-1c(3))
hose (para 2-9c(1))
rubber (para 2-9c(1))
Teflon-type (para 2-9c(2))
HP. See horsepower (HP)
hydraulic balance (para 5-1)
hydraulic boost (para 6-3b)
hydraulic motors (para 4-4)
bent-axis piston-type (para 4-4c(2))
gear-type (para 4-4a)
in-line-axis piston-type (para 4-4c(1))
piston-type (para 4-4c)
principal ratings of (para 4-4)
vane-type (para 4-4b)
variable-displacement (para 4-4c(2))
hydraulic pump essentials (para 3-5)
hydraulic systems (para 2-1)
closed-center (para 2-1d), (para 2-1d), (para 2-1d)
hydraulic-jack (para 2-1a)
improperly operating (para 2-8b)
motor-reversing (para 2-1b)
open-center (para 2-1c)
problems with (para 6-4f)
solutions for (para 6-4g)
with fixed-displacement pump and accumulator (para 2-1d(1))
with flow divider (para 2-1c(3))
with series connection (para 2-1c(1))
with series/parallel connection (para 2-1c(2))
with variable-displacement pump (para 2-1c(2))
hydraulic transmission (para 4-4c(2))
I
ID. See inside diameter (ID)
inside diameter (ID) (para 2-9b)
J
JIC. See Joint Industry Conference (JIC)
Joint Industry Conference (JIC) (para 6-2)
L
leakage
external (para 2-11b), (para 4-3a)
in a hydraulic system (para 2-11)
internal (para 2-11a), (para 4-3b)
prevention of (para 2-11c)
prevention of by properly operating equipment (para 2-11c(2))
prevention of through maintenance of equipment (para 2-11c(3))
prevention of through proper installation of materials (para 2-11c(1))
lines in liquid-powered systems (para 2-9)
flexible hosing (para 2-9c)
piping (para 2-9b)
tubing (para 2-9a)
liquid (para 1-1a), (para 1-4c)
levels (para 1-1a(1))
M
metering (para 5-3)
meters (para 2-7b)
nutating-piston-disc type (para 2-7b)
O
OD. See outside diameter (OD)
O-ring (para 5-2a), (para 5-2e(1)), (para 5-23(2))
O-rings (para 2-12b(1))
outside diameter (OD) (para 2-9a)
override (para 5-1)
P
packing (para 2-12c)
Pascals law (para 1-2)
pilot-valve assembly (para 5-1b(1))
pintle (para 3-8a(1))
pistons (para 3-8a(3))
Pitman arm (para 6-3b)
pivots (para 4-3)
port connections (para 6-2c)
potentiometer (para 7-2b(1))
pound(s) per square inch (psi) (para 1-1), (para 1-1a(2))
power (para 1-4f)
power-steering system (para 6-3b)
pressure (para 1-1), (para 1-1a), (para 2-7), (para 3-2), (para 4-4b), (para 5-1b), (para 5-1b(1))
atmospheric (para 1-1a), (para 1-1a(2)), (para 2-7a)
static (para 1-4c), (para 1-4d)
pressure plate (para 4-4b)
pressure switches (para 5-1e)
psi. (Emphasis>See pound(s) per square inch (psi)
psi. See pound(s) per square inch (psi)
pump
volute (para 3-5a)
pump cavitation (para 2-3d)
pumps
centrifugal (para 3-5a)
characteristics of (para 3-1c)
characteristics of vane-type (para 3-7a)
charging (para 2-1d(2))
design (para 3-5)
diffuser (para 3-5a(2))
displacement (para 3-8b(1)(a))
external gear (para 3-6a)
fixed-displacement (para 3-3a)
in-lin, operation of (para 3-8b(1)(c))
in-line, components of (para 3-8b(1)(b))
in-line, wobble-plate type (para 3-8b(2))
internal gear (para 3-6b)
lobe (para 3-6c)
nonpositive-displacement (para 3-1a)
operating problems, cavitation (para 3-9c)
operating problems, excess speed (para 3-9b)
operating problems, no delivery (para 3-9d(3))
operating problems, noise (para 3-9d(4))
operating problems, overloading (para 3-9)
operating problems, pressure loss (para 3-9d(1))
operating problems, slow operation (para 3-9d(2))
piston (para 3-8)
piston, axial-type (para 3-8b)
piston, bent-axis type (para 3-8b(3))
piston, in-line-type (para 3-8b(1))
piston, radial-type (para 3-8a)
positive-displacement (para 3-1b)
reciprocating (para 3-5c)
two-stage design (para 3-7e)
types of (para 3-a)
vane (para 3-7)
vane-type, balanced design (para 3-7c)
vane-type, double design (para 3-7d)
vane-type, unbalanced design (para 3-7b)
variable-displacement (para 3-3b)
R
relay (para 7-2b(3))
replacing hose (para 2-10c)
reservoir (para 2-3), (para 6-2a)
construction of (para 2-3a)
location of (para 2-3d)
shape of (para 2-3b)
size of (para 2-3c)
ventilation and pressurization of (para 2-3e)
reservoirs
line connections for (para 2-3f)
maintenance of (para 2-3g)
resistance (para 3-2), (para 5-1c)
revolution(s) per minute (rpm) (para 2-1d(2))
rings
backup (para 2-12b(2))
piston (para 2-12b(7))
rotors (para 3-8a(4))
rpm. See revolution(s) per minute (rpm)
S
seals (para 2-12), (para 4-2), (para 4-3)
cup (para 2-12b(6))
dynamic (para 2-12b)
face (para 2-12b(8))
lathe-cut (para 2-12b(3))
leather (para 2-12d(1))
lip (para 2-12b(5))
materials (para 2-12d)
neoprene (para 2-12d(4))
nitrile (para 2-12d(2))
nylon (para 2-12d(5))
silicone (para 2-12d(3))
static (para 2-12a)
T-ring (para 2-12b(4))
seizing in connectors (para 2-10a)
sleeve (para 2-10b)
slippage (para 3-2)
solenoid coil (para 7-2b(2))
spring tester (para 5-5b)
strainer (para 2-4a)
swash plate (para 3-8b(1)), (para 3-8b(1)(a)), (para 4-4c(1))
symbols
accumulator (para 6-2i)
cooler (para 6-2i)
cylinder (para 6-2e)
cylinder, cushioned (para 6-2e)
cylinder, double-acting (para 6-2e)
cylinder, double-end rod (para 6-2e)
cylinder, single-acting (para 6-2e)
drain line (para 6-2b)
flexible line (para 6-2b)
fluid conditioner (para 6-2i)
graphical, United States of American Standards Institute (USASI) (para 6-2)
hydraulic lines (para 6-2b)
motor (para 6-2d)
pilot line (para 6-2b)
pump (para 6-2c)
reservoir (para 6-2a)
valves, check (para 6-2f(3))
Other titles available online www.govmedia.com
valves, counterbalance (para 6-2f(4)
valves, directional-control (para 6-2h)
valves, flow-control (para 6-2g)
valves, four-way (para 6-2h(2))
valves, mobile directional (para 6-2h(3)
valves, pressure-control (para 6-2f)
valves, pressure-reducing (para 6-2f(5))
valves, relief (para 6-2f(1))
valves, sequence (para 6-2f(2))
valves, unloading (para 6-2h(1))
working line (para 6-2b)
T
testers
hydraulic-circuit (para 2-8a)
testing devices for electical circuits. See potentiometer, solenoid coil, relay, transformer, diode
torque (para 4-4b), (para 4-4c(2))
transformer (para 7-2b(4))
troubleshooting procedures for electrical circuits (para 7-2a)
analyze the symptom (para 7-2a(2))
identify the symptom (para 7-2a(1))
isolate the faulty circuit (para 7-2a(4))
isolate the single faulty function (para 7-2a(3))
locate/verify the cause of the malfunction (para 7-2a(5))
tube installation (para 2-9d)
tube maintenance (para 2-9d)
U
USASI. See symbols
graphical, United States of American Standards Institute (USASI)
V
valves (para 2-1a)
assembly of (para 5-6)
check (para 5-2c)
check, elements of (para 5-2c)
check, orifice (para 5-3e)
check, pilot-operated (para 5-2c(3))
check, pilot-operated-type (para 5-2c(3))
check, restriction-type (para 5-2c(2))
check, standard-type (para 5-2c(1))
closed-center spool (para 5-2e(2))
compensated flow for (para 5-4d)
compound-relief-type (para 5-1a(2))
control (para 2-1c(1)), (para 2-1d), (para 2-1d(1))
counterbalance (para 5-1d)
repairing (para 5-5c)
restrictor (para 5-3d)
rotary-spool-type (para 5-2)
seats and poppets (para 5-5c(4))
sequence (para 5-1c)
sequence, application of (para 5-1c)
servicing (para 5-5a)
simple-relief-type (para5-1a(1))
sliding-spool (para 5-2b)
sliding-spool-type (para 5-2)
solenoid-operated two-and four-way (para 5-2e(5))
troubleshooting of (para 5-7)
two-way (para 5-2d)
unloading-type, unloading problem (para 5-7a(4))
variations of flow-control (para 5-3)
volume-control (para 5-5c(2))
volume-control, flow-variation problem (para 5-7c)
volume-control, improper-flow problem (para 5-7c)
volume-control, oil-heating problem (para 5-7c)
volume-control, pressure problem (para 5-7c)
XC-series pressure-reducing (para 5-1b(2))
X-series pressure-reducing (para 5-1b(1))
velocity (para 1-3a), (para 1-4d)
venturi throat (para 2-4b(2))
volumetric output (para 3-2)
W
weight para 1-1a)
water (para 1-1a)
wipers (para 4-2)
work (para 1-4e)
working parts of a pump (para 3-8a)
Y
yoke (para3-8b(1)(c))
FM 5-499
1 AUGUST 1997
By Order of the Secretary of the Army:
DENNIS J. REIMER
General, United States Army
Official: Chief of Staff
Administrative Assistant to the
Secretary of the Army
03710
DISTRIBUTION:
Active Army, Army National Guard, and U.S. Army Reserve: To be distributed in
accordance with the initial distribution number 115487, requirements for FM 5-499.

Training Solutions

Training Solutions

Hydraulics

Training Manual 3

Basic Hydraulic System & Components

TABLE OF CONTENTS


Section Page

Subcourse Overview ................................................................................................................... i

Terminal Learning Objective....................................................................................................... ii

Administrative Instructions ......................................................................................................... iv

Grading and Certification Instructions ........................................................................................ iv

Lesson 1: Hydraulic Reservoirs, Filters, Pumps,
Accumulators, and Motors ........................................................................................ 1

Practice Exercise ....................................................................................................... 19

Answer Key and Feedback ....................................................................................... 22

Lesson 2: Basic Construction and Operation of Hydraulic
Actuating Devices, Flow Control, and Directional
Devices....................................................................................................................... 25

Practice Exercise ....................................................................................................... 43

Answer Key and Feedback ....................................................................................... 46

Lesson 3: Hydraulic Pressure-Limiting, Controlling, and
Sensing Devices......................................................................................................... 49

Practice Exercise ....................................................................................................... 55

Answer Key and Feedback ....................................................................................... 58

Examination ................................................................................................................................ 61

Appendix: Glossary ..................................................................................................................... 69

Student Inquiry Sheets







iii AL0926

GRADING AND CERTIFICATION INSTRUCTIONS

Examination: This subcourse contains a multiple-choice examination covering the material contained in
this subcourse. After studying the lessons and working through the practice exercises, complete the
examination. Mark your answers in the subcourse booklet, then transfer them to the ACCP Examination
Response Sheet. Completely black out the lettered oval which corresponds to your selection (A, B, C,
or D). Use a number 2 lead pencil to mark your responses. When you complete the ACCP examination
response sheet, mail it in the preaddressed envelope you received with this subcourse. You will receive
an examination score in the mail. You will receive Four credit hours for successful completion of this
examination.





































iv AL0926

LESSON 1

HYDRAULIC RESERVOIRS, FILTERS, PUMPS, ACCUMULATORS, AND MOTORS


STP Tasks: 552-758-1063
552-758-1071



OVERVIEW


LESSON DESCRIPTION:

In this lesson you will learn the basic operation of the hydraulic reservoirs, filters, pumps, accumulators,
and motors.

TERMINAL LEARNING OBJECTIVE:

ACTION: After this lesson you will demonstrate knowledge of hydraulic reservoirs, filters,
pumps, accumulators, and motors.

CONDITIONS: You will study the material in this lesson in a classroom environment or at your
home.

STANDARD: You will correctly answer all the questions in the practice exercise before you
proceed to the next lesson.

REFERENCES: The material contained in this lesson was derived from the following publications:
AR 310-25, AR 310-50, FM 1-500, FM 1-509, TM 1-1500-204-23 Series, TM 55-
1510-Series (Fixed Wing Maintenance Manuals), TM 55-1520-Series (Rotary wing
Maintenance Manuals) and TM 4301A 05 0267 (Air Force)














1 AL0926

INTRODUCTION

A means of storing hydraulic fluid and minimizing contamination is necessary to any aircraft hydraulic
system. These functions are performed by reservoirs and filters. The component which causes fluid
flow in a hydraulic system--the heart of any hydraulic system--can be a hand pump, power-driven pump,
accumulator, or any combination of the three. Finally, a means of converting hydraulic pressure to
mechanical rotation is sometimes necessary, and this is accomplished by a hydraulic motor.

HYDRAULIC RESERVOIRS

The hydraulic reservoir is a container for holding the fluid required to supply the system, including a
reserve to cover any losses from minor leakage and evaporation. The reservoir can be designed to
provide space for fluid expansion, permit air entrained in the fluid to escape, and to help cool the fluid.
Figure 1-1 shows two typical reservoirs. Compare the two reservoirs item by item and, except for the
filters and bypass valve, notice the similarities.

Filling reservoirs to the top during servicing leaves no space for expansion. Most reservoirs are
designed with the rim at the filler neck below the top of the reservoir to prevent overfilling. Some
means of checking the fluid level is usually provided on a reservoir. This may be a glass or plastic sight
gage, a tube, or a dipstick. Hydraulic reservoirs are either vented to the atmosphere or closed to the
atmosphere and pressurized. A description of each type follows.

Vented Reservoir. A vented reservoir is one that is open to atmospheric pressure through a vent line.
Because atmospheric pressure and gravity are the forces which cause the fluid to flow to the pump, a
vented reservoir is mounted at the highest point in the hydraulic system. Air is drawn into and
exhausted from the reservoir through a vent line. A filter is usually installed in the vent line to prevent
foreign material from being taken into the system.

Pressurized Reservoir. A pressurized reservoir is sealed from the atmosphere. This reservoir is
pressurized either by engine bleed air or by hydraulic pressure produced within the hydraulic system
itself. Pressurized reservoirs are used on aircraft intended for high altitude flight, where atmospheric
pressure is not enough to cause fluid flow to the pump.

In reservoirs pressurized by engine bleed air, the amount of air pressure is determined by an air
pressure regulator--usually 10 to 15 pounds per square inch (psi) gage. An example of a












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hydraulically pressurized reservoir used in the CH-47 hydraulic system is shown in Figure 1-2.

This reservoir, or tank as it is referred to by Boeing-Vertol, is constructed of a metal housing with
two internal pistons, one fixed and the other a floating piston which slides along a central tube.
Attached to the floating piston is a larger tube that projects through the forward end of the tank and is
calibrated to indicate FULL and REFILL fluid levels for ramp-up and ramp-down positions.


Figure 1-1. Typical Hydraulic Reservoirs.

Hydraulic fluid at 3,000 psi flows into the central tube as shown in Figure 1-2, passes through two
outlet holes, and applies pressure at the piston area between the two tubes. Because the smaller piston
has a .5-square-inch (sq in) exposed surface and the floating piston has a 30-sq-in exposed surface, the
3,000-psi pressure acting upon the smaller forward area produces an opposing pressure of 50 psi on the
return fluid stored at the rear of the piston.







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Additional Reservoir Components. Many reservoirs, as shown in Figure 1-1, are constructed with
baffles or fins to keep the fluid from swirling and foaming. Foaming can cause air to become entrained
in the system.

Filters are incorporated in some reservoirs to filter the fluid before it leaves the reservoir.

A bypass valve is used to ensure that the pump does not starve if the filter becomes clogged.

A standpipe is used in a reservoir which supplies a normal and an emergency system. The main
system draws its fluid from the standpipe, which is located at a higher elevation. This ensures an
adequate fluid supply to the secondary system if the main system fails.


Figure 1-2. Hydraulic Reservoir Pressurized With Hydraulic Fluid.

HYDRAULIC FILTER

Contamination of hydraulic fluid is one of the common causes of hydraulic system troubles. Installing
filter units in the pressure and return lines of a hydraulic system allows




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contamination to be removed from the fluid before it reaches the various operating components. Filters
of this type are referred to as line filters.

Line Filter Construction. A typical line filter is shown in Figure 1-3. It has two major parts--the
filter case, or bowl, and the filter head. The bowl holds the head that screws into it. The head has an
inlet port, outlet port, and relief valve. Normal fluid flow is through the inlet port, around the outside of
the element, through the element to the inner chamber, and out through the outlet port. The bypass
valve lets the fluid bypass the filter element if it becomes clogged.


Figure 1-3. Typical Line Filter Assembly.

Types of Filter Elements. The most common filtering element used on Army aircraft is the micronic
type. It is a disposable unit made of treated cellulose and is formed into accordion pleats, as shown in
Figure 1-3. Most filter elements are



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capable of removing all contaminants larger than 10 to 25 microns (1 micron equals 0.00004 inch).

Another type is the cuno filter element. It has a stack of closely spaced disks shaped like spoked
wheels. The hydraulic fluid is filtered as it passes between the disks.

HAND-OPERATED HYDRAULIC PUMP

The heart of any hydraulic system is the pump which converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
The source of mechanical energy may be an electric motor, the engine, or the operator's muscle.

Pumps powered by muscle are called hand pumps. They are used in emergencies as backups for power
pumps and for ground checks of the hydraulic system. The double-action hand pump produces fluid
flow with every stroke and is the only type used on Army aircraft.

Handle to the Right. The double-action hand pump, shown in Figure 1-4, consists of a cylinder
piston with built-in check valve, piston rod, operating handle, and a check valve built into the inlet port.
As the handle is moved to the right, the piston and rod also move to the right. On this stroke, the inlet
check valve opens as a result of the partial vacuum caused by the movement of the piston, allowing fluid
to be drawn into the left chamber. At the same time, the inner check valve closes. As the piston moves
to the right, the fluid in the right chamber is forced out into the system.


Figure 1-4. Double-Action Hand Pump.








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Handle to the Left. When the handle is moved to the left, the piston and rod assembly also move to
the left. The inlet check valve now closes, preventing the fluid in the left chamber from returning to the
reservoir. At the same time, the pistonhead check valve opens, allowing the fluid to enter the right
chamber.

Fluid Into the System. The pump produces pressure on both strokes because of the difference in
volume between the right and left chambers. The piston rod takes up a good share of the space in the
right chamber. Therefore, the excess fluid is forced out of the pump and into the hydraulic system,
creating fluid pressure.

PUMP-DRIVEN HYDRAULIC PUMPS

Power-driven pumps receive their driving force from an external power source, such as the aircraft
engine. This force is converted into energy in the form of fluid pressure. The four basic types of power-
driven hydraulic pumps are gear, vane, diaphragm, and piston. Of these, the piston type is most
commonly found in Army aircraft. The reason for this is that it operates more efficiently at higher
pressures and has a longer life than any of the others. Piston pumps are further categorized as either
constant delivery or variable delivery.

Pumps are coupled to their driving units by a short, splined coupling shaft, commonly called a drive
coupling. As shown in Figure 1-5, the shaft is designed with a weakened center section called a shear
section, with just enough strength to run the pump under normal circumstances. Should some trouble
develop within the pump causing it to turn unusually hard, the shear section will break. This prevents
damage to the pump or driving unit.


Figure 1-5. Pump Drive Coupling.

Constant-delivery piston pumps deliver a given quantity of fluid per revolution of the drive coupling,
regardless of pressure demands. The quantity of fluid delivered per minute depends on








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pump revolutions per minute (rpm). In a system requiring constant pressure, this type of pump must be
used with a pressure regulator. The two types of constant-delivery piston pumps used in Army aircraft
are the angular and cam.

Angular Piston Pump Construction. The basic components of an angular piston pump are shown in
Figure 1-6. They are--

(1) A rotating group consisting of a coupling shaft, universal link, connecting rods, pistons,
and cylinder block.

(2) A stationary group consisting of the valve plate and the pump case or housing.

The cylinder bores lie parallel to, and are evenly spaced around, the pump axis. For this reason, a
piston pump is often referred to as an axial piston pump.

Packings on seals are not required to control piston-to-bore leakage. This is controlled entirely by
close machining and accurate fit between piston and bore. The clearance is only enough to allow for
lubrication by the hydraulic fluid and slight expansion when the parts become heated. Pistons are
individually fitted to their bores during manufacture and must not be changed from pump to pump or
bore to bore.

Pump Operation. As the coupling shaft is turned by the pump power source, the pistons and cylinder
block turn along with it because they are interconnected. The angle that exists between the cylinder
block and coupling shaft causes the pistons to move back and forth in their respective cylinder bores as
the coupling is turned:

During the first half of a revolution of the pump, a cylinder is aligned with the inlet port in
the valve plate. At this time the piston is moving away from the valve plate and drawing
hydraulic fluid into the cylinder. During the second half of the revolution, the cylinder is
lining up with the outlet port in the valve plate. At this time, the piston is moving toward the
valve plate, thus causing fluid previously drawn into the cylinder to be forced out through the
outlet port.

Fluid is constantly being drawn into and expelled out of the pump as it turns. This provides a
multiple overlap of the individual spurts of fluid forced from the cylinders and results in
delivery of a smooth, nonpulsating flow of fluid from the pump.











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Cam-Piston Pumps. A cam is used to cause the stroking of the pistons in a cam-piston pump. Two
variations are used: in one the cam rotates and the cylinder block is stationary, and in the other the cam
is stationary and the cylinder block rotates. Both cam-piston pumps are described below:


Figure 1-6. Typical Angular Piston Pump.

Rotating-cam pump. The rotating-cam pump is the one most commonly used in Army
aviation. As the cam turns in a rotating-cam pump (Figure 1-7), its high and low points pass
alternately and in turn under each


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piston. It pushes the piston further into its bore, causing fluid to be expelled from the bore. When the
falling face of the cam comes under a piston, the piston's return spring pulls the piston down in its bore.
This causes fluid to be drawn into the bore.

Each bore has a check valve that opens to allow fluid to be expelled from the bore by the piston's
movement. These valves are closed by spring pressure during inlet strokes of the pistons. This fluid is
drawn into the bores only through the central inlet passages. The bores only through the central inlet
passages. The movement of the pistons in drawing in and expelling fluid is overlapping, resulting in a
nonpulsating fluid flow.


Figure 1-7. Typical Rotating-Cam Piston Pump.

Stationary-cam pump. The operation and construction of a stationary-cam pump are
identical to that of the rotating cam except that the cylinder block turns, not the cam. The
stationary-cam pump is not used on the Army's OV-1, AH-1G, and UH-1C.








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VARIABLE-DELIVERY PISTON PUMPS

A variable-delivery piston pump automatically and instantly varies the amount of fluid delivered to the
pressure circuit of a hydraulic system to meet varying system demands. This is accomplished by using a
compensator, which is an integral part of the pump. The compensator is sensitive to the amount of
pressure present in the pump and in the hydraulic system pressure circuit. When the circuit pressure
rises, the compensator causes the pump output to decrease.

Conversely, when circuit pressure drops, the compensator causes pump output to increase. There are
two ways of varying output--demand principle (cam) and stroke-reduction principle (angular).

Demand Principle. The demand principle (Figure 1-8) is based on varying pump output to fill the
system's changing demands by making the piston stroke effective in varying degrees.


Figure 1-8. Variable-Delivery Demand-Principle Cam Pump.







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The pistons are designed with large hollow centers. The centers are intersected by cross-drilled
relief holes that open into the pump case. Each piston is equipped with a movable sleeve, which can
block the relief holes. When these holes are not blocked, fluid displaced by the pistons is discharged
through the relief holes into the pump case, instead of past the pump check valves and out the outlet
port.

When full fluid flow is required, the sleeves are positioned to block the relief holes for the entire
length of piston stroke. When zero flow is required, the sleeves are positioned not to block the flow
during any portion of the piston stroke. For requirements between zero and full flow, the relief holes are
uncovered or blocked accordingly.

The sleeves are moved into their required positions by a device called a pump compensator piston.
The sleeves and compensator piston are interconnected by means of a spider. Fluid pressure for the
compensator piston is obtained from the discharge port (system pressure) through a control orifice.

Stroke-Reduction Principle. The stroke-reduction principle (Figure 1-9) is based on varying the
angle of the cylinder block in an angular pump. This controls the length of the piston's stroke and thus
the volume per stroke.

The cylinder block angle change is achieved by using a yoke that swivels around a pivot pin called a
pintle. The angle is automatically controlled by using a compensator assembly consisting of a pressure-
control valve, pressure-control piston, and mechanical linkage that is connected to the yoke.

As system pressure increases, the pilot valve opens a passageway allowing fluid to act on the control
piston. The piston moves, compressing its spring, and through mechanical linkage moves the yoke
toward the zero flow (zero angle) position. As system pressure decreases, the pressure is relieved on the
piston, and its spring moves the pump into the full flow position.

HYDRAULIC ACCUMULATORS

The purpose of a hydraulic accumulator is to store hydraulic fluid under pressure. It may be used to--:

Dampen hydraulic shocks which may develop when pressure surges occur in hydraulic systems.

Add to the output of a pump during peak load operation of the system, making it possible to use
a pump of much smaller capacity than would otherwise be required.











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Absorb the increases in fluid volume caused by increases in temperature.

Act as a source of fluid pressure for starting aircraft auxiliary power units (APUs).

Assist in emergency operations.


Figure 1-9. Variable Stroke-Reduction Pump.


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Accumulators are divided into types according to the means used to separate the air fluid chambers;
these are the diaphragm, bladder, and piston accumulators.

Diaphragm Accumulator. The diaphragm accumulator consists of two hollow, hemispherical metal
sections bolted together at the center. Notice in Figure 1-10 that one of the halves has a fitting to attach
the unit to the hydraulic system; the other half is equipped with an air valve for charging the unit with
compressed air or nitrogen. Mounted between the two halves is a synthetic rubber diaphragm that
divides the accumulator into two sections. The accumulator is initially charged with air through the air
valve to a pressure of approximately 50 percent of the hydraulic system pressure. This initial air charge
forces the diaphragm upward against the inner surface of the upper section of the accumulator.


Figure 1-10. Diaphragm Accumulator.

When fluid pressure increases above the initial air charge, fluid is forced into the upper chamber
through the system





14 AL0926

pressure port, pushing the diaphragm down and further compressing the air in the bottom chamber.
Under peak load, the air pressure in the lower chamber forces fluid back into the hydraulic system to
maintain operating pressure. Also, if the power pump fails, the compressed air forces a limited amount
of pressurized fluid into the system.

Bladder Accumulator. The bladder accumulator operates on the same principle and for the same
purpose as the diaphragm accumulator but varies in construction, as shown in Figure 1-11. The unit is a
one-piece metal sphere with a fluid pressure inlet at the top and an opening at the bottom for inserting
the bladder. A large screw-type plug at the bottom of the accumulator is a retainer for the bladder that
also seals the unit. A high-pressure air valve is also incorporated in the retainer plug. Fluid enters
through the system pressure port. As fluid pressure increases above the initial air charge of the
accumulator, it forces the bladder downward against the air


Figure 1-11. Bladder Accumulator.




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charge, filling the upper chamber with fluid pressure. The broken lines in Figure 1-11 indicate the
approximate position of the bladder at the time of the initial air charge.

Piston Accumulator. The piston accumulator serves the same purpose and operates by the same
principles as do the diaphragm and bladder accumulators. As shown in Figure 1-12, the unit consists of
a cylinder and piston assembly with ports on each end. Fluid pressure from the system enters the left
port, forcing the piston down against the initial air charge in the right chamber of the cylinder. A high-
pressure air valve is located at the right port for charging the unit. A drilled passage from the fluid side
of the piston to the outside of the piston provides lubrication between the cylinder walls and the piston.


Figure 1-12. Piston Accumulator.

HYDRAULIC MOTORS

Hydraulic motors are installed in hydraulic systems to use hydraulic pressure in obtaining powered
rotation. A hydraulic motor does just the opposite of what a power-driven pump does. A pump receives
rotative force from an engine or other driving unit and converts it into hydraulic pressure. A hydraulic
motor receives hydraulic fluid pressure and converts it into rotative force.

Figure 1-13 shows a typical hydraulic motor. The two main ports through which fluid pressure is
received and return fluid is discharged are marked A and B, respectively. The motor has a cylinder
block-and-piston assembly in which the bores and pistons are in axial arrangement, the same as in a
hydraulic pump. Hydraulic motors can be instantly started, stopped, or reversed under any degree of
load; they can be stalled by










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overload without damage. The direction of rotation of a hydraulic motor can be changed by reversing
the flow of fluid into the ports of the motor.


Figure 1-13. Typical Hydraulic Motor.

SUMMARY

The basic components of any hydraulic system are reservoirs, filters, and pumps (hand or power-driven).
The reservoir holds the fluid supply for the system and helps cool the fluid. Filters are used to ensure
that no contamination reaches the components in a hydraulic system. The pleated micronic filter is the
most common.

The pump converts mechanical energy to fluid flow. The most common power-driven pump is the
piston pump. In all but the simplest hydraulic systems, variable-delivery pumps are used. A variable-
delivery pump delivers only the amount of fluid demanded by the system. This is accomplished through
the use of a compensator.

Depending on the type of aircraft, hydraulic accumulators and hydraulic motors can also be found in the
system. Accumulators are used primarily to supply pressure for starting auxiliary power units and
emergency hydraulic pressure. Hydraulic motors perform a variety of functions, including raising and
lowering cargo doors, operating rescue hoists, and positioning wing flaps.









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LESSON 1

PRACTICE EXERCISE

The following items will test your grasp of the material covered in this lesson. There is only one correct
answer for each item. When you have completed the exercise, check your answers with the answer key
that follows. If you answer any item incorrectly, study again that part of the lesson which contains the
portion involved.

1. The pistons and cylinder block rotate at what RPM?

___ A. The same.
___ B. 500 RPM.
___ C. 750 RPM.
___ D. 1500 RPM.

2. How many types of hydraulic reservoirs are there?

___ A. One.
___ B. Two.
___ C. Three.
___ D. Four.

3. The stationary-cam pump is NOT used on what three Army aircraft?

___ A. UH-1H, AH-1S, and OV-1B.
___ B. UH-1D, AH-1H, and OV-1.
___ C. OV-1A, AH-1G, and UH-1E.
___ D. OV-1, AH-1G, and UH-1C.

4. What type of pump is often used in Army aviation?

___ A. Piston pump.
___ B. Rotating-cam pump.
___ C. Demand-principle compensator pump.
___ D. Rotating-compensator pump.

5. What is used to control piston-to-bore leakage in piston pumps?

___ A. Wiper rings.
___ B. O-rings.
___ C. Seals.
___ D. Close machining.




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6. What type hydraulic pump would you most likely find on an Army AH-1?

___ A. Compensator pump.
___ B. Drive pump.
___ C. Piston pump.
___ D. Auxiliary pump.

7. The angular pump uses what type of compensator?

___ A. Stroke-reduction.
___ B. Reduction-stroke.
___ C. Cam-reduction.
___ D. Piston-reduction.

8. What component in a hydraulic system protects against pressure surges?

___ A. Double-check valve.
___ B. Stationary-cam pump.
___ C. Accumulator.
___ D. Hand-operated pump.

9. What type of pump has a check valve built into the piston?

___ A. Double-action hand pump.
___ B. Single-action hand pump.
___ C. Single-action cam pump.
___ D. Double-action cam pump.

10. What valve opens as the handle is moved to the right?

___ A. Double check valve.
___ B. Single check valve.
___ C. Outlet check valve.
___ D. Inlet check valve.













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LESSON 1

PRACTICE EXERCISE

ANSWER KEY AND FEEDBACK


Item Correct Answer and Feedback

1. A. The same RPM.

Both operate alike because they are connected. (Page 8)

2. B. 2.

The two types of reservoirs are classified as vented and pressurized. (Page 2)

3. D. OV-l, AH-1G, and UH-1C.

All Army aircraft do not have the stationary-cam pump as an operating component. (Page
10)

4. B. Rotating-cam pump.

More Army aircraft use the rotating-cam pump than any type. (Page 9)

5. D. Close machining.

The piston and bore fit so closely that no other component is necessary to stop leakage.
(Page 8)

6. C. Piston pump.

The Army has selected the most efficient, longest-lasting hydraulic pump to be used on its
aircraft. (Page 7)

7. A. Stroke-reduction principle.

The length of the stroke can be controlled by angling the cylinder block. (Page 12)

8. C. Accumulator.

The accumulator can absorb increases in fluid volume to prevent damage to the system.
(Page 12)



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9. A. Double-action hand pump.

The double-action hand pump has two check valves which allow fluid to be drawn into the
left and right chambers. (Page 6)

10. D. Inlet check valve.

Moving the handle to the right results in a slight vacuum, which opens the inlet check valve
as a result of the partial vacuum caused by the movement of the piston, allowing fluid to be
drawn into the left chamber. (Page 6)





































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24 AL0926

LESSON 2

BASIC CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF HYDRAULIC
ACTUATING DEVICES, FLOW CONTROL, AND DIRECTIONAL DEVICES


STP Tasks: 552-758-1003
552-758-1071


OVERVIEW


LESSON DESCRIPTION:

In this lesson you will learn the basic construction and operation of hydraulic actuating devices, flow
control, and directional devices.

TERMINAL LEARNING OBJECTIVE:

ACTION: After this lesson you will demonstrate a knowledge of the basic construction and
operation of hydraulic actuating devices, flow control, and directional devices.

CONDITIONS: You will study the material in this lesson in a classroom environment or at home.

STANDARD: You will correctly answer all the questions in the practice exercise before you
proceed to the next lesson.

REFERENCES: The material contained in this lesson was derived from the following publications:
AR 310-25, AR 310-50, FM 1-500, FM 1-509, TM 1-1500-204-23 Series, TM 55-
1510-Series, TM 55-1520-Series and TM 4301A 05 0267 (Airforce).


INTRODUCTION


So that fluid pressure produced by a pump can be used to move some object, the pressure must be
converted to usable forces by









25 AL0926

means of an actuating unit. A device called an actuating cylinder is used to impart powered straight-line
motion to a mechanism.

Hydraulic systems must also have devices to control or direct the fluid pressure to the various
components. Such devices include selector valves, check valves, ratchet valves, irreversible valves,
sequence valves, and priority valves. Each is described in the paragraphs that follow.

ACTUATING CYLINDERS

A basic actuating cylinder consists of a cylinder housing, one or more pistons and piston rods, and one
or more seals. The cylinder housing contains a polished bore in which the piston operates and one or
more ports through which fluid enters and leaves the bore. The piston and rod form an assembly which
moves forward and backward within the cylinder bore. The piston rod moves into and out of the
cylinder housing through an opening in one or both ends. The seals are used to prevent leakage between
the piston and cylinder bore, and between the piston rod and housing. The two major types of actuating
cylinders are single-action and double-action.

Single-Action Actuating Cylinder. The single-action actuating cylinder, shown in Figure 2-1,
consists of a cylinder housing with one fluid port, a piston and rod assembly, a piston return spring, and
seals.

When no pressure is applied to the piston, the return spring holds it and the rod assembly in the
retracted position. When hydraulic pressure is applied to the inlet port, the piston, sealed to the cylinder
wall by an O-ring, does not allow the fluid to pass. This causes the piston to extend.

As the piston and rod extend, the return spring compresses. A vent on the spring side of the piston
allows air to escape. When pressure is relieved, the return spring forces the piston to retract, pushing the
fluid out of the cylinder. A wiper in the housing keeps the piston rod clean.

The cylinder can be pressure-operated in one direction only. A three-way control valve is normally
used to control cylinder operation.

Double-Action Actuating Cylinder. The double-action actuating cylinder consists of a cylinder with
a port at either end and a piston and rod assembly extending through one end of the cylinder (Figure 2-
2).












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Pressure applied at port A causes the piston to extend, forcing the fluid on the opposite side of the
piston out of port B. When pressure is applied to port B, the piston and rod retract, forcing the fluid in
the opposite chamber out through port A.


Figure 2-1. Single-Action Actuating Cylinder.

This type of cylinder is powered in both directions by hydraulic pressure. A selector valve is
normally used to control a double-action actuating cylinder. Selector valves are discussed in the next
paragraph.


Figure 2-2. Double-Action Actuating Cylinder.

SELECTOR VALVES

Used in hydraulic systems to control the direction of operation of a mechanism, selector valves are also
referred to as directional control valves or control valves. They provide pathways for the simultaneous
flow of two streams of fluid, one under pressure into the actuating unit, and the other, a return stream,
out of the actuating unit. The selector valves have




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various numbers of ports determined by the requirements of the system in which the valve is used.
Selector valves with four ports are the most commonly used; they are referred to as four-way valves.
Selector valves are further classified as closed-center or open-center types.

Closed-Center Selector Valve. When a closed-center selector valve is placed in the the OFF
position, its pressure passage is blocked to the flow of fluid. Therefore, no fluid can flow through its
pressure port, and the hydraulic system stays at operating pressure at all times. The four-way, closed-
center selector valve is the most commonly used selector valve in aircraft hydraulics. There are two
types:

The rotor-type, closed-center selector valve is shown in Figure 2-3. It has a rotor as its valving
device. The rotor is a thick circular disk with drilled fluid passages. It is placed in its various
operating positions by relative movement of the valve control handle. In the OFF position, the
rotor is positioned to close all ports. In the first ON position, the rotor interconnects the pressure
port with the number 1 cylinder port. The number 2 cylinder port is open to return. In the
second ON position the reverse takes place.

The spool-type, closed-center selector valve, is shown in Figure 2-4. This valve has a housing
containing four ports and a spool (pilot valve). The spool is made from a round shaft having
machined sections forming spaces to allow hydraulic fluid to pass. A drilled passage in the spool
interconnects the two end chambers of the selector valve. The large diameters of the spool are
the bearing and sealing surfaces and are called "lands" (see Glossary). In operation, the spool
valve is identical to the rotor type.
























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Figure 2-3. Typical Rotor Closed-Center Selector Valve.

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Figure 2-4. Typical Spool Closed-Center Selector Valve.

Open-Center Selector Valve. In external appearance, the open-center selector valve looks like the
closed-center one. Like closed-center valves, open-center selector valves have four ports and operate in
one OFF and two ON



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positions. The difference between the closed-center and open-center valves is in the OFF position. In
the closed-center valve none of the ports are open to each other in the OFF position. In the open-center
valve, the pressure and return ports are open to each other when the valve is OFF. In this position, the
output of the system pump is returned through the selector valve to the reservoir with little resistance.
Hence, in an open-center system, operating pressure is present only when the actuating unit is being
operated.

An open-center, rotor-type selector valve is shown in Figure 2-5. As you can see, when the valve is
in the OFF position, fluid from the pump enters the pressure port, passes through the open center
passage in the rotor, and back to the reservoir. When the valve is in either of the two ON positions, it
functions the same as a closed-center valve.


Figure 2-5. Typical Open-Center Rotor Selector Valve.

An open-center, spool-type selector valve is shown in Figure 2-6. Notice that this valve differs from
the closed-center type in that a third land is machined on the spool. This land is used to cover the
pressure port when the valve is in the OFF position. It provides an inter-passage in the spool which
allows fluid from the pump to return to the reservoir. Operation in both of the ON positions is the same
as the closed-center selector valve.











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Figure 2-6. Typical Open-Center Spool Selector Valve.

Hydraulic systems are classified as open-center or closed-center depending upon the type of selector
valves used. In an open-

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center system that has more than one selector valve, the valves are arranged one behind the other (in
series).

In a closed-center system, the valves are arranged parallel to each other. An open-center system has
fluid flow but no pressure in the system when the selector valve is off.

In a closed-center system, fluid is under pressure throughout the system when the hydraulic pump is
operating. Both systems are discussed in the paragraphs that follow.

Open-Center System. Figure 2-7 shows a basic open-center hydraulic system which uses a relief
valve to limit system pressure. As was mentioned earlier, this type of system


Figure 2-7. Basic Open-Center Hydraulic System.

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has fluid flow but no pressure until some hydraulic device is operated. When the selector valves are
OFF, fluid flows from the reservoir to the pump through the open-center passage of each valve, then
back to the reservoir. No restrictions exist in the system; therefore, no pressure is present. When one
valve is placed in the operating position, a restriction is created by the device the valve controls. Fluid
then flows under pressure to that hydraulic device.

Closed-Center System. Figure 2-8 shows a basic closed-center system. Fluid is under pressure
throughout a closed-center system when the pump is operating. When the selector valves are in the OFF
position, fluid cannot flow through the closed centers. This causes pressure to build in the system; it is
available at any time a selector valve is turned on. A relief valve is used to keep system pressure from
going above a predetermined amount when all valves are off.


Figure 2-8. Basic Closed-Center System.





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HYDRAULIC SERVO

A servo is a combination of a selector valve and an actuating cylinder in a single unit. When the pilot
valve of a servo is opened by the operator, it is automatically closed by movement of the servo (or
actuating) unit as explained below. Hydraulic servos are used in aircraft when precise control is
necessary over the distance a component moves.

Typical Hydraulic Servo. Figure 2-9 shows a typical hydraulic servo. In operation, when the pilot
valve is displaced from center, pressure is directed to one chamber of the power piston. The other
chamber is open to return flow. As the power piston travels the pilot valve housing travels because the
two are attached. The pilot valve itself is being held stationary by the operator, and the ports again
become blocked by the lands of the pilot valve stopping the piston when it has moved the required
distance.


Figure 2-9. Hydraulic Servo Incorporating Sloppy Link and Bypass Valve.

Servo Sloppy Link. Notice the servo sloppy link in Figure 2-9. It is the connection point between
the control linkage, pilot valve, and servo piston rod. Its purpose is to permit the servo piston to be
moved either by fluid pressure or manually. The sloppy link provides a limited amount of slack between
connecting linkage and pilot valve. Because of the slack between the piston rod and the connecting
linkage, the pilot valve can be moved to an ON position by the connecting linkage without moving the
piston rod.








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Bypass Valve. A bypass valve is provided to minimize the resistance of the servo piston to
movement when it must be moved manually. The valve opens automatically when there is no operating
pressure on the servo. This allows fluid to flow freely between the chambers on each side of the piston.

IRREVERSIBLE VALVE

During normal aircraft operation, external forces from an aircraft's control surfaces, such as rotor blades
and ailerons, tend to move servo cylinders. This movement creates a pumplike action in the servo called
feedback. The irreversible valve prevents feedback through the servo to the control stick.

Figure 2-10 is a simplified schematic version of an irreversible valve. The broken-line block represents
the housing of the


Figure 2-10. Simplified Irreversible Valve.


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valve. The check valve allows fluid from the pump to flow in the normal direction as shown by the
arrow. Feedback forces tend to move the servo piston opposite to the direction of pump-produced
pressure. This tends to force fluid backward through the irreversible valve. The check valve keeps the
servo piston from yielding to feedback by locking the rear-ward flow of fluid. The relief valve is a
safety device to limit the pressure produced by feedback-induced movement of the servo piston. It
opens to allow fluid to bypass to the return line if the feedback pressure exceeds a predetermined safe
limit.

RATCHET VALVE

A ratchet valve is used with a double-action actuating cylinder to aid in holding a load in the position
where it has been moved. The ratchet valve ensures that there is trapped fluid on each side of the
actuating cylinder piston. This is necessary for the cylinder to lock a load against movement in either
direction.

A typical ratchet valve is shown in Figure 2-11. It consists of a housing with four ports, a polished bore,
two ball check valves and a piston. The piston has extensions on either end to unseat the two ball check
valves. Springs keep these valves on their seats when no pressure is applied to the system.


Figure 2-11. Typical Application of Ratchet Valve.







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Valve Operation With no Pressure. In A, Figure 2-11, the ratchet valve is shown with no pressure
applied. The piston is centered in its bore and both ball check valves are closed. This locks the
actuating cylinder in position by trapping all fluid in the cylinder.

Valve Operation With Pressure Applied. In B, Figure 2-11, the ratchet valve is shown with pressure
applied to port 1. This forces the piston to the right where it unseats ball check valve b. Pressure
entering port 1 also unseats ball check valve a on the left side. Fluid then flows through the ratchet
valve and the piston moves to the right.

CHECK VALVES

A check valve is installed in a hydraulic system to control the direction flow of hydraulic fluid. The
check valve allows free flow of fluid in one direction, but no flow or a restricted one in the other
direction.

There are two general designs in check valves. One has its own housing and is connected to other
components with tubing or hose. Check valves of this design are called in-line check valves. In the
other design, the check valve is part of another component and is called an integral check valve. It will
not be covered because its operation is identical to the in-line check valve. The two types of in-line
check valves, simple and orifice, are described in the following paragraphs.

Simple In-Line Check Valve. As illustrated in Figure 2-12, the simple inline check valve consists of
a casing, inlet and outlet ports, and a ball-and-spring assembly. The ball and spring permit full fluid
flow in one direction and block flow completely in the opposite direction. Fluid pressure forces the ball
off its seat against the spring pressure, permitting fluid flow. When flow stops, the spring forces the ball
against its seat, blocking reverse flow.

Orifice In-Line Check Valve. The orifice check valve shown in Figure 2-13 is used to allow free
flow in one direction and limited flow in the opposite direction. This is accomplished by drilling a
passage in the valve seat connecting the inlet side of the valve to the outlet side.

SEQUENCE VALVE

A sequence valve, shown in Figure 2-14, is placed in a hydraulic system to delay the operation of one
portion of that system until another portion of the same system has functioned. For












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Figure 2-12. Simple In-Line Check Valve.


Figure 2-13. Orifice In-Line Check Valve.

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example, it would be undesirable for the landing gear to retract before the gear compartment doors are
completely open. A sequence valve actuated by the fully open door would allow pressure to enter the
landing gear retract cylinder.

The sequence valve consists of a valve body with two ports, a ball and seal spring-loaded to the closed
position, and a spring-loaded plunger. Compressing the plunger spring off-seats the ball and allows the
passage of fluid to the desired actuator. The typical sequence valve is mechanically operated, or it can
be solenoid-operated by means of microswitches. In either case, the valve is operated at the completion
of one phase of a multiphase hydraulic cycle.


Figure 2-14. Mechanically Actuated Sequence Valve.

PRIORITY VALVE

A priority valve is installed in some hydraulic systems to provide adequate fluid flow to essential units.
The valve is installed in the line between a nonessential actuating unit and its source of pressure. It
permits free, unrestrained flow of fluid to nonessential units as long as system pressure is






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normal. When system pressure drops below normal, the priority valve automatically reduces the flow of
fluid to the nonessential units.

The priority valve (Figure 2-15) resembles a check valve in both external appearance and internal
operation. A spring acts against a hollow piston to maintain contact with a valve seat. With no system
pressure, the priority valve is in the Spring-loaded position, closed. The piston is against the valve seat.
As pressure is applied to the system, fluid passes through the valve seat and also through drilled
passages to act against the face of the piston. With normal flow and pressure, the piston moves against
the spring tension and allows passage of fluid. If pressure decreases, the spring forces the piston to seat,
assuring a supply of fluid for the essential portion of the system.


Figure 2-15. Typical Priority Valve.

SUMMARY

The hydraulic actuating cylinder is used to convert fluid pressure to straight-line motion. The two types
are single-and double-acting.

Selector valves are used with actuating cylinders to control their operation. The typical selector valve
has two ON






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positions to extend and retract the cylinder and one OFF position.

Hydraulic systems are classified as either open-center or closed-center. Open-center systems have only
open-center selector valves and closed-center systems only closed-center valves.

Hydraulic servos are physical combinations of actuators and selector valves. They are used when
precise control of movement is required and normally found in the flight control system of an aircraft.
Irreversible valves are used in line with servos to prevent feedback to the flight controls.

Ratchet valves are locking devices for actuating cylinders; they
hold the cylinders in any desired position.

If full fluid flow in one direction only is required, a simple in-line check valve is used. When full flow
in one direction and restricted flow in the opposite direction is desired, an orifice check valve is used.

When more than one function must be performed in a hydraulic system and a definite order must be
followed, sequence valves are used. Sequence valves ensure that the proper order of operations is
maintained. In a reduction of pressure or fluid flow, certain components can be cut out of the hydraulic
system to ensure an adequate supply of fluid for the essential components, such as flight controls.
Priority valves are used to automatically shut off the supply of fluid to nonessential components.



























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LESSON 2

PRACTICE EXERCISE

The following items will test your grasp of the material covered in this lesson. There is only one correct
answer for each item. When you have completed the exercise, check your answers with the answer key
that follows. If you answer any item incorrectly, study again that part of the lesson which contains the
portion involved.

1. The piston in a double-action actuating cylinder can--

___ A. retract only.
___ B. extend only.
___ C. retract and extend.
___ D. neither extend nor retract.

2. What type of valve prevents feedback through the servo to the control stick?

___ A. Ratchet valve.
___ B. Spool selector valve.
___ C. Orifice check valve.
___ D. Irreversible valve.

3. What is used to limit system pressure?

___ A. Relief valve.
___ B. Check valve.
___ C. Ratchet valve.
___ D. Selector valve.

4. What type of valve is installed in a closed-center hydraulic system?

___ A. Return valve.
___ B. Check valve.
___ C. Ratchet valve.
___ D. Selector valve.

5. What controls the direction of fluid flow?

___ A. Relief valve.
___ B. Check valve.
___ C. Ratchet valve.
___ D. Selector valve.




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6. What valve resembles a check valve in appearance and operation?

___ A. Selector valve.
___ B. Priority valve.
___ C. Sequence valve.
___ D. Ratchet valve.

7. What is used to prevent leakage in the single-action actuating cylinder?

___ A. Polished bore.
___ B. Close-tolerance machining.
___ C. Wiper rings.
___ D. Seals.

8. What holds the piston in the retracted position in a single-action actuating cylinder?

___ A. Fluid pressure.
___ B. Static pressure.
___ C. Spring pressure.
___ D. Return pressure.

9. What is used with double-action cylinders to hold loads?

___ A. Relief valve.
___ B. Check valve.
___ C. Ratchet valve.
___ D. Selector valve.

10. What permits limited flow in one direction and full flow in the other direction?

___ A. Sequence valve.
___ B. Selector valve.
___ C. Orifice check valve.
___ D. Priority valve.













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LESSON 2

PRACTICE EXERCISE

ANSWER KEY AND FEEDBACK

Item Correct Answer and Feedback

1. C. Retract and extend.

The piston of a double-action actuating cylinder can move in either direction, depending on
which of the two ports has pressure applied. (Page 27)

2. D. Irreversible valve.

The irreversible valve prevents the shock and vibration of the rotor blades from feeding
back to the pilot's hands through the control stick. (Page 36)

3. A. Relief valve.

A relief valve does just what the name implies. It releases pressure at a predetermined
pressure level. (Page 33)

4. D. Selector valve.

The selector valve determines the flow of fluid. (Page 34)

5. B. Check valve.

A check valve basically allows fluid to flow only in one direction. When fluid flow tries to
reverse its direction, the reverse direction of fluid pushes a ball against its seat and shuts off
any reverse fluid flow. (Page 38)

6. B. Priority valve.

Allows flow of fluid to nonessential parts as long as the pressure remains normal. As soon
as there is a pressure drop, it immediately reduces pressure to any nonessential
components. (Page 41)









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7. D. Seals.

Seals are used to prevent leakage in fluid-operated components. (Page 26)

8. C. Spring pressure.

The spring prevents the piston from moving until an overriding fluid force is applied
against it. (Page 26)

9. C. Ratchet valve.

This valve allows enough trapped fluid on both sides of the piston to lock a load against
movement in either direction. (Page 37)

10. C. Orifice check valve.

A small passage is formed in the valve seat which connects the inlet side to the outlet side.
When fluid tries to reverse the flow, the ball closes against the seat and only a small portion
is allowed to flow through the small passage. (Page 38)




























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48 AL0926

LESSON 3

HYDRAULIC PRESSURE-LIMITING, CONTROLLING, AND SENSING DEVICES

STP Tasks: 552-758-1003
552-758-1006
552-758-1071


OVERVIEW


LESSON DESCRIPTION:

In this lesson you will learn the basic construction and operation of hydraulic pressure-limiting,
controlling, and sensing devices.

TERMINAL LEARNING OBJECTIVE:

ACTION: After this lesson unit you will demonstrate knowledge of the basic construction and
operation of hydraulic controlling, pressure-limiting, and sensing devices.

CONDITIONS: You will study the material in this lesson in a classroom environment or at home.

STANDARD: You will correctly answer all the questions in the practice exercise before you
proceed to the subcourse examination.

REFERENCES: The material contained in this lesson was derived from the following publications.
AR 310-25, AR 310-50, FM 1-500, FM 1-509, TM 1-1500-204-23 Series, TM 55-
1510-Series, TM 55-1520-Series, and TM 4301A 05 0267 (Airforce).


INTRODUCTION

The hydraulic systems in modern Army aircraft operate at pressures up to 3,000 psi. These systems
must be protected against excessively high pressure that can cause seals and lines to fail. Pressure relief
valves are used to keep system pressure from exceeding a predetermined safe limit.

A complex hydraulic system can use any number of components: actuators, servos, irreversible valves,
selector valves, check valves, accumulators, hydraulic motors, etc. Each of these various components in
one hydraulic system can operate most efficiently at a different pressure. In systems having a single
hydraulic pump, pressure reducers are used to vary operating pressures to the different components.





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If hydraulic pressure becomes too low for safe operation, a hydraulic pressure switch can be used to
close an electrical circuit. This actuates a warning light in the cockpit or turns on a secondary system, or
does both.

In this chapter you will learn of the devices used to limit, control, and sense hydraulic pressure.

PRESSURE RELIEF VALVES

A relief valve is installed in any system containing a confined liquid subject to pressure. The use of
relief valves falls into one or more of three categories:

In the first category, a relief valve is used to protect a hydraulic system if the pump compensator
fails. The relief valve is adjusted to open at a pressure slightly higher than normal system
operating pressure.

In the second category, a relief valve is used to protect a system subject to pressure increases
caused by thermal expansion.

In the third category, a relief valve is used as the sole means of pressure control in a hydraulic
system.

Relief Valves. The configurations for relief valves are either two-port or four-port. Both types
operate in the same way. The main reason for additional ports is convenience in connecting the
plumbing. For simplicity, only the two-port pressure relief valve is described in this text.

Two-Port Relief Valve. A typical two-port relief valve is shown in Figure 3-1. It consists of a
housing with an inlet and an outlet port, a valving device, a compression spring, and an adjustment
screw. When the hydraulic system is pressurized, the pressure acts against the valving device; in this
case, a ball. The ball is held against its seat by a coil spring. When the fluid pressure is great enough
against the ball to overcome the

















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force of the spring, the ball is unseated and allows fluid to pass.

The exact pressure at which this takes place is called the cracking pressure. This pressure can be
adjusted to any desired pressure by means of the pressure adjustment screw. Fluid passing the valving
ball flows into return lines and back to the reservoir.


Figure 3-1. Pressure Relief Valve.

PRESSURE REDUCER

A pressure reducer provides more than one level of pressure in a system that has a single hydraulic
pump. The reducer (Figure 3-2) consists of a three-port housing, piston, poppet and spring, adjusting
spring, and adjusting screw. A poppet is a valving device with a flat face. The three ports of the
housing are input pressure port, reduced-pressure port, and return port.



51 AL0926


Figure 3-2. Pressure Reducer.

Withholding Pressure. The pressure reducer operates on the principle of withholding pressure rather
than relieving it. With no pressure in the system, the adjusting spring tension holds the poppet open. As
system pressure builds up, fluid passes through the poppet to the reduced-pressure port. When the
pressure acting against the piston exceeds the force of the adjusting spring in the pressure reducer, the
poppet moves to close the inlet port. Further buildup of system pressure does not affect the reduced
pressure until it decreases enough to allow the inlet to be opened by spring tension.

Relieving Pressure. Pressure reducers also relieve increased pressure resulting from thermal
expansion. As the pressure at the reduced pressure port increases, the piston moves against the adjusting
spring, opening the return port and relieving the excessive pressure.

PRESSURE SWITCHES

A pressure switch is designed to open or close an electrical circuit in response to a predetermined
hydraulic pressure; the switch activates a warning or protective device. At a set minimum pressure, the
switch can turn on a light to warn the pilot, turn a pump off, or activate a solenoid-controlled valve. The
types of pressure switches, piston and diaphragm, commonly used in Army aircraft are described in the
following paragraphs.

Piston Pressure Switch. The piston pressure switch (Figure 3-3) consists of a housing, a cylinder
bore and piston, an adjustable spring for loading the piston, a microswitch and linkage for transmitting
movements of the piston to the microswitch. The housing has a pressure port for connection to system
pressure and an electrical receptable for connecting the switch to an electrical circuit.








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Figure 3-3. Piston Pressure Switch.


Diaphragm Pressure Switch. The diaphragm pressure switch consists of a housing, a diaphragm, an
adjustable spring to load the diaphragm, a microswitch, and linkage for transmitting movements of the
diaphragm to the microswitch. The housing has ports for the same functions as those in the piston
switch.

Pressure Switch Operation. The two types of pressure switches have the same operating principles;
only the piston one is covered here. Fluid pressure enters the pressure port and moves the face of the
piston against the adjustment spring.

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When the pressure becomes great enough to overcome the force of the spring, the piston moves and
causes the pivot lever to rotate. The movement of the lever is transmitted through the linkage to the
microswitch button. This closes the electrical circuit.

SUMMARY

Hydraulic systems have devices to protect against excessive pressure. These are called pressure relief
valves. The valves are adjustable and are set to open at a point slightly above maximum system
pressure. When this occurs, the fluid is returned to the system reservoir.

Pressure reducers are used to deliver the correct pressure to each component in a hydraulic system. This
makes it possible to use one hydraulic pump, delivering one set pressure in a system that requires several
different pressures.

Pressure switches are physical combinations of a hydraulic device (pressure port, piston, and sprint) and
an electrical device (microswitch and wiring). Pressure switches are used to sense hydraulic pressure.
Depending on the switch, if the pressure is too high or too low, the microswitch closes and energizes a
valve, stops or starts a pump, or illuminates a warning light.





























54 AL0926

LESSON 3

PRACTICE EXERCISE

The following items will test your grasp of the material covered in this lesson. There is only one correct
answer for each item. When you have completed the exercise, check your answers with the answer key
that follows. If you answer any item incorrectly, study again that part of the lesson which contains the
portion involved.

1. What are the configurations for relief valves?

___ A. One and two ports.
___ B. One and four ports.
___ C. Two and four ports.
___ D. Two and three ports.

2. What part of a single hydraulic pump provides more than one level of pressure in a hydraulic
system?

___ A. Return port.
___ B. Pressure reducer.
___ C. Pressure port.
___ D. Compression spring.

3. How many types of pressure switches are most often used on Army aircraft?

___ A. One.
___ B. Two.
___ C. Three.
___ D. Four.

4. What device is used to protect against excessive pressure?

___ A. Pressure relief valve.
___ B. Pressure reducer valve.
___ C. Pressure sequence valve.
___ D. Pressure selector valve.

5. Pressure switches are used to sense--

___ A. excessive pressure.
___ B. electrical current.
___ C. hydraulic pressure.
___ D. electrical voltage.



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56 AL0926

6. What is used to relieve increased pressure from thermal expansion?

___ A. Pressure sequential valve.
___ B. Pressure selector valve.
___ C. Pressure relief valve.
___ D. Pressure reducer valve.

7. When a pressure switch senses a drop in system fluid pressure, what does the switch activate?

___ A. Warning device.
___ B. Sensing device.
___ C. Pressure device.
___ D. Sequential device.

8. What are the two types of pressure switches commonly used in Army aircraft?

___ A. Sensing and warning.
___ B. Piston and diaphragm.
___ C. Warning and diaphragm.
___ D. Diaphragm and sensing.

9. What does the piston pressure switch consist of?

___ A. Cylinder housing, bore and piston, microswitch.
___ B. Housing, cylinder bore and piston, microswitch, spring.
___ C. Piston, cylinder bore and switch spring, microswitch.
___ D. Warning device, cylinder bore and piston.

10. What is the term used to describe the action of fluid pressure in a valve becoming high enough
against the ball to overcome the force of the spring?

___ A. Spring pressure.
___ B. Reducing pressure.
___ C. Cylinder pressure.
___ D. Cracking pressure.












57 AL0926

LESSON 3

PRACTICE EXERCISE

ANSWER KEY AND FEEDBACK

Item Correct Answers and Feedback

1. C. Two and four ports.

There are two configurations for relief valves. They are two- and four-port and are used to
relieve pressure. A four-port relief valve is for connecting additional plumbing that may be
incorporated into a more complex hydraulic system. (Page 50)

2. B. Pressure reducer.

A pressure reducer provides the different pressures which are required to operate some
components. (Page 51)

3. C. Two.

There are only two types of pressure switches used in Army aircraft. (Page 52)

4. A. Pressure relief valve.

In a pressure relief valve, when fluid pressure reaches a certain point, the relief valve opens
to relieve excessive fluid pressure, allowing it to return to the system reservoir. (Page 50)

5. C. hydraulic pressure.

This switch senses any under- or over-pressurization of hydraulic fluid. (Page 52)

6. D. Pressure reducer valve.

The pressure reducer valve senses abnormal pressure buildup and opens to relieve the
excessive pressure. (Page 52)

7. A. Warning device.

A pressure switch activates a warning device at a predetermined fluid pressure. (Page 52)







58 AL0926

8. B. Piston and diaphragm.

There are two types of pressure switches used in Army aircraft. (Page 52)

9. B. Housing, cylinder bore and piston, microswitch, spring.

The main components of a pressure switch are housing, cylinder bore and piston,
microswitch, spring. (Page 52)

10. D. Cracking pressure.

The cracking pressure is the pressure above normal at which the relief valve will-open.
(Page 51)


































59 AL0926

APPENDIX
GLOSSARY

Accumulator--device for storing liquid under pressure, usually consisting of a chamber separated into a
gas compartment and a liquid compartment by a bladder, piston, or diaphragm. An accumulator also
smooths out pressure surges in a hydraulic system.

Actuating cylinder--device that converts fluid power into linear mechanical force and motion.

Actuating cylinder, double-action--actuating cylinder in which both strokes are produced by pressurized
fluid.

Actuating cylinder, single-action--actuating cylinder in which one stroke is produced by pressurized
fluid and the other stroke is produced by some other force, such as gravity or spring tension.

Angular piston pump--hydraulic pump that has the cylinder block placed at an angle to the drive shaft
plate where the pistons are attached. The angular configuration causes the pistons to stroke as the pump
shaft is turned.

Baffle--metal plate installed in a reservoir to keep the fluid from swirling and surging.

Bladder--synthetic rubber bag inserted in an accumulator to hold the air charge.

Bypass valve--valve used to allow fluid to go around a filtering element if the element becomes clogged.

Cam pump--type of hydraulic pump that utilizes a cam to cause stroking of the pistons.

Check valve--valve that permits fluid flow in one direction, but prevents flow in the reverse direction.

Closed-center valve--type of valve that has its pressure passage blocked to fluid flow when the valve is
in the OFF position.

Cracking pressure--pounds per square inch pressure at which the valving device of a pressure relief
valve clears its seat just enough to permit fluid to seep through.

Diaphragm--synthetic rubber device that divides an accumulator into two separate compartments, one
for air and the other for
fluid.

Displacement--volume of fluid that can pass through a pump, motor, or cylinder in a single revolution or
stroke.

Double-action actuating cylinder--See Actuating cylinder, double-action.




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Drive coupling--device that transmits torque from a driving unit to a hydraulic pump drive shaft.

Efficiency--ratio of output power to input power, generally expressed as a percentage.

Energy--ability or capacity to do work.

Filter--device used to remove contaminants from hydraulic fluid.

Fixed-displacement pump--pump in which the volume of fluid per cycle cannot be varied.

Fluid--any liquid, gas, or mixture thereof.

Hydraulics--that branch of mechanics or engineering that deals with the action or use of liquids forced
through tubes or lines under pressure to operate various mechanisms.

Irreversible valve--device used in conjunction with a servo to block feedback.

Land--smooth machined surface on the spool of a spool selector valve.

Micron--millionth of a meter, or about 0.00004 inch.

Open-center valve--type of valve that has its pressure passage open to return when the valve is in the
OFF position.

Orifice--device used to restrict the flow of fluid in order to slow the operation of a component.

Pilot valve--valve used to control the operation of another valve, the spool in a selector valve.

Piston--that part of an actuating cylinder, servo, or motor that the hydraulic fluid works against. In a
pump, the pistons work against the fluid.

Poppet--valving device similar to the valves found in an automobile engine.

Port--opening for the intake or exhaust of fluid.

Power--rate of doing work or expending energy.

Pressure--amount of force distributed over each unit area expressed in pounds per square inch (psi).

Pressure reducer--device for lowering the pressure in a hydraulic system to allow a component to
operate at a lower pressure than the rest of the system.






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Pressure relief valve--pressure control valve used to keep system pressure from exceeding
predetermined limits.

Pressure switch--electrical switch operated by the increase or decrease of fluid pressure.

Priority valve--valve used to route fluid to those components requiring immediate completion of action
when a reduction in normal system flow and pressure occurs.

Pump--device that converts mechanical energy into fluid energy.

Ratchet valve--valve used with double-action actuator cylinders to aid the cylinder in holding a load in
the position selected by the operator.

Reservoir--container that serves primarily as a supply source of the fluid for a hydraulic system.

Selector valve--valve used to control the direction of movement of an actuating unit.

Servo--device used to convert a small movement into a greater movement or force.

Sloppy link--point of interconnection between control linkage, pilot valve, and servo piston rod in a
servo.

Standpipe--pipe located in a reservoir where the main hydraulic system draws its fluid.

Stroke--distance a piston moves in its bore from bottom to top, a single movement of a piston from one
end of its range to the other.

Thermal expansion--increase in volume of a substance due to temperature change.

Variable-delivery pump--type of pump in which the volume of fluid per cycle can be varied.















*U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 2000-528-075/20366

68 AL0926

Training Solutions

Training Solutions

Hydraulics

Training Manual 4

Fluid Power

C O N T E N T S
CHAP TER
1. Int r oduct ion t o Fluid Power .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. For ces in Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Hydr aulic Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. Fluid Lines and Fit t ings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6. Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7. Sealing Devices and Mat er ials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8. Measur ement and Pr essur e Cont r ol Devices . . . . . . . . . .
9. Reser voir s, St r ainer s, Filt er s, and Accumulat or s . . . . . .
10. Act uat or s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11. Pneumat ics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12. Basic Diagr ams and Syst ems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
AP P ENDI X
I. Glossar y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
II. Mechanical Symbols Ot her t han Aer onaut ical
for Fluid Power Diagr ams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
III. Aer onaut ical Mechanical Symbols for Fluid
Power Diagr ams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Page
1-1
2-1
3-1
4-1
5-1
6-1
7-1
8-1
9-1
10-1
11-1
12-1
AI-1
AII-1
AIII-1
INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INDEX-1
. . .
i i i
C R E D I T S
The companies list ed below have pr ovided per mission t o use cer t ain
t r adenames/t r ademar ks in t his edit ion of Fluid Power. Per mission t o use t hese
t r adenames/t r ademar ks is gr at efully acknowledged. Per mission t o r epr oduce
or use t hese t r adenames/t r ademar ks must be obt ained fr om t he sour ce.
SOURCE TEXT ON PAGE
DuPont
Gr eene, Tweed and Company
Minnesot a Rubber
5-8
7-5
7-15
i v
CHAP TER 1
I NTRODUCTI ON TO F LUI D P OWER
Fluid power is a t er m which was cr eat ed t o
include t he gener at ion, cont r ol, and applicat ion
of s moot h , effect i ve p ower of p u mp ed or
compr essed fluids (eit her liquids or gases) when
t his power is used t o pr ovide for ce and mot ion
t o mechanisms. This for ce and mot ion maybe in
t he for m of pushing, pulling, r ot at ing, r egulat ing,
or dr iving. Fluid power includes hydr aulics, which
involves liquids, and pneumat ics, which involves
gases. Liquids and gases ar e similar in many
r espect s. The differ ences ar e point ed out in t he
appr opr iat e ar eas of t his manual.
This manual pr esent s many of t he funda-
ment al concept s in t he fields of hydr aulics and
pneumat ics. It is int ended as a basic r efer ence for
all per sonnel of t he Navy whose dut ies and
r esponsibilit ies r equir e t hem t o have a knowledge
of t he funda ment a ls of fluid power . Conse-
quent ly, emphasis is placed pr imar ily on t he
t heor y of oper at ion of t ypical fluid power syst ems
and component s t hat have applicat ions in naval
equipment . Many applicat ions of fluid power ar e
pr esent ed in t his manual t o illust r at e t he funct ions
and oper at ion of differ ent syst ems and com-
ponent s. However , t hese ar e only r epr esent at ive
of t he many applicat ions of fluid power in naval
equipment . Individual t r aining manuals for each
r at e pr ovide infor mat ion concer ning t he applica-
t ion of fluid power t o specific equipment for
which t he r at ing is r esponsible.
A br ief summa r y of t he cont ent s of t his
t r a i n i n g ma n u a l i s gi ven i n t h e fol l owi n g
pa r a gr a phs:
Chapt er 2 cover s t he char act er ist ics of liquids
and t he fact or s affect ing t hem. It also explains
t he behavior of liquids at r est , ident ifies t he
char act er ist ics of liquids in mot ion, and explains
t he oper at ion of basic hydr aulic component s.
Chapt er 3 discusses t he qualit ies of fluids
accept able for hydr aulic syst ems and t he t ypes of
fluids used. I ncluded a r e sect ions on sa fet y
pr ecaut ions t o follow when handling pot ent ially
ha za r dous fluids, liquid cont a mina t ion, a nd
cont r ol of cont aminant s.
Chapt er 4 cover s t he hydr aulic pump, t he
compon en t i n t h e h ydr a u l i c s ys t em wh i ch
gener at es t he for ce r equir ed for t he syst em t o
per for m it s design funct ion. The infor mat ion
pr ovided cover s classificat ions, t ypes, oper at ion,
and const r uct ion of pumps.
Chapt er 5 deals wit h t he piping, t ubing and
flexible hoses, and connect or s used t o car r y fluids
under pr essur e.
Chapt er 6 discusses t he classificat ion, t ypes,
and oper at ion of valves used in t he cont r ol of
flow, pr essur e, and dir ect ion of fluids.
Chapt er 7 cover s t he t ypes and pur poses of
sealing devices used in fluid power syst ems,
including t he differ ent mat er ials used in t heir
const r uct ion. Addit iona lly, t he guidelines for
select ing, inst alling, and r emoving O-r ings ar e
included.
Chapt er 8 discusses t he oper at ion of devices
used t o measur e and r egulat e t he pr essur e of fluids
and t o measur e t he t emper at ur e of fluids.
Chapt er 9 descr ibes t he funct ions and t ypes
of r eser voir s, st r ainer s, filt er s, and accumulat or s,
and t heir uses in fluid power syst ems.
Chapt er 10 discusses t he t ypes and oper at ion
of a ct u a t or s u s ed t o t r a n s for m t h e en er gy
gener at ed by hydr aulic syst ems int o mechanical
for ce and mot ion.
Chapt er 11 deals wit h pneumat ics. It discusses
t he or igin of pneumat ics, t he char act er ist ics and
compr essibilit y of gases, and t he most commonly
used gases in pneumat ic syst ems. Also, sect ions
ar e included t o cover safet y pr ecaut ions and t he
pot ent ial hazar ds of compr essed gases.
Chapt er 12 ident ifies t he t ypes of diagr ams
encount er ed in fluid power syst ems. This chapt er
also discusses how component s of chapt er s 4, 5,
6, 8, 9, and 10 ar e combined t o for m and oper at e
t oget her as a syst em.
A glossar y of t er ms commonly used in fluid
power is pr ovided in appendix I. Appendix II
pr ovides symbols used in aer onaut ical mechanical
1-1
syst ems, and appendix III pr ovides symbols used
in nonaer onaut ical mechanical syst ems.
The r emainder of chapt er 1 is devot ed t o t he
advant ages and pr oblems of fluid power appli-
cat ions. Included ar e br ief sect ions on t he hist or y,
development , and applicat ions of hydr aulics,
t he st at es of mat t er .
ADVANTAGES OF FLUI D P OWER
and
The ext ensive use of hydr aulics and pneuma-
t ics t o t r ansmit power is due t o t he fact t hat
pr oper ly const r uct ed fluid power syst ems possess
a number of fa vor a ble cha r a ct er ist ics. They
eliminat e t he need for complicat ed syst ems of
gear s, cams, and lever s. Mot ion can be t r ans-
mit t ed wit hout t he slack inher ent in t he use of
solid machine par t s. The fluids used ar e not
subject t o br eakage as ar e mechanical par t s, and
t he mechanisms ar e not subject ed t o gr eat wear .
The differ ent par t s of a fluid power syst em
can be convenient ly locat ed at widely separ at ed
point s, since t he for ces gener at ed ar e r apidly
t r ansmit t ed over consider able dist ances wit h small
loss. These for ces can be conveyed up and down
or ar ound cor ner s wit h small loss in efficiency and
wit hout complica t ed mecha nisms. Ver y la r ge
for ces can be cont r olled by much smaller ones and
can be t r ansmit t ed t hr ough compar at ively small
lines and or ifices.
If t he syst em is well adapt ed t o t he wor k it is
r equir ed t o per for m, and if it is not misused, it
ca n pr ovide smoot h, flexible, unifor m a ct ion
wit hout vibr at ion, and is unaffect ed by var iat ion
of load. In case of an over load, an aut omat ic
r elease of pr essur e can be guar ant eed, so t hat t he
syst em is pr ot ect ed against br eakdown or st r ain.
Fluid power syst ems can pr ovide widely var iable
mot ions in bot h r ot ar y and st r aight -line t r ans-
mission of power . The need for cont r ol by hand
ca n be minimized. I n a ddit ion, fluid power
syst ems ar e economical t o oper at e.
The quest ion may ar ise as t o why hydr aulics
is used in some applicat ions and pneumat ics in
ot her s. Many fact or s ar e consider ed by t he user
and/or t he manufact ur er when det er mining which
t ype of syst em t o use in a specific applicat ion.
Ther e a r e no ha r d a nd fa st r ules t o follow;
however , past exper ience has pr ovided some
sound ideas t hat ar e usually consider ed when such
decisions ar e made. If t he applicat ion r equir es
speed, a medium amount of pr essur e, and only
fair ly accur at e cont r ol, a pneumat ic syst em may
be used. If t he applicat ion r equir es only a medium
amount of pr essur e and a mor e accur at e cont r ol,
a combinat ion of hydr aulics and pneumat ics may
be used. If t he applicat ion r equir es a gr eat amount
of pr essur e and/or ext r emely accur at e cont r ol, a
hydr aulic syst em should be used.
SP ECI AL P ROBLEMS
The ext r eme flexibilit y of fluid power element s
pr esent s a number of pr oblems. Since fluids have
no shape of t heir own, t hey must be posit ively
confined t hr oughout t he ent ir e syst em. Special
consider at ion must be given t o t he st r uct ur al
int egr it y of t he par t s of a fluid power syst em.
St r ong pipes and cont ainer s must be pr ovided.
Lea ks must be pr event ed. This is a ser ious
pr oblem wit h t he high pr essur e obt ained in many
fluid power inst allat ions.
The oper at ion of t he syst em involves const ant
movement of t he fluid wit hin t he lines a nd
component s. This movement ca uses fr ict ion
wit hin t he fluid it self and against t he cont aining
sur faces which, if excessive, can lead t o ser ious
losses in efficiency. For eign mat t er must not be
allowed t o accumulat e in t he syst em, wher e it will
clog small passages or scor e closely fit t ed par t s.
Chemical act ion may cause cor r osion. Anyone
wor king wit h fluid power syst ems must know how
a fluid power syst em and it s component s oper at e,
bot h in t er ms of t he gener al pr inciples common
t o all physical mechanisms and of t he peculiar it ies
of t he par t icular ar r angement at hand.
HYDRAULI CS
The wor d hydraulics is based on t he Gr eek
wor d for wat er , and or iginally cover ed t he st udy
of t he physical behavior of wat er at r est and in
mot ion. Use has br oadened it s meaning t o include
t he behavior of all liquids, alt hough it is pr imar ily
concer ned wit h t he mot ion of liquids.
Hydr aulics includes t he manner in which
liquids act in t anks and pipes, deals wit h t heir
pr oper t ies, and explor es ways t o t ake advant age
of t hese pr oper t ies.
DEVELOP MENT OF HYDRAULI CS
Al t h ou gh t h e moder n devel opmen t of
hydr aulics is compar at ively r ecent , t he ancient s
wer e familiar wit h many hydr aulic pr inciples and
t heir applicat ions. The Egypt ians and t he ancient
people of Per sia, India, and China conveyed wat er
1-2
a long cha nnels for ir r iga t ion a nd domest ic
pur poses, using dams and sluice gat es t o cont r ol
t he flow. The ancient Cr et ans had an elabor at e
plumbing syst em. Ar chimedes st udied t he laws of
float ing and submer ged bodies. The Romans
const r uct ed aqueduct s t o car r y wat er t o t heir
cit ies.
Aft er t he br eakup of t he ancient wor ld, t her e
wer e few new development s for many cent ur ies.
Th en , over a compa r a t i vel y s h or t per i od,
beginning near t he end of t he sevent eent h cent ur y,
It alian physicist , Evangelist a Tor r icelle, Fr ench
physicist , Edme Ma r iot t e, a nd la t er , Da niel
Ber noulli conduct ed exper iment s t o st udy t he
element s of for ce in t he discha r ge of wa t er
t hr ough small openings in t he sides of t anks and
t hr ough shor t pipes. Dur ing t he same per iod,
Blaise Pascal, a Fr ench scient ist , discover ed t he
fundament al law for t he science of hydr aulics.
Pascals law st at es t hat incr ease in pr essur e on
t he sur face of a confined fluid is t r ansmit t ed
undiminished t hr oughout t he confining vessel or
syst em (fig. 1-1). (This is t he basic pr inciple of
hydr aulics and is cover ed in det ail in chapt er 2
of t his manual.)
For Pascals law t o be made effect ive for
pr act ical applicat ions, it was necessar y t o have a
pist on t hat fit exact ly. It was not unt il t he lat t er
par t of t he eight eent h cent ur y t hat met hods wer e
found t o make t hese snugly fit t ed par t s r equir ed
in hydr aulic syst ems. This was accomplished by
t he invent ion of machines t hat wer e used t o cut
and shape t he necessar y closely fit t ed par t s and,
par t icular ly, by t he development of gasket s and
packings. Since t hat t ime, component s such as
valves, pumps, act uat ing cylinder s, and mot or s
h a ve been devel oped a n d r efi n ed t o ma ke
hydr aulics one of t he leading met hods of t r ans-
mit t ing power .
Fi gu r e 1-1.For ce t r a n smi t t ed t h r ou gh flu i d .
Use of Hyd r a u li cs
The hydr aulic pr ess, invent ed by Englishman
J ohn Br a hma h, wa s one of t he fir st wor k-
able pieces of machiner y developed t hat used
hydr aulics in it s oper at ion. It consist ed of a
plunger pump piped t o a lar ge cylinder and a r am.
This pr ess found wide use in England because it
pr ovided a mor e effect ive and economical means
of applying lar ge for ces in indust r ial uses.
Today, hydr aulic power is used t o oper at e
ma ny differ ent t ools a nd mecha nisms. I n a
gar age, a mechanic r aises t he end of an aut o-
mobile wit h a hydr aulic jack. Dent ist s and bar ber s
use hydr aulic power , t hr ough a few st r okes of a
cont r ol lever , t o lift and posit ion t heir chair s t o
a convenient wor king height . Hydr aulic door st ops
keep hea vy door s fr om sla mming. Hydr a ulic
br akes have been st andar d equipment on aut o-
mobiles since t he 1930s. Most aut omobiles ar e
equipped wit h aut omat ic t r ansmissions t hat ar e
hydr aulically oper at ed. Power st eer ing is anot her
a pplica t ion of hydr a ulic power . Const r uct ion
wor ker s depend upon hydr aulic power for t he
oper a t i on of va r i ou s compon en t s of t h ei r
equipment . For example, t he blade of a bulldozer
is nor mally oper at ed by hydr aulic power .
Dur ing t he per iod pr eceding Wor ld War II,
t he Navy began t o apply hydr aulics t o naval
mecha nisms ext ensively. Since t hen, na va l
applicat ions have incr eased t o t he point wher e
many ingenious hydr aulic devices ar e used in t he
solut ion of pr oblems of gunner y, aer onaut ics, and
navigat ion. Aboar d ship, hydr aulic power is used
t o oper at e such equipment as anchor windlasses,
cr anes, st eer ing gear , r emot e cont r ol devices, and
power dr ives for elevat ing and t r aining guns and
r ocket launcher s. Elevat or s on air cr aft car r ier s use
hydr aulic power t o t r ansfer air cr aft fr om t he
hangar deck t o t he flight deck and vice ver sa.
Hydr aulics and pneumat ics (chapt er 11) ar e
combined for some applicat ions. This combina-
t ion is r efer r ed t o as h yd r opn eu m at i cs . A n
example of t his combinat ion is t he lift used in
gar ages and ser vice st at ions. Air pr essur e is
applied t o t he sur face of hydr aulic fluid in a
r eser voir . The air pr essur e for ces t he hydr aulic
fluid t o r aise t he lift .
STATES OF MATTER
The mat er ial t hat makes up t he univer se is
known a s mat t er. Ma t t er is defined a s a ny
subst ance t hat occupies space and has weight .
1-3
Mat t er exist s in t hr ee st at es: solid, liquid, and gas;
each has dist inguishing char act er ist ics. Solids have
a definit e volume and a definit e shape; liquids
have a definit e volume, but t ake t he shape of t heir
cont aining vessels; gases have neit her a definit e
shape nor a definit e volume. Gases not only t ake
t he shape of t he cont aining vessel, but also expand
and fill t he vessel, r egar dless of it s volume.
Examples of t he st at es of mat t er ar e ir on, wat er ,
and air .
Mat t er can change fr om one st at e t o anot her .
Wat er is a good example. At high t emper at ur es
it is in t he gaseous st at e known as st eam. At
moder at e t emper at ur es it is a liquid, and at low
t emper at ur es it becomes ice, which is definit ely
a solid st at e. In t his example, t he t emper at ur e is
t he dominant fact or in det er mining t he st at e t he
subst ance assumes.
Pr essur e is anot her impor t ant fact or t hat will
affect changes in t he st at e of mat t er . At pr essur es
lower t han at mospher ic pr essur e, wat er will boil
and t hus change int o st eam at t emper at ur es lower
t han 212 Fahr enheit (F). Pr essur e is also a cr it ical
fact or in changing some gases t o liquids or solids.
Nor mally, when pr essur e and chilling ar e bot h
applied t o a gas, t he gas assumes a liquid st at e.
Liquid air , which is a mixt ur e of oxygen and
nit r ogen, is pr oduced in t his manner .
In t he st udy of fluid power , we ar e concer ned
pr imar ily wit h t he pr oper t ies and char act er ist ics
of liquids and gases. However , you should keep
in mind t hat t he pr oper t ies of solids also affect
t he char act er ist ics of liquids and gases. The lines
and component s, which ar e solids, enclose and
cont r ol t he liquid or ga s in t heir r espect ive
syst ems.
1-4
CHAP TER 2
FORCES I N LI QUI DS
The st udy of liquids is divided int o t wo main
par t s: liquids at r est (hydr ost at ics) and liquids in
mot ion (hydr aulics).
The effect s of liquids a t r est ca n oft en
be expr essed by simple for mulas. The effect s
of l i qu i ds i n mot i on a r e mor e di ffi cu l t t o
expr ess due t o fr ict iona l a nd ot her fa ct or s
whose act ions cannot be expr essed by simple
mat hemat ics.
In chapt er 1 we lear ned t hat liquids have a
definit e volume but t a ke t he sha pe of t heir
cont aining vessel. Ther e a r e t wo a ddit iona l
char act er ist ics we must explor e pr ior t o pr o-
ceeding.
Li qu i ds a r e a l mos t i n compr es s i bl e. For
example, if a pr essur e of 100 pounds per squar e
inch (psi) is applied t o a given volume of wat er
t hat is at at mospher ic pr essur e, t he volume will
decr ease by only 0.03 per cent . It would t ake a
for ce of appr oximat ely 32 t ons t o r educe it s
volume by 10 per cent ; however , when t his for ce
is r emoved, t he wat er immediat ely r et ur ns t o it s
or iginal volume. Ot her liquids behave in about
t he same manner as wat er .
Anot her cha r a ct er ist ic of a liquid is t he
t endency t o keep it s fr ee sur face level. If t he
sur face is not level, liquids will flow in t he
dir ect ion which will t end t o make t he sur face
level.
LI QUI DS AT REST
I n s t u dyi n g fl u i ds a t r es t , we a r e con -
cer n ed wi t h t h e t r a n s mi s s i on of for ce a n d
t he fact or s which affect t he for ces in liquids.
Addit ionally, pr essur e in and on liquids and
fa ct or s a ffect ing pr essur e a r e of gr ea t im-
por t ance.
P RESSURE AND FORCE
Th e t er ms force a n d pr es s u r e a r e u s ed
ext ensively in t he st udy of fluid power . I t
is essent ial t hat we dist inguish bet ween t he
t er ms . For ce mea n s a t ot a l pu s h or pu l l .
I t is t he push or pull exer t ed a ga inst t he
t ot al ar ea of a par t icular sur face and is expr essed
in pounds or gr ams. Pr essur e means t he amount
of push or pull (for ce) applied t o each unit ar ea
of t he sur face and is expr essed in pounds per
s qu a r e i n ch (l b/i n
2
) or gr a ms per s qu a r e
cent imet er (gm/cm
2
). Pr essur e maybe exer t ed in
one dir ect ion, in sever al dir ect ions, or in all
dir ect ions.
Comp u t i n g For ce, P r essu r e, a n d Ar ea
A for mu l a i s u s ed i n compu t i n g for ce,
pr essur e, and ar ea in fluid power syst ems. In t his
for mula, P r efer s t o pr essur e, F indicat es for ce,
and A r epr esent s ar ea.
For ce equals pr essur e t imes ar ea. Thus, t he
for mula is wr it t en
Equat ion 2-1.
Pr essur e equals for ce divided by ar ea. By
r ear r anging t he for mula, t his st at ement may be
condensed int o
Equat ion 2-2.
Since ar ea equals for ce divided by pr essur e,
t he for mula is wr it t en
Equat ion 2-3.
2-1
Fi gu r e 2-1.Devi ce for d et er mi n i n g t h e a r r a n gemen t of t h e
for ce, p r essu r e, a n d a r ea for mu la .
Figur e 2-1 illust r at es a memor y device for
r ecalling t he differ ent var iat ions of t his for mula.
Any let t er in t he t r iangle may be expr essed as t he
pr oduct or quot ient of t he ot her t wo, depending
on it s posit ion wit hin t he t r iangle.
For example, t o find ar ea, consider t he let t er
A as being set off t o it self, followed by an equal
sign. Now look at t he ot her t wo let t er s. The let t er
F is above t he let t er P; t her efor e,
NOTE : Somet imes t he a r ea ma y not be
expr essed in squa r e unit s. I f t he sur fa ce is
r ect a ngula r , you ca n det er mine it s a r ea by
mult iplying it s lengt h (say, in inches) by it s widt h
(also in inches). The major it y of ar eas you will
consider in t hese calculat ions ar e cir cular in shape.
Eit her t he r adius or t he diamet er may be given,
but you must know t he r adius in inches t o find
t he ar ea. The r adius is one-half t he diamet er . To
det er mine t he ar ea, use t he for mula for finding
t he ar ea of a cir cle. This is wr it t en A = r mz, wher e
A is t he ar ea, n is 3.1416 (3.14 or 3 1/7 for most
calculat ions), and r
2
indicat es t he r adius squar ed.
At mosp h er i c P r essu r e
The at mospher e is t he ent ir e mass of air t hat
sur r ounds t he ear t h. While it ext ends upwar d for
about 500 miles, t he sect ion of pr imar y int er est
is t he por t ion t hat r est s on t he ear t hs sur face and
ext ends upwar d for about 7 1/2 miles. This layer
is called t he t r opospher e.
If a column of air 1-inch squar e ext ending all
t he way t o t he t op of t he at mospher e could
be weighed, t his column of air would weigh
appr oximat ely 14.7 pounds at sea level. Thus,
at mospher ic pr essur e at sea level is appr oximat ely
14.7 psi.
As one ascends, t he at mospher ic pr essur e
decr eases by appr oximat ely 1.0 psi for ever y 2,343
feet . However , below sea level, in excavat ions and
depr essions, at mospher ic pr essur e incr eases.
Pr essur es under wat er differ fr om t hose under air
only because t he weight of t he wat er must be
added t o t he pr essur e of t he air .
At mospher ic pr essur e can be measur ed by any
of sever a l met hods. The common la bor a t or y
met hod uses t he mer cur y column bar omet er . The
height of t he mer cur y column ser ves a s a n
indicat or of at mospher ic pr essur e. At sea level and
at a t emper at ur e of 0 Celsius (C), t he height of
t he mer cur y column is appr oximat ely 30 inches,
or 76 cent imet er s. This r epr esent s a pr essur e of
appr oximat ely 14.7 psi. The 30-inch column is
used as a r efer ence st andar d.
Anot her device used t o measur e at mospher ic
pr essur e is t he aner oid bar omet er . The aner oid
ba r omet er uses t he cha nge in sha pe of a n
evacuat ed met al cell t o measur e var iat ions in
at mospher ic pr essur e (fig. 2-2). The t hin met al of
t he aner oid cell moves in or out wit h t he var iat ion
of pr essur e on it s ext er nal sur face. This movement
is t r ansmit t ed t hr ough a syst em of lever s t o a
point er , which indicat es t he pr essur e.
The a t mospher ic pr essur e does not va r y
unifor mly wit h alt it ude. It changes mor e r apidly
at lower alt it udes because of t he compr essibilit y
of t he air , which causes t he air layer s close t o t he
ear t hs sur face t o be compr essed by t he air masses
above t hem. This effect , however , is par t ially
count er act ed by t he cont r act ion of t he upper
Fi gu r e 2-2.Si mp le d i a gr a m of t h e a n er oi d ba r omet er .
2-2
la yer s due t o cooling. The cooling t ends t o
incr ease t he densit y of t he air .
At mospher ic pr essur es ar e quit e lar ge, but in
most inst ances pr act ically t he same pr essur e is
pr esent on all sides of object s so t hat no single
sur face is subject ed t o a gr eat load.
At mospher ic pr essur e act ing on t he sur face of
a liquid (fig. 2-3, view A) is t r ansmit t ed equally
t hr oughout t he liquid t o t he walls of t he cont ainer ,
but is balanced by t he same at mospher ic pr essur e
act ing on t he out er walls of t he cont ainer . In view
B of figur e 2-3, at mospher ic pr essur e act ing on
t he sur face of one pist on is balanced by t he same
pr essur e act ing on t he sur face of t he ot her pist on.
The differ ent ar eas of t he t wo sur faces make no
differ ence, since for a unit of ar ea, pr essur es ar e
balanced.
TRANSMI SSI ON OF FORCES
THROUGH LI QUI DS
When t he end of a solid bar is st r uck, t he main
for ce of t he blow is car r ied st r aight t hr ough t he
bar t o t he ot her end (fig. 2-4, view A). This
happens because t he bar is r igid. The dir ect ion
of t he blow a lmost ent ir ely det er mines t he
dir ect ion of t he t r ansmit t ed for ce. The mor e r igid
Fi gu r e 2-4.Tr a n smi ssi on of for ce: (A) soli d ; (B) flu i d .
t he bar , t he less for ce is lost inside t he bar or
t r a nsmit t ed out wa r d a t r ight a ngles t o t he
dir ect ion of t he blow.
When a for ce is applied t o t he end of a column
of con fi n ed l i qu i d (fi g. 2-4, vi ew B), i t i s
t r ansmit t ed st r aight t hr ough t o t he ot her end and
also equally and undiminished in ever y dir ect ion
t hr oughout t he columnfor war d, backwar d, and
sidewaysso t hat t he cont aining vessel is lit er ally
filled wit h pr essur e.
An example of t his dist r ibut ion of for ce is
illust r at ed in figur e 2-5. The flat hose t akes on
Fi gu r e 2-3.Effect s of a t mosp h er i c p r essu r e. Fi gu r e 2-5.Di st r i bu t i on of for ce.
2-3
a cir cular cr oss sect ion when it is filled wit h wat er
under pr essur e. The out war d push of t he wat er
is equal in ever y dir ect ion.
So fa r we ha ve expla ined t he effect s of
at mospher ic pr essur e on liquids and how ext er nal
for ces ar e dist r ibut ed t hr ough liquids. Let us now
focus our at t ent ion on for ces gener at ed by t he
weight of liquids t hemselves. To do t his, we must
fir st discuss densit y, specific gr avit y, and Pascals
law.
Den si t y a n d Sp eci fi c Gr a vi t y
The densit y of a subst ance is it s weight per unit
volume. The unit volume in t he English syst em
of measur ement is 1 cubic foot . In t he met r ic
syst em it is t he cubic cent imet er ; t her efor e, densit y
is expr essed in pounds per cubic foot or in gr ams
per cubic cent imet er .
To find t he densit y of a subst ance, you must
know it s weight and volume. You t hen divide it s
weight by it s volume t o find t he weight per unit
volume. In equat ion for m, t his is wr it t en as
Equat ion 2-4.
EXAMPLE: The liquid t hat fills a cer t ain
cont a iner weighs 1,497.6 pounds. The
cont ainer is 4 feet long, 3 feet wide, and
2 feet deep. It s volume is 24 cubic feet
(4 ft x 3 ft x 2 ft ). If 24 cubic feet of t his
liquid weighs 1,497.6 pounds, t hen 1 cubic
foot weighs
or 62.4 pounds. Ther efor e, t he densit y of
t he liquid is 62.4 pounds per cubic foot .
This is t he densit y of wat er at 4C and is
usua lly used a s t he st a nda r d for compa r ing
densit ies of ot her subst ances. The t emper at ur e of
4C was select ed because wat er has it s maximum
densit y at t his t emper at ur e. In t he met r ic syst em,
t h e den s i t y of wa t er i s 1 gr a m per cu bi c
cent imet er . The st andar d t emper at ur e of 4C is
used whenever t he densit y of liquids and solids
is measur ed. Changes in t emper at ur e will not
change t he weight of a subst ance but will change
t he volume of t he subst ance by expansion or
cont r act ion, t hus changing t he weight per unit
volume.
In physics, t he wor d specific implies a r at io.
Weight is t he measur e of t he ear t hs at t r act ion for
a body. The ear t hs at t r act ion for a body is called
gr avit y. Thus, t he r at io of t he weight of a unit
volume of some subst ance t o t he weight of an
equal volume of a st andar d subst ance, measur ed
under st andar d pr essur e and t emper at ur e con-
dit ions, is ca lled specific gr a vit y. The t er ms
specific weight and specific density ar e somet imes
used t o expr ess t his r at io.
The following for mulas ar e used t o find t he
specific gr avit y (sp gr ) of solids and liquids, wit h
wat er used as t he st andar d subst ance.
or ,
The same for mulas ar e used t o find t he specific
gr avit y of gases by subst it ut ing air , oxygen, or
hydr ogen for wat er .
If a cubic foot of a cer t ain liquid weighs 68.64
pounds, t hen it s specific gr avit y is 1.1,
Thus, t he specific gr avit y of t he liquid is t he
r at io of it s densit y t o t he densit y of wat er . If t he
specific gr avit y of a liquid or solid is known, t he
densit y of t he liquid or solid maybe obt ained by
mult iplying it s specific gr avit y by t he densit y of
wat er . For example, if a cer t ain hydr aulic liquid
has a specific gr avit y of 0.8, 1 cubic foot of t he
liquid weighs 0.8 t imes as much as a cubic foot
of wat er 0.8 t imes 62.4, or 49.92 pounds. In t he
met r ic syst em, 1 cubic cent imet er of a subst ance
wit h a specific gr avit y of 0.8 weighs 1 t imes 0.8,
or 0.8 gr ams. (Not e t hat in t he met r ic syst em t he
specific gr avit y of a liquid or solid has t he same
numer ical value as it s densit y, because wat er
weighs 1 gr am per cubic cent imet er .)
Specific gr avit y and densit y ar e independent
of t he size of t he sample under consider at ion and
depend only on t he subst ance of which it is made.
A device called a hydr omet er is used for
measur ing t he specific gr avit y of liquids.
2-4
P a sca ls La w
Recall fr om chapt er 1 t hat t he foundat ion of
moder n hydr aulics was est ablished when Pascal
discover ed t hat pr essur e in a fluid act s equally in
all dir ect ions. This pr essur e act s at r ight angles
t o t he cont a ining sur fa ces. I f some t ype of
pr essur e gauge, wit h an exposed face, is placed
beneat h t he sur face of a liquid (fig. 2-6) at a
specific dept h and point ed in differ ent dir ect ions,
t he pr essur e will r ead t he same. Thus, we can say
t ha t pr essur e in a liquid is independent of
dir ect ion.
Pr essur e due t o t he weight of a liquid, at any
level, depends on t he dept h of t he fluid fr om t he
sur face. If t he exposed face of t he pr essur e gauges,
figur e 2-6, ar e moved closer t o t he sur face of t he
liquid, t he indicat ed pr essur e will be less. When
t he dept h is doubled, t he indicat ed pr essur e is
doubled. Thus t he pr essur e in a liquid is dir ect ly
pr opor t ional t o t he dept h.
Consider a cont a iner wit h ver t ica l sides
(fig. 2-7) t hat is 1 foot long and 1 foot wide. Let
it be filled wit h wat er 1 foot deep, pr oviding 1
cubic foot of wat er . We lear ned ear lier in t his
chapt er t hat 1 cubic foot of wat er weighs 62.4
pounds. Using t his infor mat ion and equat ion 2-2,
P = F/A, we can calculat e t he pr essur e on t he
bot t om of t he cont ainer .
Since t her e ar e 144 squar e inches in 1 squar e foot ,
This can be st at ed as follows: t he weight of a
column of wat er 1 foot high, having a cr oss-
sect ional ar ea of 1 squar e inch, is 0.433 pound.
If t he dept h of t he column is t r ipled, t he
weight of t he column will be 3 x 0.433, or 1.299
pounds, and t he pr essur e at t he bot t om will be
1.299 lb/in
2
(psi), since pr essur e equals t he for ce
divided by t he ar ea. Thus, t he pr essur e at any
dept h in a liquid is equal t o t he weight of t he
column of liquid at t hat dept h divided by t he
Fi gu r e 2-6.P r essu r e of a li qu i d i s i n d ep en d en t of d i r ect i on .
cr oss-sect ional ar ea of t he column at t hat dept h.
The volume of a liquid t hat pr oduces t he pr essur e
is r efer r ed t o as t he fluid head of t he liquid. The
pr essur e of a liquid due t o it s fluid head is also
dependent on t he densit y of t he liquid.
If we let A equal any cr oss-sect ional ar ea of
a liquid column and h equal t he dept h of t he
column, t he volume becomes Ah. Using equat ion
2-4, D = W/V, t he weight of t he liquid above ar ea
A is equal t o AhD.
Fi gu r e 2-7.Wa t er p r essu r e i n a 1-cu bi c-foot con t a i n er .
2-5
Since pr essur e is equal t o t he for ce per unit ar ea,
set A equal t o 1. Then t he for mula pr essur e
becomes
P = h D Equat ion 2-5.
It is essent ial t hat h and D be expr essed in similar
unit s. That is, if D is expr essed in pounds per
cubic foot , t he value of h must be expr essed in
feet . If t he desir ed pr essur e is t o be expr essed in
pounds per squar e inch, t he pr essur e for mula,
equat ion 2-5, becomes
Equat ion 2-6.
P a s ca l wa s a l s o t h e fi r s t t o pr ove by
exper iment t ha t t he sha pe a nd volume of a
cont ainer in no way alt er s pr essur e. Thus in figur e
2-8, if t he pr essur e due t o t he weight of t he liquid
at a point on hor izont al line H is 8 psi, t he
pr essur e is 8 psi ever ywher e at level H in t he
syst em. Equat ion 2-5 also shows t hat t he pr essur e
is independent of t he shape and volume of a
cont ainer .
P r essu r e a n d For ce i n Flu i d P ower Syst ems
Fi gu r e 2-9.For ce t r a n smi t t ed t h r ou gh flu i d .
of t he shape of t he cont ainer . Consider t he effect
of t his in t he syst em shown in figur e 2-9. If t her e
is a r esist ance on t he out put pist on and t he input
pist on is pushed downwar d, a pr essur e is cr eat ed
t hr ough t he fluid, which act s equally at r ight
angles t o sur faces in all par t s of t he cont ainer .
If for ce 1 is 100 pounds and t he ar ea of t he
input pist on is 10 squar e inches, t hen t he pr essur e
in t he fluid is 10 psi
Recall t hat , accor ding t o Pascals law, any
for ce applied t o a confined fluid is t r ansmit t ed
in all dir ect ions t hr oughout t he fluid r egar dless
NOTE: Fluid pr essur e cannot be cr eat ed
wit hout r esist ance t o flow. In t his case, r esist ance
Fi gu r e 2-8.P r essu r e r ela t i on sh i p
2-6
wi t h sh a p e.
is pr ovided by t he equipment t o which t he
out put pist on is a t t a ched. The for ce of r e-
sist a nce a ct s a ga inst t he t op of t he out put
pist on. The pr essur e cr ea t ed in t he syst em
by t he input pist on pushes on t he under side of
t he out put pist on wit h a for ce of 10 pounds on
each squar e inch.
In t his case, t he fluid column has a unifor m
cr oss sect ion, so t he ar ea of t he out put pist on
is t he same as t he ar ea of t he input pist on,
or 10 squa r e inches. Ther efor e, t he upwa r d
for ce on t h e ou t pu t pi s t on i s 100 pou n ds
(10 psi x 10 sq. in.), t he same as t he for ce applied
t o t he input pist on. All t hat was accomplished in
t his syst em was t o t r ansmit t he 100-pound for ce
ar ound t he bend. However , t his pr inciple under -
lies pr act ically all mechanical applicat ions of fluid
power .
At t his point you should not e t ha t since
Pa sca ls la w is independent of t he sha pe of
t he cont a iner , it is not necessa r y t ha t t he
t ube connect ing t he t wo pist ons have t he same
cr oss-sect ional ar ea of t he pist ons. A connect ion
of any size, shape, or lengt h will do, as long as
an unobst r uct ed passage is pr ovided. Ther efor e,
t he syst em shown in figur e 2-10, wit h a r elat ively
s ma l l , ben t pi pe con n ect i n g t wo cyl i n der s ,
will act exact ly t he same as t he syst em shown in
figur e 2-9.
MULTI P LI CATI ON OF FORCES. Con-
sider t he sit uat ion in figur e 2-11, wher e t he input
pist on is much smaller t han t he out put pist on.
Assume t hat t he ar ea of t he input pist on is 2
squar e inches. Wit h a r esist ant for ce on t he out put
pist on a downwar d for ce of 20 pounds act ing on
t he input pist on cr eat es a pr essur e of ~ or 10 psi
Fi gu r e 2-10.Tr a n smi t t i n g for ce t h r ou gh a sma ll p i p e.
Fi gu r e 2-11.Mu lt i p li ca t i on of for ces.
in t he fluid. Alt hough t his for ce is much smaller
t han t he for ce applied in figur es 2-9 and 2-10, t he
pr essur e is t he same. This is because t he for ce is
applied t o a smaller ar ea.
This pr essur e of 10 psi act s on all par t s of t he
fluid cont a iner , including t he bot t om of t he
out put pist on. The upwar d for ce on t he out put
pist on is 200 pounds (10 pounds of pr essur e on
each squar e inch). In t his case, t he or iginal for ce
has been mult iplied t enfold while using t he same
pr essur e in t he fluid as befor e. In any syst em wit h
t hese dimensions, t he r at io of out put for ce t o
input for ce is always t en t o one, r egar dless of t he
applied for ce. For example, if t he applied for ce
of t he input pist on is 50 pounds, t he pr essur e in
t he syst em will be 25 psi. This will suppor t a
r esist ant for ce of 500 pounds on t he out put pist on.
The syst em wor ks t he same in r ever se. If we
change t he applied for ce and place a 200-pound
for ce on t he out put pist on (fig. 2-11), making it
t he input pist on, t he out put for ce on t he input
pist on will be one-t ent h t he input for ce, or 20
pounds. (Somet imes such r esult s ar e desir ed.)
Ther efor e, if t wo pist ons ar e used in a fluid power
syst em, t he for ce act ing on each pist on is dir ect ly
pr opor t ional t o it s ar ea, and t he magnit ude of
each for ce is t he pr oduct of t he pr essur e and t he
ar ea of each pist on.
Not e t he whit e ar r ows at t he bot t om of figur e
2-11 t hat indicat e up and down movement . The
movement t hey r epr esent will be explained lat er
in t he discussion of volume and dist ance fact or s.
2-7
DI FFERENTI AL AREAS. Consider t he
special sit uat ion shown in figur e 2-12. Her e, a
single pist on (1) in a cylinder (2) has a pist on r od
(3) at t ached t o one of it s sides. The pist on r od
ext ends out of one end of t he cylinder . Fluid under
pr essur e is admit t ed equally t o bot h ends of t he
cylinder . The opposed faces of t he pist on (1)
behave like t wo pist ons act ing against each ot her .
The ar ea of one face is t he full cr oss-sect ional ar ea
of t he cylinder , say 6 squar e inches, while t he ar ea
of t he ot her face is t he ar ea of t he cylinder minus
t he ar ea of t he pist on r od, which is 2 squar e
inches. This leaves an effect ive ar ea of 4 squar e
inches on t he r ight face of t he pist on. The pr essur e
on bot h faces is t he same, in t his case, 20 psi.
Applying t he r ule just st at ed, t he for ce pushing
t he pist on t o t he r ight is it s ar ea t imes t he pr essur e,
or 120 pounds (20 x 6). Likewise, t he for ce
pushing t he pist on t o t he left is it s ar ea t imes t he
pr essur e, or 80 pounds (20 x 4). Ther efor e, t her e
is a net unbalanced for ce of 40 pounds act ing t o
t he r ight , a nd t he pist on will move in t ha t
dir ect ion. The net effect is t he same as if t he pist on
and t he cylinder had t he same cr oss-sect ional ar ea
as t he pist on r od.
VOLUME AND DI STANCE FACTORS.
You have lear ned t hat if a for ce is applied t o a
syst em and t he cr oss-sect ional ar eas of t he input
and out put pist ons ar e equal, as in figur es 2-9 and
2-10, t he for ce on t he input pist on will suppor t
an equal r esist ant for ce on t he out put pist on. The
pr essur e of t he liquid at t his point is equal t o t he
for ce applied t o t he input pist on divided by t he
pist ons ar ea. Let us now look at what happens
when a for ce gr eat er t han t he r esist ance is applied
t o t he input pist on.
In t he syst em illust r at ed in figur e 2-9, assume
t hat t he r esist ance for ce on t he out put pist on is
100 psi. If a for ce slight ly gr eat er t han 100 pounds
is applied t o t he input pist on, t he pr essur e in t he
syst em will be slight ly gr eat er t han 10 psi. This
incr ease in pr essur e will over come t he r esist ance
for ce on t he out put pist on. Assume t hat t he input
pist on is for ced downwar d 1 inch. The movement
displaces 10 cubic inches of fluid. The fluid must
go somewher e. Since t he syst em is closed and t he
fluid is pr act ically incompr essible, t he fluid will
move t o t he r ight side of t he syst em. Because t he
out put pist on also has a cr oss-sect ional ar ea of
10 squar e inches, it will move 1 inch upwar d t o
accommodat e t he 10 cubic inches of fluid. You
may gener alize t his by saying t hat if t wo pist ons
in a closed syst em have equal cr oss-sect ional ar eas
and one pist on is pushed and moved, t he ot her
pist on will move t he same dist ance, t hough in t he
opposit e dir ect ion. This is because a decr ease in
volume in one par t of t he syst em is balanced by
one equal incr ease in volume in anot her par t of
t he syst em.
Apply t his r easoning t o t he syst em in figur e
2-11. If t he input pist on is pushed down a dist ance
Fi gu r e 2-12.Di ffer en t i a l a r ea s on a p i st on .
2-8
of 1 inch, t he volume of fluid in t he left cylinder
will decr ease by 2 cubic inches. At t he same t ime,
t he volume in t he r ight cylinder will incr ease by
2 cubic inches. Since t he diamet er of t he r ight
cylinder cannot change, t he pist on must move
upwar d t o allow t he volume t o incr ease. The
pist on will move a dist ance equal t o t he volume
incr ease divided by t he sur face ar ea of t he pist on
(equal t o t he sur face ar ea of t he cylinder ). In t his
example, t he pist on will move one-t ent h of an inch
(2 cu. in. 20 sq. in.). This leads t o t he second
basic r ule for a fluid power syst em t hat cont ains
t wo pist ons: The dist ances t he pist ons move ar e
inver sely pr opor t ional t o t he ar eas of t he pist ons.
Or mor e simply, if one pist on is smaller t han t he
ot her , t he smaller pist on must move a gr eat er
dist ance t han t he lar ger pist on any t ime t he pist ons
move.
LI QUI DS I N MOTI ON
In t he oper at ion of fluid power syst ems, t her e
must be a flow of fluid. The amount of flow will
var y fr om syst em t o syst em. To under st and fluid
power syst ems in a ct ion, it is necessa r y t o
under st and some of t he char act er ist ics of liquids
in mot ion.
Liquids in mot ion have char act er ist ics dif-
fer ent fr om liquids at r est . Fr ict ional r esist ances
wit hin a fluid (viscosit y) and iner t ia cont r ibut e t o
t hese differ ences. (Viscosit y is discussed in chapt er
3.) Inertia, which means t he r esist ance a mass
offer s t o being set in mot ion, will be discussed
lat er in t his sect ion. Ther e ar e ot her r elat ionships
of liquids in mot ion wit h which you must become
familiar . Among t hese ar e volume and velocit y
of fl ow, fl ow r a t e a n d s peed, l a mi n a r a n d
t ur bulent flow, and mor e impor t ant ly, t he for ce
and ener gy changes which occur in flow.
VOLUME AND VELOCI TY OF FLOW
The volume of a liquid passing a point in a
given t ime is known as it s volume of flow or flow
r at e. The volume of flow is usually expr essed in
gallons per minut e (gpm) and is associat ed wit h
r elat ive pr essur es of t he liquid, such as 5 gpm at
40 psi.
The velocity of flow or velocit y of t he fluid
is defined as t he aver age speed at which t he fluid
moves past a given point . It is usually expr essed
in feet per second (fps) or feet per minut e (fpm).
Velocit y of flow is an impor t ant consider at ion in
sizing t he hydr aulic lines. (Hydr aulic lines ar e
discussed in chapt er 5.)
Vol u me a n d vel oci t y of fl ow a r e oft en
consider ed t oget her . Wi t h ot h er con di t i on s
una lt er edt ha t is, wi t h vol u me of i n pu t
unchangedt he velocit y of flow incr eases as t he
cr oss sect ion or size of t he pipe decr eases, and t he
velocit y of flow decr eases as t he cr oss sect ion
incr eases. For example, t he velocit y of flow is slow
at wide par t s of a st r eam and r apid at nar r ow
par t s, yet t he volume of wat er passing each par t
of t he st r eam is t he same.
In figur e 2-13, if t he cr oss-sect ional ar ea of
t he pipe is 16 squar e inches at point A and 4
squar e inches at point B, we can calculat e t he
r elat ive velocit y of flow using t he flow equat ion
Q = v A Equat ion 2-7.
wher e Q is t he volume of flow, v is t he velocit y
of flow and A is t he cr oss-sect ional ar ea of t he
liquid. Since t he volume of flow at point A, Q
1
,
is equal t o t he volume of flow at point B, Q
2
, we
can use equat ion 2-7 t o det er mine t he r at io of t he
Fi gu r e 2-13.Volu me a n d veloci t y of flow.
2-9
velocit y of flow at point A, v
1
, t o t he velocit y of
flow at point B, v
2
.
Si n ce Q
1
= Q
2
, A
1
v
1
= A
2
v
2
Fr om figur e 2-13; A
1
= 16sq. in., A
2
= 4sq. in.
Su bs t i t u t i n g: 16v
1
= 4V
2
or v
2
= 4v
I
Ther efor e, t he velocit y of flow at point B is four
t imes t he velocit y of flow at point A.
VOLUME OF FLOW AND SP EED
If you consider t he cylinder volume you must
fill and t he dist ance t he pist on must t r avel, you
can r elat e t he volume of flow t o t he speed of t he
pist on. The volume of t he cylinder is found by
mult iplying t he pist on ar ea by t he lengt h t he pist on
must t r avel (st r oke).
Su ppos e you h a ve det er mi n ed t h a t t wo
cylinder s have t he same volume and t hat one
cylinder is t wice as long as t he ot her . In t his case,
t he cr oss-sect ional ar ea of t he longer t ube will be
half of t he cr oss-sect ional ar ea of t he ot her t ube.
If fluid is pumped int o each cylinder at t he same
r at e, bot h pist ons will r each t heir full t r avel at t he
same t ime. However , t he pist on in t he smaller
cylinder must t r avel t wice as fast because it has
t wice as far t o go.
Ther e ar e t wo ways of cont r olling t he speed
of t he pist on, (1) by var ying t he size of t he cylinder
and (2) by var ying t he volume of flow (gpm) t o
t he cylinder s. (Hydr aulic cylinder s ar e discussed
in det ail in chapt er 10. )
STREAMLI NE AND
TURBULENT F LOW
At low velocit ies or in t ubes of small diamet er ,
flow is st r eamlined. This means t hat a given
par t icle of fluid moves st r aight for war d wit hout
bumping int o ot her par t icles and wit hout cr ossing
t heir pat hs. St r eamline flow is oft en r efer r ed t o
as laminar flow, which is defined as a flow
sit uat ion in which fluid moves in par allel lamina
or layer s. As an example of st r eamline flow,
consider figur e 2-14, which illust r at es an open
st r eam flowing at a slow, unifor m r at e wit h logs
float ing on it s sur face. The logs r epr esent par t icles
of fluid. As long as t he st r eam flows at a slow,
unifor m r at e, each log float s downst r eam in it s
Fi gu r e 2-14.St r ea mli n e flow.
own pat h, wit hout cr ossing or bumping int o t he
ot her .
If t he st r eam nar r ows, however , and t he
volume of flow r emains t he same, t he velocit y
of flow incr ea ses. I f t he velocit y incr ea ses
sufficient ly, t he wat er becomes t ur bulent . (See
fig. 2-15.) Swir ls, eddies, and cr oss-mot ions ar e
set up in t he wat er . As t his happens, t he logs ar e
t hr own against each ot her and against t he banks
of t he st r eam, and t he pat hs followed by differ ent
logs will cr oss and r ecr oss.
Par t icles of fluid flowing in pipes act in t he
same manner . The flow is st r eamlined if t he fluid
flows slowly enough, and r emains st r eamlined at
gr eat er velocit ies if t he diamet er of t he pipe is
small. If t he velocit y of flow or size of pipe is
incr eased sufficient ly, t he flow becomes t ur bulent .
While a high velocit y of flow will pr oduce
t ur bulence in any pipe, ot her fact or s cont r ibut e
t o t ur bulence. Among t hese ar e t he r oughness of
t he inside of t he pipe, obst r uct ions, t he degr ee of
cur vat ur e of bends, and t he number of bends in
t he pipe. In set t ing up or maint aining fluid power
syst ems, car e should be t aken t o eliminat e or
Fi gu r e 2-15.Tu r bu len t flow.
2-10
minimize a s ma ny ca uses of t ur bulence a s
possible, since t he ener gy consumed by t ur bulence
is wast ed. Limit at ions r elat ed t o t he degr ee
and number of bends of pipe ar e discussed in
chapt er 5.
While designer s of fluid power equipment do
what t hey can t o minimize t ur bulence, it cannot
be avoided. For example, in a 4-inch pipe at 68F,
flow becomes t ur bulent at velocit ies over appr oxi-
mat ely 6 inches per second or about 3 inches per
second in a 6-inch pipe. These velocit ies ar e far
below t hose commonly encount er ed in fluid power
syst ems, wher e velocit ies of 5 feet per second and
above ar e common. In st r eamlined flow, losses
due t o fr ict ion incr ease dir ect ly wit h velocit y. Wit h
t ur bulent flow t hese losses incr ease much mor e
r apidly.
FACTORS I NVOLVED I N FLOW
An under st anding of t he behavior of fluids in
mot ion, or solids for t hat mat t er , r equir es an
under st anding of t he t er m inertia. Iner t ia is t he
t er m used by scient ist s t o descr ibe t he pr oper t y
possessed by all for ms of mat t er t hat makes t he
mat t er r esist being moved if it is at r est , and
likewise, r esist any change in it s r at e of mot ion
if it is moving.
The ba sic st a t ement cover ing iner t ia is
Newt ons fir st law of mot ioniner t ia. Sir Isaac
Newt on was a Br it ish philosopher and mat he-
mat ician. His fir st law st at es: A body at rest tends
to remain at rest, and a body in motion tends to
remain in motion at the same speed and direction,
unless act ed on by some unbalanced force.
This simply sa ys wha t you ha ve lea r ned by
exper iencet hat you must push an object t o st ar t
it moving and push it in t he opposit e dir ect ion
t o st op it again.
A familiar illust r at ion is t he effor t a pit cher
must exer t t o make a fast pit ch and t he opposit ion
t he cat cher must put for t h t o st op t he ball.
Similar ly, consider able wor k must be per for med
by t he engine t o ma ke a n a ut omobile begin
t o r oll; alt hough, aft er it has at t ained a cer t ain
velocit y, it will r oll along t he r oad at unifor m
speed if just enough effor t is expended t o
over come fr ict ion, while br akes ar e necessar y t o
st op it s mot ion. Iner t ia also explains t he kick or
r ecoil of guns and t he t r emendous st r iking for ce
of pr oject iles.
I n er t i a
To
a n d For ce
over come t he t endency of an object t o
r esist any change in it s st at e of r est or mot ion,
some for ce t hat is not ot her wise canceled or
u n ba l a n ced mu s t a ct on t h e object . Some
unbalanced for ce must be applied whenever fluids
ar e set in mot ion or incr eased in velocit y; while
conver sely, for ces ar e made t o do wor k elsewher e
whenever fluids in mot ion a r e r et a r ded or
st opped.
Ther e is a dir ect r elat ionship bet ween t he
magnit ude of t he for ce exer t ed and t he iner t ia
against which it act s. This for ce is dependent
on t wo fa ct or s : (1) t h e ma s s of t h e object
(which is pr opor t ional t o it s weight ), and (2)
t he r a t e a t which t he velocit y of t he object
is cha nged. The r ule is t hat t he for ce in
pounds r equir ed t o over come iner t ia is equal
t o t he weight of t he object mult iplied by t he
change in velocit y, measur ed in feet per second,
and divided by 32 t imes t he t ime in seconds
r equir ed t o accomplish t he change. Thus, t he r at e
of change in velocit y of an object is pr opor t ional
t o t he for ce applied. The number 32 appear s
because it is t he conver sion fact or bet ween weight
and mass.
Ther e ar e five physical fact or s t hat can act on
a fluid t o affect it s behavior . All of t he physical
act ions of fluids in all syst ems ar e det er mined by
t he r elat ionships of t hese five fact or s t o each
ot her . Summar izing, t hese five fact or s ar e as
follows:
1. Gr avit y, which act s at all t imes on all
bodies, r egar dless of ot her for ces
2. At mospher ic pr essur e, which a ct s on
a ny pa r t of a syst em exposed t o t he open
air
3. Specific applied for ces, which mayor may
not be pr esent , but which, in any event , ar e
ent ir ely independent of t he pr esence or absence
of mot ion
4. Iner t ia, which comes int o play whenever
t her e is a change fr om r est t o mot ion or t he
opposit e, or whenever t her e is a cha nge in
dir ect ion or in r at e of mot ion
5. Fr ict ion, which is always pr esent whenever
t her e is mot ion
2-11
Figur e 2-16 illust r at es a possible r elat ionship
of t hese fact or s wit h r espect t o a par t icle of fluid
(P) in a syst em. The differ ent for ces ar e shown
in t er ms of head, or in ot her wor ds, in t er ms of
ver t ical columns of fluid r equir ed t o pr ovide
t he for ces. At t he pa r t icula r moment under
consider at ion, a par t icle of wat er (P) is being act ed
on by applied for ce (A), by at mospher ic pr essur e
(B), and by gr avit y (C) pr oduced by t he weight
of t he fluid st anding over it . The par t icle possesses
sufficient iner t ia or velocit y head t o r ise t o level
P1, since head equivalent t o F was lost in fr ict ion
as P passed t hr ough t he syst em. Since at mospher ic
pr essur e (B) act s downwar d on bot h sides of t he
syst em, what is gained on one side is lost on t he
ot her .
If all t he pr essur e act ing on P t o for ce it
t hr ough t he nozzle could be r ecover ed in t he for m
of elevat ion head, it would r ise t o level Y. If
account is t aken of t he balance in at mospher ic
pr essur e, in a fr ict ionless syst em, P would r ise t o
level X, or pr ecisely as high as t he sum of t he
gr avit y head and t he head equivalent t o t he
applied for ce.
Ki n et i c En er gy
It was pr eviously point ed out t hat a for ce must
be applied t o an object in or der t o give it a velocit y
or t o incr ease t he velocit y it alr eady has. Whet her
t he for ce begins or changes velocit y, it act s over
a cer t ain dist ance. A for ce act ing over a cer t ain
dist ance is wor k. Wor k and all for ms int o which
it ca n be cha nged a r e cla ssified a s ener gy.
Obviously t hen, ener gy is r equir ed t o give an
object velocit y. The gr eat er t he ener gy used, t he
gr eat er t he velocit y will be.
Disr ega r ding fr ict ion, for a n object t o be
br ought t o r est or for it s mot ion t o be slowed
down, a for ce opposed t o it s mot ion must be
applied t o it . This for ce also act s over some
dist ance. In t his way ener gy is given up by t he
object and deliver ed in some for m t o what ever
opposes it s cont inuous mot ion. The moving object
is t her efor e a means of r eceiving ener gy at one
place (wher e it s mot ion is incr eased) and deliver ing
it t o a not her point (wher e it is st opped or
r et ar ded). While it is in mot ion, it is said t o
cont ain t his ener gy as ener gy of mot ion or kinetic
ener gy.
Since ener gy can never be dest r oyed, it follows
t hat if fr ict ion is disr egar ded t he ener gy deliver ed
t o st op t he object will exact ly equal t he ener gy
t hat was r equir ed t o incr ease it s speed. At all t imes
t he amount of kinet ic ener gy possessed by an
object depends on it s weight and t he velocit y at
which it is moving.
Fi gu r e 2-16.P h ysi ca l fa ct or s gover n i n g flu i d flow.
2-12
The mat hemat ical r elat ionship for kinet ic
ener gy is st at ed in t he r ule: Kinet ic ener gy in
foot -pounds is equal t o t he for ce in pounds which
cr eat ed it , mult iplied by t he dist ance t hr ough
which it was applied, or t o t he weight of t he
moving object in pounds, mult iplied by t he squar e
of it s velocit y in feet per second, and divided by
64.s
The r ela t ionship bet ween iner t ia for ces,
velocit y, and kinet ic ener gy can be illust r at ed by
analyzing what happens when a gun fir es a
pr oject ile against t he ar mor of an enemy ship. (See
fig. 2-17.) The explosive for ce of t he powder in
t he br each pushes t he pr oject ile out of t he gun,
giving it a high velocit y. Because of it s iner t ia,
t he pr oject ile offer s opposit ion t o t his sudden
velocit y and a r eact ion is set up t hat pushes t he
gun backwar d (kick or r ecoil). The for ce of t he
explosion act s on t he pr oject ile t hr oughout it s
movement in t he gun. This is for ce act ing t hr ough
a dist ance pr oducing wor k. This wor k appear s as
kinet ic ener gy in t he speeding pr oject ile. The
r esist ance of t he air pr oduces fr ict ion, which uses
some of t he ener gy and slows down t he pr oject ile.
Event ually, however , t he pr oject ile hit s it s t ar get
and, because of t he iner t ia, t r ies t o cont inue
moving. The t ar get , being r elat ively st at ionar y,
t ends t o r emain st at ionar y because of it s iner t ia.
The r esult is t hat a t r emendous for ce is set up t hat
eit her leads t o t he penet r at ion of t he ar mor or
t he shat t er ing of t he pr oject ile. The pr oject ile
is simply a means of t r ansfer r ing ener gy, in
t his inst ance for dest r uct ive pur pose, fr om t he
gun t o t he enemy ship. This ener gy is t r ansmit t ed
in t he for m of ener gy of mot ion or kinet ic
ener gy.
A similar act ion t akes place in a fluid power
syst em in which t he fluid t akes t he place of t he
pr oject ile. For example, t he pump in a hydr aulic
Fi gu r e 2-17.Rela t i on sh i p of i n er t i a , veloci t y, a n d k i n et i c
e n e r gy.
s ys t em i mpa r t s en er gy t o t h e fl u i d, wh i ch
over comes t he iner t ia of t he fluid at r est and
causes it t o flow t hr ough t he lines. The fluid flows
against some t ype of act uat or t hat is at r est . The
fluid t ends t o cont inue flowing, over comes t he
iner t ia of t he act uat or , and moves t he act uat or
t o do wor k. Fr ict ion uses up a por t ion of t he
ener gy as t he fluid flows t hr ough t he lines and
component s.
RELATI ONSHI P OF FORCE,
P RESSURE, AND HEAD
In dealing wit h fluids, for ces ar e usually
consider ed in r elat ion t o t he ar eas over which t hey
ar e applied. As pr eviously discussed, a for ce
act ing over a unit ar ea is a pr essur e, and pr essur e
can alt er nat ely be st at ed in pounds per squar e inch
or in t er ms of head, which is t he ver t ical height
of t he column of fluid whose weight would
pr oduce t hat pr essur e.
In most of t he applicat ions of fluid power in
t he Navy, applied for ces gr eat ly out weigh all ot her
for ces, and t he fluid is ent ir ely confined. Under
t hese cir cumst ances it is cust omar y t o t hink of t he
for ces involved in t er ms of pr essur es. Since t he
t er m head is encount er ed fr equent ly in t he st udy
of fluid power , it is necessar y t o under st and what
it means and how it is r elat ed t o pr essur e and
for ce.
All five of t he fact or s t hat cont r ol t he act ions
of fluids can, of cour se, be expr essed eit her as
for ce, or in t er ms of equivalent pr essur es or head.
In each sit uat ion, t he differ ent fact or s ar e r efer r ed
t o in t he same t er ms, since t hey can be added and
subt r act ed t o st udy t heir r elat ionship t o each
ot her .
At t his point you need t o r eview some t er ms
in gener al use. Gr avit y head, when it is impor t ant
enough t o be consider ed, is somet imes r efer r ed
t o as head. The effect of at mospher ic pr essur e is
r efer r ed t o as at mospher ic pr essur e. (At mospher ic
pr essur e is fr equent ly and impr oper ly r efer r ed t o
as suct ion.) Iner t ia effect , because it is always
dir ect ly r elat ed t o velocit y, is usually called
velocit y head; and fr ict ion, because it r epr esent s
a loss of pr essur e or head, is usually r efer r ed t o
as fr ict ion head.
STATI C AND DYNAMI C FACTORS
Gr a vit y, a pplied for ces, a nd a t mospher ic
pr essur e ar e st at ic fact or s t hat apply equally t o
2-13
fluids at r est or in mot ion, while iner t ia and
fr ict ion ar e dynamic fact or s t hat apply only t o
fluids in mot ion. The ma t hema t ica l sum of
gr avit y, applied for ce, and at mospher ic pr essur e
is t he st at ic pr essur e obt ained at any one point
in a fluid at any given t ime. St at ic pr essur e exist s
in addit ion t o any dynamic fact or s t hat may also
be pr esent at t he same t ime.
Remember , Pascals law st at es t hat a pr essur e
set up in a fluid act s equally in all dir ect ions and
at r ight angles t o t he cont aining sur faces. This
cover s t he sit uat ion only for fluids at r est or
pr act ically at r est . It is t r ue only for t he fact or s
making up st at ic head. Obviously, when velocit y
becomes a fact or it must have a dir ect ion, and
as pr eviously explained, t he for ce r elat ed t o t he
velocit y must a lso ha ve a dir ect ion, so t ha t
Pascals law alone does not apply t o t he dynamic
fact or s of fluid power .
The dynamic fact or s of iner t ia and fr ict ion ar e
r elat ed t o t he st at ic fact or s. Velocit y head and
fr ict ion head ar e obt ained at t he expense of st at ic
head. However , a por t ion of t he velocit y head can
always be r econver t ed t o st at ic head. For ce, which
can be pr oduced by pr essur e or head when dealing
wit h fluids, is necessar y t o st ar t a body moving
if it is at r est , and is pr esent in some for m when
t he mot ion of t he body is ar r est ed; t her efor e,
whenever a fluid is given velocit y, some par t of
it s or iginal st at ic head is used t o impar t t his
velocit y, which t hen exist s as velocit y head.
BERNOULLI S P RI NCI P LE
Consider t he syst em illust r at ed in figur e 2-18.
Chamber A is under pr essur e and is connect ed by
a t ube t o chamber B, which is also under pr essur e.
The pr essur e in chamber A is st at ic pr essur e of
100 psi. The pr essur e at some point (X) along t he
connect ing t ube consist s of a velocit y pr essur e of
Fi gu r e 2-18.Rela t i on of st a t i c a n d d yn a mi c fa ct or s
Ber n ou lli s p r i n ci p le.
10 psi exer t ed in a dir ect ion par allel t o t he line
of flow, plus t he unused st at ic pr essur e of 90 psi,
which st ill obeys Pascals law and oper at es equally
in all dir ect ions. As t he fluid ent er s chamber B
it is slowed down, and it s velocit y is changed back
t o pr essur e. The for ce r equir ed t o absor b it s
iner t ia equals t he for ce r equir ed t o st ar t t he fluid
moving or iginally, so t hat t he st at ic pr essur e in
chamber B is equal t o t hat in chamber A.
This sit uat ion (fig. 2-18) disr egar ds fr ict ion;
t her efor e, it would not be encount er ed in act ual
pr a ct ice. For ce or hea d is a lso r equir ed t o
over come fr ict ion but , unlike iner t ia effect , t his
for ce cannot be r ecover ed again, alt hough t he
ener gy r epr esent ed st ill exist s somewher e as heat .
Ther efor e, in an act ual syst em t he pr essur e in
chamber B would be less t han in chamber A by
t he a mount of pr essur e used in over coming
fr ict ion along t he way.
At all point s in a syst em t he st at ic pr essur e is
always t he or iginal st at ic pr essur e, less any velocit y
head at t he point in quest ion and less t he fr ict ion
head consumed in r eaching t hat point . Since bot h
t he velocit y head and t he fr ict ion head r epr esent
ener gy t hat came fr om t he or iginal st at ic head,
and since ener gy cannot be dest r oyed, t he sum of
t he st at ic head, t he velocit y head, and t he fr ict ion
head at any point in t he syst em must add up t o
t he or igina l st a t ic hea d. This is known a s
Ber noulli's pr inciple, which st a t es: For t he
horizontal flow of fluid through a tube, the sum
of the pressure and the kinetic energy per unit
volume of the fluid is constant. This pr inciple
gover ns t he r elat ions of t he st at ic and dynamic
fact or s concer ning fluids, while Pascals law st at es
t he manner in which t he st at ic fact or s behave
when t aken by t hemselves.
MI NI MI ZI NG FRI CTI ON
Fluid power equipment is designed t o r educe
fr ict ion t o t he lowest possible level. Volume and
velocit y of flow ar e made t he subject of car eful
st udy. The pr oper fluid for t he syst em is chosen.
Clean, smoot h pipe of t he best dimensions for t he
par t icular condit ions is used, and it is inst alled
along as dir ect a r out e as possible. Shar p bends
and sudden changes in cr oss-sect ional ar eas ar e
avoided. Valves, gauges, and ot her component s
ar e designed t o int er r upt flow as lit t le as possible.
Car eful t hought is given t o t he size and shape of
t he openings. The syst ems ar e designed so t hey
2-14
can be kept clean inside and var iat ions fr om
nor mal oper at ion can easily be det ect ed and
r emedied.
OP ERATI ON OF HYDRAULI C
COMP ONENTS
To t r a n s mi t a n d con t r ol power t h r ou gh
pr essur ized fluids, a n a r r a ngement of int er -
connect ed component s is r equir ed. Such a n
ar r angement is commonly r efer r ed t o as a syst em.
The number and ar r angement of t he component s
var y fr om syst em t o syst em, depending on t he
par t icular applicat ion. In many applicat ions, one
main syst em supplies power t o sever al subsyst ems,
which ar e somet imes r efer r ed t o as cir cuit s. The
complet e syst em may be a small compact unit ;
mor e oft en, however , t he component s ar e locat ed
at widely separ at ed point s for convenient cont r ol
and oper at ion of t he syst em.
The basic component s of a fluid power syst em
ar e essent ially t he same, r egar dless of whet her t he
syst em uses a hydr aulic or a pneumat ic medium.
Ther e ar e five basic component s used in a syst em.
These basic component s ar e as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Reser voir or r eceiver
Pump or compr essor
Lines (pipe, t ubing, or flexible hose)
Dir ect ional cont r ol valve
Act uat ing device
Sever al applicat ions of fluid power r equir e
only a simple syst em; t hat is, a syst em which uses
only a few component s in addit ion t o t he five
basic component s. A few of t hese applicat ions ar e
pr esent ed in t he following par agr aphs. We will
explain t he oper at ion of t hese syst ems br iefly at
t his t ime so you will know t he pur pose of each
component a nd ca n bet t er under st a nd how
hydr aulics is used in t he oper at ion of t hese
syst ems. Mor e complex fluid power syst ems ar e
descr ibed in chapt er 12.
HYDRAULI C J ACK
The hydr aulic jack is per haps one of t he
simplest for ms of a fluid power syst em. By
moving t he handle of a small device, an individual
can lift a load weighing sever al t ons. A small
init ial for ce exer t ed on t he handle is t r ansmit t ed
by a fluid t o a much lar ger ar ea. To under st and
t his bet t er , st udy figur e 2-19. The small input
pist on has an ar ea of 5 squar e inches and is
dir ect ly connect ed t o a lar ge cylinder wit h an
out put pist on having an ar ea of 250 squar e inches.
The t op of t his pist on for ms a lift plat for m.
If a for ce of 25 pounds is applied t o t he input
pist on, it pr oduces a pr essur e of 5 psi in t he fluid,
t ha t is, of cour se, if a sufficient a mount of
r esist ant for ce is act ing against t he t op of t he
out put pist on. Disr egar ding fr ict ion loss, t his
pr essur e act ing on t he 250 squar e inch ar ea of t he
out put pist on will suppor t a r esist ance for ce of
1,250 pounds. In ot her wor ds, t his pr essur e could
over come a for ce of slight ly under 1,250 pounds.
An input for ce of 25 pounds has been t r ansfor med
int o a wor king for ce of mor e t han half a t on;
however , for t his t o be t r ue, t he dist ance t r aveled
by t he input pist on must be 50 t imes gr eat er t han
t he dist ance t r aveled by t he out put pist on. Thus,
for ever y inch t hat t he input pist on moves, t he
out put pist on will move only one-fift iet h of an
i n c h .
This would be ideal if t he out put pist on needed
t o move only a shor t dist ance. However , in most
inst ances, t he out put pist on would have t o be
capable of moving a gr eat er dist ance t o ser ve a
pr act ical applicat ion. The device shown in figur e
2-19 is not capable of moving t he out put pist on
far t her t han t hat shown; t her efor e, some ot her
means must be used t o r aise t he out put pist on t o
a gr eat er height .
Fi gu r e 2-19.Hyd r a u li c ja ck .
2-15
The out put pist on can be r aised higher and
maint ained at t his height if addit ional component s
ar e inst alled as shown in figur e 2-20. In t his
illust r at ion t he jack is designed so t hat it can be
r aised, lower ed, or held at a const ant height .
These r esult s ar e at t ained by int r oducing a number
of valves and also a r eser ve supply of fluid t o be
used in t he syst em.
Not ice t hat t his syst em cont ains t he five basic
component st he r eser voir ; cylinder 1, which
ser ves as a pump; valve 3, which ser ves as a
dir ect ional cont r ol valve; cylinder 2, which ser ves
as t he act uat ing device; and lines t o t r ansmit t he
fluid t o and fr om t he differ ent component s. In
addit ion, t his syst em cont ains t wo valves, 1 and
2, whose funct ions ar e explained in t he following
discussion.
As t he input pist on is r aised (fig. 2-20, view
A), valve 1 is closed by t he back pr essur e fr om
t he weight of t he out put pist on. At t he same t ime,
valve 2 is opened by t he head of t he fluid in t he
r eser voir . This for ces fluid int o cylinder 1. When
t he input pist on is lower ed (fig. 2-20, view B), a
pr essur e is developed in cylinder 1. When t his
pr essur e exceeds t he head in t he r eser voir , it closes
valve 2. When it exceeds t he back pr essur e fr om
t he out put pist on, it opens valve 1, for cing fluid
int o t he pipeline. The pr essur e fr om cylinder 1 is
Fi gu r e 2-20.Hyd r a u li c ja ck ; (A) u p st r ok e; (B) d own st r ok e.
t hus t r ansmit t ed int o cylinder 2, wher e it act s t o
r aise t he out put pist on wit h it s at t ached lift
plat for m. When t he input pist on is again r aised,
t he pr essur e in cylinder 1 dr ops below t hat in
cylinder 2, causing valve 1 t o close. This pr event s
t he r et ur n of fluid and holds t he out put pist on
wit h it s at t ached lift plat for m at it s new level.
Dur ing t his st r oke, valve 2 opens again allowing
a new supply of fluid int o cylinder 1 for t he next
power (downwar d) st r oke of t he input pist on.
Thus, by r epeat ed st r okes of t he input pist on, t he
lift plat for m can be pr ogr essively r aised. To lower
t he lift plat for m, valve 3 is opened, and t he fluid
fr om cylinder 2 is r et ur ned t o t he r eser voir .
HYDRAULI C BRAKES
The hydr a ulic br a ke syst em used in t he
aut omobile is a mult iple pist on syst em. A mult iple
pist on syst em allows for ces t o be t r ansmit t ed t o
t wo or mor e pist ons in t he manner indicat ed in
figur e 2-21. Not e t hat t he pr essur e set up by t he
for ce applied t o t he input pist on (1) is t r ansmit t ed
undiminished t o bot h out put pist ons (2 and 3),
and t hat t he r esult ant for ce on each pist on is
pr opor t ional t o it s ar ea. The mult iplicat ion of
for ces fr om t he input pist on t o each out put pist on
is t he same as t hat explained ear lier .
The hydr aulic br ake syst em fr om t he mast er
cyl i n der s t o t h e wh eel cyl i n der s on mos t
Fi gu r e 2-21.Mu lt i p le p i st on syst em.
2-16
aut omobiles oper at es in a way similar t o t he
syst em illust r at ed in figur e 2-22.
When t he br a ke peda l is depr essed, t he
pr essur e on t he br ake pedal moves t he pist on
wit hin t he mast er cylinder , for cing t he br ake fluid
fr om t he mast er cylinder t hr ough t he t ubing and
flexible hose t o t he wheel cylinder s. The wheel
cylinder s cont ain t wo opposed out put pist ons,
each of which is at t ached t o a br ake shoe fit t ed
inside t he br ake dr um. Each out put pist on pushes
t he at t ached br ake shoe against t he wall of t he
br ake dr um, t hus r et ar ding t he r ot at ion of t he
wheel. When pr essur e on t he pedal is r eleased, t he
spr ings on t he br ake shoes r et ur n t he wheel
cylinder pist ons t o t heir r eleased posit ions. This
a ct ion for ces t he displa ced br a ke fluid ba ck
t hr ough t he flexible hose and t ubing t o t he mast er
cylinder .
The for ce applied t o t he br ake pedal pr oduces
a pr opor t iona l for ce on ea ch of t he out put
pist ons, which in t ur n apply t he br ake shoes
fr ict iona lly t o t he t ur ning wheels t o r et a r d
r ot at ion.
As pr eviously ment ioned, t he hydr aulic br ake
syst em on most aut omobiles oper at es in a similar
way, as shown in figur e 2-22. It is beyond t he
scope of t his manual t o discuss t he var ious br ake
syst ems.
Fi gu r e 2-22.An a u t omobi le br a k e syst em.
2-17
CHAP TER 3
HYDRAULI C FLUI DS
Dur ing t he design of equipment t hat r equir es
fluid power , ma ny fa ct or s a r e consider ed in
select ing t he t ype of syst em t o be usedhydr aulic,
pneumat ic, or a combinat ion of t he t wo. Some
of t he fact or s ar e r equir ed speed and accur acy of
oper at ion, sur r ounding at mospher ic condit ions,
economic condit ions, availabilit y of r eplacement
fluid, r equir ed pr essur e level, oper at ing t emper a-
t ur e r ange, cont aminat ion possibilit ies, cost of
t r ansmission lines, limit at ions of t he equipment ,
lubr icit y, safet y t o t he oper at or s, and expect ed
ser vice life of t he equipment .
Aft er t he t ype of syst em has been select ed,
many of t hese same fact or s must be consider ed
in select ing t he fluid for t he syst em. This chapt er
is devot ed t o hydr aulic fluids. Included in it ar e
sect ions on t he pr oper t ies and char act er ist ics
desir ed of hydr aulic fluids; t ypes of hydr aulic
fluids; hazar ds and safet y pr ecaut ions for wor king
wit h, ha ndling, a nd disposing of hydr a ulic
liquids; t ypes and cont r ol of cont aminat ion; and
sampling.
P ROP ERTI ES
If fluidit y (t he physical pr oper t y of a subst ance
t hat enables it t o flow) and incompr essibilit y wer e
t he only pr oper t ies r equir ed, any liquid not t oo
t hick might be used in a hydr a ulic syst em.
However , a sat isfact or y liquid for a par t icular
syst em must possess a number of ot her pr oper t ies.
The most impor t ant pr oper t ies and some char ac-
t er ist ics ar e discussed in t he following par agr aphs.
VI SCOSI TY
Vi s cos i t y i s on e of t h e mos t i mpor t a n t
pr oper t ies of hydr aulic fluids. It is a measur e of
a fluids r esist ance t o flow. A liquid, such as
gasoline, which flows easily has a low viscosit y;
and a liquid, such as t ar , which flows slowly has
a high viscosit y. The viscosit y of a liquid is
affect ed by changes in t emper at ur e and pr essur e.
As t he t emper at ur e of a liquid incr eases, it s
viscosit y decr eases. That is, a liquid flows mor e
easily when it is hot t han when it is cold. The
viscosit y of a liquid incr eases as t he pr essur e on
t he liquid incr eases.
A sat isfact or y liquid for a hydr aulic syst em
must be t hick enough t o give a good seal at
pumps, mot or s, valves, and so on. These com-
ponent s depend on close fit s for cr eat ing and
ma int a ining pr essur e. Any int er na l lea ka ge
t hr ough t hese clear ances r esult s in loss of pr essur e,
inst a nt a neous cont r ol, a nd pump efficiency.
Leakage losses ar e gr eat er wit h t hinner liquids
(low viscosit y). A liquid t hat is t oo t hin will also
allow r apid wear ing of moving par t s, or of par t s
t hat oper at e under heavy loads. On t he ot her
hand, if t he liquid is t oo t hick (viscosit y t oo high),
t he int er nal fr ict ion of t he liquid will cause an
incr ease in t he liquids flow r esist ance t hr ough
clea r a nces of closely fit t ed pa r t s, lines, a nd
int er nal passages. This r esult s in pr essur e dr ops
t h r ou gh ou t t h e s ys t em, s l u ggi s h oper a t i on
of t he equipment , and an incr ease in power
consumpt ion.
Mea su r emen t of Vi scosi t y
Viscosit y is nor mally det er mined by measur ing
t he t ime r equir ed for a fixed volume of a fluid
(a t a given t emper a t ur e) t o flow t hr ough a
calibr at ed or ifice or capillar y t ube. The inst r u-
ment s used t o measur e t he viscosit y of a liquid
ar e known as viscomet er s or viscosimet er s.
Sever al t ypes of viscosimet er s ar e in use t oday.
The Saybolt viscomet er , shown in figur e 3-1,
measur es t he t ime r equir ed, in seconds, for 60
millilit er s of t he t est ed fluid at 100F t o pass
t hr ough a st andar d or ifice. The t ime measur ed is
3-1
Fi gu r e 3-1.Sa ybolt vi scomet er .
used t o expr ess t he fluids viscosit y, in Saybolt
univer sal seconds or Saybolt fur ol seconds.
The glass capillar y viscomet er s, shown in
figur e 3-2, ar e examples of t he second t ype of
viscomet er used. These viscomet er s ar e used t o
measur e kinemat ic viscosit y. Like t he Saybolt
viscomet er , t he glass capillar y measur es t he t ime
in seconds r equir ed for t he t est ed fluid t o flow
t hr ough t he capillar y. This t ime is mult iplied by
t he t emper at ur e const ant of t he viscomet er in use
t o pr ovide t he viscosit y, expr essed in cent ist r okes.
The following for mula s ma y be used t o
conver t cent ist r okes (cSt unit s) t o appr oximat e
Saybolt univer sal seconds (SUS unit s).
For SUS values bet ween 32 and 100:
For SUS values gr eat er t han 100:
Alt hough t he viscomet er s discussed above ar e
used in labor at or ies, t her e ar e ot her viscomet er s
in t he supply syst em t hat ar e available for local
use. These viscomet er s can be used t o t est t he
viscosit y of hydr aulic fluids eit her pr ior t o t heir
being added t o a syst em or per iodically aft er t hey
have been in an oper at ing syst em for a while.
Fi gu r e 3-2.Va r i ou s st yles of gla ss ca p i lla r y vi scomet er s.
3-2
Addit ional infor mat ion on t he var ious t ypes
of viscomet er s and t heir oper at ion can be found
in t he Physical Measurements Training Manual,
NAVAI R 17-35QAL-2.
Vi scosi t y I n d ex
The viscosit y index (V.I.) of an oil is a number
t hat indicat es t he effect of t emper at ur e changes
on t he viscosit y of t he oil. A low V.I. signifies
a r elat ively lar ge change of viscosit y wit h changes
of t emper at ur e. In ot her wor ds, t he oil becomes
ext r emely t hin at high t emper at ur es and ext r emely
t hick at low t emper at ur es. On t he ot her hand, a
high V.I. signifies r ela t ively lit t le cha nge in
viscosit y over a wide t emper at ur e r ange.
An i dea l oi l for mos t pu r pos es i s on e
t hat maint ains a const ant viscosit y t hr oughout
t emper at ur e changes. The impor t ance of t he V.I.
can be shown easily by consider ing aut omot ive
lubr ica nt s. An oil ha ving a high V.I. r esist s
excessive t hickening when t he engine is cold and,
consequent ly, pr omot es r apid st ar t ing and pr ompt
cir culat ion; it r esist s excessive t hinning when t he
mot or is hot and t hus pr ovides full lubr icat ion and
pr event s excessive oil consumpt ion.
Anot her example of t he impor t ance of t he V.I.
is t he need for a high V.I. hydr aulic oil for milit ar y
air cr aft , since hydr aulic cont r ol syst ems may be
exposed t o t emper at ur es r anging fr om below
65F at high alt it udes t o over 100F on t he
gr ound. For t he pr oper oper at ion of t he hydr aulic
cont r ol syst em, t he hydr aulic fluid must have a
sufficient ly high V.I. t o per for m it s funct ions at
t he ext r emes of t he expect ed t emper at ur e r ange.
Liquids wit h a high viscosit y have a gr eat er
r esist ance t o heat t han low viscosit y liquids which
have been der ived fr om t he same sour ce. The
aver age hydr aulic liquid has a r elat ively low
viscosit y. For t unat ely, t her e is a wide choice of
liquids available for use in t he viscosit y r ange
r equir ed of hydr aulic liquids.
The V.I. of an oil may be det er mined if it s
viscosit y at any t wo t emper at ur es is known.
Tables, based on a lar ge number of t est s, ar e
issued by t he Amer ica n Societ y for Test ing
a nd Ma t er ia ls (ASTM). These t a bles per mit
calculat ion of t he V.I. fr om known viscosit ies.
LUBRI CATI NG P OWER
If mot ion t akes place bet ween sur faces in
cont act , fr ict ion t ends t o oppose t he mot ion.
When pr essur e for ces t he liquid of a hydr aulic
syst em bet ween t he sur faces of moving par t s, t he
liquid spr eads out int o a t hin film which enables
t he par t s t o move mor e fr eely. Differ ent liquids,
including oils, var y gr eat ly not only in t heir
lubr icat ing abilit y but also in film st r engt h. Film
st r engt h is t he capabilit y of a liquid t o r esist being
wiped or squeezed out fr om bet ween t he sur faces
when spr ead out in an ext r emely t hin layer . A
liquid will no longer lubr icat e if t he film br eaks
down, since t he mot ion of par t against par t wipes
t he met al clean of liquid.
Lubr icat ing power var ies wit h t emper at ur e
changes; t her efor e, t he climat ic and wor king
condit ions must ent er int o t he det er minat ion of
t he lubr ica t ing qua lit ies of a liquid. Unlike
viscosit y, which is a physica l pr oper t y, t he
lubr icat ing power and film st r engt h of a liquid
i s di r ect l y r el a t ed t o i t s ch emi ca l n a t u r e.
Lubr icat ing qualit ies and film st r engt h can be
impr oved by t he addit ion of cer t ain chemical
agent s.
CHEMI CAL STABI LI TY
Chemical st abilit y is anot her pr oper t y which
is exceedingly impor t ant in t he select ion of a
hydr aulic liquid. It is defined as t he liquids abilit y
t o r esist oxidat ion and det er ior at ion for long
per iods. All liquids t end t o under go unfavor able
changes under sever e oper at ing condit ions. This
is t he case, for example, when a syst em oper at es
for a con s i der a bl e per i od of t i me a t h i gh
t emper at ur es.
Excessive t emper at ur es, especially ext r emely
high t emper at ur es, have a gr eat effect on t he life
of a liquid. The t emper at ur e of t he liquid in t he
r eser voir of an oper at ing hydr aulic syst em does
not always indicat e t he oper at ing condit ions
t hr oughout t he syst em. Localized hot spot s occur
on bear ings, gear t eet h, or at ot her point s wher e
t he liquid under pr essur e is for ced t hr ough small
or ifices. Cont inuous passage of t he liquid t hr ough
t hese point s may pr oduce local t emper at ur es high
enough t o car bonize t he liquid or t ur n it int o
sludge, yet t he liquid in t he r eser voir may not
indicat e an excessively high t emper at ur e.
Liquids may br eak down if exposed t o air ,
wat er , salt , or ot her impur it ies, especially if t hey
ar e in const ant mot ion or subject ed t o heat . Some
met als, such as zinc, lead, br ass, and copper , have
undesir a ble chemica l r ea ct ions wit h cer t a in
liquids.
These chemical r eact ions r esult in t he for ma-
t ion of sludge, gums, car bon, or ot her deposit s
which clog openings, cause valves and pist ons t o
st ick or leak, and give poor lubr icat ion t o moving
3-3
par t s. Once a small amount of sludge or ot her
deposit s is for med, t he r at e of for mat ion gener ally
incr eases mor e r apidly. As t hese deposit s ar e
for med, cer t a in cha nges in t he physica l a nd
chemical pr oper t ies of t he liquid t ake place. The
liquid usua lly becomes da r ker , t he viscosit y
incr eases and damaging acids ar e for med.
The ext ent t o which changes occur in differ ent
liquids depends on t he t ype of liquid, t ype of
r efining, and whet her it has been t r eat ed t o
pr ovide fur t her r esist a nce t o oxida t ion. The
st a bilit y of liquids ca n be impr oved by t he
a ddi t i on of oxi da t i on i n h i bi t or s . I n h i bi t or s
select ed t o impr ove st abilit y must be compat ible
wit h t he ot her r equir ed pr oper t ies of t he liquid.
FREEDOM FROM ACI DI TY
An ideal hydr aulic liquid should be fr ee fr om
acids which cause cor r osion of t he met als in t he
syst em. Most liquids cannot be expect ed t o r emain
complet ely noncor r osive under sever e oper at ing
condit ions. The degr ee of acidit y of a liquid, when
new, may be sat isfact or y; but aft er use, t he liquid
may t end t o become cor r osive as it begins t o
det er ior at e.
Many syst ems ar e idle for long per iods aft er
oper at ing at high t emper at ur es. This per mit s
moist ur e t o condense in t he syst em, r esult ing in
r ust for mat ion.
Cer t ain cor r osion- and r ust -pr event ive addi-
t ives ar e added t o hydr aulic liquids. Some of t hese
addit ives ar e effect ive only for a limit ed per iod.
Ther efor e, t he best pr ocedur e is t o use t he liquid
specified for t he syst em for t he t ime specified by
t he syst em manufact ur er and t o pr ot ect t he liquid
a n d t h e s ys t em a s mu ch a s pos s i bl e fr om
cont aminat ion by for eign mat t er , fr om abnor mal
t emper at ur es, and fr om misuse.
F LASHP OI NT
Flashpoint is t he t emper at ur e at which a liquid
gives off vapor in sufficient quant it y t o ignit e
moment ar ily or flash when a flame is applied. A
high flashpoint is desir able for hydr aulic liquids
because it pr ovides good r esist ance t o combust ion
a nd a low degr ee of eva por a t ion a t nor ma l
t emper at ur es. Requir ed flashpoint minimums
var y fr om 300F for t he light est oils t o 510F for
t he heaviest oils.
FI RE P OI NT
Fir e point is t he t emper at ur e at which a
subst ance gives off vapor in sufficient quant it y
t o ignit e and cont inue t o bur n when exposed t o
a spar k or flame. Like flashpoint , a high fir e point
is r equir ed of desir able hydr aulic liquids.
MI NI MUM TOXI CI TY
Toxicit y is defined as t he qualit y, st at e, or
degr ee of being t oxic or poisonous. Some liquids
cont ain chemicals t hat ar e a ser ious t oxic hazar d.
These t oxic or poisonous chemicals may ent er t he
body t hr ough inhalat ion, by absor pt ion t hr ough
t he skin, or t hr ough t he eyes or t he mout h. The
r esult is sickness and, in some cases, deat h.
Ma nufa ct ur er s of hydr a ulic liquids st r ive t o
pr oduce suit able liquids t hat cont ain no t oxic
chemicals and, as a r esult , most hydr aulic liquids
ar e fr ee of har mful chemicals. Some fir e-r esist ant
liquids ar e t oxic, and suit able pr ot ect ion and car e
in handling must be pr ovided.
DENSI TY AND COMP RESSI BI LI TY
A fluid wit h a specific gr avit y of less t han 1.0
is desir ed when weight is cr it ical, alt hough wit h
pr oper syst em design, a fluid wit h a specific
gr avit y gr eat er t han one can be t oler at ed. Wher e
avoidance of det ect ion by milit ar y unit s is desir ed,
a fluid which sinks r at her t han r ises t o t he sur face
of t he wat er is desir able. Fluids having a specific
gr avit y gr eat er t han 1.0 ar e desir ed, as leaking
fluid will sink, allowing t he vessel wit h t he leak
t o r emain undet ect ed.
Recall fr om chapt er 2 t hat under ext r eme
pr essur e a fluid may be compr essed up t o 7
per cent of it s or igina l volume. Highly com-
pr essible fluids pr oduce sluggish syst em oper at ion.
This does not pr esent a ser ious pr oblem in small,
low-speed oper at ions, but it must be consider ed
in t he oper at ing inst r uct ions.
FOAMI NG TENDENCI ES
Foam is an emulsion of gas bubbles in t he
fluid. Foam in a hydr aulic syst em r esult s fr om
compr essed gases in t he hydr aulic fluid. A fluid
under high pr essur e can cont ain a lar ge volume
of air bubbles. When t his fluid is depr essur ized,
as when it r eaches t he r eser voir , t he gas bubbles
in t he fluid expa nd a nd pr oduce foa m. Any
amount of foaming may cause pump cavit at ion
and pr oduce poor syst em r esponse and spongy
3-4
cont r ol. Ther efor e, defoaming agent s ar e oft en
added t o fluids t o pr event foaming. Minimizing
air in fluid syst ems is discussed lat er in t his
chapt er .
CLEANLI NESS
Cleanliness in hydr aulic syst ems has r eceived
consider able at t ent ion r ecent ly. Some hydr aulic
syst ems, such as aer ospace hydr aulic syst ems, ar e
ext r emely sensit ive t o cont a mina t ion. Fluid
cleanliness is of pr imar y impor t ance because
cont aminant s can cause component malfunct ion,
pr event pr oper va lve sea t ing, ca use wea r in
component s, and may incr ease t he r esponse t ime
of ser vo valves. Fluid cont aminant s ar e discussed
lat er in t his chapt er .
The inside of a hydr aulic syst em can only be
kept as clean as t he fluid added t o it . Init ial fluid
cleanliness can be achieved by obser ving st r ingent
cleanliness r equir ement s (discussed lat er in t his
chapt er ) or by filt er ing all fluid added t o t he
syst em.
TYP ES OF HYDRAULI C FLUI DS
Ther e have been many liquids t est ed for use
in hydr aulic syst ems. Cur r ent ly, liquids being used
include miner a l oil, wa t er , phospha t e est er ,
wa t er -ba sed et hylene glycol compounds, a nd
silicone fluids. The t hr ee most common t ypes of
hydr aulic liquids ar e pet r oleum-based, synt het ic
fir e-r esist ant , and wat er -based fir e-r esist ant .
P ETROLEUM-BASED FLUI DS
The most common hydr aulic fluids used in
shipboar d syst ems ar e t he pet r oleum-based oils.
These fluids cont ain addit ives t o pr ot ect t he fluid
fr om oxidat ion (ant ioxidant ), t o pr ot ect syst em
met als fr om cor r osion (ant icor r osion), t o r educe
t endency of t he fluid t o foam (foam suppr essant ),
and t o impr ove viscosit y.
Pet r oleum-based fluids ar e used in sur face
s h i ps el ect r oh ydr a u l i c s t eer i n g a n d deck
ma ch i n er y s ys t ems , s u bma r i n es h ydr a u l i c
syst ems, and air cr aft aut omat ic pilot s, shock
absor ber s, br akes, cont r ol mechanisms, and ot her
hydr aulic syst ems using seal mat er ials compat ible
wit h pet r oleum-based fluids.
SYNTHETI C FI RE-RESI STANT FLUI DS
Pet r oleum-ba sed oils cont a in most of t he
desir ed pr oper t ies of a hydr aulic liquid. However ,
t hey ar e flammable under nor mal condit ions and
can become explosive when subject ed t o high
pr essur es and a sour ce of flame or high t emper a-
t ur es. Nonflammable synt het ic liquids have been
developed for use in hydr aulic syst ems wher e fir e
hazar ds exist .
P h osp h a t e Est er Fi r e-Resi st a n t Flu i d
Ph os ph a t e es t er fi r e-r es i s t a n t fl u i d for
shipboar d use is cover ed by specificat ion MIL-
H-19457. Ther e ar e cer t ain t r ade names closely
associat ed wit h t hese fluids. However , t he only
accept able fluids confor ming t o MIL-H-19457 ar e
t he ones list ed on t he cur r ent Qualified Pr oduct s
List (QPL) 19457. These fluids will be deliver ed
in cont ainer s mar ked MIL-H-19457C or a lat er
s peci fi ca t i on r evi s i on . Ph os ph a t e es t er i n
cont ainer s mar ked by a br and name wit hout a
specificat ion ident ificat ion must not be used in
shipboar d syst ems, as t hey may cont ain t oxic
chemicals.
These fluids will bur n if sufficient heat and
fla me a r e a pplied, but t hey do not suppor t
combust ion. Dr awbacks of phosphat e est er fluids
ar e t hat t hey will at t ack and loosen commonly
used paint s and adhesives, det er ior at e many t ypes
of insula t ions used in elect r ica l ca bles, a nd
det er ior a t e ma ny ga sket a nd sea l ma t er ia ls.
Ther efor e, gasket s and seals for syst ems in which
phosphat e est er fluids ar e used ar e manufact ur ed
of specific mat er ials. Naval S hips Technical
Manual, chapt er 262, specifies paint s t o be used
on ext er ior sur faces of hydr aulic syst ems and
component s in which phosphat e est er fluid is used
and on ship st r uct ur e and decks in t he immediat e
vicinit y of t his equipment . Naval S hips Technical
Manual, chapt er 078, specifies gasket and seal
mat er ials used. NAVAIR 01-1A-17 also cont ains
a list of mat er ials r esist ant t o phosphat e est er
fluids.
Tr ade names for phosphat e est er fluids, which
do not confor m t o MIL-H-19457 include Pydr aul,
Skydr ol, and Fyr e Safe.
P HOSP HATE ESTER FLUI D SAFETY.
As a maint enance per son, oper at or , super visor ,
or cr ew member of a ship, squadr on, or naval
shor e inst a lla t ion, you must under st a nd t he
hazar ds associat ed wit h hydr aulic fluids t o which
you may be exposed.
3-5
Phosphat e est er fluid confor ming t o specifi-
cat ion MIL-H-19457 is used in air cr aft elevat or s,
ballast valve oper at ing syst ems, and r eplenish-
ment -at -sea syst ems. This t ype of fluid cont ains
a cont r olled a mount of neur ot oxic ma t er ia l.
Because of t he neur ot oxic effect s t hat can r esult
fr om ingest ion, skin absor pt ion, or inhalat ion of
t h es e fl u i ds , be s u r e t o u s e t h e fol l owi n g
pr ecaut ions:
1. Avoid cont act wit h t he fluids by wear ing
pr ot ect ive clot hing.
2. Use chemical goggles or face shields t o
pr ot ect your eyes.
3. If you ar e expect ed t o wor k in an
at mospher e cont aining a fine mist or spr ay,
wear a cont inuous-flow air line r espir at or .
4. Thor oughly clean skin ar eas cont aminat ed
by t his fluid wit h soap and wat er .
5. If you get any fluid in your eyes, flush t hem
wit h r unning wat er for at least 15 minut es
and seek medical at t ent ion.
If you come in cont act wit h MIL-H-19457
fluid, r epor t t he cont act when you seek medical
aid and whenever you have a r out ine medical
examinat ion.
Naval S hips Technical Manual, chapt er 262,
cont ains a list of pr ot ect ive clot hing, along wit h
nat ional st ock number s (NSN), for use wit h fluids
confor ming t o MIL-H-19457. It also cont ains
pr ocedur es for r epair wor k and for low-level
leakage and massive spills cleanup.
P HOSP HATE ESTER F LUI D DI SP OSAL.
Wast e MIL-H-19457 fluids and r efuse (r ags and
ot her mat er ials) must not be dumped at sea. Fluid
should be placed in bung-t ype dr ums. Rags and
ot her mat er ials should be placed in open t op
dr ums for shor e disposal. These dr ums should be
mar ked wit h a war ning label st at ing t heir cont ent ,
safet y pr ecaut ions, and disposal inst r uct ions.
Det ailed inst r uct ions for phosphat e est er fluids
disposal can be found in Naval S hips Technical
Manual, chapt er 262, and OPNAVINST 5090.1.
Si li con e Syn t h et i c Fi r e-Resi st a n t Flu i d s
Silicone synt het ic fir e-r esist ant fluids ar e
fr equent ly used for hydr aulic syst ems which
r equir e fir e r esist ance, but which have only
mar ginal r equir ement s for ot her chemical or
physical pr oper t ies common t o hydr aulic fluids.
Silicone fluids do not ha ve t he det r iment a l
char act er ist ics of phosphat e est er fluids, nor
do t hey pr ovide t he cor r osion pr ot ect ion and
lubr icat ion of phosphat e est er fluids, but t hey ar e
excel l en t for fi r e pr ot ect i on . Si l i con e fl u i d
confor ming t o MIL-S-81087 is used in t he missile
holddown and lockout syst em aboar d submar ines.
Li gh t wei gh t Syn t h et i c Fi r e-Resi st a n t Flu i d s
I n a pplica t ions wher e weight is cr it ica l,
light weight synt het ic fluid is used in hydr aulic
syst ems. MIL-H-83282 is a synt het ic, fir e-r esist ant
hydr aulic fluid used in milit ar y air cr aft and
hydr ofoils wher e t he r equir ement t o minimize
weight dict at es t he use of a low-viscosit y fluid.
It is also t he most commonly used fluid in aviat ion
suppor t equipment . NAVAIR 01-1A-17 cont ains
addit ional infor mat ion on fluids confor ming t o
specificat ion MIL-H-83282.
WATER-BASED FI RE-RESI STANT
F LUI DS
The most widely used wat er -based hydr aulic
fluids may be classified as wat er -glycol mixt ur es
and wat er -synt het ic base mixt ur es. The wat er -
glycol mixt ur e cont ains addit ives t o pr ot ect it fr om
oxidat ion, cor r osion, and biological gr owt h and
t o enhance it s load-car r ying capacit y.
Fir e r esist ance of t he wat er mixt ur e fluids
depends on t he vapor izat ion and smot her ing
effect of st eam gener at ed fr om t he wat er . The
wat er in wat er -based fluids is const ant ly being
dr iven off while t he syst em is oper at ing. Ther e-
for e, fr equent checks t o maint ain t he cor r ect r at io
of wat er ar e impor t ant .
The wa t er -ba sed fluid used in ca t a pult
r et r a ct ing engines, jet bla st deflect or s, a nd
weapons elevat or s and handling syst ems confor ms
t o MIL-H-22072.
The safet y pr ecaut ions out lined for phosphat e
est er fluid and t he disposal of phosphat e est er
fluid also apply t o wat er -based fluid confor ming
t o MIL-H-22072.
CONTAMI NATI ON
Hydr a u l i c fl u i d con t a mi n a t i on ma y be
descr ibed as any for eign mat er ial or subst ance
whose pr esence in t he fluid is capable of adver sely
affect ing syst em per for mance or r eliabilit y. It may
assume many differ ent for ms, including liquids,
gases, and solid mat t er of var ious composit ion,
sizes, and shapes. Solid mat t er is t he t ype most
oft en found in hydr aulic syst ems and is gener ally
3-6
r efer r ed t o as par t iculat e cont aminat ion. Con-
t aminat ion is always pr esent t o some degr ee, even
in new, unused fluid, but must be kept below a
level t hat will adver sely affect syst em oper at ion.
Hydr a ulic cont a mina t ion cont r ol consist s of
r equir ement s, t echniques, and pr act ices necessar y
t o minimize and cont r ol fluid cont aminat ion.
CLASSI FI CATI ON
Ther e ar e many t ypes of cont aminant s which
ar e har mful t o hydr aulic syst ems and liquids.
These cont aminant s may be divided int o t wo
differ ent classespar t iculat e and fluid.
P a r t i cu la t e Con t a mi n a t i on
This class of cont aminant s includes or ganic,
met allic solid, and inor ganic solid cont aminant s.
These cont aminant s ar e discussed in t he following
par agr aphs.
ORGANI C CONTAMI NATI ON. Or ganic
solids or semisolids found in hydr aulic syst ems
ar e pr oduced by wear , oxidat ion, or polymer iza-
t ion. Minut e par t icles of O-r ings, seals, gasket s,
and hoses ar e pr esent , due t o wear or chemical
r eact ions. Synt het ic pr oduct s, such as neopr ene,
silicones, a nd hypa lon, t hough r esist a nt t o
chemical r eact ion wit h hydr aulic fluids, pr oduce
small wear par t icles. Oxidat ion of hydr aulic fluids
incr eases wit h pr essur e and t emper at ur e, alt hough
ant ioxidant s ar e blended int o hydr aulic fluids t o
mi n i mi ze s u ch oxi da t i on . Th e a bi l i t y of a
hydr a ulic fluid t o r esist oxida t ion or poly-
mer izat ion in ser vice is defined as it s oxidat ion
st abilit y. Oxidat ion pr oduct s appear as or ganic
acids, asphalt ics, gums, and var nishes. These
pr oduct s combine wit h par t icles in t he hydr aulic
fluid t o for m sludge. Some oxidat ion pr oduct s ar e
oil soluble a nd ca use t he hydr a ulic fluid t o
incr ease in viscosit y; ot her oxidat ion pr oduct s ar e
not oil soluble and for m sediment .
METALLI C SOLI D CONTAMI NATI ON.
Met allic cont aminant s ar e almost always pr esent
in a hydr aulic syst em and will r ange in size fr om
micr oscopic par t icles t o par t icles r eadily visible
t o t he naked eye. These par t icles ar e t he r esult of
wear ing and scor ing of bar e met al par t s and
plat ing mat er ials, such as silver and chr omium.
Alt hough pr act ically all met als commonly used
for par t s fabr icat ion and plat ing may be found
in hydr aulic fluids, t he major met allic mat er ials
found ar e fer r ous, aluminum, and chr omium
par t icles. Because of t heir cont inuous high-speed
int er nal movement , hydr aulic pumps usually
cont r ibut e most of t he met a llic pa r t icula t e
cont aminat ion pr esent in hydr aulic syst ems. Met al
par t icles ar e also pr oduced by ot her hydr aulic
syst em component s, such as valves and act uat or s,
due t o body wear and t he chipping and wear ing
away of small pieces of met al plat ing mat er ials.
I NOR GANI C S OL I D C ONT AMI NA-
TI ON. This cont aminant gr oup includes dust ,
paint par t icles, dir t , and silicat es. Glass par t icles
fr om glass bead peening and blast ing may also
be found as cont aminant s. Glass par t icles ar e ver y
undesir able cont aminant s due t o t heir abr asive
effect on synt het ic r ubber seals and t he ver y fine
sur faces of cr it ical moving par t s. At mospher ic
dust , dir t , paint par t icles, and ot her mat er ials ar e
oft en dr awn int o hydr aulic syst ems fr om ext er nal
sour ces. For example, t he wet pist on shaft of a
hydr a ulic a ct ua t or ma y dr a w some of t hese
for eign mat er ials int o t he cylinder past t he wiper
and dynamic seals, and t he cont aminant mat er ials
a r e t h en di s per s ed i n t h e h ydr a u l i c fl u i d.
Cont aminant s may also ent er t he hydr aulic fluid
dur ing maint enance when t ubing, hoses, fit t ings,
and component s ar e disconnect ed or r eplaced. It
is t her efor e impor t ant t hat all exposed fluid por t s
be sealed wit h appr oved pr ot ect ive closur es t o
minimize such cont aminat ion.
Flu i d Con t a mi n a t i on
Air , wat er , solvent , and ot her for eign fluids
ar e in t he class of fluid cont aminant s.
AI R CONTAMI NATI ON. Hydr aulic fluids
ar e adver sely affect ed by dissolved, ent r ained, or
fr ee air . Air may be int r oduced t hr ough impr oper
maint enance or as a r esult of syst em design. Any
maint enance oper at ion t hat involves br eaking int o
t he hydr aulic syst em, such as disconnect ing or
r emoving a line or component will invar iably
r esult in some air being int r oduced int o t he
syst em. This sour ce of a ir ca n a nd must be
minimized by pr ebilling r eplacement component s
wit h new filt er ed fluid pr ior t o t heir inst allat ion.
Failing t o pr efill a filt er element bowl wit h fluid
is a good example of how air can be int r oduced
int o t he syst em. Alt hough pr ebilling will minimize
int r oduct ion of air , it is st ill impor t ant t o vent t he
syst em wher e vent ing is possible.
Most hydr aulic syst ems have built -in sour ces
of air . Leaky seals in gas-pr essur ized accumulat or s
and r eser voir s can feed gas int o a syst em fast er
3-7
t han it can be r emoved, even wit h t he best of
maint enance. Anot her lesser known but major
sour ce of air is air t hat is sucked int o t he syst em
past act uat or pist on r od seals. This usually occur s
when t he pist on r od is st r oked by some ext er nal
means while t he act uat or it self is not pr essur ized.
WATER CONTAMI NATI ON. Wat er is a
s er i ou s con t a mi n a n t of h ydr a u l i c s ys t ems .
Hydr a u l i c fl u i ds a r e a dver s el y a ffect ed by
dissolved, emulsified, or fr ee wa t er . Wa t er
cont aminat ion may r esult in t he for mat ion of ice,
which impedes t he oper at ion of valves, act uat or s,
and ot her moving par t s. Wat er can also cause t he
for mat ion of oxidat ion pr oduct s and cor r osion
of met allic sur faces.
SOLVENT CONTAMI NATI ON. Solvent
cont aminat ion is a special for m of for eign fluid
cont aminat ion in which t he or iginal cont ami-
nat ing subst ance is a chlor inat ed solvent . Chlor i-
na t ed solvent s or t heir r esidues ma y, when
int r oduced int o a hydr aulic syst em, r eact wit h any
wat er pr esent t o for m highly cor r osive acids.
Chlor inat ed solvent s, when allowed t o com-
bine wit h minut e amount s of wat er oft en found
in oper at ing hydr aulic syst ems, change chemically
int o hydr ochlor ic acids. These acids t hen at t ack
i n t er n a l met a l l i c s u r fa ces i n t h e s ys t em,
par t icular ly t hose t hat ar e fer r ous, and pr oduce
a sever e r ust -like cor r osion. NAVAIR 01-1A-17
a nd N S T M, ch a pt er 556, con t a i n t a bl es of
solvent s for use in hydr aulic maint enance.
FOREI GN-FLUI DS CONTAMI NATI ON.
Hydr aulic syst ems can be ser iously cont aminat ed
by for eign fluids ot her t han wat er and chlor inat ed
solvent s. This t ype of cont aminat ion is gener ally
a r esult of lube oil, engine fuel, or incor r ect
hydr aulic fluid being int r oduced inadver t ent ly int o
t he syst em dur ing ser vicing. The effect s of such
cont aminat ion depend on t he cont aminant , t he
amount in t he syst em, and how long it has been
pr esent .
NOTE: It is ext r emely impor t ant t hat t he
differ ent t ypes of hydr aulic fluids ar e not mixed
in one syst em. If differ ent t ype hydr aulic fluids
ar e mixed, t he char act er ist ics of t he fluid r equir ed
for a specific pur pose a r e lost . Mixing t he
differ ent t ypes of fluids usually will r esult in a
heavy, gummy deposit t hat will clog passages and
r equir e a major cleaning. In addit ion, seals and
packing inst alled for use wit h one fluid usually
ar e not compat ible wit h ot her fluids and damage
t o t he seals will r esult .
ORI GI N OF CONTAMI NATI ON
Recall t hat cont aminant s ar e pr oduced fr om
wea r a nd chemica l r ea ct ions, int r oduced by
impr oper maint enance, and inadver t ent ly int r o-
duced dur ing ser vicing. These met hods of con-
t aminant int r oduct ion fall int o one of t he four
major ar eas of cont aminant or igin.
1. Par t icles or iginally cont ained in t he syst em.
These par t icles or iginat e dur ing t he fabr icat ion
and st or age of syst em component s. Weld spat t er
and slag may r emain in welded syst em com-
pon en t s , es peci a l l y i n r es er voi r s a n d pi pe
assemblies. The pr esence is minimized by pr oper
design. For example, seam-welded over lapping
joint s ar e pr efer r ed, and ar c welding of open
sect ions is usually avoided. Hidden passages in
valve bodies, inaccessible t o sand blast ing or ot her
met hods of cleaning, ar e t he main sour ce of
int r oduct ion of cor e sand. Even t he most car efully
designed and cleaned cast ing will almost invar i-
ably fr ee some sand par t icles under t he act ion of
hydr aulic pr essur e. Rubber hose assemblies always
cont a in some loose pa r t icles. Most of t hese
par t icles can be r emoved by flushing t he hose
befor e inst a lla t ion; however , some pa r t icles
wit hst and cleaning and ar e fr eed lat er by t he
act ion of hydr aulic pr essur e.
Par t icles of lint fr om cleaning r ags can
cause abr asive damage in hydr aulic syst ems,
especia lly t o closely fit t ed moving pa r t s. I n
addit ion, lint in a hydr aulic syst em packs easily
int o clear ances bet ween packing and cont act ing
sur fa ces, lea ding t o component lea ka ge a nd
decr eased efficiency. Lint also helps clog filt er s
pr ema t ur ely. The use of t he pr oper wiping
mat er ials will r educe or eliminat e lint cont amina-
t ion. The wiping mat er ials t o be used for a given
applicat ion will be det er mined by
a.
b.
c.
subst ances being wiped or absor bed,
t he amount of absor bency r equir ed,
a n d/or
t he r equir ed degr ee of cleanliness.
These wiping ma t er ia ls a r e ca t egor ized for
cont aminat ion cont r ol by t he degr ee of lint or
debr is t hat t hey may deposit dur ing use. For
int er na l hydr a ulic r epa ir s, t his fa ct or it self
will det er mine t he choice of wiping mat er ial.
3-8
NAVAI R 01-1A-17 a nd NS TM, cha pt er 556,
pr ovides infor mat ion on low-lint wiping clot hs.
Rust or cor r osion init ially pr esent in a
h ydr a u l i c s ys t em ca n u s u a l l y be t r a ced t o
impr oper st or age of mat er ials and component
par t s. Par t icles can r ange in size fr om lar ge flakes
t o abr asives of micr oscopic dimensions. Pr oper
pr eser vat ion of st or ed par t s is helpful in elimi-
nat ing cor r osion.
2. Par t icles int r oduced fr om out side sour ces.
Par t icles can be int r oduced int o hydr aulic syst ems
at point s wher e eit her t he liquid or cer t ain wor king
par t s of t he syst em (for example, pist on r ods) ar e
at least in t empor ar y cont act wit h t he at mospher e.
The most common cont a mina nt int r oduct ion
ar eas ar e at t he r efill and br eat her openings,
cylinder r od packings, and open lines wher e
component s ar e r emoved for r epair or r eplace-
ment . Cont aminat ion ar ising fr om car elessness
dur ing ser vicing oper at ions is minimized by t he
use of filt er s in t he syst em fill lines and finger
st r a iner s in t he filler a da pt er of hydr a ulic
r eser voir s. Hydr a u l i c cyl i n der pi s t on r ods
incor por at e wiper r ings and dust seals t o pr event
t he dust t hat set t les on t he pist on r od dur ing it s
out war d st r oke fr om ent er ing t he syst em when t he
pist on r od r et r act s. Caps and plugs ar e available
and should be used t o seal off t he open lines when
a comp on e n t i s r e move d f or r e p a i r or
r eplacement .
3. Par t icles cr eat ed wit hin t he syst em dur ing
oper at ion. Cont aminant s cr eat ed dur ing syst em
oper at ion ar e of t wo gener al t ypesmechanical
and chemical. Par t icles of a mechanical nat ur e ar e
for med by wear ing of par t s in fr ict ional cont act ,
such as pumps, cylinder s, and packing gland
component s. These wear par t icles can var y fr om
lar ge chunks of packings down t o st eel shavings
t hat ar e t oo small t o be t r apped by filt er s.
The major sour ce of chemical cont ami-
nant s in hydr aulic liquid is oxidat ion. These
cont aminant s ar e for med under high pr essur e and
t emper at ur es and ar e pr omot ed by t he chemical
act ion of wat er and air and of met als like copper
and ir on oxides. Liquid-oxidat ion pr oduct s appear
init ially as or ganic acids, asphalt ines, gums,
and var nishessomet imes combined wit h dust
par t icles as sludge. Liquid-soluble oxida t ion
pr oduct s t end t o incr ease liquid viscosit y, while
insoluble t ypes separ at e and for m sediment s,
especia lly on colder element s such a s hea t
exchanger coils.
Liquids cont aining ant ioxidant s have lit t le
t endency t o for m gums and sludge under nor mal
oper at ing condit ions. However , as t he t emper a-
t ur e incr eases, r esist ance t o oxidat ion diminishes.
Hydr aulic liquids t hat have been subject ed t o
excessively high t emper at ur es (above 250F for
most liquids) will br eak down, leaving minut e
par t icles of asphalt ines suspended in t he liquids.
The liquid changes t o br own in color and is
r efer r ed t o as decomposed liquid. This explains
t he impor t ance of keeping t he hydr aulic liquid
t emper at ur e below specific levels.
The second cont aminant -pr oducing chemi-
cal act ion in hydr aulic liquids is one t hat per mit s
t hese liquids t o r eact wit h cer t ain t ypes of r ubber .
This r eact ion causes st r uct ur al changes in t he
r ubber , t ur ning it br it t le, and finally causing it s
complet e disint egr at ion. For t his r eason, t he
compat ibilit y of syst em liquid wit h seals and hose
mat er ial is a ver y impor t ant fact or .
4. Par t icles int r oduced by for eign liquids. One
of t he most common for eign-fluid cont aminant s
is wat er , especially in hydr aulic syst ems t hat
r equir e pet r oleum-based liquids. Wat er , which
ent er s even t he most car efully designed syst em by
condensat ion of at mospher ic moist ur e, nor mally
s et t l es t o t h e bot t om of t h e r es er voi r . Oi l
movement in t he r eser voir disper ses t he wat er int o
fine dr oplet s, a nd a git a t ion of t he liquid in
t he pump and in high-speed passages for ms an
oil-wat er -air emulsion. This emulsion nor mally
separ at es dur ing t he r est per iod in t he syst em
r eser voir ; but when fine dust a nd cor r osion
par t icles ar e pr esent , t he emulsion is chemically
cha nged by high pr essur es int o sludge. The
damaging act ion of sludge explains t he need for
effect ive filt r at ion, as well as t he need for wat er
separ at ion qualit ies in hydr aulic liquids.
CONTAMI NATI ON CONTROL
Maint aining hydr aulic fluid wit hin allowable
cont aminat ion limit s for bot h wat er and par t icu-
lat e mat t er is cr ucial t o t he car e and pr ot ect ion
of hydr aulic equipment .
Filt er s (discussed in chapt er 9) will pr ovide
adequat e cont r ol of t he par t icular cont aminat ion
pr oblem dur ing a ll nor ma l hydr a ulic syst em
oper at ions if t he filt r at ion syst em is inst alled
pr oper ly and filt er maint enance is per for med
pr oper ly. Filt er maint enance includes changing
element s at pr oper int er vals. Cont r ol of t he size
and amount of cont aminat ion ent er ing t he syst em
fr om a ny ot her sour ce is t he r esponsibilit y
3-9
of t he per sonnel who ser vice and maint ain t he
equipment . Dur ing inst allat ion, maint enance, and
r epair of hydr aulic equipment , t he r et ent ion of
cl ea n l i n es s of t h e s ys t em i s of pa r a mou n t
impor t a nce for subsequent sa t isfa ct or y per -
for ma nce.
The following ma int ena nce a nd ser vicing
pr ocedur es should be adher ed t o at all t imes t o
pr ovide pr oper cont aminat ion cont r ol:
1. All t ools and t he wor k ar ea (wor kbenches
and t est equipment ) should be kept in a clean,
dir t -fr ee condit ion.
2. A suit able cont ainer should always be
pr ovided t o r eceive t he hydr aulic liquid t hat is
spilled dur ing component r emoval or disassembly.
NOTE: The r euse of dr ained hydr aulic
liquid is pr ohibit ed in most hydr aulic syst ems. In
some lar ge-capacit y syst ems t he r euse of fluid is
per mit t ed. When liquid is dr ained fr om t hese
syst ems for r euse, it must be st or ed in a clean and
suit able cont ainer . The liquid must be st r ained
and/or filt er ed when it is r et ur ned t o t he syst em
r eser voir .
3. Befor e hydr a ulic lines or fit t ings a r e
disconnect ed, t he affect ed ar ea should be cleaned
wit h an appr oved dr y-cleaning solvent .
4. All hydr aulic lines and fit t ings should be
capped or plugged immediat ely aft er discon-
nect ion.
5. Befor e a ny hydr a ulic component s a r e
assembled, t heir par t s should be washed wit h an
appr oved dr y-cleaning solvent .
6. Aft er t he pa r t s ha ve been clea ned in
dr y-cleaning solvent , t h ey s h ou l d be dr i ed
t h or ou gh l y wi t h cl ea n , l ow-l i n t cl ot h s a n d
lubr icat ed wit h t he r ecommended pr eser vat ive or
hydr aulic liquid befor e assembly.
NOTE: Only clean, low lint t ype I or II
clot hs as appr opr iat e should be used t o wipe or
dr y component par t s.
7. All packings and gasket s should be r eplaced
dur ing t he assembly pr ocedur es.
8. All par t s should be connect ed wit h car e t o
avoid st r ipping met al sliver s fr om t hr eaded ar eas.
All fit t ings and lines should be inst alled and
t or qu ed a ccor di n g t o a ppl i ca bl e t ech n i ca l
inst r uct ions.
9. All hydr aulic ser vicing equipment should
be kept clean and in good oper at ing condit ion.
Some hydr aulic fluid specificat ions, such as
MIL-H-6083, MIL-H-46170, and MIL-H-83282,
cont ain par t icle cont aminat ion limit s t hat ar e so
low t hat t he pr oduct s ar e packaged under clean
r oom condit ions. Ver y slight amount s of dir t ,
r ust , and met al par t icles will cause t hem t o
fail t he specificat ion limit for cont aminat ion.
Since t hese fluids ar e usually all packaged in
her met ically sealed cont ainer s, t he act of opening
a cont ainer may allow mor e cont aminant s int o t he
fluid t han t he specificat ion allows. Ther efor e,
ext r eme car e should be t aken in t he handling of
t hese fluids. In opening t he cont ainer for use,
obser vat ion, or t est s, it is ext r emely impor t ant t hat
t he ca n be opened a nd ha ndled in a clea n
envir onment . The ar ea of t he cont ainer t o be
opened should be flushed wit h filt er ed solvent
(pet r oleum et her or isopr opyl alcohol), and t he
device used for opening t he cont ainer should be
t hor oughly r insed wit h filt er ed solvent . Aft er t he
cont a iner is opened, a sma ll a mount of t he
mat er ial should be pour ed fr om t he cont ainer and
disposed of pr ior t o pour ing t he sa mple for
a na lysis. Once a cont a iner is opened, if t he
cont ent s ar e not t ot ally used, t he unused por t ion
should be discar ded. Since t he level of con-
t aminat ion of a syst em cont aining t hese fluids
must be kept low, maint enance on t he syst ems
compon en t s mu s t be per for med i n a cl ea n
envir onment commonly known as a cont r olled
envir onment wor k cent er . Specific infor mat ion
about t he cont r olled envir onment wor k cent er can
be found in t he Aviat ion Hydraulics Manual,
NAVAI R 01-1A-17.
HYDRAULI C FLUI D SAMP LI NG
The condit ion of a hydr aulic syst em, as well
as it s pr obable fut ur e per for mance, can best be
det er mined by analyzing t he oper at ing fluid. Of
par t icular int er est ar e any changes in t he physical
and chemical pr oper t ies of t he fluid and excessive
par t iculat e or wat er cont aminat ion, eit her of
which indicat es impending t r ouble.
Excessive par t iculat e cont aminat ion of t he
fluid indicat es t hat t he filt er s ar e not keeping t he
syst em clean. This can r esult fr om impr oper filt er
maint enance, inadequat e filt er s, or excessive
ongoing cor r osion and wear .
Oper a t ing equipment should be sa mpled
accor ding t o inst r uct ions given in t he oper at ing
3-10
a nd ma int ena nce ma nua l for t he pa r t icula r
equipment or as dir ect ed by t he MRCs.
1. All samples should be t aken fr om cir cu-
lat ing syst ems, or immediat ely upon shut down,
while t he hydr aulic fluid is wit hin 5C (9F) of
nor mal syst em oper at ing t emper at ur e. Syst ems
not up t o t emper at ur e may pr ovide nonr epr e-
sent a t ive sa mples of syst em dir t a nd wa t er
cont ent , a nd such sa mples should eit her be
avoided or so indicat ed on t he analysis r epor t . The
fir st oil coming fr om t he sampling point should
be discar ded, since it can be ver y dir t y and does
not r epr esent t he syst em. As a gener al r ule, a
volume of oil equivalent t o one t o t wo t imes t he
volume of oil cont ained in t he sampling line and
valve should be dr ained befor e t he sample is
t a ken.
2. Ideally, t he sample should be t aken fr om
a valve inst alled specifically for sampling. When
sampling valves ar e not inst alled, t he t aking of
samples fr om locat ions wher e sediment or wat er
can collect , such as dead ends of piping, t ank
dr ains, and low point s of lar ge pipes and filt er
bowls, should be avoided if possible. If samples
ar e t aken fr om pipe dr ains, sufficient fluid should
be dr ained befor e t he sample is t aken t o ensur e
t hat t he sample act ually r epr esent s t he syst em.
Samples ar e not t o be t aken fr om t he t ops of
r eser voir s or ot her locat ions wher e t he cont ami-
nat ion levels ar e nor mally low.
3. Unless ot her wise specified, a minimum of
one sample should be t aken for each syst em
loca t ed wholly wit hin one compa r t ment . For
s h i ps s ys t ems ext en di n g i n t o t wo or mor e
compar t ment s, a second sample is r equir ed. An
except ion t o t his r equir ement is subma r ine
ext er nal hydr aulic syst ems, which r equir e only one
sample. Or iginal sample point s should be labeled
and t he same sample point s used for successive
sampling. If possible, t he following sampling
locat ions should be select ed:
a. A locat ion t hat pr ovides a sample
r epr esent at ive of fluid being supplied
t o syst em component s
b. A r et ur n line as close t o t he supply t ank
as pr act ical but upst r eam of any r et ur n
line filt er
c. For syst ems r equir ing a second sample,
a locat ion as far fr om t he pump as
pr act ical
Oper at ion of t he sampling point should not
int r oduce any significant amount of ext er nal
cont aminant s int o t he collect ed fluid. Addit ional
infor mat ion on hydr aulic fluid sampling can be
found in NAVAIR 01-1A-17.
Most fluid samples ar e submit t ed t o shor e
labor at or ies for analysis. NAVAIR 17-15-50-1
and NS T M, cha pt er 556, cont a in det a ils on
collect ing, labeling, and shipping samples.
NAVAIR 01-1A-17 cont ains pr ocedur es for
unit level, bot h aboar d ship and ashor e, t est ing
of aviat ion hydr aulic fluids for wat er , par t iculat e,
and chlor inat ed solvent cont aminat ion.
3-11
CHAP TER 4
P UMP S
Pumps ar e used for some essent ial ser vices in
t he Navy. Pumps supply wat er t o t he boiler s, dr aw
condensat ion fr om t he condenser s, supply sea
wat er t o t he fir emain, cir culat e cooling wat er for
cooler s and condenser s, pump out bilges, t r ansfer
fuel, supply wat er t o t he dist illing plant s, and
ser ve many ot her pur poses. Alt hough t he pumps
discussed in t his chapt er ar e used pr imar ily in
hydr aulic syst ems, t he pr inciples of oper at ion
apply as well t o t he pumps used in ot her syst ems.
P URP OSE
The pur pose of a hydr aulic pump is t o supply
a flow of fluid t o a hydr aulic syst em. The pump
does not cr eat e syst em pr essur e, since pr essur e can
be cr eat ed only by a r esist ance t o t he flow. As t he
pump pr ovides flow, it t r ansmit s a for ce t o t he
fluid. As t he fluid flow encount er s r esist ance, t his
for ce is changed int o a pr essur e. Resist ance t o
flow is t he r esult of a r est r ict ion or obst r uct ion
in t he pat h of t he flow. This r est r ict ion is nor mally
t he wor k accomplished by t he hydr aulic syst em,
but can also be r est r ict ions of lines, fit t ings, and
valves wit hin t he syst em. Thus, t he pr essur e is
cont r olled by t he load imposed on t he syst em or
t he act ion of a pr essur e-r egulat ing device.
OP ERATI ON
A pump must have a cont inuous supply of
fluid available t o t he inlet por t t o supply fluid t o
t he syst em. As t he pump for ces fluid t hr ough t he
out let por t , a par t ial vacuum or low-pr essur e ar ea
is cr eat ed at t he inlet por t . When t he pr essur e at
t he inlet por t of t he pump is lower t han t he local
at mospher ic pr essur e, at mospher ic pr essur e act ing
on t he fluid in t he r eser voir for ces t he fluid int o
t he pumps inlet . I f t he pump is loca t ed a t
a level lower t han t he r eser voir , t he for ce of
gr avit y supplement s at mospher ic pr essur e on t he
r eser voir . Air cr aft and missiles t hat oper at e at
high alt it udes ar e equipped wit h pr essur ized
hydr a ulic r eser voir s t o compensa t e for low
a t mos ph er i c pr es s u r e en cou n t er ed a t h i gh
alt it udes.
P ERFORMANCE
Pumps ar e nor mally r at ed by t heir volumet r ic
out put and pr essur e. Volumet r ic out put is t he
amount of fluid a pump can deliver t o it s out let
por t in a cer t ain per iod of t ime at a given speed.
Volumet r ic out put is usually expr essed in gallons
per minut e (gpm). Since changes in pump speed
affect volumet r ic out put , some pumps ar e r at ed
by t heir displacement . Pump displacement is t he
amount of fluid t he pump can deliver per cycle.
Since most pumps use a r ot ar y dr ive, displacement
is usually expr essed in t er ms of cubic inches per
r evolut ion.
As we st at ed pr eviously, a pump does not
cr eat e pr essur e. However , t he pr essur e developed
by t he r est r ict ions in t he syst em is a fact or t hat
affect s t he volumet r ic out put of t he pump. As t he
syst em pr essur e incr eases, t he volumet r ic out put
decr eases. This dr op in volumet r ic out put is t he
r esult of an incr ease in t he amount of int er nal
leakage fr om t he out let side t o t he inlet side of
t he pump. This leakage is r efer r ed t o as pump
slippage and is a fact or t hat must be consider ed
in all pumps. This explains why most pumps ar e
r at ed in t er ms of volumet r ic out put at a given
pr essur e.
CLASSI FI CATI ON OF P UMP S
Many differ ent met hods ar e used t o classify
pumps. Ter ms such as nonpositive displacement,
posi t i ve d i spl acemen t , f i xed d i spl acemen t ,
variable displacement, fixed delivery, variable
delivery, constant volume, and ot her s ar e used t o
descr ibe pumps. The fir st t wo of t hese t er ms
descr ibe t he fundament al division of pumps; t hat
4-1
is, all pumps ar e eit her nonposit ive displacement
or posit ive displacement .
Basically, pumps t hat dischar ge liquid in a
cont inuous flow ar e r efer r ed t o as nonposit ive
displacement , and t hose t hat dischar ge volumes
separ at ed by a per iod of no dischar ge ar e r efer r ed
t o as posit ive displacement .
Alt hough t he nonposit ive-displacement pump
nor mally pr oduces a cont inuous flow, it does not
pr ovide a posit ive seal against slippage; t her efor e,
t he out put of t he pump var ies as syst em pr essur e
va r ies. I n ot her wor ds, t he volume of fluid
deliver ed for each cycle depends on t he r esist ance
t o t he flow. This t ype of pump pr oduces a for ce
on t he fluid t hat is const ant for each par t icular
speed of t he pump. Resist ance in t he dischar ge
line pr oduces a for ce in a dir ect ion opposit e t he
dir ect ion of t he for ce pr oduced by t he pump.
When t hese for ces ar e equal, t he fluid is in a st at e
of equilibr ium and does not flow.
If t he out let of a nonposit ive-displacement
pump is complet ely closed, t he dischar ge pr essur e
will incr ease t o t he maximum for t hat par t icular
pump at a specific speed. Not hing mor e will
happen except t hat t he pump will chur n t he fluid
and pr oduce heat .
In cont r ast t o t he nonposit ive-displacement
pump, t he posit ive-displacement pump pr ovides
a posit ive int er nal seal against slippage. Ther efor e,
t his t ype of pump deliver s a definit e volume of
fluid for each cycle of pump oper at ion, r egar dless
of t he r esist ance offer ed, pr ovided t he capacit y
of t he power unit dr iving t he pump is not
exceeded. If t he out let of a posit ive-displacement
pump wer e complet ely closed, t he pr essur e would
inst ant aneously incr ease t o t he point at which t he
unit dr iving t he pump would st all or somet hing
would br eak.
Posit ive-displa cement pumps a r e fur t her
cla ssified a s fixed displa cement or va r ia ble
displa cement . The fixed-displa cement pump
deliver s t he same amount of fluid on each cycle.
The out put volume ca n be cha nged only by
changing t he speed of t he pump. When a pump
of t his t ype is used in a hydr aulic syst em, a
pr essur e r egulat or (unloading valve) must be
incor por at ed in t he syst em. A pr essur e r egulat or
or unloading valve is used in a hydr aulic syst em
t o cont r ol t he amount of pr essur e in t he syst em
and t o unload or r elieve t he pump when t he
desir ed pr essur e is r eached. This act ion of a
pr essur e r egulat or keeps t he pump fr om wor king
against a load when t he hydr aulic syst em is at
maximum pr essur e and not funct ioning. Dur ing
t his t ime t he pr essur e r egulat or bypasses t he fluid
fr om t he pump back t o t he r eser voir . (See chapt er
6 for mor e det a iled infor ma t ion concer ning
pr essur e r egulat or s.) The pump cont inues t o
deliver a fixed volume of fluid dur ing each cycle.
Such t er ms as fixed delivery, constant delivery,
and constant volume ar e all used t o ident ify t he
fixed-displacement pump.
The va r ia ble-displa cement pump is con-
st r uct ed so t hat t he displacement per cycle can be
var ied. The displacement is var ied t hr ough t he use
of an int er nal cont r olling device. Some of t hese
cont r olling devices ar e descr ibed lat er in t his
chapt er .
Pumps may also be classified accor ding t o t he
specific design used t o cr eat e t he flow of fluid.
Pr act ically all hydr aulic pumps fall wit hin t hr ee
design cla ssifica t ions-cent r ifuga l, r ot a r y, a nd
r ecipr ocat ing. The use of cent r ifugal pumps in
hydr aulics is limit ed and will not be discussed in
t his t ext .
ROTARY P UMP S
All r ot ar y pumps have r ot at ing par t s which
t r ap t he fluid at t he inlet (suct ion) por t and for ce
it t hr ough t he dischar ge por t int o t he syst em.
Gear s, scr ews, lobes, and vanes ar e commonly
used t o move t he fluid. Rot ar y pumps ar e posit ive
displacement of t he fixed displacement t ype.
Rot ar y pumps ar e designed wit h ver y small
clear ances bet ween r ot at ing par t s and st at ionar y
par t s t o minimize slippage fr om t he dischar ge
side back t o t he suct ion side. They ar e designed
t o oper a t e a t r el a t i vel y moder a t e s peeds .
Oper at ing at high speeds causes er osion and
exces s i ve wea r wh i ch r es u l t s i n i n cr ea s ed
clear ances.
Ther e ar e numer ous t ypes of r ot ar y pumps
and var ious met hods of classificat ion. They may
be cl a s s i fi ed by t h e s h a ft pos i t i on ei t h er
ver t ically or hor izont ally mount ed; t he t ype of
dr iveelect r ic mot or , gasoline engine, and so
for t h; t heir manufact ur er s name; or t heir ser vice
applicat ion. However , classificat ion of r ot ar y
pumps is gener ally made accor ding t o t he t ype of
r ot at ing element . A few of t he most common
t ypes of r ot a r y pumps a r e discussed in t he
following par agr aphs.
GEAR P UMP S
Gear pumps ar e classified as eit her ext er nal
or int er nal gear pumps. In ext er nal gear pumps
t he t eet h of bot h gear s pr oject out war d fr om t heir
4-2
cent er s (fig, 4-1). Ext er nal pumps may use spur
gear s, her r ingbone gear s, or helical gear s t o move
t he fluid. In an int er nal gear pump, t he t eet h of
one gear pr oject out war d, but t he t eet h of t he
ot her gear pr oject inwar d t owar d t he cent er of t he
pump (fig. 4-2, view A). Int er nal gear pumps may
be eit her cent er ed or off-cent er ed.
Sp u r Gea r P u mp
The spur gear pump (fig. 4-1) consist s of t wo
meshed gear s which r evolve in a housing. The
dr ive gear in t he illust r at ion is t ur ned by a dr ive
shaft which is at t ached t o t he power sour ce. The
clear ances bet ween t he gear t eet h as t hey mesh and
bet ween t he t eet h and t he pump housing ar e ver y
small.
The inlet por t is connect ed t o t he fluid supply
line, and t he out let por t is connect ed t o t he
pr essur e line. In figur e 4-1 t he dr ive gear is t ur ning
in a count er clockwise dir ect ion, and t he dr iven
(idle) gear is t ur ning in a clockwise dir ect ion. As
Fi gu r e 4-2.Off-cen t er ed i n t er n a l gea r p u mp .
t he t eet h pass t he inlet por t , liquid is t r apped
bet ween t he t eet h and t he housing. This liquid is
car r ied ar ound t he housing t o t he out let por t . As
t he t eet h mesh again, t he liquid bet ween t he t eet h
is pushed int o t he out let por t . This a ct ion
pr oduces a posit ive flow of liquid int o t he syst em.
A shear pin or shear sect ion is incor por at ed in t he
dr ive shaft . This is t o pr ot ect t he power sour ce
Fi gu r e 4-1.Gea r -t yp e r ot a r y p u mp .
4-3
or r educt ion gear s if t he pump fails because of
is pumped in t he same manner as in t he spur gear
excessive load or jamming of par t s.
pump. However , in t he her r ingbone pump, each
set of t eet h begins it s fluid dischar ge phase befor e
t he pr evious set of t eet h ha s complet ed it s
Her r i n gbon e Gea r P u mp
dischar ge phase. Th i s over l a ppi n g a n d t h e
r elat ively lar ger space at t he cent er of t he gear s
The her r ingbone gear pump (fig. 4-3) is a
t end t o minimize pulsat ions and give a st eadier
modificat ion of t he spur gear pump. The liquid
flow t han t he spur gear pump.
Fi gu r e 4-3.Her r i n gbon e gea r p u mp .
4-4
He lic al Ge ar Pump
Th e h elica l gea r p u mp (fig. 4 - 4 ) is s t ill
a n ot h er mod ifica t ion of t h e s p u r gea r p u mp .
Beca u s e of t h e h elica l gea r d es ign , t h e
over la p p in g of s u cces s ive d is ch a r ges fr om
s p a ces b et ween t h e t eet h is even gr ea t er t h a n it
is in t h e h er r in gb on e gea r p u mp ; t h er efor e, t h e
d is ch a r ge flow is s moot h er . Sin ce t h e d is ch a r ge
flow is s moot h in t h e h elica l p u mp , t h e gea r s
ca n b e d es ign ed wit h a s ma ll n u mb er of la r ge
t eet h t h u s a llowin g in cr ea s ed ca p a cit y wit h ou t
s a cr ificin g s moot h n es s of flow.
Th e p u mp in g gea r s of t h is t yp e of p u mp a r e
d r iven b y a s et of t imin g a n d d r ivin g gea r s t h a t
h elp ma in t a in t h e r equ ir ed clos e clea r a n ces
wit h ou t a ct u a l met a llic con t a ct of t h e p u mp in g
gea r s . (Met a llic con t a ct b et ween t h e t eet h of t h e
p u mp in g gea r s wou ld p r ovid e a t igh t er s ea l
a ga in s t s lip p a ge; h owever , it wou ld ca u s e r a p id
wea r of t h e t eet h , b eca u s e for eign ma t t er in t h e
liqu id wou ld b e p r es en t on t h e con t a ct
s u r fa ces . )
Roller bea r in gs a t bot h en ds of t h e gea r s h a ft s
ma in t a in pr oper a lign men t a n d min imize t h e
fr ict ion los s in t h e t r a n s mis s ion of power . Su it a ble
pa ckin gs a r e u s ed t o pr even t lea ka ge a r ou n d t h e
s h a ft .
Off-c e nt e re d Int e rnal Ge ar Pump
Th is pu mp is illu s t r a t ed in figu r e 4-2, view B.
Th e dr ive gea r is a t t a ch ed dir ect ly t o t h e dr ive s h a ft
of t h e pu mp a n d is pla ced off-cen t er in r ela t ion t o
t h e in t er n a l gea r . Th e t wo gea r s mes h on on e s ide
of t h e pu mp, bet ween t h e s u ct ion (in let ) a n d
dis ch ar ge por t s . On t h e oppos it e s ide of t h e
ch a mber , a cr es cen t -s h a ped for m fit t ed t o a clos e
t oler a n ce fills t h e s pa ce bet ween t h e t wo gea r s .
Th e r ot a t ion of t h e cen t er gea r by t h e dr ive
s h a ft ca u s es t h e ou t s ide gea r t o r ot a t e, s in ce t h e
t wo a r e mes h ed. Ever yt h in g in t h e ch a mber r ot a t es
except t h e cr es cen t . Th is ca u s es liqu id t o be
t r a pped in t h e gea r s pa ces a s t h ey pa s s t h e
cr es cen t . Th e liqu id is ca r r ied fr om t h e s u ct ion por t
t o t h e dis ch a r ge por t wh er e it is for ced ou t of t h e
pu mp by t h e mes h in g of t h e gea r s . Th e s ize of t h e
cr es cen t t h a t s epa r a t es t h e in t er n a l a n d ext er n a l
gea r s det er min es t h e volu me deliver y of t h e pu mp.
A s ma ll cr es cen t a llows mor e volu me of liqu id per
r evolu t ion t h a n a la r ger cr es cen t .
Figure 4 -4 . He lic al ge ar pump.
4 -5
Cen t er ed I n t er n a l Gea r P u mp
Anot her design of int er na l gea r pump is
illust r at ed in figur es 4-5 and 4-6. This pump
consist s of a pair of gear -shaped element s, one
wit hin t he ot her , locat ed in t he pump chamber .
The inner gear is connect ed t o t he dr ive shaft of
t he power sour ce.
The oper at ion of t his t ype of int er nal gear
pump is illust r at ed in figur e 4-6. To simplify t he
explanat ion, t he t eet h of t he inner gear and t he
spaces bet ween t he t eet h of t he out er gear ar e
number ed. Not e t hat t he inner gear has one less
t oot h t han t he out er gear . The t oot h for m of each
gear is r elat ed t o t hat of t he ot her in such a way
t hat each t oot h of t he inner gear is always in
sliding cont act wit h t he sur face of t he out er gear .
Each t oot h of t he inner gear meshes wit h t he out er
gear at just one point dur ing each r evolut ion. In
t he illust r at ion, t his point is at t he X. In view A,
t oot h 1 of t he inner gear is meshed wit h space 1
of t he out er gear . As t he gear s cont inue t o r ot at e
in a clockwise dir ect ion and t he t eet h appr oach
point X, t oot h 6 of t he inner gear will mesh wit h
space 7 of t he out er gear , t oot h 5 wit h space 6,
and so on. Dur ing t his r evolut ion, t oot h 1 will
mesh wit h space 2; and dur ing t he following
r evolut ion, t oot h 1 will mesh wit h space 3. As a
r esult , t he out er gear will r ot at e at just six-sevent hs
t he speed of t he inner gear .
At one side of t he point of mesh, pocket s of
incr easing size ar e for med as t he gear s r ot at e,
while on t he ot her side t he pocket s decr ease in size.
In figur e 4-6, t he pocket s on t he r ight -hand side
of t he dr awings ar e incr easing in size t owar d t he
bot t om of t he illust r at ion, while t hose on t he
left -hand side ar e decr easing in size t owar d t he
t op of t h e i l l u s t r a t i on . Th e i n t a ke s i de of
t he pump would t her efor e be on t he r ight and t he
dischar ge side on t he left . In figur e 4-5, since t he
r ight -hand side of t he dr awing was t ur ned over
t o show t he por t s, t he int ake and dischar ge appear
Fi gu r e 4-5.Cen t er ed i n t er n a l gea r p u mp .
Fi gu r e 4-6.P r i n ci p les of op er a t i on of t h e i n t er n a l gea r
p u mp .
r ever sed. Act ually, A in one dr awing cover s A in
t he ot her .
LOBE P UMP
The lobe
oper at ion as
pump uses t he same pr inciple of
t he ext er nal gear pump descr ibed
4-6
Fi gu r e 4-7.Lobe p u mp .
pr eviously. The lobes ar e consider ably lar ger t han
gear t eet h, but t her e ar e only t wo or t hr ee lobes
on each r ot or . A t hr ee-lobe pump is illust r at ed
in figur e 4-7. The t wo element s ar e r ot at ed, one
dir ect ly dr iven by t he sour ce of power , and t he
ot her t hr ough t iming gear s. As t he element s
r ot at e, liquid is t r apped bet ween t wo lobes of each
r ot or and t he walls of t he pump chamber and
ca r r ied a r ound fr om t he suct ion side t o t he
dischar ge side of t he pump. As liquid leaves t he
suct ion chamber , t he pr essur e in t he suct ion
chamber is lower ed, and addit ional liquid is for ced
int o t he chamber fr om t he r eser voir .
The lobes a r e const r uct ed so t her e is a
cont inuous seal at t he point s wher e t hey meet at
t he cent er of t he pump. The lobes of t he pump
illust r at ed in figur e 4-7 ar e fit t ed wit h small vanes
at t he out er edge t o impr ove t he seal of t he pump.
Alt hough t hese vanes ar e mechanically held in
t heir slot s, t hey ar e, t o some ext ent , fr ee t o move
out war d. Cent r ifugal for ce keeps t he vanes snug
a ga inst t he cha mber a nd t he ot her r ot a t ing
member s.
SCREW P UMP
Scr ew pumps for power t r ansmission syst ems
ar e gener ally used only on submar ines. Alt hough
low in efficiency and expensive, t he scr ew pump
is suit able for high pr essur es (3000 psi), and
deliver s fluid wit h lit t le noise or pr essur e
pulsat ion.
Scr ew pumps ar e available in sever al differ ent
designs; however , t hey all oper at e in a similar
manner . In a fixed-displacement r ot ar y-t ype scr ew
pump (fig. 4-8, view A), fluid is pr opelled axially
Fi gu r e 4-8.Scr ew p u mp s.
4-7
in a const ant , unifor m flow t hr ough t he act ion
of just t hr ee moving par t s-a power r ot or and t wo
idler r ot or s. The power r ot or is t he only dr iven
element , ext ending out side t he pump casing for
power connect ions t o an elect r ical mot or . The
idler r ot or s ar e t ur ned by t he power r ot or t hr ough
t he act ion of t he meshing t hr eads. The fluid
pumped bet ween t he meshing helical t hr eads of
t he idler and power r ot or s pr ovides a pr ot ect ive
film t o pr event met al-t o-met al cont act . The idler
r ot or s per for m no wor k; t her efor e, t hey do not
need t o be connect ed by gear s t o t r ansmit power .
The enclosur es for med by t he meshing of t he
r ot or s inside t he close clear ance housing cont ain
t he fluid being pumped. As t he r ot or s t ur n, t hese
enclosur es move axially, pr oviding a cont inuous
flow. Effect ive per for ma nce is ba sed on t he
following fact or s:
1. The r olling act ion obt ained wit h t he t hr ead
design of t he r ot or s is r esponsible for t he ver y
quiet pump oper at ion. The symmet r ical pr essur e
loading ar ound t he power r ot or eliminat es t he
need for r adial bear ings because t her e ar e no
r adial loads. The car t r idge-t ype ball bear ing in t he
pump posit ions t he power r ot or for pr oper seal
oper at ion. The axial loads on t he r ot or s cr eat ed
by dischar ge pr essur e ar e hydr aulically balanced.
2. The key t o scr ew pump per for mance is t he
oper at ion of t he idler r ot or s in t heir housing
bor es. The idler r ot or s gener at e a hydr odynamic
film t o suppor t t hemselves in t heir bor es like
jour nal bear ings. Since t his film is self-gener at ed,
it depends on t hr ee oper at ing char act er ist ics of
t he pumpspeed, dischar ge pr essur e, and fluid
viscosit y. The st r engt h of t he film is incr eased by
incr easing t he oper at ing speed, by decr easing
pr essur e, or by incr easing t he fluid viscosit y. This
is why scr ew pump per for mance capabilit ies ar e
based on pump speed, dischar ge pr essur e, and
fluid viscosit y.
The supply line is connect ed at t he cent er of
t he pump housing in some pumps (fig. 4-8, view
B). Fluid ent er s int o t he pumps suct ion por t ,
which opens int o chamber s at t he ends of t he
scr ew assembly. As t he scr ews t ur n, t he fluid flows
bet ween t he t hr eads at each end of t he assembly.
The t hr eads car r y t he fluid along wit hin t he
housing t owar d t he cent er of t he pump t o t he
dischar ge por t .
VANE P UMP
Vane-t ype hydr aulic pumps gener ally have
cir cular ly or ellipt ically shaped int er ior and flat
end plat es. (Figur e 4-9 illust r at es a vane pump
wit h a cir cular int er ior .) A slot t ed r ot or is fixed
t o a shaft t hat ent er s t he housing cavit y t hr ough
on e of t h e en d pl a t es . A n u mber of s ma l l
r ect angular plat es or vanes ar e set int o t he slot s
of t he r ot or . As t he r ot or t ur ns, cent r ifugal for ce
causes t he out er edge of each vane t o slide along
t he sur face of t he housing cavit y as t he vanes slide
in and out of t he r ot or slot s. The numer ous
cavit ies, for med by t he vanes, t he end plat es, t he
housing, and t he r ot or , enlar ge and shr ink as t he
r ot or and vane assembly r ot at es. An inlet por t is
inst alled in t he housing so fluid may flow int o t he
cavit ies as t hey enlar ge. An out let por t is pr ovided
t o allow t he fluid t o flow out of t he cavit ies as
t hey become small.
The pump shown in figur e 4-9 is r efer r ed t o
a s a n unba la nced pump beca use a ll of t he
pumping act ion t akes place on one side of t he
r ot or . This causes a side load on t he r ot or . Some
vane pumps ar e const r uct ed wit h an ellipt ically
shaped housing t hat for ms t wo separ at e pumping
ar eas on opposit e sides of t he r ot or . This cancels
out t he side loads; such pumps ar e r efer r ed t o as
balanced vane.
Usually vane pumps ar e fixed displacement
a nd pump only in one dir ect ion. Ther e a r e,
however , some designs of va ne pumps t ha t
pr ovide var iable flow. Vane pumps ar e gener ally
r est r ict ed t o ser vice wher e pr essur e demand does
not exceed 2000 psi. Wear r at es, vibr at ion, and
noise levels incr ease r apidly in vane pumps as
pr essur e demands exceed 2000 psi.
RECI P ROCATI NG P UMP S
The t er m reciprocating is defined as back-and-
for t h mot ion. In t he r ecipr ocat ing pump it is t his
Fi gu r e 4-9.Va n e p u mp .
4-8
ba ck-a n d-for t h mot i on of pi s t on s i n s i de of
cylinder s t hat pr ovides t he flow of fluid. Recipr o-
cat ing pumps, like r ot ar y pumps, oper at e on
t he posit ive pr inciplet ha t is, ea ch st r oke
deliver s a definit e volume of liquid t o t he
syst em.
The mast er cylinder of t he aut omobile br ake
syst em, which is descr ibed and illust r at ed in
chapt er 2, is an example of a simple r ecipr ocat ing
pump. Sever al t ypes of power -oper at ed hydr aulic
pumps, such as t he r adial pist on and axial pist on,
ar e also classified as r ecipr ocat ing pumps. These
pumps ar e somet imes classified as r ot ar y pumps,
because a r ot ar y mot ion is impar t ed t o t he pumps
by t he sour ce of power . However , t he act ual
pumping is per for med by set s of pist ons r ecipr o-
cat ing inside set s of cylinder s.
HAND P UMP S
Ther e ar e t wo t ypes of manually oper at ed
r ecipr oca t ing pumpst he single-a ct ion a nd
t h e dou bl e-a ct i on . Th e s i n gl e-a ct i on pu mp
pr ovides flow dur ing ever y ot her st r oke, while t he
double-act ion pr ovides flow dur ing each st r oke.
Single-a ct ion pumps a r e fr equent ly used in
hydr aulic jacks.
A double-act ion hand pump is illust r at ed in
figur e 4-10. This t ype of pump is used in some
air cr aft hydr aulic syst ems as a sour ce of hydr aulic
power for emer gen ci es , for t es t i n g cer t a i n
s u bs ys t ems du r i n g pr even t i ve ma i n t en a n ce
inspect ions, and for det er mining t he causes of
malfunct ions in t hese subsyst ems.
This pump (fig. 4-10) consist s of a cylinder ,
a pist on cont aining a built -in check valve (A), a
pist on r od, an oper at ing handle, and a check valve
(B) at t he inlet por t . When t he pist on is moved
Fi gu r e 4-10.Hyd r a u li c h a n d p u mp .
t o t he left , t he for ce of t he liquid in t he out let
chamber and spr ing t ension cause valve A t o close.
This movement causes t he pist on t o for ce t he
liquid in t he out let chamber t hr ough t he out let
por t a nd int o t he syst em. This sa me pist on
movement causes a low-pr essur e ar ea in t he inlet
chamber . The differ ence in pr essur e bet ween t he
inlet chamber and t he liquid (at at mospher ic
pr essur e) in t he r eser vior act ing on check valve
B causes it s spr ing t o compr ess; t hus, opening t he
check valve. This allows liquid t o ent er t he inlet
chamber .
When t he pist on complet es t his st r oke t o t he
left , t he inlet chamber is full of liquid. This
eliminat es t he pr essur e differ ence bet ween t he inlet
cha mber a nd t he r eser vior , t her eby a llowing
spr ing t ension t o close check valve B.
When t he pist on is moved t o t he r ight , t he
for ce of t he confined liquid in t he inlet chamber
act s on check valve A. This act ion compr esses
t he spr ing a nd opens check va lve A which
a l l ows t h e l i qu i d t o fl ow fr om t h e i n t a ke
chamber t o t he out let chamber . Because of t he
a r ea occupied by t he pist on r od, t he out let
chamber cannot cont ain all t he liquid dischar ged
fr om t he inlet chamber . Since liquids do not
compr ess, t he ext r a liquid is for ced out of t he
out let por t int o t he syst em.
P I STON P UMP S
Pist on pumps a r e ma de in a va r iet y of
t ypes and configur at ions. A basic dist inct ion
is made bet ween axial and r adial pumps. The
axial pist on pump has t he cylinder s par allel
t o each ot her and t he dr ive shaft . The r adial
pi s t on des i gn h a s t h e cyl i n der s ext en di n g
r a dia lly out wa r d fr om t he dr ive sha ft like
t he spokes of a wheel. A fur t her dist inct ion
is made bet ween pumps t hat pr ovide a fixed
deliver y and t hose able t o var y t he flow of t he
fluid. Var iable deliver y pumps can be fur t her
divided int o t hose able t o pump fluid fr om zer o
t o full deliver y in one dir ect ion of flow and t hose
able t o pump fr om zer o t he full deliver y in eit her
dir ect ion.
All pist on pumps used in Navy shipboar d
syst ems have t he cylinder s bor ed in a cylinder
block t ha t is mount ed on bea r ings wit hin a
housing. This cylinder block assembly r ot at es wit h
t he pump dr ive shaft .
4-9
Ra d i a l P i st on P u mp s
Figur e 4-11 illust r at es t he oper at ion of t he
r adial pist on pump. The pump consist s of a pint le,
which r emains st at ionar y and act s as a valve; a
Fi gu r e 4-11.P r i n ci p les of op er a t i on of t h e r a d i a l p i st on
p u mp .
cylinder block, which r evolves ar ound t he pint le
and cont ains t he cylinder s in which t he pist ons
oper at e; a r ot or , which houses t he r eact ion r ing
of har dened st eel against which t he pist on heads
pr ess; and a slide block, which is used t o cont r ol
t he lengt h of t he pist on st r okes. The slide block
does not r evolve but houses and suppor t s t he
r ot or , which does r evolve due t o t he fr ict ion set
up by t he sliding act ion bet ween t he pist on heads
a nd t he r ea ct ion r ing. The cylinder block is
at t ached t o t he dr ive shaft .
Refer r ing t o view A of figur e 4-11, assume t hat
space X in one of t he cylinder s of t he cylinder
block cont ains liquid and t hat t he r espect ive pist on
of t his cylinder is at posit ion 1. When t he cylinder
block a nd pist on a r e r ot a t ed in a clockwise
dir ect ion, t he pist on is for ced int o it s cylinder as
it appr oaches posit ion 2. This act ion r educes t he
volumet r ic size of t he cylinder a nd for ces a
quant it y of liquid out of t he cylinder and int o t he
out let por t above t he pint le. This pumping act ion
is due t o t he r ot or being off-cent er in r elat ion t o
t he cent er of t he cylinder block.
In figur e 4-11 view B, t he pist on has r eached
posit ion 2 and has for ced t he liquid out of t he
open end of t he cylinder t hr ough t he out let above
t he pint le and int o t he syst em. While t he pist on
moves fr om posit ion 2 t o posit ion 3, t he open end
of t he cylinder passes over t he solid par t of t he
pint le; t her efor e, t her e is no int ake or dischar ge
of liquid dur ing t his t ime. As t he pist on and
cylinder move fr om posit ion 3 t o posit ion 4,
cent r ifuga l for ce ca uses t he pist on t o move
out war d against t he r eact ion r ing of t he r ot or .
Dur ing t his t ime t he open end of t he cylinder is
open t o t he int ake side of t he pint le and, t her efor e,
fills wit h liquid. As t he pist on moves fr om
posit ion 4 t o posit ion 1, t he open end of t he
cylinder is against t he solid side of t he pint le and
no int ake or dischar ge of liquid t akes place. Aft er
t he pist on has passed t he pint le and st ar t s t owar d
posit ion 2, anot her dischar ge of liquid t akes place.
Alt er nat e int ake and dischar ge cont inues as t he
r ot or r evolves about it s axis-int ake on one side
of t he pint le and dischar ge on t he ot her , as t he
pist on slides in and out .
Not ice in views A and B of figur e 4-11 t hat
t he cent er point of t he r ot or is differ ent fr om t he
cent er point of t he cylinder block. The differ ence
of t hese cent er s pr oduces t he pumping act ion. If
t he r ot or is moved so t hat it s cent er point is t he
same as t hat of t he cylinder block, as shown in
figur e 4-11, view C, t her e is no pumping act ion,
since t he pist on does not move back and for t h in
t he cylinder as it r ot at es wit h t he cylinder block.
4-10
The flow in t his pump can be r ever sed by
moving t he slide block, and t her efor e t he r ot or ,
t o t he r ight so t he r elat ion of t he cent er s of t he
r ot or and t he cylinder block is r ever sed fr om t he
posit ion shown in views A and B of figur e 4-11.
View D shows t his ar r angement . Liquid ent er s t he
cylinder as t he pist on t r avels fr om posit ion 1 t o
posit ion 2 and is dischar ged fr om t he cylinder as
t he pist on t r avels fr om posit ion 3 t o 4.
In t he illust r at ions t he r ot or is shown in t he
cent er , t he ext r eme r ight , or t he ext r eme left in
r elat ion t o t he cylinder block. The amount of
adjust ment in dist ance bet ween t he t wo cent er s
det er mines t he lengt h of t he pist on st r oke, which
cont r ols t he amount of liquid flow in and out of
t he cylinder . Thus, t his adjust ment det er mines t he
displacement of t he pump; t hat is, t he volume of
liquid t he pump deliver s per r evolut ion. This
adjust ment may be cont r olled in differ ent ways.
Manual cont r ol by a handwheel is t he simplest .
The pump illust r at ed in figur e 4-11 is cont r olled
in t his way. For aut omat ic cont r ol of deliver y
t o accommodat e var ying volume r equir ement s
dur ing t he oper a t ing cycle, a hydr a ulica lly
cont r olled cylinder may be used t o posit ion t he
slide block. A gear -mot or cont r olled by a push
but t on or a limit swit ch is somet imes used for t his
pur pose.
Figur e 4-11 is shown wit h four pist ons for t he
sake of simplicit y. Radial pumps ar e act ually
designed wit h an odd number of pist ons (fig.
4-12). This is t o ensur e t hat no mor e t han one
cylinder is complet ely blocked by t he pint le at any
one t ime. If t her e wer e an even number of pist ons
spaced evenly ar ound t he cylinder block (for
example, eight ), t her e would be occasions when
t wo of t he cylinder s would be blocked by t he
pint le, while a t ot her t imes none would be
blocked. This would cause t hr ee cylinder s t o dis-
char ge at one t ime and four at one t ime, causing
pulsat ions in flow. Wit h an odd number of pist ons
spaced evenly ar ound t he cylinder block, only one
cylinder is complet ely blocked by t he pint le at any
one t ime. This r educes pulsat ions of flow.
Fi gu r e 4-12.Ni n e-p i st on r a d i a l p i st on p u mp .
4-11
Axi a l P i st on P u mp s
In axial pist on pumps of t he in-line t ype,
wher e t he cylinder s and t he dr ive shaft ar e par allel
(fig. 4-13), t he r ecipr ocat ing mot ion is cr eat ed by
a cam plat e, also known as a wobble plat e, t ilt ing
plat e, or swash plat e. This plat e lies in a plane
t hat cut s acr oss t he cent er line of t he dr ive shaft
and cylinder bar r el and does not r ot at e. In a
fixed-displacement pump, t he cam plat e will be
r igidly mount ed in a posit ion so t hat it int er sect s
t he cent er line of t he cylinder bar r el at an angle
appr oximat ely 25 degr ees fr om per pendicular .
Var iable-deliver y axial pist on pumps ar e designed
so t hat t he angle t hat t he cam plat e makes wit h
a per pendicular t o t he cent er line of t he cylinder
bar r el may be var ied fr om zer o t o 20 or 25 degr ees
t o one or bot h sides. One end of each pist on r od
is held in cont act wit h t he cam plat e as t he cylinder
block and pist on assembly r ot at es wit h t he dr ive
shaft . This causes t he pist ons t o r ecipr ocat e wit hin
t he cyIinder s. The lengt h of t he pist on st r oke is
pr opor t ional t o t he angle t hat t he cam plat e is set
fr om per pendicular t o t he cent er line of t he
cylinder bar r el.
A va r ia t ion of a xia l pist on pump is t he
bent -axis t ype shown in figur e 4-14. This t ype does
not have a t ilt ing cam plat e as t he in-line pump
does. Inst ead, t he cylinder block axis is var ied
fr om t he dr ive sha ft a xis. The ends of t he
Fi gu r e 4-14.Ben t -a xi s a xi a l p i st on p u mp .
connect ing r ods ar e r et ained in socket s on a disc
t hat t ur ns wit h t he dr ive shaft . The cylinder block
is t ur ned wit h t he dr ive shaft by a univer sal joint
assembly at t he int er sect ion of t he dr ive shaft and
t he cylinder block shaft . In or der t o var y t he pump
displacement , t he cylinder block and valve plat e
ar e mount ed in a yoke and t he ent ir e assembly
is swung in an ar e ar ound a pair of mount ing
pint les at t ached t o t he pump housing.
The pumping act ion of t he axial pist on pump
is made possible by a univer sal joint or link.
Fi gu r e 4-13.I n -li n e a xi a l p i st on p u mp .
4-12
Figur e 4-15 is a ser ies of dr awings t hat illust r at es
how t he univer sal joint is used in t he oper at ion
of t his pump.
Fir st , a r ocker ar m is inst alled on a hor izont al
shaft . (See fig. 4-15, view A.) The ar m is joined
t o t he shaft by a pin so t hat it can be swung back
and for t h, as indicat ed in view B. Next , a r ing is
placed ar ound t he shaft and secur ed t o t he r ocker
ar m so t he r ing can t ur n fr om left t o r ight as
shown in view C. This pr ovides t wo r ot a r y
mot ions in differ ent planes at t he same t ime and
in var ying pr opor t ions as may be desir ed. The
r ocker ar m can swing back and for t h in one ar c,
and t he r ing can simult aneously move fr om left
Fi gu r e 4-15.Rela t i on sh i p of t h e u n i ver sa l joi n t i n op er a t i on
of t h e a xi a l p i st on p u mp .
t o r ight in anot her ar c, in a plane at r ight angles
t o t he plane in which t he r ocker ar m t ur ns.
Next , a t ilt ing plat e is added t o t he assembly.
The t ilt ing plat e is placed at a slant t o t he axis
of t he shaft , as depict ed in figur e 4-15, view D.
The r ocker ar m is t hen slant ed at t he same angle
as t he t ilt ing plat e, so t hat it lies par allel t o t he
t ilt ing plat e. The r ing is also par allel t o, and in
cont act wit h, t he t ilt ing plat e. The posit ion of t he
r ing in r elat ion t o t he r ocker ar m is unchanged
fr om t hat shown in figur e 4-15, view C.
Figur e 4-15, view E, shows t he assembly aft er
t he shaft , st ill in a hor izont al posit ion, has been
r ot at ed a quar t er t ur n. The r ocker ar m is st ill in
t he same posit ion as t he t ilt ing plat e and is now
per pendicular t o t he axis of t he shaft . The r ing
has t ur ned on t he r ocker pins, so t hat it has
changed it s posit ion in r elat ion t o t he r ocker ar m,
but it r emains par allel t o, and in cont act wit h, t he
t ilt ing plat e.
View F of figur e 4-15 shows t he assembly aft er
t he shaft has been r ot at ed anot her quar t er t ur n.
The par t s ar e now in t he same posit ion as shown
in view D, but wit h t he ends of t he r ocker ar m
r ever sed. The r ing st ill bear s against t he t ilt ing
plat e.
As t he shaft cont inues t o r ot at e, t he r ocker
ar m and t he r ing t ur n about t heir pivot s, wit h each
changing it s r elat ion t o t he ot her and wit h t he r ing
always bear ing on t he plat e.
Figur e 4-15, view G, shows a wheel added t o
t he assembly. The wheel is placed upr ight and
fixed t o t he shaft , so t hat it r ot at es wit h t he shaft .
I n a ddit ion, t wo r ods, A a nd B, a r e loosely
connect ed t o t he t ilt ing r ing and ext end t hr ough
t wo holes st anding opposit e each ot her in t he fixed
wheel. As t he shaft is r ot at ed, t he fixed wheel
t ur ns per pendicular t o t he shaft at all t imes. The
t ilt ing r ing r ot at es wit h t he shaft and always
r emains t ilt ed, since it r emains in cont act wit h t he
t ilt ing plat e. Refer r ing t o view G, t he dist ance
along r od A, fr om t he t ilt ing r ing t o t he fixed
wheel, is gr eat er t han t he dist ance along r od B.
As t he assembly is r ot at ed, however , t he dist ance
along r od A decr eases as it s point of at t achment
t o t he t ilt ing r ing moves closer t o t he fixed wheel,
while t he dist ance along r od B incr eases. These
changes cont inue unt il aft er a half r evolut ion, at
which t ime t he init ial posit ions of t he r ods have
been r ever sed. Aft er anot her half r evolut ion, t he
t wo r ods will again be in t heir or iginal posit ions.
As t he assembly r ot at es, t he r ods move in and
out t hr ough t he holes in t he fixed wheel. This is
t he way t he axial pist on pump wor ks. To get a
pumping act ion, place pist ons at t he ends of t he
4-13
r ods, beyond t he fixed wheel, and inser t t hem int o
cylinder s. The r ods must be connect ed t o t he
pist ons and t o t he wheel by ball and socket joint s.
As t he assembly r ot at es, each pist on moves back
and for t h in it s cylinder . Suct ion and dischar ge
lines can be ar r anged so t hat liquid ent er s t he
cylinder s while t he spaces bet ween t he pist on
heads and t he bases of t he cylinder s ar e incr easing,
and leaves t he cylinder s dur ing t he ot her half of
each r evolut ion when t he pist ons ar e moving in
t he opposit e dir ect ion.
The main par t s of t he pump ar e t he dr ive
shaft , pist ons, cylinder block, and valve and swash
plat es. Ther e ar e t wo por t s in t he valve plat e.
These por t s connect dir ect ly t o openings in t he
face of t he cylinder block. Fluid is dr awn int o one
por t a n d for ced ou t t h e ot h er por t by t h e
r ecipr ocat ing act ion of t he pist ons.
I N-LI NE VARI ABLE-DI SP LACEMENT
AXI AL P I STON P UMP . When t he dr ive shaft
is r ot at ed, it r ot at es t he pist ons and t he cylinder
block wit h it . The swash plat e placed at an angle
causes t he pist ons t o move back and for t h in t he
cylinder block while t he shaft , pist on, cylinder
block, and swash plat e r ot at e t oget her . (The shaft ,
pist on, cylinder block, and swash plat e t oget her
is somet imes r efer r ed t o as t he r ot at ing gr oup or
a ssembly.) As t he pist ons r ecipr oca t e in t he
cylinder block, fluid ent er s one por t and is for ced
out t he ot her .
Figur e 4-13 shows pist on A at t he bot t om of
it s st r oke. When pist on A has r ot at ed t o t he
posit ion held by pist on B, it will have moved
upwar d in it s cylinder , for cing fluid t hr ough t he
out let por t dur ing t he ent ir e dist ance. Dur ing t he
r emainder of t he r ot at ion back t o it or iginal
posit ion, t he pist on t r avels downwar d in t he
cylinder . This act ion cr eat es a low-pr essur e ar ea
in t he cylinder . The differ ence in pr essur e bet ween
t he cylinder inlet and t he r eser voir causes fluid
t o flow int o t he inlet por t t o t he cylinder . Since
ea ch one of t he pist ons per for ms t he sa me
oper at ion in succession, fluid is const ant ly being
t aken int o t he cylinder bor es t hr ough t he inlet por t
a nd discha r ged fr om t he cylinder bor es int o
t he syst em. This a ct ion pr ovides a st ea dy,
nonpulsat ing flow of fluid.
The t ilt or angle of t he swash plat e det er mines
t he dist ance t he pist ons move back and for t h in
t heir cylinder s; t her eby, cont r olling t he pump
out put .
When t he swash plat e is at a r ight angle t o t he
shaft , and t he pump is r ot at ing, t he pist ons do
not r ecipr ocat e; t her efor e, no pumping act ion
t akes place. When t he swash plat e is t ilt ed away
fr om a r ight angle, t he pist ons r ecipr ocat e and
fluid is pumped.
Since t he displacement of t his t ype of pump
is var ied by changing t he angle of t he t ilt ing box,
some means must be used t o cont r ol t he changes
of t his angle. Var ious met hods ar e used t o cont r ol
t his movement manual, elect r ic, pneumat ic, or
hydr aulic.
STRATOP OWER P UMP . Anot her t ype of
axial pist on pump, somet imes r efer r ed t o as an
in-line pump, is commonly r efer r ed t o a s a
St r a t opower pump. This pump is a va ila ble
in eit her t he fixed-displa cement t ype or t he
var iable-displacement t ype.
Two major funct ions ar e per for med by t he
int er nal par t s of t he fixed-displacement St r at o-
power pump. These funct ions ar e mechanical
dr ive and fluid displacement .
The mechanical dr ive mechanism is shown in
figur e 4-16. In t his t ype of pump, t he pist ons and
block do not r ot at e. Pist on mot ion is caused by
r ot at ing t he dr ive cam displacing each pist on t he
full height of t he dr ive cam dur ing each r evolut ion
of t he shaft . The ends of t he pist ons ar e at t ached
t o a wobble plat e suppor t ed by a fr eed cent er pivot
and ar e held inconst ant cont act wit h t he cam face.
As t he high side of t he r ot a t ing dr ive ca m
depr esses one side of t he wobble plat e, t he ot her
side of t he wobble plat e is wit hdr awn an equal
amount , moving t he pist ons wit h it . The t wo cr eep
plat es ar e pr ovided t o decr ease wear on t he
r evolving cam.
A schemat ic diagr am of t he displacement of
fluid is shown in figur e 4-17. Fluid is displaced
by axial mot ion of t he pist ons. As each pist on
advances in it s r espect ive cylinder block bor e,
pr essur e opens t he check valve and a quant it y of
fluid is for ced past it . Combined back pr essur e
and check valve spr ing t ension close t he check
Fi gu r e 4-16.Mech a n i ca l d r i veSt r a t op ower p u mp .
4-14
Fi gu r e 4-17.Flu i d d i sp la cemen t St r a t op ower p u mp .
valve when t he pist on advances t o it s for emost
posit ion. The low-pr essur e ar ea occur r ing in t he
cylinder dur ing t he pist on r et ur n causes fluid t o
flow fr om t he r eser voir int o t he cylinder .
Th e i n t er n a l fea t u r es of t h e va r i a bl e-
displacement St r at opower pump ar e illust r at ed in
figur e 4-18. This pump oper at es similar ly t o t he
fixed-displacement St r at opower pump; however ,
t his pump pr ovides t he addit ional funct ion of
aut omat ically var ying t he volume out put .
This funct ion is cont r olled by t he pr essur e in
t he hydr aulic syst em. For example, let us t ake a
pump r at ed at 3000 psi, and pr oviding flow t o a
3000 psi syst em. As syst em pr essur e appr oaches,
say 2850 psi, t he pump begins t o unload (deliver
less flow t o t he syst em) and is fully unloaded (zer o
flow) at 3000 psi.
Th e pr es s u r e r egu l a t i on a n d fl ow a r e
cont r olled by int er nal bypasses t hat aut omat ically
adjust fluid deliver y t o syst em demands.
The bypa ss syst em is pr ovided t o supply
self-lubr icat ion, par t icular ly when t he pump is in
nonflow oper at ion. The r ing of bypass holes in
t he pist ons ar e aligned wit h t he bypass passage
each t ime a pist on r eaches t he ver y end of it s
for war d t r avel. This pumps a small quant it y of
fluid out of t he bypass passage back t o t he supply
r eser voir and pr ovides a const ant changing of
fluid in t he pump. The bypass is designed t o pump
against a consider able back pr essur e for use wit h
pr essur ized r eser voir s.
Fi gu r e 4-18.I n t er n a l fea t u r es of St r a t op ower va r i a ble-d i sp la cemen t p u mp .
4-15
CHAP TER 5
FLUI D LI NES AND FI TTI NGS
The cont r ol and applicat ion of fluid power
would be impossible wit hout suit able means of
t r ansfer r ing t he fluid bet ween t he r eser voir , t he
power sour ce, and t he point s of applicat ion. Fluid
lines ar e used t o t r ansfer t he fluid, and fit t ings
ar e used t o connect t he lines t o t he power sour ce
and t he point s of applicat ion.
This chapt er is devot ed t o fluid lines and
fit t ings. Aft er st udying t his chapt er , you should
have t he knowledge t o ident ify t he
monly used lines and fit t ings, and
explain t he pr ocedur e for fabr icat ing,
labeling t he lines.
TYP ES OF LI NES
The t hr ee t ypes of lines used in
syst ems a r e pipe (r igid), t ubing
a nd hose (flexible). A number of
consider ed when t he t ype of line is
most com-
be able t o
t est ing, and
fluid power
(semir igid),
fact or s ar e
select ed for
a par t icular fluid syst em. These fact or s include
t he t ype of fluid, t he r equir ed syst em pr essur e,
and t he locat ion of t he syst em. For example,
heavy pipe might be used for a lar ge st at ionar y
fluid power syst em, but compar at ively light weight
t ubing must be used in a ir cr a ft a nd missile
syst ems because weight and space ar e cr it ical
fact or s. Flexible hose is r equir ed in inst allat ions
wher e unit s must be fr ee t o move r elat ive t o each
ot her .
P I P ES AND TUBI NG
Ther e ar e t hr ee impor t ant dimensions of any
t ubular pr oduct out side diamet er (OD), inside
diamet er (ID), and wall t hickness. Sizes of pipe
ar e list ed by t he nominal (or appr oximat e) ID and
t he wall t hickness. Sizes of t ubing ar e list ed by
t he act ual OD and t he wall t hickness.
SELECTI ON OF P I P ES AND TUBI NG
The mat er ial, ID, and wall t hickness ar e
t he t hr ee pr imar y consider at ions in t he selec-
t i on of l i n es for a pa r t i cu l a r fl u i d power
syst em.
Th e I D of a l i n e i s i mpor t a n t , s i n ce i t
det er mines how much fluid can pass t hr ough t he
l i n e i n a gi ven t i me per i od (r a t e of fl ow)
wit hout loss of power due t o excessive fr ict ion
and heat . The velocit y of a given flow is less
t hr ough a lar ge opening t han t hr ough a small
opening. If t he ID of t he line is t oo small for t he
amount of flow, excessive t ur bulence and fr ict ion
heat cause unnecessar y power loss and over heat ed
fluid.
Si zi n g of P i p es a n d Tu bi n g
Pipes ar e available in t hr ee differ ent weight s:
st andar d (STD), or Schedule 40; ext r a st r ong
(XS), or Schedule 80; and double ext r a st r ong
(XXS). The schedule number s r ange fr om 10
t o 160 a n d cover 10 di s t i n ct s et s of wa l l
t hickness. (See t able 5-1.) Schedule 160 wall
t hickness is slight ly t hinner t han t he double ext r a
st r ong.
As ment ioned ear lier , t he size of pipes is
det er mined by t he nominal (appr oximat e) ID. For
example, t he ID for a 1/4-inch Schedule 40 pipe
is 0.364 inch, and t he ID for a 1/2-inch Schedule
40 pipe is 0.622 inch.
It is impor t ant t o not e t hat t he IDs of all pipes
of t he same nominal size ar e not equal. This is
because t he OD r emains const ant and t he wall
t hickness incr ea ses a s t he schedule number
incr eases. For example, a nominal size 1-inch
Schedule 40 pipe has a 1.049 ID. The same size
Schedule 80 pipe has a 0.957 ID, while Schedule
5-1
Ta ble 5-1.Wa ll Th i ck n ess Sch ed u le Desi gn a t i on s for P i p e
160 pipe has a 0.815 ID. In each case t he OD is
1.315 (t able 5-1) and t he wall t hicknesses ar e
0.133 ( 1315 ; 1M9), 0. 179 (1315 ; 9957),
a nd 0.250 ( 1315~0815) r espect ively. Not e
t ha t t he differ ence bet ween t he OD a nd I D
includes t wo wall t hicknesses and must be divided
by 2 t o obt ain t he wall t hickness.
Tubing differ s fr om pipe in it s size classi-
ficat ion. Tubing is designat ed by it s act ual OD.
(See t able 5-2.) Thus, 5/8-inch t ubing has an OD
of 5/8 inch. As indicat ed in t he t able, t ubing is
available in a var iet y of wall t hicknesses. The
di a met er of t u bi n g i s oft en mea s u r ed a n d
indicat ed in 16t hs. Thus, No. 6 t ubing is 6/16 or
3/8 inch, No. 8 t ubing is 8/16 or 1/2 inch, and
so for t h.
The wall t hickness, mat er ial used, and ID
det er mine t he bur st ing pr essur e of a line or fit t ing.
The gr eat er t he wall t hickness in r elat ion t o t he
ID and t he st r onger t he met al, t he higher t he
bur st ing pr essur e. However , t he gr eat er t he ID for
a given wall t hickness, t he lower t he bur st ing
pr essur e, because for ce is t he pr oduct of ar ea and
pr essur e.
Ma t er i a ls
The pipe and t ubing used in fluid power
syst ems ar e commonly made fr om st eel, copper ,
br ass, aluminum, and st ainless st eel. Each of t hese
met a l s h a s i t s own di s t i n ct a dva n t a ges or
disadvant ages in cer t ain applicat ions.
St eel pipe and t ubing ar e r elat ively inexpensive
and ar e used in many hydr aulic and pneumat ic
syst ems. St eel is used because of it s st r engt h,
s u i t a bi l i t y for ben di n g a n d fl a n gi n g, a n d
adapt abilit y t o high pr essur es and t emper at ur es.
It s chief disadvant age is it s compar at ively low
r esist ance t o cor r osion.
Copper pipe and t ubing ar e somet imes used
for fluid power lines. Copper has high r esist ance
t o cor r osion and is easily dr awn or bent . However ,
it is unsat isfact or y for high t emper at ur es and has
a t endency t o har den and br eak due t o st r ess and
vibr at ion.
Aluminum has many of t he char act er ist ics and
qualit ies r equir ed for fluid power lines. It has high
r esist ance t o cor r osion and is easily dr awn or bent .
In addit ion, it has t he out st anding char act er ist ic
of light weight . Since weight eliminat ion is a vit al
fact or in t he design of air cr aft , aluminum alloy
t ubing is used in t he major it y of air cr aft fluid
power syst ems.
St ainless-st eel t ubing is used in cer t ain ar eas
of many air cr aft fluid power syst ems. As a gener al
r ule, exposed lines and lines subject t o abr asion
or int ense heat ar e made of st ainless st eel.
An impr oper ly piped syst em ca n lea d t o
ser ious power loss and possible har mful fluid
5-2
Ta ble 5-2.Tu bi n g Si ze Desi gn a t i on
cont aminat ion. Ther efor e in maint enance and P REP ARATI ON OF P I P ES
r epair of fluid power syst em lines, t he basic design AND TUBI NG
r equir ement s must be kept in mind. Two pr imar y
r equir ement s ar e as follows:
1. The lines must have t he cor r ect ID t o
pr ovide t he r equir ed volume and velocit y of flow
wit h t he least amount of t ur bulence dur ing all
demands on t he syst em.
2. The lines must be made of t he pr oper
mat er ial and have t he wall t hickness t o pr ovide
sufficient st r engt h t o bot h cont ain t he fluid at t he
r equir ed pr essur e and wit hst and t he sur ges of
pr essur e t hat may develop in t he syst em.
Fluid power syst ems ar e designed as compact ly
as possible, t o keep t he connect ing lines shor t .
Ever y sect ion of line should be anchor ed secur ely
in one or mor e places so t hat neit her t he weight
of t he line nor t he effect s of vibr at ion ar e car r ied
on t he joint s. The aim is t o minimize st r ess
t hr oughout t he syst em.
Lines should nor mally be kept as shor t and
fr ee of bends as possible. However , t ubing should
not be assembled in a st r aight line, because a bend
t ends t o eliminat e st r ain by absor bing vibr at ion
and also compensat es for t her mal expansion and
5-3
cont r a ct ion. Bends a r e pr efer r ed t o elbows,
because bends cause less of a power loss. A few
of t he cor r ect and incor r ect met hods of inst alling
t ubing ar e illust r at ed in figur e 5-1.
Bends ar e descr ibed by t heir r adius measur e-
ment s. The ideal bend r adius is 2 1/2 t o 3 t imes
t he ID, as shown in figur e 5-2. For example, if
t he ID of a line is 2 inches, t he r adius of t he bend
should be bet ween 5 and 6 inches.
While fr ict ion incr eases mar kedly for shar per
cur ves t han t his, it also t ends t o incr ease up t o
a cer t ain point for gent ler cur ves. The incr eases
in fr ict ion in a bend wit h a r adius of mor e t han
3 pipe diamet er s r esult fr om incr eased t ur bulence
near t he out side edges of t he flow. Par t icles of
fluid must t r avel a longer dist ance in making t he
change in dir ect ion. When t he r adius of t he bend
is less t han 2 1/2 pipe diamet er s, t he incr eased
pr essur e loss is due t o t he abr upt change in t he
dir ect ion of flow, especially for par t icles near t he
inside edge of t he flow.
Dur ing your car eer in t he Navy, you may be
r equir ed t o fa br ica t e new t ubing t o r epla ce
damaged or failed lines. Fabr icat ion of t ubing
con s i s t s of fou r ba s i c oper a t i on s : cu t t i n g,
debur r ing, bending, and joint pr epar at ion.
Tu be Cu t t i n g a n d Debu r r i n g
The object ive of cut t ing t ubing is t o pr oduce
a squar e end t hat is fr ee fr om bur r s. Tubing may
be cut using a st andar d t ube cut t er (fig. 5-3), a
chipless cut t er (fig. 5-4), or a fine-t oot hed
hacksaw if a t ube cut t er is not available.
When you use t he st andar d t ube cut t er , place
t he t ube in t he cut t er wit h t he cut t ing wheel at t he
point wher e t he cut is t o be made. Apply light
pr essur e on t he t ube by t ight ening t he adjust ing
Fi gu r e 5-2.I d ea l ben d r a d i u s.
knob. Too much pr essur e applied t o t he cut t ing
wheel at onet ime may defor m t he t ubing or cause
excessive bur r s. Rot at e t he cut t er t owar d it s open
side (fig. 5-3). As you r ot at e t he cut t er , adjust t he
t ight ening knob aft er each complet e t ur n t o
maint ain light pr essur e on t he cut t ing wheel.
When you use t he chipless cut t er , t ake t he
following st eps:
1. Select t he chipless cut t er accor ding t o
t ubing size.
2. Rot at e t he cut t er head t o accept t he t ubing
in t he cut t ing posit ion. Check t hat t he cut t er
r at chet is oper at ing fr eely and t hat t he cut t er wheel
is clear of t he cut t er head opening (fig. 5-4).
3. Cent er t he t ubing on t wo r oller s and t he
cut t ing blade.
4. Use t he hex key pr ovided wit h t he
t ur n t he dr ive scr ew in unt il t he cut t er
t ouches t he t ube.
Fi gu r e 5-1.Cor r ect a n d i n cor r ect met h od s of i n st a lli n g t u bi n g.
5-4
kit t o
wheel
Fi gu r e 5-3.Tu be cu t t i n g.
5. Tight en t he dr ive scr ew 1/8 t o 1/4 t ur n. Do
not over t ight en t he dr ive scr ew. Over t ight ening
can damage soft t ubing or cause excessive wear
or br eakage of t he cut t er wheel in har d t ubing.
6. Swing t he r at chet handle back and for t h
t hr ough t he available clear ance unt il t her e is a
not iceable ease of r ot at ion. Avoid put t ing side
for ce on t he cut t er handle. Side for ce will cause
t he cut t er wheel t o br eak.
7. Tight en t he dr ive scr ew an addit ional 1/8
t o 1/4 t ur n and swing t he r at chet handle back and
for t h, r et ight ening t he dr ive scr ew as needed unt il
t he cut is complet ed. The complet ed cut should
be 1/2 degr ee squar e t o t he t ube cent er line.
Fi gu r e 5-4.Ch i p less cu t t er .
Aft er t he t ubing is cut , r emove all bur r s and
shar p edges fr om inside and out side of t he t ube
(fig. 5-5) wit h debur r ing t ools. Clean out t he
t ubing. Make sur e no for eign par t icles r emain.
A convenient met hod for cut t ing t ubing wit h
a hacksaw is t o place t he t ube in a flar ing block
and clamp t he block in a vice. Aft er cut t ing t he
t ubing wit h a hacksaw, r emove all saw mar ks by
filing.
Tu be Ben d i n g
The object ive in t ube bending is t o obt ain a
smoot h bend wit hout flat t ening t he t ube. Tube
bending is usually done wit h eit her a hand t ube
bender or a mechanically oper at ed bender .
Fi gu r e 5-5.P r op er ly bu r r ed t u bi n g.
5-5
Fi gu r e 5-6.Ben d i n g t u bi n g wi t h h a n d -op er a t ed t u be ben d er .
HAND TUBE BENDER. The hand t ube
t ubing. The r adius block is mar ked in degr ees of
bender shown in figur e 5-6 consist s of a handle,
bend r anging fr om 0 t o 180 degr ees. The slide bar
a r adius block, a clip, and a slide bar . The handle
has a mar k which is lined up wit h t he zer o mar k
and slide bar ar e used as lever s t o pr ovide t he
on t he r adius block. The t ube is inser t ed in t he
mechanical advant age necessar y t o bend t he
t ube bender , and aft er t he mar ks ar e lined up, t he
5-6
Fi gu r e 5-7.Mech a n i ca lly op er a t ed t u be ben d er .
slide bar is moved ar ound unt il t he mar k on t he
slide bar r eaches t he desir ed degr ee of bend on
t he r a dius block. See figur e 5-6 for t he six
pr ocedur a l st eps in
t ube bending wit h t he
hand-oper at ed t ube bender .
MECHANI CAL TUBE BENDER. Th e
t ube bender shown in figur e 5-7 is issued as a kit .
The kit cont ains t he equipment necessar y for
bending t ubing fr om 1/4 inch t o 3/4 inch in
diamet er .
This t ube bender is designed for use wit h
a ir cr a ft gr a de, high-st r engt hs st a inless-st eel
t ubing, as well as all ot her met al t ubing. It is
designed t o be fast ened t o a bench or t r ipod. The
base is for med t o pr ovide a secur e gr ip in a vise.
This t ype of t ube bender uses a hand cr ank
and gear s. The for ming die is keyed t o t he dr ive
gear and is secur ed by a scr ew.
The for ming die on t he mecha nica l t ube
bender is calibr at ed in degr ees, similar ly t o t he
r adius block of t he hand bender . A lengt h of
r eplacement t ubing may be bent t o a specified
number of degr ees or it may be bent t o duplicat e
a bend eit her in a damaged t ube or in a pat t er n.
Duplicat ing a bend of a damaged t ube or of a
pat t er n is done by laying t he sample or pat t er n
on t op of t he t ube being bent and slowly bending
t he new t ube t o t he r equir ed bend.
Tu be Fla r i n g
Tube flar ing is a met hod of for ming t he end
of a t ube int o a funnel shape so it can be held by
a t hr eaded fit t ing. When a flar ed t ube is pr epar ed,
a flar e nut is slipped ont o t he t ube and t he end
of t he t ube is flar ed. Dur ing t ube inst allat ion, t he
flar e is seat ed t o a fit t ing wit h t he inside of t he
flar e against t he cone-shaped end of t he fit t ing,
and t he flar e nut is scr ewed ont o t he fit t ing,
pulling t he inside of t he flar e against t he seat ing
sur face of t he fit t ing.
Eit her of t wo flar ing t ools (fig. 5-8) may be
used. One gives a single flar e and t he ot her gives
a double flar e. The flar ing t ool consist s of a split
die block t hat has holes for var ious sizes of t ubing,
Fi gu r e 5-8.Fla r i n g t ools.
5-7
a clamp t o lock t he end of t he t ubing inside t he
die block, and a yoke wit h a compr essor scr ew
and cone t hat slips over t he die block and for ms
t he 45-degr ee flar e on t he end of t he t ube. The
scr ew has a T-handle. A double flar ing t ube has
adapt or s t hat t ur n in t he edge of t he t ube befor e
a r egular 45-degr ee double flar e is made.
To use t he single flar ing t ool, fir st check t o
see t hat t he end of t he t ubing has been cut off
squar ely and has had t he bur r s r emoved fr om
bot h inside and out side. Slip t he flar e nut ont o
t he t ube befor e you make t he flar e. Then, open
t he die block. Inser t t he end of t he t ubing int o
t he hole cor r esponding t o t he OD of t he t ubing
so t hat t he end pr ot r udes slight ly above t he t op
face of t he die blocks. The amount by which t he
t ubing ext ends above t he blocks det er mines t he
finished diamet er of t he flar e. The flar e must be
lar ge enough t o seat pr oper ly against t he fit t ing,
but small enough t hat t he t hr eads of t he flar e nut
will slide over it . Close t he die block and secur e
t he t ool wit h t he wing nut . Use t he handle of t he
yoke t o t ight en t he wing nut . Then place t he yoke
over t he end of t he t ubing and t ight en t he handle
t o for ce t he cone int o t he end of t he t ubing. The
complet ed flar e should be slight ly visible above
t he face of t he die blocks.
F LEXI BLE HOSE
Shock-r esist ant , flexible hose assemblies ar e
r equir ed t o absor b t he movement s of mount ed
equipment under bot h nor mal oper at ing condi-
t ions a nd ext r eme condit ions. They a r e a lso
used for t heir noise-at t enuat ing pr oper t ies and
t o connect moving par t s of cer t ain equipment .
The t wo basic hose t ypes ar e synt het ic r ubber
a nd polyt et r a fluor oet hylene (PTFE), such a s
Du Pont s Teflon

fluor ocar bon r esin.

Fi gu r e 5-9.Syn t h et i c r u bber h oses.
pr essur e r anges: low, medium, and high. The
out er cover is designed t o wit hst and ext er nal abuse
and cont ains ident ificat ion mar kings.
Synt het ic r ubber hoses wit h r ubber cover s ar e
ident ified wit h t he milit ar y specificat ion number ,
t he size by dash number , t he quar t er and year of
cur e or manufact ur e, and t he manufact ur er s code
ident ificat ion number or feder al supply code
number pr int ed along t heir layline (fig. 5-10, view
A). The layline is a legible mar king par allel t o t he
longit udinal axis of a hose used in det er mining
t he st r aight ness or lay of t he hose.
Synt het ic r ubber hoses wit h wir e br aid cover
ar e ident ified by bands (fig. 5-10, view B) wr apped
ar ound t he hose ends and at int er vals along t he
lengt h of t he hose.
Si zi n g
Rubber hoses ar e designed for specific fluid,
t emper at ur e, a n d pr es s u r e r a n ges a n d a r e
pr ovided in var ious specificat ions. Rubber hoses
(fig. 5-9) consist of a minimum t hr ee layer s; a
seamless synt het ic r ubber t ube r einfor ced wit h one
or mor e layer s of br aided or spir aled cot t on, wir e,
or synt het ic fiber ; and an out er cover . The inner
t ube is designed t o wit hst and t he at t ack of t he
fluid t hat passes t hr ough it . The br aided or
spir aled layer s det er mine t he st r engt h of t he hose.
The gr eat er t he number of t hese layer s, t he gr eat er
is t he pr essur e r at ing. Hoses ar e pr ovided in t hr ee
5-8
The size of a flexible hose is ident ified by t he
dash (-) number , which is t he ID of t he hose
expr essed in 16t hs of an inch. For example, t he
ID of a -64 hose is 4 inches. For a few hose st yles
t his is t he nominal and not t he t r ue ID.
Cu r e Da t e
Synt het ic r ubber hoses will det er ior at e fr om
aging. A cur e dat e is used t o ensur e t hat t hey do
not det er ior at e beyond mat er ial and per for mance
specificat ions. The cur e dat e is t he quar t er and
year t he hose was manufact ur ed. For example,
T ech n i cal Di rect i ve f or Pi pi n g Devi ces an d
Flexible Hose Assemblies, NAVSEA S6430-AE-
TED-010. volume 1. pr ovide det ailed inst r uct ions
on discar ding and downgr ading of r ubber hoses
exceeding t heir shelf life.
P F TE
1Q89 or
t he fir st
Fi gu r e 5-10.Hose i d en t i fi ca t i on .
1/89 means t he hose was made dur ing
quar t er (1 J an t o 31 Mar ) of 1989.
The cur e dat e limit s t he lengt h of t ime a r ubber
hose can be st or ed, in bulk or as an assembly,
pr ior t o being placed int o ser vice. The st or age or
shelf life for r ubber hose is 4 year s. For t he hose
manufact ur ed in 1Q89, t he st or age or shelf life
will end on t he 31st of Mar ch 1993. At t his point ,
t he hose is no longer consider ed usable and should
be discar ded or downgr aded. The Aviation Hose
and Tube Manual, NAVAIR 01-1A-20, and t he
5-9
PFTE hose is a flexible hose designed t o meet
t he r equir ement s of higher oper at ing pr essur es and
t emper at ur es in pr esent fluid power syst ems. This
t ype of hose is made fr om a chemical r esin, which
is pr ocessed and ext r uded int o a t ube shaped t o
a desir ed size. It is r einfor ced wit h one or mor e
layer s of br aided st ainless-st eel wir e or wit h an
even number of spir al wr ap layer s wit h an out er
wir e br aid layer .
PTFE hose is unaffect ed by all fluids pr esent ly
used in fluid power syst ems. It is iner t t o acids,
bot h concent r at ed and dilut ed. Cer t ain PFTE
hose may be used in syst ems wher e oper at ing
t emper a t ur es r a nge fr om 100F t o +500F.
PTFE is nonfla mma ble; however , wher e t he
possibilit y of open flame exist s, a special asbest os
fir e sleeve should be used.
PFTE hose will not absor b moist ur e. This,
t oget her wit h it s chemical iner t ness and ant i-
adhesive char act er ist ics, makes it ideal for missile
fluid power syst ems wher e noncont aminat ion and
cleanliness ar e essent ial.
In lieu of layline mar king, PTFE hoses ar e
ident ified by met al or pliable plast ic bands at t heir
ends and at int er vals along t heir lengt h. Figur e
5-10, view C, shows a hose label for a PTFE hose.
Usually t he only condit ion t hat will shor t en t he
life of PTFE hose is excessive t emper at ur e. For
t his r eason t her e is no manufact ur e dat e list ed on
t he ident ificat ion t ag.
AP P LI CATI ON
As ment ioned ear lier , flexible hose is available
in t hr ee pr essur e r anges: low, medium, and high.
When r eplacing hoses, it is impor t ant t o ensur e
t hat t he r eplacement hose is a duplicat e of t he one
r emoved in lengt h, OD, ma t er ia l, t ype a nd
cont our , and associat ed mar kings. In select ing
hose, sever al pr ecaut ions must be obser ved. The
select ed hose must
1.
2.
be compat ible wit h t he syst em fluid,
have a r at ed pr essur e gr eat er t han t he design
pr essur e of t he syst em,
3. be designed t o give adequat e per for mance and
ser vice for infr equent t r ansient pr essur e peaks
up t o 150 per cent of t he wor king pr essur e of
t he hose, and
4. have a safet y fact or wit h a bur st pr essur e at
a minimum of 4 t imes t he r at ed wor king
pr essur e.
Ther e ar e t emper at ur e r est r ict ions applied t o
t he use of hoses. Rubber hose must not be used
wher e t he oper at ing t emper at ur e exceeds 200F.
PTFE hoses in high-pr essur e air syst ems must not
be used wher e t he t emper at ur e exceeds 350F.
PTFE hoses in wat er and st eam dr ain applicat ions
must not be used wher e t he oper at ing t emper at ur e
exceeds 380F.
FABRI CATI ON AND TESTI NG
The fabr icat ion of flexible hose assemblies is
cover ed in applicable t r aining manuals, t echnical
publicat ions, and NAVAIR 01-1A-20. Aft er a
hose assembly has been complet ely fabr icat ed it
must be cleaned, visually inspect ed for for eign
mat er ials, and pr oof t est ed.
A hose a ssembly is pr oof t est ed by t he
applicat ion of a nondest r uct ive pr essur e for a
minimum of 1 minut e but not longer t han 5
minut es t o ensur e t hat it will wit hst and nor mal
wor king pr essur es. The t est pr essur e, known as
nor mal pr oof pr essur e, is t wice t he r at ed wor king
pr essur e. While t he t est pr essur e is being applied,
t he hose must not bur st , leak, or show signs
of fit t ing sepa r a t ion. NAVAI R 01-1A-20 a nd
NAVSEA S6430-AE-TED-010, volume 1, pr ovide
det ailed inst r uct ions on cleaning of hoses, cleaning
and t est media, pr oof pr essur e and pr oof t est ing.
Aft er pr oof t est ing is complet ed, t he hose must
be flushed and dr ied and t he ends capped or
plugged t o keep dir t and ot her cont aminant s out
of t he hose.
I DENTI FI CATI ON
The final st ep aft er fabr icat ion and sat isfac-
t or y t est ing of a hose assembly is t he at t achment
of ident ificat ion t ags as shown in figur e 5-11 (for
ships) and in figur e 5-12 (for air cr aft ). The t ag
shown in figur e 5-12, view B, is used in ar eas
wher e a t ag maybe dr awn int o an engine int ake.
Hose assemblies t o be inst alled in air cr aft fuel and
oil t anks ar e mar ked wit h an appr oved elect r ic
engr aver on t he socket -wr ench flat s wit h t he
r equir ed infor mat ion.
Fi gu r e 5-11.Hose a ssembly i d en t i fi ca t i on t a gs (sh i p s).
5-10
Fi gu r e 5-12. Hose a ssembly
I NSTALLATI ON
Flexible hose must
i d en t i fi ca t i on t a gs (a i r cr a ft ).
not be t wist ed dur ing
inst allat ion, since t his r educes t he life of t he hose
consider ably and may cause t he fit t ings t o loosen
as well. You can det er mine whet her or not a hose
is t wist ed by looking at t he layline t hat r uns along
t he lengt h of t he hose. If t he layline does not spir al
ar ound t he hose, t he hose is not t wist ed. If t he
layline does spir al ar ound t he hose, t he hose is
t wist ed (fig. 5-13, view B) and must be unt wist ed.
Flexible hose should be pr ot ect ed fr om chafing
by using a chafe-r esist ant cover ing wher ever
necessar y.
The minimum bend r adius for flexible hose
var ies accor ding t o t he size and const r uct ion of
t he hose a nd t he pr essur e under which t he
syst em oper at es. Cur r ent applicable t echnical
publicat ions cont ain t ables and gr aphs showing
minimum bend r adii for t he differ ent t ypes of
inst allat ions. Bends t hat ar e t oo shar p will r educe
t he bur st ing pr essur e of flexible hose consider ably
below it s r at ed value.
Flexible hose should be inst alled so t hat it will
be subject ed t o a minimum of flexing dur ing
oper at ion. Suppor t clamps ar e not necessar y wit h
shor t inst allat ions; but for hose of consider able
lengt h (48 inches for example), clamps should be
placed not mor e t han 24 inches apar t . Closer
5-11
Fi gu r e 5-13. Cor r ect a n d i n cor r ect i n st a lla t i on of flexi ble
h ose.
suppor t s ar e desir able and in some cases may be
r equir ed.
A flexible hose must never be st r et ched t ight ly
bet ween t wo fit t ings. About 5 t o 8 per cent of t he
t ot al lengt h must be allowed as slack t o pr ovide
fr eedom of movement under pr essur e. When
under pr essur e, flexible hose cont r act s in lengt h
and expands in diamet er . Examples of cor r ect and
i n cor r ect i n s t a l l a t i on s of fl exi bl e h os e a r e
illust r at ed in figur e 5-13.
PFTE hose should be handled car efully dur ing
r emoval and inst allat ion. Some PFTE hose is pr e-
for med dur ing fabr icat ion. This t ype of hose t ends
t o for m it self t o t he inst alled posit ion in t he sys-
t em. To ensur e it s sat isfact or y funct ion and r educe
t he likelihood of failur e, anyone who wor ks wit h
PFTE hose should obser ve t he following r ules:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Do not exceed r ecommended bend limit s.
Do not exceed t wist ing limit s.
Do not st r aight en a bent hose t hat has
t aken a per manent set .
Do not hang, lift , or suppor t object s fr om
PFTE hose.
Once flexible hose assemblies ar e inst alled,
t her e ar e no ser vicing or maint enance r equir e-
ment s ot her t han per iodic inspect ions. These
inspect ions ar e conduct ed accor ding t o maint e-
nance inst r uct ion manuals (MIMs), maint enance
r equir ement ca r ds (MRCs), a nd depot -level
specificat ions.
TYP ES OF F I TTI NGS
AND CONNECTORS
Some t ype of connect or or fit t ing must be
pr ovided t o at t ach t he lines t o t he component s of
t he syst em and t o connect sect ions of line t o
each ot her . Ther e ar e many differ ent t ypes of
connect or s and fit t ings pr ovided for t his pur pose.
The t ype of connect or or fit t ing r equir ed for a
specific syst em depends on sever al fact or s. One
det er mining fact or , of cour se, is t he t ype of fluid
line (pipe, t ubing, or flexible hose) used in
t he syst em. Ot her det er mining fact or s ar e t he
t ype of fluid medium and t he maximum oper at ing
pr essur e of t he syst em. Some of t he most common
t ypes of fit t ings and connect or s ar e descr ibed in
t he following par agr aphs.
THREADED CONNECTORS
Ther e ar e sever al differ ent t ypes of t hr eaded
connect or s. In t he t ype discussed in t his sect ion,
bot h t he connect or and t he end of t he fluid line
(pipe) ar e t hr eaded. These connect or s ar e used in
some low-pr essur e fluid power syst ems and ar e
usually made of st eel, copper , or br ass, and ar e
available in a var iet y of designs.
Thr eaded connect or s ar e made wit h st andar d
pipe t hr eads cut on t he inside sur face. The end
of t he pipe is t hr eaded wit h out side t hr eads.
St andar d pipe t hr eads ar e t aper ed slight ly t o
ensur e t ight connect ions. The amount of t aper is
appr oximat ely 3/4 inch in diamet er per foot of
t hr ead.
Met al is r emoved when a pipe is t hr eaded,
t hinning t he pipe and exposing new and r ough
sur faces. Cor r osion agent s wor k mor e quickly at
such point s t han elsewher e. If pipes ar e assembled
wit h no pr ot ect ive compound on t he t hr eads,
cor r osion set s in at once and t he t wo sect ions
st ick t oget her so t hat t he t hr eads seize when
disassembly is at t empt ed. The r esult is damaged
t hr eads and pipes.
To pr event seizing, a suit able pipe t hr ead
compound is somet imes applied t o t he t hr eads.
The t wo end t hr ea ds must be kept fr ee of
5-12
compound so t hat it will not cont aminat e t he
fluid. Pipe compound, when impr oper ly applied,
may get inside t he lines and component s and
damage pumps and cont r ol equipment .
Anot her mat er ial used on pipe t hr eads is
sealant t ape. This t ape, which is made of PTFE,
pr ovides a n effect ive mea ns of sea ling pipe
connect ions a nd elimina t es t he necessit y of
t or quing connect ions t o excessively high values
in or der t o pr event pr essur e leaks. It also pr ovides
for ease of maint enance whenever it is necessar y
t o disconnect pipe joint s. The t ape is applied over
t he male t hr eads, leaving t he fir st t hr ead exposed.
Aft er t he t ape is pr essed fir mly against t he
t hr eads, t he joint is connect ed.
FLANGE CONNECTORS
Bolt ed fla nge connect or s (fig. 5-14) a r e
suit able for most pr essur es now in use. The
flanges ar e at t ached t o t he piping by welding,
br azing, t aper ed t hr eads (for some low-pr essur e
syst ems), or r olling and bending int o r ecesses.
Those illust r at ed ar e t he most common t ypes of
flange joint s used. The same t ypes of st andar d
fit t ing shapes (t ee, cr oss, elbow, and so for t h) ar e
manufact ur ed for flange joint s. Suit able gasket
mat er ial must be used bet ween t he flanges.
WELDED CONNECTORS
The suba ssemblies of some fluid power
syst ems ar e connect ed by welded joint s, especially
in high-pr essur e syst ems which use pipe for fluid
lines. The welding is done accor ding t o st andar d
Fi gu r e 5-14.Fou r t yp es of bolt ed fla n ge con n ect or s.
specificat ions which define t he mat er ials and
t echniques.
BRAZED CONNECTORS
Silver -br azed connect or s ar e commonly used
for joining nonfer r ous (copper , br ass, and soon)
piping in t he pr essur e and t emper at ur e r ange
wher e t heir use is pr act ical. Use of t his t ype of
connect or is limit ed t o inst allat ions in which t he
piping t emper at ur e will not exceed 425F and t he
pr essur e in cold lines will not -exceed 3,000 psi.
The alloy is melt ed by heat ing t he joint wit h an
oxyacet ylene t or ch. This causes t he alloy inser t
t o melt and fill t he few t housandt hs of an inch
annular space bet ween t he pipe and t he fit t ing.
A fit t ing of t his t ype which has been r emoved
fr om a piping syst em can be r ebr azed int o a
syst em, as in most cases sufficient alloy r emains
in t he inser t gr oove for a second joint . New alloy
inser t s may be obt ained for fit t ings which do not
have sufficient alloy r emaining in t he inser t for
making a new joint .
FLARED CONNECTORS
Flar ed connect or s ar e commonly used in fluid
power syst ems cont aining lines made of t ubing.
These connect or s pr ovide safe, st r ong, dependable
connect ions wit hout t he need for t hr ea ding,
welding, or solder ing t he t ubing. The connect or
consist s of a fit t ing, a sleeve, and a nut (fig. 5-15).
The fit t ings ar e made of st eel, aluminum alloy,
or br onze. The fit t ing used in a connect ion should
be made of t he same mat er ial as t hat of t he sleeve,
t he nut , and t he t ubing. For example, use st eel
connect or s wit h st eel t ubing and aluminum alloy
Fi gu r e 5-15.Fla r ed -t u be fi t t i n g.
connect or s wit h aluminum alloy t ubing. Fit t ings
ar e made in union, 45-degr ee and 90-degr ee
elbow, t ee, and var ious ot her shapes (fig. 5-16).
Tees, cr osses, and elbows ar e self-explanat or y.
Univer sal and bulkhead fit t ings can be mount ed
solidly wit h one out let of t he fit t ing ext ending
t hr ough a bulkhead and t he ot her out let (s) posi-
t ioned at any angle. Univer sal means t he fit t ing
can assume t he angle r equir ed for t he specific
inst allat ion. Bulkhead means t he fit t ing is long
enough t o pa ss t hr ough a bulkhea d a nd is
designed so it ca n be secur ed solidly t o t he
bulkhead.
For connect ing t o t ubing, t he ends of t he
fit t ings ar e t hr eaded wit h st r aight machine t hr eads
t o cor r espond wit h t he female t hr eads of t he nut .
In some cases, however , one end of t he fit t ing may
be t hr eaded wit h t aper ed pipe t hr eads t o fit
Fi gu r e 5-16.Fla r ed -t u be fi t t i n gs.
5-13
t hr ea ded por t s in pumps, va lves, a nd ot her
component s. Sever al of t hese t hr ead combinat ions
ar e shown in figur e 5-16.
Tubing used wit h flar e connect or s must be
flar ed pr ior t o assembly. The nut fit s over t he
sleeve and when t ight ened, it dr aws t he sleeve and
t ubing flar e t ight ly against t he male fit t ing t o for m
a seal.
The male fit t ing has a cone-shaped sur face
wit h t he same angle as t he inside of t he flar e. The
sleeve suppor t s t he t ube so vibr at ion does not
concent r at e at t he edge of t he flar e, and dist r ibut es
t he shear ing act ion over a wider ar ea for added
st r engt h. Tube flar ing is cover ed in Tools and
Their Uses, NAVEDTRA 10085 (ser ies), a nd
ot her applicable t r aining manuals.
Cor r ect and incor r ect met hods of inst alling
flar ed-t ube connect or s ar e illust r at ed in figur e
5-17. Tubing nut s should be t ight ened wit h a
t or que wr ench t o t he value specified in applicable
t echnical publicat ions.
If an aluminum alloy flar ed connect or leaks
aft er being t ight ened t o t he r equir ed t or que, it
must not be t ight ened fur t her . Over t ight ening may
sever ely damage or complet ely cut off t he t ubing
flar e or may r esult in damage t o t he sleeve or nut .
The leaking connect ion must be disassembled and
t he fault cor r ect ed.
If a st eel t ube connect ion leaks, it may be
t ight ened 1/6 t ur n beyond t he specified t or que in
an at t empt t o st op t he leakage; t hen if it st ill leaks,
it must be disassembled and r epair ed.
Un der t i gh t en i n g of con n ect i on s ma y be
ser ious, as t his can allow t he t ubing t o leak at t he
connect or bemuse of insufficient gr ip on t he flar e
by t he sleeve. The use of a t or que wr ench will
pr event under t ight ening.
CAUTI ON
A nut should never be t ight ened when
t her e is pr essur e in t he line, as t his will t end
t o damage t he connect ion wit hout adding
any appr eciable t or que t o t he connect ion.
Fi gu r e 5-17.Cor r ect a n d i n cor r ect met h od s of i n st a lli n g fla r ed fi t t i n gs.
5-14
FLARELESS-TUBE CONNECTORS
This t ype of connect or eliminat es all t ube
flar ing, yet pr ovides a safe, st r ong, and depend-
able t ube connect ion. This connect or consist s
of a fit t ing, a sleeve or fer r ule, a nd a nut .
(See fig. 5-18.)
NOTE
Alt hough t he use of fla r eless t ube
connect or s is widespr ead, NAVSEA policy
is t o r educe or eliminat e use of flar eless
fit t ings in newly designed ships; t he ext ent
t o which flar eless fit t ings ar e appr oved for
use in a par t icular ship is r eflect ed in
applicable ship dr awings.
Flar eless-t ube fit t ings ar e available in many
of t he same shapes and t hr ead combinat ions as
flar ed-t ube fit t ings. (See fig. 5-16.) The fit t ing has
a count er bor e shoulder for t he end of t he t ubing
t o r est against . The angle of t he count er bor e
causes t he cut t ing edge of t he sleeve or fer r ule t o
cut int o t he out side sur face of t he t ube when t he
t wo ar e assembled.
The nut pr esses on t he bevel of t he sleeve and
causes it t o clamp t ight ly t o t he t ube. Resist ance
t o vibr at ion is concent r at ed at t his point r at her
t han at t he sleeve cut . When fully t ight ened, t he
sleeve or fer r ule is bowed slight ly at t he midsect ion
and act s as a spr ing. This spr ing act ion of t he
sleeve or fer r ule maint ains a const ant t ension
bet ween t he body and t he nut and t hus pr event s
t he nut fr om loosening.
Pr ior t o t he inst allat ion of a new flar eless-t ube
connect or , t he end of t he t ubing must be squar e,
Fi gu r e 5-18. Fla r eless-t u be con n ect or .
concent r ic, and fr ee of bur r s. For t he connect ion
t o be effect ive, t he cut t ing edge of t he sleeve or
fer r ule must bit e int o t he per ipher y of t he t ube
(fig. 5-19). This is ensur ed by pr eset t ing t he sleeve
or fer r ule on t he t ube.
P r eset t i n g
Pr eset t ing consist s of defor ming t he fer r ule t o
bit e int o t he t ube OD and defor ming t he end of
t he t ube t o for m a shallow conical r ing seat ing
sur face. The t ube and fer r ule assembly should be
pr eset in a pr eset t ing t ool t hat has an end sect ion
ident ical t o a fit t ing body but which is made of
specially har dened st eel. This t ool har dness is
needed t o ensur e t hat all defor mat ion at t he t ube
end seat goes int o t he t ube.
Pr eset t ing is done wit h a hydr aulic pr eset t ing
t ool or a manual pr eset t ing t ool, eit her in t he shop
or aboar d ship. The t ool vendor s inst r uct ions
must be followed for t he hydr aulic pr eset t ing t ool.
If a pr eset t ing t ool is not available, t he fit t ing
body int ended for inst allat ion is used in t he same
manner as t he manual pr eset t ing t ool. (If an
aluminum fit t ing is used, it should not be r eused
in t he syst em.) The manual t ool is used as follows:
WARNI NG
Failur e t o follow t hese inst r uct ions may
r esult in impr oper ly pr eset fer r ules wit h
insufficient bit e int o t he t ube. Impr oper ly
pr eset fer r ules have r esult ed in joint s t hat
passed hydr ost at ic t est ing and oper at ed for
weeks or year s, t hen failed cat ast r ophically
under shock, vibr at ion, or nor mal oper at -
ing loads. Flar eless fit t ing failur es have
Fi gu r e 5-19. Un u sed fer r u les.
5-15
caused per sonnel injur y, damage t o equip-
ment , and unnecessar y int er r upt ion of
pr opulsion power .
1. Cut t he t ubing squar e and light ly debur r
t he inside and out side cor ner s. For cor r osion
r esist ing st eel (CRES) t ubing, use a hacksaw r at her
t han a t ubing cut t er t o avoid wor k har dening t he
t ube end. For CRES, and if necessar y for ot her
mat er ials, dr ess t he t ube end smoot h and squar e
wit h a file. Tube ends wit h ir r egular cut t ing mar ks
will not pr oduce sa t isfa ct or y sea t ing sur fa ce
impr essions.
2. Test t he har dness of t he fer r ule by making
a light scr at ch on t he t ubing at least 1/2 inch back
fr om t he t ube end, using a shar p cor ner on t he
fer r ule. If t he fer r ule will not scr at ch t he t ube,
no bit e will be obt ained. This t est maybe omit t ed
for flush-t ype fer r ules wher e t he bit e will be
visible. Moder at e hand pr essur e is sufficient for
pr oducing t he scr at ch.
3. Lubr ica t e t he nut t hr ea ds, t he fer r ule
leading and t r ailing edges, and t he pr eset t ool
t hr eads wit h a t hr ead lubr icant compat ible wit h
t he syst em. Slide t he nut ont o t he t ubing so t he
t hr eads face t he t ube end. Not e whet her t he
fer r ule is a flush t ype or r ecessed t ype (fig. 5-19),
and slide t he fer r ule ont o t he t ube so t he cut t ing
edge is t owar d t he t ube end (lar ge end t owar d t he
nut ).
4. Bot t om t he end of t he t ubing in t he
pr eset t ing t ool. Slide t he fer r ule up int o t he
pr eset t ing t ool, and confir m t hat t he nut can be
moved down t he t ube sufficient ly t o expose at
least 1/8 inch of t ubing past t he fer r ule aft er t he
pr eset t ing oper a t ion (fig. 5-20) t o a llow for
inspect ion of t he fer r ule.
5. While keeping t he t ube bot t omed in t he
pr eset t ing t ool, t ight en t he nut ont o t he fit t ing
body unt il t he fer r ule just gr ips t he t ube by
fr ict ion. This r ing gr ip point may be ident ified by
light ly t ur ning t he t ube or t he pr eset t ing t ool and
slowly t ight ening t he nut unt il t he t ube cannot
be t u r n ed i n t h e pr es et t i n g t ool by h a n d.
Mar k t he nut and t he pr eset t ing t ool at t his
posit ion.
6. Tight en t he nut accor ding t o t he number
of t ur ns given in t able 5-3, depending on t ube
size.
5-16
Fi gu r e 5-20.Tu be a n d fer r u le a ssembled for p r eset -
t i n g, sh owi n g n u t p osi t i on r equ i r ed for i n sp ect i n g
fer r u le.
I n sp ect i on
Disassemble and inspect t he fit t ing as follows
(mandat or y):
1. Ensur e t hat t he end of t he t ubing has an
impr ession of t he pr eset t ing t ool seat sur face
(cir cular appear ing r ing) for 360 degr ees. A par t ial
cir cle, a visibly off-cent er cir cle, or a cir cle br oken
by t he r oughness of t he t ube end is unsat isfact or y.
2. Check for pr oper bit e:
a. For flush-t ype fer r ules, a r aised r idge
(fig. 5-21) of t ube met al must be visible complet ely
ar ound t he t ube at t he leading edge of t he fer r ule.
The best pr act ice is t o obt ain a r idge about 50
per cent of t he fer r ule edge t hickness.
Ta ble 5-3.Nu mber of Tu r n s
Fi gu r e 5-21.Fer r u les i n st a lled on t u be, p r eset a n d r emoved
for i n sp ect i on .
b. For r ecessed-t ype fer r ules, t he leading
edge must be snug against t he t ube OD. Det er mine
t his visually and by at t empt ing t o r ock t he fer r ule
on t he t ube.
3. Ensur e t hat t he nut end of t he fer r ule (bot h
t ypes) is collapsed ar ound t he t ube t o pr ovide
suppor t against bending loads and vibr at ion.
4. The fer r ule (bot h t ypes) must have lit t le or
no play along t he dir ect ion of t he t ube r un. Check
t his by t r ying t o move t he fer r ule back and for t h
by hand. The fer r ule will oft en be fr ee t o r ot at e
on t he t ubing; t his does not affect it s funct ion.
5. For flush-t ype fer r ules, check t hat t he gap
bet ween t he r aised met al r idge and t he cut t ing end
of t he fer r ule st ays t he same while t he fer r ule is
r ot at ed. (Omit t his check for r ecessed-t ype fer r ules
or if t he flush-t ype fer r ule will not r ot at e on t he
t ube).
6. Check t hat t he middle por t ion of t he fer r ule
(bot h t ypes) is bowed or spr ung int o an ar c. The
leading edge of t he fer r ule may appear flat t ened
int o a cone shape; t his is accept able as long as
t her e is a bowed sect ion near t he middle of t he
fer r ule. If t he whole leading sect ion of t he fer r ule
is flat t ened int o a cone wit h no bowed sect ion,
t he fer r ule (and possibly t he fit t ing body, if used)
has been damaged by over t ight ening and will not
seal r eliably.
Fi n a l Assembly
When you ma ke a fina l a ssembly in t he
syst em, use t he following inst allat ion pr ocedur e:
1. Lubr icat e all t hr eads wit h a liquid t hat is
compat ible wit h t he fluid t o be used in t he syst em.
2. Place t he t ube assembly in posit ion and
check for alignment .
3. Tight en t he nut by hand unt il you feel an
incr ease in r esist ance t o t ur ning. This indicat es
t hat t he sleeve or fer r ule pilot has cont act ed t he
fit t ing.
4. If possible, use a t or que wr ench t o t ight en
flar eless t ubing nut s. Tor que values for specific
inst allat ions ar e usually list ed in t he applicable
t echnical publicat ions. If it is not possible t o use
a t or que wr ench, use t he following pr ocedur es for
t ight ening t he nut s:
Aft er t he nut is handt ight , t ur n t he nut 1/6
t ur n (one flat on a hex nut ) wit h a wr ench. Use
a wr ench on t he connect or t o pr event it fr om
t ur ning while t ight ening t he nut . Aft er you inst all
t he t ube assembly, have t he syst em pr essur e t est ed.
Should a connect ion leak, you may t ight en t he
nut an addit ional 1/6 t ur n (making a t ot al of 1/3
t ur n). If, aft er t ight ening t he nut a t ot al of 1/3
t ur n, leakage st ill exist s, r emove t he assembly and
inspect t he component s of t he assembly for scor es,
cr acks, pr esence of for eign mat er ial, or damage
fr om over t ight ening.
NOTE: Over t ight ening a flar eless-t ube nut
dr ives t he cut t ing edge of t he sleeve or fer r ule
deeply int o t he t ube, causing t he t ube t o be
weakened t o t he point wher e nor mal vibr at ion
could cause t he t ube t o shear . Aft er you complet e
t he inspect ion (if you do not find a ny dis-
cr epancies), r eassemble t he connect ion and r epeat
t he pr essur e t est pr ocedur es.
CAUTI ON: Do not in any case t ight en t he
nut beyond 1/3 t ur n (t wo flat s on t he hex nut );
t his is t he maximum t he fit t ing may be t ight ened
wit hout t he possibilit y of per manent ly damaging
t he sleeve or t he t ube.
CONNECTORS FOR
F LEXI BLE HOSE
As st at ed pr eviously, t he fabr icat ion of flexible
hose assemblies is cover ed in applicable t r aining
manuals, t echnical publicat ions, and NAVAIR
01-1A-20. Ther e ar e var ious t ypes of end fit t ings
for bot h t he piping connect ion side and t he hose
5-17
connect ion side of hose fit t ings. Figur e 5-22 shows
commonly used fit t ings.
P i p i n g Con n ect i on Si d e of Hose Fi t t i n g
The piping side of an end fit t ing comes wit h
sever al connect ing var iat ions: flange, J IC 37
flar e, O-r ing union, and split clamp, t o name a
few. Not all var iet ies ar e available for each hose.
Ther efor e, inst aller s must consult t he milit ar y
s peci fi ca t i on a n d ma n u fa ct u r er s da t a t o
det er mine t he specific end fit t ings available.
Hose Con n ect i on Si d e of Hose F i t t i n g
Hose fit t ings ar e at t ached t o t he hose by
sever al met hods. Each met hod is det er mined by
t he fit t ing manufact ur er and t akes int o con-
sider at ion such t hings as size, const r uct ion, wall
t hickness, and pr essur e r at ing. Hoses used for
flexible connect ions use one of t he following
met hods for at t achment of t he fit t ing t o t he
hose.
ONE-P I ECE REUSABLE SOCKET. The
socket component of t he fit t ing is fabr icat ed as
a single piece. One-piece r eusable socket s ar e
scr ewed or r ocked ont o t he hose OD, followed
by inser t ion of t he nipple component .
SEGMENTED, BOLTED SOCKET. The
segment ed, bolt ed socket consist s of t wo or mor e
segment s which ar e bolt ed t oget her on t he hose
aft er inser t ion of t he nipple component .
F i gu r e 5-22.En d fi t t i n gs a n d h ose fi t t i n gs.
5-18
S E GME NTE D S OCKE T, R I NG AND
BAND ATTACHED. The segment ed, r ing and
band at t ached socket consist s of t hr ee or mor e
segment s. As wit h t he bolt -t oget her segment s, t he
segment s, r ing and band ar e put on t he hose aft er
inser t ion of t he nipple. A special t ool is r equir ed
t o compr ess t he segment s.
SEGMENTED SOCKET, RI NG AND BOLT
ATTACHED. The segment ed, r ing and bolt
a t t a ch ed s ocket con s i s t s of t h r ee or mor e
segment s. As wit h ot her segment ed socket -t ype
fit t ings, t he segment s, r ing, and nut s and bolt s
ar e put on t he hose aft er inser t ion of t he nipple.
S O L I D S O C KE T , P E R MAN E N T L Y
ATTACHED. This t ype of socket is per ma-
nent ly a t t a ched t o t he hose by cr imping or
swaging. It is not r eusable and is only found
on hose assemblies wher e oper at ing condit ions
pr eclude t he use of ot her fit t ing t ypes. Hose
assemblies wit h t his t ype of fit t ing at t achment ar e
pur chased as complet e hose assemblies fr om t he
manufact ur er .
QUI CK-DI SCONNECT COUP LI NGS
Self-sealing, quick-disconnect couplings ar e
used a t va r ious point s in ma ny fluid power
syst ems. These couplings ar e inst alled at locat ions
wher e fr equent uncoupling of t he lines is r equir ed
for inspect ion, t est , and maint enance. Quick-
disconnect couplings ar e also commonly used in
pneumat ic syst ems t o connect sect ions of air hose
and t o connect t ools t o t he air pr essur e lines. This
pr ovides a convenient met hod of at t aching and
det aching t ools and sect ions of lines wit hout losing
pr essur e.
Quick-disconnect couplings pr ovide a means
for quickly disconnect ing a line wit hout t he loss
of fluid fr om t he syst em or t he ent r a nce of
for eign mat t er int o t he syst em. Sever al t ypes of
quick-disconnect couplings have been designed for
use in fluid power syst ems. Figur e 5-23 illust r at es
Fi gu r e 5-23.Qu i ck -d i scon n ect cou p li n g for a i r li n es.
a coupling t hat is used wit h por t able pneumat ic
t ools. The male sect ion is connect ed t o t he t ool
or t o t he line leading fr om t he t ool. The female
sect ion, which cont a ins t he shut off va lve, is
inst alled in t he pneumat ic line leading fr om
t he pr essur e sour ce. These connect or s can be
separ at ed or connect ed by ver y lit t le effor t on t he
par t of t he oper at or .
The most common quick-disconnect coupling
for hydr aulic syst ems consist s of t wo par t s, held
t oget her by a union nut . Each par t cont ains a
valve which is held open when t he coupling is
con n ect ed, a l l owi n g fl u i d t o fl ow i n ei t h er
di r ect i on t h r ou gh t h e cou pl i n g. Wh en t h e
coupling is disconnect ed, a spr ing in each par t
closes t he valve, pr event ing t he loss of fluid and
ent r ance of for eign mat t er .
MANI FOLDS
Some fluid power syst ems ar e equipped wit h
manifolds in t he pr essur e supply and/or r et ur n
lines. A ma nifold is a fluid conduct or t ha t
pr ovides mult iple connect ion por t s. Manifolds
eliminat e piping, r educe joint s, which ar e oft en
a sour ce of leakage, and conser ve space. For
example, manifolds may be used in syst ems t hat
cont ain sever al subsyst ems. One common line
connect s t he pump t o t he manifold. Ther e ar e
out let por t s in t he ma nifold t o pr ovide con-
nect ions t o each subsyst em. A similar manifold
may be used in t he r et ur n syst em. Lines fr om t he
cont r ol valves of t he subsyst em connect t o t he inlet
por t s of t he manifold, wher e t he fluid combines
int o one out let line t o t he r eser voir . Some
manifolds ar e equipped wit h t he check valves,
r elief valves, filt er s, and so on, r equir ed for t he
syst em. In some cases, t he cont r ol valves ar e
mount ed on t he manifold in such a manner t hat
t he por t s of t he valves ar e connect ed dir ect ly t o
t he manifold.
Manifolds ar e usually one of t hr ee t ypes
sandwich, cast , or dr illed. The sandwich t ype is
const r uct ed of t hr ee or mor e flat plat es. The
cent er plat e (or plat es) is machined for passages,
and t he r equir ed inlet and out let por t s ar e dr illed
int o t he out er plat es. The plat es ar e t hen bonded
t oget her t o pr ovide a leakpr oof assembly. The cast
t ype of manifold is designed wit h cast passages
and dr illed por t s. The cast ing may be ir on, st eel,
br onze, or aluminum, depending upon t he t ype
of syst em and fluid medium. In t he dr illed t ype
of manifold, all por t s and passages ar e dr illed in
a block of met al.
5-19
A simple manifold is illust r at ed in figur e 5-24.
This manifold cont ains one pr essur e inlet por t and
sever al pr essur e out let por t s t hat can be blocked
off wit h t hr eaded plugs. This t ype of manifold
can be adapt ed t o syst ems cont aining var ious
number s of subsyst ems. A t her mal r elief valve
may be incor por at ed in t his manifold. In t his case,
t he por t labeled T is connect ed t o t he r et ur n line
t o pr ovide a passage for t he r elieved fluid t o flow
t o t he r eser voir .
Figur e 5-25 shows a flow dia gr a m in a
manifold which pr ovides bot h pr essur e and r et ur n
passages. One common line pr ovides pr essur ized
fluid t o t he manifold, which dist r ibut es t he fluid
t o any one of five out let por t s. The r et ur n side
of t he manifold is similar in design. This manifold
is pr ovided wit h a r elief valve, which is connect ed
t o t he pr essur e and r et ur n passages. In t he event
of excessive pr essur e, t he r elief valve opens and
allows t he fluid t o flow fr om t he pr essur e side of
t he manifold t o t he r et ur n side.
Fi gu r e 5-25.Flu i d ma n i fold flow d i a gr a m.
P RECAUTI ONARY MEASURES
The fabr icat ion, inst allat ion, and maint enance
of all fluid lines and connect or s ar e beyond t he
scope of t his t r aining manual. However , t her e ar e
some gener al pr ecaut ionar y measur es t hat apply
t o t he maint enance of all fluid lines.
Regar dless of t he t ype of lines or connect or s
used t o make up a fluid power syst em, make
cer t ain t hey ar e t he cor r ect size and st r engt h and
per fect ly clean on t he inside. All lines must be
absolut ely clean and fr ee fr om scale and ot her
for eign mat t er . Ir on or st eel pipes, t ubing, and
fit t ings ca n be clea ned wit h a boiler t ube
wir e br ush or wit h commer cial pipe cleaning
appar at us. Rust and scale can be r emoved fr om
shor t , st r aight pieces by sandblast ing, pr ovided
t her e is no danger t hat sand par t icles will r emain
lodged in blind holes or pocket s aft er t he piece
Fi gu r e 5-24 .F lu i d ma n i fold .
5-20
is flushed. In t he case of long pieces or pieces bent Open ends of pipes, t ubing, hose, and fit t ings
t o complex shapes, r ust and scale can be r emoved should be capped or plugged when t hey ar e t o be
by pickling (cleaning met al in a chemical bat h). st or ed for any consider able per iod. Rags or wast e
Par t s must be degr eased pr ior t o pickling. The must not be used for t his pur pose, because t hey
ma n u fa ct u r er of t h e pa r t s s h ou l d pr ovi de deposit har mful lint which can cause sever e
complet e pickling inst r uct ions. damage t o t he fluid power syst em.
5-21
CHAP TER 6
VALVES
It is all but impossible t o design a pr act ical
fluid power syst em wit hout some mea ns of
cont r olling t he volume and pr essur e of t he fluid
and dir ect ing t he flow of fluid t o t he oper at ing
unit s. This is accomplished by t he incor por at ion
of differ ent t ypes of valves. A valve is defined as
any device by which t he flow of fluid may be
st ar t ed, st opped, or r egulat ed by a movable par t
t ha t opens or obst r uct s pa ssa ge. As a pplied
in fluid power syst ems, va lves a r e used for
cont r olling t he flow, t he pr essur e, a nd t he
dir ect ion of t he fluid flow.
Valves must be accur at e in t he cont r ol of fluid
flow and pr essur e and t he sequence of oper at ion.
Leakage bet ween t he valve element and t he valve
sea t is r educed t o a negligible qua nt it y by
pr ecision-machined sur faces, r esult ing in car efully
cont r olled clear ances. This is one of t he ver y
impor t ant r easons for minimizing cont aminat ion
in fluid power syst ems. Cont aminat ion causes
valves t o st ick, plugs small or ifices, and causes
abr asions of t he valve seat ing sur faces, which
r esult s in leakage bet ween t he valve element and
valve seat when t he valve is in t he closed posit ion.
Any of t hese can r esult in inefficient oper at ion
or complet e st oppage of t he equipment .
Valves may be cont r olled manually, elect r i-
cally, pneumat ically, mechanically, hydr aulically,
or by combina t ions of t wo or mor e of t hese
met hods. Fact or s t hat det er mine t he met hod of
cont r ol include t he pur pose of t he valve, t he
design and pur pose of t he syst em, t he locat ion of
t he valve wit hin t he syst em, and t he availabilit y
of t he sour ce of power .
The differ ent t ypes of valves used in fluid
power syst ems, t heir classificat ion, and t heir
applicat ion ar e discussed in t his chapt er .
CLASSI FI CATI ONS
Valves ar e classified accor ding t o t heir use:
flow cont r ol, pr essur e cont r ol, and dir ect ional
cont r ol. Some valves have mult iple funct ions t hat
fall int o mor e t han one classificat ion.
FLOW CONTROL VALVES
Flow cont r ol valves ar e used t o r egulat e t he
flow of fluids in fluid-power syst ems. Cont r ol of
flow in fluid-power syst ems is impor t ant because
t he r at e of movement of fluid-power ed machines
depends on t he r at e of flow of t he pr essur ized
fluid. These valves may be manually, hydr au-
lically, elect r ically, or pneumat ically oper at ed.
Some of t he differ ent t ypes of flow cont r ol
valves ar e discussed in t he following par agr aphs.
BALL VALVES
Ball valves, as t he name implies, ar e st op
valves t hat use a ball t o st op or st ar t a flow of
fluid. The ball, shown in figur e 6-1, per for ms t he
Fi gu r e 6-1.Typ i ca l ba ll va lve.
6-1
same funct ion as t he disk in ot her valves. As t he
valve handle is t ur ned t o open t he valve, t he ball
r ot at es t o a point wher e par t or all of t he hole
t hr ough t he ball is in line wit h t he valve body inlet
and out let , allowing fluid t o flow t hr ough t he
valve. When t he ball is r ot at ed so t he hole is
per pendicular t o t he flow openings of t he valve
body, t he flow of fluid st ops.
Most ball valves ar e t he quick-act ing t ype.
They r equir e only a 90-degr ee t ur n t o eit her
complet ely open or close t he valve. However ,
many ar e oper at ed by planet ar y gear s. This t ype
of gear ing allows t he use of a r elat ively small
handwheel and oper at ing for ce t o oper at e a fair ly
lar ge valve. The gear ing does, however , incr ease
t he oper at ing t ime for t he valve. Some ball valves
also cont ain a swing check locat ed wit hin t he ball
t o give t he valve a check valve feat ur e. Figur e 6-2
shows a ba ll-st op, swing-check va lve wit h a
planet ar y gear oper at ion.
In addit ion t o t he ball valves shown in figur es
6-1 and 6-2, t her e ar e t hr ee-way ball valves t hat
ar e used t o supply fluid fr om a single sour ce t o
one component or t he ot her in a t wo-component
syst em (fig. 6-3).
Fi gu r e 6-2.Typ i ca l ba ll-st op , swi n g-ch eck va lve.
6-2
Fi gu r e 6-3.Th r ee-wa y ba ll va lve.
GATE VALVES
Gat e valves ar e used when a st r aight -line flow
of fluid and minimum flow r est r ict ion ar e needed.
Gat e valves ar e so-named because t he par t t hat
eit her st ops or allows flow t hr ough t he valve
act s somewhat like a gat e. The gat e is usually
wedge-shaped. When t he valve is wide open t he
gat e is fully dr awn up int o t he valve bonnet . This
leaves an opening for flow t hr ough t he valve t he
same size as t he pipe in which t he valve is inst alled
(fig. 6-4). Ther efor e, t her e is lit t le pr essur e dr op
or flow r est r ict ion t hr ough t he valve.
Gat e valves ar e not suit able for t hr ot t ling
pur poses. The cont r ol of flow is difficult because
of t he va lves design, a nd t he flow of fluid
sla pping a ga inst a pa r t ia lly open ga t e ca n
cause ext ensive damage t o t he valve. Except as
specifically aut hor ized, gat e valves should not be
used for t hr ot t ling.
Gat e valves ar e classified as eit her r ising-st em
or nonr ising-st em valves. The nonr ising-st em
valve is shown in figur e 6-4. The st em is t hr eaded
int o t he gat e. As t he handwheel on t he st em is
r ot at ed, t he gat e t r avels up or down t he st em on
t he t hr eads while t he st em r emains ver t ically
st at ionar y. This t ype of valve will almost always
have a point er indicat or t hr eaded ont o t he upper
end of t he st em t o indicat e t he posit ion of t he gat e.
Valves wit h r ising st ems (fig. 6-5) ar e used
when it is impor t ant t o know by immediat e
inspect ion whet her t he valve is open or closed and
when t he t hr eads (st em and gat e) exposed t o t he
fluid could become damaged by fluid cont ami-
nant s. In t his valve, t he st em r ises out of t he valve
when t he valve is opened.
GLOBE VALVES
Globe valves ar e pr obably t he most common
valves in exist ence. The globe valve get s it s name
Fi gu r e 6-4.Op er a t i on of a ga t e va lve.
6-3
Fi gu r e 6-5.Ri si n g st em ga t e va lve.
Fi gu r e 6-6.Typ es of globe va lve bod i es.
fr om t he globular shape of t he valve body. Ot her
t ypes of valves may also have globular -shaped
bodies. Thus, it is t he int er nal st r uct ur e of t he
valve t hat ident ifies t he t ype of valve.
The inlet and out let openings for globe valves
a r e a r r a n ged i n a wa y t o s a t i s fy t h e fl ow
r equir ement s. Figur e 6-6 shows st r aight -, angle-,
and cr oss-flow valves.
The moving par t s of a globe valve consist of
t he disk, t he valve st em, and t he handwheel. The
st em connect s t he handwheel and t he disk. It is
t hr eaded and fit s int o t he t hr eads in t he valve
bonnet .
The par t of t he globe valve t hat cont r ols flow
is t he disk, which is at t ached t o t he valve st em.
(Disks ar e available in var ious designs.) The valve
is closed by t ur ning t he valve st em in unt il t he disk
is seat ed int o t he valve seat . This pr event s fluid
fr om flowing t hr ough t he valve (fig. 6-7, view A).
The edge of t he disk and t he seat ar e ver y
accur at ely machined so t hat t hey for ma t ight seal
when t he valve is closed. When t he valve is open
(fig. 6-7, view B), t he fluid flows t hr ough t he space
bet ween t he edge of t he disk and t he seat . Since
t he fluid flows equally on all sides of t he cent er
of suppor t when t he valve is open, t her e is no
unbalanced pr essur e on t he disk t o cause uneven
wear . The r at e at which fluid flows t hr ough t he
valve is r egulat ed by t he posit ion of t he disk in
r elat ion t o t he seat . The valve is commonly used
as a fully open or fully closed valve, but it may
be used as a t hr ot t le valve. However , since t he
seat ing sur face is a r elat ively lar ge ar ea, it is not
suit able as a t hr ot t le valve, wher e fine adjust ment s
ar e r equir ed in cont r olling t he r at e of flow.
The globe valve should never be jammed in
t he open posit ion. Aft er a valve is fully opened,
t he handwheel should be t ur ned t owar d t he closed
posit ion appr oximat ely one-half t ur n. Unless t his
is done, t he valve is likely t o seize in t he open
posit ion, making it difficult , if not impossible, t o
close t he valve. Many valves ar e damaged in t his
Fi gu r e 6-7.Op er a t i on of a globe va lve.
6-4
manner . Anot her r eason for not leaving globe
valves in t he fully open posit ion is t hat it is
somet imes difficult t o det er mine if t he valve is
open or closed. If t he valve is jammed in t he open
posit ion, t he st em may be damaged or br oken by
someone who t hinks t he valve is closed, and
at t empt s t o open it .
It is impor t ant t hat globe valves be inst alled
wit h t he pr essur e against t he face of t he disk t o
keep t he syst em pr essur e away fr om t he st em
packing when t he valve is shut .
NEEDLE VALVES
Needle va lves a r e simila r in design a nd
oper at ion t o t he globe valve. Inst ead of a disk,
a needle valve has a long t aper ed point at t he end
of t he valve st em. A cr oss-sect ional view of a
needle valve is illust r at ed in figur e 6-8.
The long t aper of t he valve element per mit s
a much smaller seat ing sur face ar ea t han t hat of
t he globe valve; t her efor e, t he needle valve is mor e
suit able as a t hr ot t le valve. Needle valves ar e used
t o cont r ol flow int o delica t e ga uges, which
might be damaged by sudden sur ges of fluid under
pr essur e. Needle valves ar e also used t o cont r ol
t he end of a wor k cycle, wher e it is desir able for
mot ion t o be br ought slowly t o a halt , and at ot her
point s wher e pr ecise adjust ment s of flow ar e
necessar y and wher e a small r at e of flow is
desir ed.
Alt hough many of t he needle valves used in
fluid power syst ems ar e t he manually oper at ed
t ype (fig. 6-8), modificat ions of t his t ype of valve
ar e oft en used as var iable r est r ict or s. This valve is
const r uct ed wit hout a handwheel and is adjust ed
t o pr ovide a specific r at e of flow. This r at e of flow
will pr ovide a desir ed t ime of oper at ion for a
par t icular subsyst em. Since t his t ype of valve can
be adjust ed t o confor m t o t he r equir ement s of a
par t icular syst em, it can be used in a var iet y of
syst ems. Figur e 6-9 illust r at es a needle valve t hat
was modified as a var iable r est r ict or .
HYDRAULI C AND P NEUMATI C
GLOBE VALVES
The valve consist s of a valve body and a st em
car t r idge assembly. The st em car t r idge assembly
includes t he bonnet , gland nut , packing, packing
r et ainer , handle, st em, and seat . On small valves
(1/8 and 1/4 inch) t he st em is made in one piece,
but on lar ger sizes it is made of a st em, guide,
and st em r et ainer . The valve disk is made of nylon
and is swaged int o eit her t he st em, for 1/8- and
1/4-inch valves, or t he guide, for lar ger valves.
The bonnet scr ews int o t he valve body wit h
left -hand t hr eads and is sealed by an O-r ing
(including a back-up r ing).
Fi gu r e 6-8. Cr oss-sect i on a l vi ew of a n eed le va lve. Fi gu r e 6-9. Va r i a ble r est r i ct or .
6-5
The valve is available wit h eit her a r ising st em
or a non-r ising st em. The r ising st em valve uses
t he same por t body design as does t he non-r ising
st em valve. The st em is t hr eaded int o t he gland
nut and scr ews out war d as t he valve is opened.
This valve does not incor por at e pr ovisions for
t ight ening t he st em packing nor r eplacing t he
packing while t he valve is in ser vice; t her efor e,
complet e va lve disa ssembly is r equir ed for
maint enance. Figur e 6-10 illust r at es a r ising st em
hydr aulic and pneumat ic globe valve. Addit ional
infor mat ion on t his valve is available in S tandard
Navy Valves, NAVSHI PS 0948-012-5000.
P RESSURE CONTROL VALVES
The sa fe a nd efficient oper a t ion of fluid
power syst ems, syst em component s, and r elat ed
equ i pmen t r equ i r es a mea n s of con t r ol l i n g
pr essur e. Ther e ar e many t ypes of aut omat ic
pr essur e cont r ol valves. Some of t hem mer ely
pr ovide an escape for pr essur e t hat exceeds a set
pr essur e; some only r educe t he pr essur e t o a lower
pr essur e syst em or subsyst em; and some keep t he
pr essur e in a syst em wit hin a r equir ed r ange.
RELI EF VALVES
Some fluid power syst ems, even when oper at -
ing nor mally, may t empor ar ily develop excessive
pr essur e; for example, when an unusually st r ong
wor k r esist ance is encount er ed. Relief valves ar e
used t o cont r ol t his excess pr essur e.
Relief valves ar e aut omat ic valves used on
syst em lines and equipment t o pr event over -
pr essur izat ion. Most r elief valves simply lift (open)
at a pr eset pr essur e and r eset (shut ) when t he
pr essur e dr ops slight ly below t he lift ing pr essur e.
They do not maint ain flow or pr essur e at a given
amount , but pr event pr essur e fr om r ising above
a specific level when t he syst em is t empor ar ily
over loaded.
Ma in syst em r elief va lves a r e gener a lly
inst alled bet ween t he pump or pr essur e sour ce and
t he fir st syst em isolat ion valve. The valve must
be lar ge enough t o allow t he full out put of t he
hydr a ulic pump t o be deliver ed ba ck t o t he
r eser voir . In a pneumat ic syst em, t he r elief valve
cont r ols excess pr essur e by dischar ging t he excess
gas t o t he at mospher e.
Fi gu r e 6-10.Hyd r a u li c a n d p n eu ma t i c globe va lve (r i si n g st em).
6-6
Smaller r elief valves, similar in design and
oper at ion t o t he main syst em r elief valve, ar e oft en
used in isolat ed par t s of t he syst em wher e a check
valve or dir ect ional cont r ol valve pr event s pr essur e
fr om being r elieved t hr ough t he main syst em r elief
valve and wher e pr essur es must be r elieved at a
set point lower t han t hat pr ovided by t he main
syst em r elief. These small r elief valves ar e also
used t o r elieve pr essur es caused by t her mal
expansion (see glossar y) of t he fluids.
Figur e 6-11 shows a t ypical r elief valve. Syst em
pr essur e simply act s under t he valve disk at t he
inlet t o t he valve. When t he syst em pr essur e
exceeds t he for ce exer t ed by t he valve spr ing, t he
valve disk lift s off of it s seat , allowing some of
t he syst em fluid t o escape t hr ough t he valve out let
unt il t he syst em pr essur e is r educed t o just below
t he r elief set point of t he valve.
All r elief va lves ha ve a n a djust ment for
incr easing or decr easing t he set r elief pr essur e.
Some r elief valves ar e equipped wit h an adjust ing
scr ew for t his pur pose. This adjust ing scr ew is
usua lly cover ed wit h a ca p, which must be
r emoved befor e an adjust ment can be made. Some
t ype of locking device, such as a lock nut , is
usually pr ovided t o pr event t he adjust ment fr om
changing t hr ough vibr at ion. Ot her t ypes of r elief
valves ar e equipped wit h a handwheel for making
adjust ment s t o t he valve. Eit her t he adjust ing
scr ew or t he handwheel is t ur ned clockwise t o
incr ease t he pr essur e at which t he valve will open.
In addit ion, most r elief valves ar e also pr ovided
Fi gu r e 6-11 .Reli ef va lve.
wit h an oper at ing lever or some t ype of device t o
allow manual cycling or gagging t he valve open
for cer t ain t asks.
Va r ious modifica t ions of t he r elief va lve
shown in figur e 6-11 ar e used t o efficient ly ser ve
t he r equir ement s of some fluid power syst ems;
however , t his r elief valve is unsat isfact or y for
some applicat ions. To give you a bet t er under -
st anding of t he oper at ion of r elief valves, we will
discuss some of t he undesir able char act er ist ics of
t his valve.
A s i mpl e r el i ef va l ve, s u ch a s t h e on e
illust r at ed in figur e 6-11, wit h a suit able spr ing
adjust ment can be set so t hat it will open when
t he syst em pr essur e r eaches a cer t ain level, 500
psi for example. When t he valve does open, t he
volume of flow t o be handled may be gr eat er t han
t he capacit y of t he valve; t her efor e, pr essur e in
t he syst em may incr ease t o sever al hundr ed psi
above t he set pr essur e befor e t he valve br ings t he
pr essur e under cont r ol. A simple r elief valve will
be effect ive under t hese condit ions only if it is ver y
lar ge. In t his case, it would oper at e st iffly and t he
valve element would chat t er back and for t h. In
addit ion, t he valve will not close unt il t he syst em
pr essur e decr eases t o a point somewhat below t he
opening pr essur e.
The sur face ar ea of t he valve element must be
lar ger t han t hat of t he pr essur e opening if t he
valve is t o seat sat isfact or ily as shown in figur e
6-12. The pr essur e in t he syst em act s on t he valve
element open t o it . In each case in figur e 6-12,
t he for ce exer t ed dir ect ly upwar d by syst em
pr essur e when t he valve is closed depends on t he
ar ea (A) acr oss t he valve element wher e t he
element seat s against t he pr essur e t ube. The
moment t he valve opens, however , t he upwar d
for ce exer t ed depends on t he hor izont al ar ea (B)
of t he ent ir e valve element , which is gr eat er t han
ar ea A. This causes an upwar d jump of t he valve
element immediat ely aft er it opens, because t he
Fi gu r e 6-12.P r essu r e a ct i n g on d i ffer en t a r ea s.
6-7
same pr essur e act ing over differ ent ar eas pr oduces
for ces pr opor t ional t o t he ar eas. It also r equir es
a gr eat er for ce t o close t he valve t han was r equir ed
t o open it . As a r esult , t he valve will not close unt il
t he syst em pr essur e has decr eased t o a cer t ain
point below t he pr essur e r equir ed t o open it .
Let us assume t hat a valve of t his t ype is set
t o open at 500 psi. (Refer t o fig. 6-12.) When t he
valve is closed, t he pr essur e act s on ar ea A. If t his
ar ea is 0.5 squar e inch, an upwar d for ce of 250
pounds (500 ~ 0.5) will be exer t ed on t he valve
at t he moment of opening. Wit h t he valve open,
however , t he pr essur e act s on ar ea B. If ar ea B
is 1 squar e inch, t he upwar d for ce is 500 pounds,
or double t he for ce at which t he valve act ually
opened. For t he valve t o close, pr essur e in t he
syst em would have t o decr ease well below t he
point a t which t he va lve opened. The exa ct
pr essur e would depend on t he shape of t he valve
element .
In some hydr aulic syst ems, t her e is a pr essur e
in t he r et ur n line. This back pr essur e is caused
by r est r ict ions in t he r et ur n line and will var y in
r elat ion t o t he amount of fluid flowing in t he
r et ur n line. This pr essur e cr eat es a for ce on t he
back of t he valve element and will incr ease t he
for ce necessar y t o open t he valve and r elieve
syst em pr essur e.
It follows t hat simple r elief valves have a
t endency t o open and close r apidly as t hey hunt
a bove a nd below t he set pr essur e, ca using
pr essur e pulsat ions and undesir able vibr at ions
and pr oducing a noisy chat t er . Because of t he
unsat isfact or y per for mance of t he simple r elief
valve in some applicat ions, compound r elief valves
wer e developed.
Compound r elief valves use t he pr inciples of
oper at ion of simple r elief valves for one st age of
t heir act iont hat of t he pilot valve. Pr ovision is
made t o limit t he amount of fluid t hat t he pilot
va l ve mu s t h a n dl e, a n d t h er eby a voi d t h e
wea knesses of simple r elief va lves. (A pilot
valve is a small valve used for oper at ing anot her
valve.)
The oper at ion of a compound r elief valve is
illust r at ed in figur e 6-13. In view A, t he main
valve, which consist s of a pist on, st em, and spr ing,
is closed, blocking flow fr om t he high-pr essur e
line t o t he r eser voir . Fluid in t he high-pr essur e line
flows ar ound t he st em of t he main valves as it
flows t o t he act uat ing unit . The st em of t he main
valve is hollow (t he st em passage) and cont ains
t he main valve spr ing, which for ces t he main valve
against it s seat . When t he pilot valve is open t he
st em passage allows fluid t o flow fr om t he pilot
Fi gu r e 6-13.Op er a t i on of comp ou n d r eli ef va lve,
6-8
valve, ar ound t he main valve spr ing, and down
t o t he r et ur n line.
Ther e is also a nar r ow passage (pist on passage)
t hr ough t he main valve pist on. This passage
connect s t he high-pr essur e line t o t he va lve
chamber .
The pilot valve is a small, ball-t ype, spr ing-
loaded check valve, which connect s t he t op of t he
passage fr om t he valve chamber wit h t he passage
t hr ough t he main valve st em. The pilot valve is
t he cont r ol unit of t he r elief valve because t he
pr essur e at which t he r elief valve will open
depends on t he t ension of t he pilot valve spr ing.
The pilot valve spr ing t ension is adjust ed by
t ur ning t he adjust ing scr ew so t hat t he ball will
unseat when syst em pr essur e r eaches t he pr eset
limit .
Fluid a t line pr essur e flows t hr ough t he
na r r ow pist on pa ssa ge t o fill t he cha mber .
Because t he line and t he chamber ar e connect ed,
t he pr essur e in bot h ar e equal. The t op and
bot t om of t he main pist on have equal ar eas;
t her efor e, t he hydr aulic for ces act ing upwar d
and downwar d ar e equal, and t her e is no t endency
for t he pist on t o move in eit her dir ect ion.
The only ot her for ce act ing on t he main valve
is t hat of t he main valve spr ing, which holds it
closed.
When t he pr essur e in t he high-pr essur e line
incr eases t o t he point at which t he pilot valve
is set , t he ba ll unsea t s (fig. 6-13, view B).
This opens t he va lve cha mber t hr ough t he
valve st em passage t o t he low-pr essur e r et ur n
line. Fluid immediat ely begins t o flow out of t he
chamber , much fast er t han it can flow t hr ough
t he na r r ow pist on pa ssa ge. As a r esult t he
chamber pr essur e immediat ely dr ops, and t he
pilot va lve begins t o close a ga in, r est r ict ing
t he out war d flow of fluid. Chamber pr essur e
t her efor e incr eases, t he valve opens, and t he cycle
r epeat s.
So far , t he only par t of t he valve t hat has
moved appr eciably is t he pilot , which funct ions
just like any ot her simple spr ing-loaded r elief
valve. Because of t he small size of t he pist on
passage, t her e is a sever e limit on t he amount
of over pr essur e pr ot ect ion t he pilot can pr ovide
t he syst em. All t he pilot valve can do is limit
fluid pr essur e in t he valve chamber above t he
ma in pist on t o a pr eset ma ximum pr essur e,
by allowing excess fluid t o flow t hr ough t he
pist on passage, t hr ough t he st em passage, and
int o t he r et ur n line. When pr essur e in t he syst em
incr eases t o a value t hat is above t he flow capacit y
of t h e pi l ot va l ve, t h e ma i n va l ve open s ,
per mit t ing excess fluid t o flow dir ect ly t o t he
r et ur n line. This is accomplished in t he following
manner .
As syst em pr essur e incr eases, t he upwar d for ce
on t he main pist on over comes t he downwar d
for ce, which consist s of t he t ension of t he main
pist on spr ing and t he pr essur e of t he fluid in t he
valve chamber (fig. 6-13, view C). The pist on t hen
r ises, unseat ing t he st em, and allows t he fluid t o
flow fr om t he syst em pr essur e line dir ect ly int o
t he r et ur n line. This causes syst em pr essur e t o
decr ease r apidly, since t he main valve is designed
t o handle t he complet e out put of t he pump. When
t he pr essur e r et ur ns t o nor mal, t he pilot spr ing
for ces t he ball ont o t he seat . Pr essur es ar e equal
above and below t he main pist on, and t he main
spr ing for ces t he valve t o seat .
As you can see, t he compound valve over -
comes t he gr eat est limit at ion of a simple r elief
valve by limit ing t he flow t hr ough t he pilot valve
t o t he quant it y it can sat isfact or ily handle. This
limit s t he pr essur e above t he main valve and
enables t he main line pr essur e t o open t he main
valve. In t his way, t he syst em is r elieved when an
over load exist s.
P RESSURE REGULATORS
Pr essur e r egulat or s, oft en r efer r ed t o a s
unloading valves, ar e used in fluid power syst ems
t o r egulat e pr essur e. In pneumat ic syst ems, t he
va lve, commonly r efer r ed t o a s a pr essur e
r egulat or , simply r educes pr essur e. This t ype of
valve is discussed lat er in t his chapt er under
pr essur e-r educing valves. In hydr aulic syst ems t he
pr essur e r egulat or is used t o unload t he pump and
t o maint ain and r egulat e syst em pr essur e at t he
desir ed values. All hydr aulic syst ems do not
r equir e pr essur e r egula t or s. The open-cent er
syst em (discussed in chapt er 12) does not r equir e
a pr essur e r egulat or . Many syst ems ar e equipped
wit h var iable-displacement pumps (discussed in
chapt er 4), which cont ain a pr essur e-r egulat ing
device.
Pr essur e r egulat or s ar e made in a var iet y of
t ypes and by var ious manufact ur er s; however , t he
6-9
basic oper at ing pr inciples of all r egulat or s ar e
similar t o t he one illust r at ed in figur e 6-14.
A r egulat or is open when it is dir ect ing fluid
under pr essur e int o t he syst em (fig. 6-14, view A).
In t he closed posit ion (fig. 6-14, view B), t he fluid
in t he par t of t he syst em beyond t he r egulat or is
t r apped at t he desir ed pr essur e, and t he fluid fr om
t he pump is bypassed int o t he r et ur n line and back
t o t he r eser voir . To pr event const ant opening and
closing (chat t er ), t he r egulat or is designed t o open
at a pr essur e somewhat lower t han t he closing
pr essur e. This differ ence is known as differ ent ial
or oper at ing r ange. For example, assume t hat a
pr essur e r egulat or is set t o open when t he syst em
pr essur e dr ops below 600 psi, and close when t he
pr essur e r ises above 800 psi. The differ ent ial or
oper at ing r ange is 200 psi.
Refer r ing t o figur e 6-14, assume t hat t he
pist on has an ar ea of 1 squar e inch, t he pilot valve
has a cr oss-sect ional ar ea of one-four t h squar e
inch, and t he pist on spr ing pr ovides 600 pounds
of for ce pushing t he pist on down. When t he
pr essur e in t he syst em is less t han 600 psi, fluid
fr om t he pump will ent er t he inlet por t , flow t o
t he t op of t he r egulat or , and t hen t o t he pilot
valve. When t he pr essur e of t he fluid at t he inlet
incr eases t o t he point wher e t he for ce it cr eat es
against t he fr ont of t he check valve exceeds t he
for ce cr eat ed against t he back of t he check valve
by syst em pr essur e and t he check valve spr ing, t he
check valve opens. This allows fluid t o flow int o
t he syst em and t o t he bot t om of t he r egulat or
against t he pist on. When t he for ce cr eat ed by t he
syst em pr essur e exceeds t he for ce exer t ed by t he
spr ing, t he pist on moves up, causing t he pilot
valve t o unseat . Since t he fluid will t ake t he pat h
of lea st r esist a nce, it will pa ss t hr ough t he
r egulat or and back t o t he r eser voir t hr ough t he
r et ur n line.
When t he fluid fr om t he pump is suddenly
allowed a fr ee pat h t o r et ur n, t he pr essur e on t he
input side of t he check valve dr ops and t he check
valve closes. The fluid in t he syst em is t hen
t r apped under pr essur e. This fluid will r emain
pr essur ized unt il a power unit is act uat ed, or unt il
pr essur e is slowly lost t hr ough nor mal int er nal
leakage wit hin t he syst em.
When t he syst em pr essur e decr eases t o a point
slight ly below 600 psi, t he spr ing for ces t he pist on
down and closes t he pilot valve. When t he pilot
valve is closed, t he fluid cannot flow dir ect ly t o
t he r et ur n line. This causes t he pr essur e t o incr ease
in t he line bet ween t he pump and t he r egulat or .
This pr essur e opens t he check valve, causing t he
fluid t o ent er t he syst em.
In summar y, when t he syst em pr essur e
decr eases a cer t ain amount , t he pr essur e r egulat or
will open, sending fluid t o t he syst em. When t he
s ys t em pr es s u r e i n cr ea s es s u ffi ci en t l y, t h e
r egulat or will close, allowing t he fluid fr om t he
pump t o flow t hr ough t he r egulat or and back t o
t he r eser voir . The pr essur e r egulat or t akes t he load
off of t he pump and r egulat es syst em pr essur e.
Fi gu r e 6-14.Hyd r a u li c p r essu r e r egu la t or .
6-10
Fi gu r e 6-15 .I n st a lla t i on
SEQUENCE VALVES
of sequ en ce va lves.
Sequence va lves cont r ol t he sequence of
oper at ion bet ween t wo br anches in a cir cuit ; t hat
is, t hey enable one unit t o aut omat ically set
anot her unit int o mot ion. An example of t he use
of a sequence valve is in an air cr aft landing gear
act uat ing syst em.
In a landing gear act uat ing syst em, t he landing
gear door s must open befor e t he landing gear
st ar t s t o ext end. Conver sely, t he landing gear must
be complet ely r et r act ed befor e t he door s close. A
sequence valve inst alled in each landing gear
act uat ing line per for ms t his funct ion.
A sequence valve is somewhat similar t o a
r elief valve except t hat , aft er t he set pr essur e has
been r eached, t he sequence valve diver t s t he fluid
t o a second act uat or or mot or t o do wor k in
anot her par t of t he syst em. Figur e 6-15 shows an
inst allat ion of t wo sequence valves t hat cont r ol
t he sequence of oper at ion of t hr ee act uat ing
cylinder s. Fluid is fr ee t o flow int o cylinder A.
The fir st sequence valve (1) blocks t he passage of
fluid unt il t he pist on in cylinder A moves t o t he
end of it s st r oke. At t his t ime, sequence valve 1
opens, allowing fluid t o ent er cylinder B. This
act ion cont inues unt il all t hr ee pist ons complet e
t heir st r okes.
Ther e ar e var ious t ypes of sequence valves.
Some ar e cont r olled by pr essur e and some ar e
cont r olled mechanically.
P r essu r e-Con t r olled Sequ en ce Va lve
The oper at ion of a t ypical pr essur e-cont r olled
sequence valve is illust r at ed in figur e 6-16. The
opening pr essur e is obt ained by adjust ing t he
t ension of t he spr ing t hat nor mally holds t he
pist on in t he closed posit ion. (Not e t hat t he t op
par t of t he pist on has a lar ger diamet er t han t he
lower par t .) Fluid ent er s t he valve t hr ough t he
inlet por t , flows ar ound t he lower par t of t he
pist on and exit s t he out let por t , wher e it flows t o
t he pr imar y (fir st ) unit t o be oper at ed (fig. 6-16,
view A). This fluid pr essur e also act s against t he
lower sur face of t he pist on.
Fi gu r e 6-16.Op er a t i on of a p r essu r e-con t r olled sequ en ce va lve.
6-11
When t he pr imar y act uat ing unit complet es it s
oper at ion, pr essur e in t he line t o t he act uat ing unit
incr eases sufficient ly t o over come t he for ce of t he
spr ing, and t he pist on r ises. The valve is t hen in
t he open posit ion (fig. 6-16, view B). The fluid
ent er ing t he valve t akes t he pat h of least r esist ance
and flows t o t he secondar y unit .
A dr ain passage is pr ovided t o allow any fluid
leaking past t he pist on t o flow fr om t he t op of
t he valve. In hydr aulic syst ems, t his dr ain line is
usually connect ed t o t he main r et ur n line.
Mech a n i ca lly Op er a t ed Sequ en ce Va lve
The mechanically oper at ed sequence valve
(fig. 6-17) is oper at ed by a plunger t hat ext ends
t hr ough t he body of t he va lve. The va lve is
mount ed so t hat t he plunger will be oper at ed by
t he pr imar y unit .
A check valve, eit her a ball or a poppet , is
inst alled bet ween t he fluid por t s in t he body. It
can be unseat ed by eit her t he plunger or fluid
pr essur e.
Por t A (fig. 6-17) and t he act uat or of t he
pr imar y unit ar e connect ed by a common line.
Por t B is connect ed by a line t o t he act uat or of
t he secondar y unit . When fluid under pr essur e
flows t o t he pr imar y unit , it also flows int o t he
sequence valve t hr ough por t A t o t he seat ed check
valve in t he sequence valve. In or der t o oper at e
t he secondar y unit , t he fluid must flow t hr ough
t he sequence valve. The valve is locat ed so t hat
t he pr imar y unit depr esses t he plunger as it
complet es it s oper at ion. The plunger unseat s
t he check valve and allows t he fluid t o flow
Fi gu r e 6-17.Mech a n i ca lly op er a t ed sequ en ce va lve.
t h r ou gh t h e va l ve, ou t por t B, a n d t o t h e
secondar y unit .
This t ype of sequence valve per mit s flow in
t he opposit e dir ect ion. Fluid ent er s por t B and
flows t o t he check valve. Alt hough t his is r et ur n
flow fr om t he act uat ing unit , t he fluid over comes
spr ing t ension, unseat s t he check valve, and flows
out t hr ough por t A.
P RESSURE-REDUCI NG VALVES
Pr essur e-r educing valves pr ovide a st eady
pr essur e int o a syst em t hat oper at es at a lower
pr essur e t han t he supply syst em. A r educing valve
can nor mally be set for any desir ed downst r eam
pr essur e wit hin t he design limit s of t he valve. Once
t he valve is set , t he r educed pr essur e will be
ma int a ined r ega r dless of cha nges in supply
pr essur e (as long as t he supply pr essur e is at least
as high as t he r educed pr essur e desir ed) and
r egar dless of t he syst em load, pr oviding t he load
does not exceed t he design capacit y of t he r educer .
Fi gu r e 6-18.Sp r i n g-loa d ed p r essu r e-r ed u ci n g va lve.
6-12
Th er e a r e va r i ou s des i gn s a n d t ypes of
pr essur e-r educing va lves. The spr ing-loa ded
r edu cer a n d t h e pi l ot -con t r ol l ed va l ve a r e
discussed in t his t ext .
Sp r i n g-Loa d ed Red u cer
The spr ing-loaded pr essur e-r educing valve
(fi g. 6-18) i s common l y u s ed i n pn eu ma t i c
syst ems. It is oft en r efer r ed t o as a pr essur e
r egulat or .
The valve simply uses spr ing pr essur e against
a diaphr agm t o open t he valve. On t he bot t om
of t he diaphr agm, t he out let pr essur e (t he pr essur e
in t he r educed-pr essur e syst em) of t he valve for ces
t he diaphr agm upwar d t o shut t he valve. When
t he out let pr essur e dr ops below t he set point of
t he valve, t he spr ing pr essur e over comes t he out let
pr essur e and for ces t he valve st em downwar d,
opening t he valve. As t he out let pr essur e incr eases,
a ppr oa ching t he desir ed va lue, t he pr essur e
under t he diaphr agm begins t o over come spr ing
pr essur e, for cing t he valve st em upwar ds, shut t ing
t he va lve. You ca n a djust t he downst r ea m
pr essur e by t ur ning t he adjust ing scr ew, which
var ies t he spr ing pr essur e against t he diaphr agm.
This par t icular spr ing-loaded valve will fail in t he
open posit ion if a diaphr agm r upt ur e occur s.
P i lot -Con t r olled P r essu r e-Red u ci n g Va lve
Figur e 6-19 illust r at es t he oper at ion of a
pilot -cont r olled pr essur e-r educing valve. This
valve consist s of an adjust able pilot valve, which
cont r ols t he oper at ing pr essur e of t he valve, and
a spool valve, which r eact s t o t he act ion of t he
pilot valve.
The pilot valve consist s of a poppet (1), a
spr ing (2), and an adjust ing scr ew (3). The valve
Fi gu r e 6-19.P i lot -con t r olled p r essu r e-r ed u ci n g va lve.
6-13
spool assembly consist s of a valve spool (10) and
a spr ing (4).
Fluid under main pr essur e ent er s t he inlet por t
(11) and under all condit ions is fr ee t o flow
t hr ough t he valve and t he out let por t (5). (Eit her
por t 5 or por t 11 maybe used as t he high-pr essur e
por t .)
Figur e 6-19, view A, shows t he valve in t he
open posit ion. In t his posit ion, t he pr essur e in t he
r educed-pr essur e out let por t (6) has not r eached
t he pr eset oper at ing pr essur e of t he valve. The
fluid also flows t hr ough passage 8, t hr ough smaller
passage 9 in t he cent er of t he valve spool, and int o
chamber 12. The fluid pr essur e at out let por t 6
is t her efor e dist r ibut ed t o bot h ends of t he spool.
When t hese pr essur es ar e equal t he spool is hydr au-
lically balanced. Spr ing 4 is a low-t ension spr ing
and applies only a slight downwar d for ce on t he
spool. It s main pur pose is t o posit ion t he spool
and t o maint ain opening 7 at it s maximum size.
As t he pr essur e incr eases in out let por t 6 (fig.
16, view B), t his pr essur e is t r ansmit t ed t hr ough
passages 8 and 9 t o chamber 12. This pr essur e also
act s on t he pilot valve poppet (1). When t his
pr essur e incr eases above t he pr eset oper at ing
pr essur e of t he valve, it over comes t he for ce of
pilot valve spr ing 2 and unseat s t he poppet . This
allows fluid t o flow t hr ough t he dr ain por t (15).
Because t he small passage (9) r est r ict s flow int o
chamber 12, t he fluid pr essur e in t he chamber
dr ops. This causes a moment ar y differ ence in
pr essur e acr oss t he valve spool (10) which allows
fluid pr essur e act ing against t he bot t om ar ea of
t he valve spool t o over come t he downwar d for ce
of spr ing 4. The spool is t hen for ced upwar d unt il
t he pr essur es acr oss it s ends ar e equalized. As t he
spool moves upwar d, it r est r ict s t he flow t hr ough
opening 7 and causes t he pr essur e t o decr ease in
t he r educed pr essur e out let por t 6. If t he pr essur e
in t he out let por t cont inues t o incr ease t o a value
above t he pr eset pr essur e, t he pilot valve will open
again and t he cycle will r epeat . This allows t he
spool valve t o move up higher int o chamber 12;
t hus fur t her r educing t he size of opening 7.
These cycles r epeat unt il t he desir ed pr essur e is
maint ained in out let 6.
When t he pr essur e in out let 6 decr eases t o a
value below t he pr eset pr essur e, spr ing 4 for ces
t he spool downwar d, allowing mor e fluid t o flow
t hr ough opening 7.
COUNTERBALANCE VALVE
The count er balance valve is nor mally locat ed
in t he line bet ween a dir ect ional cont r ol valve and
t he out let of a ver t ica lly mount ed a ct ua t ing
cylinder which suppor t s weight or must be held
6-14
in posit ion for a per iod of t ime. This valve ser ves
as a hydr aulic r esist ance t o t he act uat ing cylinder .
For example, count er balance valves ar e used in
some hydr aulically oper at ed for klift s. The valve
offer s a r esist ance t o t he flow fr om t he act uat ing
cylinder when t he for k is lower ed. It also helps
t o suppor t t he for k in t he UP posit ion.
Count er balance valves ar e also used in air -
launched weapons loader s. In t his case t he valve
is locat ed in t he t op of t he lift cylinder . The valve
r equir es a specific pr essur e t o lower t he load. If
adequat e pr essur e is not available, t he load cannot
be lower ed. This pr event s collapse of t he load due
t o any malfunct ion of t he hydr aulic syst em.
One t ype of count er balance valve is illust r at ed
in figur e 6-20. The valve element is a balanced
spool (4). The spool consist s of t wo pist ons
per manent ly fixed on eit her end of a shaft . The
inner sur face ar eas of t he pist ons ar e equal;
t her efor e, pr essur e act s equally on bot h ar eas
r egar dless of t he posit ion of t he valve and has no
effect on t he movement of t he valvehence, t he
t er m balanced. The shaft ar ea bet ween t he t wo
pist ons pr ovides t he ar ea for t he fluid t o flow
Fi gu r e 6-20. Cou n t er ba la n ce va lve.
when t he valve is open. A small pist on (9) is
at t ached t o t he bot t om of t he spool valve.
When t he valve is in t he closed posit ion, t he
t op pist on of t he spool valve blocks t he dischar ge
por t (8). Wit h t he valve in t his posit ion, fluid
flowing fr om t he act uat ing unit ent er s t he inlet
por t (5). The fluid cannot flow t hr ough t he valve
because dischar ge por t 8 is blocked. However ,
fluid will flow t hr ough t he pilot passage (6) t o t he
small pilot pist on. As t he pr essur e incr eases, it act s
on t he pilot pist on unt il it over comes t he pr eset
pr essur e of spr ing 3. This for ces t he valve spool
(4) up and allows t he fluid t o flow ar ound t he
shaft of t he valve spool and out dischar ge por t
8. Figur e 6-20 shows t he valve in t his posit ion.
Dur ing r ever se flow, t he fluid ent er s por t 8. The
spr ing (3) for ces valve spool 4 t o t he closed
posit ion. The fluid pr essur e over comes t he spr ing
t ension of t he check valve (7). The check valve
opens and allows fr ee flow ar ound t he shaft of
t he valve spool and out t hr ough por t 5.
The oper at ing pr essur e of t he valve can be
adjust ed by t ur ning t he adjust ment scr ew (1),
which incr eases or decr eases t he t ension of t he
spr ing. This adjust ment depends on t he weight
t hat t he valve must suppor t .
It is nor mal for a small amount of fluid t o leak
ar ound t he t op pist on of t he spool valve and int o
t he ar ea ar ound t he spr ing. An accumulat ion
would cause addit ional pr essur e on t op of t he
spool va lve. This would r equir e a ddit iona l
pr essur e t o open t he valve. The dr ain (2) pr ovides
a passage for t his fluid t o flow t o por t 8.
DI RECTI ONAL CONTROL VALVES
Dir ect ional cont r ol valves ar e designed t o
dir ect t he flow of fluid, at t he desir ed t ime, t o t he
point in a fluid power syst em wher e it will do
wor k. The dr iving of a r am back and for t h in it s
cylinder is an example of when a dir ect ional
cont r ol valve is used. Var ious ot her t er ms ar e used
t o ident ify dir ect ional valves, such as select or
valve, t r ansfer valve, and cont r ol valve. This
manual will use t he t er m dir ect ional cont r ol valve
t o ident ify t hese valves.
Di r ect i on a l con t r ol va l ves for h ydr a u l i c
and pneumat ic syst ems ar e similar in design
a nd oper a t ion. However , t her e is one ma jor
differ ence. The r et ur n por t of a hydr aulic valve
is por t ed t hr ough a r et ur n line t o t he r eser voir ,
while t he similar por t of a pneumat ic valve,
commonly r efer r ed t o as t he exhaust por t , is
usually vent ed t o t he at mospher e. Any ot her
differ ences ar e point ed out in t he discussion of
t he valves.
Dir ect ional cont r ol valves may be oper at ed by
differ ences in pr essur e act ing on opposit e sides
of t he valving element , or t hey maybe posit ioned
manually, mechanically, or elect r ically. Oft en t wo
or mor e met hods of oper at ing t he same valve will
be used in differ ent phases of it s act ion.
CLASSI FI CATI ON
Dir ect ional cont r ol valves may be classified in
sever al ways. Some of t he differ ent ways ar e by
t he t ype of cont r ol, t he number of por t s in t he
valve housing, and t he specific funct ion of t he
valve. The most common met hod is by t he t ype
of valving element used in t he const r uct ion of t he
va l ve. Th e mos t common t ypes of va l vi n g
element s ar e t he ball, cone or sleeve, poppet ,
r ot a r y s pool , a n d s l i di n g s pool . Th e ba s i c
oper at ing pr inciples of t he poppet , r ot ar y spool,
and sliding spool valving element s ar e discussed
in t his t ext .
P op p et
The poppet fit s int o t he cent er bor e of t he seat
(fig. 6-21). The seat ing sur faces of t he poppet and
t he seat ar e lapped or closely machined so t hat
t he cent er bor e will be sealed when t he poppet is
Fi gu r e 6-21.Op er a t i on of a si mp le p op p et va lve.
6-15
seat ed (shut ). The act ion of t he poppet is similar
t o t hat of t he valves in an aut omobile engine. In
most valves t he poppet is held in t he seat ed
posit ion by a spr ing.
The valve consist s pr imar ily of a movable
poppet which closes against t he valve seat . In t he
closed posit ion, fluid pr essur e on t he inlet side
t ends t o hold t he valve t ight ly closed. A small
amount of movement fr om a for ce applied t o t he
t op of t he poppet st em opens t he poppet and
allows fluid t o flow t hr ough t he valve.
The use of t he poppet as a-valving element is
not limit ed t o dir ect ional cont r ol valves.
Rot a r y Sp ool
The r ot ar y spool dir ect ional cont r ol valve
(fig. 6-22) has a r ound cor e wit h one or mor e
passages or r ecesses in it . The cor e is mount ed
wit hin a st at ionar y sleeve. As t he cor e is r ot at ed
wit hin t he st at ionar y sleeve, t he passages or
r ecesses connect or block t he por t s in t he sleeve.
The por t s in t he sleeve ar e connect ed t o t he
appr opr iat e lines of t he fluid syst em.
Sli d i n g sp ool
The oper a t ion of a simple sliding spool
dir ect ional cont r ol valve is shown in figur e 6-23.
The valve is so-named because of t he shape of t he
valving element t hat slides back and for t h t o block
and uncover por t s in t he housing. (The sliding
element is also r efer r ed t o as a pist on.) The inner
pist on ar eas (lands) ar e equal. Thus fluid under
pr essur e which ent er s t he valve fr om t he inlet por t s
CHECK VALVE
Fi gu r e 6-22.P a r t s of a r ot a r y sp ool d i r ect i on a l con t r ol
va lve.
Fi gu r e 6-23.Two-wa y, sli d i n g sp ool d i r ect i on a l con t r ol
va lve.
act s equally on bot h inner pist on ar eas r egar dless
of t he posit ion of t he spool. Sealing is usually
a ccomplished by a ver y closely ma chined fit
bet ween t he spool and t he valve body or sleeve.
For valves wit h mor e por t s, t he spool is designed
wit h mor e pist ons or lands on a common shaft .
The sliding spool is t he most commonly used t ype
of valving element used in dir ect ional cont r ol
va lves.
Check valves ar e used in fluid syst ems t o
per mit flow in one dir ect ion and t o pr event flow
in t he ot her dir ect ion. They ar e classified as
one-way dir ect ional cont r ol valves.
The check va lve ma y be inst a lled inde-
pendent ly in a line t o allow flow in one dir ect ion
only, or it may be used as an int egr al par t of
globe, sequence, count er balance, and pr essur e-
r educing valves.
Check valves ar e available in var ious designs.
They ar e opened by t he for ce of fluid in mot ion
flowing in one dir ect ion, and ar e closed by fluid
at t empt ing t o flow in t he opposit e dir ect ion. The
for ce of gr avit y or t he act ion of a spr ing aids in
closing t he valve.
6-16
Fi gu r e 6-24.Swi n g ch eck va lve.
Figur e 6-24 shows a swing check valve. In t he
open posit ion, t he flow of fluid for ces t he hinged
disk up and allows fr ee flow t hr ough t he valve.
Flow in t he opposit e dir ect ion wit h t he aid of
gr avit y, for ces t he hinged disk t o close t he passage
a nd blocks t he flow. This t ype of va lve is
somet imes designed wit h a spr ing t o assist in
closing t he valve.
Th e mos t common t ype of ch eck va l ve,
inst alled in fluid-power syst ems, uses eit her a ball
or cone for t he sealing element (fig. 6-25). As fluid
pr essur e is applied in t he dir ect ion of t he ar r ow,
t he cone (view A) or ball (view B) is for ced off
it s seat , allowing fluid t o flow fr eely t hr ough t he
valve. This valve is known as a spr ing-loaded
check valve.
The spr ing is inst alled in t he valve t o hold t he
cone or ball on it s seat whenever fluid is not
flowing. The spr ing also helps t o for ce t he cone
or ball on it s seat when t he fluid at t empt s t o flow
in t he opposit e dir ect ion. Since t he opening and
closing of t his t ype of valve is not dependent on
gr avit y, it s locat ion in a syst em is not limit ed t o
t he ver t ical posit ion.
A modificat ion of t he spr ing-loaded check
valve is t he or ifice check valve (fig. 6-26). This
Fi gu r e 6-25.Sp r i n g-loa d ed ch eck va lves. Fi gu r e 6-26.Typ i ca l or i fi ce ch eck va lves.
6-17
valve allows nor mal flow in one dir ect ion and
r est r ict ed flow in t he ot her . It is oft en r efer r ed
t o as a one-way r est r ict or .
Figur e 6-26, view A, shows a cone-t ype or ifice
check valve. When sufficient fluid pr essur e is
applied at t he inlet por t , it over comes spr ing
t ension and moves t he cone off of it s seat . The
t wo or ifices (2) in t he illust r at ion r epr esent sever al
openings locat ed ar ound t he slant ed cir cumfer ence
of t he cone. These or ifices allow fr ee flow of fluid
t hr ough t he valve while t he cone is off of it s seat .
When fluid pr essur e is applied t hr ough t he out let
por t , t he for ce of t he fluid and spr ing t ension
move t he cone t o t he left and ont o it s seat . This
act ion blocks t he flow of fluid t hr ough t he valve,
except t hr ough t he or ifice (1) in t he cent er of t he
cone. The size of t he or ifice (in t he cent er of t he
cone) det er mines t he r at e of flow t hr ough t he
valve as t he fluid flows fr om r ight t o left .
Figur e 6-26, view B, shows a ball-t ype or ifice
check valve. Fluid flow t hr ough t he valve fr om
left t o r ight for ces t he ball off of it s seat and
allows nor mal flow. Fluid flow t hr ough t he valve
in t he opposit e dir ect ion for ces t he ball ont o it s
seat . Thus, t he flow is r est r ict ed by t he size of t he
or ifice locat ed in t he housing of t he valve.
NOTE: The dir ect ion of fr ee flow t hr ough t he
or ifice check va lve is indica t ed by a n a r r ow
st amped on t he housing.
SHUTTLE VALVE
In cer t ain fluid power syst ems, t he supply of
fluid t o a subsyst em must be fr om mor e t han one
sour ce t o meet syst em r equir ement s. In some
syst ems an emer gency syst em is pr ovided as a
sour ce of pr essur e in t he event of nor mal syst em
failur e. The emer gency syst em will usually act uat e
only essent ial component s.
The main pur pose of t he shut t le valve is t o
isolat e t he nor mal syst em fr om an alt er nat e or
emer gency syst em. It is small and simple; yet , it
is a ver y impor t ant component .
Figur e 6-27 is a cut away view of a t ypical
shut t le valve. The housing cont ains t hr ee por t s
nor mal syst em inlet , alt er nat e or emer gency
syst em inlet , and out let . A shut t le valve used t o
oper at e mor e t han one act uat ing unit may cont ain
addit ional unit out let por t s. Enclosed in t he
housing is a sliding par t called t he shut t le. It s
pur pose is t o seal off eit her one or t he ot her inlet
por t s. Ther e is a shut t le seat at each inlet por t .
6-18
Fi gu r e 6-27.Sh u t t le va lve.
Wh en a s h u t t l e va l ve i s i n t h e n or ma l
oper at ion posit ion, fluid has a fr ee flow fr om t he
nor mal syst em inlet por t , t hr ough t he valve, and
out t hr ough t he out let por t t o t he act uat ing unit .
The shut t le is seat ed against t he alt er nat e syst em
inlet por t a nd held t her e by nor ma l syst em
pr essur e and by t he shut t le valve spr ing. The
shut t le r emains in t his posit ion unt il t he alt er nat e
syst em is act ivat ed. This act ion dir ect s fluid under
pr essur e fr om t he alt er nat e syst em t o t he shut t le
valve and for ces t he shut t le fr om t he alt er nat e
syst em inlet por t t o t he nor mal syst em inlet por t .
Fluid fr om t he alt er nat e syst em t hen has a fr ee
flow t o t he out let por t , but is pr event ed fr om
ent er ing t he nor mal syst em by t he shut t le, which
seals off t he nor mal syst em por t .
The shut t le may be one of four t ypes: (1)
sliding plunger , (2) spr ing-loaded pist on, (3)
spr ing-loaded ball, or (4) spr ing-loaded poppet .
In shut t le valves t hat ar e designed wit h a spr ing,
t he shut t le is nor mally held against t he alt er nat e
syst em inlet por t by t he spr ing.
TWO-WAY VALVES
The t er m two-way indicat es t hat t he valve
cont ains and cont r ols t wo funct ional flow cont r ol
por t s-an inlet and an out let . A t wo-way, sliding
spool dir ect ional cont r ol valve is shown in figur e
6-23. As t he spool is moved back and for t h, it
eit her allows fluid t o flow t hr ough t he valve or
pr event s flow. In t he open posit ion, t he fluid
ent er s t he inlet por t , flows ar ound t he shaft of
t he spool, and t hr ough t he out let por t . The spool
cannot move back and for t h by differ ence of
for ces set up wit hin t he cylinder , since t he for ces
t her e ar e equal. As indicat ed by t he ar r ows against
t he pist ons of t he spool, t he same pr essur e act s
on equal ar eas on t heir inside sur faces. In t he
closed posit ion, one of t he pist ons of t he spool
simply blocks t he inlet por t , t hus pr event ing flow
t hr ough t he valve.
A number of feat ur es common t o most sliding
spool valves ar e shown in figur e 6-23. The small
por t s at eit her end of t he valve housing pr ovide
a pat h for any fluid t hat leaks past t he spool t o
flow t o t he r eser voir . This pr event s pr essur e fr om
building up against t he ends of t he pist ons, which
would hinder t he movement of t he spool. When
spool valves become wor n, t hey may lose balance
because of gr eat er leakage on one side of t he spool
t han on t he ot her . In t hat event , t he spool would
t end t o st ick when it is moved back and for t h.
Small gr ooves ar e t her efor e machined ar ound t he
sliding sur face of t he pist on; and in hydr aulic
valves, leaking liquid will encir cle t he pist ons and
keep t he cont a ct ing sur fa ces lubr ica t ed a nd
cent er ed.
THREE-WAY VALVES
Thr ee-way valves cont ain a pr essur e por t , a
cylinder por t , and a r et ur n or exhaust por t . The
t hr ee-way dir ect ional cont r ol valve is designed t o
oper at e an act uat ing unit in one dir ect ion; it
per mit s eit her t he load on t he act uat ing unit or
a spr ing t o r et ur n t he unit t o it s or iginal posit ion.
Ca m-Op er a t ed Th r ee-Wa y Va lves
Figur e 6-28 shows t he oper at ion of a cam-
oper a t ed, t hr ee-wa y, poppet -t ype dir ect iona l
cont r ol valve. View A shows fluid under pr essur e
for cing t he pist on out war d against a load. The
upper poppet (2) is unseat ed by t he inside cam
(5), per mit t ing fluid t o flow fr om t he line (3) int o
t he cylinder t o act uat e t he pist on. The lower
poppet (1) is seat ed, sealing off t he flow int o t he
r et ur n line (4). As t he for ce of t he pr essur ized fluid
ext ends t he pist on r od, it also compr esses t he
spr ing in t he cylinder .
View B shows t he valve wit h t he cont r ol
handle t ur ned t o t he opposit e posit ion. In t his
posit ion, t he upper poppet (2) is seat ed, blocking
t he flow of fluid fr om t he pr essur e line (3). The
lower poppet (1) is unseat ed by t he out side cam
(6). This r eleases t he pr essur e in t he cylinder and
allows t he spr ing t o expand, which for ces t he
pist on r od t o r et r act . The fluid fr om t he cylinder
flows t hr ough t he cont r ol valve and out t he r et ur n
Fi gu r e 6-28.Th r ee-wa y, p op p et -t yp e d i r ect i on a l con t r ol
va lve (ca m-op er a t ed ).
6-19
por t (4). In hydr aulic syst ems, t he r et ur n por t is
connect ed by a line t o t he r eser voir . In pneumat ic
syst ems, t he r et ur n por t is usually open t o t he
at mospher e.
P i lot -Op er a t ed Th r ee-Wa y Va lves
A pilot -oper a t ed, poppet -t ype, t hr ee-wa y
dir ect ional cont r ol valve is shown in figur e 6-29.
Valves of t his design ar e oft en used in pneumat ic
syst ems. This valve is nor mally closed and is
for ced open by fluid pr essur e ent er ing t he
pilot chamber . The valve cont ains t wo poppet s
connect ed t o each ot her by a common st em. The
poppet s ar e connect ed t o diaphr agms which hold
t hem in a cent er ed posit ion.
The movement of t he poppet is cont r olled by
t he pr essur e in t he pilot por t and t he chamber
a bove t he upper dia phr a gm. When t he pilot
chamber is not pr essur ized, t he lower poppet is
seat ed against t he lower valve seat . Fluid can flow
fr om t he supply line t hr ough t he inlet por t and
t hr ough t he holes in t he lower diaphr agm t o fill
t he bot t om chamber . This pr essur e holds t he
lower poppet t ight ly against it s seat and blocks
flow fr om t he inlet por t t hr ough t he valve. At t he
same t ime, due t o t he common st em, t he upper
poppet is for ced off of it s seat . Fluid fr om t he
act uat ing unit flows t hr ough t he open passage,
ar ound t he st em, and t hr ough t he exhaust por t
t o t he at mospher e.
When t he pilot chamber is pr essur ized, t he
for ce act ing against t he diaphr agm for ces t he
poppet down. The upper poppet closes against it s
seat , blocking t he flow of fluid fr om t he cylinder
t o t he exhaust por t . The lower poppet opens, and
t he passage fr om t he supply inlet por t t o t he
cylinder por t is open so t hat t he fluid can flow
t o t he act uat ing unit .
The valve in figur e 6-29 is a nor mally closed
valve. Nor mally open valves ar e similar in design.
When no pr essur e is applied t o t he pilot chamber ,
t he upper poppet is for ced off of it s seat and t he
lower poppet is closed. Fluid is fr ee t o flow fr om
t he inlet por t t hr ough t he cylinder t o t he act uat ing
unit . When pilot pr essur e is applied, t he poppet s
ar e for ced downwar d, closing t he upper poppet
and opening t he lower poppet . Fluid can now flow
fr om t he cylinder t hr ough t he valve and out t he
exhaust por t t o t he at mospher e.
FOUR-WAY VALVES
Most act uat ing devices r equir e syst em pr essur e
for oper at ion in eit her dir ect ion. The four -way
dir ect ional cont r ol valve, which cont ains four
por t s, is used t o cont r ol t he oper at ion of such
devices. The four -way valve is also used in some
syst ems t o cont r ol t he oper at ion of ot her valves.
It is one of t he most widely used dir ect ional
cont r ol valves in fluid power syst ems.
The t ypical four -way dir ect ional cont r ol valve
has four por t s: a pr essur e por t , a r et ur n or exhaust
por t , and t wo cylinder or wor king por t s. The
pr essur e por t is connect ed t o t he main syst em
pr essur e line and t he r et ur n line is connect ed t o
t he r eser voir in hydr aulic syst ems. In pneumat ic
syst ems t he r et ur n por t is usually vent ed t o t he
at mospher e. The t wo cylinder por t s ar e connect ed
by lines t o t he act uat ing unit s.
P op p et -Typ e Fou r -Wa y Va lves
Figur e 6-30 shows at ypical four -way, poppet -
t ype dir ect ional cont r ol valve. This is a manually
oper a t ed va l ve a n d con s i s t s of a gr ou p of
convent ional spr ing-loaded poppet s. The poppet s
a r e enclosed in a common housing a nd a r e
int er connect ed by duct s t o dir ect t he flow of fluid
in t he desir ed dir ect ion.
Fi gu r e 6-29.Th r ee-wa y, p op p et -t yp e, n or ma lly closed d i r ect i on a l con t r ol va lve (p i lot -op er a t ed ).
6-20
The poppet s a r e a ct ua t ed by ca ms on a
camshaft (fig. 6-30). The camshaft is cont r olled
by t he movement of t he handle. The valve may
be oper at ed by manually moving t he handle, or ,
in some cases, t he handle may be connect ed by
mechanical linkage t o a cont r ol handle which is
locat ed in a convenient place for t he oper at or
some dist ance fr om t he valve.
The camshaft may be r ot at ed t o any one
of t hr ee posit ions (neut r a l a nd t wo wor king
posit ions). In t he neut r al posit ion t he camshaft
lobes ar e not cont act ing any of t he poppet s. This
assur es t hat t he poppet spr ings will hold all four
poppet s fir mly seat ed. Wit h all poppet s seat ed,
t her e is no fluid flow t hr ough t he valve. This also
blocks t he t wo cylinder por t s; so when t he valve
is in neut r al, t he fluid in t he act uat ing unit is
t r a pped. Relief va lves a r e inst a lled in bot h
wor king lines t o pr event over pr essur izat ion caused
by t her mal expansion.
NOTE: In some ver sions of t his t ype of valve,
t he ca m lobes a r e designed so t ha t t he t wo
r et ur n/exhaust poppet s ar e open when t he valve
is in t he neut r al posit ion. This compensat es for
t her mal expansion, because bot h wor king lines ar e
open t o t he r et ur n/exhaust when t he valve is in
t he neut r al posit ion.
The poppet s ar e ar r anged so t hat r ot at ion of
t he camshaft will open t he pr oper combinat ion
of poppet s t o dir ect t he flow of fluid t hr ough t he
desir ed wor king line t o an act uat ing unit . At t he
sa me t ime, fluid will be dir ect ed fr om t he
act uat ing unit t hr ough t he opposit e wor king line,
t hr ough t he valve, and back t o t he r eser voir
(hydr a ulic) or exha ust ed t o t he a t mospher e
(pneumat ic).
To st op r ot at ion of t he camshaft at an exact
posit ion, a st op pin is secur ed t o t he body and
ext ends t hr ough a cut out sect ion of t he camshaft
flange. This st op pin pr event s over t r avel by
ensur ing t hat t he camshaft st ops r ot at ing at t he
point wher e t he ca m lobes ha ve moved t he
poppet s t he gr eat est dist ance fr om t heir seat s and
wher e a ny fur t her r ot a t ion would a llow t he
poppet s t o st ar t r et ur ning t o t heir seat s.
O-r ings ar e spaced at int er vals along t he lengt h
of t he shaft t o pr event ext er nal leakage ar ound
t he ends of t he shaft and int er nal leakage fr om
one of t he va lve cha mber s t o a not her . The
camshaft has t wo lobes, or r aised por t ions. The
shape of t hese lobes is such t hat when t he shaft
is placed in t he neut r al posit ion t he lobes will not
cont act any of t he poppet s.
When t he handle is moved in eit her dir ect ion
fr om neut r al, t he camshaft is r ot at ed. This r ot at es
Fi gu r e 6-30.Cu t a wa y vi ew of p op p et -t yp e, fou r -wa y d i r ect i on a l con t r ol va lve.
6-21
t he lobes, which unseat one pr essur e poppet and
one r et ur n/exhaust poppet (fig. 6-31). The valve
is now in t he wor king posit ion. Fluid under
pr essur e, ent er ing t he pr essur e por t , flows t hr ough
t he ver t ical fluid passages in bot h pr essur e poppet s
seat s. Since only one pr essur e poppet , IN (2), is
unseat ed by t he cam lobe, t he fluid flows past t he
open poppet t o t he inside of t he poppet seat . Fr om
t her e it flows t hr ough t he diagonal passages, out
one cylinder por t , C2, and t o t he act uat ing unit .
Ret ur n fluid fr om t he act uat ing unit ent er s t he
ot her cylinder por t , C1. It t hen flows t hr ough t he
cor r esponding fluid passage, past t he unseat ed
r et ur n poppet , OUT (1), t hr ough t he ver t ical fluid
passages, and out t he r et ur n/exhaust por t . When
t he camshaft is r ot at ed in t he opposit e dir ect ion
t o t he neut r al posit ion, t he t wo poppet s seat and
t he flow st ops. When t he camshaft is fur t her
r ot at ed in t his dir ect ion unt il t he st op pins hit s,
t he opposit e pr essur e and r et ur n poppet s ar e
unseat ed. This r ever ses t he flow in t he wor king
lines, causing t he act uat ing unit t o move in t he
opposit e dir ect ion.
Rot a r y Sp ool Va lve
Four -way dir ect ional cont r ol valves of t his
t ype ar e fr equent ly used as pilot valves t o dir ect
flow t o and fr om ot her valves (fig. 6-32). Fluid
is dir ect ed fr om one sour ce of supply t hr ough t he
r ot ar y valve t o anot her dir ect ional cont r ol valve,
wher e it posit ions t he valve t o dir ect flow fr om
anot her sour ce t o one side of an act uat ing unit .
Fluid fr om t he ot her end of t he main valve flows
t hr ough a r et ur n line, t hr ough t he r ot ar y valve
t o t he r et ur n or exhaust por t .
The pr incipal par t s of a r ot ar y spool dir ec-
t ional cont r ol valve ar e shown in figur e 6-22.
Fi gu r e 6-31.Wor k i n g vi ew of a p op p et -t yp e, fou r -wa y
d i r ect i on a l con t r ol va lve.
Fi gu r e 6-32.Sli d i n g sp ool va lve con t r olled by a r ot a r y sp ool
va lve.
Figur e 6-33 shows t he oper at ion of a r ot ar y spool
valve. Views A and C show t he valve in a posit ion
t o deliver fluid t o anot her valve, while view B
shows t he valve in t he neut r al posit ion, wit h all
passages t hr ough t he valve blocked.
Rot ar y spool valves can be oper at ed manually,
elect r ically, or by fluid pr essur e.
Sli d i n g Sp ool Va lve
The sliding spool four -way dir ect ional cont r ol
valve is similar in oper at ion t o t he t wo-way
valve pr eviously descr ibed in t his chapt er . It is
simple in it s pr inciple of oper at ion and is t he
most dur able and t r ouble-fr ee of all four -way
dir ect ional cont r ol valves.
The valve descr ibed in t he following par a-
gr aphs is a manually oper at ed t ype. The same
pr inciple is used in many r emot ely cont r olled
dir ect ional cont r ol valves.
The valve (fig. 6-34) consist s of a valve body
con t a i n i n g fou r fl u i d por t s pr es s u r e (P),
Fi gu r e 6-33.Op er a t i on of a r ot a r y sp ool, fou r -wa y
d i r ect i on a l con t r ol va lve.
6-22
Fi gu r e 6-34.Op er a t i on of a sli d i n g sp ool, fou r -wa y d i r ect i on a l con t r ol va lve.
6-23
r et ur n/exhaust (R), and t wo cylinder por t s (C/1
and C2). A hollow sleeve fit s int o t he main bor e
of t he body. Ther e ar e O-r ings placed at int er vals
ar ound t he out side diamet er of t he sleeve. These
O-r ings for m a seal bet ween t he sleeve and t he
body, cr eat ing chamber s ar ound t he sleeve. Each
of t he chamber s is lined up wit h one of t he fluid
por t s in t he body. The dr illed passage in t he body
account s for a fift h chamber which r esult s in
having t he t wo out boar d chamber s connect ed t o
t he r et ur n/exhaust por t . The sleeve has a pat t er n
of holes dr illed t hr ough it t o allow fluid t o flow
fr om one por t t o anot her . A ser ies of holes ar e
dr illed int o t he hollow cent er sleeve in each
chamber .
The sleeve is pr event ed fr om t ur ning by a
sleeve r et ainer bolt or pin which secur es it t o t he
valve body.
The sliding spool fit s int o t he hollow cent er
sleeve. This spool is similar t o t he spool in t he
t wo-way valve, except t hat t his spool has t hr ee
pist ons or la nds. These la nds a r e la pped or
machine fit t ed t o t he inside of t he sleeve.
One end of t he sliding spool is connect ed t o
a handle eit her dir ect ly or by mechanical linkage
t o a mor e desir able locat ion. When t he cont r ol
handle is moved, it will posit ion t he spool wit hin
t he sleeve. The lands of t he spool t hen line up
di ffer en t combi n a t i on s of fl u i d por t s t h u s
dir ect ing a flow of fluid t hr ough t he valve.
The det ent spr ing is a clot hespin-t ype spr ing,
secur ed t o t he end of t he body by a spr ing
r et aining bolt . The t wo legs of t he spr ing ext end
down t hr ough slot s in t he sleeve and fit int o t he
det ent s. The spool is gr ipped bet ween t he t wo legs
of t he spr ing. To move t he spool, enough for ce
must be applied t o spr ead t he t wo spr ing legs and
allow t hem t o snap back int o t he next det ent ,
which would be for anot her posit ion.
Figur e 6-34, view A, shows a ma nua lly
oper a t ed sliding spool va lve in t he neut r a l
posit ion. The det ent spr ing is in t he cent er det ent
of t he sliding spool. The cent er land is lined up
wit h t he pr essur e por t (P) pr event ing fluid fr om
flowing int o t he valve t hr ough t his por t . The
r et ur n/exhaust por t is also blocked, pr event ing
flow t hr ough t hat por t . Wit h bot h t he pr essur e
and r et ur n por t s blocked, fluid in t he act uat ing
lines is t r apped. For t his r eason, a r elief valve is
usually inst alled in each act uat ing line when t his
t ype of valve is used.
Figur e 6-34, view B, shows t he valve in t he
wor king posit ion wit h t he end of t he sliding spool
r et r act ed. The det ent spr ing is in t he out boar d
det ent , locking t he sliding spool in t his posit ion.
The lands have shift ed inside t he sleeve, and t he
por t s ar e opened. Fluid under pr essur e ent er s t he
sleeve, passes t hr ough it by way of t he dr illed
holes, and leaves t hr ough cylinder por t C2. Ret ur n
fluid, flowing fr om t he act uat or ent er s por t C1,
flows t hr ough t he sleeve, and is dir ect ed out t he
r et ur n por t back t o t he r eser voir or exhaust ed t o
t he at mospher e. Fluid cannot flow past t he spool
lands because of t he lapped sur faces.
Figur e 6-34, view C, shows t he valve in t he
opposit e wor king posit ion wit h t he sliding spool
ext ended. The det ent spr ing is in t he inboar d
det ent . The cent er land of t he sliding spool is now
on t he ot her side of t he pr essur e por t , and t he
fluid under pr essur e is dir ect ed t hr ough t he sleeve
and out por t C1. Ret ur n fluid flowing in t he ot her
cylinder por t is dir ect ed t o t he dr illed passage in
t he body. It flows along t his passage t o t he ot her
end of t he sleeve wher e it is dir ect ed out of t he
r et ur n/exhaust por t .
The dir ect iona l cont r ol va lves pr eviously
discussed ar e for use in closed-cent er fluid power
syst ems. Figur e 6-35 shows t he oper at ion of
Fi gu r e 6-35.Op en cen t er , sli d i n g sp ool d i r ect i on a l con t r ol
va lve.
6-24
a r epr es en t a t i ve open -cen t er , s l i di n g s pool When t he spool is moved t o t he r ight of t he
dir ect ional cont r ol valve. neut r al posit ion, view B, one wor king line (C1)
is aligned t o syst em pr essur e and t he ot her
When t his t ype of valve is in t he neut r al wor king line (C2) is open t hr ough t he hollow
posit ion (fig. 6-35, view A), fluid flows int o t he spool t o t he r et ur n por t . View C shows t he flow
valve t hr ough t he pr essur e por t (P) t hr ough t he of fluid t hr ough t he valve wit h t he spool moved
hollow spool, and r et ur n t o t he r eser voir . t o t he left of neut r al.
6-25
CHAP TER 7
SEALING DEVICES AND MATERIALS
Recall fr om chapt er 1 t hat Pascals t heor em,
fr om which t he fundament al law for t he science
of hydr a ulics evolved, wa s pr oposed in t he
sevent eent h cent ur y. One st ipulat ion t o make t he
law effect ive for pr act ical applicat ions was a
pist on t hat would fit t he opening in t he vessel
exa ct l y. However , it was not unt il t he lat e
eight eent h cent ur y t hat J oseph Br ahmah invent ed
an effect ive pist on seal, t he cup packing. This led
t o Br ahmah's development of t he hydr aulic pr ess.
The packing was pr obably t he most impor t ant
invent ion in t he development of hydr aulics as a
lea ding met hod of t r a nsmit t ing power . The
development of machines t o cut and shape closely
fit t ed pa r t s wa s a lso ver y impor t a nt in t he
development of hydr aulics. However , r egar dless
of how pr ecise t he machining pr ocess is, some t ype
of packing is usually r equir ed t o make t he pist on,
and many ot her par t s of hydr aulic component s,
fit exact ly. This also applies t o t he component s
of pneumat ic syst ems.
Thr ough year s of r esear ch and exper iment s,
many differ ent mat er ials and designs have been
cr eat ed in at t empt s t o develop suit able packing
devices. Suit able mat er ials must be dur able, must
pr ovide effect ive sealing, and must be compat ible
wit h t he fluid used in t he syst em.
The packing mat er ials ar e commonly r efer r ed
t o as seals or sealing devices. The seals used in
fluid power syst ems and component s ar e divided
int o t wo gener al classes-st at ic seals and dynamic
sea ls.
The st at ic seal is usually r efer r ed t o as a gasket .
The funct ion of a gasket is t o pr ovide a mat er ial
t hat can flow int o t he sur face ir r egular it ies of
mat ing ar eas t hat r equir e sealing. To do t his, t he
gasket mat er ial must be under pr essur e. This
r equir es t ha t t he joint be t ight ly bolt ed or
ot her wise held t oget her .
The dynamic seal, commonly r efer r ed t o as
a packing, is used t o pr ovide a seal bet ween t wo
par t s t hat move in r elat ion t o each ot her .
These t wo classificat ions of sealsgasket s
a nd pa ckinga pply in most ca ses; however ,
deviat ions ar e found in some t echnical publi-
cat ions. Cer t ain t ypes of seals (for example, t he
O-r ing, which is discussed lat er ) may be used
eit her as a gasket or a packing.
Many of t he seals in fluid power syst ems
pr event ext er nal leakage. These seals ser ve t wo
pur posest o seal t he fluid in t he syst em and t o
keep for eign mat t er out of t he syst em. Ot her seals
simply pr event int er nal leakage wit hin a syst em.
NOTE: Alt hough leakage of any kind r esult s
in a loss of efficiency, some leakage, especially
int er nal leakage, is desir ed in hydr aulic syst ems
t o pr ovide lubr icat ion of moving par t s. This also
applies t o some pneumat ic syst ems in which dr ops
of oil ar e int r oduced int o t he flow of air in t he
syst em.
The fir st par t of t his chapt er deals pr imar ily
wit h t he differ ent t ypes of mat er ials used in t he
const r uct ion of seals. The next sect ion is devot ed
t o t he differ ent shapes and designs of seals and
t heir applicat ion as gasket s and/or packings in
fluid power syst ems. Also included in t his chapt er
ar e sect ions concer ning t he funct ions of wiper s
and backup washer s in fluid power syst ems and
t he select ion, st or age, and handling of sealing
devices.
SEAL MATERI ALS
As ment ioned pr eviously, ma ny differ ent
mat er ials have been used in t he development of
sealing devices. The mat er ial used for a par t icular
a pplica t ion depends on sever a l fa ct or s: fluid
compat ibilit y, r esist ance t o heat , pr essur e, wear
r esist ance, har dness, and t ype of mot ion.
The select ion of t he cor r ect packings and
gasket s and t heir pr oper inst allat ion ar e impor t ant
fact or s in maint aining an efficient fluid power
syst em. The t ypes of sea ls t o be used in a
par t icular piece of equipment is specified by t he
equipment manufact ur er .
7-1
Oft en t he select ion of seals is limit ed t o seals
cover ed by milit ar y specificat ions. However , t her e
ar e occasions when nonst andar d or pr opr iet ar y
seals r eflect ing t he advancing st at e of t he ar t may
be appr oved. Thus, it is impor t ant t o follow t he
manufact ur er s inst r uct ions when you r eplace
seals. If t he pr oper seal is not available, you
should give car eful consider at ion in t he select ion
of a suit able subst it ut e. Consult t he Naval S hips
Technical Manual, milit ar y st andar ds, milit ar y
st andar dizat ion handbooks, and ot her applicable
t echnical manuals if you have any doubt s in
select ing t he pr oper seal.
Sea l s a r e ma de of ma t er i a l s t h a t h a ve
been ca r efully chosen or developed for spe-
ci fi c a ppl i ca t i on s . These ma t er ia ls include
t et r a fluor oet hylene (TFE), commonly ca lled
Teflon; synt het ic r ubber (ela st omer s); cor k;
leat her ; met al; and asbest os. Some of t he most
common mat er ials used t o make seals for fluid
power syst ems ar e discussed in t he following
par agr aphs.
CORK
Cor k has sever al of t he r equir ed pr oper t ies,
which makes it ideally suit ed as a sealing mat er ial
in cer t ain applicat ions. The compr essibilit y of
cor k seals makes t hem well suit ed for confined
applicat ions in which lit t le or no spr ead of t he
mat er ial is allowed. The compr essibilit y of cor k
also makes a good seal t hat can be cut t o any
desir ed t hickness and shape t o fit any sur face and
st ill pr ovide an excellent seal.
One of t he undesir able char act er ist ics of cor k
is it s t endency t o cr umble. If cor k is used as
packing or in ar eas wher e t her e is a high fluid
pr essur e and/or high flow velocit y, small par t icles
will be cast off int o t he syst em. Cor k use in fluid
power syst ems is t her efor e limit ed. It is somet imes
used as gasket mat er ials for inspect ion plat es of
hydr aulic r eser voir s.
Cor k is gener ally r ecommended for use wher e
sust ained t emper at ur es do not exceed 275
0
F.
CORK AND RUBBER
Cor k and r ubber seals ar e made by combining
synt het ic r ubber and cor k. This combinat ion has
t he pr oper t ies of bot h of t he t wo mat er ials.
This means t hat seals can be made wit h t he
compr essibilit y of cor k, but wit h a r esist ance t o
fluid compar able t o t he synt het ic r ubber on which
t hey ar e based. Cor k and r ubber composit ion is
somet imes used t o make gasket s for applicat ions
similar t o t hose descr ibed for cor k gasket s.
LEATHER
Leat her is a closely knit mat er ial t hat is
gener ally t ough, pliable, and r elat ively r esist ant
t o a br a sion, wea r , st r ess, a nd t he effect s of
t emper at ur e changes. Because it is por ous, it is
able t o absor b lubr icat ing fluids. This por osit y
makes it necessar y t o impr egnat e leat her for most
uses. In gener al, leat her must be t anned and
t r eat ed in or der t o make it useful as a gasket
ma t er i a l . Th e t a n n i n g pr oces s es a r e t h os e
nor mally used in t he leat her indust r y.
Leat her is gener ally r esist ant t o abr asion
r egar dless of whet her t he gr ain side or t he flesh
side is exposed t o abr asive act ion. Leat her r emains
flexible at low t emper at ur es and can be for ced
wit h compar at ive ease int o cont act wit h met al
fl a n ges . Wh en pr oper l y i mpr egn a t ed, i t i s
imper meable t o most liquids and some gases,
a nd ca pa ble of wit hst a nding t he effect s of
t emper at ur es r anging fr om 70
0
F t o +220
0
F.
Leat her has four basic limit at ions. Fir st , t he
size of t he t ypical hide limit s t he size of t he seals
t h a t ca n be ma de fr om l ea t h er . A s econ d
limit a t ion is t he number of sea ls t ha t a r e
accept able. Anot her limit at ion is t hat under heavy
mechanical pr essur es leat her t ends t o ext r ude.
Fi n a l l y, ma n y of t h e pr oper t i es (s u ch a s
imper mea bilit y, t ensile st r engt h, high- a nd
l ow-t emper a t u r e r es i s t a n ce, pl i a bi l i t y, a n d
compat ibilit y wit h envir onment ) depend upon t he
t ype of leat her and impr egnat ion. Leat her s not
t anned and impr egnat ed for specific condit ions
and pr oper t ies will become br it t le, dr y, and
complet ely degr eased by exposur e t o par t icular
chemicals. Leat her is never used wit h st eam
pr essur e of any t ype, nor wit h acid or alkali
solut ions.
Lea t her ma y be used a s pa cking. When
molded int o Vs and Us, and cups, and ot her
shapes, it can be applied as dynamic packing,
while in it s flat for m it can be used as st r aight
compr ession packing.
METAL
One of t he most common met al seals used in
Navy equipment is copper . Flat copper r ings ar e
somet imes used as gasket s under adjust ing scr ews
t o pr ovide a fluid seal. Molded copper r ings ar e
somet imes used as packing wit h speed gear s
oper at ing under high pr essur es. Eit her t ype is
7-2
Fi gu r e 7-1.Sp i r a l-wou n a met a lli c-a sbest os ga sk et .
easily bent and r equir es car eful handling. In
addit ion, copper becomes har d when used over
long per iods and when subject ed t o compr ession.
Whenever a unit or component is disassembled,
t he copper sealing r ings should be r eplaced.
However , if new r ings ar e not available and t he
par t must be r epair ed, t he old r ing should be
soft ened by annealing. (Annealing is t he pr ocess
of heat ing a met al, t hen cooling it , t o make it
mor e pliable and less br it t le.)
Met allic pist on r ings ar e used as packing in
some fluid power act uat ing cylinder s. These r ings
a r e simila r in design t o t he pist on r ings in
aut omobile engines.
Met al is also used wit h asbest os t o for m
spir al-wound met allic-asbest os gasket s (fig. 7-1).
These gasket s ar e composed of int er locked plies
of pr efor med cor r uga t ed met a l a nd a sbest os
st r ips, called a filler .
The filler may or may not be encased in a solid
met al out er r ing. These gasket s ar e used in flanged
connect ions and for connect ing t he body t o t he
bonnet in some valves, and ar e usually r equir ed
i n s peci fi c h i gh -pr es s u r e, h i gh -t emper a t u r e
applicat ions.
RUBBER
Th e t er m r u b b er
and synt het ic r ubber s,
cover s ma n y n a t u r a l
ea ch of which ca n be
compou n ded i n t o n u mer ou s va r i et i es . Th e
char act er ist ics of t hese var iet ies have a wide r ange,
as shown in t able 7-1. The t able shows, wit h t he
except ion of a few basic similar it ies, t hat r ubber s
have diver se pr oper t ies and limit at ions; t her efor e,
specific applicat ions r equir e car eful st udy befor e
t he sealing mat er ial is select ed.
Nat ur al r ubber s have many of t he char ac-
t er ist ics r equir ed in an effect ive seal. However ,
t heir ver y poor r esist ance t o pet r oleum fluids and
r apid aging when exposed t o oxygen or ozone limit
t heir use. Today t heir use has almost ceased.
Ther e ar e t wo gener al classes of synt het ic
r ubber seals. One class is made ent ir ely of a cer t ain
synt het ic r ubber . The t er m homogeneous, which
means having unifor m st r uct ur e or composit ion
t hr oughout , is fr equent ly used t o descr ibe t his
class of seal. The ot her class of seal is made by
impr egnat ing woven cot t on duck or fine-weave
asbest os wit h synt het ic r ubber . This class is
somet imes r efer r ed t o as fabr icat ed seals.
Addit ional infor mat ion on sealing mat er ials
is pr ovided in t he Milit ary Handbook , Gask et
Materials (Nonmetalic), MI L-HDBK-212; a nd
t he Naval S hips Technical Manual, chapt er 078.
TYP ES OF SEALS
Fluid power seals ar e usually t yped accor ding
t o t heir shape or design. These t ypes include
T-seals, V-r ings, O-r ings, U-cups and so on. Some
of t he most commonly used seals ar e discussed
in t he r emainder of t his chapt er .
T-SEALS
The T-seal has an elast omer ic bidir ect ional
sealing element r esembling an inver t ed let t er T.
This sealing element is always pair ed wit h t wo
special ext r usion-r esist ing backup r ings, one on
each side of t he T. The basic T-seal configur at ion
is shown in figur e 7-2, view A. The backup r ings
F i g u r e 7 - 2 . T - s e a l s .
7-3
Ta ble 7-l.Comp a r i son of P h ysi ca l P r op er t i es for Some Hyd r a u li c Flu i d Sea l Ma t er i a ls
Fi gu r e 7-3.V-r i n gs.
7-4
ar e single t ur n, bias cut , and usually made of TFE,
molybdenum-disulfide-impr egnat ed nylon, or a
combinat ion of TFE and nylon. Nylon is widely
used for T-seal backup r ings because it pr ovides
excellent r esist ance t o ext r usion and has low
fr ict ion char act er ist ics.
The special T-r ing configur at ion adds st abilit y
t o t he seal, eliminat ing spir aling and r olling.
T-seals ar e used in applicat ions wher e lar ge
clear ances could occur as a r esult of t he expansion
of t he t hin-walled hydr aulic cylinder . The T-r ing
is inst alled under r adial compr ession and pr ovides
a posit ive seal at zer o or low pr essur e. Backup
r ings, one on each side, r ide fr ee of T-r ing flanges
and t he r od or cylinder wall (fig. 7-2, view B).
These clear ances keep seal fr ict ion t o a minimum
at low pr essur e. When pr essur e is applied (fig. 7-2,
view C), t he T-r ing act s t o pr ovide posit ive sealing
act ion as fluid pr essur e incr eases. One fr equent ly
used T-r ing, manufact ur ed by Gr eene, Tweed and
Company, (called a G-Tr ing
1
), incor por at es a
unique, pat ent ed backup r ing feat ur e. One cor ner
on t he ID of each r adius-st yled backup r ing on
t he G-Tr ing

set has been r ounded t o mat e wit h

t he inside cor ner of t he r ubber T. Figur e 7-2, views
B and C, shows t he G-Tr ing

.
Ther e is no milit ar y st andar d par t number ing
syst em by which T-seals can be ident ified. In
gener al, each manufact ur er issues pr opr iet ar y par t
number s t o ident ify seals. However , it is common
pr act ice t o ident ify T-seal sizes by t he same
dash number s used for equivalent O-r ing sizes
(discussed lat er in t his chapt er ) as defined by
AS568 a n d MS28775 di men s i on s t a n da r ds .
Typically, an O-r ing gr oove t hat accept s a cer t ain
O-r ing dash number will accept t he same dash
number T-seal.
In t he absence of an exist ing milit ar y st andar d
for i den t i fyi n g T-s ea l s , a n ew a n d s i mpl e
1
G-Tr i n g

i s a Gr een e, Tweed Tr a d ema r k ,

number ing syst em was cr eat ed t o ident ify T-seals
r equir ed for hydr aulic act uat or s (pist on seals only)
wit hout r efer ence t o a par t icular manufact ur er s
par t number . The Navy number is composed of
t he let t er s G-T followed by a dash number of t hr ee
digit s and one let t er , R, S , or T (for exa mple,
G-T-217T). The t hr ee digit s ar e t he appr opr iat e
O-r ing size dash number accor ding t o AS568 or
MS28775. The let t er s R, S , and T designat e t he
number of backup r ings t hat t he gr oove of t he
T-seal is designed t o accommodat e: none, one,
or t wo, r espect ively.
V-RI NGS
The V-r ing is one of t he most fr equent ly used
dyna mic sea ls in ship ser vice a lt hough it s
ident ificat ion, inst allat ion, and per for mance ar e
pr obably most misunder st ood. Pr oper ly select ed
and inst alled, V-r ings can pr ovide excellent ser vice
life; ot her wise, pr oblems associat ed wit h fr ict ion,
r od and seal wear , noise, and leakage can be
expect ed.
The V-r ing is t he par t of t he packing set t hat
does t he sealing. It has a cr oss sect ion r esembling
t he let t er V, (fig. 7-3) fr om which it s name is
der ived. To achieve a seal, t he V-r ing must be
inst alled as par t of a packing set or st ack, which
includes one male adapt er , one female adapt er ,
and sever al V-r ings (fig. 7-4). The male adapt er
is t he fir st r ing on t he pr essur e end of t he packing
st ack and is flat on one side and wedge-shaped
on t he ot her t o cont ain t he V of t he adjacent
V-r ing. The female adapt er , t he last r ing of t he
Fi gu r e 7-4.Ou t si d e p a ck ed V-r i n g i n st a lla t i on s.
7-5
packing st ack, is flat on one side and V-shaped
on t he ot her t o pr oper ly suppor t t he adjacent
V-r ing. Pr oper design and inst allat ion of t he
female adapt er has significant impact on t he
ser vice life a nd per for ma nce of t he V-r ings
because t he female adapt er br idges t he clear ance
gap bet ween t he moving sur faces and r esist s
ext r usion.
The packing set is inst alled in a cavit y t hat is
slight ly deeper t han t he fr ee st ack height (t he
nominal over all height of a V-r ing packing set ,
including t he ma le a nd fema le a da pt er s a s
measur ed befor e inst allat ion) and as wide as t he
nominal cr oss sect ion of t he V-r ings. This cavit y,
called a packing gland or st uffing box, cont ains
and suppor t s t he packing ar ound t he shaft , r od,
or pist on. Adjust ment of t he packing gland dept h
t hr ough t he use of shims or spacer s is usually
necessa r y t o obt a in t he cor r ect squeeze or
clear ance on t he packing st ack for good ser vice
life.
Two ba s i c i n s t a l l a t i on s a ppl y t o V-r i n g
packings. The mor e common is r efer r ed t o as an
out side packed inst allat ion, in which t he packing
seals against a shaft or r od, as shown in figur e
7-4. The inside packed inst allat ion, is shown as
a pist on seal in figur e 7-5. When V-r ing packing
is t o be used in an inside packed inst allat ion, only
endless r ing packing should be used. Wher e
pr essur es exist in bot h dir ect ions, a s on a
double-act ing pist on, opposing set s of packing
Fi gu r e 7-5.I n si d e p a ck ed V-r i n g i n st a lla t i on .
should always be inst alled so t he sealing lips face
away fr om each ot her as in figur e 7-5. This
pr event s t r apping pr essur e bet ween t he set s of
packings. The female adapt er s in inside packed
inst allat ions should always be locat ed adjacent t o
a fixed or r igid par t of t he pist on.
O-RI NGS
An O-r ing is doughnut -shaped. O-r ings ar e
usually molded fr om r ubber compounds; how-
ever , t hey can be molded or machined fr om plast ic
mat er ials. The O-r ing is usually fit t ed int o a
r ect a ngula r gr oove (usua lly ca lled a gla nd)
machined int o t he mechanism t o be sealed. An
O-r ing sea l consist s of a n O-r ing mount ed
in t he gland so t hat t he O-r ings cr oss sect ion
is compr essed (squeezed) when t he gla nd is
assembled (fig. 7-6).
An O-r ing sealing syst em is oft en one of t he
fir st sealing syst ems consider ed when a fluid
closur e is designed beca use of t he following
advant ages of such a syst em:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Simplicit y
Ruggedness
Low cost
Ease of inst allat ion
Ease of maint enance
No adjust ment r equir ed
No cr it ical t or que in clamping
Fi gu r e 7-6.O-r i n g i n st a lled i n a gla n d .
7-6
8.
9.
10.
11.
Low dist or t ion of st r uct ur e
Small space r equir ement
Reliabilit y
Effect iveness over wide pr essur e a nd
t emper at ur e r anges
As st at ed pr eviously, O-r ings ar e used in bot h
st at ic (as gasket s) and dynamic (as packing)
applicat ions. An O-r ing will almost always be t he
mos t s a t i s fa ct or y ch oi ce of s ea l s i n s t a t i c
applicat ions if t he fluids, t emper at ur es, pr essur e,
and geomet r y per mit .
St andar d O-r ing packings ar e not specifically
designed t o be used a s r ot a r y sea ls. When
infr equent r ot a r y mot ion or low per ipher a l
velocit y is involved st andar d O-r ing packings may
be used, pr ovided consist ent sur face finishes over
t he ent ir e gland ar e used and eccent r icit ies ar e
accur at ely cont r olled. O-r ings cannot compensat e
for out -of-r ound or eccent r ically r ot at ing shaft s.
As r ot ar y seals, O-r ings per for m sat isfact or ily
in t wo applicat ion ar eas:
1. In low-speed applicat ions wher e t he sur face
speed of t he shaft does not exceed 200 ft /min
2. In high-speed moder at e-pr essur e appli-
cat ions, bet ween 50 and 800 psi
The use of low-fr ict ion ext r usion-r esist ant
devices is helpful in pr olonging t he life and
impr oving t he per for mance of O-r ings used as
r ot ar y seals.
O-r ings ar e oft en used as r ecipr ocat ing seals
in hydr aulic and pneumat ic syst ems. While best
suit ed for shor t -st r oke, r elat ively small diamet er
applicat ions, O-r ings have been used successfully
in long-st r oke, la r ge dia met er a pplica t ions.
Glands for O-r ings used as r ecipr ocat ing seals ar e
usually designed accor ding t o MIL-G-5514 t o
pr ovide a squeeze t hat var ies fr om 8 t o 10 per cent
minimum and 13.5 t o 16 per cent maximum. A
squeeze of 20 per cent is allowed on O-r ings wit h
a cr oss sect ion of 0.070-inch or less. In some
r ecipr ocat ing pneumat ic applicat ions, a float ing
O-r ing design may simult aneously r educe fr ict ion
and wear by maint aining no squeeze by t he gland
on t he O-r ing. When air pr essur e ent er s t he
cylinder , t he air pr essur e flat t ens t he O-r ing,
causing sufficient squeeze t o seal dur ing t he
st r oke. If t he r et ur n st r oke does not use pneumat ic
power , t he O-r ing r et ur ns t o it s r ound cr oss
sect ion, minimizing dr ag and wear on t he r et ur n
st r oke.
I d en t i fi ca t i on
As a ma i n t en a n ce per s on or s u per vi s or
wor king wit h fluid power syst ems, you must be
able t o posit ively ident ify, inspect , and inst all t he
cor r ect size and t ype of O-r ing t o ensur e t he best
possible ser vice. These t asks can be difficult since
par t number s cannot be put dir ect ly on t he seals
and because of t he cont inual int r oduct ion of new
t ypes of seals and obsolescence of ot her s. (Naval
S hips Technical Manual, chapt er 078, cont ains
a t able t hat cr oss-r efer ences obsolet e and cur r ent
O-r ing specificat ions for ship applicat ions.)
O-r ings ar e packaged in individually sealed
envelopes. O-r ing seals manufact ur ed t o gover n-
ment specificat ions ar e mar ked accor ding t o t he
r equir ement s of t he specific milit ar y specificat ion
and st andar d. The r equir ed mar king for each
package is as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Nat ional st ock number (NSN)
Nomenclat ur e
Milit ar y par t number
Mat er ial specificat ion
Manufact ur er s
Manufact ur er s
Ma nufa ct ur er s
name
compound number
bat ch number
Cont r act number
Cur e dat e
NOTE: Keep pr efor med packings in t heir
or iginal envelopes, which pr ovide pr eser vat ion,
pr ot ect ion, ident ificat ion, and cur e dat e.
When you select an O-r ing for inst allat ion,
car efully obser ve t he infor mat ion on t he package.
I f you ca nnot posit ively ident ify a n O-r ing,
disca r d it . The pa r t number on t he sea led
package pr ovides t he most r eliable and complet e
ident ificat ion.
7-7
Si zes
A st a nda r dized da sh number syst em for
O-r ing sizes is used in many milit ar y and indust r ial
specificat ions. The O-r ing size is ident ified by a
dash number r at her t han t he act ual dimensions
for convenience. The basis for t he dash number s
is cont ained in Aer ospace St andar d AS568. For
nongasket O-r ings (packing), t he dash number s
ar e divided int o gr oups of one hundr ed. Each
hundr ed gr oup ident ifies t he cr oss sect ion size of
t he O-r ings wit hin t he gr oup (t able 7-2).
The 900 ser ies dash number s cont ained in
AS568 ident ify all t he pr esent ly st andar dized
st r aight t hr ead t ube fit t ing boss gasket s. Wit h t he
except ion of -901, t he last t wo digit s of t he dash
designat e t he t ube size in 16t hs of an inch. For
example, t he -904 size is for a 1/4-inch t ube.
Di men si on s
The cr it ical dimensions of an O-r ing ar e it s ID,
it s cr oss sect ional diamet er (W), and t he height
and widt h of t he r esidual molding flash (see
fig. 7-7).
Nomi n a l di men s i on s h a ve been u s ed t o
descr ibe O-r ing sizes, alt hough t his pr act ice is
r apidly being r eplaced by t he use of dash number s.
The act ual inside diamet er of a seal will be slight ly
less t han t he nominal ID, but t he act ual OD will
Ta ble 7-2.O-Ri n g Da sh Nu mber s Ver su s Cr oss Sect i on
Si zes
be slight ly lar ger t han t he nominal OD. For
example, an AS568-429 O-r ing is descr ibed in
nominal dimensions as 5 inches ID by 5-1/2 inches
OD by 1/4-inch W. Act ual dimensions ar e 4.975
inches ID by 5.525 inches OD by 0.275 inches W.
Sp eci fi ca t i on s
Ma t er ia l a nd per for ma nce r equir ement s
for O-r ings a r e oft en ident ified in milit a r y
specificat ions. The dimensions of t hese O-r ings
will usually be found in accompanying slash sheet s
(which bear t he specificat ion number and ar e a
par t of t he specificat ion) or will be ident ified by
var ious dr awings and st andar ds t hat r elat e t o t he
specificat ion. Included among t he specificat ions
a r e Ai r For ce-Na vy St a n da r ds (AN), Mi l i -
t ar y St andar ds (MS), and Nat ional Aer ospace
St andar ds (NAS). If t he specificat ion does not
ident ify sizes, t he sizes should be ident ified by t he
AS568 da sh number . Usua lly, you ca n use
dr awings, t echnical manuals, and allowance par t s
list s (APLs) t o ident ify r eplacement O-r ings.
(Not es 2 and 3 of t able 7-1 list some of t he
fr equent ly used milit ar y specificat ions).
Cu r e Da t e
A cur e dat e is as applicable t o nat ur al or
synt het ic O-r ings as it is t o r ubber hoses. This dat e
is t he basis for det er mining t he age of O-r ings.
It is ext r emely impor t ant t hat t he cur e dat e be
not ed on all packages.
Sh elf Li fe a n d Exp i r a t i on Da t e
All elast omer s change gr adually wit h age;
some cha nge mor e r a pidly t ha n ot her s. The
shelf life for r ubber pr oduct s is cont ained in
MIL-HDBK-695.
Check t he age of nat ur al or synt het ic r ubber
pr efor med pa cki n gs befor e i n s t a l l a t i on t o
det er mine whet her t hey ar e accept able for use.
Make a posit ive ident ificat ion, indicat ing t he
sour ce, cur e dat e, and expir at ion dat e. Ensur e t hat
t his infor mat ion is available for all packing used.
Shelf life r equir ement s do not apply once t he
packing is inst alled in a component .
The expir at ion dat e is t he dat e aft er which
packing should not be inst alled. The expir at ion
dat e of all packings can be det er mined by adding
t he shelf life t o t he cur e dat e.
7-8
Rep la cemen t
Figur e 7-8 shows a t ypical O-r ing inst allat ion.
When such an inst allat ion shows signs of int er nal
or ext er na l lea ka ge, t he component must be
disassembled and t he seals r eplaced. Somet imes
component s must be r esealed because of t he age
limit at ions of t he seals. The O-r ing should also
be r eplaced whenever a gland t hat has been in
ser vice is disassembled and r eassembled.
Oft en a poor O-r ing inst allat ion begins when
an old seal is r emoved. O-r ing r emoval involves
wor king wit h par t s t hat have cr it ical sur face
finishes. If har dened-st eel, point ed, or shar p-
edged t ools ar e used for r emoval of O-r ings or
backup r ings, scr at ches, abr asions, dent s, and
ot her defor mit ies on cr it ical sealing sur faces can
r esult in seal failur e which, in t ur n, can r esult in
Fi gu r e 7-7.Cr i t i ca l d i men si on s of a n O-r i n g.
might scr at ch or mar component sur faces or
da ma ge t he O-r ing. An O-r i n g t ool ki t i s
available in t he supply syst em for O-r ing in-
st allat ion or r emoval. If t hese t ools ar e not on
hand, special t ools can be made for t his pur pose.
A few examples of t ools used in t he r emoval
and inst allat ion of O-r ings ar e illust r at ed in
funct ional failur e of
Wh en r emovin g
n ot use point ed or
t he equipment .
or inst a lling O-r ings, do
shar p-edged t ools which
Fi gu r e 7-8.Typ i ca l O-r i n g i n st a la t i on .
7-9
figur e 7-9. These t ools should be fabr icat ed fr om
soft met al such as br ass or aluminum; however ,
t ools made fr om phenolic r od, wood, or plast ic
may also be used.
Tool sur faces must be well r ounded, polished,
and fr ee of bur r s. Check t he t ools oft en, especially
t he sur faces t hat come in cont act wit h O-r ing
gr ooves and cr it ical polished sur faces.
Not i ce i n fi gu r e 7-9, vi ew A, h ow t h e
hook-t ype r emoval t ool is posit ioned under t he
O-r ing and t hen lift ed t o allow t he ext r act or t ool,
as well as t he r emoval t ool, t o pull t he O-r ing fr om
it s cavit y. View B shows t he use of anot her t ype
of ext r act or t ool in t he r emoval of int er nally
inst alled O-r ings.
In view C, not ice t he ext r act or t ool posit ioned
under bot h O-r ings at t he same t ime. This met hod
of manipulat ing t he t ool posit ions bot h O-r ings,
which a llows t he hook-t ype r emova l t ool t o
ext r act bot h O-r ings wit h minimum effor t . View
D shows pr act ically t he same r emoval as view C,
except for t he use of a differ ent t ype of ext r act or
t ool.
The r emoval of ext er nal O-r ings is less difficult
t han t he r emoval of int er nally inst alled O-r ings.
Views E and F show t he use of a spoon-t ype
ext r act or , which is posit ioned under t he seal. Aft er
t he O-r ing is dislodged fr om it s ca vit y, t he
spoon is held st at ionar y while t he pist on is
simult aneously r ot at ed and wit hdr awn. View F
is similar t o view E, except t hat only one O-r ing
is inst alled, and a differ ent t ype of ext r act or t ool
is used. The wedge-t ype ext r act or t ool is inser t ed
beneat h t he O-r ing; t he hook-t ype r emoval t ool
hooks t he O-r ing. A slight pull on t he lat t er t ool
r emoves t he O-r ing fr om it s cavit y.
Aft er r emoving all O-r ings, cleaning of t he
affect ed par t s t hat will r eceive new O-r ings is
Fi gu r e 7-9.O-r i n g t ools a n d O-r i n g r emova l.
7-10
mandat or y. Ensur e t hat t he ar ea used for such
i n s t a l l a t i on s i s cl ea n a n d fr ee fr om a l l
cont aminat ion.
Remove each O-r ing t hat is t o be inst alled
fr om it s sealed package and inspect it for defect s
such as blemishes, abr asions, cut s, or punct ur es.
Alt hough an O-r ing may appear per fect at fir st
glance, slight sur face flaws may exist . These ar e
oft en capable of pr event ing sat isfact or y O-r ing
per for mance. O-r ings should be r eject ed for flaws
t hat will affect t heir per for mance.
By r olling t he r ing on an inspect ion cone or
dowel, t he inner diamet er sur face can be checked
for small cr acks, par t icles of for eign mat er ial, and
ot her ir r egular it ies t hat will cause leakage or
shor t en it s life. The slight st r et ching of t he r ing
when it is r olled inside out will help t o r eveal some
defect s not ot her wise visible. A fur t her check of
each O-r ing should be made by st r et ching it
bet ween t he finger s, but car e must be t aken not t o
exceed t he elast ic limit s of t he r ubber . Following
t hese inspect ion pr act ices will pr ove t o be a
maint enance economy. It is far mor e desir able t o
t ake car e ident ifying and inspect ing O-r ings t han t o
r epeat edly over haul component s wit h fault y seals.
Aft er inspect ion and pr ior t o inst allat ion,
lubr icat e t he O-r ing, and all t he sur faces t hat it
must slide over wit h a light coat of t he syst em fluid
or a lubr icant appr oved for use in t he syst em.
Consult t he applicable t echnical inst r uct ion or
Naval S hips Technical Manual for t he cor r ect
lubr icant for pneumat ic syst ems.
Assembly must be made wit h car e so t hat t he
O-r ing is pr oper ly placed in t he gr oove and not
damaged as t he gland is closed. Dur ing some
inst allat ions, such as on a pist on, it will be
necessar y t o st r et ch t he O-r ing. St r et ch t he O-r ing
as lit t le and as unifor mly as possible. Avoid r olling
or t wist ing t he O-r ing when maneuver ing it int o
place. Keep t he posit ion of t he O-r ing mold line
const ant . O-r ings should not be left in a t wist ed
condit ion aft er inst allat ion.
If t he O-r ing inst allat ion r equir es spanning or
inser t ing t hr ough shar p-t hr eaded ar eas, r idges,
slot s, and edges, use pr ot ect ive measur es, such as
t he O-r ing ent er ing sleeve (fig. 7-10, view A). If
Fi gu r e 7-10.O-r i n g i n st a lla t i on .
7-11
t he r ecommended O-r ing ent er ing sleeve (a soft ,
t hin wall, met allic sleeve) is not available, paper
sleeves and cover s may be fabr icat ed by using t he
seal package (glossy side out ) or lint -fr ee bond
paper (see views B and C of fig. 7-10).
Aft er you pla ce t he O-r ing in t he ca vit y
pr ovided, gent ly r oll t he O-r ing wit h your finger s
t o r emove any t wist t hat might have occur r ed
dur ing t he inst allat ion. Aft er inst allat ion, an
O-r ing should seat snugly but fr eely in it s gr oove.
If backup r ings ar e inst alled in t he gr oove, be
cer t ain t he backup r ings ar e inst alled on t he
cor r ect side of t he r ing.
BACKUP RI NGS
Backup r ings, also r efer r ed t o as r et ainer r ings,
ant iext r usion devices, and nonext r usion r ings, ar e
washer -like devices t hat ar e inst alled on t he
low-pr essur e side of packing t o pr event ext r usion
of t he packing mat er ial. Backup r ings in dynamic
seals minimize er osion of t he packing mat er ials
and subsequent failur e of t he seal. At lower
pr essur es, backup r ings will pr olong t he nor mal
wear life of t he packing. At higher pr essur es,
backup r ings per mit gr eat er clear ances bet ween
t he moving par t s. Nor mally, backup r ings ar e
r equir ed for oper at ing pr essur es over 1500 psi.
Ba ckup r ings ca n be ma de of polyt et r a -
fluor oet hylene, har d r ubber , leat her , and ot her
mat er ials. The most common mat er ial cur r ent ly
used is t et r afluor oet hylene (TFE). Backup r ings
ar e available as single-t ur n cont inuous (uncut or
solid), single-t ur n (bias) cut , and spir al cut . See
figur e 7-11. Leat her r ings ar e always fur nished in
solid r ing for m (unsplit ). Rings of TFE a r e
available in all t hr ee t ypes.
P a ck a gi n g a n d St or i n g
Backup r ings ar e not color -coded or ot her wise
mar ked and must be ident ified fr om t he packaging
labels. The dash number following t he milit ar y
st andar d number found on t he package indicat es
t he size, and usually r elat es dir ect ly t o t he dash
number of t he O-r ings for which t he backup r ing
is dimensionally suit ed. Backup r ings made of
TFE do not det er ior at e wit h age and do not have
shelf life limit a t ions. TFE ba ckup r ings a r e
pr ovided by manufact ur er eit her in individually
sealed packages or on mandr els. If unpackaged
r ings ar e st or ed for a long t ime wit hout t he use
of mandr els, a condit ion of over lap may develop.
Over lap occur s when t he ID of t he backup r ing
becomes smaller and it s ends over lap each ot her .
To cor r ect t his over lap condit ion, st ack TFE r ings
on a mandr el of t he cor r ect diamet er , and clamp
t he r ings wit h t heir coils flat and par allel. Place
t he r ings in an oven at a maximum t emper at ur e
of 177
0
C (350
0
F) for appr oximat ely 10 minut es.
Do not over hea t t hem beca use fumes fr om
decompos i n g TF E a r e t oxi c. Remove a n d
wat er -quench t he r ings. St or e t he r ings at r oom
t emper at ur e befor e you use t hem (pr efer ably for
48 hour s).
I n st a lla t i on
Car e must be t aken in handling and inst alling
backup r ings. Do not inser t t hem wit h shar p
t ools. Ba ckup r ings must be inspect ed pr ior
t o using t hem for evidence of compr ession
damage, scr at ches, cut s, nicks, or fr ayed con-
dit ions. If O-r ings ar e t o be r eplaced wher e
backup r ings ar e inst alled in t he same gr oove,
never r epla ce t he O-r ing wit hout r epla cing
t he backup r ings, or vice ver sa. Many seals
use t wo backup r ings, one on eit her side of t he
O-r ing (fig. 7-12). Two backup r ings ar e used
pr imar ily in sit uat ions (such as a r ecipr ocat ing
pist on seal) wher e alt er nat ing pr essur e dir ect ion
can cause packing t o be ext r uded on bot h sides
of t he gland.
Fi gu r e 7-11.Typ es of ba ck u p r i n gs.
7-12
Fi gu r e 7-12.Ba ck u p r i n g con fi gu r a t i on .
If only one backup r ing is used, place t he
ba ckup r ing on t he low-pr essur e side of t he
packing (fig. 7-13, view A). When a backup r ing
is placed on t he high-pr essur e side of t he packing,
t he pr essur e against t he r elat ively har d sur face of
t he backup r ing for ces t he soft er packing against
t he low-pr essur e side of t he gland, r esult ing in a
r apid failur e due t o ext r usion (fig. 7-13, view B).
When dual backup r ings ar e inst alled, st agger
t he split scar fed ends as shown in figur e 7-14.
When inst alling a spir al cut backup r ing (MS28782
or MS28783), be sur e t o wind t he r ing cor r ect ly
t o ease inst allat ion and ensur e opt imum per -
for ma nce.
When TFE spir al r ings ar e being inst alled in
int er nal gr ooves, t he r ing must have a r ight -hand
Fi gu r e 7-13.Loca t i on of a si n gle ba ck u p r i n g.
Fi gu r e 7-14 .I n st a lla t i on of cu t d u a l ba ck u p r i n gs.
7-13
Fi gu r e 7-15.I n st a lla t i on of TFE ba ck u p r i n gs (i n t er n a l).
7-14
spir al. Figur e 7-15, view A, shows how t o change
t he dir ect ion of t he spir al. The r ing is t hen
st r et ched slight ly, as shown in view B pr ior t o
inst allat ion int o t he gr oove. While t he TFE r ing
is being inser t ed int o t he gr oove, r ot at e t he
component in a clockwise dir ect ion. This will t end
t o expand t he r ing diamet er and r educe t he
possibilit y of damaging t he r ing.
When TFE spir al r ings ar e being inst alled in
ext er nal gr ooves, t he r ing should have a left -hand
spir al. As t he r ing is being inser t ed int o t he
gr oove, r ot a t e t he component in a clockwise
dir ect ion. This act ion will t end t o cont r act t he r ing
diamet er and r educe t he possibilit y of damaging
t he r ing.
In applicat ions wher e a leat her backup r ing
is called for , place t he smoot h-gr ained side of t he
leat her next t o t he r ing. Do not cut leat her backup
r ings. Use a leat her backup r ing as one cont inuous
r ing and lubr icat e t he r ing pr ior t o inst alling it ,
par t icular ly t he smaller sizes. If st r et ching is
necessar y for pr oper inst allat ion, soak t he backup
r ing in t he syst em fluid or in an accept able
lubr icant at r oom t emper at ur e for at least 30
minut es.
or t wo backup r ings, depending upon t he specific
seal gr oove applicat ion and widt h. The Quad-
Ring seal wor ks well in, bot h hydr aulic and
pneumat ic syst ems.
Ma ny Qua d-Ring sea l sizes ha ve been
assigned NSNs and ar e st ocked in t he Feder al
Supply Syst em. Qua d-Ring sea ls in ma nu-
fact ur er s sizes designat ed as Q1 t hr ough Q88 ar e
int er cha ngea ble wit h O-r ings confor ming t o
AN6227. Likewise, Quad-Ring seals in com-
mer cia l sizes Q101 t hr ough Q152 a r e int er -
changeable wit h O-r ings confor ming t o AN6230
in t he r espect ive dash sizes fr om 1 t hr ough52.
Ther efor e, t he Qua d-Ring sea l st ock pa r t
number uses t he AN st andar d O-r ing designat ions
AN6227 and AN6230 and t he commer cial Q dash
number designat ion. For example, NSNs ar e
found under such r efer ence par t number s as
AN6227Q10 and AN6230Q103. If t he let t er Q
does not follow AN6227 or AN6230, t he par t
number is an O-r ing not a Quad-Ring seal.
If Quad-Ring seals ar e not available for
maint enance act ions, appr opr iat e sized O-r ings
can be inst alled and t hey wor k sat isfact or ily.
QUAD-O-DYN SEALS
QUAD-RI NGS
The Quad-Ring seal is a special configur a-
t ion r ing packing, manufact ur ed by t he Minnesot a
Rubber . As opposed t o a n O-r ing, a Qua d-
Ring seal has a mor e squar e cr oss-sect ional
shape wit h r ounded cor ner s (fig. 7-16). The Quad-
Ring seal design offer s mor e st abilit y t han t he
O-r ing design a nd pr a ct ica lly elimina t es t he
spir aling or t wist ing t hat is somet imes encount er ed
wit h t he O-r ing.
Qua d-Rings sea ls a r e complet ely int er -
changeable wit h O-r ings in t he sizes offer ed by
t he manufact ur er . They may be inst alled wit h one
The Qua d-O-Dyn, a lso ma nufa ct ur ed by
Minnesot a Rubber , is a specia l for m of t he
Quad-Ring. The Quad-O-Dyn differ s fr om t he
Quad-Ring in configur at ion (fig. 7-17), is har der ,
is subject t o gr eat er squeeze, and is made of a
differ ent mat er ial. The Quad-O-Dyn seal also
wor ks well in O-r ings glands.
The Quad-O-Dyn is used in r elat ively few
a pplica t ions. However , for difficult dyna mic
sea ling a pplica t ions, t he Qua d-O-Dyn ca n
per for m bet t er t han t he Quad-Ring. Quad-O-
Dyn r ings ar e inst alled in submar ine hydr aulic
syst ems plant accumulat or s.
Fi gu r e 7-16.Qu a d -Ri n g.
7-15
Fi gu r e 7-17.Qu a d -O-Dyn sea l.
U-CUP S AND U-P ACKI NGS
Th e d i s t i n ct i on b e t we e n U-cu p s a n d
U-packings r esult s fr om t he differ ence in mat er ials
used in t heir fabr icat ion. The U-cup is usually
ma de of h omogen eou s s yn t h et i c r u bber ;
U-packings ar e usually made of leat her or fabr ic-
r einfor ced r ubber . Special aspect s of each t ype will
be discussed separ at ely. However , all U-cups and
U-packings have cr oss sect ions r esembling t he
let t er U. Bot h t ypes ar e balanced packings, bot h
seal on t he ID and t he OD, and bot h ar e applied
individually, not in st acks like V-r ings. Size
differ ences bet ween U-cups and U-packings ar e
usua lly subst a nt ia l enough t o pr event int er -
changeabilit y. Ther e ar e a few sizes wit h smaller
diamet er s and cr oss sect ions t hat may appear
t o be dimensiona lly equiva lent but a r e not .
Ther efor e, U-packings should not be subst it ut ed
for U-cups (or vice ver sa) in any inst allat ion.
U-CUP S
The U-cup (fig. 7-18) has been a popular
packing in t he past because of inst allat ion ease
and low fr ict ion. U-cups ar e used pr imar ily for
pr essur es below 1500 psi, but higher pr essur es ar e
possible wit h t he use of ant iext r usion r ings. For
double-act ing pist ons, t wo U-cups ar e inst alled
in separ at e gr ooves, back-t o-back or heel-t o-heel.
Two U-cups ar e never used in t he same gr oove.
This heel-t o-heel t ype of inst allat ion is common
for single-act ing (monodir ect ional) seals, such as
U-cups and V-r ings, and is necessar y t o pr event
a pr essur e t r ap (hydr aulic lock) bet ween t wo
packings. Inst allat ion of t wo U-cups wit h sealing
lips facing each ot her can r esult in hydr aulic lock
and must be avoided.
Lea t h er U-P a ck i n gs
As a r ule, leat her U-packings ar e made wit h
st r aight side walls (no flar ed sealing lips). See
figur e 7-19. The leat her may be chemically t r eat ed
or ot her wise impr egnat ed t o impr ove it s per -
for mance. Leat her U-packings ar e available in
st andar d sizes confor ming t o indust r ial specifica-
t ions. For suppor t , t he cavit y of t he U-packing
should cont ain a met al pedest al r ing or should be
filled wit h a suit able mat er ial. Leat her U-packings
wit h an int egr al pedest al suppor t have been
inst alled in some submar ine st eer ing and diving
r am pist on seals.
CUP P ACKI NGS
Cup packings r esemble a cup or deep dish wit h
a hole in t he cent er for mount ing (fig. 7-20). Cup
seals ar e used exclusively t o seal pist ons in bot h
low- a nd high-pr essur e hydr a ulic a nd pneu-
mat ic ser vice. They ar e pr oduced in leat her ,
h omogen eou s s yn t h et i c r u bber , a n d fa br i c-
r einfor ced synt het ic r ubber . Alt hough t he cup
packing lip flar es out war d, t he r ubbing cont act
is made at t he lip only when t he fluid pr essur e is
low. As t he fluid pr essur e incr eases, t he cup heel
expands out war d unt il it cont act s t he cylinder
wall, at which point high-pr essur e sealing is in
effect . As t he pr essur e loading shift s t he sealing
line t o t he cup heel, t he lip is act ually pulled int o
t he cup and away fr om t he cylinder wall. On t he
r et ur n st r oke when t he pr essur e is r elaxed, t he heel
will shr ink slight ly, leaving only t he lip in cont act
wit h t he wall, avoiding unnecessar y wear at t he
heel.
For r ecipr ocat ing pist ons, t wo cups inst alled
back-t o-back in separ at e glands ar e r equir ed.
FLANGE P ACKI NGS
Flange packings ar e used exclusively in low-
pr essur e, out side-packed inst allat ions, such as r od
Fi gu r e 7-18.Typ i ca l U-cu p sea l. Fi gu r e 7-19.U-p a ck i n g.
7-16
Fi gu r e 7-20.Cu p p a ck i n g.
seals. The flange
made of leat her ,
(somet imes called
fabr ic-r einfor ced
t he hat ) is
r ubber , or
homogeneous r ubber . Lip sealing occur s only on
t he packing ID (fig. 7-21). Flange packings ar e
gener ally used only for r od seals when ot her
packings such as V-r ings or U-seals cannot be
used.
DI RT EXCLUSI ON SEALS
(WI P ERS AND SCRAP ERS)
Dir t exclusion devices a r e essent ia l if a
sat isfact or y life is t o be obt ained fr om most r od
seals. The smoot h finished moving r od sur face,
if not enclosed or pr ot ect ed by some sor t of
cover ing, will accumulat e a coat ing of dust or
abr asive mat er ial t hat will be dr agged or car r ied
int o t he packing assembly ar ea on t he r et ur n r od
st r oke. Exclusion devices called wiper s or scr aper s
ar e designed t o r emove t his coat ing. While t he
t e r ms w i p er a n d s cr a p er a r e oft en u s ed
int er changeably, it is useful t o r eser ve scr aper
Fi gu r e 7-21.Typ i ca l fla n ge p a ck i n g cr oss sect i on .
for met al lip-t ype devices t hat r emove heavily
encr ust ed deposit s of dir t or ot her a br a sive
mat er ial t hat would mer ely deflect a soft er lip and
be car r ied int o t he cylinder . Somet imes a r od will
have bot h a scr aper and a wiper , t he for mer t o
r emove heavy deposit s and t he lat t er t o exclude
any dust par t icles t hat r emain. Whenever met allic
scr aper s ar e used wit h felt wiper s in t he same
gr oove, t he felt wiper must not be compr essed nor
r est r ict ed in any way t hat affect s it s funct ion as
a lubr icat or . A wiper inst alled in a seal assembly
in a pneumat ic applicat ion may r emove t oo much
oil fr om t he r od, r equir ing some met hod of
r eplacing t he oil. A common r emedy is t o pr ovide
a per iodically oiled felt r ing bet ween t he wiper
and t he seal. Felt wiper s pr ovide lubr icat ion
t o ext ended oper a t ing r ods, t hus incr ea sing
component wear life. These wiper s ar e only used
t o pr ovide lubr icat ion t o par t s.
Much longer life could be obt ained fr om most
seals if pr oper at t ent ion wer e given t o wiper s and
scr aper s. Oft en, wiper or scr aper failur e is not
not iced when a seal packing fails. As a r esult , only
t he packing is r eplaced, and t he same wor n wiper
or scr a per is r einst a lled t o dest r oy a not her
packing. Check t he wiper or scr aper condit ion
upon it s r emoval. If t he wiper is wor n, dir t y, or
embedded wit h met allic par t icles, r eplace it wit h
a new one. It is usually good pr act ice t o r eplace
t he wiper ever y t ime you r eplace t he seal and even
mor e fr equent ly if t he wiper is r eadily accessible
wit hout component disassembly. If r eplacement s
ar e not available, wash dir t y wiper s t hat ar e st ill
in good condit ion wit h suit a ble solvent a nd
r einst all t hem. Remember t hat a wiper or scr aper
is deliber a t ely inst a lled a s a sa cr ificia l pa r t
t o pr ot ect and pr eser ve t he sealing packing.
Ther efor e, fr om a user s st andpoint , wiper s and
scr aper s should be inspect ed and r eplaced as
necessar y.
STORAGE OF SEALS
Pr oper st or age pr act ices must be obser ved t o
pr event defor mat ion and det er ior at ion of seals.
Most synt het ic r ubber s a r e not da ma ged by
st or age under ideal condit ions. However , most
synt het ic r ubber s will det er ior at e when exposed
t o heat , light , oil, gr ease, fuels, solvent s, t hinner s,
moist ur e, st r ong dr aft s, or ozone (for m of oxygen
for med fr om an elect r ical dischar ge). Damage by
exposur e is magnified when r ubber is under
t ension, compr ession, or st r ess. Ther e ar e sever al
7-17
condit ions t o be a voided, which include t he
following:
1. Defor ma t ion a s a r esult of impr oper
st acking of par t s and st or age cont ainer s.
2. Cr easing caused by for ce applied t o cor ner s
and edges, and by squeezing bet ween boxes and
st or age cont ainer s.
3. Compr ession and flat t ening, as a r esult of
st or age under heavy par t s.
4. Punct ur es caused by st aples used t o at t ach
ident ificat ion.
5. Defor mat ion and cont aminat ion due t o
hanging t he seals fr om nails or pegs. Seals should
be kept in t heir or iginal envelopes, which pr ovide
pr eser vat ion, pr ot ect ion, ident ificat ion, and cur e
dat e.
6. Cont a mina t ion by pier cing t he sea led
envelope t o st or e O-r ings on r ods, nails, or wir e
hanging devices.
7. Cont aminat ion by fluids leaking fr om par t s
st or ed above and adjacent t o t he seal sur faces.
8. Cont aminat ion caused by adhesive t apes
applied t o seal sur faces. A t or n seal package
should be secur ed wit h a pr essur e-sensit ive
moist ur epr oof t ape, but t he t ape must not cont act
t he seal sur faces.
9. Ret ent ion of over age par t s as a r esult
of impr oper st or age ar r angement or illegible
ident ificat ion. Seals should be ar r anged so t he
older seals ar e used fir st .
7-18
CHAP TER 8
MEASUREMENT AND P RESSURE
CONTROL DEVI CES
For safe and efficient oper at ion, fluid power
syst ems ar e designed t o oper at e at a specific
pr essur e and/or t emper at ur e, or wit hin a pr essur e
and/or t emper at ur e r ange.
You have lear ned t hat t he lubr icat ing power
of hydr aulic fluids var ies wit h t emper at ur e and
t hat excessively high t emper at ur es r educe t he life
of hydr a ulic fluids. Addit iona lly, you ha ve
lea r ned t ha t t he ma t er ia ls, dimensions, a nd
met hod of fabr icat ion of fluid power component s
limit t he pr essur e and t emper at ur e at which a
syst em oper at es. You have also lear ned of means
of aut omat ically cont r olling pr essur e in bot h
hydr aulic and pneumat ic syst ems.
Most fluid power syst ems ar e pr ovided wit h
pr essur e gauges and t her momet er s for measur ing
and indicat ing t he pr essur e and/or t he t emper a-
t ur e in t he syst em. Addit ionally, var ious t emper a-
t ur e and pr essur e swit ches ar e used t o war n of an
adver se pr essur e or t emper at ur e condit ion. Some
swit ches will even shut t he syst em off when an
adver se condit ion occur s. These devices will be
discussed in t his chapt er .
P RESSURE GAUGES
Many pr essur e-measur ing inst r ument s ar e
ca lled ga uges. However , t his sect ion will be
r est r ict ed t o t wo mechanical inst r ument s t hat
cont ain elast ic element s t hat r espond t o pr essur es
found in fluid power syst emst he Bour don-t ube
and bellows gauges.
BOURDON TUBE GAUGES
The major it y of pr essur e gauges in use have
a Bour don-t ube as a measur ing element . (The
gauge is named for it s invent or , Eugene Bour don,
a Fr ench engineer .) The Bour don t ube is a device
t hat senses pr essur e and conver t s t he pr essur e t o
displacement . Since t he Bour don-t ube displace-
ment is a funct ion of t he pr essur e applied, it may
be mechanically amplified and indicat ed by a
point er . Thus, t he point er posit ion indir ect ly
indicat es pr essur e.
The Bour don-t ube ga uge is a va ila ble in
var ious t ube shapes: cur ved or C-shaped, helical,
and spir al. The size, shape, and mat er ial of t he
t ube depend on t he pr essur e r ange and t he t ype
of gauge desir ed. Low-pr essur e Bour don t ubes
(pr essur es up t o 2000 psi) ar e oft en made of
phosphor br onze. High-pr essur e Bour don t ubes
(pr essur es above 2000 psi) ar e made of st ainless
st eel or ot her high-st r engt h mat er ials. High-
pr essur e Bour don t ubes t end t o have mor e cir cular
cr oss sect ions t han t heir lower -r ange count er par t s,
which t end t o ha ve ova l cr oss sect ions. The
Bou r don t u be mos t common l y u s ed i s t h e
C-shaped met al t ube t hat is sealed at one end and
open at t he ot her (fig. 8-1).
Fi gu r e 8-1.Si mp lex Bou r d on -t u be p r essu r e ga u ge.
8-1
C-sh a p ed Bou r d on Tu be
The C-shaped Bour don t ube has a hollow,
ellipt ical cr oss sect ion. It is closed at one end and
is connect ed t o t he fluid pr essur e at t he ot her end.
When pr essur e is a pplied, it s cr oss sect ion
becomes mor e cir cula r , ca using t he t ube t o
st r aight en out , like a gar den hose when t he wat er
is fir st t ur ned on, unt il t he for ce of t he fluid
pr essur e is balanced by t he elast ic r esist ance of
t he t ube mat er ial. Since t he open end of t he t ube
is anchor ed in a fixed posit ion, changes in pr essur e
move t he closed end. A point er is at t ached t o t he
closed end of t he t ube t hr ough a linkage ar m and
a gear and pinion assembly, which r ot at es t he
point er ar ound a gr aduat ed scale.
Bour don-t ube pr essur e ga uges a r e oft en
classified as simplex or duplex, depending upon
whet her t hey mea sur e one pr essur e or t wo
pr essur es. A simplex gauge has only one Bour don
t ube and measur es only one pr essur e. The pr essur e
gauge shown in figur e 8-1 is a simplex gauge. A
r ed hand is available on some gauges. This hand
is manually posit ioned at t he maximum oper at ing
pr essur e of t he syst em or por t ion of t he syst em
in which t he gauge is inst alled.
When t wo Bour don t ubes ar e mount ed in
a single ca se, wit h ea ch mecha nism a ct ing
independent ly but wit h t he t wo point er s mount ed
on a common dial, t he assembly is called a duplex
gauge. Figur e 8-2 shows a duplex gauge wit h views
of t he dial and t he oper at ing mechanism. Not e
t hat each Bour don t ube has it s own pr essur e
connect ion and it s own point er . Duplex gauges
ar e used t o give a simult aneous indicat ion of t he
pr es s u r e fr om t wo di ffer en t l oca t i on s . For
example, it may be used t o measur e t he inlet and
out let pr essur es of a st r a iner t o obt a in t he
differ ent ial pr essur e acr oss it .
Differ ent ial pr essur e may also be measur ed
wit h Bour don-t ube gauges. One kind of Bour don-
t ube differ ent ial pr essur e gauge is shown in
figur e 8-3. This gauge has t wo Bour don t ubes
but only one point er . The Bour don t ubes ar e
connect ed in such a way t hat t hey indicat e t he
pr essur e differ ence, r at her t han eit her of t wo
act ual pr essur es.
As ment ioned ear lier , Bour don-t ube pr essur e
gauges ar e used in many hydr aulic syst ems. In t his
a pplica t ion t hey a r e usua lly r efer r ed t o a s
hydr aulic gauges. Bour don-t ube hydr aulic gauges
ar e not par t icular ly differ ent fr om ot her t ypes of
Bour don-t ube ga uges in how t hey oper a t e;
however , t hey do somet imes have special design
feat ur es because of t he ext r emely high syst em
pr essur es t o which t hey may be exposed. For
Fi gu r e 8-2.Du p lex Bou r d on -t u be p r essu r e ga u ge.
8-2
Fi gu r e 8-3.Bou r d on -t u be d i ffer en t i a l p r essu r e ga u ge.
example, some hydr aulic gauges have a special
t ype of spr ing-loaded linkage t hat is capable of
t aking over pr essur e and under pr essur e wit hout
damage t o t he movement and t hat keeps t he
point er fr om slamming back t o zer o when t he
pr essur e is suddenly changed. A hydr aulic gauge
t hat does not have such a device must be pr ot ect ed
by a suit able check valve. Some hydr aulic gauges
may also have special dials t hat indicat e bot h t he
pr essur e (in psi) and t he cor r esponding t ot al for ce
being applied, for example t ons of for ce pr oduced
by a hydr aulic pr ess.
Sp i r a l a n d Heli ca l Bou r d on Tu bes
Spir al and helical Bour don t ubes (figs. 8-4 and
8-5) ar e made fr om t ubing wit h a flat t ened cr oss
Fi gu r e 8-4.Sp i r a l Bou r d on t u be.
sect ion. Bot h wer e designed t o pr ovide mor e t r avel
of t he t ube t ip, pr imar ily for moving t he r ecor ding
pen of pr essur e r ecor der s.
BELLOWS ELASTI C ELEMENTS
A bellows elast ic element is a convolut ed unit
t hat expands and cont r act s axially wit h changes
in pr essur e. The pr essur e t o be measur ed can be
applied t o eit her t he out side or t he inside of t he
bellows; in pr act ice, most bellows measur ing
Fi gu r e 8-5.Heli ca l Bou r d on t u be.
8-3
Fi gu r e 8-6.Si mp le bellows ga u ge.
devices have t he pr essur e applied t o t he out side
of t he bellows (fig. 8-6).
Si mp le Bellows Elemen t s
Bellows elast ic element s ar e made of br ass,
phosphor br onze, st ainless st eel, ber yllium-
copper , or ot her met al suit able for t he int ended
ser vice of t he gauge. Mot ion of t he element
(bellows) is t r ansmit t ed by suit able linkage and
gear s t o a dial point er . Most bellows gauges ar e
spr ing-loa dedt ha t is, a spr ing opposes t he
bellows and t hus pr event s full expansion of t he
bellows. Limit ing t he expansion of t he bellows in
t his way pr ot ect s t he bellows and pr olongs it s life.
Because of t he elast icit y in bot h t he bellows and
t he spr ing in a spr ing-loaded bellows element , t he
r elat ionship bet ween t he applied pr essur e and
bellows movement is linear .
Du a l Bellows I n d i ca t or s
Anot her t ype of bellows element is t he dual-
bellows element . Figur e 8-7 is a schemat ic diagr am
of t his indicat or . Dual-bellows element pr essur e
indicat or s ar e used t hr oughout t he Navy as flow-
measur ing, level-indicat ing, or pr essur e-indicat ing
devices.
Fi gu r e 8-7.Di ffer en t i a l p r essu r e sen sor d u a l bellows.
8-4
Fi gu r e 8-8.Du a l bellows a ssembly.
When in oper at ion, t he bellows will move in
pr opor t ion t o t he differ ence in pr essur e applied
acr oss t he bellows unit assembly. The linear
mot ion of t he bellows is picked up by a dr ive ar m
and t r ansmit t ed as a r ot ar y mot ion t hr ough a
t or que t ube assembly (fig. 8-8). The indicat ing
mechanism mult iplies r ot at ion of t he t or que t ube
t hr ough a gear and pinion t o t he indicat ing
point er .
Bellows element s ar e used in var ious appli-
cat ions wher e t he pr essur e-sensit ive device must
be power ful enough t o oper a t e not only t he
indicat ing point er but also some t ype of r ecor ding
device.
P RESSURE SWI TCHES
Oft en when a measur ed pr essur e r eaches a
cer t ain maximum or minimum value, it is desir -
able t o have an alar m sound a war ning, a light
t o give a signal, or an auxiliar y cont r ol syst em t o
ener gize or de-ener gize. A pr essur e swit ch is t he
device commonly used for t his pur pose.
One of t he simplest pr essur e swit ches is t he
single-pole, single-t hr ow, quick-act ing t ype shown
in figur e 8-9. This swit ch is cont ained in a met al
Fi gu r e 8-9.Typ i ca l p r essu r e swi t ch .
8-5
case t hat has a r emovable cover , an elect r ical
connect ion, and a pr essur e-sensing connect ion.
The swit ch cont ains a seamless met allic bellows
locat ed in it s housing. Changes in t he measur ed
pr essur e causes t he bellows t o wor k against an
adjust able spr ing. This spr ing det er mines t he
pr essur e r equir ed t o act uat e t he swit ch. Thr ough
suit able linkage, t he spr ing causes t he cont act s t o
open or close t he elect r ical cir cuit aut omat ically
when t he oper at ing pr essur e falls below or r ises
above a specified value. A per manent magnet in
t he swit ch mechanism pr ovides a posit ive snap on
bot h t he opening and closing of t he cont act s. The
swit ch is const ant ly ener gized. However , it is t he
closing of t he cont act s t hat ener gizes t he ent ir e
elect r ical cir cuit .
An ot h er pr es s u r e s wi t ch i s a n el ect r i c-
hydr aulic assembly t hat is used for shut t ing off
t he pumps mot or whenever t he syst em pr essur e
exceeds a pr e-det er mined maximum value (fig.
8-10). The swit ch is mount ed on t he pump housing
so t hat t he for mer s low pr essur e por t s dr ain
dir ect ly int o t he pump housing.
This pr essur e swit ch pr incipally consist s of a
flange-mount ed hydr aulic valve t o which is fixed
a nor mally closed elect r ical limit swit ch.
Th e va l ve con s i s t s of t wo h ydr a u l i ca l l y
int er connect ed component s, t he pilot valve sub-
a ssembly, which bolt s on t he bot t om of t he
body (l), funct ions t o sense syst em pr essur e
cont inuously and init iat es pr essur e swit ch act ion
whenever t his pr essur e exceeds t he adjust ed set t ing
of t he pilot a djust ment . Syst em pr essur e is
dir ect ed int o t he bot t om por t and is applied
against t he exposed t ip of t he pilot pist on (5). This
pist on is held on it s seat by compr ession fr om t he
pist on spr ing (6) which is dependent on t he
posit ion of t he adjust ing scr ew (8). Whenever t he
pr essur e causes a for ce sufficient ly lar ge enough
t o r aise t he pilot pist on fr om it s seat , fluid
flows t hr ough an int er connect ing passage t o t he
act uat ing pist on (2) chamber . The accompanying
fluid for ce r aises t he act uat ing pist on against t he
for ce of spr ing 3 a nd ca uses depr ession of
t he ext ended swit ch plunger . This, in t ur n,
disconnect s t he cont ained elect r ical swit ch, which
may be connect ed int o t he pump mot or s elect r ic
supply syst em.
Pr essur e swit ches come in many sizes and
configur at ions depending on how t hey will be
used.
Fi gu r e 8-10.Elect r i c-h yd r a u li c p r essu r e swi t ch .
TEMP ERATURE-MEASURI NG
I NSTRUMENTS
Temper a t ur e is t he degr ee of hot ness or
coldness of a subst ance measur ed on a definit e
scale. Temper at ur e is measur ed when a measur ing
inst r ument , such as a t her momet er , is br ought
int o cont act wit h t he medium being measur ed.
All t emper at ur e-measur ing inst r ument s use
some change in a mat er ial t o indicat e t emper at ur e.
Some of t he effect s t hat ar e used t o indicat e
t emper at ur e ar e changes in physical pr oper t ies and
alt er ed physical dimensions. One of t he mor e
impor t ant physical pr oper t ies used in t emper at ur e-
measur ing inst r ument s is t he change in t he lengt h
of a ma t er ia l in t he for m of expa nsion a nd
cont r act ion.
Con s i der t h e u n i for m h omogen eou s ba r
illust r at ed in figur e 8-11. If t he bar has a given
8-6
Fi gu r e 8-11.Exp a n si on of a ba r .
lengt h (L
O
) at some t emper at ur e and is heat ed, it
will expand (L
f
). The amount of expansion (AL)
is a funct ion of t he or igina l lengt h a nd t he
t emper at ur e incr ease. The amount a mat er ial
changes in lengt h wit h t emper at ur e is called t he
linear coefficient of expansion.
The linea r coefficient of expa nsion for a
mat er ial is a physical pr oper t y of t hat mat er ial
a n d des cr i bes i t s beh a vi or wi t h r es pect t o
t emper at ur e.
BI METALLI C EXP ANSI ON
THERMOMETER
If t wo mat er ials wit h differ ent linear coef-
ficient s ar e bonded t oget her , as t he t emper at ur e
changes t heir r at e of expansion will be differ ent .
This will cause t he ent ir e assembly t o bend in an
ar c as shown in figur e 8-12.
When t he t emper at ur e is r aised, an ar c is
for med ar ound t he mat er ial wit h t he smaller
expa nsion coefficient . Since t his a ssembly is
for med by joining t wo dissimilar mat er ials, it is
known as a bimet allic element .
A modificat ion of t his bimet allic st r ip ser ves
as t he basis for one of t he simplest and most
commonly encount er ed t emper at ur e-measur ing
inst r ument s, t he bimet allic t her momet er .
Figur e 8-13 shows a bimet allic t her momet er .
In it , a bimet allic st r ip is wound in t he for m of
a long helix. One end of t he helix is held r igid.
As t he t emper at ur e var ies, t he helix t r ies t o wind
or unwind. This causes t he fr ee end t o r ot at e. The
Fi gu r e 8-12.Effect of u n equ a l exp a n si on of a bi met a lli c
st r i p .
fr ee end is connect ed t o a point er . The point er
act ually indicat es angular r ot at ion of t he helix;
however , since t he r ot at ion is linear and a funct ion
of t emper at ur e, t he scale is mar ked in unit s of
t emper at ur e.
DI STANT-READI NG THERMOMETERS
Dist ant -r eading dial t her momet er s ar e used
when t he indicat ing por t ion of t he inst r ument
must be placed at a dist ance fr om wher e t he
t emper at ur e is being measur ed. The dist ant -
r eading t her momet er has a long capillar y, some
Fi gu r e 8-13.Bi met a lli c t h er momet er .
8-7
as long as 125 feet , which separ at es t he sensing
bulb fr om t he Bour don t ube and dial (fig. 8-14).
Ther e ar e t hr ee basic t ypes of dist ant -r eading
t her momet er s: t he liquid filled, t he gas filled,
a nd t he combina t ion liquid-va por filled. The
t her momet er s ar e filled wit h fluid (liquid or gas)
at some t emper at ur e and sealed. Almost t he ent ir e
volume of t he fluid is in t he sensing bulb.
As t he t emper at ur e of t he bulb changes, t he
vol u me of t h e fl u i d t r i es t o ch a n ge. Si n ce
t he volume of t he t her momet er (sensing bulb,
ca pilla r y, a nd Bour don t ube) is const a nt , a
pr essur e change occur s wit hin t he t her momet er .
This pr essur e change causes t he Bour don t ube t o
st r aight en out (wit h an incr ease in pr essur e),
wor king a syst em of lever s and gear s, which causes
t he t her momet er point er t o move over t he dial and
r egist er t emper at ur e.
TEMP ERATURE SWI TCHES
Temper at ur e swit ches oper at e fr om t emper a-
t ur e changes occur r ing in an enclosur e, or in t he
air sur r ounding t he t emper at ur e-sensing element .
The oper at ion of t he t emper at ur e swit ch is similar
t o t he oper at ion of t he pr essur e swit ch shown in
figur e 8-9; bot h swit ches ar e oper at ed by changes
in pr essur e. The t emper at ur e element is ar r anged
so a change in t emper at ur e causes a change in t he
int er nal pr essur e of a sealed-gas or air -filled bulb
Fi gu r e 8-14.Di st a n t -r ea d i n g, Bou r d on -t u be t h er momet er s.
or helix, which is connect ed t o t he act uat ing device
by a small t ube or pipe. Figur e 8-15 shows a
t emper at ur e swit ch and t wo t ypes of sensing
element s.
A t emper at ur e change causes a change in t he
vol u me of t h e s ea l ed-i n ga s , wh i ch ca u s es
movemen t of a bel l ows . Th e movemen t i s
t r ansmit t ed by a plunger t o t he swit ch ar m. The
moving cont act is on t he ar m. A fixed cont act may
be ar r anged so t he swit ch will open or close on
a t emper at ur e r ise. This allows t he swit ch cont act s
t o be ar r anged t o close when t he t emper at ur e
dr ops t o a pr edet er mined value and t o open when
t he t emper at ur e r ises t o t he desir ed value. The
r ever se act ion can be obt ained by a change in t he
cont act posit ions.
GAUGE SNUBBERS
The ir r egular it y of impulses applied t o t he
fl u i d power s ys t em by s ome pu mps or a i r
compr essor s causes t he gauge point er t o oscillat e
violent ly. This makes r eading of t he gauge not
only difficult but oft en impossible. Pr essur e
oscillat ions and ot her sudden pr essur e changes
exist ing in fluid power syst ems will also affect t he
delicat e int er nal mechanism of gauges and cause
eit her damage t o or complet e dest r uct ion of t he
Fi gu r e 8-15.Temp er a t u r e swi t ch wi t h t wo t yp es of sen si n g
elemen t s. A. Bu lb u n i t . B. Heli x u n i t .
8-8
gauge. A pr essur e gauge snubber is t her efor e
inst alled in t he line t hat leads t o t he pr essur e
gauge.
The pur pose of t he snubber is t o dampen t he
oscillat ions and t hus pr ovide a st eady r eading and
pr ot ect ion for t he gauge. The basic component s
of a snubber ar e t he housing, fit t ing assembly wit h
a fixed or ifice diamet er , and a pin and plunger
a ssembly (fig. 8-16). The snubbing a ct ion is
obt ained by met er ing fluid t hr ough t he snubber .
The fit t ing assembly or ifice r est r ict s t he amount
of fluid t hat flows t o t he gauge, t her eby snubbing
t he for ce of a pr essur e sur ge. The pin is pushed
and pulled t hr ough t he or ifice of t he fit t ing
assembly by t he plunger , keeping it clean and at
a unifor m size.
Fi gu r e 8-16.P r essu r e ga u ge sn u bber .
8-9
CHAP TER 9
RESERVOI RS, STRAI NERS, FI LTERS,
AND ACCUMULATORS
Fluid power syst ems must have a sufficient
and cont inuous supply of uncont aminat ed fluid
t o oper at e efficient ly. As st at ed in chapt er 3 and
emphasized t hr oughout t his manual, t he fluid
must be kept fr ee of all for eign mat t er .
This cha pt er cover s hydr a ulic r eser voir s,
va r i ou s t ypes of s t r a i n er s a n d fi l t er s , a n d
accumulat or s inst alled in fluid power syst ems.
RESERVOI RS
A hydr aulic syst em must have a r eser ve of
fluid in addit ion t o t hat cont ained in t he pumps,
act uat or s, pipes, and ot her component s of t he
syst em. This r eser ve fluid must be r eadily available
t o make up losses of fluid fr om t he syst em, t o
ma ke up for compr ession of t he fluid under
pr essur e, a nd t o compensa t e for t he loss of
volume as t he fluid cools. This ext r a fluid is
cont ained in a t ank usually called a r eser voir . A
r eser voir may somet imes be r efer r ed t o as a sump
t ank, ser vice t ank, oper at ing t ank, supply t ank,
or base t ank.
In addit ion t o pr oviding st or age for t he r eser ve
fluid needed for t he syst em, t he r eser voir act s as
a r adiat or for dissipat ing heat fr om t he fluid and
a s a set t ling t a nk wher e hea vy pa r t icles of
cont aminat ion may set t le out of t he fluid and
r emain har mlessly on t he bot t om unt il r emoved
by cleaning or flushing of t he r eser voir . Also, t he
r eser voir allows ent r ained air t o separ at e fr om t he
fluid.
Most r eser voir s have a capped opening for
filling, an air vent , an oil level indicat or or dip
st ick, a r et ur n line connect ion, a pump inlet or
suct ion line connect ion, a dr ain line connect ion,
and a dr ain plug (fig. 9-1). The inside of t he
r eser voir gener ally will have baffles t o pr event
excessive sloshing of t he fluid a nd t o put a
par t it ion bet ween t he fluid r et ur n line and t he
pump suct ion or inlet line. The par t it ion for ces
t he r et ur ning fluid t o t r avel far t her ar ound t he
t ank befor e being dr awn back int o t he act ive
Fi gu r e 9-1.Non p r essu r i zed r eser voi r (gr ou n d or sh i p
i n st a lla t i on ).
syst em t hr ough t he pump inlet line. This aids in
set t ling t he cont aminat ion and separ at ing t he air
fr om t he fluid.
Lar ge r eser voir s ar e desir able for cooling. A
lar ge r eser voir also r educes r ecir culat ion which
helps set t le cont aminat ion and separ at e air . As
a t humb r ule, t he ideal r eser voir should be t wo
t o t hr ee t imes t he pump out put per minut e.
However , due t o space limit at ions in mobile and
aer ospace syst ems, t he benefit s of a lar ge r eser voir
may have t o be sacr ificed. But , t hey must be lar ge
enough t o accommodat e t her mal expansion of t he
fluid and changes in fluid level due t o syst em
oper at ion. Reser voir s ar e of t wo gener al t ypes
nonpr essur ized and pr essur ized.
NONP RESSURI ZED RESERVOI RS
Hydr a u l i c s ys t ems des i gn ed t o oper a t e
equipment at or near sea level ar e nor mally
equipped wit h nonpr essur ized r eser voir s. This
includes t he hydr aulic syst ems of gr ound and ship
9-1
inst allat ions. A t ypical r eser voir for use wit h
gr ound and ship inst allat ions is shown in figur e
9-1. This t ype of r eser voir is made of hot r olled
st eel plat es and has welded seams. The ends ext end
below t he bot t om of t he r eser voir and ser ve as
suppor t s. The bot t om of t he r eser voir is convex,
and a dr ain plug is incor por at ed at t he lowest
point .
Nonpr essur ized r eser voir s ar e also used in
sever a l t r a nspor t -, pa t r ol-, a nd ut ilit y-t ype
air cr aft . These air cr aft ar e not designed for violent
maneuver s and, in some cases, do not fly at high
alt it ude. Those air cr aft t hat have nonpr essur ized
r eser voir s inst alled and t hat fly at high alt it udes
have t he r eser voir s inst alled wit hin a pr essur ized
ar ea. (High alt it ude in t his sit uat ion means an
alt it ude wher e at mospher ic pr essur e is inadequat e
t o ma i n t a i n s u ffi ci en t fl ow of fl u i d t o t h e
hydr aulic pumps.)
Most nonpr essur ized air cr aft r eser voir s ar e
const r uct ed in a cylindr ical shape (fig. 9-2). The
out er housing is manufact ur ed fr om a st r ong
cor r osion-r esist ant met al. Filt er element s ar e
nor mally inst alled int er nally wit hin t he r eser voir
t o clean r et ur ning syst em hydr aulic fluid. Some
of t he older air cr aft have a filt er bypass valve
inst alled t o allow fluid t o bypass t he filt er if t he
filt er becomes clogged. Reser voir s t hat ar e filled
by pour ing fluid dir ect ly int o t hem have a filler
(finger ) st r ainer assembly inst alled in t he filler well
t o st r ain out impur it ies as t he fluid ent er s t he
r eser voir .
Fi gu r e 9-2.Non p r essu r i zed a i r cr a ft r eser voi r .
The qua nt it y of fluid in t he r eser voir is
indicat ed by eit her a glass t ube, a dir ect ing gauge,
or a float -t ype r od, which is visible t hr ough a
t r anspar ent dome inst alled on t he r eser voir .
P RESSURI ZED RESERVOI RS
A pr essur ized r eser voir is r equir ed in hydr aulic
syst ems wher e at mospher ic pr essur e is insufficient
t o maint ain a net posit ive suct ion head (NPSH)
t o t he pump. Ther e ar e t wo common t ypes of
pr essur ized r eser voir sfluid-pr essur ized a nd
air -pr essur ized.
Flu i d -P r essu r i zed Reser voi r
Some air cr aft hydr aulic syst ems use fluid
pr essur e for pr essur izing t he r eser voir . The
r eser voir shown in figur e 9-3 is of t his t ype. This
r eser voir is divided int o t wo cha mber s by a
float ing pist on. The pist on is for ced downwar d
in t he r eser voir by a compr ession spr ing wit hin
t he pr essur izing cylinder and by syst em pr essur e
ent er ing t he pr essur izing por t of t he cylinder .
The pr essur izing por t is connect ed dir ect ly t o
t he pr essur e line. When t he syst em is pr essur ized,
pr essur e ent er s t he pr essur e por t , t hus pr essur izing
t he r eser voir . This pr essur izes t he pump suct ion
line and t he r eser voir r et ur n line t o t he same
pr essur e.
The r eser voir shown in figur e 9-3 has five
por t s pu mp s u ct i on , r et u r n , pr es s u r i zi n g,
over boar d dr ain, and bleed. Fluid is supplied t o
t he pump t hr ough t he pump suct ion por t . Fluid
r et ur ns t o t he r eser voir fr om t he syst em t hr ough
t he r et ur n por t . Pr essur e fr om t he pump ent er s
t he pr essur izing cylinder in t he t op of t he r eser voir
t hr ough t he pr essur izing por t . The over boar d
dr ain por t is used t o dr ain t he r eser voir while
per for ming maint enance, and t he bleed por t is
used as an aid when ser vicing t he r eser voir .
Ai r -P r essu r i zed Reser voi r s
Air -pr essur ized r eser voir s, such as t he one
shown in figur e 9-4, ar e cur r ent ly used in many
high-per for mance naval air cr aft . The r eser voir is
cylindr ical in shape and has a pist on inst alled
int er nally t o separ at e t he air and fluid chamber s.
Air pr essur e is usually pr ovided by engine bleed
air . The pist on r od end pr ot r udes t hr ough t he
r eser voir end cap and indicat es t he fluid quant it y.
The quant it y indicat ion may be seen by inspect ing
t he dist ance t he pist on r od pr ot r udes fr om t he
r eser voir end cap. The r eser voir is pr ovided wit h
9-2
Fi gu r e 9-3.Typ i ca l flu i d -p r essu r i zed r eser voi r .
t hr eaded openings for connect ing fit t ings and
component s. Figur e 9-4 shows sever al component s
inst alled in lines leading t o and fr om t he r eser voir ;
however , t his may not be t he case in act ual
inst allat ion. The air r elief valve, bleeder valve, and
soon, may r einst alled dir ect ly on t he r eser voir .
Because t he r eser voir is pr essur ized, it can
nor mally be inst alled at any alt it ude and st ill
maint ain a posit ive flow of fluid t o t he pump.
Fi gu r e 9-4.Ai r -p r essu r i zed r eser voi r .
Some air -pr essur ized r eser voir s also have
dir ect cont act of fluid t o gas. These r eser voir s ar e
inst alled in lar ge syst ems and may be cylindr ical
or r ect angular in shape. They cont ain an oil level
indicat or , a pump inlet or suct ion line connect ion,
a r et ur n line, a gas pr essur izat ion and vent ing
connect ion, and a dr ain line connect ion or a dr ain
plug. These r eser voir s ar e pr essur ized by air fr om
t he ships ser vice air syst em or nit r ogen banks.
These r eser voir s ar e found on boar d air cr aft
car r ier s and submar ines.
ACCUMULATORS
An accumulat or is a pr essur e st or age r eser voir
in which hydr aulic fluid is st or ed under pr essur e
fr om an ext er nal sour ce. The st or age of fluid
under pr essur e ser ves sever al pur poses in hydr aulic
syst ems.
In some hydr aulic syst ems it is necessar y t o
maint ain t he syst em pr essur e wit hin a specific
pr essur e r ange for long per iods of t ime. It is ver y
difficult t o maint ain a closed syst em wit hout some
leakage, eit her ext er nal or int er nal. Even a small
leak can cause a decr ease in pr essur e. By using
an accumulat or , leakage can be compensat ed for
9-3
Fi gu r e 9-5.Cr oss-sect i on vi ew of a p i st on -t yp e a ccu mu la t or wi t h a t a i lr od .
9-4
and t he syst em pr essur e can be maint ained wit hin
an accept able r ange for long per iods of t ime.
Accu mu l a t or s a l s o compen s a t e for t h er ma l
expansion and cont r act ion of t he liquid due t o
var iat ions in t emper at ur e.
A liquid, flowing at a high velocit y in a pipe
will cr ea t e a ba ckwa r d sur ge when st opped
suddenly by t he closing of a valve. This sudden
st oppage causes inst ant aneous pr essur es t wo t o
t hr ee t imes t he oper at ing pr essur e of t he syst em.
These pr essur es, or shocks, pr oduce object ional
noise and vibr at ions which can cause consider able
damage t o piping, fit t ings, and component s. The
incor por at ion of an accumulat or enables such
shocks and sur ges t o be absor bed or cushioned
by t he ent r apped gas, t her eby r educing t heir
effect s. The accumulat or also dampens pr essur e
sur ges caused by pulsat ing deliver y fr om t he
pump.
Ther e a r e t imes when hydr a ulic syst ems
r equir e lar ge volumes of liquid for shor t per iods
of t ime. This is due t o eit her t he oper at ion of lar ge
cylinder s or t he necessit y of oper at ing t wo or mor e
cir cuit s simult aneously. It is not economical t o
inst all a pump of such lar ge capacit y in t he syst em
for only int er mit t ent usage, par t icular ly if t her e
is sufficient t ime dur ing t he wor king cycle for an
accumulat or t o st or e up enough liquid t o aid t he
pump dur ing t hese peak demands.
The ener gy st or ed in accumulat or s maybe also
used t o act uat e hydr aulically oper at ed unit s if
nor mal hydr aulic syst em failur e occur s.
Four t ypes of accumulat or s used in Navy
hydr aulic syst ems ar e as follows:
1. Pist on t ype
2. Bag or bladder t ype
3. Dir ect -cont act gas-t o-fluid t ype
4. Diaphr agm t ype
P I STON-TYP E ACCUMULATORS
P i s t on -t ype a ccu mu l a t or s con s i s t of a
cylindr ical body called a bar r el, closur es on each
end called heads, and an int er nal pist on. The
pist on may be fit t ed wit h a t ailr od, which ext ends
t hr ough one end of t he cylinder (fig. 9-5), or it
may not have a t ailr od at all (fig. 9-6). In t he lat t er
ca se, it is r efer r ed t o a s a floa t ing pist on.
Hydr aulic fluid is pumped int o one end of t he
cylinder and t he pist on is for ced t owar d t he
opposit e end of t he cylinder against a capt ive
Fi gu r e 9-6.Floa t i n g p i st on -t yp e a ccu mu la t or .
9-5
char ge of air or an iner t gas such as nit r ogen.
Somet imes t he amount of air char ge is limit ed t o
t h e vol u me wi t h i n t h e a ccu mu l a t or ; ot h er
inst allat ions may use separ at e air flasks which ar e
piped t o t he air side of t he accumulat or . Pist on
accumulat or s may be mount ed in any posit ion.
The gas por t ion of t he accumulat or may be
locat ed on eit her side of t he pist on. For example,
in submar ine hydr aulic syst ems wit h t ailr od
pist ons, t he gas is usually on t he bot t om and t he
fluid on t op; in sur face ships wit h float ing pist ons,
t he gas is usually on t he t op. The or ient at ion of
t he accumulat or and t he t ype of accumulat or ar e
based upon such cr it er ia as available space,
maint enance accessibilit y, size, need for ext er nal
monit or ing of t he pist ons loca t ion (t a ilr od
indicat ion), cont aminat ion t oler ance, seal life, and
safet y. The pur pose of t he pist on seals is t o keep
t he fluid and t he gas separ at e.
Usually, t ailr od accumulat or s use t wo pist on
seals, one for t he air side and one for t he oil side,
wit h t he spa ce bet ween t hem vent ed t o t he
at mospher e t hr ough a hole dr illed t he lengt h of
t he t ailr od. When t he pist on seals fail in t his t ype
of accumulat or , air or oil leakage is appar ent .
However , sea l fa ilur e in floa t ing pist on or
nonvent ed t ailr od accumulat or s will not be as
obvious. Ther efor e, mor e fr equent at t ent ion t o
vent ing or dr aining t he air side is necessar y. An
indica t ion of wor n a nd lea king sea ls ca n be
det ect ed by t he pr esence of significant amount s
of oil in t he air side.
BLADDER-TYP E ACCUMULATORS
Bladder - or bag-t ype accumulat or s consist of
a shell or case wit h a flexible bladder inside t he
shell. See figur e 9-7. The bladder is lar ger in
diamet er at t he t op (near t he air valve) and
gr adually t aper s t o a smaller diamet er at t he
bot t om. The synt het ic r ubber is t hinner at t he t op
of t he bladder t han at t he bot t om. The oper at ion
of t he accumulat or is based on Bar lows for mula
for hoop st r ess, which st at es: The st r ess in a
cir cle is dir ect ly pr opor t ional t o it s diamet er and
wall t hickness. This means t hat for a cer t ain
t hickness, a lar ge diamet er cir cle will st r et ch fast er
t han a small diamet er cir cle; or for a cer t ain
diamet er , a t hin wall hoop will st r et ch fast er t han
a t hick wall hoop. Thus, t he bladder will st r et ch
ar ound t he t op at it s lar gest diamet er and t hinnest
wall t hickness, and t hen will gr adually st r et ch
downwar d and push it self out war d against t he
walls of t he shell. As a r esult , t he bladder is
capable of squeezing out all t he liquid fr om.
Fi gu r e 9-7.Bla d d er -t yp e a ccu mu la t or .
t he a ccumula t or . Consequent ly, t he bla dder
accumulat or has a ver y high volumet r ic efficiency.
I n ot her wor ds, t his t ype of a ccumula t or is
capable of supplying a lar ge per cent age of t he
st or ed fluid t o do wor k.
The bladder is pr echar ged wit h air or iner t gas
t o a specified pr essur e. Fluid is t hen for ced int o
t he ar ea ar ound t he bladder , fur t her compr essing
t he gas in t he bladder . This t ype of accumulat or
has t he advant age t hat as long as t he bladder is
int act t her e is no exposur e of fluid t o t he gas
char ge and t her efor e less danger of an explosion.
DI RECT-CONTACT GAS-TO-F LUI D
ACCUMULATORS
Di r ect -con t a ct ga s -t o-fl u i d a ccu mu l a t or s
gener ally ar e used in ver y lar ge inst allat ions wher e
it would be ver y expensive t o r equir e a pist on-
or bl a dder -t ype a ccu mu l a t or . Th i s t ype of
accumulat or consist s of a fully enclosed cylinder ,
mount ed in a ver t ical posit ion, cont aining a liquid
9-6
por t on t he bot t om and a pneumat ic char ging por t
at t he t op (fig. 9-8). This t ype of accumulat or is
used in some air plane elevat or hydr aulic syst ems
wher e sever al t housand gallons of fluid ar e needed
t o supplement t he out put of t he hydr aulic pumps
for r aising t he elevat or plat for m. The dir ect
cont act bet ween t he air or gas and t he hydr aulic
fluid t ends t o ent r ain excessive amount s of gas
in t he fluid. For t his r ea son, dir ect cont a ct
accumulat or s ar e gener ally not used for pr essur es
over 1200 psi. The use of t his t ype of accumulat or
wit h flammable fluid is danger ous because t her e
is a possibilit y of explosion if any oxygen is
pr esent in t he gas, and pr essur e sur ges gener at e
excessive heat . For t his r eason, safet y fluids ar e
used in t his t ype of inst allat ion.
DI AP HRAGM ACCUMULATORS
The dia phr a gm-t ype a ccumula t or is con-
st r uct ed in t wo halves which ar e eit her scr ewed
or bolt ed t oget her . A synt het ic r ubber diaphr agm
is inst alled bet ween bot h halves, making t wo
chamber s. Two t hr eaded openings exist in t he
assembled component . The opening at t he t op,
as shown in figur e 9-9, cont ains a scr een disc
which pr event s t he diaphr agm fr om ext r uding
t hr ough t he t hr ea ded opening when syst em
pr essur e is deplet ed, t hus r upt ur ing t he dia-
phr agm. On some designs t he scr een is r eplaced
by a but t on-t ype pr ot ect or fast ened t o t he cent er
Fi gu r e 9-8.Di r ect -con t a ct ga s-t o-flu i d a ccu mu la t or .
Fi gu r e 9-9.Di a p h r a gm a ccu mu la t or .
of t he diaphr agm. An air valve for pr essur izing
t he accumulat or is locat ed in t he gas chamber end
of t he spher e, and t he liquid por t t o t he hydr aulic
syst em is locat ed on t he opposit e end of t he
spher e. This accumulat or oper at es in a manner
similar t o t hat of t he bladder -t ype accumulat or .
F I LTRATI ON
You have lear ned t hat maint aining hydr aulic
fluids wit hin a llowa ble limit s is cr ucia l t o
t he car e and pr ot ect ion of hydr aulic equipment .
While ever y effor t must be made t o pr event
cont aminant s fr om ent er ing t he syst em, con-
t aminant s which do find t heir way int o t he syst em
must be r emoved. Filt r at ion devices ar e inst alled
at key point s in fluid power syst ems t o r emove
t he cont aminant s t hat ent er t he syst em along
wit h t hose t hat ar e gener at ed dur ing nor mal
oper at ions.
Filt r at ion devices for hydr aulic syst ems differ
somewhat fr om t hose of pneumat ic syst ems.
Ther efor e, t hey will be discussed separ at ely.
The filt er ing devices used in hydr aulic syst ems
ar e commonly r efer r ed t o as st r ainer s and filt er s.
Since t hey shar e a common funct ion, t he t er ms
strainer and filter ar e oft en used int er changeably.
As a gener al r ule, devices used t o r emove lar ge
par t icles of for eign mat t er fr om hydr aulic fluids
ar e r efer r ed t o as st r ainer s, while t hose used t o
r emove t he smallest par t icles ar e r efer r ed t o as
filt er s.
9-7
STRAI NERS
St r ainer s ar e used pr imar ily t o cat ch only ver y
lar ge par t icles and will be found in applicat ions
wher e t his t ype of pr ot ect ion is r equir ed. Most
hydr aulic syst ems have a st r ainer in t he r eser voir
at t he inlet t o t he suct ion line of t he pump. A
st r ainer is used in lieu of a filt er t o r educe it s
chance of being clogged and st ar ving t he pump.
However , since t his st r ainer is locat ed in t he
r eser voir , it s maint enance is fr equent ly neglect ed.
When heavy dir t and sludge accumulat e on t he
suct ion st r ainer , t he pump soon begins t o cavit at e.
Pump failur e follows quickly.
F I LTERS
Th e mos t common devi ce i n s t a l l ed i n
hydr aulic syst ems t o pr event for eign par t icles and
cont aminat ion fr om r emaining in t he syst em ar e
r efer r ed t o as filt er s. They may be locat ed in t he
r eser voir , in t he r et ur n line, in t he pr essur e line,
or in any ot her locat ion in t he syst em wher e t he
designer of t he syst em decides t hey ar e needed t o
safeguar d t he syst em against impur it ies.
Fi l t er s a r e cl a s s i fi ed a s fu l l fl ow a n d
pr opor t ional or par t ial flow. In t he full-flow t ype
of filt er , all t he fluid t hat ent er s t he unit passes
t hr ough t he filt er ing element , while in t he
pr opor t ional-flow t ype, only a por t ion of t he fluid
passes t hr ough t he element .
Fu ll-Flow Fi lt er
The full-flow filt er pr ovides a posit ive filt er ing
a ct ion; however , it offer s r esist a nce t o flow,
par t icular ly when t he element becomes dir t y.
Hydr aulic fluid ent er s t he filt er t hr ough t he inlet
por t in t he body and flows ar ound t he filt er
element inside t he filt er bowl. Filt er ing t akes place
as t he fluid passes t hr ough t he filt er ing element
and int o t he hollow cor e, leaving t he dir t and
impur it ies on t he out side of t he filt er element .
The filt er ed fluid t hen flows fr om t he hollow
cor e t hr ough t he out let por t and int o t he syst em
(fig. 9-10).
Some full-flow filt er s ar e equipped wit h a
con t a mi n a t i on i n di ca t or (fi g. 9-11). Th es e
indicat or s, also known as differ ent ial pr essur e
indicat or s, ar e available in t hr ee t ypesgauge
indicat or s, mechanical pop-up indicat or s, and
elect r ical wit h mechanical pop-up indicat or s. As
cont a mina t ing pa r t icles collect on t he filt er
element , t he differ ent ial pr essur e acr oss t he
element incr eases. In some inst allat ions using
Fi gu r e 9-10.Fu ll-flow h yd r a u li c fi lt er .
gauges as indicat or s, t he differ ent ial pr essur e must
be obt ained by subt r act ing t he r eadings of t wo
gauges locat ed somewher e along t he filt er inlet
and out let piping. For pop-up indicat or s, when
t he incr ease in pr essur e r eaches a specific value,
an indicat or (usually in t he filt er head) pops out ,
signifying t hat t he filt er must be cleaned or
r eplaced. A low-t emper at ur e lockout feat ur e is
inst alled in most pop-up t ypes of cont aminat ion
indicat or s t o eliminat e t he possibilit y of false
indica t ions due t o cold wea t her beca use t he
pr essur e differ ent ial may be much higher wit h a
cold fluid due t o incr eased viscosit y.
Filt er element s used in filt er s t hat have a
con t a mi n a t i on i n di ca t or a r e n ot n or ma l l y
r emoved or r epla ced unt il t he indica t or is
act uat ed. This decr eases t he possibilit y of syst em
cont a mina t ion fr om out side sour ces due t o
unnecessar y handling.
The use of t he nonbypassing t ype of filt er
eliminat es t he possibilit y of cont aminat ed fluid
bypassing t he filt er element and cont aminat ing t he
ent ir e syst em. This t ype of filt er will minimize t he
necessit y for flushing t he ent ir e syst em and lessen
t he possibilit y of failur e of pumps and ot her
component s in t he syst em.
A bypass r elief valve is inst alled in some filt er s.
The bypass r elief valve allows t he fluid t o bypass
t he filt er element and pass dir ect ly t hr ough t he
out let por t in t he event t hat t he filt er element
becomes clogged. These filt er s may or may not
be equipped wit h t he cont aminat ion indicat or .
Fi gu r e 9-11 s h ows a fu l l -fl ow bypa s s -t ype
9-8
Fi gu r e 9-11.Fu ll-flow byp a ss-t yp e h yd r a u li c fi lt er (wi t h con t a mi n a t i on i n d i ca t or ).
9-9
hydr aulic filt er wit h a cont aminat ion indicat or .
Fi gu r e 9-12 s h ows a fu l l -fl ow bypa s s -t ype
hydr aulic filt er wit hout a cont aminat ion indicat or .
A filt er bypass indicat or pr ovides a posit ive
indicat ion, when act ivat ed, t hat fluid is bypassing
t he filt er element by flowing t hr ough t he bypass
r elief valve. This indicat or should not be confused
wit h t he pop-up differ ent ial pr essur e indicat or
pr eviously discussed which simply monit or s t he
pr essur e acr oss t he element . Wit h t he bypass
indicat or , a similar pop-up but t on is oft en used
t o signal t hat maint enance is needed. However ,
t he bypass indicat or s fur t her signal t hat , as a
r esult of t he high differ ent ial pr essur es acr oss t he
element , an int er nal bypass r elief valve has lift ed
and some of t he fluid is bypassing t he element .
Ident ificat ion of t he t ype of inst alled indicat or
can be obt ained fr om filt er manifold dr awings or
r elat ed equipment manuals. Bot h a fluid bypass
indicat or and a differ ent ial pr essur e indicat or or
ga uge ma y be inst a lled on t he sa me filt er
a ssembly.
As wit h differ ent ial pr essur e indicat or s, bypass
r elief indicat or s can be act ivat ed by pr essur e
sur ges, such as may develop dur ing cold st ar t s or
r a pid syst em pr essur iza t ion. On some r elief
indicat or s, t he pop-up but t on, or what ever signal
device is used, will r et ur n t o a nor mal posit ion
when t he sur ge passes and pr essur e is r educed.
Ot her r elief indicat or s may cont inue t o indicat e
a bypass condit ion unt il t hey ar e manually r eset .
Fi gu r e 9-12.Fu ll-flow byp a ss-t yp e h yd r a u li c fi lt er .
Befor e cor r ect ive a ct ion is t a ken ba sed on
indicat or r eadings, t he bypass condit ion should
be ver ified at nor mal oper at ing t emper at ur e and
flow condit ions by a t t empt ing t o r eset t he
indicat or .
P r op or t i on a l-Flow Fi lt er
This t ype of filt er oper at es on t he vent ur i
pr inciple. (See glossar y.) As t he fluid passes
t hr ough t he vent ur i t hr oat a dr op in pr essur e is
cr eat ed at t he nar r owest point . See figur e 9-13.
A por t ion of t he fluid flowing t owar d and away
fr om t he t hr oat of t he vent ur i flows t hr ough t he
passages int o t he body of t he filt er . A fluid
passage connect s t he hollow cor e of t he filt er wit h
t he t hr oat of t he vent ur i. Thus, t he low-pr essur e
ar ea at t he t hr oat of t he vent ur i causes t he fluid
under pr essur e in t he body of t he filt er t o flow
t hr ough t he filt er element , t hr ough t he hollow
cor e, int o t he low-pr essur e ar ea, and t hen r et ur n
t o t he syst em. Alt hough only a por t ion of t he fluid
is filt er ed dur ing each cycle, const ant r ecir culat ion
t hr ough t he syst em will event ually cause all t he
fluid t o pass t hr ough t he filt er element .
Fi gu r e 9-13.P r op or t i on a l-flow fi lt er .
9-10
Fi lt er Ra t i n g
Filt er s ar e r at ed in sever al waysabsolut e,
mean, and nominal. The absolut e filt r at ion r at ing
is t he diamet er in micr ons of t he lar gest spher ical
par t icle t hat will pass t hr ough t he filt er under a
cer t ain t est condit ion. This r at ing is an indicat ion
of t he lar gest opening in t he filt er element . The
mean filt r at ion r at ing is t he measur ement of t he
aver age size of t he openings in t he filt er element .
The nominal filt r at ion r at ing is usually int er pr et ed
t o mean t he size of t he smallest par t icles of which
90 per cent will be t r apped in t he filt er at each pass
t hr ough t he filt er .
F i lt er Elemen t s
Filt er element s gener ally may be divided int o
t wo classessur face and dept h. Sur face filt er s ar e
made of closely woven fabr ic or t r eat ed paper wit h
a unifor m por e size. Fluid flows t hr ough t he por es
of t he filt er ma t er ia l a nd cont a mina nt s a r e
st opped on t he filt er s sur fa ce. This t ype of
element is designed t o pr event t he passage of a
high per cent age of solids of a specific size. Dept h
filt er s, on t he ot her hand, ar e composed of layer s
of fabr ic or fiber s which pr ovide many t or t uous
pat hs for t he fluid t o flow t hr ough. The por es or
passages must be lar ger t han t he r at ed size of t he
filt er if par t icles ar e t o be r et ained in t he dept h
of t h e medi a r a t h er t h a n on t h e s u r fa ce.
Consequent ly, t her e is a st at ist ical pr obabilit y
t hat a r at her lar ge par t icle may pass t hr ough a
dept h-t ype filt er .
Filt er element s may be of t he 5-micr on, woven
mesh, micr onic, por ous met al, or magnet ic t ype.
Th e mi cr on i c a n d 5-mi cr on el emen t s h a ve
noncleanable filt er media and ar e disposed of
when t hey ar e r emoved. Por ous met al, woven
mesh, and magnet ic filt er element s ar e usually
designed t o be cleaned and r eused.
5-MI CRON NONCLEANABLE F I LTER
ELEMENTS. The most common 5-micr on filt er
medium is composed of or ganic and inor ganic
fiber s int egr ally bonded by epoxy r esin and faced
wit h a met allic mesh upst r eam and downst r eam
for pr ot ect ion and added mechanical st r engt h.
Filt er s of t his t ype ar e not t o be cleaned under
any cir cumst ances and will be mar ked Disposable
or Noncleanable.
Anot her 5-micr on filt er medium uses layer s
of ver y fine st ainless-st eel fiber s dr awn int o a
r andom but cont r olled mat r ix. Filt er element s
Fi gu r e 9-14.Cr oss-sect i on of a st a i n less st eel h yd r a u li c fi lt er
elemen t .
of t his ma t er ia l ma y be eit her clea na ble or
noncleanable, depending upon t heir const r uct ion.
WOVE N WI R E -ME S H F I LTE R E LE -
ME NTS . Filt er s of t his t ype ar e made of
st ainless st eel and ar e gener ally r at ed as 15 or 25
micr on (absolut e). Figur e 9-14 shows a magnified
cr oss sect ion of a woven wir e-mesh filt er element .
This t ype of filt er is r eusable.
MI CRONI C HYDRAULI C FI LTER ELE-
MENT. The t er m micronic is der ived fr om t he
wor d micron. It could be used t o descr ibe any
filt er element ; however , t hr ough usage, t his t er m
has become associat ed wit h a specific filt er wit h
a filt er ing element made of a specially t r eat ed
cellulose paper (fig. 9-15). The filt er shown in
figur e 9-10 is a t ypical micr onic hydr aulic filt er .
This filt er is designed t o r emove 99 per cent of all
par t icles 10 t o 20 micr ons in diamet er or lar ger .
Fi gu r e 9-15.Mi cr on i c fi lt er elemen t .
9-11
&
The r eplaceable element is made of specially
t r eat ed convolut ions (wr inkles) t o incr ease it s
dir t -holding capacit y. The element is noncleanable
and should be r eplaced wit h a new filt er element
dur ing maint enance inspect ions.
MAGNETI C FI LTERS. Some hydr aulic
syst ems have magnet ic filt er s inst alled at st r at egic
point s. Filt er s of t his t ype ar e designed pr imar ily
t o t r ap any fer r ous par t icles t hat may be in t he
syst em.
P NEUMATI C GASES
Clean, dr y gas is r equir ed for t he efficient
oper a t ion of pneuma t ic syst ems. Due t o t he
nor mal condit ions of t he at mospher e, fr ee air
seldom sat isfies t hese r equir ement s adequat ely.
The at mospher e cont ains bot h dust and impur it ies
in var ious amount s and a subst ant ial amount of
moist ur e in vapor for m.
Solids, such as dust , r ust , or pipe scale in
pneumat ic syst ems, may lead t o excessive wear
and failur e of component s and, in some cases,
may pr event t he pneumat ic devices fr om oper at ing.
Moist ur e is also ver y har mful t o t he syst em. It
washes lubr icat ion fr om moving par t s, t her eby
aiding cor r osion and causing excessive wear of
component s. Moist ur e will also set t le in low spot s
in t he syst em and fr eeze dur ing cold weat her ,
causing a st oppage of t he syst em or r upt ur ed lines.
An ideal filt er would r emove all dir t and
moist ur e fr om a pneuma t ic syst em wit hout
causing a pr essur e dr op in t he pr ocess. Obviously,
such a condit ion ca n only be a ppr oa ched; it
cannot be at t ained.
Remova l of Soli d s
Th e r emova l of s ol i ds fr om t h e ga s of
pneumat ic syst ems is gener ally done by scr eening
(filt er ing), cent r ifugal for ce, or a combinat ion of
t he t wo. In some cases, t he r emoval of moist ur e
is done in conjunct ion wit h t he r emoval of solids.
Some t ypes of air filt er s ar e similar in design
and oper at ion t o t he hydr aulic filt er s discussed
ear lier . Some mat er ials used in t he const r uct ion
of element s for air filt er s ar e woven scr een wir e,
st eel wool, fiber glass, and felt fabr ics. Element s
made of t hese mat er ials ar e oft en used in t he unit
t hat filt er s t he air as it ent er s t he compr essor .
Por ous met a l a nd cer a mic element s a r e
commonly used in filt er s t hat ar e inst alled in t he
compr essed air supply lines. These filt er s also use
a cont r olled air pat h t o pr ovide some filt r at ion.
Int er nal design causes t he air t o flow in a cir cular
pat h wit hin t he bowl (fig. 9-16). Heavy par t icles
and wat er dr oplet s ar e t hr own out of t he air st r eam
and dr op t o t he bot t om of t he bowl. The air t hen
flows t hr ough t he filt er element , which filt er s out
most of t he smaller par t icles. This t ype of filt er
is designed wit h a dr ain valve at t he bot t om of
t he bowl. When t he valve is opened wit h air
pr essur e in t he syst em, t he accumulat ion of solids
and wat er will be blown out of t he bowl.
An air filt er t hat uses moving mechanical
devices as an element is illust r at ed in figur e 9-17.
As compr essed air passes t hr ough t he filt er t he
for ce r evolves a number of mult i-blade r ot or s at
high speed. Moist ur e and dir t ar e caught on t he
blades of t he r ot or s. The whir ling blades hur l t he
impur it ies by cent r ifugal for ce t o t he out er r ims
of t he r ot or s and t o t he inner walls of t he filt er
housing. Her e, cont aminat ing mat t er is out of t he
air st r eam and falls t o t he bot t om of t he bowl
wher e it must be dr ained at per iodic int er vals.
Remova l of Moi st u r e
The r emoval of moist ur e fr om compr essed air
is impor t ant for a compr essed air syst em. If air
at at mospher ic pr essur e, even at a ver y low r elat ive
humidit y, is compr essed t o 3000 or 4500 psi, it
becomes sa t ur a t ed wit h wa t er va por . Some
moist ur e is r emoved by t he int er cooler s and
a ft er cooler s (see glossa r y). Also, a ir fla sks,
r eceiver s, and banks ar e pr ovided wit h low point
dr ains t o allow per iodic dr aining of any collect ed
moist ur e. However , many uses of air r equir e air
wit h an even smaller moist ur e cont ent t han can
be obt ained t hr ough t hese met hods. Moist ur e in
Fi gu r e 9-16.Ai r fi lt er .
9-12
Fi gu r e 9-17.Ai r fi lt er u si n g r ot a t i n g bla d es a s elemen t .
air lines can cr eat e pr oblems which ar e pot ent ially
hazar dous, such as t he fr eezing of valves and
cont r ols. This can occur , for example, if ver y high
pr essur e air is t hr ot t led t o a ver y low pr essur e at
a high flow r at e. The vent ur i effect of t he t hr ot t led
air pr oduces ver y low t emper at ur es which will
cause any moist ur e in t he air t o fr eeze int o ice.
This makes t he valve (especially an aut omat ic
va lve) eit her ver y difficult or impossible t o
oper at e. Also, dr oplet s of wat er can cause ser ious
wat er hammer in an air syst em which has high
pr essur e and a high flow r at e and can cause
cor r osion, r ust , and dilut ion of lubr icant s wit hin
t he syst em. For t h es e r ea s on s , a i r dr i er s
(dehydrator, air purifier, and desiccator ar e all
t er ms used by differ ent manufact ur er s t o ident ify
t hese component s) ar e used t o dr y t he compr essed
air . Some wat er r emoval devices ar e similar in
design and oper at ion t o t he filt er s shown in figur es
9-16 and 9-17. Two basic t ypes of air dehydr at or s
ar e t he r efr iger at ed-t ype and t he desiccant -t ype.
REFRI GERATED-TYP E DEHYDRATORS.
In r efr iger at ed-t ype dehydr at or s, compr essed air
is passed over a set of r efr iger at ed cooling coils. Oil
and moist ur e vapor s condense fr om t he air and can
be collect ed and r emoved via a low point dr ain.
DESI CCANT-TYP E DEHYDRATORS. A
desiccant is a chemical subst ance wit h a high
capacit y t o absor b wat er or moist ur e. It also has
t he capacit y t o give off t hat moist ur e so t hat t he
desiccant can be r eused.
Some compr essed air syst em dehydr at or s use
a pair of desiccant t ower s (flasks full of desiccant ).
One is kept in ser vice dehydr at ing t he compr essed
air , while t he ot her one is being r eact ivat ed. A
desiccant t ower is nor mally r eact ivat ed by passing
dr y, heat ed air t hr ough it in t he dir ect ion opposit e
t he nor mal dehydr at ion air flow.
Anot her t ype of chemical dr ier is shown in
figur e 9-18. This unit consist s of t he housing, a
car t r idge cont aining a chemical agent , a filt er
(sint er ed br onze), and a spr ing. Var ious t ypes of
absor bent chemicals ar e used by t he differ ent
ma n u fa ct u r er s i n t h e con s t r u ct i on of t h e
car t r idges. To ensur e pr oper filt er ing, t he air must
pass t hr ough t he dr ier in t he pr oper dir ect ion. The
cor r ect dir ect ion of flow is indicat ed by an ar r ow
and t he wor d FLOW pr int ed on t he side of t he
car t r idge.
Fi gu r e 9-18.Ch emi ca l d r i er .
9-13
CHAP TER 10
ACTUATORS
One of t he out st anding feat ur es of fluid power
syst ems is t hat for ce, gener at ed by t he power
supply, cont r olled a nd dir ect ed by suit a ble
valving, and t r anspor t ed by lines, can be con-
ver t ed wit h ease t o almost any kind of mechanical
mot ion desir ed at t he ver y place it is needed.
Eit her linear (st r aight line) or r ot ar y mot ion can
be obt ained by using a suit able act uat ing device.
An act uat or is a device t hat conver t s fluid
power i n t o mech a n i ca l for ce a n d mot i on .
Cylinder s, mot or s, and t ur bines ar e t he most
common t ypes of act uat ing devices used in fluid
power syst ems.
Th i s ch a pt er des cr i bes va r i ou s t ypes of
a ct u a t i n g cyl i n der s a n d t h ei r a ppl i ca t i on s ,
differ ent t ypes of fluid mot or s, and t ur bines used
in fluid power syst ems.
CYLI NDERS
An act uat ing cylinder is a device t hat conver t s
fluid power t o linear , or st r aight line, for ce and
mot ion. Since linear mot ion is a back-and-for t h
mot ion along a st r aight line, t his t ype of act uat or
is somet imes r efer r ed t o as a r ecipr ocat ing, or
linear , mot or . The cylinder consist s of a r am or
pist on oper at ing wit hin a cylindr ical bor e. Act uat -
ing cylinder s may be inst alled so t hat t he cylinder
is anchor ed t o a st at ionar y st r uct ur e and t he r am
or pist on is at t ached t o t he mechanism t o be
oper at ed, or t he pist on or r am may be anchor ed
t o t he st a t iona r y st r uct ur e a nd t he cylinder
at t ached t o t he mechanism t o be oper at ed.
Act u a t i n g cyl i n der s for pn eu ma t i c a n d
hydr a ulic syst ems a r e simila r in design a nd
oper at ion. Some of t he var iat ions of r am- and
pist on-t ype act uat ing cylinder s ar e descr ibed in
t he following par agr aphs.
RAM-TYP E CYLI NDERS
The t er ms ram and piston ar e oft en used
int er changeably. However , a r am-t ype cylinder is
usually consider ed one in which t he cr oss-sect ional
ar ea of t he pist on r od is mor e t han one-half t he
cr oss-sect ional ar ea of t he movable element . In
most act uat ing cylinder s of t his t ype, t he r od and
t he movable element have equal ar eas. This t ype
of movable element is fr equent ly r efer r ed t o as
a plunger .
The r am-t ype act uat or is used pr imar ily t o
push r at her t han t o pull. Some applicat ions
r equir e simply a flat sur face on t he ext er nal par t
of t he r am for pushing or lift ing t he unit t o
be oper at ed. Ot her applicat ions r equir e some
mechanical means of at t achment , such as a clevis
or eyebolt . The design of r am-t ype cylinder s var ies
in many ot her r espect s t o sat isfy t he r equir ement s
of differ ent applicat ions.
Si n gle-Act i n g Ra m
The single-act ing r am (fig. 10-1) applies for ce
in only one dir ect ion. The fluid t hat is dir ect ed
int o t he cylinder displaces t he r am and for ces it
out war d, lift ing t he object placed on it . Since t her e
Fi gu r e 10-1.Si n gle-a ct i n g r a m-t yp e a ct u a t i n g cyli n d er .
10-1
is no pr ovision for r et r act ing t he r am by fluid
power , when fluid pr essur e is r eleased, eit her t he
weight of t he object or some mechanical means,
such as a spr ing, for ces t he r am back int o t he
cylinder . Th i s for ces t h e fl u i d ba ck t o t h e
r eser voir .
The single-act ing r am-t ype act uat ing cylinder
is oft en used in t he hydr aulic jack. The elevat or s
used t o move air cr aft t o and fr om t he flight deck
and hangar deck on air cr aft car r ier s also use
cylinder s of t his t ype. In t hese elevat or s, t he
cylinder s ar e inst alled hor izont ally and oper at e t he
elevat or t hr ough a ser ies of cables and sheaves.
Fluid pr essur e for ces t he r am out war d and lift s
t he elevat or . When fluid pr essur e is r eleased fr om
t he r am, t he weight of t he elevat or for ces t he r am
back int o t he cylinder . This, in t ur n, for ces t he
fluid back int o t he r eser voir .
Dou ble-Act i n g Ra m
A double-act ing r am-t ype cylinder is illust r at ed
in figur e 10-2. In t his cylinder , bot h st r okes of
t he r am ar e pr oduced by pr essur ized fluid. Ther e
ar e t wo fluid por t s, one at or near each end of
t he cylinder . Fluid under pr essur e is dir ect ed t o
t he closed end of t he cylinder t o ext end t he r am
and apply for ce. To r et r act t he r am and r educe
t he for ce, fluid is dir ect ed t o t he opposit e end of
t he cylinder .
A fou r -wa y di r ect i on a l con t r ol va l ve i s
nor mally used t o cont r ol t he double-act ing r am.
When t he valve is posit ioned t o ext end t he r am,
pr essur ized fluid ent er s por t A (fig. 10-2), act s on
Fi gu r e 10-2.Dou ble-a ct i n g r a m-t yp e a ct u a t i n g cyli n d er .
t he bot t om sur face of t he r am, and for ces t he r am
out war d. Fluid above t he r am lip is fr ee t o flow
out of por t B, t hr ough t he cont r ol valve, and t o
t he r et ur n line in hydr aulic syst ems or t o t he
at mospher e in pneumat ic syst ems.
Nor mally, t he pr essur e of t he fluid is t he same
for eit her st r oke of t he r am. Recall fr om chapt er
2 t hat for ce is equal t o pr essur e t imes ar ea
(F= PA). Not ice t he differ ence of t he ar eas upon
which t he pr essur e a ct s in figur e 10-2. The
pr essur e act s against t he lar ge sur face ar ea on t he
bot t om of t he r am dur ing t he ext ension st r oke,
dur ing which t ime t he r am applies for ce. Since
t he r am does not r equir e a lar ge for ce dur ing t he
r et r act ion st r oke, pr essur e act ing on t he small ar ea
on t he t op sur face of t he r am lip pr ovides t he
necessar y for ce t o r et r act t he r am.
Telescop i n g Ra ms
Figur e 10-3 shows a t elescoping r am-t ype
act uat ing cylinder . A ser ies of r ams is nest ed in
t he t elescoping assembly. Wit h t he except ion of
t he smallest r am, each r am is hollow and ser ves
as t he cylinder housing for t he next smaller r am.
The r am assembly is cont ained in t he main
cylinder assembly, which also pr ovides t he fluid
por t s. Alt hough t he assembly r equir es a small
space wit h all t he r ams r et r act ed, t he t elescoping
act ion of t he assembly pr ovides a r elat ively long
st r oke when t he r ams ar e ext ended.
An excellent example of t he applicat ion of t his
t ype of cylinder is in t he dump t r uck. It is used
t o lift t he for war d end of t he t r uck bed and dump
t he load. Dur ing t he lift ing oper at ion, t he gr eat est
for ce is r equir ed for t he init ial lift ing of t he load.
Fi gu r e 10-3.Telescop i n g r a m-t yp e a ct u a t i n g cyli n d er .
10-2
As t he load is lift ed and begins t o dump, t he
r equir ed for ce becomes less and less unt il t he load
is complet ely dumped. Dur ing t he r aise cycle,
pr essur ized fluid ent er s t he cylinder t hr ough por t
A (fig. 10-3) and act s on t he bot t om sur face of
all t hr ee r ams. Ram 1 has a lar ger sur face ar ea
and, t her efor e, pr ovides t he gr eat er for ce for t he
init ial load, As r am 1 r eaches t he end of it s st r oke
and t he r equir ed for ce is decr eased, r am 2 moves,
pr oviding t he smaller for ce needed t o cont inue
r aising t he load. When r am 2 complet es it s st r oke,
a st ill smaller for ce is r equir ed. Ram 3 t hen moves
out war d t o finish r aising and dumping t he load.
Some t elescoping r am-t ype cylinder s ar e of t he
single-act ing t ype. Like t he single-act ing r am
discussed pr eviously, t hese t elescoping r am-t ype
cylinder s ar e r et r act ed by gr avit y or mechanical
for ce. Some hydr aulic jacks ar e equipped wit h
t elescoping r ams. Such jacks ar e used t o lift
vehicles wit h low clear ances t o t he r equir ed height .
Ot her t ypes of t elescoping cylinder s, like t he
one illust r at ed in figur e 10-3, ar e of t he double-
act ing t ype. In t his t ype, fluid pr essur e is used for
bot h t he ext ension and r et r act ion st r okes. A four -
way dir ect ional cont r ol valve is commonly used
t o cont r ol t he oper at ion of t he double-act ing t ype.
Not e t he small passages in t he walls of r ams 1 and
2. They pr ovide a pat h for fluid t o flow t o and
fr om t he chamber s above t he lips of r ams 2 and
3. Dur ing t he ext ension st r oke, r et ur n fluid flows
t hr ough t hese passages and out of t he cylinder
t hr ough por t B. I t t hen flows t hr ough t he
dir ect ional cont r ol valve t o t he r et ur n line or
r eser voir .
To r et r act t he r ams, fluid under pr essur e is
dir ect ed int o t he cylinder t hr ough por t B and act s
against t he t op sur face ar eas of all t hr ee r am lips.
This for ces t he r ams t o t he r et r act ed posit ion. The
displaced fluid fr om t he opposit e side of t he r ams
flows out of t he cylinder t hr ough por t A, t hr ough
t he dir ect ional cont r ol valve t o t he r et ur n line or
r eser voir .
Du a l Ra ms
A dual r am assembly consist s of a single r am
wit h a cylinder at eit her end (fig. 10-4). Fluid can
be dir ect ed t o eit her cylinder , for cing t he r am t o
move in t he opposit e dir ect ion. The r a m is
connect ed t hr ough mechanical linkage t o t he unit
t o be oper at ed. A four -way dir ect ional cont r ol
valve is commonly used t o oper at e t he dual r am.
When t he cont r ol valve is posit ioned t o dir ect fluid
under pr essur e t o one of t he cylinder s (let s say
t he left one), t he r am is for ced t o t he r ight . This
Fi gu r e 10-4.-Du a l r a m a ct u a t i n g a ssembly.
act ion displaces t he fluid in t he opposit e cylinder .
The displa ced fluid flows ba ck t hr ough t he
dir ect ional cont r ol valve t o t he r et ur n line or
r es er voi r i n h ydr a u l i c s ys t ems or t o t h e
at mospher e in pneumat ic syst ems.
Dual r am act uat ing assemblies ar e used in
st eer ing syst ems of most ships. In some syst ems,
one assembly is used t o act uat e t he r udder in eit her
dir ect ion; while in ot her syst ems, t wo assemblies
ar e used for t he same pur pose.
P I STON-TYP E CYLI NDERS
An act uat ing cylinder in which t he cr oss-
sect ional ar ea of t he pist on is less t han one-half
t he cr oss-sect ional ar ea of t he movable element
is r efer r ed t o as a pist on-t ype cylinder . This t ype
of cylinder is nor mally used for applicat ions t hat
r equir e bot h push and pull funct ions. The pist on-
t ype cylinder is t he most common t ype used in
fluid power syst ems.
The essent ial par t s of a pist on-t ype cylinder
ar e a cylindr ical bar r el, a pist on and r od, end caps,
and suit able seals. The end caps ar e at t ached t o
t he ends of t he bar r el. These end caps usually
cont ain t he fluid por t s. The end cap on t he r od
end cont ains a hole for t he pist on r od t o pass
t hr ough. Suit able seals ar e used bet ween t he hole
and t he pist on r od t o keep fluid fr om leaking out
and t o keep dir t and ot her cont aminant s fr om
ent er ing t he bar r el. The opposit e end cap of most
cylinder s is pr ovided wit h a fit t ing for secur ing
t he act uat ing cylinder t o some st r uct ur e. This end
cap is r efer r ed t o as t he anchor end cap.
The pist on r od may ext end t hr ough eit her or
bot h ends of t he cylinder . The ext ended end of
t he r od is nor mally t hr eaded so t hat some t ype
of mechanical connect or , such as an eyebolt or
a clevis, and a locknut can be at t ached. This
t hr eaded connect ion of t he r od and mechanical
connect or pr ovides for adjust ment bet ween t he
r od and t he unit t o be act uat ed. Aft er t he cor r ect
10-3
adjust ment is made, t he locknut is t ight ened
against t he connect or t o pr event t he connect or
fr om t ur ning. The ot her end of t he connect or is
at t ached, eit her dir ect ly or t hr ough addit ional
mechanical linkage, t o t he unit t o be act uat ed.
In or der t o sat isfy t he many r equir ement s of
fluid power syst ems, pist on-t ype cylinder s ar e
available in var ious designs.
Si n gle-Act i n g Cyli n d er
The single-act ing pist on-t ype cylinder is similar
in design a nd oper a t ion t o t he single-a ct ing
r am-t ype cylinder . The single-act ing pist on-t ype
cylinder uses fluid pr essur e t o pr ovide t he for ce
in one dir ect ion, and spr ing t ension, gr avit y,
compr essed air , or nit r ogen is used t o pr ovide t he
for ce in t he opposit e dir ect ion. Figur e 10-5 shows
a s i n gl e-a ct i n g, s pr i n g-l oa ded, pi s t on -t ype
act uat ing cylinder . In t his cylinder t he spr ing is
locat ed on t he r od side of t he pist on. In some
spr ing-loaded cylinder s t he spr ing is locat ed on
t he blank side, and t he fluid por t is on t he r od
side of t he cylinder .
A t hr ee-wa y dir ect iona l cont r ol va lve is
nor mally used t o cont r ol t he oper at ion of t he
single-act ing pist on-t ype cylinder . To ext end t he
pist on r od, fluid under pr essur e is dir ect ed
t hr ough t he por t int o t he cylinder (fig. 10-5). This
pr essur e act s on t he sur face ar ea of t he blank side
of t he pist on and for ces t he pist on t o t he r ight .
This act ion moves t he r od t o t he r ight , t hr ough
t he end of t he cylinder , t hus moving t he act uat ed
unit in one dir ect ion. Dur ing t his act ion, t he
spr ing is compr essed bet ween t he r od side of t he
pist on and t he end of t he cylinder . The lengt h of
t he st r oke depends upon t he physical limit s wit hin
t he cylinder and t he r equir ed movement of t he
act uat ed unit .
To r et r act t he pist on r od, t he dir ect ional
cont r ol valve is moved t o t he opposit e wor king
posit ion, which r elea ses t he pr essur e in t he
Fi gu r e 10-5.Si n gle-a ct i n g, sp r i n g-loa d ed , p i st on -t yp e
a ct u a t i n g cyli n d er .
cylinder . The spr ing t ension for ces t he pist on t o
t he left , r et r act ing t he pist on r od and moving t he
act uat ed unit in t he opposit e dir ect ion. The fluid
is fr ee t o flow fr om t he cylinder t hr ough t he por t ,
back t hr ough t he cont r ol valve t o t he r et ur n line
in hydr aulic syst ems or t o t he at mospher e in
pneumat ic syst ems.
The end of t he cylinder opposit e t he fluid por t
is vent ed t o t he at mospher e. This pr event s air
fr om being t r apped in t his ar ea. Any t r apped air
would compr ess dur ing t he ext ension st r oke,
cr eat ing excess pr essur e on t he r od side of t he
pist on. This would cause sluggish movement of
t he pist on and could event ually cause a complet e
lock, pr event ing t he fluid pr essur e fr om moving
t he pist on.
The spr ing-loaded cylinder is used in ar r est ing
gear syst ems on some models of car r ier air cr aft .
To r aise (r et r act ) t he ar r est ing hook, fluid pr essur e
is dir ect ed t hr ough t he ar r est ing hook cont r ol
valve t o t he r od side of t he cylinder . This for ce
moves t he pist on, which, t hr ough t he r od and
mechanical linkage, r et r act s t he ar r est ing hook.
The ar r est ing hook ext ends when fluid pr essur e
is r eleased fr om t he r od side of t he cylinder ,
allowing t he spr ing t o expand.
Leakage bet ween t he cylinder wall and pist on
is pr event ed by adequat e seals. The pist on in
figur e 10-5 cont ains V-r ing seals.
Dou ble-Act i n g Cyli n d er
Most pist on-t ype a ct ua t ing cylinder s a r e
double-act ing, which means t hat fluid under
pr essur e can be applied t o eit her side of t he pist on
t o apply for ce and pr ovide movement .
One design of t he double-act ing cylinder is
shown in figur e 10-6. This cylinder cont ains one
pist on and pist on r od assembly. The st r oke of t he
pist on and pist on r od assembly in eit her dir ect ion
is pr oduced by fluid pr essur e. The t wo fluid por t s,
one near each end of t he cylinder , alt er nat e as inlet
and out let por t s, depending on t he dir ect ion of
Fi gu r e 10-6.-Dou b1e-a ct i n g p i st on -t yp e a ct u a t i n g cyli n d er .
10-4
flow fr om t he dir ect ional cont r ol valve. This
act uat or (fig. 10-6) is r efer r ed t o as an unbalanced
act uat ing cylinder because t her e is a differ ence in
t he effect ive wor king ar eas on t he t wo sides of
t he pist on. Ther efor e, t his t ype of cylinder is
nor mally inst alled so t hat t he blank side of t he
pist on car r ies t he gr eat er load; t hat is, t he cylinder
car r ies t he gr eat er load dur ing t he pist on r od
ext ension st r oke.
A fou r -wa y di r ect i on a l con t r ol va l ve i s
nor mally used t o cont r ol t he oper at ion of t his t ype
of cylinder . The valve can be posit ioned t o dir ect
fluid under pr essur e t o eit her end of t he cylinder
and allow t he displaced fluid t o flow fr om t he
opposit e end of t he cylinder t hr ough t he cont r ol
valve t o t he r et ur n line in hydr aulic syst ems or
t o t he at mospher e in pneumat ic syst ems.
Ther e ar e applicat ions wher e it is necessar y t o
move t wo mechanisms at t he same t ime. In t his
case, double-act ing pist on-t ype act uat ing cylinder s
of differ ent designs ar e r equir ed. See figur es 10-7
and 10-8.
Figur e 10-7 shows a t hr ee-por t , double-act ing
pist on-t ype a ct ua t ing cylinder . This a ct ua t or
cont ains t wo pist ons and pist on r od assemblies.
Fluid is dir ect ed t hr ough por t A by a four -way
dir ect ional cont r ol valve and moves t he pist ons
out war d, t hus moving t he mechanisms at t ached
t o t he pist ons r ods. The fluid on t he r od side of
each pist on is for ced out of t he cylinder t hr ough
por t s B and C, which ar e connect ed by a common
line t o t he dir ect ional cont r ol valve. The displaced
fluid t hen flows t hr ough t he cont r ol valve t o t he
r et ur n line or t o t he at mospher e.
When fluid under pr essur e is dir ect ed int o t he
cylinder t hr ough por t s B and C, t he t wo pist ons
move inwa r d, a lso moving t he mecha nisms
at t ached t o t hem. Fluid bet ween t he t wo pist ons
is fr ee t o flow fr om t he cylinder t hr ough por t A
and t hr ough t he cont r ol valve t o t he r et ur n line
or t o t he at mospher e.
The act uat ing cylinder shown in figur e 10-8
is a double-act ing balanced t ype. The pist on r od
ext ends t hr ough t he pist on and out t hr ough bot h
ends of t he cylinder . One or bot h ends of t he
Fi gu r e 10-7.Th r ee-p or t , d ou ble-a ct i n g a ct u a t i n g cyli n d er .
Fi gu r e 10-8.-Ba la n ced , d ou ble-a ct i n g p i st on -t yp e a ct u a t i n g
cyli n d er .
pist on r od may be at t ached t o a mechanism t o
be oper at ed. In eit her case, t he cylinder pr ovides
equal ar eas on each side of t he pist on. Ther efor e,
t he same amount of fluid and for ce is used t o
move t he pist on a cer t ain dist ance in eit her
dir ect ion.
Ta n d em Cyli n d er s
A t andem act uat ing cylinder consist s of t wo
or mor e cylinder s ar r anged one behind t he ot her
but designed as a single unit (fig. 10-9). This t ype
of act uat ing cylinder is used in applicat ions t hat
r equir e t wo or mor e independent syst ems; for
example, power -oper at ed flight cont r ol syst ems
in naval air cr aft .
Th e fl ow of fl u i d t o a n d fr om t h e t wo
chamber s of t he t andem act uat ing cylinder is
pr ovided fr om t wo independent hydr aulic syst ems
and is cont r olled by t wo sliding spool dir ect ional
cont r ol valves. In some applicat ions, t he cont r ol
valves and t he act uat ing cylinder ar e t wo separ at e
unit s. In some unit s, t he pist ons (lands) of t he t wo
sliding spools ar e machined on one common shaft .
In ot her applicat ions, t he valves and t he act uat or
a r e dir ect ly connect ed in one compa ct unit .
Alt hough t he t wo cont r ol valves ar e hydr aulically
independent , t hey ar e int er connect ed mechanically.
In ot her unit s, t he t wo sliding spools ar e connect ed
t hr ough mechanical linkages wit h a synchr onizing
r od. In eit her case, t he movement of t he t wo
sliding spools is synchr onized, t hus equalizing t he
Fi gu r e 10-9.Ta n d em a ct u a t i n g cyli n d er .
10-5
flow of fluid t o and fr om t he t wo chamber s of
t he act uat ing cylinder .
Si n ce t h e t wo con t r ol va l ves oper a t e
independent ly of each ot her as far as hydr aulic
pr essur e is concer ned, failur e of eit her hydr aulic
syst em does not r ender t he act uat or inoper at ive.
Failur e of one syst em does r educe t he out put for ce
by one-half; however , t his for ce is sufficient t o
per mit oper at ion of t he act uat or .
RACK-AND-P I NI ON P I STON-TYP E
ROTARY ACTUATORS
The r a ck-a nd-pinion-t ype a ct ua t or s, a lso
r efer r ed t o as limit ed r ot at ion cylinder s, of t he
single or mult iple, bidir ect ional pist on ar e used
for t ur ning, posit ioning, st eer ing, opening and
closing, swinging, or a ny ot her mecha nica l
funct ion involving r est r ict ed r ot at ion. Figur e
10-10 shows a t ypical r ack-and-pinion double-
pist on act uat or .
The a ct ua t or consist s of a body a nd t wo
r ecipr ocat ing pist ons wit h an int egr al r ack for
r ot at ing t he shaft mount ed in r oller or jour nal
bear ings. The shaft and bear ings ar e locat ed in
a cent r al posit ion and ar e enclosed wit h a bear ing
cap. The pist ons, one on each side of t he r ack,
ar e enclosed in cylinder s machined or sleeved int o
t he body. The body is enclosed wit h end caps and
st a t ic sea ls t o pr event ext er na l lea ka ge of
pr essur ized fluid.
Only a few of t he ma ny a pplica t ions of
act uat ing cylinder s wer e discussed in t he pr eceding
par agr aphs. Figur e 10-11 shows addit ional t ypes
of for ce and mot ion applicat ions.
In addit ion t o it s ver sat ilit y, t he cylinder -t ype
a ct u a t or i s pr oba bl y t h e mos t t r ou bl e-fr ee
component of fluid power syst ems. However , it
is ver y impor t ant t hat t he cylinder , mechanical
linkage, and act uat ing unit ar e cor r ect ly aligned.
Any misalignment will cause excessive wear of t he
pist on, pist on r od, a nd sea ls. Also, pr oper
a djust ment bet ween t he pist on r od a nd t he
act uat ing unit must be maint ained.
Fi gu r e 10-10.Ra ck -a n d -p i n i on d ou ble-p i st on r ot a r y a ct u a t or .
10-6
Figure 10-11.Applications of actuating cylinders.
10-7
MOTORS
cont r olled by eit her a four -way dir ect ional cont r ol
valve or a var iable-displacement pump.
A fluid power mot or is a device t hat conver t s
fluid power ener gy t o r ot ar y mot ion and for ce.
The funct ion of a mot or is opposit e t hat of a
pump. However , t he design and oper at ion of
fluid power mot or s ar e ver y similar t o pumps.
Ther efor e, a t hor ough knowledge of t he pumps
descr ibed in chapt er 4 will help you under st and
t he oper at ion of fluid power mot or s.
Mot or s h a ve ma n y u s es i n fl u i d power
syst ems. In hydr aulic power dr ives, pumps and
mot or s ar e combined wit h suit able lines and valves
t o for m hydr a ulic t r a nsmissions. The pump,
commonly r efer r ed t o as t he A-end, is dr iven by
some out side sour ce, such as an elect r ic mot or .
The pump deliver s fluid t o t he mot or . The mot or ,
r efer r ed t o as t he B-end, is act uat ed by t his flow,
and t hr ough mechanical linkage conveys r ot ar y
mot ion and for ce t o t he wor k. This t ype of power
dr ive is used t o oper at e (t r ain and elevat e) many
of t h e Na vys gu n s a n d r ocket l a u n ch er s .
Hydr aulic mot or s ar e commonly used t o oper at e
t he wing flaps, r adomes, and r adar equipment in
air cr aft . Air mot or s ar e used t o dr ive pneumat ic
t ools. Air mot or s ar e also used in missiles t o
conver t t he kinet ic ener gy of compr essed gas int o
elect r ica l power , or t o dr ive t he pump of a
hydr aulic syst em.
Fluid mot or s may be eit her fixed or var iable
displacement . Fixed-displacement mot or s pr ovide
const ant t or que and var iable speed. The speed is
var ied by cont r olling t he amount of input flow.
Var iable-displacement mot or s ar e const r uct ed so
t hat t he wor king r elat ionship of t he int er nal par t s
ca n be va r ied t o cha nge displa cement . The
ma jor it y of t he mot or s used in fluid power
syst ems ar e t he fixed-displacement t ype.
Alt hough most fluid power mot or s ar e capable
of pr oviding r ot ar y mot ion in eit her dir ect ion,
some applicat ions r equir e r ot at ion in only one
dir ect ion. In t hese applicat ions, one por t of t he
mot or is connnect ed t o t he syst em pr essur e line and
t he ot her por t t o t he r et ur n line or exhaust ed t o
t he at mospher e. The flow of fluid t o t he mot or
is cont r olled by a flow cont r ol valve, a t wo-way
dir ect iona l cont r ol va lve, or by st a r t ing a nd
st opping t he power supply. The speed of t he
mot or may be cont r olled by var ying t he r at e of
fluid flow t o it .
In most fluid power syst ems, t he mot or is
r equir ed t o pr ovide act uat ion power in eit her
dir ect ion. In t hese applicat ions t he por t s ar e
r efer r ed t o as wor king por t s, alt er nat ing as inlet
and out let por t s. The flow t o t he mot or is usually
Fluid mot or s ar e usually classified accor ding
t o t he t ype of int er nal element , which is dir ect ly
act uat ed by t he flow. The most common t ypes of
element s ar e t he gear , t he vane, and t he pist on,
AU t hr ee of t hese t ypes ar e adapt able for hydr aulic
syst ems, while only t he vane t ype is used in
pneumat ic syst ems.
GEAR-TYP E MOTORS
The spur , helical, and her r ingbone design
gear s ar e used in gear -t ype mot or s. The mot or s
use ext er nal-t ype gear s, as discussed in chapt er 4.
The oper at ion of a gear -t ype mot or is shown
in figur e 10-12. Bot h gear s ar e dr iven gear s;
however , only one is connect ed t o t he out put
shaft . As fluid under pr essur e ent er s chamber A,
it t akes t he pat h of least r esist ance and flows
ar ound t he inside sur face of t he housing, for cing
t he gea r s t o r ot a t e a s indica t ed. The flow
cont inues t hr ough t he out let por t t o t he r et ur n.
This r ot ar y mot ion of t he gear s is t r ansmit t ed
t hr ough t he at t ached shaft t o t he wor k unit .
The mot or shown in figur e 10-12 is oper at ing
in one dir ect ion; however , t he gear -t ype mot or is
capable of pr oviding r ot ar y mot ion in eit her
dir ect ion. To r ever se t he dir ect ion of r ot at ion, t he
por t s may be alt er nat ed as inlet and out let . When
fluid is dir ect ed t hr ough t he out let por t (fig. 10-12)
int o chamber B, t he gear s r ot at e in t he opposit e
dir ect ion.
Fi gu r e 10-12.Gea r -t yp e mot or .
10-8
VANE-TYP E MOTORS
A t ypical vane-t ype air mot or is shown in
figur e 10-13. This pa r t icula r mot or pr ovides
r ot a t ion in only one dir ect ion. The r ot a t ing
element is a slot t ed r ot or which is mount ed on
a dr ive shaft . Each slot of t he r ot or is fit t ed wit h
a fr eely sliding r ect angular vane. The r ot or and
vanes ar e enclosed in t he housing, t he inner
sur face of which is offset fr om t he dr ive shaft axis.
When t he r ot or is in mot ion, t he vanes t end t o
slide out wa r d due t o cent r ifuga l for ce. The
dist ance t he vanes slide is limit ed by t he shape of
t he r ot or housing.
This mot or oper a t es on t he pr inciple of
differ ent ial ar eas. When compr essed air is dir ect ed
int o t he inlet por t , it s pr essur e is exer t ed equally
in all dir ect ions. Since ar ea A (fig. 10-13) is gr eat er
t han ar ea B, t he r ot or will t ur n count er clockwise.
Each vane, in t ur n, assumes t he No. 1 and No.
2 posit ions and t he r ot or t ur ns cont inuously. The
pot ent ial ener gy of t he compr essed air is t hus
conver t ed int o kinet ic ener gy in t he for m of r ot ar y
mot ion and for ce. The air at r educed pr essur e is
exhaust ed t o t he at mospher e. The shaft of t he
mot or is connect ed t o t he unit t o be act uat ed.
Ma n y va n e-t ype mot or s a r e ca pa bl e of
pr oviding r ot at ion in eit her dir ect ion. A mot or
of t his design is shown in figur e 10-14. This mot or
oper at es on t he same pr inciple as t he vane mot or
shown in figur e 10-13. The t wo por t s may be
alt er nat ely used as inlet and out let , t hus pr oviding
r ot at ion in eit her dir ect ion. Not e t he spr ings in
t he slot s of t he r ot or . Their pur pose is t o hold t he
vanes against t he housing dur ing t he init ial
Fi gu r e 10-13.Va n e-t yp e a i r mot or .
Fi gu r e 10-14.Va n e-t yp e mot or .
st ar t ing of t he mot or , since cent r ifugal for ce does
not exist unt il t he r ot or begins t o r ot at e.
P I STON-TYP E MOTORS
Pist on-t ype mot or s ar e t he most commonly
used in hydr aulic syst ems. They ar e basically t he
same as hydr aulic pumps except t hey ar e used t o
conver t hydr aulic ener gy int o mechanical (r ot ar y)
ener gy.
The most commonly used hydr aulic mot or is
t h e fi xed-di s pl a cemen t pi s t on t ype. Some
equipment uses a var iable-displacement pist on
mot or wher e ver y wide speed r anges ar e desir ed.
Al t h ou gh s ome pi s t on -t ype mot or s a r e
cont r olled by dir ect ional cont r ol valves, t hey
ar e oft en used in combinat ion wit h var iable-
displacement pumps. This pump-mot or combina-
t ion is used t o pr ovide a t r ansfer of power bet ween
a dr iving element and a dr iven element . Some
applicat ions for which hydr aulic t r ansmissions
may be used ar e speed r educer s, var iable speed
dr ives, const ant speed or const ant t or que dr ives,
a nd t or que conver t er s. Some a dva nt a ges of
hydr aulic t r ansmission of power over mechanical
t r ansmission of power ar e as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Quick, easy speed adjust ment over a wide
r ange while t he power sour ce is oper at ing
at a const ant (most efficient ) speed. Rapid,
smoot h acceler at ion or deceler at ion.
Cont r ol over maximum t or que and power .
Cushioning effect t o r educe shock loads.
Smoot her r ever sal of mot ion.
10-9
Ra d i a l-P i st on Mot or cont inues as long as fluid under pr essur e ent er s
t he cylinder s.
The r adial-pist on mot or oper at es in r ever se of
t he r adial-pist on pump. In t he r adial-pist on pump,
as t he cylinder block r ot at es, t he pist ons pr ess
against t he r ot or and ar e for ced in and out of t he
cylinder s, t her eby r eceiving fluid and pushing it
out int o t he syst em. In t he r adial mot or , fluid is
for ced int o t he cylinder s and dr ives t he pist ons
out war d. The pist ons pushing against t he r ot or
cause t he cylinder block t o r ot at e.
The oper at ion of a r adial-pist on mot or is
shown in figur e 10-15. This mot or is shown wit h
t hr ee pist ons for simplicit y. Nor mally it cont ains
seven or nine pist ons. When liquid is for ced int o
t he cylinder bor e cont aining pist on 1, t he pist on
moves ou t wa r d s i n ce t h e l i qu i d ca n n ot be
compr essed. This causes t he cylinder t o r ot at e in
a clockwise dir ect ion. As t he for ce act ing on
pist on 1 causes t he cylinder block t o r ot at e, pist on
2 st ar t s t o r ot at e and appr oach t he posit ion of
pist on 3. (Not e t hat t he dist ance bet ween t he
cylinder block and t he r eact ion r ing of t he r ot or
get s pr ogr essively shor t er on t he t op and r ight half
of t he r ot or .)
As pist on 2 r ot at es, it is for ced inwar d and,
in t ur n, for ces t he fluid out of t he cylinder . Since
t her e is lit t le or no pr essur e on t his side of t he
pint le valve, t he pist on is easily moved in by it s
cont act wit h t he r eact ion r ing of t he r ot or . The
fluid is easily for ced out of t he cylinder and back
t o t he r eser voir or t o t he inlet side of t he pump.
As t he pist on moves past t he midpoint , or past
t he shor t est dist ance bet ween t he cylinder block
and t he r ot or , it ent er s t he pr essur e side of t he
pint le valve and fluid is for ced int o t he cylinder .
Pist on 3 t hen becomes t he pushing pist on and in
t ur n r ot a t es t he cylinder block. This a ct ion
Fi gu r e 10-15.Op er a t i on of a r a d i a l-p i st on mot or .
The dir ect ion of r ot at ion of t he mot or (fig.
10-15) is changed by r ever sing t he flow of fluid
t o it . Admit t ing fluid under pr essur e on t he t op
side of t he pint le valve for ces pist on 3 out of t he
cylinder block. This causes t he cylinder t o r ot at e
in t he count er clockwise dir ect ion.
Axi a l-P i st on Mot or
The var iable-st r oke axial-pist on pump is oft en
used as a par t of var iable speed gear , such as
elect r ohydr a ulic a nchor windla sses, cr a nes,
winches, and t he power t r ansmit t ing unit in
elect r ohydr aulic st eer ing engines. In t hose cases,
t he t ilt ing box is ar r anged so t hat it maybe t ilt ed
in eit her dir ect ion. Thus it maybe used t o t r ansmit
bidir ect ional power hydr aulically t o pist ons or
r ams, or it may be used t o dr ive a hydr aulic
mot or . In t he lat t er use, t he pump is t he A-end
of t he var iable speed gear and t he hydr aulic mot or
is t he B-end.
The B-end of t he hydr a ulic unit of t he
hydr aulic speed gear is exact ly t he same as t he
A-end of t he var iable-st r oke pump ment ioned
pr eviously. However , it gener ally does not have
a va r ia ble-st r oke fea t ur e. The t ilt ing box is
inst alled at a per manent ly fixed angle. Thus, t he
B-end becomes a fixed-st r oke axial-pist on mot or .
Figur e 10-16 illust r at es an axial-pist on hydr aulic
speed gear wit h t he A-end and B-end as a single
unit . It is used in t ur r et s for t r ain and elevat ion
dr iving unit s. For elect r ohydr aulic winches and
cr anes, t he A-end and B-end ar e in separ at e
housings connect ed by hydr aulic piping.
Hydr aulic fluid int r oduced under pr essur e t o
a cylinder (B-end) t r ies t o push t he pist on out of
t he cylinder . In being pushed out , t he pist on,
t hr ough it s pist on r od, will seek t he point of
gr eat est dist ance bet ween t he t op of t he cylinder
and t he socket r ing. The r esult ant pr essur e of t he
pist on against t he socket r ing will cause t he
cylinder bar r el and t he socket r ing t o r ot at e. This
act ion occur s dur ing t he half r evolut ion while t he
pist on is passing t he int ake por t of t he mot or ,
which is connect ed t o t he pr essur e por t of t he
pump. Aft er t he pist on of t he mot or has t aken
all t he hydr aulic fluid it can fr om t he pump, t he
pist on passes t he valve plat e land and st ar t s t o
dischar ge oil t hr ough t he out let por t s of t he mot or
10-10
Fi gu r e 10-16.Exp lod ed vi ew of a a xi a l-p i st on h yd r a u li c sp eed gea r .
t o t he suct ion pist ons of t he pump. The pump is
const ant ly put t ing pr essur e on one side of t he
mot or and r eceiving hydr aulic fluid fr om t he ot her
side. The fluid is mer ely cir culat ed fr om pump
t o mot or and back again.
Bot h of t he axial-pist on mot or s descr ibed in
t his sect ion may be oper at ed in eit her dir ect ion.
The dir ect ion of r ot at ion is cont r olled by t he
dir ect ion of fluid flow t o t he valve plat e. The
dir ect ion of flow ma y be inst a nt ly r ever sed
wit hout damage t o t he mot or .
TURBI NES
Tur bines ar e used in pneumat ic syst ems t o
conver t kinet ic ener gy of gases t o mechanical
ener gy. Tur bines a r e used t o dr ive elect r ic
gener at or s, t o conver t mechanical ener gy int o
elect r ical ener gy, and t o dr ive pumps t o supply
fluid flow in hydr aulic syst ems.
The basic par t s of a t ur bine ar e t he r ot or ,
which has blades pr oject ing r adially fr om it s
per ipher y; and nozzles, t hr ough which t he gas is
expanded and dir ect ed. The conver sion of kinet ic
ener gy t o mechanical ener gy occur s on t he blades.
The basic dist inct ion bet ween t ypes of t ur bines
is t he manner in which t he gas causes t he t ur bine
r ot or t o move. When t he r ot or is moved by a
dir ect push or impulse fr om t he gas impinging
upon t he blades, t he t ur bine is said t o be an
impulse t ur bine. When t he r ot or is moved by for ce
of r eact ion, t he t ur bine is said t o be a r eact ion
t ur bine.
Alt hough t he dist inct ion bet ween impulse
t ur bines and r eact ion t ur bines is a useful one,
it should not be consider ed a s a n a bsolut e
dist inct ion in r eal t ur bines. An impulse t ur bine
u s es bot h t h e i mpu l s e of t h e ga s jet a n d,
t o a lesser ext ent , t he r eact ive for ce t hat r esult s
when t he cur ved blades cause t he gas t o change
dir ect ion. A r eact ion t ur bine is moved pr imar ily
by r eact ive for ce, but some mot ion of t he r ot or
is caused by t he impact of t he gas against t he
blades.
I MP ULSE TURBI NE
The impulse t ur bine consist s essent ially of a
r ot or mount ed on a shaft t hat is fr ee t o r ot at e in
a set of bear ings. The out er r im of t he r ot or car r ies
a set of cur ved blades, and t he whole assembly
is enclosed in an air t ight case. Nozzles dir ect t he
10-11
r apidly moving fluid against t he blades and t ur n
t he r ot or (fig. 10-17).
REACTI ON TURBI NE
The r eact ion t ur bine, as t he name implies, is
t ur ned by r eact ive for ce r at her t han by a dir ect
push or impulse. In r eact ion t ur bines, t her e ar e
no nozzles as such. Inst ead, t he blades t hat pr oject
r a dia lly fr om t he per ipher y of t he r ot or a r e
for med and mount ed so t hat t he spaces bet ween
t he blades have, in cr oss sect ion, t he shape of
nozzles. Since t hese blades ar e mount ed on t he
r evolving r ot or , t hey ar e called moving blades.
Fixed or st at ionar y blades of t he same shape
as t he moving blades (fig. 10-18) ar e fast ened t o
t he st at or (casing) in which t he r ot or r evolves. The
fixed blades guide t he gas int o t he moving blade
syst em and, since t hey ar e also shaped and
mount ed t o pr ovide nozzle-shaped spaces bet ween
t he blades, t he fr eed blades also act as nozzles.
A r eact ion t ur bine is moved by t hr ee main
for ces: (1) t he r eact ive for ce pr oduced on t he
moving blades as t he gas incr eases in velocit y as
it expands t hr ough t he nozzle-shaped spaces
bet ween t he blades; (2) t he r eact ive for ce pr oduced
on t he moving blades when t he gas changes
dir ect ion; and (3) t he push or impulse of t he gas
impinging upon t he blades. Thus, as pr eviously
not ed, a r eact ion t ur bine is moved pr imar ily by
r eact ive for ce but also t o some ext ent by dir ect
impulse.
Impulse and r eact ion blades can be combined
t o for m an impulse-r eact ion t ur bine. This t ur bine
combines t he r ot at ional for ces of t he pr eviously
descr ibed t ur bines; t hat is, it der ives it s r ot at ion
fr om bot h t he impulse of t he gas st r iking t he
t ur bine blades and t he r eact ive for ce of t he gas
changing dir ect ion.
Fi gu r e 10-17 .I mp u lse t u r bi n e. Fi gu r e 10-18.Rea ct i on t u r bi n e bla d i n g.
10-12
CHAP TER 11
P NEUMATI CS
The wor d pneumatics is a der ivat ive of t he
Gr eek wor d pneuma, which means air , wind, or
br ea t h. I t ca n be defined a s t ha t br a nch of
engineer ing science t hat per t ains t o gaseous
pr essur e a nd flow. As used in t his ma nua l,
pneumat ics is t he por t ion of fluid power in which
compr essed air , or ot her gas, is used t o t r ansmit
and cont r ol power t o act uat ing mechanisms.
This chapt er discusses t he or igin of pneu-
mat ics. It discusses t he char act er ist ics of gases and
compar es t hem wit h t hose of liquids. It also
explains fact or s which affect t he pr oper t ies of
gases, ident ifies and explains t he gas laws, and
ident ifies gases commonly used in pneumat ics and
t heir pr essur e r anges. It also discusses hazar ds of
pneumat ic gases, met hods of cont r olling cont ami-
nat ion, and safet y pr ecaut ions associat ed wit h
compr essed gases.
DEVELOP MENT OF P NEUMATI CS
Ther e is no r ecor d of mans fir st uses of air
t o do wor k. Pr obably t he ear liest uses wer e t o
separ at e chaff fr om gr ain and t o move ships. One
of t he fir st pneumat ic devices was t he blow gun
used by pr imit ive man. In t he lat t er par t of t he
eight eent h cent ur y, heat ed air was used t o car r y
t he fir st balloon aloft . The heat ed air , being
light er t han t he sur r ounding air , caused t he
balloon t o r ise.
Ever y age of man has wit nessed t he develop-
ment of devices which used a ir t o do wor k.
However , man used air t o do wor k long befor e
he under st ood it .
Many of t he pr inciples of hydr aulics apply t o
pneumat ics. For example, Pascals law applies t o
gases as well as liquids. Also, like hydr aulics, t he
development of pneumat ics depended on closely
fit t ed par t s and t he development of gasket s and
packings. Since t he invent ion of t he air com-
pr essor , pneumat ics has become a ver y r eliable
way t o t r ansmit power .
Pr obably one of t he most common uses of
pneumat ic power is in t he oper at ion of pneumat ic
t ools. However , you should under st a nd t ha t
pneumat ics is also of gr eat impor t ance in lar ge
and complex syst ems such as t he cont r ols of vit al
pr opulsion and weapon syst ems.
CHARACTERI STI CS OF GASES
Recall fr om chapt er 1 t hat gas is one of t he
t hr ee st at es of mat t er . It has char act er ist ics similar
t o t hose of liquids in t hat it has no definit e shape
but confor ms t o t he shape of it s cont ainer and
r eadily t r ansmit s pr essur e.
Gases differ fr om liquids in t hat t hey have no
definit e volume. That is, r egar dless of t he size or
s h a pe of t h e con t a i n i n g ves s el , a ga s wi l l
complet ely fill it . Gases ar e highly compr essible,
while liquids ar e only slight ly so. Also, gases ar e
light er t han equal volumes of liquids, making
gases less dense t han liquids.
DENSI TY
Ear ly exper iment s wer e conduct ed concer ning
t he behavior of air and similar gases. These
exper iment s wer e conduct ed by scient ist s such as
Boyle and Char les (discussed lat er in t his chapt er ).
The r esult s of t heir exper iment s indicat ed t hat t he
gases behavior follows t he law known as t he
ideal-gas law. It st at es as follows: For a given
weight of any gas, the product of the absolute
pressure and the volume occupied, divided by the
absolute temperature, is constant. In equat ion
for m, it is expr essed as follows:
Equat ion 11-1
For 1 pound of gas,
Equat ion 11-2
11-1
The specific volume (v) is expr essed in cubic feet
per pound.
For any weight of a gas t his equat ion maybe
modified as follows:
W = weight of t he gas in pounds,
V = volume of W pounds of t he gas in cubic feet .
The volume of 1 pound would t hen be V/W.
If we subst it ut e t his for v in equat ion 11-3, it t hen
becomes
Solving equat ion 11-4 for pr essur e,
In chapt er 2 we defined densit y as t he mass
per unit volume. In equat ion 11-5,
w
7
r epr esent s densit y. (Not ice t hat t his is t he r ever se
of t he specific volume.) We can now say t hat
pr essur e is equal t o t he densit y of t he gas t imes
t he gas const ant t imes t he absolut e t emper at ur e
of t he gas. (The gas const ant var ies for differ ent
gases.) Fr om t his equat ion we can show how
densit y var ies wit h changes in pr essur e and
t emper at ur e. Decr easing t he volume, wit h t he
weight of t he gas and t he t emper at ur e held
const ant , causes t he pr essur e t o incr ease.
NOTE: Dur ing t he compr ession of t he gas,
t he t emper at ur e will act ually incr ease; however ,
t he explanat ion is beyond t he scope of t his t ext .
a decr ease in volume wit h t he weight held const ant
will cause densit y t o incr ease.
TEMP ERATURE
As indicat ed pr eviously, t emper at ur e is a
dominant fact or affect ing t he physical pr oper t ies
of gases. It is of par t icular concer n in calculat ing
changes in t he st at es of gases.
Thr ee t emper at ur e scales ar e used ext ensively
in gas calculat ions. They ar e t he Celsius (C), t he
Fahr enheit (F), and t he Kelvin (K) scales. The
Celsius (or cent igr ade) scale is const r uct ed by
ident ifying t he fr eezing and boiling point s of
wat er , under st andar d condit ions, as fixed point s
of 0 and 100, r espect ively, wit h 100 equal
divisions bet ween. The Fahr enheit scale ident ifies
32 as t he fr eezing point of wat er and 212 as t he
boiling point , a nd ha s 180 equa l divisions
bet ween. The Kelvin scale has it s zer o point equal
t o 273C, or 460F.
Abs ol u t e zer o, on e of t h e fu n da men t a l
const ant s of physics, is commonly used in t he
st udy of gases. It is usually expr essed in t er ms of
t he Celsius scale. If t he heat ener gy of a gas
sample could be pr ogr essively r educed, some
t emper at ur e should be r eached at which t he
mot ion of t he molecules would cease ent ir ely. If
accur at ely det er mined, t his t emper at ur e could
t hen be t aken as a nat ur al r efer ence, or as a t r ue
absolut e zer o value.
Exper iment s wit h hydr ogen indicat ed t hat if
a gas wer e cooled t o 273.16C (273 for most
calculat ions), all molecular mot ion would cease
and no addit ional heat could be ext r act ed. Since
t his is t he coldest t emper at ur e t o which an ideal
gas can be cooled, it is consider ed t o be absolut e
zer o. Absolut e zer o may be expr essed as 0K,
273C, or 459. 69F (460F for mos t
calculat ions).
When you wor k wit h t emper at ur es, always be
sur e which syst em of measur ement is being used
and how t o conver t fr om one t o anot her . The
conver sion for mulas ar e shown in figur e 11-1. For
pur poses of calculat ions, t he Rankine (R) scale
illust r at ed in figur e 11-1 is commonly used t o
11-2
Fi gu r e 11-1.-Comp a r i son of Kelvi n , Celsi u s, Fa h r en h ei t , a n d Ra n k i n e t emp er a t u r e.
conver t Fahr enheit t o absolut e. For Fahr enheit
r eadings above zer o, 460 is added. Thus, 72F
equals 460 plus 72, or 532 absolut e (532R).
If t he Fahr enheit r eading is below zer o, it is
subt r act ed fr om 460. Thus, -40F equals 460
minus 40, or 420 absolut e (420R).
The Kelvin a nd Celsius sca les a r e used
int er nat ionally in scient ific measur ement s; t her e-
for e, some t echnical manuals may use t hese scales
in dir ect ions and oper at ing inst r uct ions. The
Fahr enheit scale is commonly used in t he Unit ed
St at es; t her efor e, it is used in most ar eas of t his
manual.
P RESSURE
We defined pr essur e in chapt er 2 as for ce per
unit ar ea. Remember , liquids exer t pr essur e on
all sur faces wit h which t hey come in cont act .
Gases, because of t heir abilit y t o complet ely fill
cont a iner s, exer t pr essur e on a ll sides of a
cont ainer .
In pr act ice, we maybe int er est ed in eit her of
t wo pr essur e r eadings. We may desir e eit her t he
gauge pr essur e or t he absolut e pr essur e.
Absolut e pr essur e is measur ed fr om absolut e
zer o pr es s u r e r a t h er t h a n fr om n or ma l or
at mospher ic pr essur e (appr oximat ely 14.7 psi).
Gauge pr essur e is used on all or dinar y gauges, and
indica t es pr essur e in excess of a t mospher ic
pr essur e. Ther efor e, absolut e pr essur e is equal t o
at mospher ic pr essur e plus gauge pr essur e. For
example, 100 psi gauge pr essur e (psig) equals 100
psi plus 14.7 psi or 114.7 psi absolut e pr essur e
(psia). Whenever gas laws ar e applied, absolut e
pr essur es
Gases
ar e r equir ed.
COMP RESSI BI LI TY AND
EXP ANSI ON OF GASES
can be r eadily compr essed and ar e
assumed t o be per fect ly elast ic. This combinat ion
of pr oper t ies gives a gas t he abilit y t o yield t o a
11-3
for ce and r et ur n pr ompt ly t o it s or iginal condit ion
wh en t h e for ce i s r emoved. Th es e a r e t h e
pr oper t ies of air t hat is used in pneumat ic t ir es,
t ennis balls and ot her defor mable object s whose
shapes ar e maint ained by compr essed air .
KI NETI C THEORY OF GASES
In an at t empt t o explain t he compr essibilit y
of gases, Ber noulli pr oposed t he hypot hesis t hat
is a ccept ed a s t he k i n et i c t h eory of gases.
Accor ding t o t his t heor y, t he pr essur e exer t ed by
a gas on t he walls of a closed cont ainer is caused
by cont inua l bomba r dment of t he wa lls by
molecules of t he gas.
Consider t he cont ainer shown in figur e 11-2
as cont aining a gas. At any given t ime, some
molecules ar e moving in one dir ect ion, some ar e
t r aveling in ot her dir ect ions; some ar e t r aveling
fast , some slow, and some may even be in a st at e
of r est . The a ver a ge effect of t he molecules
bombar ding each cont ainer wall cor r esponds t o
t he pr essur e of t he gas.
As mor e gas is pumped int o t he cont ainer ,
mor e molecules ar e available t o bombar d t he
walls; t hus t he pr essur e in t he cont ainer incr eases.
The gas pr essur e in a cont ainer can also be
incr eased by incr easing t he speed wit h which t he
molecules hit t he walls. If t he t emper at ur e of t he
gas is r aised, t he molecules move fast er causing
an incr ease in pr essur e. This can be shown by
consider ing t he aut omobile t ir e. When you t ake
a long dr ive on a hot day, t he pr essur e in t he t ir es
incr ea ses a nd a t ir e which a ppea r ed t o be
somewhat soft in cool mor ning t emper at ur e
may appear nor mal at a higher midday t emper a-
t ur e.
BOYLES LAW
When t he aut omobile t ir e is init ially inflat ed,
air which nor mally occupies a specific volume is
compr essed int o a smaller volume inside t he t ir e.
This incr eases t he pr essur e on t he inside of t he t ir e.
Char les Boyle, an English scient ist , was among
t he fir st t o exper iment wit h t he pr essur e-volume
r elat ionship of gas. Dur ing an exper iment when
he compr essed a volume of air he found t hat t he
volume decr eased as t he pr essur e incr eased, and
by doubling t he for ce exer t ed on t he air he could
decr ease t he volume of t he air by half. See figur e
11-3. Recall fr om t he example of t he aut omobile
t ir e t hat changes in t emper at ur e of a gas also
change t he pr essur e and volume. Ther efor e, t he
exper iment must be per for med at a const ant
t emper at ur e. The r elat ionship bet ween pr essur e
and volume is known as Boyles law. It st at es:
When the temperature of a gas is kept constant,
the volume of an enclosed gas varies inversely with
its pressure.
In equat ion for m, t his r elat ionship may be
expr essed as eit her
vlP~ = v~P~
or Equat ion 11-6
VI ~,
~=P1
wher e V
1
and P
1
ar e t he or iginal volume and
pr essur e, a nd V
2
and P
2
ar e t he final volume
and pr essur e (P
1
and P
2
ar e absolut e pr essur es).
Fi gu r e 11-3.-Ga s comp r essed t o h a lf i t s or i gi n a l volu me by
Fi gu r e 11-2.Molecu la r bomba r d men t cr ea t i n g p r essu r e.
11-4
a d ou bled for ce.
Exa mple of Boyles la w: 4 cubic feet of
nit r ogen ar e under a pr essur e of 100 psi (gauge).
The nit r ogen is allowed t o expand t o a volume
of 6 cubic feet . What is t he new gauge pr essur e?
Remember t o conver t gauge pr essur e t o absolut e
pr essur e by adding 14.7.
Using equa t ion 11-6, V
1
P
1
= V
2
P
2
, wher e V
1
i s
4 ft
3
, V
2
is 6 ft , and P
1
is 100 ps ig:
CHARLESS LAW
Boyles law assumes condit ions of const ant
t emper at ur e. In act ual sit uat ions t his is r ar ely t he
case. Temper at ur e changes cont inually and affect s
t he volume of a given mass of gas.
J acques Char les, a Fr ench physicist , pr ovided
much of t he foundat ion for t he moder n kinet ic
t heor y of gases. Thr ough exper iment s, he found
t hat all gases expand and cont r act pr opor t ionally
t o t he cha nge in t he a bsolut e t emper a t ur e,
pr oviding t he pr essur e r emains const ant . The
r elat ionship bet ween volume and t emper at ur e is
known as Charless law. It st at es: The volume of
a gas is proportional to its absolute temperature,
if constant pressure is maintained. In equat ion
for m, t his r elat ionship may be expr essed as
Equat ion 11-7
wh er e V
1
a n d V
2
a r e t h e or i gi n a l a n d fi n a l
volumes, and T
1
and T
2
ar e t he or iginal and final
absolut e t emper at ur es.
Since an incr ease in t he t emper at ur e of a gas
causes it t o expand if t he pr essur e is kept const ant ,
it is r easonable t o expect t hat if a given sample
is heat ed wit hin a closed cont ainer and it s volume
r emains const ant , t he pr essur e of t he gas will
incr ease. Exper iment s have pr oven t his t o be t r ue.
In equat ion for m, t his becomes
P
1
T
2
= P
2
T
1
Equat ion 11-8
or
This equat ion st at es t hat for a const ant volume,
t he absolut e pr essur e of a gas var ies dir ect ly wit h
t he absolut e t emper at ur e.
Example: A cylinder of gas under a pr essur e
of 1800 psig at 70F is left out in t he sun in t he
t r opics and heat s up t o a t emper at ur e of 130F.
What is t he new pr essur e wit hin t he cylinder ?
(Remember t hat bot h pr essur e and t emper at ur e
must be conver t ed t o a bsolut e pr essur e a nd
absolut e t emper at ur e.)
Conver t ing absolut e pr essur e t o gauge pr essur e:
11-5
GENERAL GAS LAW
We have lear ned t hat Boyles law per t ains t o
sit uat ions in which t he t emper at ur e r emains
const a nt (fig. 11-4), a nd t ha t Cha r less la w
per t ains t o sit uat ions in which pr essur e r emains
const ant (fig. 11-4). It is usually not possible t o
cont r ol pr essur e or t emper at ur e in t anks or bot t les
of gas subject t o t he weat her and shipboar d
demands. Boyles and Char less laws ar e com-
bined t o for m t he general gas law. This law st at es:
The product of the initial pressure, initial volume,
and new t emperat ure (absolut e scale) of an
enclosed gas is equal to the product of the new
pressure, new volume, and initial temperature. It
is a mat hemat ical st at ement which allows many
gas pr oblems t o be solved by using t he pr inciples
of Boyles law and/or Char less law. The equat ion
is expr essed as
or
(P and T r epr esent absolut e pr essur e and absolut e
t emper at ur e, r espect ively.)
You can see by examining figur e 11-4 t hat t he
t hr ee equat ions ar e special cases of t he gener al
equa t ion. Thus, if t he t emper a t ur e r ema ins
const ant , T
1
equals T
2
and bot h can be eliminat ed
fr om t he gener al for mula, which t hen r educes t o
t he for m shown in par t A. When t he volume
r emains const ant , V
1
equals V
2
, t her eby r educing
Fi gu r e 11-4.Th e gen er a l ga s la w.
t he gener al equat ion t o t he for m given in par t B.
Si mi l a r l y, P
1
is equa t ed t o P
2
for con s t a n t
pr essur e, and t he equat ion t hen t akes t he for m
given in par t C.
The gener al gas law applies wit h exact ness only
t o idea l ga ses in which t he molecules a r e
assumed t o be per fect ly elast ic. However , it
descr ibes t he beha vior of a ct ua l ga ses wit h
sufficient accur acy for most pr act ical pur poses.
Two examples of t he gener al equat ion follow:
1. Two cubic feet of a gas at 75 psig and 80F
ar e compr essed t o a volume of 1 cubic foot and
t hen heat ed t o a t emper at ur e of 300F. What is
t he new gauge pr essur e?
Using equa t ion 11-9, P
1
V
1
T
2
= P
2
V
2
T
1
, wher e
V
1
is 2 ft
3
, P
1
is 75 psig, T
1
is 80F, V
2
is 1 ft
3
and T
2
is 300F:
Solut ion:
Subst it ut ing:
Conver t ing absolut e pr essur e t o gauge pr essur e:
2. Four cubic feet of a gas at 75 psig and 80F
ar e compr essed t o 237.8 psig and heat ed t o a
t emper at ur e of 300F. What is t he volume of t he
gas r esult ing fr om t hese changes? Using equat ion
11-9, P
1
V
1
T
2
= P
2
V
2
T
1
, wher e V
1
is 4 ft
3
, P
2
i s
11-6
75 psig, T
1
is 800, P
1
is 237.8 psig, and T
2
i s
300F:
Solu t ion :
Subst it ut ing:
P NEUMATI C GASES
In chapt er 1, you lear ned t hat many fact or s
ar e consider ed in det er mining whet her t o use
hydr aulics or pneumat ics as a power sour ce in a
fluid power syst em. Once it is det er mined t hat
pneumat ics will be used as t he sour ce of power ,
some of t he sa me fa ct or s a r e consider ed in
select ing t he pneumat ic gas.
QUALI TI ES
The idea l fluid medium for a pneuma t ic
s ys t em i s a r ea di l y a va i l a bl e ga s t h a t i s
nonpoisonous (nont oxic), chemically st able, fr ee
fr om any acids t hat cause cor r osion of syst em
component s, and nonflammable. It also will not
suppor t combust ion of ot her element s.
Gases t hat have t hese desir ed qualit ies may not
have t he r equir ed lubr icat ing power . Ther efor e,
lubr icat ion of t he component s of some pneumat ic
syst ems must be ar r anged by ot her means. For
example, some air compr essor s ar e pr ovided wit h
a lubr ica t ing syst em, some component s a r e
lubr icat ed upon inst allat ion or , in some cases,
lubr icat ion is int r oduced int o t he air supply line.
Two gases meet ing t hese qualit ies and most
commonly used in pneumat ic syst ems ar e com-
pr essed air and nit r ogen.
COMP RESSED AI R
Compr essed air is a mixt ur e of all gases
cont ained in t he at mospher e. In t his manual,
compr essed air is r efer r ed t o as a gas when it is
used as a fluid medium.
The unlimit ed supply of air and t he ease of
compr ession make compr essed air t he most widely
used fluid for pneuma t ic syst ems. Alt hough
moist ur e and solid par t icles must be r emoved
fr om t he air , it does not r equir e t he ext ensive
dist illat ion or separ at ion pr ocess r equir ed in t he
pr oduct ion of ot her gases.
Compr essed a ir ha s most of t he desir ed
pr oper t i es a n d ch a r a ct er i s t i cs of a ga s for
pneuma t ic syst ems. I t is nonpoisonous a nd
nonflammable but does cont ain oxygen, which
suppor t s combust ion. One of t he most undesir able
qualit ies of compr essed air as a fluid medium for
pneuma t ic syst ems is moist ur e cont ent . The
at mospher e cont ains var ying amount s of moist ur e
in vapor for m. Changes in t he t emper at ur e of
compr es s ed a i r wi l l ca u s e con den s a t i on of
moist ur e in t he pneumat ic syst em. This condensed
moist ur e can be ver y har mful t o t he syst em, as
it incr eases cor r osion, dilut es lubr icant s, and may
fr eeze in lines a nd component s dur ing cold
wea t her . Moist ur e sepa r a t or s a nd a ir dr ier s
(dehydr at or s) ar e inst alled in t he compr essed air
lines t o minimize or elimina t e moist ur e in
syst ems wher e moist ur e would det er ior at e syst em
per for ma nce.
The supply of compr essed air at t he r equir ed
volume a nd pr essur e is pr ovided by a n a ir
compr essor . (For infor mat ion on air compr essor s,
r efer t o Naval S hips Technical Manual, chapt er
551.) In most syst ems t he compr essor is par t of
t he syst em wit h dist r ibut ion lines leading fr om t he
compr essor t o t he devices t o be oper at ed. In t hese
syst ems a r eceiver is inst alled in-line bet ween t he
compr essor and t he device t o be oper at ed t o help
eliminat e pulsat ions in t he compr essor dischar ge
line, t o act as a st or age t ank dur ing int er vals when
t he demand for air exceeds t he compr essor s
capacit y, and t o enable t he compr essor t o shut
down dur ing per iods of light load. Ot her syst ems
r eceive t heir supply fr om cylinder s which must be
filled at a cent r ally locat ed air compr essor and
t hen connect ed t o t he syst em.
Compr essed air syst ems ar e cat egor ized by
t heir oper at ing pr essur es as follows: high-pr essur e
(HP) air , medium-pr essur e (MP) air , and low-
pr essur e (LP) air .
Hi gh -P r essu r e Ai r Syst ems
HP air syst ems pr ovide compr essed air at a
nominal oper at ing pr essur e of 3000 psi or 5000
psi and ar e inst alled whenever pr essur e in excess
11-7
of 1000 psi is r equir ed. HP compr essed air plant s
suppor t funct ions which r equir e high pr essur es
and high flow r at es of compr essed air by t he
addit ion of HP st or age flasks t o t he syst em. An
example of such a syst em is one t hat pr ovides air
for st a r t ing diesel a nd ga s t ur bine engines.
Reduct ion in pr essur e, if r equir ed, is done
by using specially designed pr essur e-r educing
st at ions.
Med i u m-P r essu r e Ai r
MP air syst ems pr ovide compr essed air at a
nominal oper at ing pr essur e of 151 psi t o 1000 psi.
These pr essur es ar e pr ovided eit her by an MP air
compr essor or by t he HP air syst em supplying air
t hr ough a n a ir ba nk a nd pr essur e-r educing
st at ions.
Low-P r essu r e Ai r
LP air syst ems pr ovide compr essed air at a
nominal oper at ing pr essur e of 150 psi and below.
The LP air syst em is supplied wit h LP air by LP
air compr essor s or by t he HP air syst em supplying
air t hr ough an air bank and pr essur e-r educing
st at ions. LP air is t he most ext ensive and var ied
air syst em used in t he Navy,
I n a ddi t i on t o bei n g u s ed for va r i ou s
pneumat ic applicat ions, LP and HP compr essed
air ar e used in t he pr oduct ion of nit r ogen.
NITROGEN
For a l l pr a ct i ca l pu r pos es , n i t r ogen i s
consider ed t o be an iner t gas. It is nonflammable,
does not for m explosive mixt ur es wit h air or
oxygen, and does not cause r ust or decay. Due
t o t hese qualit ies, it s use is pr efer r ed over
compr essed a ir in ma ny pneuma t ic syst ems,
especia lly a ir cr a ft a nd missile syst ems, a nd
wher ever an iner t gas blanket is r equir ed.
Ni t r ogen i s obt a i n ed by t h e fr a ct i on a l
dist illat ion of air . Oxygen/nit r ogen-pr oducing
plant s expand compr essed air unt il it s t emper at ur e
decr eases t o 196C (320F), t he boiling point
of nit r ogen at at mospher ic pr essur e. The liquid
nit r ogen is t hen dir ect ed t o a st or age t ank. A
liquid nit r ogen pump pumps t he low-pr essur e
liquid nit r ogen fr om t he st or a ge t a nk a nd
dischar ges it as a high-pr essur e (5000 psi) liquid
t o t he vapor izer wher e it is conver t ed t o a gas at
5000 psi. Oxygen/nit r ogen-pr oducing plant s ar e
loca t ed a t ma ny na va l inst a lla t ions a nd on
submar ine t ender s and air cr aft car r ier s.
CONTAMI NATI ON CONTROL
As in hydr aulic syst ems, fluid cont aminat ion
i s a l s o a l ea di n g ca u s e of ma l fu n ct i on s i n
pneuma t ic syst ems. I n a ddit ion t o t he solid
par t icles of for eign mat t er which find a way t o
ent er t he syst em, t her e is also t he pr oblem of
moist ur e. Most syst ems ar e equipped wit h one or
mor e devices t o r emove t his cont aminat ion. These
include filt er s, wat er separ at or s, air dehydr at or s,
a nd chemica l dr ier s, which a r e discussed in
cha pt er 9 of t his ma nua l. I n a ddit ion, most
syst ems cont ain dr ain valves at cr it ical low point s
in t he syst em. These valves ar e opened per iodically
t o a llow t he esca ping ga s t o pur ge a la r ge
per cent age of t he cont aminant s, bot h solids and
moist ur e, fr om t he syst em. In some syst ems t hese
valves ar e opened and closed aut omat ically, while
in ot her s t hey must be oper at ed manually.
Complet e pur ging is done by r emoving lines
fr om var ious component s t hr oughout t he syst em
and t hen at t empt ing t o pr essur ize t he syst em,
causing a high r at e of air flow t hr ough t he syst em.
The air flow will cause t he for eign mat t er t o be
dislodged and blown fr om t he syst em.
NOTE: If an excessive amount of for eign
mat t er , par t icular ly oil, is blown fr om any one
syst em, t he lines and component s should be
r emoved and cleaned or r eplaced.
In addit ion t o monit or ing t he devices inst alled
t o r emove cont aminat ion, it is your r esponsibilit y
as a maint enance per son or super visor t o cont r ol
t he cont aminat ion. You can do t his by using t he
following maint enance pr act ices:
1. Keep all t ools and t he wor k ar ea in a clean,
dir t -fr ee condit ion.
2. Ca p or pl u g a l l l i n es a n d fi t t i n gs
immediat ely aft er disconnect ing t hem.
3. Replace all packing and gasket s dur ing
assembly pr ocedur es.
4. Connect a ll pa r t s wit h ca r e t o a void
st r ipping met al sliver s fr om t hr eaded ar eas. Inst all
and t or que all fit t ings and lines accor ding t o
applicable t echnical inst r uct ions.
5. Complet e pr event ive ma int ena nce a s
specified by MRCs.
Also, you must t ake car e t o ensur e t hat t he
pr oper cylinder s ar e connect ed t o syst ems being
supplied fr om cylinder s.
Cylinder s for compr essed air ar e paint ed
black. Cylinder s cont aining oil-pumped air have
11-8
t wo gr een st r ipes paint ed ar ound t he t op of t he
cylinder , while cylinder s cont aining wat er -pumped
air have one gr een st r ipe. Oil-pumped air indicat es
t hat t he air or nit r ogen is compr essed by an
oil-lubr icat ed compr essor . Air or nit r ogen com-
pr essed by a wat er -lubr icat ed (or nonlubr icat ed)
compr essor is r efer r ed t o a s wa t er pumped.
Oil-pumped nit r ogen can be ver y danger ous in
cer t a in sit ua t ions. For exa mple, nit r ogen is
commonly used t o pur ge oxygen syst ems. Oxygen
will not bur n, but it suppor t s and acceler at es
combust ion and will cause oil t o bur n easily and
wit h gr ea t int ensit y. Ther efor e, oil-pumped
nit r ogen must never be used t o pur ge oxygen
syst ems. When t he small amount of oil r emaining
in t he nit r ogen comes in cont act wit h t he oxygen,
an explosion may r esult . In all sit uat ions, use
only t he gas specified by t he manufact ur er or
r ecommended by t he Navy. Nit r ogen cylinder s ar e
paint ed gr ay. One black st r ipe ident ifies cylinder s
for oil-pumped nit r ogen, and t wo black st r ipes
ident ify cylinder s for wat er -pumped nit r ogen. In
addit ion t o t hese color codes, t he exact ident i-
ficat ion of t he cont ent s is pr int ed in t wo locat ions
diamet r ically opposit e one anot her along t he
longit udinal axis of t he cylinder . For compr essed
air and nit r ogen cylinder s, t he let t er ing is whit e.
P OTENTI AL HAZARDS
All compr essed gases ar e hazar dous. Com-
pr essed air and nit r ogen ar e neit her poisonous nor
flammable, but should not be handled car elessly.
Some pneumat ic syst ems oper at e at pr essur es
exceeding 3000 psi. Lines a nd fit t ings ha ve
exploded, injur ing per sonnel a nd pr oper t y.
Lit er ally t housands of car eless wor ker s have
blown dust or har mful par t icles int o t heir eyes by
t he car eless handling of compr essed air out let s.
Nit r ogen gas will not suppor t life, and when
it is r eleased in a confined space, it will cause
asphyxia (t he loss of consciousness as a r esult of
t oo lit t le oxygen and t oo much car bon dioxide in
t he blood). Alt hough compr essed air and nit r ogen
seem so safe in compar ison wit h ot her gases, do
not let over confidence lead t o per sonal injur y.
SAFETY P RECAUTI ONS
To minimize per sonal injur y and equipment
damage when using compr essed gases, obser ve all
pr act ical oper at ing safet y pr ecaut ions, including
t he following:
1. Do not use compr essed air t o clean par t s
of your body or clot hing, or t o per for m gener al
space cleanup in lieu of vacuuming or sweeping.
2. Never at t empt t o st op or r epair a leak while
t he leaking por t ion is st ill under pr essur e. Always
isolat e, r epr essur ize and danger t ag out t he
por t ion of t he syst em t o be r epair ed. For pr essur es
of 1000 psi or gr eat er , double valve pr ot ect ion is
r equir ed t o pr event injur y if one of t he valves
should fail.
3. Avoid t he applicat ion of heat t o t he air
piping syst em or component s, and avoid st r iking
a shar p or heavy blow on any pr essur ized par t of
t he piping syst em.
4. Avoid r apid oper at ion of manual valves.
The heat of compr ession caused by a sudden high-
-pr essur e flow int o an empt y line or vessel can
cause an explosion if oil is pr esent . Valves should
be slowly cr acked open unt il air flow is not ed and
should be kept in t his posit ion unt il pr essur es on
bot h sides of t he valve have equalized. The r at e
of pr essur e r ise should be kept under 200 psi
per second, if possible. Valves may t hen be opened
fully.
5. Do n ot di s ch a r ge l a r ge qu a n t i t i es of
n i t r ogen i n t o cl os ed compa r t men t s u n l es s
adequat e vent ilat ion is pr ovided.
6. Do not subject compr essed gas cylinder s
t o t emper at ur es gr eat er t han 130F.
Remember , any pr essur ized syst em can be
hazar dous t o your healt h if it is not maint ained
and oper at ed car efully and safely.
11-9
CHAP TER 12
BASI C DI AGRAMS AND SYSTEMS
In t he pr eceding chapt er s, you lear ned about
hydr aulic and pneumat ic fluids and component s
of fluid power syst ems. While having a knowledge
of syst em component s is essent ial, it is difficult
t o under st a nd t he int er r ela t ionship of t hese
component s by simply wa t ching t he syst em
oper at e. The knowledge of syst em int er r elat ion
i s r equ i r ed t o effect i vel y t r ou bl es h oot a n d
maint ain a fluid power syst em. Diagr ams pr o-
vided in a pplica ble t echnica l publica t ions or
dr awings ar e a valuable aid in under st anding t he
oper at ion of t he syst em and in diagnosing t he
causes of malfunct ions.
This chapt er explains t he differ ent t ypes of
diagr ams used t o illust r at e fluid power cir cuit s,
including some of t he symbols t hat depict fluid
power component s. I ncluded in t his cha pt er
ar e descr ipt ions and illust r at ions denot ing t he
differ ences bet ween open-cent er and closed-cent er
fluid power syst ems. The last par t of t he chapt er
descr ibes and illust r at es some applicat ions of basic
fluid power syst ems.
DI AGRAMS
As ment ioned ea r lier in t his cha pt er , t o
t r oubleshoot fluid power syst ems int elligent ly, a
mechanic or t echnician must be familiar wit h t he
syst em on which he or she is wor king. The
mech a n i c mu s t kn ow t h e fu n ct i on of ea ch
component in t he syst em and have a ment al
pi ct u r e of i t s l oca t i on i n r el a t i on t o ot h er
component s. This can best be done by st udying
t he diagr ams of t he syst em.
A dia gr a m ma y be defined a s a gr a phic
r epr esent at ion of an assembly or syst em t hat
indicat es t he var ious par t s and expr esses t he
met hods or pr inciples of oper at ions. The abilit y
t o r ead diagr ams is a basic r equir ement for
under st a nding t he oper a t ion of fluid power
syst ems. Under st anding t he diagr ams of a syst em
r equir es having a knowledge of t he symbols used
in t he schemat ic diagr ams.
SYMBOLS
The Navy uses t wo milit ar y st andar ds t hat
list mechanical symbols t hat must be used in
pr epar ing dr awings t hat will cont ain symbolic
r epr esent at ion. These st andar ds ar e as follows:
1. Military S tandard, Mechanical S ymbols
(Other than Aeronautical, Aerospacecraft, and
S pacecraft Use), Part 1, MI L-STD-17B-1.
2. Military S tandard, Mechanical S ymbols for
Aeronaut ical, Aerospacecraft , and S pacecraft
Use, Part 2, MI L-STD-17B-2.
Some of t he symbols fr equent ly used in fluid
power syst ems have been select ed fr om t hese
t wo st andar ds and ar e shown in Appendixes II
a nd I I I . Appendix I I cont a ins symbols fr om
MIL-STD-17B-1. Appendix III cont ains symbols
fr om MIL-STD-17B-2.
While t he symbols shown in t he appendixes
ar e not all encompassing, t hey do pr ovide a basis
for a n individua l wor king wit h fluid power
syst ems t o build upon. Some r ules applicable t o
gr a phica l symbols for fluid dia gr a ms a r e a s
follows:
1. Symbols show connect ions, flow pat hs,
and t he funct ion of t he component r epr esent ed
only. They do not indicat e condit ions occur r ing
dur ing t r ansit ion fr om one flow pat h t o anot her ;
nor do t hey indicat e component const r uct ion or
values, such as pr essur e or flow r at e.
2. Symbols do not indicat e t he locat ion of
por t s, dir ect ion of shift ing of spools, or posit ion
of cont r ol element s on act ual component s.
3. Symbol s ma y be r ot a t ed or r ever s ed
wit hout alt er ing t heir meaning except in cases of
lines t o r eser voir s and vent ed manifolds.
4. Symbols may be dr awn in any size.
5. Each symbol is dr awn t o show t he nor mal
or neut r al condit ion of each component unless
mult iple cir cuit diagr ams ar e fur nished showing
var ious phases of cir cuit oper at ion.
12-1
For mor e det ailed infor mat ion concer ning t he
symbols used in fluid power diagr ams, consult t he
above-ment ioned milit ar y st andar ds. Addit ional
infor mat ion concer ning symbols and t he r eading
of diagr ams is cont ained in BIueprint Reading and
S ketching, NAVEDTRA 10077-F1.
TYP ES OF DI AGRAMS
Ther e ar e many t ypes of diagr ams. Those t hat
ar e most per t inent t o fluid power syst ems ar e
discussed in t his t ext .
P i ct or i a l Di a gr a ms
Pi ct or i a l di a gr a ms (fi g. 12-1) s h ow t h e
gener al locat ion and act ual appear ance of each
component , all int er connect ing piping, and t he
gener al piping ar r angement . This t ype of diagr am
is somet imes r efer r ed t o a s a n inst a lla t ion
diagr am. Diagr ams of t his t ype ar e invaluable t o
maint enance per sonnel in ident ifying and locat ing
component s of a syst em.
Cu t a wa y Di a gr a ms
Cut away diagr ams (fig. 12-2) show t he int er nal
wor king par t s of all fluid power component s in
a syst em. This includes cont r ols and act uat ing
mecha nisms a nd a ll int er connect ing piping.
Cut away diagr ams do not nor mally use symbols.
Fi gu r e 12-1.Hyd r a u li c syst em p i ct or i a l d i a gr a m.
12-2
Fi gu r e 12-2.Cu t a wa y d i a gr a mp n eu ma t i c.
12-3
Gr a p h i c Di a gr a ms
The pr imar y pur pose of a gr aphic (schemat ic)
diagr am is t o enable t he maint enance per son t o
t r a ce t h e fl ow of fl u i d fr om compon en t t o
component wit hin t he syst em. This t ype of
diagr am uses st andar d symbols t o show each
component a nd includes a ll int er connect ing
piping. Addit iona lly, t he dia gr a m cont a ins a
component list , pipe size, dat a on t he sequence
of oper at ion, and ot her per t inent infor mat ion.
The gr aphic diagr am (fig. 12-3) does not indi-
cat e t he physical locat ion of t he var ious com-
ponent s, but it does show t he r elat ion of each
component t o t he ot her component s wit hin t he
syst em.
,
Fi gu r e 12-3.Gr a p h i c d i a gr a m of LST 1182 cla ss h yd r a u li c st eer i n g gea r .
12-4
Not ice t hat figur e 12-3 does not indicat e t he
physical locat ion of t he individual component s
wit h r espect t o each ot her in t he syst em. For
example, t he 3/4-inch, solenoid-oper at ed, 4-way
valve (10) is not necessar ily locat ed dir ect ly above
t he r elief valve (26). The diagr am does indicat e,
however , t hat t he 4-way valve is locat ed in t he
wor king line, bet ween t he var iable-displacement
pump and t he 1-inch r ot ar y select or valve, and
t hat t he valve dir ect s fluid t o and fr om t he r ot ar y
act uat or .
Combi n a t i on Di a gr a ms
A combinat ion dr awing uses a combinat ion
of gr aphic, cut away, and pict or ial symbols. This
dr awing also includes all int er connect ing piping.
FLUI D P OWER SYSTEMS
A fluid power syst em in which t he fluid in t he
syst em r emains pr essur ized fr om t he pump (or
r egulat or ) t o t he dir ect ional cont r ol valve while
t he pump is oper at ing is r efer r ed t o as a closed-
cent er syst em. In t his t ype of syst em, any number
of subsyst ems ma y be incor por a t ed, wit h a
s epa r a t e di r ect i on a l con t r ol va l ve for ea ch
subsyst em. The dir ect ional cont r ol valves ar e
ar r anged in par allel so t hat syst em pr essur e act s
equally on all cont r ol valves.
Anot her t ype of syst em t hat is somet imes used
in hydr aulically oper at ed equipment is t he open-
cent er syst em. An open-cent er syst em has fluid
flow but no int er nal pr essur e when t he act uat ing
mechanisms ar e idle. The pump cir culat es t he fluid
fr om t he r eser voir , t hr ough t he dir ect ional cont r ol
valves, and back t o t he r eser voir . (See fig. 12-4,
view A.) Like t he closed-cent er syst em, t he open-
cent er syst em may have any number of subsyst ems,
wit h a dir ect ional cont r ol valve for each subsyst em.
Unlike t he closed-cent er syst em, t he dir ect ional
cont r ol valves of an open-cent er syst em ar e always
connect ed in ser ies wit h each ot her , an ar r ange-
ment in which t he syst em pr essur e line goes
t hr ough each dir ect ional cont r ol valve. Fluid is
always allowed fr ee passage t hr ough each cont r ol
valve and back t o t he r eser voir unt il one of t he con-
t r ol valves is posit ioned t o oper at e a mechanism.
When one of t he dir ect ional cont r ol valves is
posit ioned t o oper at e an act uat ing device, as
shown in view B of figur e 12-4, fluid is dir ect ed
fr om t he pump t hr ough one of t he wor king lines
t o t he act uat or . Wit h t he cont r ol valve in t his
posit ion, t he flow of fluid t hr ough t he valve t o
t he r eser voir is blocked. Thus, t he pr essur e builds
up in t he syst em and moves t he pist on of t he
Fi gu r e 12-4.Op en -cen t er h yd r a u li c syst em.
act uat ing cylinder . The fluid fr om t he ot her end
of t he a ct ua t or r et ur ns t o t he cont r ol va lve
t hr ough t he opposit e wor king line and flows back
t o t he r eser voir .
Sever al differ ent t ypes of dir ect ional cont r ol
valves ar e used in t he open-cent er syst em. One
t ype is t he manually engaged and manually
disengaged. Aft er t his t ype of valve is manually
moved t o t he oper at ing posit ion and t he act uat ing
mechanism r eaches t he end of it s oper at ing cycle,
pump out put cont inues unt il t he syst em r elief
valve set t ing is r eached. The r elief valve t hen
unseat s and allows t he fluid t o flow back t o t he
r eser voir . The syst em pr essur e r emains at t he
pr essur e set t ing of t he r elief valve unt il t he
dir ect ional cont r ol valve is manually r et ur ned t o
t he neut r al posit ion. This act ion r eopens t he
open-cent er flow and allows t he syst em pr essur e
t o dr op t o line r esist ance pr essur e.
An ot h er t ype of open -cen t er di r ect i on a l
cont r ol valve is manually engaged and pr essur e
disengaged. This t ype of valve is similar t o t he
va lve discussed in t he pr eceding pa r a gr a ph;
however , when t he act uat ing mechanism r eaches
t he end of it s cycle and t he pr essur e cont inues t o
12-5
r ise t o a pr edet er mined pr essur e, t he va lve
aut omat ically r et ur ns t o t he neut r al posit ion and,
consequent ly, t o open-cent er flow.
One of t he advant ages of t he open-cent er
syst em is t hat t he cont inuous pr essur izat ion of t he
syst em is elimina t ed. Since t he pr essur e is
gr adually built up aft er t he dir ect ional cont r ol
valve is moved t o an oper at ing posit ion, t her e is
ver y lit t le shock fr om pr essur e sur ges. This
pr ovides a smoot h oper at ion of t he act uat ing
mechanisms; however , t he oper at ion is slower
t han t he closed-cent er syst em in which t he pr essur e
is available t he moment t he dir ect ional cont r ol
va lve is posit ioned. Since most a pplica t ions
r equir e inst ant aneous oper at ion, closed-cent er
syst ems ar e t he most widely used.
HYDRAULI C P OWER DRI VE SYSTEM
The hydr aulic power dr ive has been used
i n t h e Na vy for ma n y yea r s . Pr oof of i t s
effect iveness is t hat it has been used t o t r ain and
elevat e near ly all caliber guns, fr om t he 40-mm
gun mount t o t he 16-inch t ur r et . In addit ion t o
gun mount s and t ur r et s, hydr aulic power dr ives
a r e u s ed t o pos i t i on r ocket l a u n ch er s a n d
missile launcher s, and t o dr ive and cont r ol such
equipment as windlasses, capst ans, and winches.
In it s simplest for m, t he hydr aulic power dr ive
consist s of t he following:
1. The pr ime mover , which is t he out side
sour ce of power used t o dr ive t he hydr aulic pump
2. A var iable-displacement hydr aulic pump
3. A hydr aulic mot or
4. A means of int r oducing a signal t o t he
hydr aulic pump t o cont r ol it s out put
5. Mecha nica l sha ft ing a nd gea r ing t ha t
t r ansmit s t he out put of t he hydr aulic mot or t o t he
equipment being oper at ed
Hydr a u l i c power dr i ves di ffer i n s ome
r espect s, such as size, met hod of cont r ol, and so
for t h. However , t he funda ment a l oper a t ing
pr inciples a r e simila r . The unit used in t he
following discussion of fundament al oper at ing
pr inciples is r epr esent at ive of t he hydr aulic power
dr ives used t o oper at e t he 5"/38 t win mount s.
Figur e 12-5 shows t he basic component s of
t he t r a in power dr ive. The elect r ic mot or is
const r uct ed wit h dr ive shaft s at bot h ends. The
for war d shaft dr ives t he A-end pump t hr ough
r educt ion gear s, and t he aft er shaft dr ives t he
auxiliar y pumps t hr ough t he auxiliar y r educt ion
gear s. The r educt ion gear s ar e inst alled because
Fi gu r e 12-5.-Tr a i n p ower d r i vecomp on en t s.
t he pumps ar e designed t o oper at e at a speed much
slower t han t hat of t he mot or .
The r eplenishing pump is a spur gear pump.
It s pur pose is t o r eplenish fluid t o t he act ive
syst em of t he power dr ive. It r eceives it s supply
of fluid fr om t he r eser voir and dischar ges it t o
t he B-end valve plat e. This dischar ge of fluid fr om
t he pump is held at a const ant pr essur e by t he
act ion of a pr essur e r elief valve. (Because t he
ca pa ci t y of t h e pu mp exceeds r epl en i s h i n g
demands, t he r elief valve is cont inuously allowing
some of t he fluid t o flow back t o t he r eser voir .)
The sump pump and oscillat or has a t wofold
pur pose. It pumps leakage, which collect s in t he
sump of t he indicat or r egulat or , t o t he expansion
t ank. Addit ionally, it t r ansmit s a pulsat ing effect
t o t he fluid in t he r esponse pr essur e syst em.
Oscillat ions in t he hydr aulic r esponse syst em help
elimina t e st a t ic fr ict ion of va lves, a llowing
hydr aulic cont r ol t o r espond fast er .
The cont r ol pr essur e pump supplies high-
pr essur e fluid for t he hydr aulic cont r ol syst em,
br a ke pi s t on s , l ock pi s t on , a n d t h e h a n d-
cont r olled clut ch oper at ing pist on. The cont r ol
pr essur e pump is a fixed-displacement , axial-
pist on t ype. An adjust able r elief valve is used t o
limit t he oper at ing pr essur e at t he out let of t he
pump.
Con t r ol
For t he pur pose of t his t ext , cont r ol const it ut es
t he r elat ionship bet ween t he st r oke cont r ol shaft
and t he t ilt ing box. The st r oke cont r ol shaft is one
of t he pist on r ods of a double-act ing pist on-t ype
act uat ing cylinder . This act uat ing cylinder and it s
dir ect means of cont r ol ar e r efer r ed t o as t he main
cylinder assembly (fig. 12-6). It is t he link bet ween
t he hydr aulic followup syst em and t he power dr ive
it self.
In hand cont r ol, t he t ilt ing box is mechanically
pos i t i on ed by gea r i n g fr om t h e h a n dwh eel
t hr ough t he A-end cont r ol unit . In local and
aut omat ic cont r ol, t he t ilt ing box is posit ioned by
t he st r oke cont r ol shaft . As shown in figur e 12-6,
t he ext ended end of t he cont r ol shaft is connect ed
t o t he t ilt ing box. Movement of t he shaft will pivot
t he t ilt ing box one way or t he ot her ; which, in
t ur n, cont r ols t he out put of t he A-end of t he
t r a nsmission. The ot her end of t he sha ft is
at t ached t o t he main pist on. A shor t er shaft is
at t ached t o t he opposit e side of t he pist on. This
shaft is also smaller in diamet er . Thus t he wor king
ar ea of t he left side of t he pist on is t wice t hat of t he
ar ea of t he r ight side, as it appear s in figur e 12-6.
F i gu r e 126.Ma i n cyli n d er a ssembly.
Int er mediat e high-pr essur e fluid (IHP) is
t r ansmit t ed t o t he left side of t he pist on, while
high-pr essur e hydr aulic fluid (HPC) is t r ansmit t ed
t o t he r ight side. The HPC is held const ant at 1000
psi. Since t he ar ea of t he pist on upon which HPC
act s is exact ly one-half t he ar ea upon which IHP
act s, t he main pist on is maint ained in a fixed
posit ion when IHP is one-half HPC (500 psi).
Whenever IHP var ies fr om it s nor mal value of
500 psi, t he main pist on will move, t hus moving
t he t ilt ing box.
Op er a t i on
Assume t hat a r ight t r ain or der signal is
r eceived. This will cause t he pilot valve t o be
pulled upwar d. The fluid in t he upper chamber
of t he amplifier pist on can now flow t hr ough t he
lower land chamber of t he fine pilot t o exhaust .
This will cause t he amplifier pist on t o move
upwar d, and t he fluid in t he r ight -hand chamber
of t he main cont r ol valve can flow int o t he lower
chamber of t he amplifier valve.
The main cont r ol valve will now move t o t he
r ight , IHP will dr op below 500 psi, and t he st r oke
pist on will move t o t he left . Movement of t he
12-7
st r oke pist on will cause t ilt t o be put on t he t ilt
plat e, and t he A-end will cause t he mount t o t r ain
r ight .
Figur e 12-7 is a simplified block diagr am
showing t he main element of t he hydr aulic power
dr i ve s ys t em u n der a u t oma t i c con t r ol for
clockwise and count er clockwise r ot at ion.
Ther e ar e t wo pr incipal pr oblems in posi-
t ioning a gun t o fir e. One is t o get an accur at e
gun-or der signal. This pr oblem is solved by t he
di r ect or -compu t er combi n a t i on . Th e ot h er
pr oblem is t o t r ansmit t he dir ect or signal pr ompt ly
t o t he gun so t hat t he posit ion and movement s
of t he gun will be synchr onized wit h t he signals
fr om t he dir ect or .
Th e pr obl em of t r a n s for mi n g gu n -or der
signals t o mount movement s is solved by t he
power dr i ve a n d i t s con t r ol t h e i n di ca t or
r egulat or . The indicat or r egulat or cont r ols t he
power dr ive, a nd t his, in t ur n, cont r ols t he
movement of t he gun.
The indicat or r egulat or r eceives an init ial
elect r ical gun-or der fr om t he dir ect or -comput er ,
compar es it t o t he exist ing mount posit ion, and
sends an er r or signal t o t he hydr aulic cont r ol
mechanism in t he r egulat or . The hydr aulic cont r ol
mechanism cont r ols t he flow t o t he st r oke cont r ol
shaft , which posit ions t he t ilt ing box in t he A-end
of t he t r ansmission. It s t ilt cont r ols t he volume
and dir ect ion of fluid pumped t o t he B-end and,
t her efor e, t he speed and dir ect ion of t he dr ive
shaft of t he B-end. Thr ough mechanical linkage,
t he B-end out put shaft moves t he gun in t he
dir ect ion det er mined by t he signal. At t he same
t ime, B-end r esponse is t r a nsmit t ed t o t he
indicat or r egulat or and cont inuously combines
wit h incoming gun-or der signa ls t o give t he
er r or bet ween t he t wo. This er r or is modified
h ydr a u l i ca l l y, a ccor di n g t o t h e s ys t em of
mechanical linkages and valves in t he r egulat or .
When t he gun is lagging behind t he signal, it s
movement is acceler at ed; and when it begins t o
cat ch up, it s movement is slowed down so t hat
it will not over r un excessively.
LANDI NG GEAR EMERGENCY
SYSTEM
If t he landing gear in a naval air cr aft fails t o
ext end t o t he down and locked posit ion, t he
air cr aft has an emer gency met hod t o ext end t he
landing gear . This t ext will cover t he nit r ogen
syst em.
The nit r ogen st or a ge bot t le syst em is a
one-shot syst em power ed by nit r ogen pr essur e
st or ed in four compr essed nit r ogen bot t les
(fig. 12-8). When t he landing gear cont r ol handle
is used t o act uat e t he emer gency landing gear
syst em, a cable bet ween t he cont r ol and t he
manually oper at ed nit r ogen bot t le opens t he
emer gency gear down r elease valve on t he bot t le.
Nit r ogen fr om t his bot t le act uat es t he r elease
valves on t he ot her t hr ee bot t les so t hat t hey
dischar ge. Nit r ogen flows fr om t he manually
oper at ed bot t le, act uat es t he dump valves, and
causes t he shut t les wit hin t he shut t le valves on t he
Fi gu r e 12-7.Op er a t i on of t h e h yd r a u li c p ower d r i ve.
12-8
F
i
g
u
r
e

1
2
-
8
.
1
2
-
9
aft door s cylinder s and t he shut t le valve on t he
nose gear cylinder t o close off t he nor mal por t
and oper at e t hese cylinder s. The nose gear cylinder
ext ends; t his unlocks t he uplock and ext ends t he
nose gear . The nit r ogen flowing int o t he aft door
cylinder s opens t he aft door s. Fluid on t he close
side of t he door cylinder is vent ed t o r et ur n
t hr ough t he act uat ed dump valves. Nit r ogen fr om
anot her bot t le act uat es t he shut t le valves on t he
uplock cylinder s. Nit r ogen flows int o t he uplock
cylinder s a nd ca uses t hem t o disenga ge t he
uplocks. As soon as t he uplocks ar e disengaged,
t he main gear ext ends by t he for ce of gr avit y.
Fluid on t he up side of t he main gear cylinder s
is vent ed t o r et ur n t hr ough t he act uat ed dump
valves, pr event ing a fluid lock.
J ET BLAST DEF LECTORS
J et blast deflect or s (J BD) onboar d air cr aft
car r ier s ar e r aised and lower ed by hydr aulic
cyl i n der s t h r ou gh mech a n i ca l l i n ka ge. Two
hydr aulic cylinder s ar e at t ached t o each J BD panel
shaft by cr ank assemblies. (See fig. 12-9.) The
shaft is r ot at ed by t he push and pull oper at ion
of t he hydr aulic cylinder s. Shaft r ot at ion ext ends
or r et r act s t he linkage t o r aise or lower t he J BD
panels. This oper at ion is designed so t hat in t he
event of a failur e of one of t he hydr aulic cylinder s,
t he ot her one will r aise or lower t he panels.
Figur e 12-10 is a diagr am of t he hydr aulic
cont r ol syst em of a J BD dur ing t he r aise cycle.
Hydr aulic fluid fr om t he cat apult hydr aulic supply
syst em is supplied t o t he J BD hydr aulic syst em
t hr ough an isolat ion valve and a filt er t o t he 4-way
cont r ol valve assembly. (The 4-way cont r ol valve
assembly consist s of a pilot -oper at ed cont r ol
valve, a dir ect - or solenoid-oper at ed cont r ol valve,
and a sequence valve, which is not shown.)
To r aise t he J BD, solenoid B of t he 4-way
cont r ol valve assembly is ener gized. The spools
of t he 4-wa y va lve a ssembly shift , a llowing
medium-pr essur e hydr aulic fluid t o flow int o por t
A of t he hydr aulic cylinder . The cylinder s ext end,
Fi gu r e 12-9.Op er a t i n g gea r a ssembly (p a n els r a i sed ).
12-10
F
i
g
u
r
e

1
2
-
1
0
.
I
I I I I I I I
1
2
-
1
1
F
i
g
u
r
e

1
2
-
1
1
.
1
2
-
1
2
pushing t he cr ank assembly aft and r ot at ing t he
sha ft . The r ot a t ion of t he sha ft ext ends t he
oper a t ing gea r linka ge a nd r a ises t he pa nel
assemblies. Fluid fr om por t B of t he pist on is
dir ect ed t hr ough t he 4-way valve assembly and
back t o t he gr avit y t ank.
To lower t he J BD (fig. 12-11), solenoid A of
t he 4-way cont r ol valve assembly is ener gized. The
spools of t he 4-way valve assembly shift , allow
medium-pr essur e hydr aulic fluid t o flow int o por t
B of t he hydr aulic cylinder . The cylinder s r et r act ,
pulling t he cr ank assembly for war d and r ot at ing
t he shaft . The r ot at ion of t he shaft r et r act s t he
oper at ing gear linkage and lower s t he panel
assemblies. Fluid fr om por t A of t he pist on is
dir ect ed t hr ough t he 4-way valve assembly and
back t o t he gr avit y t ank.
To lower t he J BD in t he event of hydr aulic
cont r ol failur e, each J BD panel is equipped wit h
a manual bypass valve, which allows bypassing
t he 4-way cont r ol valve. This allows vent ing t he
hydr aulic pr essur e fr om t he r aise side of t he
cylinder back t o t he gr avit y t ank.
The t hr ee lines t o por t A of t he hydr aulic
cylinder s have or ifice assemblies in t hem. These
or ifice assemblies cont r ol t he flow of hydr aulic
fluid in bot h t he r aise and lower oper at ions.
12-13
AP P ENDI X I
GLOSSARY
A par t of t his glossar y has been ext r act ed fr om
t he American S tandard Glossary of Terms for
Fluid Power (ASA B93.2-1965) wit h per mission
of t he publisher , The Na t iona l Fluid Power
Associa t ion.
ABSOLUTE TEMPERATUREThe t emper a-
t ur e measur ed using absolut e zer o as a r efer ence.
Absolut e zer o is 273.16C or 459.69F.
ACCELERATIONTime r at e of change of
velocit y.
ACCUMULATORA devi ce for s t or i n g
liquid under pr essur e. It usually consist s of a
chamber separ at ed int o a gas compar t ment and
a liquid compar t ment by a pist on or diaphr agm.
An a ccu mu l a t or a l s o s er ves t o s moot h ou t
pr essur e sur ges in a hydr aulic syst em.
ACTUATORA device t hat conver t s fluid
power int o mechanical for ce and mot ion.
ADDI TI VE A ch emi ca l compou n d or
compou n ds a dded t o a fl u i d t o ch a n ge i t s
pr oper t ies.
AIR, COMPRESSEDAir at any pr essur e
gr eat er t han at mospher ic pr essur e.
AMBIENTSur r ounding, such as ambient
air , meaning sur r ounding air .
BAROMETERAn inst r ument t ha t mea -
sur es at mospher ic pr essur e.
BERNOULLI S PRI NCI PLEI f a fl u i d
flowing t hr ough a t ube r eaches a const r ict ion, or
nar r owing of t he t ube, t he velocit y of t he fluid
flowing t hr ough t he const r ict ion incr eases and t he
pr essur e decr eases.
BLEEDER, AIRA bleeder for t he r emoval
of air .
BOYLES LAWThe absolut e pr essur e of a
fixed mass of gas var ies inver sely as t he volume,
pr ovided t he t emper at ur e r emains const ant .
CAVI TATI ON A l oca l i z e d g a s e ou s
condit ion wit hin a liquid st r eam t hat occur s wher e
t he pr essur e is r educed t o t he vapor pr essur e.
CELSIUSThe t emper at ur e scale using t he
fr eezing point of wat er as zer o and t he boiling
point as 100, wit h 100 equal divisions bet ween,
called degr ees. This scale was for mer ly known as
t he cent igr ade scale.
CENTI GRADE(See Celsius.)
CENTRI FUGAL FORCEA for ce exer t ed
on a r ot at ing object in a dir ect ion out war d fr om
t he cent er of r ot at ion.
CHARLE SS LAWI f t h e pr es s u r e i s
const ant , t he volume of dr y gas var ies dir ect ly
wit h t he absolut e t emper at ur e.
CHE MI CAL CHANGE A ch a n ge t h a t
alt er s t he composit ion of t he molecules of a
subst ance.
CI RCUI TAn a r r a n gemen t of i n t er con -
nect ed component par t s.
COMPRESSIBILITYThe change in volume
of a unit volume of a fluid when it is subject ed
t o a unit change of pr essur e.
COMPRESSORA devi ce t h a t con ver t s
mechanical for ce and mot ion int o pneumat ic fluid
power .
COMPUTERA device capable of accept ing
infor mat ion, applying pr escr ibed pr ocesses t o t he
infor mat ion, and supplying t he r esult s of t hese
pr ocesses.
AI -1
CONDENSATI ONTh e ch a n ge fr om a
gaseous (or vapor ) st at e t o a liquid st at e.
CONTAMINANTDet r iment al mat t er in a
fluid.
CONTINUITY EQUATIONThe mass r at e
of fluid flow int o any fixed space is equal t o t he
mass flow r at e out . Hence, t he mass flow r at e of
fluid past all cr oss sect ions of a conduit is equal.
CONTROLA device used t o r egulat e t he
funct ion of a component or syst em.
CONTROL, CYLI NDERA con t r ol i n
which a fluid cylinder is t he act uat ing device.
CONTROL, ELECTRICA cont r ol act uat ed
elect r ically.
CONTROL, H YDRAULI CA con t r ol
act uat ed by a liquid.
CONTROL, MANUALA cont r ol act uat ed
by t he oper at or .
CONTROL, ME CHANI CALA con t r ol
act uat ed by linkages, gear s, scr ews, cams, or ot her
mechanical element s.
CONTROL, P NE UMATI CA con t r ol
act uat ed by air or ot her gas pr essur e.
CONTROL, SERVOA cont r ol act uat ed by
a feedback syst em t hat compar es t he out put wit h
t he r efer ence signal and makes cor r ect ions t o
r educe t he differ ence.
CONTROLS, PUMPCont r ols a pplied t o
posit ive-displacement var iable deliver y pumps t o
adjust t heir volumet r ic out put or dir ect ion of
flow.
CONVERGENTThat which inclines and
appr oaches near er t oget her , as t he inner walls of
a t ube t hat is const r ict ed.
COOLERA heat exchanger , which r emoves
heat fr om a fluid.
COOLER, AFTERCOOLERA device t hat
cools a gas aft er it has been compr essed.
COOLER, INTERCOOLERA device t hat
cools a gas bet ween t he compr essive st eps of a
mult iple st age compr essor .
COOLER, PRECOOLERA devi ce t h a t
cools a gas befor e it is compr essed.
CORROSI ONTh e s l ow des t r u ct i on of
mat er ials by chemical agent s and elect r omechanical
r eact ions.
CYCLE A s i n gl e compl et e oper a t i on
consist ing of pr ogr essive phases st ar t ing and
ending at t he neut r al posit ion.
CYLINDERA device t hat conver t s fluid
power int o linear mechanical for ce and mot ion.
It usually consist s of a movable element , such as
a pi s t on a n d pi s t on r od, pl u n ger , or r a m,
oper at ing wit hin a cylindr ical bor e.
CYLINDER, CUSHIONEDA cylinder wit h
a pist on-assembly deceler at ion device at one of
bot h ends of t he st r oke.
CYLI N DE R, DOU BLE - ACTI N GA
cylinder in which fluid for ce can be applied t o t he
movable element in eit her dir ect ion.
CYLI NDER, DOUBLE-RODA cyl i n der
wit h a single pist on and a pist on r od ext ending
fr om each end.
CYLINDER, DUAL-STROKEA cylinder
combinat ion t hat pr ovides t wo wor king st r okes.
CYLINDER, PISTONA cylinder in which
t he movable element has a gr eat er cr oss-sect ional
ar ea t han t he pist on r od.
CYLI NDER, PLUNGERA cyl i n der i n
which t he movable element has t he same cr oss-
sect ional ar ea as t he pist on r od.
CYLINDER, SINGLE-ACTINGA cylinder
in which t he fluid for ce can be applied t o t he
movable element in only one dir ect ion.
CYLI NDER, SI NGLE-RODA cyl i n der
wit h a pist on r od ext ending fr om one end.
CYLINDER, SPRING-RETURNA cylin-
der in which a spr ing r et ur ns t he pist on assembly.
CYLI NDE R, TANDE MTwo or mor e
cylinder s wit h int er connect ed pist on assemblies.
CYLINDER, TELESCOPINGA cylinder
wit h nest ed mult iple t ubular r od segment s which
pr ovide a long wor king st r oke in a shor t r et r act ed
envelope.
AI -2
DENSITYThe weight per unit volume of a
subst ance.
DI AGRAM, COMBI NATI ONA dr a wi n g
using a combinat ion of gr aphical, cut away, and
pict or ial symbols.
DIAGRAM, CUTAWAYA dr awing show-
ing pr incipal int er nal par t s of all component s,
cont r ols, and act uat ing mechanisms, all int er -
connect ing lines a nd funct ions of individua l
component s.
DI AGRAM, GRAPHI CALA dr a wi n g or
dr a wi n gs s h owi n g ea ch pi ece of a ppa r a t u s
including all int er connect ing lines by appr oved
st andar d symbols.
DIAGRAM, PICTORIALA dr awing show-
ing each component in it s act ual shape accor ding
t o t he manufact ur er s inst allat ion.
DI AGRAM, SCHEMATI C(See Dia gr a m,
gr aphical.)
DI APHRAGMA di vi di n g membr a n e or
t hin par t it ion.
DIFFUSERA duct of var ying cr oss sect ion
designed t o conver t a high-speed gas flow int o
low-speed at an incr eased pr essur e.
DISPLACEMENTThe volume of fluid t hat
can pass t hr ough a pump, mot or , or cylinder in
a single r evolut ion or st r oke.
DI VERGENTMovi n g a wa y fr om ea ch
ot her , as t he inner wall of a t ube t hat flar es
out war d.
EFFI CI ENCYTh e r a t i o of t h e ou t pu t
power t o t he input power , gener ally expr essed as
a per cent age.
ENERGYThe a bilit y or ca pa cit y t o do
wor k.
EQUILIBRIUMA st at e of balance bet ween
opposing for ces or act ions.
FAHRENHEITThe t emper at ur e scale using
t he fr eezing point of wat er as 32 and t he boiling
point as 212, wit h 180 equal divisions bet ween,
called degr ees.
FEEDBACKA t r ansfer of ener gy fr om t he
out put of a device t o it s input .
FILTERA device whose pr imar y funct ion
is t he r et ent ion by a por ous media of insoluble
cont aminant s fr om a fluid.
FILTER ELEMENTThe por ous device t hat
per for ms t he act ual pr ocess of filt r at ion.
FILTER MEDIAThe por ous mat er ials t hat
per for m t he act ual pr ocess of filt r at ion.
F I LTE R ME DI A, S URF ACE P or ou s
mat er ials t hat pr imar ily r et ain cont aminant s on
t he influent face.
FLASH POINTThe t emper at ur e t o which
a liquid must be heat ed under specified condit ions
of t he t est met hod t o give off sufficient vapor t o
for m a mixt ur e wit h air t hat can be ignit ed
moment ar ily by a specified flame.
FLOW, LAMI NARA fl ow s i t u a t i on i n
which fluid moves in par allel layer s (also r efer r ed
t o as st r eamline flow).
FLOW, METEREDFlow a t a cont r olled
r a t e.
FLOW, TURBULENTA flow sit uat ion in
which t he fluid pa r t icles move in a r a ndom
manner .
FLOW RATEThe volume, mass, or weight
of a fluid passing t hr ough any conduct or per unit
of t ime.
FLOWMETERAn i n s t r u men t u s ed t o
measur e quant it y or t he flow r at e of a fluid
mot ion.
FLUIDA liquid or a gas.
FLUID FLOWThe st r eam or movement of
a fluid, or t he r at e of it s movement .
FLUI D FRI CTI ONFr i ct i on du e t o t h e
viscosit y of fluids.
F LUI D, F I RE - RE S I S TANTA f l u i d
difficult t o ignit e, which shows lit t le t endency t o
pr opagat e flame.
AI -3
FLUID, HYDRAULICA fluid suit able for
use in a hydr aulic syst em.
FLUID, PETROLEUMA fluid composed
of pet r oleum oil. It may cont ain addit ives.
FLUI D, PHOSPHATE ESTER BASEA
fluid t hat cont ains a phosphat e est er as one of t he
major component s.
FLUI D, SI LI CONEA fluid composed of
silicones. It may cont ain addit ives.
FLUID, WATER-GLYCOLA fluid whose
major const it uent s ar e wat er and one or mor e
glycols or polyglycols.
FLUID STABILITYResist ance of a fluid t o
per manent change in pr oper t ies.
FLUID POWEREner gy t r ansmit t ed and
cont r olled t hr ough t he use of fluids under
pr essur e.
FLUID POWER SYSTEMA syst em t hat
t r ansmit s and cont r ols power t hr ough use of a
pr essur ized fluid wit hin an enclosed cir cuit .
F OOT-P OUNDTh e a mou n t of wor k
accomplished when a for ce of 1 pound pr oduces
a displacement of 1 foot .
FORCEThe act ion of one body on anot her
t ending t o change t he st at e of mot ion of t he body
act ed upon.
FREE FLOWFlow t hat encount er s negli-
gible r esist ance.
FRI CTI ONTh e a ct i on of on e body or
subst ance r ubbing against anot her , such as fluid
flowing against t he walls of pipe; t he r esist ance
t o mot ion caused by t his r ubbing.
FRICTION PRESSURE DROPThe decr ease
in t he pr essur e of a fluid flowing t hr ough a
passage at t r ibut able t o t he fr ict ion bet ween t he
fluid and t he passage walls.
GASThe for m of mat t er t hat has neit her a
definit e shape nor a definit e volume.
GASKETA class of seals t hat pr ovides a seal
bet ween t wo st at ionar y par t s.
GAUGE An i n s t r u men t or devi ce for
char act er ist ic.
measur ing, indicat ing, or compar ing a physical
GAUGE P RE S S URE P r e s s u r e a b ove
at mospher ic pr essur e.
GAUGE SNUBBERA device inst alled in
t he line t o t he pr essur e gauge used t o dampen
pr essur e sur ges and t hus pr ovide a st eady r eading
and a pr ot ect ion for t he gauge.
GAUGE, BELLOWSA gauge in which t he
sensing element is a convolut ed closed cylinder .
A pr essur e differ ent ial bet ween t he out side and
t he inside causes t he cylinder t o expand or cont r act
axially.
GAUGE, BOURDON TUBEA pr essur e
gauge in which t he sensing element is a cur ved
t ube t hat t ends t o st r aight en out when subject ed
t o int er nal fluid pr essur e.
GAUGE, DIAPHRAGMA gauge in which
t he sensing element is r elat ively t hin and it s inner
por t ion is fr ee t o deflect wit h r espect t o it s
per ipher y.
GAU GE , P RE S S U RE A g a u g e t h a t
indicat es t he pr essur e in t he syst em t o which it
is connect ed.
GAUGE, VACUUMA pr essur e gauge for
pr essur es less t han at mospher ic.
GRAVITYThe for ce t hat t ends t o dr aw all
bodies t owar d t he cent er of t he ear t h. The weight
of a body is t he r esult ant of gr avit at ional for ce
act ing on t he body.
HEADThe height of a column or body of
fluid above a given point expr essed in linear unit s.
Head is oft en used t o indicat e gauge pr essur e.
Pr essur e is equal t o t he height t imes t he densit y
of t he fluid.
HEAD, FRICTIONThe head r equir ed t o
over come t he fr ict ion at t he int er ior sur face of
a conduct or and bet ween fluid par t icles in mot ion.
It var ies wit h flow, size, t ype, and condit ion of
conduct or s and fit t ings, and fluid char act er ist ics,
HEAD, STATICThe height of a column or
body of fluid above a given point .
AI -4
HEAD, VELOCI TYThe equiva lent hea d
t hr ough which t he liquid would have t o fall t o
at t ain a given velocit y. Mat hemat ically it is equal
t o t he squar e of t he velocit y (in feet ) divided by
64.4 feet per second squar e.
H E AT E XCH AN GE RA d e v i ce t h a t
t r ansfer s heat t hr ough a conduct ing wall fr om one
fluid t o anot her .
HYDRAULICSEngineer ing science per t ain-
ing t o liquid pr essur e and flow.
HYDROMETERAn inst r ument for det er -
mining t he specific gr avit ies of liquids.
HYDROPNEUMATICSPer t a ining t o t he
combinat ion of hydr aulic and pneumat ic fluid
power .
HYDROSTATI CSE n gi n eer i n g s ci en ce
per t aining t o t he ener gy of liquids at r est .
I MPACT PRESSUREThe pr essur e of a
moving fluid br ought t o r est t hat is in excess of
t he pr essur e t he fluid has when it does not flow;
t hat is, t ot al pr essur e less st at ic pr essur e. Impact
pr essur e is equal t o dynamic pr essur e in incom-
pr essible flow; but in compr essible flow, impact
pr essur e includes t he pr essur e change owing t o t he
compr essibilit y effect .
IMPINGEMENTThe st r iking or dashing
upon wit h a cla sh or sha r p collision, a s a ir
impinging upon t he r ot or of a t ur bine or mot or .
IMPULSE TURBINEA t ur bine dr iven by
a fluid at high velocit y under r elat ively low
pr essur e.
INERTIAThe t endency of a body at r est t o
r emain at r est , and a body in mot ion t o cont inue
t o move at a const ant speed along a st r aight line,
unless t he body is act ed upon in eit her case by an
unbalanced for ce.
INHIBITORAny subst ance which slows or
pr event s chemical r eact ions such as cor r osion or
oxidat ion.
INVERSE PROPORTIONThe r elat ion t hat
exist s bet ween t wo quant it ies when an incr ease in
one of t hem pr oduces a cor r esponding decr ease
in t he ot her .
KELVI N SCALEThe t emper a t ur e sca le
using absolut e zer o as t he zer o point and divisions
t hat ar e t he same size as cent igr ade degr ees.
KI NETI C ENERGYTh e en er gy t h a t a
subst ance has while it is in mot ion.
KINETIC THEORYA t heor y of mat t er t hat
assumes t hat t he molecules of mat t er ar e in
const ant mot ion.
LINEA t ube, pipe, or hose t hat is used as
a conduct or of fluid.
LI QUI DA for m of ma t t er t h a t h a s a
definit e volume but t a kes t he sha pe of it s
cont ainer .
LOADThe power t hat is being deliver ed by
any power -pr oducing device. The equipment t hat
uses t he power fr om t he power -pr oducing device.
LU BRI CATORA d e v i ce t h a t a d d s
cont r olled or met er ed amount s of lubr icant int o
a fluid power syst em.
MANIFOLDA t ype of fluid conduct or t hat
pr ovides mult iple connect ions por t s.
MANOMETERA di ffer en t i a l pr es s u r e
gauge in which pr essur e is indicat ed by t he height
of a liquid column of known densit y. Pr essur e is
equal t o t he differ ence in ver t ical height bet ween
t wo connect ed columns mult iplied by t he densit y
of t h e ma n omet er l i qu i d. Some for ms of
manomet er s ar e U t ube, inclined t ube, well, and
bell t ypes.
MATTERAn y s u bs t a n ce t h a t occu pi es
space and has weight .
MECHANI CAL ADVANTAGEThe r a t io
of t he r esist ing weight t o t he act ing for ce. The
r at io of t he dist ance t hr ough which t he for ce is
exer t ed divided by t he dist ance t he weight is
r aised.
METER-INTo r egulat e t he amount of fluid
int o a syst em or an act uat or .
METER-OUTTo r egulat e t he flow of fluid
fr om a syst em or act uat or .
MICRONA milliont h of a met er or about
0.00004 inch.
AI -5
MOLECULEA sma ll na t ur a l pa r t icle of
mat t er composed of t wo or mor e at oms.
MOTORA device t hat conver t s fluid power
int o mechanical for ce and mot ion. It usually
pr ovides r ot ar y mechanical mot ion.
MOTOR, F I XE D-DI SP LACE ME NTA
mot or in which t he displacement per unit of
out put mot ion cannot be var ied.
MOTOR, LI NEAR(See Cylinder .)
MOTOR, ROTARYA mot or ca pa bl e of
cont inuous r ot ar y mot ion.
MOTOR, ROTARY LI MI TEDA r ot a r y
mot or having limit ed mot ion.
MOTOR, VARI ABLE-DI SPLACEMENT
A mot or in which t he displacement per unit of
out put mot ion can be var ied.
NEOPRENEA s yn t h et i c r u bber h i gh l y
r esist ant t o oil, light , heat , and oxidat ion.
NEUTRALI ZATI ON NUMBERA mea -
sur e of t he t ot al acidit y or basicit y of an oil; t his
includes or ganic or inor ganic acids or bases or a
combinat ion of t hem.
OXIDATIONThe pr ocess by which oxygen
unit es wit h some ot her subst ance, causing r ust or
cor r osion.
PACKINGA class of seal t hat is used t o
pr ovide a seal bet ween t wo par t s of a unit which
move in r elat ion t o each ot her .
PASCALS LAWA pr essur e applied t o a
confined fluid at r est is t r ansmit t ed wit h equal
int ensit y t hr oughout t he fluid.
PERI PHERYThe out side sur fa ce, espe-
cially t hat of a r ounded object or body.
PIPEA t ype of fluid line whose dimensions
ar e designat ed by nominal (appr oximat e) inside
diamet er and wall t hickness.
PNEUMATI CSEngineer ing science per -
t aining t o gaseous pr essur e and flow.
PORTAn int er nal or ext er nal t er minus of
a passage in a component .
POTENTIAL ENERGYThe ener gy a sub-
st ance has because of it s posit ion, it s condit ion,
or it s chemical composit ion.
POUR POINTThe lowest t emper at ur e at
which a liquid will flow under specified con-
dit ions.
POWER UNITA combina t ion of pump,
pump dr ive, r eser voir , cont r ols, and condit ioning
component s which ma y be r equir ed for it s
applicat ion.
POWERThe r at e of doing wor k or t he r at e
of expanding ener gy.
PRESSUREThe amount of for ce dist r ib-
ut ed over each unit of ar ea, usually expr essed in
pounds per squar e inch.
P RESSURE, ABSOLUTETh e s u m of
at mospher ic and gauge pr essur es.
PRESSURE, ATMOSPHERI CPr es s u r e
exer t ed by t he at mospher e at any specific locat ion.
PRESSURE, BACKThe pr essur e encoun-
t er ed on t he r et ur n side of a syst em.
PRESSURE, DI FFERENTI ALTh e di f-
fer ence in pr essur e bet ween any t wo point s of a
syst em or a component .
PRESSURE, HEADThe pr essur e due t o t he
height of a column or body of fluid. It is usually
expr essed in feet .
PRESSURE, OPERATINGThe pr essur e at
which a syst em oper at es.
PRESSURE, PRECHARGEThe pr essur e
of compr essed gas in an accumulat or pr ior t o t he
admission of a liquid.
PRESSURE, PROOFThe nondest r uct ive
t est pr essur e in excess of t he maximum r at ed
oper at ing pr essur e.
PRESSURE, STATICThe pr essur e in a
fluid at r est .
PRESSURE SWITCHAn elect r ical swit ch
oper at ed by t he incr ease or decr ease of fluid
pr essur e.
AI -6
PRIME MOVERThe sour ce of mechanical
power used t o dr ive t he pump or compr essor .
PUMPA device t hat conver t s mechanical
for ce and mot ion int o hydr aulic fluid power .
PUMP, AXIAL PISTONA pump ha ving
mult iple pist ons disposed wit h t heir axes par allel.
P UMP , CENTRI F UGALA pu mp t h a t
pr oduces fluid velocit y and conver t s it t o pr essur e
head.
P UMP , F I XE D- DI S P LACE ME NTA
pump in which t he displacement per cycle cannot
be var ied.
PUMP, RADIAL PISTONA pump having
mult iple pist ons disposed r adially act uat ed by an
eccent r ic element .
PUMP, VARI ABLE-DI SPLACEMENTA
pump in which t he volume of fluid per cycle can
be var ied.
RANKI NE SCALEA t her momet er sca le
based on absolut e zer o of t he Fahr enheit scale,
i n wh i ch t h e fr eezi n g poi n t of wa t er i s
a ppr oxima t ely 492R.
RATIOThe value obt ained by dividing one
number by a not her , indica t ing t heir r ela t ive
pr opor t ions.
RECEI VERA cont a iner in which ga s is
st or ed under pr essur e as a supply sour ce for
pneumat ic power .
RE CI P ROCATI NGMovi n g b a ck a n d
for t h, as a pist on r ecipr ocat ing in a cylinde.,
RESERVOI RA cont a iner for st or a ge of
liquid in a fluid power syst em.
RESPONSE TIMEThe t ime lag bet ween a
signal input and t he r esult ing change of out put .
RESTRICTORA device t hat r educes t he
cr oss-sect ional flow ar ea.
RESTRICTOR, ORIFICEA r est r ict or , t he
lengt h of which is r elat ively small wit h r espect t o
it s cr oss-sect ional ar ea. The or ifice may be fixed
or var iable. Var iable t ypes ar e noncompensat ed,
pr essur e compensat ed, or pr essur e and t emper a-
t ur e compensat ed.
RETURN LINEA line used for r et ur ning
fluid back int o t he r eser voir or at mospher e.
SEPARATORA devi ce wh os e pr i ma r y
funct ion is t o isolat e undesir able fluids and or
cont aminant s by physical pr oper t ies ot her t han
size.
SERVOA device used t o conver t a small
movement int o a gr eat er movement of for ce.
SOLIDThe for m of ma t t er t ha t ha s a
definit e shape and a definit e volume.
SPECI FI C GRAVI TYTh e r a t i o of t h e
weight of a given volume of a subst ance t o t he
weight of an equal volume of some st andar d
subst ance.
STEADY F LOWA fl ow i n wh i ch t h e
velocit y, pr essur e, and t emper at ur e at any point
in t he fluid do not var y wit h t ime.
STRAINERA coar se filt er .
STOKEThe st a nda r d unit of kinema t ic
viscosit y in t he cgs syst em. It is expr essed in squar e
cent imet er s per second; 1 cent ist oke equals 0.01
st oke.
STUFFING BOXA cavit y and closur e wit h
manual adjust ment for a sealing device.
SUPPLY LINEA line t hat conveys fluid
fr om t he r eser voir t o t he pump.
SURGEA moment ar y r ise of pr essur e in a
cir cuit .
SYNCHRONI ZETo ma ke t wo or mor e
event s or oper at ions occur at t he pr oper t ime wit h
r espect t o each ot her .
S YNTHE TI C MATE RI ALA comp l e x
chemical compound t hat is ar t ificially for med by
t he combining of t wo or mor e simpler compounds
or element s.
TANKA cont ainer for t he st or age of fluid
in a fluid power syst em.
THEORYA scient ific explanat ion, t est ed by
obser vat ions and exper iment s.
THERMAL EXPANSIONThe incr ease in
volume of a subst ance due t o t emper at ur e change.
A4-7
TORQUEA for ce or combinat ion of for ces
t hat pr oduces or t ends t o pr oduce a t wist ing or
r ot ar y mot ion.
TUBI NGA t ype of fl u i d l i n e wh os e
dimensions ar e designat ed by act ual measur ed
out side diamet er and by act ual measur ed wall
t hickness.
TURBI NEA r ot a r y mot or a ct u a t ed by
t he r ea ct ion, impulse, or bot h, of a flow of
pr essur ized fluid.
VALVEA device t hat cont r ols fluid flow
dir ect ion, pr essur e, or flow r at e.
VALVE, CHECKA di r ect i on a l con t r ol
valve t hat per mit s flow of fluid in only one
dir ect ion.
VALVE, COUNTERBALANCEA pr essur e
cont r ol valve t hat maint ains back pr essur e t o
pr event a load fr om falling.
VALVE, DI RECTI ONAL CONTROLA
valve whose pr imar y funct ion is t o dir ect or
pr event flow t hr ough select ed passages.
VALVE, FLOW CONTROLA valve whose
pr imar y funct ion is t o cont r ol flow r at e.
VALVE, HYDRAULI CA va lve for con-
t r olling liquid.
VALVE, PILOTA valve used t o oper at e
anot her valve or cont r ol.
VALVE, PNEUMATI CA va lve for con-
t r olling gas.
VALVE , P RE S S U RE RE DU CI N GA
pr essur e cont r ol valve whose pr imar y funct ion is
t o limit out let pr essur e.
VALVE, PRIORITYA valve t hat dir ect s
flow t o one oper at ing cir cuit at a fixed r at e and
dir ect s excess flow t o anot her oper at ing cir cuit .
VALVE, RELIEFA pr essur e cont r ol valve
whose pr ima r y funct ion is t o limit syst em
pr essur e.
VALVE, SELECTORA dir ect ional cont r ol
valve whose pr imar y funct ion is t o select ively
int er connect t wo or mor e por t s.
VALVE , SE QUE NCE A va l ve wh os e
pr ima r y funct ion is t o dir ect flow in a pr e-
det er mined sequence.
VALVE, SERVOA dir ect ional cont r ol valve
t hat modulat es flow or pr essur e as a funct ion of
it s input signal.
VALVE, SHUTOFFA valve t hat oper at es
fully open or fully closed.
VALVE, UNLOADINGA pr essur e cont r ol
valve whose pr imar y funct ion is t o per mit a pump
or compr essor t o oper at e at minimum load.
VE LOCI TYTh e r a t e of mot i on i n a
par t icular dir ect ion. The velocit y of fluids is
usually expr essed in feet per second.
VENTURI A t u be h a vi n g a n a r r owi n g
t hr oat or const r ict ion t o incr ease t he velocit y of
fluid flowing t hr ough it . The flow t hr ough t he
vent ur i causes a pr essur e dr op in t he smallest
sect ion, t he a mount being a funct ion of t he
velocit y of flow.
VI SCOSI TYA mea sur e of t he int er na l
fr ict ion or r esist ance of a fluid t o flow.
VI SCOSI TY I NDEXA mea s u r e of t h e
viscosit y-t emper at ur e char act er ist ics of a fluid as
r efer r ed t o t hat of t wo ar bit r ar y r efer ence fluids.
VI S COS I TY, S AYBOLT UNI VE RS AL
SECONDS (SUS)The t ime in seconds for 60
millilit er s of oil t o flow t hr ough a st andar d or ifice
at a given t emper at ur e.
VI SCOSI TY, KI NEMATI CThe a bsolut e
viscosit y divided by t he densit y of t he fluid. It is
usually expr essed in cent ist okes.
VOLUME OF FLOWThe quant it y of fluid
t hat passes a cer t ain point in a unit of t ime. The
volume of flow is usually expr essed in gallons per
minut e for liquids and cubic feet per minut e for
gases.
WORKThe t r ansfer ence of ener gy fr om one
body or s ys t em t o a n ot h er . Th a t wh i ch i s
accomplished by a for ce act ing t hr ough a dist ance.
AI -8
AP P ENDI X I I
MECHANI CAL SYMBOLS OTHER THAN
AERONAUTI CAL FOR FLUI D
P OWER DI AGRAMS
AI I -1
AI I -2
AI I -3
AII-4
AP P ENDI X I I I
AERONAUTI CAL MECHANI CAL SYMBOLS
F OR F LUI D P OWER DI AGRAMS
AI I I -1
AI I I -2
I NDEX
A
Accumulat or s, 9-3 t o 9-7
Act uat or s, 10-1 t o 10-12
cylinder s, 10-1 t o 10-7
pist on-t ype cylinder s, 10-3 t o 10-6
double-act ing cylinder , 10-4 t o
10-5
single-act ing cylinder , 10-4
t andem cylinder s, 10-5 t o 10-6
r ack-and-pinion pist on-t ype r ot ar y
act uat or s, 10-6 t o 10-7
r am-t ype cylinder s, 10-1 t o 10-3
double-act ing r am, 10-2
dual r ams, 10-3
single-act ing r am, 10-1 t o 10-2
t elescoping r ams, 10-2 t o 10-3
mot or s, 10-8 t o 10-11
gear -t ype mot or s, 10-8
pist on-t ype mot or s, 10-9 t o 10-11
axial-pist on mot or , 10-10 t o
10-11
r adial-pist on mot or , 10-10
vane-t ype mot or s, 10-9
t ur bines, 10-11 t o 10-12
impulse t ur bine, 10-11 t o 10-12
r eact ion t ur bine, 10-12
Aer onaut ical mechanical symbols for fluid
power diagr ams, AIII-1 t o AIII-2
Air -pr essur ized r eser voir s, 9-2 t o 9-3
At mospher ic pr essur e, 2-2 t o 2-3
Axial pist on pumps, 4-12 t o 4-15
Axial-pist on mot or , 10-10 t o 10-11
B
Backup r ings, 7-12 t o 7-15
Ball valves, 6-1 t o 6-2
Basic diagr ams and syst ems, 12-1 t o 12-13
diagr ams, 12-1 t o 12-5
symbols, 12-1 t o 12-2
t ypes of diagr ams, 12-2 t o 12-5
combinat ion diagr ams, 12-5
cut away diagr ams, 12-2 t o 12-3
gr aphic diagr ams, 12-4 t o 12-5
pict or ial diagr ams, 12-2
fluid power syst ems, 12-5 t o 12-13
hydr aulic power dr ive syst em, 12-6 t o 12-8
cont r ol, 12-7
oper at ion, 12-7 t o 12-8
jet blast deflect or s, 12-10 t o 12-13
landing gear emer gency syst em, 12-8
t o 12-10
Bellows elast ic element s, 8-3 t o 8-5
Ber noullis pr inciple, 2-14
Bimet allic expansion t her momet er , 8-7
Bladder -t ype accumulat or s, 9-6
Bour don t ube gauges, 8-1 t o 8-3
Boyles law, 11-4 t o 11-5
Br azed connect or s, 5-13
C
C-shaped bour don t ube, 8-2 t o 8-3
Cent er ed int er nal gear pump, 4-6
Char less law, 11-5
Check valve, 6-16 t o 6-18
Combinat ion diagr ams, 12-5
Compr essed air , 11-7 t o 11-8
Compr essibilit y and expansion of gases, 11-3
t o 11-7
Connect or s for flexible hose, 5-17 t o 5-19
Cor k, 7-2
Cor k and r ubber , 7-2
Count er balance valve, 6-14 t o 6-15
Cup packings, 7-16
Cut away diagr ams, 12-2 t o 12-3
Cylinder s, 10-1 t o 10-7
pist on-t ype cylinder s, 10-3 t o 10-6
r ack-and-pinion pist on-t ype r ot ar y
act uat or s, 10-6 t o 10-7
r am-t ype cylinder s, 10-1 t o 10-3
I NDEX-1
D
Diagr ams, 12-1 t o 12-5
Diaphr agm accumulat or s, 9-7
Dir ect -cont act gas-t o-fluid accumulat or s, 9-6
t o 9-7
Dir ect ional cont r ol valves, 6-15 t o 6-25
check valve, 6-16 t o 6-18
classificat ion, 6-15 t o 6-16
four -way valves, 6-20 t o 6-25
shut t le valve, 6-18
t hr ee-way valves, 6-19 t o 6-20
t wo-way valves, 6-18 t o 6-19
Dir t exclusion seals (wiper s and scr aper s), 7-17
Dist ant -r eading t her momet er s, 8-7 t o 8-8
Dual bellows indicat or s, 8-4 t o 8-5
F
Filt r at ion, 9-7 t o 9-13
filt er s, 9-8 t o 9-12
pneumat ic gases, 9-12 t o 9-13
st r ainer s, 9-8
Flange connect or s, 5-12
Flange packings, 7-16 t o 7-17
Flar ed connect or s, 5-13 t o 5-14
Flar eless-t ube connect or s, 5-15 t o 5-17
Flexible hose, 5-8 t o 5-12
Flow cont r ol valves, 6-1 t o 6-6
ball valves, 6-1 t o 6-2
gat e valves, 6-3
globe valves, 6-3 t o 6-5
hydr aulic and pneumat ic globe valves, 6-5
t o 6-6
needle valves, 6-5
Fluid lines and fit t ings, 5-1 t o 5-21
flexible hose, 5-8 t o 5-12
applicat ion, 5-9 t o 5-10
fabr icat ion and t est ing, 5-10
ident ificat ion, 5-10
inst allat ion, 5-11 t o 5-12
PFTE, 5-9
synt het ic r ubber hose, 5-8 t o 5-9
cur e dat e, 5-8 t o 5-9
sizing, 5-8
pipes and t ubing, 5-1 t o 5-8
pr epar at ion of pipes and t ubing, 5-3
t o 5-8
t ube bending, 5-5 t o 5-7
t ube cut t ing and debur r ing, 5-4
t o 5-5
t ube flar ing, 5-7 t o 5-8
Fluid lines and fit t ingsCont inued
pipes and t ubingCont inued
select ion of pipes and t ubing, 5-1 t o
5-3
mat er ials, 5-2 t o 5-3
sizing of pipes and t ubing, 5-1
t o 5-2
pr ecaut ionar y measur es, 5-20 t o 5-21
t ypes of fit t ings and connect or s, 5-12 t o
5-20
br azed connect or s, 5-13
connect or s for flexible hose, 5-17 t o
5-19
hose connect ion side of hose
fit t ing, 5-18 t o 5-19
piping connect ion side of hose
fit t ing, 5-18
flange connect or s, 5-12
flar ed connect or s, 5-13 t o 5-14
flar eless-t ube connect or s, 5-15 t o
5-17
final assembly, 5-17
inspect ion, 5-16 t o 5-17
pr eset t ing, 5-15 t o 5-16
manifolds, 5-19 t o 5-20
quick-disconnect couplings, 5-19
t hr eaded connect or s, 5-12
welded connect or s, 5-12 t o 5-13
t ypes of lines, 5-1
Fluid power , int r oduct ion t o, 1-1 t o 1-4
Fluid power syst ems, 12-5 t o 12-13
hydr aulic power dr ive syst em, 12-6 t o
12-8
jet blast deflect or s, 12-10 t o 12-13
landing gear emer gency syst em, 12-8 t o
12-10
Fluid-pr essur ized r eser voir , 9-2
For ces in liquids, 2-1 t o 2-17
liquids at r est , 2-1 t o 2-9
pr essur e and for ce, 2-1 t o 2-3
at mospher ic pr essur e, 2-2 t o 2-3
comput ing for ce, pr essur e, and
ar ea, 2-1 t o 2-2
t r ansmission of for ces t hr ough
liquids, 2-3 t o 2-9
densit y and specific gr avit y, 2-4
Pascals law, 2-5 t o 2-6
pr essur e and for ce in fluid
power syst ems, 2-6 t o 2-9
liquids in mot ion, 2-9 t o 2-15
Ber noullis pr inciple, 2-14
fact or s involved in flow, 2-11 t o 2-13
iner t ia and for ce, 2-11 t o 2-12
kinet ic ener gy, 2-12 t o 2-13
I NDEX-2
For ces in liquidsCont inued
liquids in mot ionCont inued
minimizing fr ict ion, 2-14 t o 2-15
r elat ionship of for ce, pr essur e, and
head, 2-13
st at ic and dynamic fact or s, 2-13 t o
2-14
st r eamline and t ur bulent flow, 2-10
t o 2-11
volume and velocit y of flow, 2-9 t o
2-10
volume of flow and speed, 2-10
oper at ion of hydr aulic component s, 2-15
t o 2-17
hydr aulic br akes, 2-16 t o 2-17
hydr aulic jack, 2-15 t o 2-16
Four -way valves, 6-20 t o 6-25
Gat e valves, 6-3
Gauge snubber s,
G
8-8 t o 8-9
Gear pumps, 4-2 t o 4-6
Gear -t ype mot or s, 10-8
Gener al gas law, 11-6 t o 11-7
Globe valves, 6-3 t o 6-5
Glossar y, AI-1 t o AI-8
Gr aphic diagr ams, 12-4 t o 12-5
H
Hand pumps, 4-9
Helical gear pump, 4-5
Her r ingbone gear pump, 4-4
Hydr aulic and pneumat ic globe
6-6
Hydr aulic br akes, 2-16 t o 2-17
Hydr aulic fluids, 3-1 t o 3-11
cont aminat ion, 3-6 t o 3-10
valves, 6-5 t o
classificat ion, 3-7 t o 3-8
fluid cont aminat ion, 3-7 t o 3-8
par t iculat e cont aminat ion, 3-7
cont aminat ion cont r ol, 3-9 t o 3-10
or igin of cont aminat ion, 3-8 t o 3-9
hydr aulic fluid sampling, 3-10 t o 3-11
pr oper t ies, 3-1 t o 3-5
chemical st abilit y, 3-3 t o 3-4
cleanliness, 3-5
densit y and compr essibilit y, 3-4
fir e point , 3-4
flashpoint , 3-4
foaming t endencies, 3-4 t o 3-5
fr eedom fr om acidit y, 3-4
Hydr a ulic fluids-Cont inued
pr oper t iesCont inued
lubr icat ing power , 3-3
minimum t oxicit y, 3-4
viscosit y, 3-1 t o 3-3
measur ement of viscosit y, 3-1 t o
3-3
viscosit y index, 3-3
t ypes of hydr aulic fluids, 3-5 t o 3-6
pet r oleum-based fluids, 3-5
synt het ic fir e-r esist ant fluids, 3-5 t o
3-6
light weight synt het ic fir e-
r esist ant fluids, 3-6
phosphat e est er fir e-r esist ant
fluid, 3-5 t o 3-6
silicone synt het ic fir e-r esist ant
fluids, 3-6
wat er -based fir e-r esist ant fluids, 3-6
Hydr aulic jack, 2-15 t o 2-16
Hydr aulic power dr ive syst em, 12-6 t o 12-8
Hydr aulics, 1-2 t o 1-3
I
Impulse t ur bine, 10-11 t o 10-12
Int r oduct ion t o fluid power , 1-1 t o 1-4
advant ages of fluid power , 1-2
hydr aulics, 1-2 t o 1-3
development of hydr aulics, 1-2 t o 1-3
use of hydr aulics, 1-3
special pr oblems, 1-2
st at es of mat t er , 1-3 t o 1-4
J
J et blast deflect or s, 12-10 t o 12-13
K
Kinet ic ener gy, 2-12 t o 2-13
Kinet ic t heor y of gases, 11-4
L
Landing gear emer gency syst em, 12-8 t o 12-10
Leat her , 7-2
Light weight synt het ic fir e-r esist ant fluids, 3-6
Liquids in mot ion, 2-9 t o 2-15
Lobe pump, 4-6 t o 4-7
I NDEX-3
M
Manifolds, 5-19 t o 5-20
Mat t er , st at es of, 1-3 t o 1-4
Measur ement and pr essur e cont r ol devices, 8-1
t o 8-9
gauge snubber s, 8-8 t o 8-9
pr essur e gauges, 8-1 t o 8-5
bellows elast ic element s, 8-3 t o 8-5
dual bellows indicat or s, 8-4 t o
8-5
simple bellows element s, 8-4
bour don t ube gauges, 8-1 t o 8-3
C-shaped bour don t ube, 8-2 t o
8-3
spir al and helical bour don t ubes,
8-3
pr essur e swit ches, 8-5 t o 8-6
t emper at ur e swit ches, 8-8
t emper at ur e-measur ing inst r ument s, 8-6 t o
8-8
bimet allic expansion t her momet er ,
8-7
dist ant -r eading t her momet er s, 8-7 t o
8-8
Mechanical symbols ot her t han aer onaut ical
for fluid power diagr ams, AII-1 t o AII-4
Met al, 7-2 t o 7-3
Mot or s, 10-8 t o 10-11
gear -t ype mot or s, 10-8
pist on-t ype mot or s, 10-9 t o 10-11
vane-t ype mot or s, 10-9
N
Needle valves, 6-5
Nit r ogen, 11-8
Nonpr essur ized r eser voir s, 9-1 t o 9-2
O
Off-cent er ed int er nal gear pump, 4-6
O-r ings, 7-6 t o 7-12
P
Pascals law, 2-5 t o 2-6
Pet r olium-based fluids, 3-5
PFTE hose, 5-9
Phosphat e est er fir e-r esist ant fluid, 3-5 t o 3-6
Pict or ial diagr ams, 12-2
Pipes and t ubing, 5-1 t o 5-8
Pist on pumps, 4-9 t o 4-15
Pist on-t ype accumulat or s, 9-5 t o 9-6
Pist on-t ype cylinder s, 10-3 t o 10-6
Pist on-t ype mot or s, 10-9 t o 10-11
Pneumat ic gases, 9-12 t o 9-13
Pneumat ics, 11-1 t o 11-9
char act er ist ics of gases, 11-1 t o 11-3
densit y, 11-1 t o 11-2
pr essur e, 11-3
t emper at ur e, 11-2 t o 11-3
compr essibilit y and expansion of gases,
11-3 t o 11-7
Boyles law, 11-4 t o 11-5
Char less law, 11-5
gener al gas law, 11-6 t o 11-7
kinet ic t heor y of gases, 11-4
cont aminat ion cont r ol, 11-8 t o 11-9
development of pneumat ics, 11-1
pneumat ic gases, 11-7 t o 11-8
compr essed air , 11-7 t o 11-8
high-pr essur e air syst ems, 11-7
t o 11-8
low-pr essur e air , 11-8
medium-pr essur e air , 11-8
nit r ogen, 11-8
qualit ies, 11-7
pot ent ial hazar ds, 11-9
safet y pr ecaut ions, 11-9
Pr essur e cont r ol valves, 6-6 t o 6-15
count er balance valve, 6-14 t o 6-15
pr essur e r egulat or s, 6-9 t o 6-10
pr essur e-r educing valves, 6-12 t o 6-14
r elief valves, 6-6 t o 6-9
sequence valves, 6-11 t o 6-12
Pr essur e gauges, 8-1 t o 8-5
bellows elast ic element s, 8-3 t o 8-5
bour don t ube gauges, 8-1 t o 8-3
Pr essur e swit ches, 8-5 t o 8-6
Pr essur ized r eser voir s, 9-2 t o 9-3
Pr opor t ional-flow filt er , 9-10
Pumps, 4-1 t o 4-15
classificat ion of pumps, 4-1 t o 4-2
oper at ion, 4-1
per for mance, 4-1
pur pose, 4-1
r ecipr ocat ing pumps, 4-8 t o 4-15
hand pumps, 4-9
pist on pumps, 4-9 t o 4-15
axial pist on pumps, 4-12 t o 4-15
r adial pist on pumps, 4-10 t o
4-11
I NDEX-4
PumpsCont inued
r ot ar y pumps, 4-2 t o 4-8
gear pumps, 4-2 t o 4-6
cent er ed int er nal gear pump, 4-6
helical gear pump, 4-5
her r ingbone gear pump, 4-4
off-cent er ed int er nal gear pump,
4-5
spur gear pump, 4-3 t o 4-4
lobe pump, 4-6 t o 4-7
scr ew pump, 4-7 t o 4-8
vane pump, 4-8
Q
Quad-O-Dyn@ seals, 7-15
Quad-Rings, 7-15
Quick-disconnect couplings, 5-19
R
Rack-and-pinion pist on-t ype r ot ar y act uat or s,
10-6 t o 10-7
Radial-pist on mot or , 10-10
Radial pist on pumps, 4-10 t o 4-11
Ram-t ype cylinder s, 10-1 t o 10-3
React ion t ur bine, 10-12
Recipr ocat ing pumps, 4-8 t o 4-15
hand pumps, 4-9
pist on pumps, 4-9 t o 4-15
Relief valves, 6-6 t o 6-9
Reser voir s, st r ainer s, filt er s, and
accumulat or s, 9-1 t o 9-13
accumulat or s, 9-3 t o 9-7
bladder -t ype accumulat or s, 9-6
diaphr agm accumulat or s, 9-7
dir ect -cont act gas-t o-fluid
accumulat or s, 9-6 t o 9-7
pist on-t ype accumulat or s, 9-5 t o 9-6
filt r at ion, 9-7 t o 9-13
filt er s, 9-8 t o 9-12
filt er element s, 9-11 t o 9-12
filt er r at ing, 9-11
full-flow filt er , 9-8 t o 9-10
pr opor t ional-flow filt er , 9-10
pneumat ic gases, 9-12 t o 9-13
r emoval of moist ur e, 9-12 t o
9-13
r emoval of solids, 9-12
st r ainer s, 9-8
Reser voir s, st r ainer s, filt er s, and
accumulat or sCont inued
r eser voir s, 9-1 t o 9-3
nonpr essur ized r eser voir s, 9-1 t o 9-2
pr essur ized r eser voir s, 9-2 t o 9-3
air -pr essur ized r eser voir s, 9-2 t o
9-3
fluid-pr essur ized r eser voir , 9-2
Rot ar y pumps, 4-2 t o 4-8
gear pumps, 4-2 t o 4-6
lobe pump, 4-6 t o 4-7
scr ew pump, 4-7 t o 4-8
vane pump, 4-8
Rubber , 7-3
S
Scr ew pump, 4-7 t o 4-8
Sealing devices and mat er ials, 7-1 t o 7-18
seal mat er ials, 7-1 t o 7-3
cor k, 7-2
cor k and r ubber , 7-2
leat her , 7-2
met al, 7-2 t o 7-3
r ubber , 7-3
t ypes of seals, 7-3 t o 7-18
backup r ings, 7-12 t o 7-15
inst allat ion, 7-12 t o 7-15
packaging and st or ing, 7-12
cup packings, 7-16
dir t exclusion seals (wiper s and
scr aper s), 7-17
flange packings, 7-16 t o 7-17
O-r ings, 7-6 t o 7-12
cur e dat e, 7-8
dimensions, 7-8
ident ificat ion, 7-7
r eplacement , 7-9 t o 7-12
shelf life and expir at ion dat e,
7-8
sizes, 7-8
specificat ions, 7-8
Quad-O-Dyn seals, 7-15
Quad-Rings, 7-15
st or age of seals, 7-17 t o 7-18
T-seals, 7-3 t o 7-5
U-cups and U-packings, 7-16
leat her U-packings, 7-16
U-cups, 7-16
V-r ings, 7-5 t o 7-6
Sequence valves, 6-11 t o 6-12
Shut t le valve, 6-18
Silicone synt het ic fir e-r esist ant fluids, 3-6
Spir al and helical bour don t ubes, 8-3
I NDEX-5
Spur gear pump, 4-3 t o 4-4
Synt het ic fir e-r esist ant fluids,
Synt het ic r ubber hose, 5-8 t o
T
T-seals, 7-3 t o 7-5
Temper at ur e swit ches. 8-8
ValvesCont inued
3-5 t o 3-6
dir ect ional cont r ol valvesCont inued
5-9
shut t le valve, 6-18
t hr ee-way valves, 6-19 t o 6-20
cam-oper at ed t hr ee-way valves,
6-19 t o 6-20
pilot -oper at ed t hr ee-way valves,
6-20
Temper at ur e-measur ing inst r ument s, 8-6 t o
t wo-way valves, 6-18 t o 6-19
8-8
flow cont r ol valves, 6-1 t o 6-6
bimet allic expansion t her momet er , 8-7
dist ant -r eading t her momet er s, 8-7 t o 8-8
ball valves, 6-1 t o 6-2
Thr eaded connect or s, 5-12
gat e valves, 6-3
Thr ee-way valves, 6-19 t o 6-20
globe valves, 6-3 t o 6-5
Tube bending, 5-5 t o 5-7 hydr aulic and pneumat ic globe
Tube cut t ing and debur r ing, 5-4 t o 5-5
valves, 6-5 t o 6-6
-
Tube flar ing, 5-7 t o 5-8
Tur bines, 10-11 t o 10-12
Two-way valves, 6-18 t o 6-19
U
U-cups and U-packings, 7-16
V
V-r ings, 7-5 t o 7-6
Valves, 6-1 t o 6-25
classificat ions, 6-1
dir ect ional cont r ol valves, 6-15 t o 6-25
pr essur e-cont r olled sequence
check valve, 6-16 t o 6-18
valve, 6-11 t o 6-12
classificat ion, 6-15 t o 6-16
Vane pump, 4-8
poppet , 6-15 t o 6-16 Vane-t ype mot or s, 10-9 t o 10-11
r ot ar y spool, 6-16
sliding spool, 6-16
four -way valves, 6-20 t o 6-25
poppet -t ype four -way valves, W
6-20 t o 6-22
r ot ar y spool valve, 6-22
Wat er -based fir e-r esist ant fluids, 3-6
sliding spool valve, 6-22 t o 6-25 Welded connect or s, 5-12 t o 5-13
needle valves, 6-5
pr essur e cont r ol valves, 6-6 t o 6-15
count er balance valve, 6-14 t o 6-15
pr essur e r egulat or s, 6-9 t o 6-10
pr essur e-r educing valves, 6-12 t o 6-14
pilot -cont r olled pr essur e-r educing
valve, 6-13 t o 6-14
spr ing-loaded r educer , 6-13
r elief valves, 6-6 t o 6-9
sequence valves, 6-11 t o 6-12
mechanically oper at ed sequence
valve, 6-12
I NDEX-6

Training Solutions

Training Solutions

Hydraulics

Training Manual 5

Design Of Hydraulic Steel Structures

EM 1110-2-2105

CECW-ED

Manual
No. 1110-2-2105

Engineering and Design
DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STEEL
STRUCTURES



Table of Contents


Subject Paragraph Page Subject Paragraph Page
Chapter 1
Commentary on Paragraph 3-4,
Introduction
Reliability Factors for HSS . . . 3-8 3-2
Purpose 1-1 1-1 Commentary on Paragraph 3-6, Fatigue
Applicability 1-2 1-1 and Fracture Control 3-9 3-3
References 1-3 1-1
Background . . . 1-4 1-1
Chapter 4
Commentary on Paragraph 1-4,
Allowable Stress Design
Background 1-5 1-1 General . . . 4-1 4-1
Design Basis . . . 4-2 4-1
Chapter 2
Load and Stress Requirements . . . 4-3 4-1
General Considerations
HSS Types: Modifications for
Limit States 2-1 2-1 Allowable Stresses . . . 4-4 4-1
Corrosion 2-2 2-1 Serviceability Requirements 4-5 4-1
Dynamic Loading 2-3 2-1 Fatigue and Fracture Control . . . 4-6 4-1
Inspection and Maintenance 2-4 2-1 Commentary on Paragraph 4-3, Load and
Deviations from Prescribed Stress Requirements . . . 4-7 4-2
Design 2-5 2-1 Commentary on Paragraph 4-4, HSS Types:
Commentary on Paragraph 2-2, Modifications for Allowable
Corrosion 2-6 2-1 Stresses 4-8 4-2
Commentary on Paragraph 2-3, Dynamic
Loading 2-7 2-2
Chapter 5
Connections and Details
Chapter 3
General . . . 5-1 5-1
Load and Resistance Factor Design
Design Considerations 5-2 5-1
General . . . 3-1 3-1 Bolted Connections 5-3 5-1
Design Basis . . . 3-2 3-1 Welded Connections . . . 5-4 5-1
Strength Requirements 3-3 3-1 Commentary on Paragraph 5-1,
Reliability Factors for HSS 3-4 3-1 General 5-5 5-1
Serviceability Requirements 3-5 3-1 Commentary on Paragraph 5-2,
Fatigue and Fracture Control . . . 3-6 3-2 Design Considerations 5-6 5-2
Commentary on Paragraph 3-2, Design
Basis 3-7 3-2


i

EM 1110-2-2105
Change 1
31 May 94
Subject Paragraph Page
Commentary on Paragraph 5-3, Bolted
Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7 5-2
Commentary on Paragraph 5-4, Welded
Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-8 5-2
Appendix A
References
Appendix B
Load and Resistance Factor Design
Criteria for Miter Gates
Appendix C
Tainter Gates
Appendix D
Tainter Valves
Appendix E
Bulkheads and Stoplogs
Appendix F
Vertical Lift Gates (Lock and Crest)
Appendix G
Hydroelectric and Pumping Plants
* Appendix H
Flood Closure Structures
Appendix I
Miscellaneous Hydraulic Steel Structures
ii
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
List of Figures
Figure Page
B-1. Point load impact for miter
gate girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-3
B-2. Assumptions for intercostal
end connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-5
B-3. Nomenclature and assumed load
area for intercostal design . . . . . . . . . B-6
B-4. Vertical cross section for
example miter gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-8
B-5. Example miter gate loading . . . . . . . . B-9
Figure Page
B-6. Nomenclature for skin plate
design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-11
B-7. Sample intercostal section . . . . . . . . . . . B-12
B-8. Girder hydrostatic loading and
reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-14
B-9. Sample girder cross section . . . . . . . . . . B-14
B-10. Example miter leaf torsion loads . . . . . . . B-19
iii
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
Chapter 1
Introduction
1-1. Purpose
This manual prescribes guidance for (a) designing hydrau-
lic steel structures (HSS) by load and resistance factor
design (LRFD) and (b) fracture control. Allowable stress
design (ASD) guidance is provided as an alternative
design procedure or for those structure types where LRFD
criteria have yet to be developed.
1-2. Applicability
This manual applies to HQUSACE/OCE elements, major
subordinate commands, districts, laboratories, and field
operating activities having responsibility for design of
civil works projects.
1-3. References
References are listed in Appendix A.
1-4. Background
a. Types of HSS. Typical HSS are lock gates, tainter
gates, tainter valves, bulkheads and stoplogs, vertical lift
gates, components of hydroelectric and pumping plants,
and miscellaneous structures such as lock wall accesso-
ries, local flood protection gates, and outlet works gates.
HSS may be subject to submergence, wave action,
hydraulic hammer, cavitation, impact, corrosion, and
severe climatic conditions.
b. Types of steels. Structural grade steels used for
design of HSS are as referred to in CW-05502 and Amer-
ican Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) (1986, 1989).
High-strength structural steels may be considered where
economy, simplicity of detail, or greater safety of design
may result from their use. Instability, local buckling, and
deflection of members shall be checked regardless of the
type of steel used to fabricate the structure. However,
these design limit states will generally be more critical for
structures fabricated from high-strength steel.
c. Design policy. Previously, in accordance with
EM 1110-1-2101, ASD criteria were specified for design
of all HSS. LRFD is now the preferred method of design
and should be used for those structure types for which
LRFD guidance is provided (see Appendixes B through
I). For HSS where LRFD has been developed, ASD may
be used as an alternative design method only with prior
approval of CECW-ED. Chapter 4 includes ASD criteria
which are required for those HSS where LRFD has not
yet been developed. For design of a structure, LRFD and
ASD methods shall not be combined; however, use of
LRFD and ASD methods for the design of separate struc-
tures on large construction projects is allowed.
d. Structures other than HSS. Designs for alumi-
num, timber, and masonry structures, service bridges and
highway structures, building construction, cold-formed
steel construction, railroad bridges and other railroad
structures, and open-web steel joist construction shall
conform to the respective industry standards and are not
included in this manual.
1-5. Commentary on Paragraph 1-4, Background
Historically, the ASD method has yielded safe and reli-
able structures; however, the method does not recognize
differing variability of different load effects (live load,
dead load) and resistances (i.e. bending capacity, shear
capacity, fracture, etc.). For this reason, LRFD is the
preferred method of design. In the ASD method, an
elastic analysis is performed for the structure of interest
and the computed stress is compared with an allowable
stress. The allowable stress is the yield stress, buckling
stress, etc., divided by a single factor of safety (FS). In
order to obtain structures with a more uniform reliability
and to achieve economy, a limit states design (LSD)
approach such as LRFD has been adopted by most speci-
fication writing committees. The Load and Resistance
Factor Design (LRFD) approach (an LSD approach) rec-
ognizes that the loads applied to a structure and resis-
tances of structural members are random quantities. The
LRFD method has two main advantages over the ASD
method. First, in a limit state analysis, one does not have
to assume linearity between load and force, or force and
stress. Second, multiple load factors can be used to
reflect the degree of uncertainty for different loads (dead,
live), while application of multiple resistance factors
reflects differing uncertainties in a particular resistance
(bending capacity, shear capacity, etc.). Due to these
advantages of LRFD, more uniform reliability is attained
in the design process and in many cases a more economi-
cal structure results.
1-1
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
Chapter 2
General Considerations
2-1. Limit States
All possible modes of failure should be considered when
designing HSS. Possible failure modes are: general
yielding or excessive plastic deformation, buckling or
general instability, subcritical crack growth leading to loss
of cross section or unstable crack growth, and unstable
crack extension leading to failure of a member. The first
two failure modes (general yielding and buckling) are
addressed by LRFD and ASD principles while the third
failure mode (fatigue) and the fourth (brittle fracture) can
be addressed using fatigue and fracture mechanics
principles.
2-2. Corrosion
a. Introduction. Painting is the primary method of
preventing corrosion. It may be supplemented with
cathodic protection in severe environments or when other
design considerations so dictate. Design considerations
for reducing corrosion problems include:
(1) In certain cases, very severe environments may
warrant an additional thickness added to critical structural
members.
(2) In general, welded connections are more resistant
to corrosion than bolted connections.
(3) Intermittent welds are more susceptible to corro-
sion than are continous welds.
CW-09940, CW-16643, and EM 1110-2-3400 provide
guidance for preventing corrosion.
b. Requirements. The structural engineer shall con-
sider corrosion effects throughout the design process.
Items to consider when designing the HSS include:
(1) Detail the members as much as possible so there is
access for a sandblasting hose (2-ft minimum bend).
(2) Make provisions for sand to escape where member
connections form open-ended chambers.
(3) Try to avoid lap joints but where used, seal weld
the joint.
(4) Grind slag, weld splatter, or any other deposits
off the steel.
(5) Where dissimilar metals are used select the proper
material as recommended by Kumar and Odeh (1989),
avoid large cathode-to-anode area ratios, use isolators, and
paint both surfaces.
2-3. Dynamic Loading
HSS are often subjected to unpredictable dynamic loading
due to hydraulic flow. Where dynamic loading is known
to exist, but the loading function is not defined, ASD
requires an effective increase in the design factor of
safety. This increase is to account for unknown dynamic
effects. For the LRFD method such loads are accounted
for by assigning a higher load factor. The designer
should provide proper detailing and structural layout to
minimize dynamic loading and cavitation. For example,
proper arrangement of seal details minimizes vibration.
2-4. Inspection and Maintenance
HSS are often difficult to inspect and maintain due to
poor access, particularly at submerged locations. Inspec-
tions should be performed in close contact with the
inspected part; however, this is not always possible since
HSS include submerged components which require
dewatering for inspection. Where structures are difficult
to inspect and maintain, guidance is provided in para-
graph 3-4 for LRFD and paragraph 4-4 for ASD.
2-5. Deviations from Prescribed Design
Where special conditions exist, proposed modifications to
the load and resistance factors or allowable stresses speci-
fied herein shall be submitted to CECW-ED for approval
prior to completing feasibility phase work.
2-6. Commentary on Paragraph 2-2, Corrosion
a. Introduction.
(1) Paint systems specified in CW-09940 and
EM 1110-2-3400 provide a high degree of protection.
For underwater HSS requiring a higher degree of protec-
tion, cathodic protection (impressed current or galvanic
systems) may be used to supplement the paint system.
Impressed current systems for lock gates are often dam-
aged and become inoperative if not carefully maintained;
galvanic systems require less maintenance. However,
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both systems require regular maintenance. If cathodic
protection is included as part of the corrosion protection
system, it is imperative that a long-term maintenance plan
be developed, particularly for impressed current systems.
(2) General corrosion occurs uniformly over a large
metallic surface. Specifying a uniform increase in design
thickness is one means to protect a structure from this
type of corrosion damage. However, the total structural
cost is increased and the increase in member resistance to
tension, compression, and bending effects is not uniform.
The primary concern with corrosion damage in HSS is the
occurrence of concentration cell corrosion, pitting corro-
sion, or galvanic corrosion.
(3) Concentration cell corrosion occurs at small local
areas on metal surfaces which are in contact with water.
Concentration cells can result from any number of differ-
ences in the environment, but the two most common are
metal ion cells and oxygen cells. Either localized corro-
sion cell causes large tubercles of corrosion products to
grow above the surface, generating a weak area in the
steel member. Keeping the structure well painted and
clean from mud deposits prevents this type of corrosion.
(4) Pitting corrosion is a form of extremely localized
attack which results in small-diameter holes (in relation to
their depth) to appear in the metal. This may be initiated
by a material defect in the steel or a chip in the protective
coating. Pitting corrosion is highly unpredictable since
there is no means to identify where defects may occur.
Regular inspection and maintenance practices can reduce
the possibility of pitting corrosion.
(5) Galvanic corrosion is generally a result of current
generated when two dissimilar metals are in contact and
the two metals are in water.
b. Requirements.
(1) Kumar and Odeh (1989) recommend HSS be dry-
blast cleaned to a grade approaching white metal grade
for surface preparation prior to painting. Therefore,
designers should detail the structure to allow sufficient
room for the hose. Extra large drain holes located in
areas where the sand may be trapped may be appropriate.
(2) Most HSS consist of welded construction. Using
welded connections in lieu of bolted connections is advan-
tageous when considering concentration cell corrosion.
Areas on a surface in contact with an electrolyte having a
high oxygen content are cathodic relative to those areas
where less oxygen is present. Localized areas where
small volumes of stagnant solution may exist include
sharp corners, spot welds, lap joints, and fasteners. Using
butt welds instead of bolts; seal-welding lap joints; using
continuous welds; and grinding weld splatter, slag, or any
other deposits off the steel help to prevent concentration
cell corrosion.
(3) Where dissimilar metals are used (generally car-
bon steel and stainless steel), the relative areas of each
metal exposed are very important because the total
amount of current that flows in the cell is dependent on
the total area of both metals exposed. If the anode (car-
bon steel) is large with respect to the cathode (stainless
steel), the current is distributed over a large area and the
effect at each point will be slight. Conversely, if the
cathode-to-anode ratio is large, the current becomes con-
centrated and severe corrosion can occur. If the carbon
steel is painted and there is a small defect in the coating
or it becomes damaged, then the relative areas have a
large cathode-to-anode area and rapid corrosion can occur.
Therefore, it is best to paint both surfaces. If the stainless
steel coating has defects or damage, the current will not
significantly increase even if the carbon steel has metal
exposed. If the distance between the cathode and anode
is large, resistance in the circuit will be sufficient to elim-
inate the galvanic corrosion problem.
2-7. Commentary on Paragraph 2-3, Dynamic
Loading
a. Dynamic loading that may occur in HSS is unpre-
dictable in the sense that the dynamic forcing function is
unknown. Unpredictable vibrations may be caused by
imperfections in the operating machinery and guide slots,
hydraulic flow, and load fluctuation due to passing ice. If
the forcing function is known, a dynamic analysis can be
used for design. At present, it is not feasible to define the
load due to the many factors that affect such loadings and
therefore special attention must be given to structure
details. For example, supporting members of seals should
maintain adequate stiffness to limit flexing which results
in leakage and flow-induced vibration. The supporting
members and arrangement of the bottom seal on a tainter
gate can significantly affect its vibration due to flow
conditions. Some of the structure types that have experi-
enced vibration due to dynamic loading include tainter
valves, vertical lift control gates, tainter gates, and miter
gates.
b. Cavitation is also a concern where dynamic
hydraulic loading occurs. Cavitation damage is a result of
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unpredictable dynamic fluid action which causes extreme
local negative pressures resulting in pitting and erosion of
the surface. As for vibration, proper structure details and
good construction practices prevent cavitation from
occurring.
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Chapter 3
Load and Resistance Factor Design
3-1. General
This chapter is intended to give a brief synopsis of LRFD
methodology and to provide general guidance on LRFD
for HSS. Appendixes B through I provide specific guid-
ance and examples for different types of HSS. HSS
designed by the LRFD method shall conform to guidance
contained in AISC (1986), except as specified herein, and
to the engineer manuals referenced in Appendixes B
through I.
3-2. Design Basis
LRFD is a method of proportioning structures such that
no applicable limit state is exceeded when the structure is
subjected to all appropriate design load combinations. The
basic safety check in LRFD may be expressed mathemati-
cally as

i
Q
ni
R
n
(2-1)
where

i
= load factors that account for variability in
loads to which they are assigned
Q
ni
= nominal (code-specified) load effects
= reliability factor (see paragraph 3-4)
= resistance factor that reflects the uncertainty in
the resistance for the particular limit state and,
in a relative sense, the consequence of attaining
the limit state.
R
n
= nominal resistance
The expression
i
Q
ni
is the required strength and the
product R
n
is the design strength. Load factors and
load combinations for specific structure types are listed in
the appropriate appendix.
3-3. Strength Requirements
Strength limit states are related to safety and load-carrying
capacity (i.e., the limit states of plastic moment and buck-
ling). Formulas giving the load combinations for
determining the required strength for buildings are given
in American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) (1990)
and AISC (1986). Similar load combinations pertaining
to specific HSS are specified in Appendixes B through I.
Structures shall have design strengths at all sections at
least equal to the required strengths calculated for all
combinations of factored loads and forces. The required
strength of structural components shall be determined by
structural analysis using appropriate factored load combi-
nations. Each relevant limit state shall be considered.
Elastic analysis is permitted unconditionally by this
manual. Plastic analysis is permitted only with the
approval of CECW-ED, and is subject to restrictions of
paragraph A5.1 of AISC (1986).
3-4. Reliability Factors for HSS
For LRFD of HSS, resistance factors of AISC (1986) are
multiplied by a reliability factor . The reliability factor
shall be 0.9 except for the following structures where
shall be 0.85:
a. For those HSS where inspection and maintenance
are difficult because the HSS is normally submerged and
removal of the HSS causes disruption of a larger project.
Examples of this type of HSS include tainter valves and
leaves of vertical lift gates which are normally
submerged.
b. For those HSS in brackish water or seawater.
3-5. Serviceability Requirements
Serviceability is a state of acceptable performance in
which the function of an HSS, its maintainability, durabil-
ity, and operability are preserved under service or operat-
ing conditions. Serviceability should be maintained for
the expected life of the project (typically 50 years for
navigation and local flood protection projects and 100
years for other projects). The overall structure and the
individual members, connections, and connectors shall be
checked for serviceability. Limiting values of structural
behavior (maximum deflections, vibrations, etc.) to ensure
serviceability shall be chosen with due regard to the
intended function of the structure. Serviceability may
normally be checked using unfactored loads. The follow-
ing limit states shall be considered in design for
serviceability:
a. Deformation in the structural members and sup-
ports due to service loads shall not impair the operability
or performance of the HSS.
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b. Vibrations of the seals, equipment, or movable
supports shall not impair the operability of the HSS.
c. Structural components shall be designed to tolerate
corrosion or shall be protected against corrosion that may
impair serviceability or operability of the structure during
its design life. Closure provisions shall be made as
required to maintain the structure.
3-6. Fatigue and Fracture Control
a. Fatigue requirements. Fatigue design shall be in
accordance with the provisions of Appendix K in AISC
(1986) or AISC (1989) except as specified herein. The
number and frequency of load cycles is a function of the
HSS purpose and its environment. Determination of the
total number of loading cycles shall consider known load
fluctuations such as those due to operating cycles and
fluctuations of hydraulic head. For certain HSS, vibration
may result in unknown load magnitudes and number of
cycles; therefore, a quantitative fatigue analysis is not
possible. However, for HSS where vibration may produce
significant cycles of stress, the choice of details shall be
such to minimize susceptible fatigue damage (i.e., details
with high fatigue resistance should be used where
possible).
Welding processes induce significant residual stresses,
and welded members may include high tensile residual
stress in the welded region. Therefore, welded members
which include any computed stress variation, whether it is
tension or compression, shall be checked for fatigue.
Deviation from this conservative assumption requires the
approval of CECW-ED.
b. Fracture control requirements. For fracture-critical
members (FCM) and/or components, the designer shall
enforce controls on fabrication and inspection procedures
to minimize initial defects and residual stresses, designate
the appropriate temperature zone (see Table 3.1, Note 1),
and specify the related minimum Charpy V-notch (CVN)
fracture toughness. FCMs shall be defined as "members
and their associated connections subjected to tensile stres-
ses whose failure would cause the structure to be inopera-
ble." Fracture critical members shall be identified by the
designer (minimum requirements are given in Appen-
dixes B through I). Minimum allowable CVN values
shall be as given in Table 3.1. Tests to determine mater-
ial CVN values shall be performed in accordance with the
requirements of the American Association of State High-
way and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) (1978). For
construction of FCMs, fabricators, welding inspectors, and
nondestructive examination personnel shall be certified
according to AASHTO (1978). Designers are referred to
American Welding Society (AWS) (1990) and AASHTO
(1978) for guidance on developing adequate quality con-
trol and fabrication procedures that will minimize initial
defects.
3-7. Commentary on Paragraph 3-2, Design Basis
Load factors and load combinations for structural steel
design are based upon limit states of steel structures.
Description of the methodology used in developing load
factors and load combinations for buildings and other
structures may be found in ASCE (1990), Ellingwood
et al. (1982), Galambos et al. (1982), and McCormac
(1990) and the commentary of AISC (1986). For HSS,
the load and resistance factors are governed by items dis-
cussed in paragraph 3-8 (commentary of paragraph 3-4).
The magnitude of a particular load factor is primarily a
function of the characteristics (predictability and
variability) of the load to which it is assigned and the
conservatism with which the load is specified. A well
known load with little variability or a conservatively
specified load usually results in a relatively low load
factor. Dead loads and static hydraulic loads are in this
category. Transient loads are less known and, hence, they
usually have a higher load factor.
3-8. Commentary on Paragraph 3-4, Reliability
Factors for HSS
Reliability factors are applied to AISC (1986) resistance
factors for HSS design. This is to reflect a higher level
of uncertainty (compared to building design) due to more
aggressive environments in which HSS are placed. His-
torically, HSS have been designed using a higher factor of
safety than that used for building design to account for
the unpredictable nature of various items. The variables
which require additional consideration for HSS include:
facility of inspection; maintenance and repair or replace-
ment (may require dewatering or submerged work by
divers); possibility of corrosion (water may be fresh,
polluted, brackish, or saline); economic considerations
(loss of benefits due to shutdown of a larger project if
replacement becomes necessary); possibility of severe
vibrations or repeated stress reversals (hydraulic flow may
cause vibrations and operating procedures may cause
stress reversals); relative importance (HSS may be critical
in the project operation); and design life of the structure
in severe environments (50 to 100 years). For these rea-
sons, reliability factors are applied to the resistance
factors specified by AISC (1986) to effectively increase
the factor of safety.
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3-9. Commentary on Paragraph 3-6, Fatigue and
Fracture Control
Fatigue damage and brittle fractures in HSS are rare but
as structure designs, fabrication, and construction become
more complex, the probability of brittle fracture increases.
Welded construction, with its emphasis on monolithic
structural members, increases the need to add fracture
criteria to strength and buckling criteria when designing a
structure. Various HSS have failed due to fatigue and
brittle fracture. Many of the cracking problems that have
occurred in HSS originate from poor weld details or poor
fabrication. For control of fatigue and fracture, consider-
ation must be given to the following parameters:
(a) stress range, detailing, and the number and frequency
of load cycles to control fatigue and (b) geometry, tough-
ness, and stress levels to control fracture.
a. Fatigue requirements.
(1) Fatigue is the process of formation and growth of
a crack due to repeated fluctuating loads. The designer
cannot control the number and frequency of load cycles
since this is a function of the operational requirements of
the HSS. However, design options include selection of
larger members to control the stress range and choice of
details with low stress concentrations which have a high
fatigue life.
(2) Significant vibration may occur in certain HSS
due to hydraulic flow, imperfect seals, movable supports
and operating machinery, and impact of passing ice or
debris which may occur during a single operating cycle.
For these situations, the magnitude of load and the num-
ber of load cycles are unknown. Unless predictions for
load magnitude and frequency may be made using proba-
bilistic methods, a quantitative fatigue analysis is not
possible. However, the possibility of fatigue damage can
be controlled by considering the design options given in
the previous paragraph.
(3) AISC (1986, 1989) do not require any fatigue
check for members with a calculated repetitive stress
variation from zero to compression, since crack propaga-
tion will not occur in the absence of tensile stress. How-
ever, whether a stress variation is tensile or compressive,
paragraph 3-6a does require a fatigue check for welded
members. This is due to the possible presence of large
residual tensile stresses caused by welding processes. For
example, if a residual tensile stress of 25 ksi exists, a
calculated stress variation from zero to -10 ksi would
actually be a variation from 25 ksi to 15 ksi, which could
cause fatigue cracking. Tensile residual stresses for
welded members are near the yield stress in most cases.
The consideration of residual tensile stress is a conserva-
tive assumption for fatigue design. It is not currently a
uniform practice in the United States; however, it is com-
mon in Europe. The assumption is currently favored by
many welding specialists.
b. Fracture control requirements.
(1) Fracture is the sudden growth of a crack which
may cause failure of a component. Fracture behavior is
governed mainly by nominal stress level, material tough-
ness, and geometry of the existing crack or flaw. The
fracture control requirements specified herein are based on
imposing material toughness requirements and limiting
geometry of initial flaws for FCMs, the most critical
structural components. Fracture toughness criteria are
supplemented with welding and inspection requirements to
form a complete fracture control plan. The toughness is
controlled by imposing minimum CVN requirements per
Table 3-1 and the geometry of initial flaws is controlled
by imposing strict fabrication and inspection requirements.
Project specifications should require qualification of fabri-
cators and welding inspectors according to AASHTO
(1978), to assure that FCMs and their components are in
compliance with the requirements specified in
paragraph 3-6.
(2) Table 3-1 values are the same as those required
by AASHTO (1978) for steel bridges. The basic require-
ment used in the development of Table 3-1 was to ensure
elastic-plastic behavior (i.e. prevent brittle fracture) under
service loading at the minimum operating temperature.
CVN tests were carried out under service load rates to
determine the minimum CVN requirements to assure
elastic-plastic behavior for various service temperatures
(AASHTO 1978).
(3) Material toughness is affected by load rate, yield
strength, service temperature, component thickness, and
type of detail. Each of these effects was considered in
the development of Table 3-1, and all but load rate are
explicitly accounted for in Table 3-1. The following
discussion is included to provide a brief explanation of
toughness requirements for the various categories of
Table 3-1. A more complete discussion is provided in
AASHTO (1978) and Barsom and Rolfe (1987).
(a) Load rate. The effect of load rate was consid-
ered in the determination of required test temperatures. A
consistent temperature shift exists between CVN values
obtained for specimens subject to a given load rate (less
than impact load rate) and those obtained for impact
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Table 3-1
Fracture Toughness Requirements for Fracture Critical Members
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Welded or
Mechanically Grade Thickness Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3
Fastened
ys
(ksi) (in.) (ft-lb at
o
F) (ft-lb at
o
F) (ft-lb at
o
F)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Welded 36 t 1.5 25 at 70 25 at 40 25 at 10
1.5 < t 4.0 25 at 70 25 at 40 25 at -10
Welded 50 t 1.5 25 at 70 25 at 40 25 at 10
1.5 < t 2.0 25 at 70 25 at 40 25 at -10
2.0 < t 4.0 30 at 70 30 at 40 30 at -10
Welded 70 t 1.5 30 at 20 30 at 20 30 at -10
1.5 < t 2.5 30 at 20 30 at 20 30 at -30
2.5 < t 4.0 35 at 20 35 at 20 35 at -30
Welded 100 t 2.5 35 at 0 35 at 0 35 at -30
2.5 < t 4.0 45 at 0 45 at 0 Not allowed
Mechanically 36 t 1.5 25 at 70 25 at 40 25 at 10
Fastened 1.5 < t 4.0 25 at 70 25 at 40 25 at -10
Mechanically 50 t 1.5 25 at 70 25 at 40 25 at 10
Fastened 1.5 < t 4.0 25 at 70 25 at 40 25 at -10
Mechanically 70 t 1.5 30 at 20 30 at 20 30 at -10
Fastened 1.5 < t 4.0 30 at 20 30 at 20 30 at -30
Mechanically 100 t 4.0 35 at 0 35 at 0 35 at -30
Fastened
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________
NOTE:
1. Zone 1 minimum service temperature is 0
o
F and above; Zone 2 minimum service temperature is from -1
o
F to -30
o
F; and Zone 3 mini-
mum service temperature is from -31
o
to -60
o
F.
2. Charpy impact tests are required on each end of each piece tested for Zone 3.
specimens. The CVN value for a specimen tested under a
service load rate at service temperature is equivalent to
the CVN impact value for a specimen tested at a tempera-
ture which is a constant magnitude greater (temperature
shift) than the service temperature. For example (see
Table 3-1), for welded 36-ksi components of thickness
less than 1.5 in. which are subject to bridge service load
rates and minimum service temperature, ductile behavior
is assured if CVN impact values are at least 25 ft-lb for
tests conducted at 70
o
F higher than the minimum service
temperature. The temperature shift is dependent on ser-
vice load rate. The temperature shift comparing static and
impact load rates is maximum and as load rate increases,
the temperature shift decreases. Adoption of bridge crite-
ria for HSS is generally conservative since loading rates
on bridges are likely higher than those which occur on
most HSS.
(b) Yield strength. The more stringent requirements
for steels of higher yield strengths are identified by higher
CVN requirements and lower test temperatures. The
higher CVN requirements for increased yield strengths are
due to the fact that the design stress is generally higher
which will result in more elastic stored energy. In order
to attain the same degree of safety as in the lower yield
steels, the CVN requirement is also increased. The
reduced test temperatures are based primarily on the fact
that the temperature shift between toughness under service
load and impact load decreases with increasing yield
strength; thus, lower CVN impact test temperatures are
specified to reflect the decrease in temperature shift.
(c) Service temperature. The expected service tem-
perature for a structure is a critical factor in determining
toughness requirements since most steels exhibit a
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transition from ductile to brittle behavior at a certain
temperature. As temperature decreases, toughness and
ductility decrease. Therefore, for lower minimum service
temperatures, CVN specimens must be tested at lower
temperatures to ensure that the steel has adequate
toughness.
(d) Component thickness. For thick plates under
tensile loading, through-thickness stresses at a crack tip
are large due to the through-thickness constraint. This
results in a triaxial stress state which reduces the apparent
ductility of the steel by decreasing the shear stresses.
Because yielding is restricted, the constraint ahead of the
notch is increased resulting in reduced toughness. In
order to assure ductile behavior, the CVN requirements of
Table 3-1 are increased for increasing thickness.
(e) Detail. Welded details require more conserva-
tive CVN values than mechanically fastened details for
certain thicknesses and service temperatures. The heat
input due to welding can reduce toughness properties in
the heat affected zone (HAZ). The HAZ is the area of
unmelted parent material adjacent to the weld, which is
sufficiently heated by the welding that its metallurgical
properties are affected. This area may be of special
importance in thick members since these usually have
lower toughness and are subject to greater heat input
during welding. Unfortunately, stress concentrations often
overlap the HAZ of welds, thus combining the adverse
effects of high stress and low toughness.
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Chapter 4
Allowable Stress Design
4-1. General
HSS designed by the ASD method shall conform to speci-
fications contained in AISC (1989), except as specified
herein, and to the engineer manuals referenced in Appen-
dixes B through I.
4-2. Design Basis
ASD is a method of proportioning structures such that
allowable stresses are not exceeded when the structure is
subjected to specified working loads. An elastically com-
puted stress is compared to an allowable stress as repre-
sented by
f( Q
i
) F
allow
(3-1)
where
f( Q
i
) = elastically computed stress arising from the
appropriately combined nominal loads
F
allow
= allowable stress (yield stress, buckling
stress, shear, net section tension, bearing
strength, etc. divided by a factor of safety).
4-3. Load and Stress Requirements
a. Loads. Loads are divided into Group I and
Group II loadings as follows:
Group I
Dead load Buoyancy load
Live load (serviceway) Hydrostatic load
Thermal stress load Operating equipment load
Ice loads (static)
Group II
Impact (vessel, debris, ice) Water hammer
Wind loads Ice loads (transient)
Wave loads Operational basis
earthquake (OBE)
(1) Ice loads may be considered as Group I (static
load) or Group II (impact; short duration load) loads
depending on circumstances.
(2) When the loading includes Group II loads acting
alone or in combination with Group I loads, allowable
stresses may be increased 1/3 above the values otherwise
provided. However, the section thus provided shall not be
less than that required for Group I loads when designed
with the normal allowable stresses.
b. Stresses. It is considered necessary to reduce the
allowable stresses given in AISC (1989) for HSS design
(see commentary for paragraph 4-4 (paragraph 4-8)).
Allowable stresses for three main types of HSS are speci-
fied in paragraph 4-4. Examples of each HSS type are
discussed in the Commentary. If a structure has charac-
teristics of more than one type, the lesser allowable stress
is required.
4-4. HSS Types: Modifications for Allowable
Stresses.
a. Type A. HSS which are used for emergency
closures and which are subject to severe dynamic (hydrau-
lic) loading or are normally submerged where mainte-
nance is difficult, and removal of the HSS causes disrup-
tion of the project. For Type A HSS, the allowable stress
shall be 0.75 times that allowed by ASIC (1989).
b. Type B. HSS which are normally hydraulically
loaded and are not subjected to unknown dynamic load-
ing. For Type B HSS, the allowable stress shall be 0.83
times that allowed by AISC (1989).
c. Type C. HSS which are used for maintenance
and are not considered emergency closures. For Type C
HSS, the allowable stress shall be 1.1 times that allowed
by AISC (1989). These allowable stresses are the maxi-
mum allowable values and may not be further increased
due to Group II loading.
4-5. Serviceability Requirements
Guidance in paragraph 3-5 is applicable.
4-6. Fatigue and Fracture Control
Guidance in paragraph 3-6 is applicable.
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4-7. Commentary on Paragraph 4-3, Load and
Stress Requirements
a. ASD guidance for HSS considers Groups I and II
loading, and Types A, B, and C stresses. The loading
groups determine which conditions must stay within the
modified AISC allowable stresses and which loading
conditions are permitted a 1/3 increase in allowable stress.
Because of the environment in which HSS are placed,
modifications to AISC allowable stresses for HSS types
are applied to increase the factor of safety above that
which is used in building design.
b. Group I loads include those loads which are rela-
tively constant for a significant time period, and Group II
loads are those which vary with time. The 1/3 increase in
allowable stress for structures subject to Group II loads
acting alone or in combination with Group I loads is to
account for the improbability of the simultaneous occur-
rence of maximum lifetime loads. Ice loads may be con-
sidered either Group I or Group II depending on the
circumstances. If ice hanging on the structure is being
considered as additional dead load or it is applying a
lateral force due to expansion from thermal effects, it is
considered a Group I load. If ice is acting dynamically
on the structure due to wind or flowing water, it is con-
sidered a Group II load.
4-8. Commentary on Paragraph 4-4, HSS Types:
Modifications for Allowable Stresses
a. In general, it is considered that HSS are subjected
to more extreme environments and are subject to less pre-
dictable loads than are buildings. Variables listed in
paragraph 3-8 (commentary of paragraph 3-4) are among
the causes of this additional uncertainty. Therefore, an
increase in the design factor of safety over that used for
building design is considered necessary for HSS design.
b. The grouping by HSS type is a means to distin-
guish characteristics of different HSS. Type A is
considered to be the most extreme case, and Type C the
least extreme case.
c. Type A includes those structures which are
subject to unpredictable dynamic loading, or those which
are normally submerged where maintenance is difficult.
Unpredictable dynamic loading may occur as a result of
hydraulic fluctuations in velocity and pressure due to
abrupt changes in structure geometry or gate position as it
is operated. Severe, unpredictable vibrations may also
occur on structures subject to significant amounts of pass-
ing ice. Type A HSS include emergency gates, regulating
gates where the structure passes through moving water
under full pressure and flow conditions (unpredictable
dynamic loading may occur), tainter and vertical lift crest
gates used for regulation and subject to unknown dynamic
hydraulic forces, and lock valves (normally submerged
and difficult to maintain).
d. Type B includes structures for which dynamic
loading is not significant and maintenance and inspection
can be performed on a regular basis. HSS that may be
classified as Type B include tainter crest gates, vertical
lift crest gates, power intake gates designed for top of
power pool, lock gates (miter gates, lift gates, and sector
gates), and floodwall closures.
e. Type C structures include temporary closure items
which are used to dewater for maintenance or inspection
of gates, gate slots, and draft tubes. Stoplogs, bulkheads,
draft tube gates, and bulkhead gates are included in this
type. Such structures are not considered emergency clo-
sures and are usually opened and closed under balanced
head conditions. The 1.1 factor applied to AISC (1989)
allowable stresses reflects a 1/3 increase of the Type B
allowable stresses. This increase is considered appropri-
ate due to the fact that such structures are used on a tem-
porary basis under essentially constant loading.
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Chapter 5
Connections and Details
5-1. General
Connections consist of connecting elements (e.g., stiff-
eners, gusset plates, angles, brackets) and connectors
(bolts, welds, or for older HSS, rivets). Connection
design shall conform to the specifications contained in
AISC (1986, 1989) and AWS (1990) except as specified
herein. Critical connections should be fully detailed by
the design engineer. Connections which are considered
noncritical may be detailed by the fabricator; however, the
designer shall clearly define the requirements of the non-
critical connection. Any deviation from details originally
specified by the design engineer shall be reviewed and
approved by the design engineer. Details that will result
in safe economical fabrication methods shall be used.
Special critical connections for specific structure types are
discussed in the appropriate appendixes.
5-2. Design Considerations
Connections shall be designed to transfer the required
forces obtained from the structural analysis, and shall
maintain sufficient ductility and rotation capacity to
satisfy the particular design assumption. Connection
designs must consider stress concentrations, eccentricities,
field splices, imposed restraints (fixity), and fatigue resis-
tance. Following is a discussion of these design
considerations.
a. Stress concentrations. Avoid abrupt transitions in
thickness or width, sharp corners, notches, and other
stress raising conditions.
b. Eccentricities. Effects of eccentricity of fastener
groups and intersecting members shall be accounted for in
the design of connections (see Chapter J of AISC (1986,
1989)).
c. Splices. Shipping restrictions require large HSS to
be delivered in sections, which makes field splicing neces-
sary to form the completed structure. Splices should be
located in uncongested areas of low or moderate stress.
When splices are necessary, they should be shown on the
drawings with accompanying splice details or design
forces.
d. Restraints. Connections between intersecting
members are usually designed to be rigid (original angle
between connected members remains fixed) or simple
(pinned). If the design assumed a pinned connection, the
as-built connection should provide for members to rotate
relative to each other to accommodate simple beam end
rotation (to accomplish this, inelastic deformation is per-
mitted).
e. Fatigue. Connections shall be designed to mini-
mize the possibility of fatigue damage by using proper
detailing practices (see AISC (1984, 1986, 1989) and
AASHTO (1978)), and limiting the stress range in accor-
dance with Appendix K of AISC (1986, 1989). Corro-
sion-fatigue shall be controlled with a well designed and
maintained corrosion protection system.
5-3. Bolted Connections
Fully tensioned high-strength bolts shall be used for all
HSS structural applications. For nonstructural applica-
tions, use of A307 bolts or snug-tight high-strength bolts
is allowed, provided requirements of AISC (1986, 1989)
are followed. Bolts shall be proportioned for the sum of
the external load and tension resulting from prying action
produced by deformation of the connected parts. AISC
(1984, 1986, 1989) and Kulak, Fisher, and Struik (1987)
are useful aids to designing bolted connections.
5-4. Welded Connections
Most HSS are constructed using welded connections.
AISC (1984, 1986, 1989) and AWS (1990) are useful aids
to selecting the connection details. Welding requirements
of AISC (1986, 1989) and AWS (1990) shall be followed.
Thick plate weldments shall be designed considering heat
requirements (see Section 4 of AWS (1990)), toughness
requirements, and geometric requirements (see Section A3
of AISC (1986, 1989) for toughness and geometric
requirements). Intersecting and overlapping welds should
be avoided. Intermittent welds should be avoided for
dynamically loaded members and members subject to
corrosion. Through-thickness welds should have backing
bars removed and should be ground smooth. The
designer shall review and approve the contractors pro-
posed welding processes and shop drawings.
5-5. Commentary on Paragraph 5-1, General
Connections for HSS are usually in a more severe envi-
ronment than connections for buildings. HSS connections
may be exposed to weather, fresh or salt water, flowing
water, and, for many HSS, impacts. AISC (1986 or
1989) can be used as guidance but should be
5-1
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
supplemented with AASHTO (1989) since many HSS
members have more in common with bridges (sizes, types
of connections, and loads) than with steel building frames.
Connection details must be consistent with the assump-
tions used in the design analysis of the structure and must
be capable of transferring the required forces between
connected members. The forces may consist of any com-
bination of axial or shear loads and bending or torsional
moments. Connections may also provide stiffness to limit
relative movement between members. Most HSS use
welded or bolted connections; however, many older struc-
tures have riveted connections.
5-6. Commentary on Paragraph 5-2, Design
Considerations
a. Stress concentrations. Stress concentrations in
connections are often ignored in design with no decrease
in load-carrying capacity. This is because ductility of the
steel redistributes localized high stresses. However, this
does not mean details that cause stress concentrations can
be ignored. Attention should be given to areas of large
change in cross section such as termination of cover
plates, welds where backing bars have not been removed,
and at sharp discontinuities. These details are critical for
fatigue resistance. AWS (1990) shows geometries for
welded connections that minimize stress concentrations at
transitions between members of different thicknesses or
widths.
b. Eccentricities.
(1) Axial loads eccentric from fastener group
centroids can significantly increase local stresses or
individual fastener loads due to additional shear and bend-
ing imposed by the eccentricity. While eccentricities in
statically loaded single-angle, double-angle, and similar
members may be of minor consequence, connections for
members subject to cyclic loading should be balanced
about their gravity axes; if not, provision shall be made
for bending and shearing stresses due to the eccentricity.
(2) The designer has the option of selecting a con-
centric connection or, in some cases, an eccentric connec-
tion. A concentric connection is detailed so that the
gravity axes of all members framing into the connection
pass through a common point. This ensures that the axial
force in an intersecting member does not produce an
additional moment in the connection. However, in some
cases a concentric connection may be undesirable because
it can require poorly shaped elements such as long gusset
plates with a limited buckling capacity that is difficult to
assess.
(3) An eccentric connection may be detailed to sim-
plify the design of gusset plates. For example, a member
may be located such that its line of force passes through
the corner of the gusset plate. However, the lines of
action of the force in the intersecting members usually do
not pass through the same point. The axial force acting
eccentrically will produce a moment in the connection
which must be distributed among the connected members
based on their relative stiffness. See AISC (1984) for
illustrated examples.
5-7. Commentary on Paragraph 5-3, Bolted
Connections
In the past many HSS have used riveted connections;
however, the use of rivets has largely been replaced by
use of high strength bolts. Per AISC (1986, 1989), full
tightening is required for cyclic loads, for bolts in over-
size holes, and when it is necessary to improve water
tightness, or if corrosion of the joint is a concern. There-
fore, for all HSS structural applications, fully tensioned
high-strength bolts shall be used. Bolted connections are
much less common on HSS than on buildings or bridges.
Typically, bolted connections for HSS are limited to
machinery and appurtenances, splices, sill plates, thick
plates or jumbo sections (over 1.5 in. thick), steel mem-
bers embedded in or supported by concrete, locations
where future adjustments may be required, or elements
that may need replacing sometime during the life of the
structure.
5-8. Commentary on Paragraph 5-4, Welded
Connections
Many HSS contain thick (greater than 1.5 in. thick) plate
weldments. Critical connections on HSS often consist of
full penetration or large fillet welds to develop the full
strength of a part. Heavy welding is labor intensive and
may result in member distortion and large residual
stresses. Thick plates and jumbo rolled shapes often
exhibit low toughness away from rolled surfaces, and
lamellar discontinuities are more prevalent than in thinner
plates. Thermal effects due to welding further decrease
material toughness and produce high residual stresses
which act on these low toughness areas and lamellar
discontinuities creating high potential for cracking. The
adverse thermal effects are reduced with gradual heating
and cooling of the weldment as it is welded, and proper
selection of weld process and procedures. Residual
stresses in weldments are increased with increasing exter-
nal constraint so the designer should detail connections to
minimize constraint.
5-2
EM 1110-2-2105
Change 1
31 May 94
Appendix A
References
A-1. Required Publications
EM 1110-1-2101
Working Stresses for Structural Design
EM 1110-2-2400
Structural Design of Spillways and Outlet Works
* EM 1110-2-2502
Retaining and Flood Walls
EM 1110-2-2602
Planning and Design of Navigation Lock Walls and
Appurtenances
EM 1110-2-2701
Vertical Lift Crest Gates
EM 1110-2-2702
Design of Spillway Tainter Gates
EM 1110-2-2703
Lock Gates and Operating Equipment
EM 1110-2-2705
Structural Design of Closure Structures for Local Flood
Protection Projects
EM 1110-2-2901
Tunnels and Shaft in Rock
EM 1110-2-2902
Conduits, Culverts, and Pipes
EM 1110-2-3001
Planning and Design of Hydroelectric Power Plants
EM 1110-2-3104
Structural Design of Pumping Stations
EM 1110-2-3400
Painting: New Construction and Maintenance
CE-1507.01
Tractor Gates-Broome Type
CE-1602
Dam Gantry Cranes
CW-05502
Miscellaneous Metal Materials, Standard Articles and
Shop Fabrication Items
CW-09940
Painting: Hydraulic Structures and Appurtenant Works
CW-16643
Cathodic Protection Systems (Impressed Current) for Lock
Miter Gates
American Association of State Highway & Transporta-
tion Officials (AASHTO) 1978
American Association of State Highway & Transportation
Officials (AASHTO). 1978. "Guide Specifications for
Fracture Critical Non-Redundant Steel Bridge Members,"
* Washington, DC 20001.
American Association of State Highway & Transporta-
tion Officials (AASHTO) 1989
American Association of State Highway & Transportation
Officials (AASHTO). 1989. "Standard Specifications for
Highway Bridges," Fourteenth Edition, Washington, DC
20001.
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) 1984
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). 1984.
"Engineering for Steel Construction," Chicago
60601-2001.
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) 1986
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). 1986.
"Load and Resistance Factor Design Manual of Steel
Construction," First Edition, Chicago 60601-2001.
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) 1989
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). 1989.
"Allowable Stress Design Manual of Steel Construction,"
Ninth Edition, Chicago 60601-2001.
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) 1990
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). 1990.
"Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Struc-
tures (ASCE 7-88)," New York 10017-2398.
American Welding Society (AWS) 1990
American Welding Society (AWS). 1990. "Structural
Welding Code - Steel, 1990," Miami, FL 33135.
Barsom and Rolfe 1987
Barsom, J., and Rolfe, S. 1987. "Fracture and Fatigue
A-1
EM 1110-2-2105
Change 1
31 May 94
Control in Structures, Applications of Fracture
Mechanics," Englewood Cliffs, NJ 07632.
Ellingwood, MacGregor, Galambos, and Cornell 1982
Ellingwood, B., MacGregor, J. G., Galambos, T. V., and
Cornell, C. A. 1982 (May). "Probability Based Load
Criteria: Load Factors and Load Combinations," ASCE
Journal of the Structural Division, Vol 108, No. ST5.
Galambos, Ellingwood, MacGregor, and Cornell 1982
Galambos, T. V., Ellingwood, B., MacGregor, J. G., and
Cornell, C. A. 1982 (May). "Probability Based Load
Criteria: Assessment of Current Design Practice," ASCE
Journal of the Structural Division, Vol 108, No. ST5.
Kulak, Fisher, and Struik 1987
Kulak, G.L., Fisher, J.W., and Struik, H.A., 1987. "Guide
to Design Criteria for Bolted and Riveted Joints," Second
Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York
Kumar and Odeh 1989
Kumar, A., and Odeh, A. A. 1989. "Mechanical Proper-
ties and Corrosion Behavior of Stainless Steels for Locks,
Dams, and Hydroelectric Plant Applications," Technical
Report REMR-EM-6. Available from National Technical
Information Service, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield,
VA 22161.
McCormac 1990
McCormac, 1990. "Structural Steel Design LRFD
Method," Harper and Row, Publishers, Inc., New York.
A-2
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
Appendix B
Load and Resistance Factor Design
Criteria for Miter Gates
B-1. Introduction
a. Purpose. This appendix provides guidance for
design of miter gates by the load and resistance factor
design (LRFD) method. Load-carrying members (includ-
ing but not limited to: skin plates, intercostals, girders,
diagonals, vertical diaphragms, and anchorage systems)
shall be designed in accordance with the criteria contained
in this appendix and Chapters 1, 2, 3, and 5. Miter gate
layout, selection of materials, and assumed member load-
ing shall follow guidance specified in EM 1110-2-2703
unless otherwise stated herein. Mechanical and electrical
items shall be designed in accordance with Chapter 4 and
guidance specified in EM 1110-2-2703.
b. References. Required references are listed in
Appendix A.
c. Background. ASCE (1990) and AISC (1986)
specify load factors and load combinations for buildings;
however, for miter gates, unique loads and load combina-
tions exist. The load factors and load combinations speci-
fied in paragraph B-2a pertain specifically to miter gates.
Development of the load factors included consideration of
the respective load variability, definition, and likeness to
those loads specified in ASCE (1990) and AISC (1986).
Some loads I, H
t
, and E (discussed in paragraph B-2b) are
difficult to predict and are highly variable, yet are
assigned a load factor of 1.0. This is not what might be
expected for such unpredictable loads. The load factor
1.0 for barge impact and temporal hydraulic loads was
chosen, in part, on the basis that these loads are specified
based on historical experience and are assigned extreme
values. It is not realistic to use load factors other than 1.0
for such arbitrarily designated loads. The 1.0 load factor
for earthquake loading was chosen to remain consistent
with what will be presented in the revision to ASCE
(1990) and the 2nd edition of AISC (1986).
B-2. Load and Resistance Factor Design
a. Strength requirements. Miter gates shall have
design strengths at all sections at least equal to the
required strengths calculated for the factored loads and
forces in the following load combinations. The most
unfavorable effect may occur when one or more of the
loads in a particular load combination is equal to zero.
(B-1a) 1.4H
s
1.0I
(B-1b) 1.4H
s
1.0H
t
(B-2a) 1.2D 1.6(C M) 1.0H
t
(B-2b)
1.2D 1.6(C M) 1.2Q
(B-3) 1.2H
s
1.0E
The nominal loads are defined as follows:
D = dead load
Q = maximum operating equipment load
E = earthquake load
I = barge impact load
H
s
= hydrostatic load
H
t
= temporal hydraulic load
C = ice load
M = mud load
b. Load considerations. Loads due to thermal
stresses need not be considered. Serviceway loads are not
included in the above combinations due to their low mag-
nitude, and they are counteracted by buoyancy of the
structure. Walkways are not HSS and should be designed
in accordance with the requirements in AISC (1986).
(1) Hydraulic loads. The temporal hydraulic load H
t
shall be equal to 1.25 ft of head as specified in paragraph
3-9 of EM 1110-2-2703. The hydrostatic load H
s
shall be
determined based on site-specific conditions for upper and
lower pool elevations. The predictability of maximum
hydrostatic load justifies using a relatively low load factor
which reflects the low level of uncertainty in the loading.
The 1.4 load factor in Equations B-1a and B-1b is rela-
tively low, yet considering the reduction in resistance due
to the resistance factor and the reliability factor , it
provides an adequate overall factor of safety.
(2) Gravity loads. Loads D, C, and M shall be
determined based on site-specific conditions. Ice loads C
are considered as gravity loads; ice acting as lateral loads
are not considered in the load combinations (see
paragraph B-2c).
B-1
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
(3) Operating loads. The load Q shall be the maxi-
mum load which can be exerted by the operating machin-
ery (obtained from the mechanical engineer that designed
the machinery). The inertial resistance of water while a
leaf is operated is the hydrodynamic load H
d
. Effects of
H
d
are included in paragraph B-2f. This load will control
fatigue design and shall be equal to 30 pounds per square
ft (psf) or 45 psf based on requirements given in
Chapter 3 of EM 1110-2-2703. H
d
never controls the
strength design when compared with H
t
or Q and is not
included in the load combinations.
(4) Barge impact load. The barge impact load I shall
be specified as a point load as shown in Figure B-1. The
load shall be applied in the downstream direction to
girders above pool level at: (a) the miter point (sym-
metric loading), and (b) anywhere in the girder span at
which a single barge may impact (unsymmetric loading).
This location is anywhere in the span at least 35 ft, or the
standard barge width, from either lock wall. Both impact
locations shall be investigated to determine the maximum
structural effect. The impact load I shall be equal to 250
kips for unsymmetric loading and 400 kips for symmetric
loading.
(5) Earthquake load. Design loads shall be deter-
mined based on an operational basis earthquake (OBE)
defined as that earthquake having a 50 percent chance of
being exceeded in 100 years. This translates to a proba-
bility of annual exceedance of 0.0069, or approximately a
145-year mean recurrence interval. The earthquake load
E shall be based on inertial hydrodynamic effects of water
moving with the structure. Inertial hydrodynamic loads
shall be determined based on Westergaards equation
(B-4)
where
p = lateral pressure at a distance y below the pool
surface

w
= unit weight of water
a
c
= maximum acceleration of the supporting lock
wall due to the OBE (expressed as a fraction of
gravitational acceleration g)
H = pool depth
y = distance below the pool surface
The lock wall shall be assumed rigid in determination of
a
c
, and the assumed direction of a
c
shall be parallel to the
lock centerline. The inertial forces resulting from the
mass due to structural weight D, ice C, and mud M are
insignificant compared to the effect of p and need not be
considered.
c. Load cases. The following load cases shall be
considered with the appropriate loading combinations:
(1) Case 1: Mitered condition. Loads include
hydrostatic loads due to upper and lower pools, and barge
impact or temporal hydraulic loads (Equations B-1a and
B-1b). Although not included in Equations B-1a and
B-1b, loads C, D, and M act when the gate is in the
mitered position. However, in the mitered position their
effects will not control the member sizes and these loads
are accounted for in load case 2 where they may control.
Lateral ice loads, as discussed in the commentary of para-
graph 4-3 (paragraph 4-7) are not considered in Equations
B-1a and B-1b. It would be appropriate to include such a
load in place of I as specified by Equation B1-a.
However, design for a lateral ice load of 5 kips per ft (as
specified by EM 1110-2-2702) with a load factor of 1.0
will not control when compared to design required by I.
(a) Above pool. Equation B1-a is applicable to the
girders located above pool (upper pool elevation for the
upper gate and lower pool for the lower gate) where barge
impact may occur. The skin plate and intercostals need
not be designed for barge impact. For design of skin
plate and intercostals located above pool, a minimum
hydrostatic head of 6 ft shall be assumed.
(b) Below pool. The upper gate shall be designed
assuming the lock is dewatered. Loads include hydro-
static loads due to upper pool only (Equation B-1b;
H
t
= 0). The lower gate shall be designed considering
normal upper and lower pool elevations including tempo-
ral hydraulic loads H
t
. H
t
is applicable only to the sub-
merged part of the gate.
(2) Case 2: Gate torsion. Loads include gravity
loads (C, M, and D), and operating equipment load Q or
temporal hydraulic load H
t
(Equations B-2a and B-2b). In
this condition there are no differential hydrostatic loads.
(a) Temporal condition. Equation B-2a shall be
applied to consider gate leaf torsion with the temporal
hydraulic load acting on the submerged part of leaf (the
temporal hydraulic load may act in either direction).
(b) Submerged obstruction. Equation B-2b shall be
applied to consider leaf torsion which may be caused by a
B-2
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
Figure B-1. Point load impact for miter gate girders
B-3
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
submerged obstruction. For this case, it is assumed that
the bottom of the leaf is held stationary by a submerged
obstruction while Q is applied causing the gate leaf to
twist.
(3) Case 3: Earthquake. Equation B-3 shall be
applied assuming that the gate is mitered, and hydrostatic
loads due to upper and lower pools are acting. The earth-
quake acceleration shall be applied in the direction paral-
lel to the lock centerline. Elastic structural analysis shall
be performed with no allowance for ductility.
d. Design for individual members. The following is a
brief description of design assumptions, appropriate LRFD
formulas, and load cases for the design of individual gate
members. These items are further discussed in the design
examples of paragraph B-4 and EM 1110-2-2703.
(1) Skin plate.
(a) Skin plates shall be sized such that the maximum
calculated stress is less than the yield limit state of
b
F
y
where is defined in paragraph 3-4 and
b
is defined in
AISC (1986). Stresses shall be determined on the basis
of small deflection thin plate theory using load cases 1
and 3 of paragraph B-2c. Small deflections are assured
by limiting deflections per paragraph B-2e (deflections are
small and significant membrane stresses do not develop).
The minimum size for the skin plate located above the
pool level shall be determined using an assumed hydro-
static head of 6 ft.
(b) The skin plate is designed assuming that each
panel acts as a rectangular fixed plate. In accordance
with paragraph 2-1c(1) of EM 1110-2-2703, the edges of
the skin plate panels are assumed to be fixed at the cen-
terline of the intercostals or diaphragms and the edge of
girder flanges. For rectangular fixed plates subject to
uniform loading, the maximum stress occurs at the cen-
terline of the long edge. The combined interaction of
transverse stress due to intercostal or girder bending (Von
Mises criteria shown in EM 1110-2-2703) need not be
considered.
(2) Intercostals.
(a) Intercostals shall be flat bars or plates sized such
that the maximum calculated moment is less than the
nominal bending strength of
b
M
n
. Intercostals may be
designed as simple or fixed end beams (EM 1110-2-2703
specifies fixed end) supported at the centerline of girder
webs. The end connections shall be fabricated to match
the design assumptions as closely as possible. In most
cases, the ends of the intercostals are welded (Figure B-2
illustrates possible details that may be used). Load cases
1 and 3 of paragraph B-2c shall be investigated to deter-
mine the maximum load effect. The assumed loading
distribution for intercostals is the trapezoidal distribution
shown in EM 1110-2-2703 and Figure B-3. The mini-
mum size for intercostals located above the pool level
shall be determined using an assumed hydrostatic head of
6 ft.
(b) An effective portion of the skin plate is assumed
to act as the intercostal flange. The effective width of
skin plate is determined assuming the skin plate to be an
unstiffened noncompact member (i.e.,
r
= 95/ F
y
). The
distance between cross sections braced against twist or
lateral displacement of the compression flange has a con-
trolling influence on the member strength. For the design
of a simple beam intercostal the compression flange is
supported continuously by the skin plate. See paragraph
2-1c(2) of EM 1110-2-2703 for additional discussion.
(3) Girders.
(a) Horizontal girders are assumed to act as singly
symmetric prismatic members subjected to axial force and
flexure about their major axis. Girders shall be designed
as beam-columns in accordance with AISC (1986). The
criteria for action about the major axis specified in para-
graphs 2-1d(6) and (7) of EM 1110-2-2703 shall be
revised as follows. For determination of column action
buckling strength about the major axis, each girder shall
have an effective length equal to the distance from the
quoin block to the miter block. The ends shall be
assumed pinned; the values of K and C
m
shall be 1.0.
Load cases 1 and 3 of paragraph B-2c shall be investi-
gated for all girders to determine the maximum load
effect. Additionally, load case 2 shall be investigated for
girders which resist diagonal loads.
(b) An effective portion of the skin plate is assumed
to act with the upstream flange. The effective width of
skin plate adjacent to each edge of the upstream girder
flange shall be based on a width-to-thickness ratio consis-
tent with design assumptions (i.e., assumption of compact
or noncompact flange). Upstream girder flanges are
braced continuously by the skin plate. Downstream
flanges are braced by vertical diaphragms which resist
lateral displacement and twist of the cross section.
(c) Webs shall be designed using requirements for
uniformly compressed stiffened elements. The use of
slenderness parameters for webs in combined flexural and
B-4
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
Figure B-2. Assumptions for intercostal end connections
B-5
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
axial compression in Table B5-1 of AISC (1986) should
Figure B-3. Nomenclature and assumed load area for intercostal design
be avoided since these criteria were developed for rolled
shape beam-columns and may not apply for deep girder
sections.
(4) Diagonals. Diagonals shall be designed as ten-
sion members considering the limit states of yielding in
the gross section or fracture in the net section. The
design assumptions shall be based on procedures pre-
sented in Chapter 3 of EM 1110-2-2703. Load case 2 of
paragraph B-2c is applicable.
(5) Vertical diaphragms. Vertical diaphragms resist-
ing diagonal loads shall be designed using the same load
case as used for the diagonals design. See paragraph
2-1c(3) of EM 1110-2-2703 for additional discussion.
(6) Anchorage systems. The anchorage systems sup-
porting miter gate leafs are discussed in paragraph 2-1g(2)
of EM 1110-2-2703. These criteria require components
of the system to be designed as individual units with the
resultant force applied to the units being a combination of
the strut force and the dead weight of the leaf, increased
10 percent for impact. These loading criteria should be
used with load case 2 of paragraph B-2c.
e. Serviceability requirements. Miter gates shall be
designed for an expected life of 50 years. Limiting val-
ues of structural behavior to ensure serviceability (e.g.,
maximum deflections, vibration considerations, details for
ease of maintenance, etc.) shall be chosen with due regard
to assure the gate functions for its design life. Normally,
serviceability can be checked using unfactored loads. As
a minimum, the following guidance shall be followed.
(1) The overall structure and the individual mem-
bers, connections, and connectors shall be checked for
serviceability. This shall be verified by testing during
erection as specified in paragraph 2-3q of
EM 1110-2-2703.
(2) Gate leaf deflection (twist) shall be limited to a
value which is less than 50 percent of the miter bearing
block width.
(3) The skin plate deflection shall be limited to 0.4
times the plate thickness.
B-6
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
(4) Vibration of the seals, equipment, or movable
supports shall not impair the operability of the gate.
(5) Structural components shall be designed to toler-
ate corrosion or be protected against corrosion that may
impair the serviceability or operability of the structure.
Plates shall be used for girder web stiffeners and
intercostals (instead of more efficient rolled sections) to
make it easier to apply the paint system.
f. Fatigue. Members and their connections subjected
to repeated variation of load shall be designed for fatigue.
The total number of loading cycles shall be determined
based on changes in load due to lock operation. The
range of stresses due to unfactored loads shall be equal to
or less than the allowable stress variation given in appen-
dix K of AISC (1986). The following conditions shall be
considered for fatigue analysis.
(1) Skin plates, intercostals, and girders. Stress vari-
ation shall be determined based on variation in hydrostatic
load H
s
assuming the gate is in the mitered position and
the hydrostatic load is due to upper and lower pools.
(2) Diagonals, vertical diaphragms, strut arm and
connection, hinge and anchorage arms. These elements
shall be evaluated based on variation of stress due to
hydrodynamic load H
d
acting as the gate operates.
g. Fracture. Requirements of paragraph 3-6 shall be
applied to fracture critical members (FCM). The designer
shall determine which members are fracture critical for
the specific miter gate in question. Typically, strut arms
and connections, anchorage arms, and diagonals are con-
sidered to be FCM. Project specifications shall address
the topics which are discussed in the commentary of
paragraph 3-6c (paragraph 3-9).
B-3. Connections and Details
Chapter 5 provides general guidance for connection
design. Connection details shall be consistent with the
design assumptions. For example, Figure B-2 illustrates
the details required for consistency in design of inter-
costals for the assumptions of simple and fixed connec-
tions. Paragraphs 1-5a(6) and 1-5a(7) of EM 1110-2-
2703 discuss the use of bolts, welds, and fabrication of
gate leafs, and paragraph 2-1j(3) includes a discussion on
diagonal connections.
B-4. Design Examples
a. General. To illustrate LRFD principles for the
design of a miter gate, example calculations are provided
in paragraph B-4b. These calculations are provided to
demonstrate LRFD principles; they do not provide a
comprehensive design for the entire gate. Examples are
limited to the design of the skin plate, an intercostal, a
horizontal girder, and the diagonals for a horizontally
framed miter gate. AISC (1986) equation numbers are
identified by "AISC" followed by the appropriate equation
number.
b. Design examples for a horizontally framed miter
gate. Examples for a horizontally framed downstream
miter gate that spans a 110-ft-wide lock chamber are
included. Each leaf is 55 ft high and is required to span
62 ft. A vertical cross section of the leaf is shown in
Figure B-4. All material is assumed to be ASTM A36
steel. The distributions of unfactored loads H
s
, H
t
, and E
are shown in Figure B-5, and the load magnitudes for
girders and panels are listed in Tables B-1 and B-2,
respectively. The kips per square foot (ksf) values for H
s
are determined by the hydrostatic head and those for E
are calculated by Westergaards equation for the corre-
sponding depths. The k/ft values for girders are deter-
mined using the ksf loads distributed over a tributary area
between panel center points. Earthquake loading E is
determined based on requirements of paragraph B-2b(5)
assuming a maximum lock wall acceleration of 0.1 g (a
c
= 0.1). Examples for the skin plate, intercostal, and
girder are for members located at the lower part of the
gate leaf where the critical loading occurs.
(1) Skin plate design example. Traditionally, the
skin plate is designed as a plate fixed at the centerline of
the intercostals and the edges of girder flanges. Nomen-
clature for skin plate design is shown in Figure B-6. The
design loading includes hydrostatic H
s
, temporal hydraulic
H
t
, and earthquake E loads. Uniform pressure loads are
assumed to act over the panel surface with a magnitude
equal to that of the pressure acting at the center of the
panel. Per paragraph B-2d(1), the minimum size (for
panels at the top of the gate) shall be determined based on
a 6-ft minimum hydrostatic head. For panels 9-12 (see
Figure B-4) horizontal girders are spaced 4 ft apart and
intercostals are spaced on 32-in. centers. With 6-in.-wide
girder flanges (conservative approximation) the plate
B-7
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
Figure B-4. Vertical cross section for example miter gate
B-8
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
Figure B-5. Example miter gate loading
B-9
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
Table B-1
Girder Loads
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Girder H
s
H
s
H
t
E E 1.4H
s
+H
t
1.2H
s
+E
No. (ksf) (k/ft) (k/ft) (ksf) (k/ft) (k/ft) (k/ft)
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
1 0.000 0.00 0.00 0.000 0.000 0.00 0.00
2 0.000 0.00 0.00 0.000 0.000 0.00 0.00
3 0.000 0.28 0.23 0.000 0.065 0.63 0.40
4 0.374 2.24 0.47 0.087 0.522 3.61 3.22
5 0.749 4.12 0.43 0.123 0.674 6.19 5.62
6 1.061 4.77 0.35 0.146 0.657 7.03 6.39
7 1.310 5.24 0.31 0.162 0.649 7.65 6.94
8 1.498 6.00 0.31 0.200 0.800 8.71 7.99
9 1.498 6.00 0.31 0.242 0.969 8.71 8.16
10 1.498 6.00 0.31 0.273 1.091 8.71 8.38
11 1.498 6.00 0.31 0.299 1.195 8.71 8.39
12 1.498 4.49 0.23 0.322 0.960 6.53 6.35
Table B-2
Skin Plate and Intercostal Loads
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Panel H
s
H
t
E 1.4H
s
+H
t
1.2H
s
+E
No. (ksf) (ksf) (ksf) (ksf) (ksf)
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
1 0.374 0.000 0.000 0.524 0.449
2 0.374 0.000 0.000 0.524 0.449
3 0.374 0.000 0.000 0.524 0.449
4 0.374 0.078 0.043 0.602 0.492
5 0.563 0.078 0.105 0.866 0.780
6 0.906 0.078 0.134 1.346 1.221
7 1.187 0.078 0.154 1.740 1.578
8 1.437 0.078 0.181 2.090 1.906
9 1.498 0.078 0.221 2.174 2.018
10 1.498 0.078 0.258 2.174 2.054
11 1.498 0.078 0.286 2.174 2.082
12 1.498 0.078 0.310 2.174 2.107
B-10
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
dimensions are a = 42 in. by b = 32 in. Equation B-1b is
Figure B-6. Nomenclature for skin plate design
the critical load combination which yields a factored
uniformly distributed load of W
u
= 2.174 ksf = 0.0151 ksi.
(a) Required thickness based yield limit state. For a
rectangular fixed plate with a uniform loading W and a
limiting stress F
lim
, the required minimum skin plate thick-
ness t
min
is calculated using Equation B-5.
(B-5)
Based on yield limit state for plate bending, F
lim
=
b
F
y
.
With W = W
u
, = 0.9, and
b
= 0.9 the required thick-
ness is
Therefore, select a 1/2-in.-thick plate.
(b) Deflection check. Per paragraph B-2e, the maxi-
mum deflection under service loading (unfactored H
s
) is
limited to 0.4t. For a rectangular plate fixed on all edges,
With W = 1.498 ksf = 0.0104 ksi and E = 29,000 ksi, the
deflection is
(c) Fatigue considerations. The skin plate will be
checked for fatigue considering cyclic bending stresses
along its welded edge. The welds which attach the skin
plate to girder flanges and intercostals are typically
located on the downstream side of the skin plate. Plate
bending stresses due to hydrostatic loading act in com-
pression on the downstream face of the skin plate.
Although the stress range due to plate bending at the
welds is always in compression, it is likely that residual
tensile stresses due to welding will exist. Therefore, the
B-11
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
stress range will vary from an initial positive value and
fatigue is a concern. The condition illustrated in
example 7 of Appendix K, AISC (1986) is assumed. It is
assumed that the water in the lock chamber will be cycled
between 100,000 and 500,000 times. For stress cate-
gory C and loading condition 2, the allowable stress range
is F
r
= 21 ksi. The fatigue stress range will be controlled
by the unfactored hydrostatic load H
s
. For this case W =
0.0104 ksi, and F
lim
of Equation B-5 is F
r
.
Therefore, a 1/2-in.-thick plate is adequate.
(2) Intercostal design example. Intercostals may be
designed assuming either fixed or pinned ends. However,
the designer must ensure that end connections are
detailed consistent with the assumption (see Figure B-2).
The assumed loading for intercostals consists of a uniform
pressure acting on the load area shown in Figure B-3
(nomenclature for this example is also included). This
example pertains to the design of miter gate intercostals
located on panels 9 through 12 (see Figure B-4) which are
spaced at 32 in. on center and span 4 ft. The ends of the
intercostals are assumed pinned and the load is applied as
an assumed trapezoidal distribution as shown in
Figure B-3. Assuming a 6-in.-wide girder flange (con-
servative assumption), F = 6 in., S = 42 in., G = 48 in.,
a = 16 in., and b = 10 in. For this case, the critical load
combination is determined by Equation B-1b; W
u
=
0.0151 ksi. The required factored moment capacity for
the example intercostal subject to the trapezoidal load
distribution is M
u
= 104.7 kip-in.
(a) Intercostal design. The effective width of skin
plate acting as the intercostal flange shall be determined
by treating the skin plate as an unstiffened noncompact
element under compression (see paragraph B-2d(2)). The
limiting width-to-thickness ratio to satisfy noncompact
requirements is
(AISC Table B5.1)
The effective width b of a 1/2-in.-thick skin plate is then
The chosen intercostal section shown in Figure B-7 is a
tee section composed of a 5-in. by 1/2-in. stem and 15.83-
in. by 1/2-in. effective skin plate flange. Per Table B5.1
of AISC (1986), the stem satisfies noncompact
requirements.
In accordance with Equations F1-15 and F1-16 of AISC
(1986), the nominal strength M
n
equals M
y
; <
r
and the
compression flange has continuous lateral support (L
b
=
0). The chosen section has an area A = 10.4 in.
2
, a
moment of inertia I
x
= 19.7 in.
4
, a minimum section mod-
ulus S
x
= 4.3 in.
3
, and a yield moment of M
y
= 154.8 kip-
in. The design strength is
which exceeds the required M
u
= 104.7 kip-in. Therefore,
a 5-in. by 1/2-in. stem is acceptable.
(b) Fatigue considerations. The fatigue stress range
Figure B-7. Sample intercostal section
will be controlled by the unfactored load due to the
hydrostatic load H
s
. For this case W = 0.0104 ksi, and M
= 72.1 kip-in. The extreme fiber of the tee stem is a
category A detail. Per Appendix K of AISC (1986), the
allowable stress range for a category A detail in load
condition 2 is F
r
= 37 ksi > F
y
= 36 ksi and fatigue will
not control. The intersection of the stem and the skin
plate is a category B detail. Per Appendix K of AISC
(1986), the allowable stress range is F
r
= 29 ksi for a
category B detail in load condition 2. The stress on the
B-12
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
extreme fiber of the skin plate due to M = 72.1 kip-in. is
-3.3 ksi. The stress range (considering the presence of
tensile residual stress per paragraph 3-6.a) is f
r
= 3.3 ksi <
F
r
= 29 ksi.
(3) Girder design example. This example applies to
the design of the required cross section at center span of
the critical horizontal girder (girders 9-11 of Figure B-4)
for the miter gate leaf. The required leaf span from the
quoin block to miter block is 62 ft (744 in.), and framing
details require that the girder depth be maintained at
55 in. Hydrostatic loading and reactions are shown in
Figure B-8. The girder is subject to reverse bending;
however, at the center span the upstream flange is in
compression. The upstream girder flange is laterally
braced continuously along its length by the skin plate.
The downstream flange of the girder is braced against
lateral displacement and twist of the cross section by
intermediate diaphragms every 128 in. Transverse web
stiffeners are placed at 64-in. intervals.
(a) Width-thickness ratios. For this example, the
member is proportioned with the following width-thick-
ness ratios to satisfy compact section requirements in
order to avoid local buckling:
For girder flanges,
Per paragraph B-2d(3), girder webs shall be propor-
tioned using requirements of uniformly compressed stiff-
ened elements. This ensures compact sections for flexural
behavior.
(b) Design loading. For this girder, the controlling
load combination is given by Equation B-1b. Based on
Equation B-1b, the factored uniformly distributed load W
u
= 8.71 kips/ft or 0.726 kips/in. This loading produces an
axial compressive resultant force of P
u
= 847 kips and a
moment at center span of M
nt
= 24,757 kip-in., such that
the direction of the moment produces compression in the
upstream girder flange. The maximum shear is V
u
= 270
kips.
(c) Chosen cross section. After several iterations, the
sample girder cross section shown in Figure B-9 was
selected. This section is composed of 13-in. by 1-in.
downstream flange, 52-1/4-in. by 7/16-in. web with 4-1/2-
in. by 1/2-in. longitudinal stiffeners located as shown, and
a 16-in. by 1-1/4-in. upstream flange. The effective width
of the skin plate adjacent to each edge of the upstream
girder flange is based on a 65/ F
y
width-to-thickness
ratio as required to satisfy compact section requirements
of AISC (1986). Based on this geometry, the girder has
the following cross-sectional properties;
I
x
= 35,097.1 in.
4
r
x
= 21.81 in.
r
y
= 4.43 in.
S
x1
= 1,727.69 in.
3
S
x2
= 1,011.86 in.
3
Z
x
= 1,407.27 in.
3
y
c
= 20.31 in.
A
g
= 73.77 in.
2
where
I
x
= moment of inertia about the x axis
r
x
and r
y
= radius of gyration about the x and y axes,
respectively
S
x1
= maximum section modulus
S
x2
= minimum section modulus
Z
x
= plastic modulus
y
c
= distance from outside face of upstream flange
to neutral axis
A
g
= gross area.
(d) Compact section check. The following calcula-
tions show that the section is compact. With two lines of
longitudinal stiffeners located as shown, the maximum
clear distance of the web is d = 17.5 in. The width-thick-
ness ratio for the web is acceptable.
The upstream flange is compact. For the upstream flange,
the thickness including the skin plate is 1.75 in.
B-13
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
Figure B-8. Girder hydrostatic loading and reactions
Figure B-9. Sample girder cross section
B-14
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
The downstream flange is compact.
(e) Web shear. The girder web will be checked for
the maximum shear V
u
= 270 kips. Per Section F2 of
AISC (1986)
(AISC F2-1)
where
(AISC F2-4)
unless a/h exceeds 3.0 or [260/(h/t
w
)]
2
, in which case
k = 5. With a = 64 in. (transverse stiffener spacing), and
h = 17.5 in. (web maximum clear depth),
(Acceptable)
(f) Combined forces. The horizontal girder is consid-
ered a singly symmetric prismatic member subjected to
axial force and flexure about its major axis. This cate-
gory of design is discussed in Chapter H of AISC (1986)
and the section is checked by the following calculations.
Column action is based on requirements of Chapter E of
AISC (1986). Per paragraph B-2d(3), K
x
= 1.0, C
m
= 1.0
and l
x
= 744 in. (strong axis; distance between quoin and
miter blocks). Per EM 1110-2-2703 K
y
= 0.65 and l
y
= 128 in. (weak axis; distance between intermediate
diaphragms).
(controls)
(AISC E2-1)
(AISC E2-4)
(AISC E2-2)
Given P
u
= 847 kips,
c
= 0.85, and = 0.9
(AISC H1-1a)
(AISC H1-2)
(AISC H1-3)
B-15
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
For compact sections, with the beam compression flange
laterally supported continuously, M
n
= M
p
.
Substitution into AISC H1-1a:
At the midspan location, the chosen section is adequate
for combined forces. The cross section consists of the
following elements:
Upstream flange 16 in. by 1-1/4 in.
Downstream flange 13 in. by 1 in.
Skin plate 1/2 in.
Web 52-1/4 in. by 7/16 in.
(2 longitudinal stiffeners 4-1/2 in. by 1/2 in.)
(g) Fatigue considerations. At the location of a trans-
verse stiffener or intermediate diaphragm, the girder is a
category C detail. Per Appendix K of AISC (1986), the
allowable stress range for a category C detail under load
condition 2 is F
r
= 21 ksi. The compression flange is
subject to larger stress variations under hydrostatic load-
ing and will be checked for fatigue due to the probable
tensile residual stress that exists as a result of welding.
For the unfactored load due to hydrostatic load H
s
, W =
6 kips/ft, P = 584 kips, and M = 17,054 kip-in. at the
midspan of the girder.
The stress on the extreme fiber of the upstream flange is
The stress range (considering tensile weld residual stress)
is f
r
= 17.8 ksi < F
r
= 21 ksi; acceptable. For locations at
the termination of a welded cover plate, a category E
detail should be assumed.
(h) Design for barge impact. For girder number 3,
the controlling load combination is Equation B-1a. The
previously chosen section will be checked for unsymme-
tric and symmetric barge impact. Due to hydrostatic
loading H
s
, the uniformly distributed load W is 0.28
kips/ft.
For unsymmetric impact, the axial force P and flexural
moment M (at the location of impact) are
and for symmetric impact (P and M are constant along the
girder length)
where x, a, and e are defined in Figure B-1.
For unsymmetric impact, I = 250 kips. With a girder
span of 62 ft, a = 58.8 ft (705.6 in.) and assuming a
barge width of 35 ft, x = 38.8 ft (465.6 in.). The eccen-
tricity between the girder work line and the neutral axis is
e = 31.2 in. The impact girder resultant forces at the
point of impact are
For the distributed loading W = 0.28 kips/ft, P = 27.3 kips
and at the location of impact, M = 632.2 kip-in. By
Equation B-1a:
With P
n
= 2,497 kips,
Therefore, in accordance with Section H1 of AISC
(1986), Equation H1-1b applies.
B-16
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
(AISC H1-1b)
Substitution of the appropriate values into Equation AISC
H1-1b shows that the section is acceptable for this case
(unsymmetric impact).
(Acceptable)
For symmetric impact, I = 400 kips.
For the distributed loading W = 0.28 kips/ft, P = 27.3 kips
and at center span of the girder, M = 798 kip-in. By
Equation B-1a:
With P
n
= 2,497 kips,
Therefore, in accordance with Section H1 of AISC (1986)
Equation H1-1a applies. Substitution of the appropriate
values into Equation AISC H1-1a shows that the section
is acceptable for this case (symmetric impact).
(Acceptable)
(i) Commentary. For this example, a compact section
was chosen. Noncompact sections are allowed and may
be more economical in some cases. Per AISC (1986),
steel sections are classified as either compact, non-
compact, or slender element sections. Compact sections
are capable of developing a fully plastic stress distribution
prior to element local buckling. Noncompact sections are
proportioned such that compression elements can develop
yield stress prior to local buckling. In slender element
sections, local buckling will occur prior to initial yielding.
Appropriate appendixes of AISC (1986) include require-
ments for the design of members controlled by local
buckling. The above example considered only the
required section at midspan, and the section should be
checked for the appropriate design loading at the girder
ends. Longitudinal web stiffeners are placed on only one
side of the web. Compared to the case of placing stiff-
eners on both sides of the web, this requires slightly
larger stiffener plates. However, placing stiffeners on
only one side of the web is more attractive due to the cost
savings in fabrication and detailing. Furthermore, the
adverse effects due to welding of additional stiffeners,
such as residual stress, reduced toughness in the heat-
affected zone, and through-thickness tension of the web,
are avoided.
(4) Diagonal design example. This example pertains
to the design of miter gate diagonal members utilizing
ASTM A36 steel. General guidance for diagonal design
is contained in EM 1110-2-2703. Diagonal design will be
controlled by Equation B-2a or B-2b. Equation B-2a
represents the case where the gate is subject to temporal
hydraulic loading. Equation B-2b represents the case
where a submerged obstruction constrains gate leaf
motion while the maximum operating force Q is applied.
For this particular example, Q is limited by a pressure
relief valve engaged during gate motion and is equal to
125 kips. Plan and elevation views for the gate leaf,
illustrating the torsional loads, are shown in Figure B-10.
The length of each diagonal is L = 831.6 in. The unfac-
tored loads, the distance from the pintle to the applied
load z, the moment arm of the applied load with respect
to the center of moments (located at the operating strut
elevation), and corresponding load torque areas Tz for this
case are estimated as shown in Table B-3. For loads Q,
H
t
, and H
d
, a positive value for Tz is for the case of gate
opening and a negative value is for the case of gate clos-
ing. To avoid confusion of nomenclature, the diagonal
elasticity constant (denoted as Q by EM 1110-2-2703) is
represented as Q in the following calculations.
Table B-3
Gate Torsion Load
_____________________________________________________
Force Moment
Load (kips) Arm (ft) z (ft) Tz (kip-ft
2
)
_____________________________________________________
D 286.1 3.53 31.0 -31,308
C + M 130.0 3.53 31.0 -14,226
Q 125.0 55.00 19.0 130,625
H
t
93.1 45.38 31.0 130,971
H
d
33.5 46.00 31.0 47,771
B-17
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
The factored loads for Equations B-2a and b are as
follows:
Since Tz(Q)
u
is greater than Tz(H
t
)
u
, Equation B-2b will
control.
(a) Design. The design strength for tension members

t
P
n
is the lower of the following:
Case a. For yielding in the gross section, = 0.9
and
t
= 0.9
(AISC D1-1)
Case b. For fracture in the net section, = 0.9
and
t
= 0.75
(AISC D1-2)
The end connections are welded to gusset plates with
a total weld length greater than two times the bar
width. Therefore, U = 1.0 and the effective area A
e
is
the same as the gross area A
g
(Section B3 of AISC
(1986)).
Case a controls and the limiting tensile stress is 29.16 ksi.
Per equations of EM 1110-2-2703, the following is
obtained:
A = 30 in.
2
, R
o
= 0.11
A
p
= 22 in.
2
(chosen area of positive diagonal)
A
n
= 19 in.
2
(chosen area of negative diagonal)
Q
p
= 229,629 kip-ft and Q
n
= 210,418 kip-ft
Q
o
= 0 (Conservative assumption)
Q = 440,047 kip-ft
Live load gate opening deflection (critical case is when
C + M = 0):
Live load gate closing deflection:
Let D
p
= 7.0 in. and D
n
= -5.5 in.
Q
p
D
p
+ Q
n
D
n
= 37,509 kip-ft
2
Tz(D)
u
(Acceptable)
The stress in the diagonals must remain between the ten-
sile limiting stress of 29.16 ksi and the minimum stress of
1.0 ksi (diagonals must always remain in tension). The
maximum tensile stresses will occur as follows:
For the positive diagonal on gate closing:
For the negative diagonal on gate opening:
The minimum tensile stresses will occur as follows:
For the positive diagonal on gate opening:
B-18
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
For the negative diagonal on gate closing:
(b) Deflection serviceability check. Per paragraph B-
2e, the maximum deflection during operation shall not
exceed 4 in. (1/2 contact block width). The controlling
load combination is Equation B-2b with unfactored loads.
The maximum deflection will occur as Q acts with C and
M (gate closing).
(c) Fatigue considerations. The welded connection at
the end of each diagonal is considered a category E detail.
From appendix K of AISC (1986), the allowable stress
range for load condition 2 is F
r
= 13 ksi. For each opera-
tion of the miter gate, the stress range is calculated con-
sidering the absolute difference in opening and closing
deflection. This deflection is based on the assumed
hydrodynamic load H
d
of 30 psf acting on the submerged
portion of the leaf during gate operation.
The maximum stress is in the negative diagonal (R
n
>
R
p
). Therefore the stress range is
6.1 ksi < 13 ksi (Acceptable)
Based on the above calculations, A
p
= 22 in. and A
n
=
19 in. are adequate and the following sizes are chosen:
Positive diagonal: Select two 7-1/2-in. by 1-1/2-in.
members; Area = 22.5 in
2
.
Negative diagonal: Select two 6-1/2-in. by 1-1/2-in
members; Area = 19.5 in
2
.
(d) Fracture control considerations. The diagonals
are fracture critical members; therefore it is necessary to
ensure that the material has adequate toughness as speci-
fied by paragraph 3-6b. Assuming a minimum service
temperature of -10
o
F (Zone 2) the material specifications
should require a CVN toughness of 25 ft-lb tested at
40
o
F for welded 36-ksi steel 1.5 in. thick.
B-19
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
Figure B-10. Example miter leaf torsion loads
B-20
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
Appendix C
Tainter Gates
C-1. Introduction
Allowable stress design (ASD) criteria shall be used until
load and resistance factor design (LRFD) criteria have
been developed.
C-2. Reference
EM 1110-2-2702
Design of Spillway Tainter Gates
C-1
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
Appendix D
Tainter Valves
D-1. Introduction
Allowable stress design (ASD) criteria shall be used until
load and resistance factor design (LRFD) criteria have
been developed.
D-1
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
Appendix E
Bulkheads and Stoplogs
E-1. Introduction
Allowable stress design (ASD) criteria shall be used until
load and resistance factor design (LRFD) criteria have
been developed.
E-1
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
Appendix F
Vertical Lift Gates (Lock and Crest)
F-1. Introduction
Allowable stress design (ASD) criteria shall be used until
load and resistance factor design (LRFD) criteria have
been developed.
F-2. References
EM 1110-2-2701
Vertical Lift Crest Gates
CE-1507.01
Tractor Gates-Broome Type
CE-1602
Dam Gantry Cranes
F-1
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
Appendix G
Hydroelectric and Pumping Plants
G-1. Introduction
Allowable stress design (ASD) criteria shall be used until
load and resistance factor design (LRFD) criteria have
been developed.
G-2. References
EM 1110-2-3001
Planning and Design of Hydroelectric Power Plants
EM 1110-2-3104
Structural Design of Pumping Stations
G-1
EM 1110-2-2105
Change 1
31 May 94
* Appendix H
Load and Resistance Factor Design Cri-
teria for Local Flood Protection Project
Closure Gates
H-1. Introduction
a. Purpose. This appendix provides structural design
guidance for gate closure openings in levees and flood-
walls for inland local flood protection projects (LFPP)
using the load and resistance factor design method. Load
carrying members (including but not limited to: skin
plates, intercostals, girders, diagonals, and vertical dia-
phragms) shall be designed in accordance with the criteria
contained in this appendix, as well as criteria in Chap-
ters 1, 2, 3, and 5 where applicable. Gate layout, selec-
tion of materials, and assumed member loading shall
follow guidance in EM 1110-2-2705 unless otherwise
stated herein. Mechanical and electrical items shall be
designed in accordance with Chapter 4 and guidance
specified in EM 1110-2-2705.
b. Background.
(1) Types of LFPP closure structures. Closure struc-
tures for openings in levee and floodwall systems of
LFPPs are usually either stoplog or gate type closures.
The guidance presented in this appendix is limited to
swing, miter, rolling, and trolley gates since these are the
most commonly used LFPP gate types. Many gate details
are shown in EM 1110-2-2705.
(2) Load combinations and load factors.
ASCE (1990) and AISC (1986) specify load factors and
load combinations for buildings; however, for LFPP clo-
sures, unique loads and load combinations exist. The load
factors and load combinations specified in paragraph H-2a
pertain specifically to LFPP closure gates. Development
of the load factors considered variability, definition, and
likeness to those loads specified in ASCE (1990) and
AISC (1986).
(3) A discussion of the need for using reliability
factor for HSS design is given in paragraph 3-8. LFPP
gates are considered hydraulic steel structures; however,
the environment they function in is not as severe as other
HSS and is more like building environments than the
typical HSS environment. Therefore, the reliability factor
for LFPP gates shall be 1.0 unless the structural engineer
is aware of extenuating circumstances that require a more
conservative design.
H-2. Load and Resistance Factor Design
a. Strength requirements. LFPP gates shall have
design strengths at all sections at least equal to the
required strengths calculated for the factored loads and
forces in the following load combinations. The most
unfavorable effect may occur when one or more of the
loads in a particular load combination are equal to zero.
1.4 Hs + 1.2 D (H-1)
1.2 D + 1.3 (Q or W) (H-2)
The nominal loads are defined as follows:
H
s
= hydrostatic load
D = dead load
Q = maximum operating load (draw bar pull or
operating equipment capacity)
W = wind load
b. Load considerations. Loads due to thermal effects
need not be considered. Earthquake loads need not be
considered for the gate members since the probability of
an earthquake occurring when the gate is closed is very
remote. However, the seismic design for the concrete
monolith supporting the open gate must include the iner-
tial effects. This appendix addresses only inland struc-
tures; therefore, other special loading conditions may be
necessary for gate closures in hurricane flood protection
projects. For example, gates could be subjected to large
wave loads during closing operations before the main
hurricane storm strikes.
(1) Hydraulic loads. Hydrostatic load H
s
shall be
determined based on water to the top of the gate on the
unprotected side and at or below the gate sill elevation on
the protected side.
*
H-1
EM 1110-2-2105
Change 1
31 May 94
* (2) Gravity loads. Dead load
1
D shall be determined
based on site-specific conditions. Ice and mud loads are
generally not considered in LFPP gate load combinations.
(3) Wind loads. Wind load W shall consist of a
wind load of 15 psf when the gate is opening or closing
(gate operating). When the gate is in the latched closed
or open positions (gate stationary), a wind load as speci-
fied in EM 1110-2-2502 shall be used.
(4) Operating loads. Load Q shall be the maximum
load that can be exerted by the operator (stalling torque of
motorized winch, capacity of manually operated winch,
etc. This value should be obtained from the mechanical
engineer that designed the machinery or other equipment).
c. Load cases. The following load cases shall be
considered with the appropriate loading combinations:
(1) Case 1: Gate stationary.
(a) Closed under hydrostatic loads. (Eq. H-1 with
D = 0 would apply.)
(b) Open or closed, no hydrostatic load. (Eq. H-2,
Q = 0 would apply.)
(2) Case 2: Gate operating.
(a) Hinge gates. This loading condition results in the
maximum torsion load. Hinge gates shall be designed for
a uniform wind load of 15 psf (refer to paragraph 9b(4)
of EM 1110-2-2705) and an equal and opposite reaction
load at the operator (usually a draw bar) connection.
(Eq. H-2 with Q = 0 would apply.)
(b) Wheel gates. The maximum load for determining
the localized stresses for designing the operator connec-
tion (usually a winch plate) shall be the limiting load for
the operator. (Eq. H-2 with W = 0 would apply.)
d. Design for individual members. The following
paragraphs include a brief description of design assump-
tions, appropriate LRFD formulas, and load cases for the
1
Miter gate design includes ice and mud in the dead
load. LFPP gates usually do not consider these loads
because of their environment. If the designer has an
unusual situation and wants to consider these loads, he
should refer to paragraph B-2b(2).
design of individual gate members. Further design guid-
ance is presented in EM 1110-2-2705.
(1) Skin plate.
(a) Skin plates shall be sized such that the maximum
calculated stress is less than the yield limit state of Fy
where is 1 as per paragraph H-1b(3), and is defined
in AISC (1986). Skin plates shall be designed for hydro-
static loading only. Stresses shall be determined on the
basis of small deflection thin plate theory using load case
1(a) of paragraph H-2c. Deflection shall be limited to 0.4
of the plate thickness to prevent the development of sig-
nificant membrane stresses. More than one thickness of
plate may be desirable for taller gates. The minimum
plate thickness shall be 1/4 in.
(b) With requirements of paragraph H-2d(1)(a)
above, design per paragraph B-2d(1)(b).
(2) Intercostals.
(a) Intercostals shall be sized so the maximum calcu-
lated moment is less than the nominal bending strength of

b
M
n
where is 1 as per paragraph H-1b(3) and
b
is
defined in AISC (1986). Intercostals shall be designed
for hydrostatic loading only. They may be flat bars or
plates, tee sections, or angle sections. Load case 1(a) or
paragraph H-2c shall be investigated to determine the
maximum load effect.
(b) With requirements of paragraph H-2d(2)(a)
above, design per the applicable requirements of para-
graph B-2d(2).
(3) Girders. Horizontal girders for LFPP miter gates
shall be designed in accordance with the principles dis-
cussed in paragraph B-2d(3).
2
Horizontal girders for
swing gates that support components of the diagonal loads
shall be designed for flexure due to hydrostatic loading
plus flexure and axial load induced by dead load in the
diagonals. Rolling and trolley gate girders shall be
designed for flexure due to hydrostatic loading only. For
all types of LFPP gates, load case 1(a) of paragraph H-2c
2
Paragraph B-2d(3) is written with emphasis on
built-up sections. LFPP gates generally use rolled
sections.
*
H-2
EM 1110-2-2105
Change 1
31 May 94
* shall be investigated to determine the maximum load
effect. The maximum design wind loading acting against
the exposed gate surface is insignificant when compared
with the hydrostatic loading.
(4) Diagonals. Diagonals shall be designed in accor-
dance with the principles discussed in paragraph B-2d(4).
They shall be designed to resist gate torsion to the dead
load as well as the torsion resulting from closing or open-
ing the gate against a 15-psf uniform wind loading. Load
case 2(a) of paragraph H-2c is applicable.
(5) Vertical diaphragms. Vertical diaphragms for
hinge gates shall be designed to resist diagonal loads as
well as flexure loads. Vertical diaphragms for wheel
gates shall be designed to resist flexure loads only, except
those diaphragms in line with wheels or trolley hangars.
They shall include axial and bending due to the forces
from the wheels or trolley hangars. Load case 1(a) is
applicable. The minimum thickness of any diaphragm
element shall be 1/4 in.
(6) Stabilizing systems. The hinges, wheels, trolleys,
latching devices, closing links, gate tie-down assemblies,
gate hooks, or other stabilizing systems for the various
types of LFPP gates are shown in the plates in EM 1110-
2-2705. Components of the system shall be designed as
individual units. The force applied to the units may be
from hydrostatic, dead, operating, or wind or a combina-
tion of these loads. Components of the gate being used to
stabilize the gate in the closed position with hydrostatic
load shall be designed using load case 1(a). For example,
the gates hooks for the L-frame rolling gate would use
this load case. Other gate components that are designed
to resist dead, operating, or wind load (depending on the
components function) shall be designed using load
case 2.
e. Serviceability requirements. Serviceability require-
ments shall be as specified in paragraph 3-5. LFPP gates
shall be designed for an expected life of 50 years. Limit-
ing values of structural behavior to ensure serviceability
(e.g., maximum deflections, details for ease of mainte-
nance, details for ease of operation, ensuring the gate is
not damaged in the latched open position, etc.) shall be
chosen so that the closure functions properly throughout
its design life.
f. Fatigue. Fatigue is not a concern for LFPP
closure structures due to the small number of stress cycles
over the life of the structure.
g. Fracture. Requirements of paragraph 3-6 shall be
applied to fracture critical members (FCM). The designer
shall determine which members are fracture critical for
the specific gate in question in accordance with para-
graph 3-6b. Typically, hinges, wheels, trolley gate
hangers, and their associated connections are considered
to be FCM.
H-3. Connections and Details
Chapter 5 provides general guidance for connection
design. Connection details shall be consistent with the
design assumptions. For example, Figure B-2 illustrates
the details required for consistency in intercostal design
for simple or fixed connections. Paragraphs 1-5a(6) and
1-5a(7) of EM 1110-2-2703 discuss the use of bolts,
welds, and fabrication of miter gate leafs, and para-
graph 2-1j(3) includes a discussion of diagonal connec-
tions. Although EM 1110-2-2703 is written for lock
gates, the guidance is generally applicable for LFPP gates.
H-4. Design Example
Specific LFPP gate design examples are not included in
this appendix. Appendices B and C demonstrate LRFD
principles for the design of miter and tainter gate ele-
ments, respectively. The calculations are provided to
demonstrate LRFD principles; they do not provide com-
prehensive design for entire gates. Examples in the two
appendices are limited to the design of skin plates, inter-
costals, and girders. Also, design of the diagonals for a
horizontally framed miter gate is shown in Appendix B.
These examples should be used for guidance when
designing similar structural members for LFPP gates.
*
H-3
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
Appendix I
Miscellaneous Hydraulic Steel Structures
I-1. Introduction
rMiscellaneous HSS include lock wall accessories, outlet
works gates, penstocks, and sector gates. Allowable
stress design (ASD) criteria shall be used until load and
resistance factor design (LRFD) criteria have been
developed.
I-2. References
EM 1110-2-2400
Structural Design of Spilways and Outlet Works
EM 1110-2-2901
Tunnels and Shaft in Rock
EM 1110-2-2902
Conduits, Culverts, and Pipes
I-1

Training Solutions

Training Solutions

Hydraulics

Training Manual 6

Lubricants & Hydraulic Fluids

EM 1110-2-1424

CECW-ET

Manual
No. 1110-2-1424
Engineering and Design
LUBRICANTS AND HYDRAULIC FLUIDS

Table of Contents

Subject Paragraph Page
Chapter 1
Introduction
Purpose . . . 1-1 1-1
Applicability 1-2 1-1
References . . . 1-3 1-1
Distribution Statement . . . 1-4 1-1
Scope 1-5 1-2

Chapter 2
Lubrication Principles
Friction 2-1 2-1
Wear . . . 2-2 2-4
Lubrication and Lubricants 2-3 2-6
Hydrodynamic or Fluid Film Lubrication 2-4 2-6
Boundary Lubrication 2-5 2-8
Extreme Pressure (EP) Lubrication 2-6 2-9
Elastohydrodynamic (EHD) Lubrication . 2-7 2-9

Chapter 3
Lubricating Oils
Oil Refining . . . 3-1 3-1
Types of Oil 3-2 3-2
Characteristics of Lubricating Oils . . . 3-3 3-4
Oil Classifications and Grading Systems 3-4 3-7

Chapter 4
Hydraulic Fluids
Purpose of Hydraulic Fluids . . . 4-1 4-1
Physical Characteristics . . . 4-2 4-1
Quality Requirements . . . 4-3 4-2
Use of Additives 4-4 4-4
Types of Hydraulic Fluids . . . 4-5 4-4
Cleanliness Requirements . . . 4-6 4-6



i

EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
ii
Subject Paragraph Page
Chapter 5
Grease
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1 5-1
Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2 5-1
Grease Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3 5-2
Fluid Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4 5-5
Soap Thickeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5 5-5
Complex Soap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6 5-6
Additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7 5-6
Types of Greases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-8 5-6
Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-9 5-8
Grease Application Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10 5-8
Chapter 6
Nonfluid Lubrication
Solid Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1 6-1
Self-Lubricating Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2 6-6
Self-Lubricating Bearings for Olmsted Wicket Gates Prototype Tests . . . . . . . . . . 6-3 6-7
Chapter 7
Lubricant Additives
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1 7-1
Surface Additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2 7-1
Performance-Enhancing Additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3 7-3
Lubricant Protective Additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4 7-3
Precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5 7-4
Chapter 8
Environmentally Acceptable Lubricants
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1 8-1
Definition of Environmentally Acceptable (EA) Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2 8-1
Biodegradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3 8-2
Toxicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4 8-3
EA Base Fluids and Additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5 8-3
Properties of Available EA Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6 8-6
Environmentally Acceptable Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7 8-8
Changing from Conventional to EA Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-8 8-8
Survey of Corps Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-9 8-9
USACE Contacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10 8-10
Chapter 9
Gears
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1 9-1
Gear Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2 9-1
Gear Wear and Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-3 9-2
Gear Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-4 9-6
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
iii
Subject Paragraph Page
Chapter 10
Bearings
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1 10-1
Plain Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2 10-1
Rolling-Contact Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-3 10-6
Calculation of Bearing Lubrication Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4 10-12
Chapter 11
Lubrication Applications
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1 11-1
Turbines, Generators, Governors, and Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2 11-1
Main Pumps and Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3 11-5
Gears, Gear Drives, and Speed Reducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4 11-6
Couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-5 11-8
Hoists and Cranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6 11-9
Wire Rope Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7 11-10
Chain Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-8 11-14
Trashrake Systems and Traveling Water Screens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-9 11-17
Gates and Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-10 11-17
Navigation Lock Gates, Culvert Valves, and Dam Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-11 11-24
Information Sources for Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-12 11-26
Chapter 12
Operation and Maintenance Considerations
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1 12-1
Maintenance Schedules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2 12-1
Relative Cost of Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3 12-1
Lubricating Oil Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4 12-4
Hydraulic Oil Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-5 12-5
Transformer and Circuit Breaker Insulating Oil Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-6 12-6
Essential Properties of Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7 12-7
Other Properties of Used Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8 12-8
Oil Monitoring Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-9 12-9
Oil Purification and Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-10 12-14
Oil Operating Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-11 12-21
Lubricant Storage and Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-12 12-22
Safety and Health Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-13 12-28
Environmental Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-14 12-29
Chapter 13
Lubricant Specifications and Selection
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-1 13-1
Lubricant Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-2 13-1
Principles of Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-3 13-4
Specification Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-4 13-9
Lubricant Consolidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-5 13-10
EM 1110-2-1424
31 Jul 06
Change 1

iv


Appendix A
References

Appendix B
Survey of Locks and Dams for Lubricants

Appendix C
Specification for Turbine Oil

EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
1-1
Chapter 1
Introduction
1-1. Purpose
This manual provides engineering personnel with design guidance to select, specify, inspect, and approve
lubricants and hydraulic fluids used for U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) equipment. It provides
the operation and maintenance staff with guidance for regular and scheduled maintenance. The manual
gives broad-based instructions reflecting established criteria and the latest proven state-of-the-art
technology and techniques to attain better and more economical lubrication.
1-2. Applicability
This manual applies to all USACE commands having civil works responsibility.
1-3. References
Required publications are listed below. Related publications are listed in Appendix A.
a. 21 CFR 178.3570. Lubricants with Incidental Food Contact
b. 29 CFR 1210.1200. Safety and Health Regulations for Workers Engaged in Hazardous Waste
c. 29 CFR 1910.1200. OSHA Communication Standard
d. 40 CFR 110. Discharge of Oil
e. 40 CFR 112. Oil Pollution Prevention
f. 40 CFR 113. Liability Limits for Small Onshore Storage Facilities
g. 48 CFR 9.2. Federal Acquisition Regulation and Qualification Requirements
h. EM 1110-2-3105. Mechanical and Electrical Design of Pumping Stations
i. EM 1110-2-3200. Wire Rope Selection
j. EM 1110-2-4205. Hydroelectric Power Plants, Mechanical Design
k. CEGS 15005. Speed Reducers for Storm Water Pumps
1-4. Distribution Statement
Approved for public release, distribution is unlimited.
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1-5. Scope
a. This manual is intended to be a practical guide to lubrication with enough technical detail to allow
personnel to recognize and easily discern differences in performance properties specified in manufacturers
product literature so that the proper lubricant for a particular application is selected.
b. The manual defines and illustrates friction, wear, and corrosion and how they damage contact
surfaces to cause premature equipment failure. It examines the mechanics of hydrodynamic, boundary,
extreme pressure, and elastohydrodynamic lubrication to protect against surface deterioration. In practice,
manufacturers laboratories can tailor-make a lubricant for any equipment operating under any conditions
by using the right combination of lubricants and additives. This manual describes basic characteristic
properties of oils, hydraulic fluids, greases, solid lubricants, environmentally acceptable lubricants, and
their additives. Separate chapters are devoted to lubricant specification and selection, and requirements of
lubricants for equipment currently in use at USACE civil works facilities. Because conscientious
adherence to lubrication schedules is the best prescription for longevity of component parts, operation and
maintenance considerations are also addressed.
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Chapter 2
Lubrication Principles
2-1. Friction
a. Definition of friction.
(1) Friction is a force that resists relative motion between two surfaces in contact. Depending on the
application, friction may be desirable or undesirable. Certain applications, such as tire traction on
pavement and braking, or when feet are firmly planted to move a heavy object, rely on the beneficial effects
of friction for their effectiveness. In other applications, such as operation of engines or equipment with
bearings and gears, friction is undesirable because it causes wear and generates heat, which frequently lead
to premature failure.
(2) For purposes of this manual, the energy expended in overcoming friction is dispersed as heat and is
considered to be wasted because useful work is not accomplished. This waste heat is a major cause of
excessive wear and premature failure of equipment. Two general cases of friction occur: sliding friction
and rolling friction.
b. Sliding friction.
(1) To visualize sliding friction, imagine a steel block lying on a steel table. Initially a force F
(action) is applied horizontally in an attempt to move the block. If the applied force F is not high enough,
the block will not move because the friction between the block and table resists movement. If the applied
force is increased, eventually it will be sufficient to overcome the frictional resistance force f and the block
will begin to move. At this precise instant, the applied force F is equal to the resisting friction force f and is
referred to as the force of friction.
(2) In mathematical terms, the relation between the normal load L (weight of the block) and the friction
force f is given by the coefficient of friction denoted by the Greek symbol . Note that in the present
context, normal has a different connotation than commonly used. When discussing friction problems,
the normal load refers to a load that is perpendicular to the contacting surfaces. For the example used here,
the normal load is equal to the weight of the block because the block is resting on a horizontal table.
However, if the block were resting on an inclined plane or ramp, the normal load would not equal the
weight of the block, but would depend on the angle of the ramp. Since the intent here is to provide a means
of visualizing friction, the example has been simplified to avoid confusing readers not familiar with statics.
c. Laws of sliding friction. The following friction laws are extracted from the Machinery Handbook,
23rd Revised Edition.
(1) Dry or unlubricated surfaces. Three laws govern the relationship between the frictional force f and
the load or weight L of the sliding object for unlubricated or dry surfaces:
(a) For low pressures (normal force per unit area) the friction force is directly proportional to the
normal load between the two surfaces. As the pressure increases, the friction does not rise proportionally;
but when the pressure become abnormally high, the friction increases at a rapid rate until seizing takes
place.
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(b) The value of f/L is defined as the coefficient of friction . The friction both in its total amount
and its coefficient is independent of the area of contact, so long as the normal force remains the same. This
is true for moderate pressures only. For high pressures, this law is modified in the same way as the first
case.
(c) At very low velocities, the friction force is independent of the velocity of rubbing. As the
velocities increase, the friction decreases.
The third law (c) implies that the force required to set a body in motion is the same as the force required to
keep it in motion, but this is not true. Once a body is in motion, the force required to maintain motion is
less than the force required to initiate motion and there is some dependency on velocity. These facts reveal
two categories of friction: static and kinetic. Static friction is the force required to initiate motion (F ).
s
Kinetic or dynamic friction is the force required to maintain motion (F ).
k
(2) Lubricated surfaces. The friction laws for well lubricated surfaces are considerably different than
those for dry surfaces, as follows:
(a) The frictional resistance is almost independent of the pressure (normal force per unit area) if the
surfaces are flooded with oil.
(b) The friction varies directly as the speed, at low pressures; but for high pressures the friction is
very great at low velocities, approaching a minimum at about 2 ft/sec linear velocity, and afterwards
increasing approximately as the square root of the speed.
(c) For well lubricated surfaces the frictional resistance depends, to a very great extent, on the
temperature, partly because of the change in viscosity of the oil and partly because, for journal bearings,
the diameter of the bearing increases with the rise in temperature more rapidly than the diameter of the
shaft, thus relieving the bearing of side pressure.
(d) If the bearing surfaces are flooded with oil, the friction is almost independent of the nature of the
material of the surfaces in contact. As the lubrication becomes less ample, the coefficient of friction
becomes more dependent upon the material of the surfaces.
(3) The coefficient of friction. The coefficient of friction depends on the type of material. Tables
showing the coefficient of friction of various materials and combinations of materials are available.
Common sources for these tables are Marks Mechanical Engineering Handbooks and Machinerys
Handbook. The tables show the coefficient of friction for clean dry surfaces and lubricated surfaces. It is
important to note that the coefficients shown in these tables can vary.
(4) Asperities. Regardless of how smooth a surface may appear, it has many small irregularities called
asperities. In cases where a surface is extremely rough, the contacting points are significant, but when the
surface is fairly smooth, the contacting points have a very modest effect. The real or true surface area
refers to the area of the points in direct contact. This area is considerably less than the apparent geometric
area.
(5) Adhesion. Adhesion occurs at the points of contact and refers to the welding effect that occurs
when two bodies are compressed against each other. This effect is more commonly referred to as cold
welding and is attributed to pressure rather than heat, which is associated with welding in the more
familiar sense. A shearing force is required to separate cold-welded surfaces.
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(6) Shear strength and pressure. As previously noted, the primary objective of lubrication is to reduce
friction and wear of sliding surfaces. This objective is achieved by introducing a material with a low shear
strength or coefficient of friction between the wearing surfaces. Although nature provides such materials in
the form of oxides and other contaminants, the reduction in friction due to their presence is insufficient for
machinery operation. For these conditions, a second relationship is used to define the coefficient of friction:
= S/P, where S is the shear strength of the material and P is pressure (or force) contributing to
compression. This relationship shows that the coefficient of friction is a function of the force required to
shear a material.
(7) Stick-slip. To the unaided eye the motion of sliding objects appears steady. In reality this motion
is jerky or intermittent because the objects slow during shear periods and accelerate following the shear.
This process is continuously repeated while the objects are sliding. During shear periods, the static friction
force F controls the speed. Once shearing is completed, the kinetic friction force F controls the speed and
s k
the object accelerates. This effect is known as stick-slip. In well lubricated machinery operated at the
proper speed, stick-slip is insignificant, but it is responsible for the squeaking or chatter sometimes heard in
machine operation. Machines that operate over long sliding surfaces, such as the ways of a lathe, are
subject to stick-slip. To prevent stick-slip, lubricants are provided with additives to make F less than F .
s k
d. Rolling friction.
(1) When a body rolls on a surface, the force resisting the motion is termed rolling friction or rolling
resistance. Experience shows that much less force is required to roll an object than to slide or drag it.
Because force is required to initiate and maintain rolling motion, there must be a definite but small amount
of friction involved. Unlike the coefficient of sliding friction, the coefficient of rolling friction varies with
conditions and has a dimension expressed in units of length.
(2) Ideally, a rolling sphere or cylinder will make contact with a flat surface at a single point or along a
line (in the case of a cylinder). In reality, the area of contact is slightly larger than a point or line due to
elastic deformation of either the rolling object or the flat surface, or both. Much of the friction is attributed
to elastic hysteresis. A perfectly elastic object will spring back immediately after relaxation of the
deformation. In reality, a small but definite amount of time is required to restore the object to original
shape. As a result, energy is not entirely returned to the object or surface but is retained and converted to
heat. The source of this energy is, in part, the rolling frictional force.
(3) A certain amount of slippage (which is the equivalent of sliding friction) occurs in rolling friction.
If the friction of an unhoused rolling object is measured, slippage effects are minimal. However, in
practical applications such as a housed ball or roller bearing, slippage occurs and contributes to rolling
friction. Neglecting slippage, rolling friction is very small compared to sliding friction.
e. Laws of rolling friction. The laws for sliding friction cannot be applied to rolling bodies in equally
quantitative terms, but the following generalities can be given:
(1) The rolling friction force F is proportional to the load L and inversely proportional to the radius of
curvature r, or F = L/r, where is the coefficient of rolling resistance, in meters (inches). As the radius
r r
increases, the frictional force decreases.
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(2) The rolling friction force F can be expressed as a fractional power of the load L times a constant k,
or F = kL where the constant k and the power n must be determined experimentally.
n
(3) The friction force F decreases as the smoothness of the rolling element improves.
2-2. Wear
Wear is defined as the progressive damage resulting in material loss due to relative contact between
adjacent working parts. Although some wear is to be expected during normal operation of equipment,
excessive friction causes premature wear, and this creates significant economic costs due to equipment
failure, cost for replacement parts, and downtime. Friction and wear also generate heat, which represents
wasted energy that is not recoverable. In other words, wear is also responsible for overall loss in system
efficiency.
a. Wear and surface damage. The wear rate of a sliding or rolling contact is defined as the volume
of material lost from the wearing surface per unit of sliding length, and is expressed in units of [length] .
2
For any specific sliding application, the wear rate depends on the normal load, the relative sliding speed, the
initial temperature, and the mechanical, thermal, and chemical properties of the materials in contact.
(1) The effects of wear are commonly detected by visual inspection of surfaces. Surface damage can
be classified as follows:
(a) Surface damage without exchange of material:
! Structural changes: aging, tempering, phase transformations, and recrystallization.
! Plastic deformation: residual deformation of the surface layer.
! Surface cracking: fractures caused by excessive contact strains or cyclic variations of thermally or
mechanically induced strains.
(b) Surface damage with loss of material (wear):
! Characterized by wear scars of various shapes and sizes.
! Can be shear fracture, extrusion, chip formation, tearing, brittle fracture, fatigue fracture, chemical
dissolution, and diffusion.
(c) Surface damage with gain of material:
! Can include pickup of loose particles and transfer of material from the opposing surface.
! Corrosion: Material degradation by chemical reactions with ambient elements or elements from the
opposing surface.

(2) Wear may also be classified as mild or severe. The distinguishing characteristics between mild and
severe wear are as follows (Williams 1994):
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(a) Mild
! Produces extremely smooth surfaces - sometimes smoother than the original.
! Debris is extremely small, typically in the range of 100 nanometers (nm) (3.28 10 ft)
-13
in diameter.
! High electrical contact resistance, but little true metallic contact.
(b) Severe
! Rough, deeply torn surfaces - much rougher than the original.
! Large metallic wear debris, typically up to 0.01 mm (3.28 10 ft) in diameter.
-5
! Low contact resistance, but true metallic junctions are formed.
b. Types of wear. Ordinarily, wear is thought of only in terms of abrasive wear occurring in
connection with sliding motion and friction. However, wear also can result from adhesion, fatigue, or
corrosion.
(1) Abrasive wear. Abrasive wear occurs when a hard surface slides against and cuts grooves from a
softer surface. This condition is frequently referred to as two-body abrasion. Particles cut from the softer
surface or dust and dirt introduced between wearing surfaces also contribute to abrasive wear. This
condition is referred to as three-body abrasion.
(2) Adhesive wear. Adhesive wear frequently occurs because of shearing at points of contact or
asperities that undergo adhesion or cold welding, as previously described. Shearing occurs through the
weakest section, which is not necessarily at the adhesion plane. In many cases, shearing occurs in the
softer material, but such a comparison is based on shear tests of relatively large pure samples. The
adhesion junctions, on the other hand, are very small spots of weakness or impurity that would be
insignificant in a large specimen but in practice may be sufficient to permit shearing through the harder
material. In some instances the wearing surfaces of materials with different hardness can contain traces of
material from the other face. Theoretically, this type of wear does not remove material but merely transfers
it between wearing surfaces. However, the transferred material is often loosely deposited and eventually
flakes away in microscopic particles; these, in turn, cause wear.
(3) Pitting wear.
(a) Pitting wear is due to surface failure of a material as a result of stresses that exceed the endurance
(fatigue) limit of the material. Metal fatigue is demonstrated by bending a piece of metal wire, such as a
paper clip, back and forth until it breaks. Whenever a metal shape is deformed repeatedly, it eventually
fails. A different type of deformation occurs when a ball bearing under a load rolls along its race. The
bearing is flattened somewhat and the edges of contact are extended outward. This repeated flexing
eventually results in microscopic flakes being removed from the bearing. Fatigue wear also occurs during
sliding motion. Gear teeth frequently fail due to pitting.
(b) While pitting is generally viewed as a mode of failure, some pitting wear is not detrimental.
During the break-in period of new machinery, friction wears down working surface irregularities. This
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condition is considered to be nonprogressive and usually improves after the break-in period. However,
parts that are continuously subjected to repeated stress will experience destructive pitting as the materials
endurance limit is reached.
(4) Corrosive wear.
(a) Corrosive wear occurs as a result of a chemical reaction on a wearing surface. The most common
form of corrosion is due to a reaction between the metal and oxygen (oxidation); however, other chemicals
may also contribute. Corrosion products, usually oxides, have shear strengths different from those of the
wearing surface metals from which they were formed. The oxides tend to flake away, resulting in the
pitting of' wearing surfaces. Ball and roller bearings depend on extremely smooth surfaces to reduce
frictional effects. Corrosive pitting is especially detrimental to these bearings.
(b) American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Standard ANSI/AGMA 1010-E95 provides
numerous illustrations of wear in gears and includes detailed discussions of the types of wear mentioned
above and more. Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) Report EPRI GS-7352 provides illustrations of
bearing failures.
(c) Normal wear is inevitable whenever there is relative motion between surfaces. However, wear can
be reduced by appropriate machinery design, precision machining, material selection, and proper
maintenance, including lubrication. The remainder of this manual is devoted to discussions on the
fundamental principles of lubrication that are necessary to reduce wear.
2-3. Lubrication and Lubricants
a. Purpose of lubrication. The primary purpose of lubrication is to reduce wear and heat between
contacting surfaces in relative motion. While wear and heat cannot be completely eliminated, they can be
reduced to negligible or acceptable levels. Because heat and wear are associated with friction, both effects
can be minimized by reducing the coefficient of friction between the contacting surfaces. Lubrication is
also used to reduce oxidation and prevent rust; to provide insulation in transformer applications; to transmit
mechanical power in hydraulic fluid power applications; and to seal against dust, dirt, and water.
b. Lubricants. Reduced wear and heat are achieved by inserting a lower-viscosity (shear strength)
material between wearing surfaces that have a relatively high coefficient of friction. In effect, the wearing
surfaces are replaced by a material with a more desirable coefficient of friction. Any material used to
reduce friction in this way is a lubricant. Lubricants are available in liquid, solid, and gaseous forms.
Industrial machinery ordinarily uses oil or grease. Solid lubricants such as molybdenum disulfide or
graphite are used when the loading at contact points is heavy. In some applications the wearing surfaces of
a material are plated with a different metal to reduce friction.
2-4. Hydrodynamic or Fluid Film Lubrication
a. General. In heavily loaded bearings such as thrust bearings and horizontal journal bearings, the
fluid's viscosity alone is not sufficient to maintain a film between the moving surfaces. In these bearings
higher fluid pressures are required to support the load until the fluid film is established. If this pressure is
supplied by an outside source, it is called hydrostatic lubrication. If the pressure is generated internally,
that is, within the bearing by dynamic action, it is referred to as hydrodynamic lubrication. In
hydrodynamic lubrication, a fluid wedge is formed by the relative surface motion of the journals or the
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thrust runners over their respective bearing surfaces. The guide bearings of a vertical hydroelectric
generator, if properly aligned, have little or no loading and will tend to operate in the center of the bearing
because of the viscosity of the oil.
b. Thrust bearings.
(1) In hydrodynamic lubrication, sometimes referred to as fluid film lubrication, the wearing surfaces
are completely separated by a film of oil. This type of lubricating action is similar to a speedboat operating
on water. When the boat is not moving, it rests on the supporting water surface. As the boat begins to
move, it meets a certain amount of resistance or opposing force due to viscosity of the water. This causes
the leading edge of the boat to lift slightly and allows a small amount of water to come between it and
supporting water surface. As the boats velocity increases, the wedge-shaped water film increases in
thickness until a constant velocity is attained. When the velocity is constant, water entering under the
leading edge equals the amount passing outward from the trailing edge. For the boat to remain above the
supporting surface there must be an upward pressure that equals the load.
(2) The same principle can be applied to a sliding surface. Fluid film lubrication reduces friction
between moving surfaces by substituting fluid friction for mechanical friction. To visualize the shearing
effect taking place in the fluid film, imagine the film is composed of many layers similar to a deck of cards.
The fluid layer in contact with the moving surface clings to that surface and both move at the same
velocity. Similarly, the fluid layer in contact with the other surface is stationary. The layers in between
move at velocities directly proportional to their distance from the moving surface. For example, at a
distance of h from Surface 1, the velocity would be V. The force F required to move Surface 1 across
Surface 2 is simply the force required to overcome the friction between the layers of fluid. This internal
friction, or resistance to flow, is defined as the viscosity of the fluid. Viscosity will be discussed in more
detail later.
(3) The principle of hydrodynamic lubrication can also be applied to a more practical example related
to thrust bearings used in the hydropower industry. Thrust bearing assembly is also known as tilting pad
bearings. These bearings are designed to allow the pads to lift and tilt properly and provide sufficient area
to lift the load of the generator. As the thrust runner moves over the thrust shoe, fluid adhering to the
runner is drawn between the runner and the shoe causing the shoe to pivot, and forming a wedge of oil. As
the speed of the runner increases, the pressure of the oil wedge increases and the runner is lifted as full fluid
film lubrication takes place. In applications where the loads are very high, some thrust bearings have high
pressure-pumps to provide the initial oil film. Once the unit reaches 100 percent speed, the pump is
switched off.
c. Journal bearings. Although not as obvious as the plate or thrust bearing examples above, the
operation of journal or sleeve bearings is also an example of hydrodynamic lubrication. When the journal
is at rest, the weight of the journal squeezes out the oil film so that the journal rests on the bearing surface.
As rotation starts, the journal has a tendency to roll up the side of the bearing. At the same time fluid
adhering to the journal is drawn into the contact area. As the journal speed increases an oil wedge is
formed. The pressure of the oil wedge increases until the journal is lifted off the bearing. The journal is
not only lifted vertically, but is also pushed to the side by the pressure of the oil wedge. The minimum fluid
film thickness at full speed will occur at a point just to the left of center and not at the bottom of the
bearing. In both the pivoting shoe thrust bearing and the horizontal journal bearing, the minimum thickness
of the fluid film increases with an increase in fluid viscosity and surface speed and decreases with an
increase in load.
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d. Film thickness. The preceding discussion is a very simplified attempt to provide a basic
description of the principles involved in hydrodynamic lubrication. For a more precise, rigorous
interpretation refer to American Society for Metals Handbook Volume 18, listed in the Appendix A.
Simplified equations have been developed to provide approximations of film thickness with a considerable
degree of precision. Regardless of how film thickness is calculated, it is a function of viscosity, velocity,
and load. As viscosity or velocity increases, the film thickness increases. When these two variables
decrease, the film thickness also decreases. Film thickness varies inversely with the load; as the load
increases, film thickness decreases. Viscosity, velocity, and operating temperature are also interrelated. If
the oil viscosity is increased the operating temperature will increase, and this in turn has a tendency to
reduce viscosity. Thus, an increase in viscosity tends to neutralize itself somewhat. Velocity increases also
cause temperature increases that subsequently result in viscosity reduction.
e. Factors influencing film formation. The following factors are essential to achieve and maintain
the fluid film required for hydrodynamic lubrication:
! The contact surfaces must meet at a slight angle to allow formation of the lubricant wedge.
! The fluid viscosity must be high enough to support the load and maintain adequate film thickness
to separate the contacting surfaces at operating speeds.
! The fluid must adhere to the contact surfaces for conveyance into the pressure area to support the
load.
! The fluid must distribute itself completely within the bearing clearance area.
! The operating speed must be sufficient to allow formation and maintenance of the fluid film.
! The contact surfaces of bearings and journals must be smooth and free of sharp surfaces that will
disrupt the fluid film.
Theoretically, hydrodynamic lubrication reduces wear to zero. In reality, the journal tends to move
vertically and horizontally due to load changes or other disturbances and some wear does occur. However,
hydrodynamic lubrication reduces sliding friction and wear to acceptable levels.
2-5. Boundary Lubrication
a. Definition of boundary lubrication. When a complete fluid film does not develop between
potentially rubbing surfaces, the film thickness may be reduced to permit momentary dry contact between
wear surface high points or asperities. This condition is characteristic of boundary lubrication. Boundary
lubrication occurs whenever any of the essential factors that influence formation of a full fluid film are
missing. The most common example of boundary lubrication includes bearings, which normally operate
with fluid film lubrication but experience boundary lubricating conditions during routine starting and
stopping of equipment. Other examples include gear tooth contacts and reciprocating equipment.
b. Oiliness.
(1) Lubricants required to operate under boundary lubrication conditions must possess an added
quality referred to as oiliness or lubricity to lower the coefficient of friction of the oil between the
rubbing surfaces. Oiliness is an oil enhancement property provided through the use of chemical additives
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known as antiwear (AW) agents. AW agents have a polarizing property that enables them to behave in a
manner similar to a magnet. Like a magnet, the opposite sides of the oil film have different polarities.
When an AW oil adheres to the metal wear surfaces, the sides of the oil film not in contact with the metal
surface have identical polarities and tend to repel each other and form a plane of slippage. Most oils
intended for use in heavier machine applications contain AW agents.
(2) Examples of equipment that rely exclusively on boundary lubrication include reciprocating
equipment such as engine and compressor pistons, and slow-moving equipment such as turbine wicket
gates. Gear teeth also rely on boundary lubrication to a great extent.

2-6. Extreme Pressure (EP) Lubrication
a. Definition. AW agents are effective only up to a maximum temperature of about 250 EC (480 EF).
Unusually heavy loading will cause the oil temperature to increase beyond the effective range of the
antiwear protection. When the load limit is exceeded, the pressure becomes too great and asperities make
contact with greater force. Instead of sliding, asperities along the wear surfaces experience shearing,
removing the lubricant and the oxide coating. Under these conditions the coefficient of friction is greatly
increased and the temperature rises to a damaging level.
b. Extreme pressure additives. Applications under extreme pressure conditions rely on additives.
Lubricants containing additives that protect against extreme pressure are called EP lubricants, and oils
containing additives to protect against extreme pressure are classified as EP oils. EP lubrication is
provided by a number of chemical compounds. The most common are compounds of boron, phosphorus,
sulfur, chlorine, or combinations of these. The compounds are activated by the higher temperature
resulting from extreme pressure, not by the pressure itself. As the temperature rises, EP molecules become
reactive and release derivatives of phosphorus, chlorine, or sulfur (depending on which compound is used)
to react with only the exposed metal surfaces to form a new compound such as iron chloride or iron sulfide.
The new compound forms a solid protective coating that fills the asperities on the exposed metal. Thus, the
protection is deposited at exactly the sites where it is needed. AW agents in the EP oil continue to provide
antiwear protection at sites where wear and temperature are not high enough to activate the EP agents.
2-7. Elastohydrodynamic (EHD) Lubrication
a. Definition of EHD lubrication. The lubrication principles applied to rolling bodies, such as ball or
roller bearings, is known as elastohydrodynamic (EHD) lubrication.
b. Rolling body lubrication. Although lubrication of rolling objects operates on a considerably
different principle than sliding objects, the principles of hydrodynamic lubrication can be applied, within
limits, to explain lubrication of rolling elements. An oil wedge, similar to that which occurs in
hydrodynamic lubrication, exists at the lower leading edge of the bearing. Adhesion of oil to the sliding
element and the supporting surface increases pressure and creates a film between the two bodies. Because
the area of contact is extremely small in a roller and ball bearing, the force per unit area, or load pressure,
is extremely high. Roller bearing load pressures may reach 34,450 kPa (5000 lb/sq in) and ball bearing
load pressures may reach 689,000 kPa (1,000,000 lb/sq in). Under these pressures, it would appear that
the oil would be entirely squeezed from between the wearing surfaces. However, viscosity increases that
occur under extremely high pressure prevent the oil from being entirely squeezed out. Consequently, a thin
film of oil is maintained.
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c. Effect of film thickness and roughness.
(1) The roughness of the wearing surfaces is an important consideration in EHD lubrication.
Roughness is defined as the arithmetic average of the distance between the high and low points of a surface,
and is sometimes called the centerline average (CLA).
(2) As film thickness increases in relation to roughness fewer asperities make contact. Engineers use
the ratio of film thickness to surface roughness to estimate the life expectancy of a bearing system. The
relation of bearing life to this ratio is very complex and not always predictable. In general, life expectancy
is extended as the ratio increases. Full film thickness is considered to exist when the value of this ratio is
between 2 and 4. When this condition prevails, fatigue failure is due entirely to subsurface stress.
However, in most industrial applications, a ratio between 1 and 2 is achieved. At these values surface
stresses occur, and asperities undergo stress and contribute to fatigue as a major source of failure in
antifriction bearings.
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Chapter 3
Lubricating Oils
3-1. Oil Refining
Most lubricating oils are currently obtained from distillation of crude petroleum. Due to the wide variety of
petroleum constituents, it is necessary to separate petroleum into portions (fractions) with roughly the same
qualities.
a. General scheme of the refining process. The refining process can be briefly described as follows:
(1) Crudes are segregated and selected depending on the types of hydrocarbons in them.
(2) The selected crudes are distilled to produce fractions. A fraction is a portion of the crude that falls
into a specified boiling point range.
(3) Each fraction is processed to remove undesirable components. The processing may include:
! Solvent refining to remove undesirable compounds.
! Solvent dewaxing to remove compounds that form crystalline materials at low temperature.
! Catalytic hydrogenation to eliminate compounds that would easily oxidize.
! Clay percolation to remove polar substances.
(4) The various fractions are blended to obtain a finished product with the specified viscosity.
Additives may be introduced to improve desired characteristics. The various types of and uses for
additives are discussed in Chapter 7.
b. Separation into fractions. Separation is accomplished by a two-stage process: crude distillation
and residuum distillation.
(1) Crude distillation. In the first stage the crude petroleum is mixed with water to dissolve any salt.
The resulting brine is separated by settling. The remaining oil is pumped through a tubular furnace where
it is partially vaporized. The components that have a low number of carbon atoms vaporize and pass into a
fractionating column or tower. As the vapors rise in the column, cooling causes condensation. By
controlling the temperature, the volatile components may be separated into fractions that fall within
particular boiling point ranges. In general, compounds with the lowest boiling points have the fewest
carbon atoms and compounds with the highest boiling points have the greatest number of carbon atoms.
This process reduces the number of compounds within each fraction and provides different qualities. The
final products derived from this first-stage distillation process are raw gasoline, kerosene, and diesel fuel.
(2) Residuum distillation. The second-stage process involves distilling the portion of the first-stage
that did not volatilize. Lubricating oils are obtained from this portion, which is referred to as the residuum.
To prevent formation of undesired products, the residuum is distilled under vacuum so it will boil at a
lower temperature. Distillation of the residuum produces oils of several boiling point ranges. The higher
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the boiling point, the higher the carbon content of the oil molecules in a given range. More importantly,
viscosity also varies with the boiling point and the number of carbon atoms in the oil molecules.
c. Impurity removal. Once the oil is separated into fractions, it must be further treated to remove
impurities, waxy resins, and asphalt. Oils that have been highly refined are usually referred to as premium
grades to distinguish them from grades of lesser quality in the producer's line of products. However, there
are no criteria to establish what constitutes premium grade.
3-2. Types of Oil
Oils are generally classified as refined and synthetic. Paraffinic and naphthenic oils are refined from crude
oil while synthetic oils are manufactured. Literature on lubrication frequently makes references to long-
chain molecules and ring structures in connection with paraffinic and naphthenic oils, respectively. These
terms refer to the arrangement of hydrogen and carbon atoms that make up the molecular structure of the
oils. Discussion of the chemical structure of oils is beyond the scope of this manual, but the distinguishing
characteristics between these oils are noted below.
a. Paraffinic oils. Paraffinic oils are distinguished by a molecular structure composed of long chains
of hydrocarbons, i.e., the hydrogen and carbon atoms are linked in a long linear series similar to a chain.
Paraffinic oils contain paraffin wax and are the most widely used base stock for lubricating oils. In
comparison with naphthenic oils, paraffinic oils have:
! Excellent stability (higher resistance to oxidation).
! Higher pour point.
! Higher viscosity index.
! Low volatility and, consequently, high flash points.
! Low specific gravities.
b. Naphthenic oils. In contrast to paraffinic oils, naphthenic oils are distinguished by a molecular
structure composed of rings of hydrocarbons, i.e., the hydrogen and carbon atoms are linked in a circular
pattern. These oils do not contain wax and behave differently than paraffinic oils. Naphthenic oils have:
! Good stability.
! Lower pour point due to absence of wax.
! Lower viscosity indexes.
! Higher volatility (lower flash point).
! Higher specific gravities.
Naphthenic oils are generally reserved for applications with narrow temperature ranges and where a low
pour point is required.
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c. Synthetic oils.
(1) Synthetic lubricants are produced from chemical synthesis rather than from the refinement of
existing petroleum or vegetable oils. These oils are generally superior to petroleum (mineral) lubricants in
most circumstances. Synthetic oils perform better than mineral oils in the following respects:
! Better oxidation stability or resistance.
! Better viscosity index.
! Much lower pour point, as low as -46 EC (-50 EF).
! Lower coefficient of friction.
(2) The advantages offered by synthetic oils are most notable at either very low or very high
temperatures. Good oxidation stability and a lower coefficient of friction permits operation at higher
temperatures. The better viscosity index and lower pour points permit operation at lower temperatures.
(3) The major disadvantage to synthetic oils is the initial cost, which is approximately three times
higher than mineral-based oils. However, the initial premium is usually recovered over the life of the
product, which is about three times longer than conventional lubricants. The higher cost makes it
inadvisable to use synthetics in oil systems experiencing leakage.
(4) Plant Engineering magazines Exclusive Guide to Synthetic Lubricants, which is revised every
three years, provides information on selecting and applying these lubricants. Factors to be considered when
selecting synthetic oils include pour and flash points; demulsibility; lubricity; rust and corrosion protection;
thermal and oxidation stability; antiwear properties; compatibility with seals, paints, and other oils; and
compliance with testing and standard requirements. Unlike Plant Engineering magazines Chart of
Interchangeable Lubricants, it is important to note that synthetic oils are as different from each other as
they are from mineral oils. Their performance and applicability to any specific situation depends on the
quality of the synthetic base-oil and additive package, and the synthetic oils listed in Plant Engineering are
not necessarily interchangeable.
d. Synthetic lubricant categories.
(1) Several major categories of synthetic lubricants are available including:
(a) Synthesized hydrocarbons. Polyalphaolefins and dialkylated benzenes are the most common types.
These lubricants provide performance characteristics closest to mineral oils and are compatible with them.
Applications include engine and turbine oils, hydraulic fluids, gear and bearing oils, and compressor oils.
(b) Organic esters. Diabasic acid and polyol esters are the most common types. The properties of
these oils are easily enhanced through additives. Applications include crankcase oils and compressor
lubricants.
(c) Phosphate esters. These oils are suited for fire-resistance applications.
(d) Polyglycols. Applications include gears, bearings, and compressors for hydrocarbon gases.
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(e) Silicones. These oils are chemically inert, nontoxic, fire-resistant, and water repellant. They also
have low pour points and volatility, good low-temperature fluidity, and good oxidation and thermal stability
at high temperatures.
(2) Table 3-1 identifies several synthetic oils and their properties.
3-3. Characteristics of Lubricating Oils
a. Viscosity. Technically, the viscosity of an oil is a measure of the oils resistance to shear.
Viscosity is more commonly known as resistance to flow. If a lubricating oil is considered as a series of
fluid layers superimposed on each other, the viscosity of the oil is a measure of the resistance to flow
between the individual layers. A high viscosity implies a high resistance to flow while a low viscosity
indicates a low resistance to flow. Viscosity varies inversely with temperature. Viscosity is also affected
by pressure; higher pressure causes the viscosity to increase, and subsequently the load-carrying capacity
of the oil also increases. This property enables use of thin oils to lubricate heavy machinery. The load-
carrying capacity also increases as operating speed of the lubricated machinery is increased. Two methods
for measuring viscosity are commonly employed: shear and time.
(1) Shear. When viscosity is determined by directly measuring shear stress and shear rate, it is
expressed in centipoise (cP) and is referred to as the absolute or dynamic viscosity. In the oil industry, it is
more common to use kinematic viscosity, which is the absolute viscosity divided by the density of the oil
being tested. Kinematic viscosity is expressed in centistokes (cSt). Viscosity in centistokes is
conventionally given at two standard temperatures: 40 EC and 100 EC (104 EF and 212 EF ).
(2) Time. Another method used to determine oil viscosity measures the time required for an oil sample
to flow through a standard orifice at a standard temperature. Viscosity is then expressed in SUS (Saybolt
Universal Seconds). SUS viscosities are also conventionally given at two standard temperatures: 37 EC
and 98 EC (100 EF and 210 EF). As previously noted, the units of viscosity can be expressed as centipoise
(cP), centistokes (cST), or Saybolt Universal Seconds (SUS), depending on the actual test method used to
measure the viscosity.
b. Viscosity index. The viscosity index, commonly designated VI, is an arbitrary numbering scale
that indicates the changes in oil viscosity with changes in temperature. Viscosity index can be classified as
follows: low VI - below 35; medium VI - 35 to 80; high VI - 80 to 110; very high VI - above 110. A high
viscosity index indicates small oil viscosity changes with temperature. A low viscosity index indicates high
viscosity changes with temperature. Therefore, a fluid that has a high viscosity index can be expected to
undergo very little change in viscosity with temperature extremes and is considered to have a stable
viscosity. A fluid with a low viscosity index can be expected to undergo a significant change in viscosity as
the temperature fluctuates. For a given temperature range, say -18 to 370EC ( 0 - 100 EF), the viscosity of
one oil may change considerably more than another. An oil with a VI of 95 to 100 would change less than
one with a VI of 80. Knowing the viscosity index of an oil is crucial when selecting a lubricant for an
application, and is especially critical in extremely hot or cold climates. Failure to use an oil with the
proper viscosity index when temperature extremes are expected may result in poor lubrication and
equipment failure. Typically, paraffinic oils are rated at 38 EC ( 100 EF) and naphthenic oils are rated at
-18 EC (0 EF). Proper selection of petroleum stocks and additives can produce oils with a very good VI.
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Table 3-1
Synthetic Oils
Fluid Property Di-ester Ester Esters Silicone Silicone Silicone (inhibited) Polyether
Typical Typical Phenyl Chlorinated
Phosphate Inhibited Methyl Methyl Phenyl Methyl Polyglycol Perfluorinate
Typical
Maximum temperature in 250 300 110 220 320 305 260 370
absence of oxygen (EC)
Maximum temperature in 210 240 110 180 250 230 200 310
presence of oxygen (EC)
Maximum temperature due to 150 180 100 200 250 280 200 300
decrease in viscosity (EC)
Minimum temperature due to -35 -65 -55 -50 -30 -65 -20 -60
increase in viscosity (EC)
Density (g/ml) 0.91 1.01 1.12 0.97 1.06 1.04 1.02 1.88
Viscosity index 145 140 0 200 175 195 160 100-300
Flash point (EC) 230 255 200 310 290 270 180
Spontaneous ignition Low Medium Very high High High Very high Medium Very high
temperature
Thermal conductivity 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.16 0.15 0.15 0.15
(W/M EC)
Thermal capacity (J/kg EC) 2,000 1,700 1,600 1,550 1,550 1,550 2,000
Bulk modulus Medium Medium Medium Very low Low Low Medium Low
Boundary lubrication Good Good Very good for steel on poor for Good Very good Poor
Fair, but poor Fair, but
steel steel on
steel
Toxicity Slight Slight Some Nontoxic Nontoxic Nontoxic Believed Low
toxicity to be low
Suitable rubbers Nitrile, Silicone Butyl, EPR Neoprene, Neoprene, Viton, fluoro- Nitrile Many
silicone viton viton silicone
Effect on plastics May act as plasticizers Powerful may leach may leach may leach out mild
solvent out out plasti- plasticizers
Slight, but Slight, but Slight, but Generally Mild
plasticizers cizers
Resistance to attack by water Good Good Fair Very good Very good Good Good Very good
Resistance to chemicals Attacked by Attacked by Attacked by Attacked by Attacked by Attacked by Attacked by Very good
alkali alkali many strong alkali strong alkali alkali oxidants
chemicals
Effect on metals to Non- ferrous in presence water to ferrous at elevated
Slightly Corrosive to Enhanced Non- Non- Corrosive in Non- Removes
corrosive some Non- corrosion corrosive corrosive presence of corrosive oxide films
ferrous metals of water metals temperatures
metals when hot
Cost (relative to mineral oil) 4 6 6 15 25 40 4 500
Note: Application data for a variety of synthetic oils are given in this table. The list is not complete, but most readily available synthetic oils are included.
The data are generalizations, and no account has been taken of the availability and property variations of different viscosity grades in each chemical type.
Reference: Neale, M.J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook
(Continued)
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Table 3-1 (Continued)
Fluid Property Diphenyl or Disiloxame Ether Fluorocarbon comparison) Remark
Chlorinated Silicate Ester Polyphenyl Mineral Oil (for
Maximum temperature in 315 300 450 300 200 For esters this temperature will be
absence of oxygen (EC) higher in the absence of metals
Maximum temperature in 145 200 320 300 150 This limit is arbitrary. It will be
absence of oxygen (EC) higher if oxygen concentration is
low and life is short
Maximum temperature due 100 240 150 140 200 With external pressurization or low
to decrease in viscosity (EC) loads this limit will be higher
Minimum temperature due -10 -60 0 -50 0 to -50 This limit depends on the power
to decrease in viscosity (EC) available to overcome the effect of
increased viscosity
Density (g/ml) 1.42 1.02 1.19 1.95 0.88
Viscosity index -200 to +25 150 -60 -25 0 to 140 A high viscosity index is desirable
Flash point (EC) 180 170 275 None 150 to 200 Above this temperature the vapor of
the fluid may be ignited by an open
flame
Spontaneous ignition Very high Medium High Very high Low Above this temperature the fluid
temperature may ignite without any flame being
present
Thermal conductivity 0.12 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.13 A high thermal conductivity and
(W/mE C) high thermal capacity are desirable
Thermal capacity (J/kgE C) 1,200 1,700 1,750 1,350 2,000 for effective cooling
Bulk modulus Medium Low Medium Low Fairly high There are four different values of
bulk modulus for each fluid but the
relative qualities are consistent
Boundary lubrication Very good Fair Fair Very good Good This refers primarily to antiwear
properties when some metal
contact is occurring
Toxicity Irritant vapor Slight Believed to Nontoxic unless Slight Specialist advice should always be
when hot be low overheated taken on toxic hazards
Suitable rubbers Viton Viton nitrile, (None for Silicone Nitrile
floro-silicone very high
tempera-
tures)
Effect on plastics Powerful Generally mild Polyimides Some soften- Generally slight
solvent satisfactory ing when hot
Resistance to attack by water Excellent Poor Very good Excellent Excellent This refers to breakdown of the fluid
itself and not the effect of water on
the system
Resistance to chemicals Very resistant Generally poor Resistant Resistant but Very resistant
attacked by
alkali and
amines
Effect on metals Some Noncorrosive Noncorrosive Noncorrosive, Noncorrosive
corrosion of but unsafe with when pure
copper alloys aluminum and
magnesium
Cost (relative to mineral oil) 10 8 100 300 1 These are rough approximations
and vary with quality and supply
position
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c. Pour point. The pour point is the lowest temperature at which an oil will flow. This property is
crucial for oils that must flow at low temperatures. A commonly used rule of thumb when selecting oils is
to ensure that the pour point is at least 10 EC (20 EF) lower than the lowest anticipated ambient
temperature.
d. Cloud point. The cloud point is the temperature at which dissolved solids in the oil, such as
paraffin wax, begin to form and separate from the oil. As the temperature drops, wax crystallizes and
becomes visible. Certain oils must be maintained at temperatures above the cloud point to prevent clogging
of filters.
e. Flash point and fire point. The flash point is the lowest temperature to which a lubricant must be
heated before its vapor, when mixed with air, will ignite but not continue to burn. The fire point is the
temperature at which lubricant combustion will be sustained. The flash and fire points are useful in
determining a lubricants volatility and fire resistance. The flash point can be used to determine the
transportation and storage temperature requirements for lubricants. Lubricant producers can also use the
flash point to detect potential product contamination. A lubricant exhibiting a flash point significantly
lower than normal will be suspected of contamination with a volatile product. Products with a flash point
less than 38 EC (100 EF) will usually require special precautions for safe handling. The fire point for a
lubricant is usually 8 to 10 percent above the flash point. The flash point and fire point should not be
confused with the auto-ignition temperature of a lubricant, which is the temperature at which a lubricant
will ignite spontaneously without an external ignition source.
f. Acid number or neutralization number. The acid or neutralization number is a measure of the
amount of potassium hydroxide required to neutralize the acid contained in a lubricant. Acids are formed
as oils oxidize with age and service. The acid number for an oil sample is indicative of the age of the oil
and can be used to determine when the oil must be changed.
3-4 Oil Classifications and Grading Systems
a. Professional societies classify oils by viscosity ranges or grades. The most common systems are
those of the SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers), the AGMA (American Gear Manufacturers
Association), the ISO (International Standards Organization), and the ASTM (American Society for
Testing and Materials). Other systems are used in special circumstances.
b. The variety of grading systems used in the lubrication industry can be confusing. A specification
giving the type of oil to be used might identify an oil in terms of its AGMA grade, for example, but an oil
producer may give the viscosity in terms of cSt or SUS. Conversion charts between the various grading
systems are readily available from lubricant suppliers. Conversion between cSt and SUS viscosities at
standard temperatures can also be obtained from ASTM D 2161.
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Chapter 4
Hydraulic Fluids
4-1. Purpose of Hydraulic Fluids
a. Power transmission. The primary purpose of any hydraulic fluid is to transmit power
mechanically throughout a hydraulic power system. To ensure stable operation of components, such as
servos, the fluid must flow easily and must be incompressible.
b. Lubrication. Hydraulic fluids must provide the lubricating characteristics and qualities necessary
to protect all hydraulic system components against friction and wear, rust, oxidation, corrosion, and
demulsibility. These protective qualities are usually provided through the use of additives.
c. Sealing. Many hydraulic system components, such as control valves, operate with tight clearances
where seals are not provided. In these applications hydraulic fluids must provide the seal between the low-
pressure and high-pressure side of valve ports. The amount of leakage will depend on the closeness or the
tolerances between adjacent surfaces and the fluid viscosity.

d. Cooling. The circulating hydraulic fluid must be capable of removing heat generated throughout
the system.
4-2. Physical Characteristics
The physical characteristics of hydraulic fluids are similar to those already discussed for lubricating oils.
Only those characteristics requiring additional discussion are addressed below.
a. Viscosity. As with lubricating oils, viscosity is the most important characteristic of a hydraulic
fluid and has a significant impact on the operation of a hydraulic system. If the viscosity is too high then
friction, pressure drop, power consumption, and heat generation increase. Furthermore, sluggish operation
of valves and servos may result. If the viscosity is too low, increased internal leakage may result under
higher operating temperatures. The oil film may be insufficient to prevent excessive wear or possible
seizure of moving parts, pump efficiency may decrease, and sluggish operation may be experienced.
b. Compressibility. Compressibility is a measure of the amount of volume reduction due to pressure.
Compressibility is sometimes expressed by the bulk modulus, which is the reciprocal of compressibility.
Petroleum fluids are relatively incompressible, but volume reductions can be approximately 0.5 percent for
pressures ranging from 6900 kPa (1000 lb/sq in) up to 27,600 kPa (4000 lb/sq in). Compressibility
increases with pressure and temperature and has significant effects on high-pressure fluid systems.
Problems directly caused by compressibility include the following: servos fail to maintain static rigidity and
experience adverse effects in system amplification or gain; loss in efficiency, which is counted as power
loss because the volume reduction due to compressibility cannot be recovered; and cavitation, which may
cause metal fracture, corrosive fatigue, and stress corrosion.
c. Stability. The stability of a hydraulic fluid is the most important property affecting service life.
The properties of a hydraulic fluid can be expected to change with time. Factors that influence the changes
include: mechanical stress and cavitation, which can break down the viscosity improvers and cause reduced
viscosity; and oxidation and hydrolysis which cause chemical changes, formation of volatile components,
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insoluble materials, and corrosive products. The types of additives used in a fluid must be selected
carefully to reduce the potential damage due to chemical breakdown at high temperatures.

4-3. Quality Requirements
The quality of a hydraulic fluid is an indication of the length of time that the fluids essential properties will
continue to perform as expected, i.e., the fluids resistance to change with time. The primary properties
affecting quality are oxidation stability, rust prevention, foam resistance, water separation, and antiwear
properties. Many of these properties are achieved through use of chemical additives. However, these
additives can enhance one property while adversely affecting another. The selection and compatibility of
additives is very important to minimize adverse chemical reactions that may destroy essential properties.
a. Oxidation stability. Oxidation, or the chemical union of oil and oxygen, is one of the primary
causes for decreasing the stability of hydraulic fluids. Once the reactions begin, a catalytic effect takes
place. The chemical reactions result in formation of acids that can increase the fluid viscosity and can
cause corrosion. Polymerization and condensation produce insoluble gum, sludge, and varnish that cause
sluggish operation, increase wear, reduce clearances, and plug lines and valves. The most significant
contributors to oxidation include temperature, pressure, contaminants, water, metal surfaces, and agitation.
(1) Temperature. The rate of chemical reactions, including oxidation, approximately doubles for
every 10 EC (18 EF) increase in temperature. The reaction may start at a local area where the temperature
is high. However, once started, the oxidation reaction has a catalytic effect that causes the rate of oxidation
to increase.
(2) Pressure. As the pressure increases, the fluid viscosity also increases, causing an increase in
friction and heat generation. As the operating temperature increases, the rate of oxidation increases.
Furthermore, as the pressure increases, the amount of entrained air and associated oxygen also increases.
This condition provides additional oxygen to accelerate the oxidation reaction.

(3) Contaminants. Contaminants that accelerate the rate of oxidation may be dirt, moisture, joint
compounds, insoluble oxidation products, or paints. A 1 percent sludge concentration in a hydraulic fluid
is sufficient to cause the fluid to oxidize in half the time it would take if no sludge were present. Therefore
the contaminated fluids useful life is reduced by 50 percent.
(4) Water and metal. Certain metals, such as copper, are known to be catalysts for oxidation
reactions, especially in the presence of water. Due to the production of acids during the initial stages of
oxidation, the viscosity and neutralization numbers increase. The neutralization number for a fluid
provides a measure of the amount of acid contained in a fluid. The most commonly accepted oxidation test
for hydraulic fluids is the ASTM Method D 943 Oxidation Test. This test measures the neutralization
number of oil as it is heated in the presence of pure oxygen, a metal catalyst, and water. Once started the
test continues until the neutralization number reaches a value of 2.0. One series of tests provides an
indication of how the neutralization number is affected by contaminants. With no water or metal
contaminants, the neutralization number reached 0.17 in 3500 hours. When the test was repeated with
copper contaminant, the neutralization number reached a value of 0.89 after 3000 hours. The test was
subsequently repeated with copper and water contamination and the neutralization number reached 11.2 in
approximately 150 hours.
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(5) Agitation. To reduce the potential for oxidation, oxidation inhibitors are added to the base
hydraulic fluid. Two types of inhibitors are generally used: chain breakers and metal deactivators. Chain
breaker inhibitors interrupt the oxidation reaction immediately after the reaction is initiated. Metal
deactivators reduce the effects of metal catalysts.
b. Rust and corrosion prevention. Rust is a chemical reaction between water and ferrous metals.
Corrosion is a chemical reaction between chemicals (usually acids) and metals. Water condensed from
entrained air in a hydraulic system causes rust if the metal surfaces are not properly protected. In some
cases water reacts with chemicals in a hydraulic fluid to produce acids that cause corrosion. The acids
attack and remove particles from metal surfaces allowing the affected surfaces to leak, and in some cases to
seize. To prevent rust, hydraulic fluids use rust inhibitors that deposit a protective film on metal surfaces.
The film is virtually impervious to water and completely prevents rust once the film is established
throughout the hydraulic system. Rust inhibitors are tested according to the ASTM D 665 Rusting Test.
This test subjects a steel rod to a mixture of oil and salt water that has been heated to 60 EC (140 EF). If
the rod shows no sign of rust after 24 hours the fluid is considered satisfactory with respect to rust-
inhibiting properties. In addition to rust inhibitors, additives must be used to prevent corrosion. These
additives must exhibit excellent hydrolytic stability in the presence of water to prevent fluid breakdown and
the acid formation that causes corrosion.
c. Air entrainment and foaming. Air enters a hydraulic system through the reservoir or through air
leaks within the hydraulic system. Air entering through the reservoir contributes to surface foaming on the
oil. Good reservoir design and use of foam inhibitors usually eliminate surface foaming.
(1) Air entrainment is a dispersion of very small air bubbles in a hydraulic fluid. Oil under low
pressure absorbs approximately 10 percent air by volume. Under high pressure, the percentage is even
greater. When the fluid is depressurized, the air produces foam as it is released from solution. Foam and
high air entrainment in a hydraulic fluid cause erratic operation of servos and contribute to pump
cavitation. Oil oxidation is another problem caused by air entrainment. As a fluid is pressurized, the
entrained air is compressed and increases in temperature. This increased air temperature can be high
enough to scorch the surrounding oil and cause oxidation.
(2) The amount of foaming in a fluid depends upon the viscosity of the fluid, the source of the crude
oil, the refinement process, and usage. Foam depressants are commonly added to hydraulic fluid to
expedite foam breakup and release of dissolved air. However, it is important to note that foam depressants
do not prevent foaming or inhibit air from dissolving in the fluid. In fact, some antifoamants, when used in
high concentrations to break up foam, actually retard the release of dissolved air from the fluid.
d. Demulsibility or water separation. Water that enters a hydraulic system can emulsify and
promote the collection of dust, grit, and dirt, and this can adversely affect the operation of valves, servos,
and pumps, increase wear and corrosion, promote fluid oxidation, deplete additives, and plug filters.
Highly refined mineral oils permit water to separate or demulsify readily. However, some additives such as
antirust treatments actually promote emulsion formation to prevent separated water from settling and
breaking through the antirust film.
e. Antiwear properties.
(1) Conventional hydraulic fluids are satisfactory for low-pressure and low-speed applications.
However, hydraulic fluids for high-pressure (over 6900 kPa or 1000.5 lb/sq in) and high-speed (over
1200 rpm) applications that use vane or gear pumps must contain antiwear additives. These applications
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4-4
do not permit the formation of full fluid film lubrication to protect contacting surfaces--a condition known
as boundary lubrication. Boundary lubrication occurs when the fluid viscosity is insufficient to prevent
surface contact. Antiwear additives provide a protective film at the contact surfaces to minimize wear. At
best, use of a hydraulic fluid without the proper antiwear additives will cause premature wear of the pumps
and cause inadequate system pressure. Eventually the pumps will be destroyed.
(2) Quality assurance of antiwear properties is determined through standard laboratory testing.
Laboratory tests to evaluate antiwear properties of a hydraulic fluid are performed in accordance with
ASTM D 2882. This test procedure is generally conducted with a variety of high-speed, high-pressure
pump models manufactured by Vickers or Denison. Throughout the tests, the pumps are operated for a
specified period. At the end of each period the pumps are disassembled and specified components are
weighed. The weight of each component is compared to its initial weight; the difference reflects the amount
of wear experienced by the pumps for the operating period. The components are also inspected for visual
signs of wear and stress.
4-4. Use of Additives
Many of the qualities and properties discussed above are achieved by the product manufacturers careful
blending of additives with base oil stocks. Because of incompatibility problems and the complex
interactions that can occur between various additives, oil producers warn users against attempting to
enhance oil properties through indiscriminate use of additives. The various types of additives and their use
are discussed in Chapter 7.
4-5. Types of Hydraulic Fluids
a. Petroleum. Petroleum-based oils are the most commonly used stock for hydraulic applications
where there is no danger of fire, no possibility of leakage that may cause contamination of other products,
no wide temperature fluctuations, and no environmental impact.
b. Fire resistant. In applications where fire hazards or environmental pollution are a concern, water-
based or aqueous fluids offer distinct advantages. The fluids consist of water-glycols and water-in-oil
fluids with emulsifiers, stabilizers, and additives. Due to their lower lubricity, piston pumps used with
these fluids should be limited to 20,670 kPa (3000 lb/sq in.) Furthermore, vane pumps should not be used
with water-based fluid unless they are specifically designed to use such fluids.
(1) Water-glycol. Water-glycol fluids contain from 35 to 60 percent water to provide the fire
resistance, plus a glycol antifreeze such as ethylene, diethylene, or propylene which is nontoxic and
biodegradable, and a thickener such as polyglycol to provide the required viscosity. These fluids also
provide all the important additives such as antiwear, foam, rust, and corrosion inhibitors. Operating
temperatures for water-glycol fluids should be maintained below 49 EC (120 EF) to prevent evaporation
and deterioration of the fluid. To prevent separation of fluid phases or adverse effects on the fluid
additives, the minimum temperature should not drop below 0 C (32 F).
0 0
(a) Viscosity, pH, and water hardness monitoring are very important in water-glycol systems. If water
is lost to evaporation, the fluid viscosity, friction, and operating temperature of the fluid will increase. The
end result is sluggish operation of the hydraulic system and increased power consumption. If fluid
viscosity is permitted to drop due to excessive water, internal leakage at actuators will increase and cause
sluggish operation. A thin fluid is also more prone to turbulent flow which will increase the potential for
erosion of system components.
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(b) Under normal use, the fluid pH can be expected to drop due to water evaporation, heat, and loss of
corrosion inhibitors. The fluid pH should be slightly alkaline (i.e., above pH8) to prevent rust. However,
because of their volatility and toxicity, handling of the amine additives that stabilize the pH is not
recommended. Therefore, these essential additives are not usually replenished. Fluids with pH levels that
drop below 8 should be removed and properly discarded.
(c) Make-up water added to the system must be distilled or soft deionized. The calcium and
magnesium present in potable water will react with lubricant additives causing them to floc or come out of
solution and compromise the fluids performance. When this condition occurs the fluid is permanently
damaged and should be replaced. To prolong the fluid and component life, water added to the system
should have a maximum hardness of 5 parts per million (ppm).
(2) Water-oil emulsions
(a) Oil-in-water. These fluids consist of very small oil droplets dispersed in a continuous water phase.
These fluids have low viscosities, excellent fire-resistance, and good cooling capability due to the large
proportion of water. Additives must be used to improve their inherently poor lubricity and to protect
against rust.
(b) Water-in-oil. The water content of water-in-oil fluids may be approximately 40 percent. These
fluids consist of very small water droplets dispersed in a continuous oil phase. The oil phase provides good
to excellent lubricity while the water content provides the desired level of fire-resistance and enhances the
fluid cooling capability. Emulsifiers are added to improve stability. Additives are included to minimize
rust and to improve lubricity as necessary. These fluids are compatible with most seals and metals
common to hydraulic fluid applications. The operating temperature of water-in-oil fluids must be kept low
to prevent evaporation and oxidation. The proportion of oil and water must be monitored to ensure that the
proper viscosity is maintained especially when adding water or concentrated solutions to the fluid to make
up for evaporation. To prevent phase separation, the fluid should be protected from repeated cycles of
freezing and thawing.
(c) Synthetic fire-resistant fluids. Three types of synthetic fire-resistant fluids are manufactured:
phosphate esters, chlorinated (halogenated) hydrocarbons, and synthetic base (a mixture of these two).
These fluids do not contain water or volatile materials, and they provide satisfactory operation at high
temperatures without loss of essential elements (in contrast to water-based fluids). The fluids are also
suitable for high-pressure applications. Synthetic fluids have a low viscosity index, anywhere from 80 to -
400, so their use should be restricted to relatively constant operating temperatures. When required to
operate at low temperatures, these fluids may require auxiliary heating. Synthetic fluids also have high
specific gravities so pump inlet conditions must be carefully selected to prevent cavitation. Phosphate
esters have flash points above 204 EC (400 EF) and auto-ignition temperatures above 483 EC (900 EF),
making these fluids less likely to ignite and sustain burning. Halogenated hydrocarbon fluids are inert,
odorless, nonflammable, noncorrosive, and have low toxicity. Seal compatibility is very important when
using synthetic fluids. Most commonly used seals such as Nitrile (Buna) and Neoprene are not compatible
with these fluids.
c. Environmentally acceptable hydraulic fluids. The requirements for biodegradable fluids are
discussed in Chapter 8.
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4-6
4-6. Cleanliness Requirements
Due to the very small clearances and critical nature of hydraulic systems, proper maintenance and
cleanliness of these systems is extremely important. Hydraulic system cleanliness codes, oil purification,
and filtration are discussed in Chapter 12.
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5-1
Chapter 5
Grease
5-1. Description
Grease is a semifluid to solid mixture of a fluid lubricant, a thickener, and additives. The fluid lubricant
that performs the actual lubrication can be petroleum (mineral) oil, synthetic oil, or vegetable oil. The
thickener gives grease its characteristic consistency and is sometimes thought of as a three-dimensional
fibrous network or sponge that holds the oil in place. Common thickeners are soaps and organic or
inorganic nonsoap thickeners. The majority of greases on the market are composed of mineral oil blended
with a soap thickener. Additives enhance performance and protect the grease and lubricated surfaces.
Grease has been described as a temperature-regulated feeding device: when the lubricant film between
wearing surfaces thins, the resulting heat softens the adjacent grease, which expands and releases oil to
restore film thickness.
5-2. Function
The function of grease is to remain in contact with and lubricate moving surfaces without leaking out
under gravity or centrifugal action, or be squeezed out under pressure. Its major practical requirement is
that it retain its properties under shear at all temperatures that it is subjected to during use. At the same
time, grease must be able to flow into the bearing through grease guns and from spot to spot in the
lubricated machinery as needed, but must not add significantly to the power required to operate the
machine, particularly at startup. (Boehringer 1992)
a. Applications suitable for grease. Grease and oil are not interchangeable. Grease is used when it
is not practical or convenient to use oil. The lubricant choice for a specific application is determined by
matching the machinery design and operating conditions with desired lubricant characteristics. Grease is
generally used for:
(1) Machinery that runs intermittently or is in storage for an extended period of time. Because grease
remains in place, a lubricating film can instantly form.
(2) Machinery that is not easily accessible for frequent lubrication. High-quality greases can lubricate
isolated or relatively inaccessible components for extended periods of time without frequent replenishing.
These greases are also used in sealed-for-life applications such as some electrical motors and gearboxes.
(3) Machinery operating under extreme conditions such as high temperatures and pressures, shock
loads, or slow speed under heavy load. Under these circumstances, grease provides thicker film cushions
that are required to protect and adequately lubricate, whereas oil films can be too thin and can rupture.
(4) Worn components. Grease maintains thicker films in clearances enlarged by wear and can extend
the life of worn parts that were previously oil lubricated. Thicker grease films also provide noise
insulation.
b. Functional properties of grease.
(1) Functions as a sealant to minimize leakage and to keep out contaminants. Because of its
consistency, grease acts as a sealant to prevent lubricant leakage and also to prevent entrance of corrosive
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5-2
contaminants and foreign materials. It also acts to keep deteriorated seals effective (whereas an oil would
simply seep away).
(2) Easier to contain than oil. Oil lubrication can require an expensive system of circulating
equipment and complex retention devices. In comparison, grease, by virtue of its rigidity, is easily confined
with simplified, less costly retention devices.
(3) Holds solid lubricants in suspension. Finely ground solid lubricants, such as molybdenum disulfide
(moly) and graphite, are mixed with grease in high temperature service (over 315 EC [599 EF]) or in
extreme high-pressure applications. Grease holds solids in suspension while solids will settle out of oils.
(4) Fluid level does not have to be controlled and monitored.
c. Notable disadvantages of grease:
(1) Poor cooling. Due to its consistency, grease cannot dissipate heat by convection like a circulating
oil.
(2) Resistance to motion. Grease has more resistance to motion at start-up than oil, so it is not
appropriate for low torque/high speed operation.
(3) More difficult to handle than oil for dispensing, draining, and refilling. Also, exact amounts of
lubricant cannot be as easily metered.
5-3. Grease Characteristics
Common ASTM tests for the grease characteristics listed below are shown in Table 5-3.
a. Apparent viscosity. At start-up, grease has a resistance to motion, implying a high viscosity.
However, as grease is sheared between wearing surfaces and moves faster, its resistance to flow reduces.
Its viscosity decreases as the rate of shear increases. By contrast, an oil at constant temperature would
have the same viscosity at start-up as it has when it is moving. To distinguish between the viscosity of oil
and grease, the viscosity of a grease is referred to as apparent viscosity. Apparent viscosity is the
viscosity of a grease that holds only for the shear rate and temperature at which the viscosity is determined.
b. Bleeding, migration, syneresis. Bleeding is a condition when the liquid lubricant separates from
the thickener. It is induced by high temperatures and also occurs during long storage periods. Migration is
a form of bleeding that occurs when oil in a grease migrates out of the thickener network under certain
circumstances. For example, when grease is pumped though a pipe in a centralized lubrication system, it
may encounter a resistance to the flow and form a plug. The oil continues to flow, migrating out of the
thickener network. As the oil separates from the grease, thickener concentration increases, and plugging
gets worse. If two different greases are in contact, the oils may migrate from one grease to the other and
change the structure of the grease. Therefore, it is unwise to mix two greases. Syneresis is a special form
of bleeding caused by shrinking or rearrangement of the structure due to physical or chemical changes in
the thickener.
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5-3
c. Consistency, penetration, and National Lubricating Grease Institute (NLGI) numbers. The most
important feature of a grease is its rigidity or consistency. A grease that is too stiff may not feed into areas
requiring lubrication, while a grease that is too fluid may leak out. Grease consistency depends on the type
and amount of thickener used and the viscosity of its base oil. A greases consistency is its resistance to
deformation by an applied force. The measure of consistency is called penetration. Penetration depends on
whether the consistency has been altered by handling or working. ASTM D 217 and D 1403 methods
measure penetration of unworked and worked greases. To measure penetration, a cone of given weight is
allowed to sink into a grease for 5 seconds at a standard temperature of 25 EC (77 EF). The depth, in
tenths of a millimeter, to which the cone sinks into the grease is the penetration. A penetration of 100
would represent a solid grease while one of 450 would be semifluid. The NLGI has established consistency
numbers or grade numbers, ranging from 000 to 6, corresponding to specified ranges of penetration
numbers. Table 5.1 lists the NLGI grease classifications along with a description of the consistency of
each classification.
Table 5.1
NLGI Grease Classification
NLGI Number 0.1 mm (3.28 10 ft) at 25 E EC (77 E EF) Consistency
ASTM Worked Penetration
-4
000 445 - 475 Semifluid
00 400 - 430 Semifluid
0 355 - 385 Very soft
1 310 - 340 Soft
2 265 - 295 Common grease
3 220 - 250 Semihard
4 175 - 205 Hard
5 130 - 160 Very hard
6 85 - 115 Solid
d. Contaminants. Greases tend to hold solid contaminants on their outer surfaces and protect
lubricated surfaces from wear. If the contamination becomes excessive or eventually works its way down
to the lubricated surfaces the reverse occurs -- the grease retains abrasive materials at the lubricated
surface and wear occurs.
e. Corrosion- and rust-resistance. This denotes the ability of grease to protect metal parts from
chemical attack. The natural resistance of a grease depends upon the thickener type. Corrosion-resistance
can be enhanced by corrosion and rust inhibitors.
f. Dropping point. Dropping point is an indicator of the heat resistance of grease. As grease
temperature rises, penetration increases until the grease liquefies and the desired consistency is lost.
Dropping point is the temperature at which a grease becomes fluid enough to drip. The dropping point
indicates the upper temperature limit at which a grease retains its structure, not the maximum temperature
at which a grease may be used. A few greases have the ability to regain their original structure after
cooling down from the dropping point.
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5-4
g. Evaporation. The mineral oil in a grease evaporates at temperatures above 177 EC (350 EF).
Excessive oil evaporation causes grease to harden due to increased thickener concentration. Therefore,
higher evaporation rates require more frequent relubrication.
h. Fretting wear and false brinelling. Fretting is friction wear of components at contact points
caused by minute oscillation. The oscillation is so minute that grease is displaced from between parts but
is not allowed to flow back in. Localized oxidation of wear particles results and wear accelerates. In
bearings, this localized wear appears as a depression in the race caused by oscillation of the ball or roller.
The depression resembles that which occurs during Brinell hardness determination, hence the term false
brinelling. An example would be fretting wear of automotive wheel bearings when a car is transported by
train. The car is secured, but the vibration of the train over the tracks causes minute oscillation resulting in
false brinelling of the bearing race.
i. Oxidation stability. This is the ability of a grease to resist a chemical union with oxygen. The
reaction of grease with oxygen produces insoluble gum, sludges, and lacquer-like deposits that cause
sluggish operation, increased wear, and reduction of clearances. Prolonged high-temperature exposure
accelerates oxidation in greases.
j. Pumpability and slumpability. Pumpability is the ability of a grease to be pumped or pushed
through a system. More practically, pumpability is the ease with which a pressurized grease can flow
through lines, nozzles, and fittings of grease-dispensing systems. Slumpability, or feedability, is its ability
to be drawn into (sucked into) a pump. Fibrous greases tend to have good feedability but poor
pumpability. Buttery-textured greases tend to have good pumpability but poor feedability.
k. Shear stability. Grease consistency may change as it is mechanically worked or sheared between
wearing surfaces. A greases ability to maintain its consistency when worked is its shear stability or
mechanical stability. A grease that softens as it is worked is called thixotropic. Greases that harden when
worked are called rheopectic.
l. High-temperature effects. High temperatures harm greases more than they harm oils. Grease, by
its nature, cannot dissipate heat by convection like a circulating oil. Consequently, without the ability to
transfer away heat, excessive temperatures result in accelerated oxidation or even carbonization where
grease hardens or forms a crust. Effective grease lubrication depends on the grease's consistency. High
temperatures induce softening and bleeding, causing grease to flow away from needed areas. The mineral
oil in grease can flash, burn, or evaporate at temperatures above 177 EC (350 EF). High temperatures,
above 73-79 EC (165-175 EF), can dehydrate certain greases such as calcium soap grease and cause
structural breakdown. The higher evaporation and dehydration rates at elevated temperatures require more
frequent grease replacement.
m. Low-temperature effects. If the temperature of a grease is lowered enough, it will become so
viscous that it can be classified as a hard grease. Pumpability suffers and machinery operation may
become impossible due to torque limitations and power requirements. The temperature at which this occurs
depends on the shape of the lubricated part and the power being supplied to it. As a guideline, the base
oils pour point is considered the low-temperature limit of a grease.
n. Texture. Texture is observed when a small sample of grease is pressed between thumb and index
finger and slowly drawn apart. Texture can be described as:
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5-5
! Brittle: the grease ruptures or crumbles when compressed.
! Buttery: the grease separates in short peaks with no visible fibers.
! Long fiber: the grease stretches or strings out into a single bundle of fibers.
! Resilient: the grease can withstand moderate compression without permanent deformation or
rupture.
! Short fiber: the grease shows short break-off with evidence of fibers.
! Stringy: the grease stretches or strings out into long, fine threads, but with no visible evidence of
fiber structure.
o. Water resistance. This is the ability of a grease to withstand the effects of water with no change in
its ability to lubricate. A soap/water lather may suspend the oil in the grease, forming an emulsion that can
wash away or, to a lesser extent, reduce lubricity by diluting and changing grease consistency and texture.
Rusting becomes a concern if water is allowed to contact iron or steel components.
5-4. Fluid Lubricants
Fluid lubricants used to formulate grease are normally petroleum or synthetic oils. For petroleum oils in
general, naphthenic oils tend to chemically mix better with soaps and additives and form stronger structures
than paraffinic oils. Synthetic oils are higher in first cost but are effective in high-temperature and low-
temperature extremes. With growing environmental concerns, vegetable oils and certain synthetic oils are
also being used in applications requiring nontoxic or biodegradable greases. Separate chapters in this
manual are devoted to lubricating oils and environmentally acceptable oils. They describe the
characteristics that each type of oil brings to grease. The base oil selected in formulating a grease should
have the same characteristics as if the equipment is to be lubricated by oil. For instance, lower-viscosity
base oils are used for grease applications at lower temperatures or high speeds and light loads, whereas
higher-viscosity base oils are used for higher temperatures or low speed and heavy load applications.
5-5. Soap Thickeners
a. Dispersed in its base fluid, a soap thickener gives grease its physical character. Soap thickeners
not only provide consistency to grease, they affect desired properties such as water and heat resistance and
pumpability. They can affect the amount of an additive, such as a rust inhibitor, required to obtain a
desired quality. The soap influences how a grease will flow, change shape, and age as it is mechanically
worked and at temperature extremes. Each soap type brings its own characteristic properties to a grease.
b. The principal ingredients in creating a soap are a fatty acid and an alkali. Fatty acids can be
derived from animal fat such as beef tallow, lard, butter, fish oil, or from vegetable fat such as olive,
castor, soybean, or peanut oils. The most common alkalies used are the hydroxides from earth metals such
as aluminum, calcium, lithium, and sodium. Soap is created when a long-carbon-chain fatty acid reacts
with the metal hydroxide. The metal is incorporated into the carbon chain and the resultant compound
develops a polarity. The polar molecules form a fibrous network that holds the oil. Thus, a somewhat
rigid gel-like material grease is developed. Soap concentration can be varied to obtain different grease
thicknesses. Furthermore, viscosity of the base oil affects thickness as well. Since soap qualities are also
EM 1110-2-1424
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5-6
determined by the fatty acid from which the soap is prepared, not all greases made from soaps containing
the same metals are identical. The name of the soap thickener refers to the metal (calcium, lithium, etc.)
from which the soap is prepared.
5-6. Complex Soap
a. The high temperatures generated by modern equipment necessitated an increase in the heat-
resistance of normal soap-thickened greases. As a result, complex soap greases were developed. The
dropping point of a complex grease is at least 38 EC (100 EF) higher than its normal soap-thickened
counterpart, and its maximum usable temperature is around 177 EC (350 EF). Complex soap greases are
limited to this temperature because the mineral oil can flash, evaporate, or burn above that temperature.
Generally, complex greases have good all-around properties and can be used in multipurpose applications.
For extreme operating conditions, complex greases are often produced with solid lubricants and use more
highly refined or synthetic oils.
b. A complexing agent made from a salt of the named metal is the additional ingredient in forming a
complex grease. A complex soap is formed by the reaction of a fatty acid and alkali to form a soap, and
the simultaneous reaction of the alkali with a short-chain organic or inorganic acid to form a metallic salt
(the complexing agent). Basically, a complex grease is made when a complex soap is formed in the
presence of a base oil. Common organic acids are acetic or lactic, and common inorganic acids are
carbonates or chlorides.
5-7. Additives
Surface-protecting and performance-enhancing additives that can effectively improve the overall
performance of a grease are described in Chapter 7. Solid lubricants such as molybdenum disulfide and
graphite are added to grease in certain applications for high temperatures (above 315 EC or 599 EF) and
extreme high-pressure applications. Incorporating solid additives requires frequent grease changes to
prevent accumulation of solids in components (and the resultant wear). Properties of solid lubricants are
described in Chapter 6. Not mentioned in other chapters are dyes that improve grease appearance and are
used for identification purposes.

5-8. Types of Greases
The most common greases are described below.
a. Calcium grease.
(1) Calcium or lime grease, the first of the modern production greases, is prepared by reacting mineral
oil with fats, fatty acids, a small amount of water, and calcium hydroxide (also known as hydrated lime).
The water modifies the soap structure to absorb mineral oil. Because of water evaporation, calcium grease
is sensitive to elevated temperatures. It dehydrates at temperatures around 79 EC (175 EF) at which its
structure collapses, resulting in softening and, eventually, phase separation. Greases with soft
consistencies can dehydrate at lower temperatures while greases with firm consistencies can lubricate
satisfactorily to temperatures around 93 EC (200 EF). In spite of the temperature limitations, lime grease
does not emulsify in water and is excellent at resisting wash out. Also, its manufacturing cost is
relatively low. If a calcium grease is prepared from 12-hydroxystearic acid, the result is an anhydrous
(waterless) grease. Since dehydration is not a concern, anhydrous calcium grease can be used continuously
to a maximum temperature of around 110 EC (230 EF).
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5-7
(2) Calcium complex grease is prepared by adding the salt calcium acetate. The salt provides the
grease with extreme pressure characteristics without using an additive. Dropping points greater than
260 EC (500 EF) can be obtained and the maximum usable temperature increases to approximately 177 EC
(350 EF). With the exception of poor pumpability in high-pressure centralized systems, where caking and
hardening sometimes occur calcium complex greases have good all-around characteristics that make them
desirable multipurpose greases.
b. Sodium grease. Sodium grease was developed for use at higher operating temperatures than the
early hydrated calcium greases. Sodium grease can be used at temperatures up to 121 EC (250 EF), but it
is soluble in water and readily washes out. Sodium is sometimes mixed with other metal soaps, especially
calcium, to improve water resistance. Although it has better adhesive properties than calcium grease, the
use of sodium grease is declining due to its lack of versatility. It cannot compete with water-resistant, more
heat-resistant multipurpose greases. It is, however, still recommended for certain heavy-duty applications
and well-sealed electric motors.
c. Aluminum grease.
(1) Aluminum grease is normally clear and has a somewhat stringy texture, more so when produced
from high-viscosity oils. When heated above 79 EC (175 EF), this stringiness increases and produces a
rubberlike substance that pulls away from metal surfaces, reducing lubrication and increasing power
consumption. Aluminum grease has good water resistance, good adhesive properties, and inhibits rust
without additives, but it tends to be short-lived. It has excellent inherent oxidation stability but relatively
poor shear stability and pumpability.
(2) Aluminum complex grease has a maximum usable temperature of almost 100 EC (212 EF) higher
than aluminum-soap greases. It has good water-and-chemical resistance but tends to have shorter life in
high-temperature, high-speed applications.
d. Lithium grease.
(1) Smooth, buttery-textured lithium grease is by far the most popular when compared to all others.
The normal grease contains lithium 12-hydroxystearate soap. It has a dropping point around 204 EC
(400 EF) and can be used at temperatures up to about 135 EC (275 EF). It can also be used at
temperatures as low as -35 EC (-31 EF) . It has good shear stability and a relatively low coefficient of
friction, which permits higher machine operating speeds. It has good water-resistance, but not as good as
that of calcium or aluminum. Pumpability and resistance to oil separation are good to excellent. It does
not naturally inhibit rust, but additives can provide rust resistance. Anti-oxidants and extreme pressure
additives are also responsive in lithium greases.
(2) Lithium complex grease and lithium soap grease have similar properties except the complex grease
has superior thermal stability as indicated by a dropping point of 260 EC (500 EF). It is generally
considered to be the nearest thing to a true multipurpose grease.
e. Other greases. Thickeners other than soaps are available to make greases. Although most of these
are restricted to very special applications, two nonsoap greases are worthy of mention. One is organic, the
other inorganic.
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5-8
(1) Polyurea grease.
(a) Polyurea is the most important organic nonsoap thickener. It is a low-molecular-weight organic
polymer produced by reacting amines (an ammonia derivative) with isocyanates, which results in an oil-
soluble chemical thickener. Polyurea grease has outstanding resistance to oxidation because it contains no
metal soaps (which tend to invite oxidation). It effectively lubricates over a wide temperature range of
-20 to 177 EC (-4 to 350 EF) and has long life. Water-resistance is good to excellent, depending on the
grade. It works well with many elastomer seal materials. It is used with all types of bearings but has been
particularly effective in ball bearings. Its durability makes it well suited for sealed-for-life bearing
applications.
(b) Polyurea complex grease is produced when a complexing agent, most commonly calcium acetate or
calcium phosphate, is incorporated into the polymer chain. In addition to the excellent properties of normal
polyurea grease, these agents add inherent extreme pressure and wear protection properties that increase the
multipurpose capabilities of polyurea greases.
(2) Organo-clay. Organo-clay is the most commonly used inorganic thickener. Its thickener is a
modified clay, insoluble in oil in its normal form, but through complex chemical processes, converts to
platelets that attract and hold oil. Organo-clay thickener structures are amorphous and gel-like rather than
the fibrous, crystalline structures of soap thickeners. This grease has excellent heat-resistance since clay
does not melt. Maximum operating temperature is limited by the evaporation temperature of its mineral oil,
which is around 177 EC (350 EF). However, with frequent grease changes, this multipurpose grease can
operate for short periods at temperatures up to its dropping point, which is about 260 EC (500 EF). A
disadvantage is that greases made with higher-viscosity oils for high thermal stability will have poor low-
temperature performance. Organo-clay grease has excellent water-resistance but requires additives for
oxidation and rust resistance. Work stability is fair to good. Pumpability and resistance to oil separation
are good for this buttery textured grease.
5-9. Compatibility
a. Greases are considered incompatible when the physical or performance characteristics of the mixed
grease falls below original specifications. In general, greases with different chemical compositions should
not be mixed. Mixing greases of different thickeners can form a mix that is too firm to provide sufficient
lubrication or more commonly, a mix that is too soft to stay in place.
b. Combining greases of different base oils can produce a fluid component that will not provide a
continuous lubrication film. Additives can be diluted when greases with different additives are mixed.
Mixed greases may become less resistant to heat or have lower shear stability. If a new brand of grease
must be introduced, the component part should be disassembled and thoroughly cleaned to remove all of
the old grease. If this is not practical, the new grease should be injected until all traces of the prior product
are flushed out. Also, the first grease changes should be more frequent than normally scheduled.
5-10. Grease Application Guide
When selecting a grease, it is important to determine the properties required for the particular application
and match them to a specific grease. A grease application guide is shown in Table 5-2. It shows the most
common greases, their usual properties, and important uses. Some of the ratings given are subjective and
can vary significantly from supplier to supplier. Common ASTM tests for the grease characteristics
described in paragraph 5-3 are shown in Table 5-3.
E
M

1
1
1
0
-
2
-
1
4
2
4
2
8

F
e
b

9
9
5
-
9
Table 5-2
Grease Application Guide
Properties Aluminum Sodium
Calcium-
Conventional
Calcium -
Anhydrous Lithium
Aluminum
Complex
Calcium
Complex
Lithium
Complex Polyurea Organo-Clay
Dropping point (EC)
Dropping point (EF)
110
230
163-177
325-350
096-104
205-220
135-143
275-290
177-204
350-400
260+
500+
260+
500+
260+
500+
243
470
260+
500+
Maximum usable
temperature (EC)
Maximum usable
temperature (EF)
79
175
121
350
93
200
110
230
135
275
177
350
177
350
177
350
177
350
177
350
Water resistance Good to
excellent
Poor to
fair
Good to
excellent
Excellent Good Good to
excellent
Fair to
excellent
Good to
excellent
Good to
excellent
Fair to
excellent
Work stability Poor Fair Fair to
good
Good to
excellent
Good to
excellent
Good to
excellent
Fair to
good
Good to
excellent
Poor to
good
Fair to
good
Oxidation stability Excellent Poor to
good
Poor to
excellent
Fair to
excellent
Fair to
excellent
Fair to
excellent
Poor to
good
Fair to
excellent
Good to
excellent
Good
Protection against
rust
Good to
excellent
Good to
excellent
Poor to
excellent
Poor to
excellent
Poor to
excellent
Good to
excellent
Fair to
excellent
Fair to
excellent
Fair to
excellent
Poor to
excellent
Pumpability (in
centralized system)
Poor Poor to
fair
Good to
excellent
Fair to
excellent
Fair to
excellent
Fair to good Poor to
fair
Good to
excellent
Good to
excellent
Good
Oil separation Good Fair to
good
Poor to good Good Good to
excellent
Good to
excellent
Good to
excellent
Good to
excellent
Good to
excellent
Good to
excellent
Appearance Smooth and
clear
Smooth
to
fibrous
Smooth and
buttery
Smooth and
buttery
Smooth and
buttery
Smooth and
buttery
Smooth and
buttery
Smooth and
buttery
Smooth and
buttery
Smooth and
buttery
Other properties Adhesive
&
cohesive
EP grades
available
EP grades
available
EP grades
available,
reversible
EP grades
available,
reversible
EP grades
antiwear
inherent
EP grades
available
EP grades
available
Principal Uses Thread
lubricants
Rolling
contact
economy
General uses
for economy
Military
multiservice
Multi-
service
1
automotive
& industrial
Multi-
service
industrial
Multi-
service
automotive
& industrial
Multi-
service
automotive &
industrial
Multi-
service
automotive &
industrial
High temp.
(frequent
relube)
Multiservice includes rolling contact bearings, plain bearings, and others.
1
Reference: NLGI Lubricating Grease Guide, 4th ed.
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5-10
Table 5-3
ASTM Tests for Grease Characteristics
Grease Characteristic ASTM Test Method Description
Apparent viscosity / D 1092 - Measuring Apparent Viscosity of Apparent viscosities at 16 shear rates are
pumpability Lubricating Greases determined by measuring the hydraulic pressure
on a floating piston which forces grease through
a capillary tube. Eight different capillary tubes
and a 2-speed hydraulic gear pump are used.
Consistency and shear D 217 - Cone Penetration of Lubricating Grease Depth, in tenths of a millimeter, a 150-g
stability (0.33-lb) cone penetrates the surface of worked
D 1403 - Cone Penetration of Lubricating Grease and unworked grease at 25 EC (77 EF) in 5
Using One-Quarter and One-Half Scale Cone seconds. D 1403 is used when only a small
Equipment amount of grease is available.
D 1831- Roll Stability of Lubricating Grease A 5- kg (11-lb) roller and 50 g (0.11 lb) of grease
are put into a 165-rpm revolving chamber for 2
hours at room temperature. The difference in
penetrations measured before and after rolling is
an indicator of shear stability.
Corrosion and rust D 1743 - Determining Corrosion Preventive A grease-packed bearing is spun for 1-minute at
resistance Properties of Lubricating Greases 1750 rpm. Excess grease is thrown off and a
D 4048 - Detection of Copper Corrosion from A copper strip is immersed in grease inside a
Lubricating Grease covered jar and heated in an oven or liquid bath
thin layer remains on bearing surfaces. The
bearing is exposed to water and stored for 48
hours at 52 EC (125 EF) and 100% humidity. It
is then cleaned and examined for corrosion.
for a specified time. The strip is removed,
washed, and compared and classified using the
ASTM Copper Strip Corrosion Standards.
Dropping point D 566 - Dropping Point of Lubricating Grease Grease and a thermometer are placed in a cup
D 2265 - Dropping Point of Lubricating Grease through the cup. That temperature is the
over Wide-Temperature Range dropping point. The test tube assembly is
inside a test tube and heated until a drop falls
heated in an oil bath for D 566 and inside an
aluminum block oven for D 2265.
Evaporation D 972 - Evaporation Loss of Lubricating Greases Two liters per minute of heated air is passed
and Oils over grease inside a chamber for 22 hours.
D 2595 - Evaporation Loss of Lubricating EF) for D 972 and 93 - 315 EC (200 - 599 EF)
Greases over Wide-Temperature Range for D 2595. Evaporation is calculated from
Temperature range is 100 - 150 EC (212 - 302
grease weight loss, in percent.
Heat resistance / D 3232 - Measurement of Consistency of Can also indicate flow at high temperatures.
Consistency Lubricating Greases at High Temperatures Grease in a cylindrical opening in an aluminum
block is heated at a rate of 5 EC (10 EF)/min
while a trident probe turns at 20 rpm in the
grease. A Brookfield viscometer attached to the
probe measures torque at temperature
increments. From this, apparent viscosities are
determined at different temperatures.
Leakage D 1263 - Leakage Tendencies of Automotive A seal-less, grease-packed wheel bearing
Wheel Bearing Greases encircled by a collector ring is spun for 6 hours
at 660 rpm at 105 EC (221 EF). Grease thrown
off into the ring is weighed and leakage is
determined.
(Continued)
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5-11
Table 5-3 (Concluded)
Grease Characteristic ASTM Test Method Description
Oxidation Stability D 942 - Oxidation Stability of Lubricating Greases Indicates oxidation from storage when grease
by the Oxygen Bomb Method charged with oxygen at 758 kPa (110 psi) is
D 3336 - Performance Characteristics of There are no ASTM tests for oxidation in
Lubricating Greases in Ball-Bearings at Elevated service, but this test relates oxidation stability to
Temperatures failure rate of bearings at desired elevated
sealed in a bomb at 99 EC (210 EF). As
grease oxidizes, it absorbs oxygen. Pressure is
recorded at time intervals and degree of
oxidation is determined by the corresponding
drop in oxygen pressure.
temperatures.
Water Resistance D 1264 - Determining the Water Washout Measures grease washout of a bearing turning
Characteristics of Lubricating Greases at 600 rpm with water flowing at 5 mL/sec for 1
D 4049 - Determining the Resistance of Measures removal of grease 0.8 mm (1/32 in)
Lubricating Grease to Water Spray thick on a plate by water through a nozzle for
hour at 38 EC (100 EF) and 79 EC (175 EF).
5 minutes at 38 EC (100 EF) and 275 kPa (40
psi).
Wear Resistance D 2266 - Wear Preventive Characteristics of A rotating steel ball is pressed against three,
Lubricating Grease (Four-Ball Method) grease-coated, stationary steel balls for 60
D 2596 - Measurement of Extreme-Pressure Same steel ball setup as above, but load is
Properties of Lubricating Grease (Four-Ball incrementally increased every 10 seconds until
Method) seizure occurs. This is the weld point. Load
D 2509 - Measurement of Extreme Pressure The outer edge of a continuously grease-fed
Properties of Lubricating Grease (Timken bearing race rotates at 800 rpm and rubs
Method) against a fixed steel block for 10 minutes.
minutes. Scar diameters on the three stationary
balls are relative measures of wear. Balls are
12.7 mm (0.5 inch). Applied load is 40 kgf (392
N) rotating at 1200 rpm. Temperature is 75 EC
(167 EF).
wear index is then calculated. Maximum load is
800 kgf (7845 N) rotating at 1770 rpm.
Temperature is 27 EC (80 EF).
Successive runs are made with increasingly
higher loads and any surface scoring is
reported. Grease is applied at 25 EC (77 EF).
The Timken OK load is the highest load in which
no scoring occurs.
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6-1
Chapter 6
Nonfluid Lubrication
6-1. Solid Lubrication
a. Definition of solid lubricant. A solid lubricant is a material used as powder or thin film to
provide protection from damage during relative movement and to reduce friction and wear. Other terms
commonly used for solid lubrication include dry lubrication, dry-film lubrication, and solid-film lubrication.
Although these terms imply that solid lubrication takes place under dry conditions, fluids are frequently
used as a medium or as a lubricant with solid additives. Perhaps the most commonly used solid lubricants
are the inorganic compounds graphite and molybdenum disulfide (MoS ) and the polymer material
2
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE).
b. Characteristics. The properties important in determining the suitability of a material for use as a
solid lubricant are discussed below.
(1) Crystal structure. Solid lubricants such as graphite and MoS possess a lamellar crystal structure
2
with an inherently low shear strength. Although the lamellar structure is very favorable for materials such
as lubricants, nonlamellar materials also provide satisfactory lubrication.
(2) Thermal stability. Thermal stability is very important since one of the most significant uses for
solid lubricants is in high temperature applications not tolerated by other lubricants. Good thermal stability
ensures that the solid lubricant will not undergo undesirable phase or structural changes at high or low
temperature extremes.
(3) Oxidation stability. The lubricant should not undergo undesirable oxidative changes when used
within the applicable temperature range.
(4) Volatility. The lubricant should have a low vapor pressure for the expected application at extreme
temperatures and in low-pressure conditions.
(5) Chemical reactivity. The lubricant should form a strong, adherent film on the base material.
(6) Mobility. The life of solid films can only be maintained if the film remains intact. Mobility of
adsorbates on the surfaces promotes self-healing and prolongs the endurance of films.
(7) Melting point. If the melting point is exceeded, the atomic bonds that maintain the molecular
structure are destroyed, rendering the lubricant ineffective.
(8) Hardness. Some materials with suitable characteristics, such as those already noted, have failed as
solid lubricants because of excessive hardness. A maximum hardness of 5 on the Mohs scale appears to
be the practical limit for solid lubricants.
(9) Electrical conductivity. Certain applications, such as sliding electric contacts, require high
electrical conductivity while other applications, such as insulators making rubbing contact, require low
conductivity.
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6-2
c. Applications. Generally, solid lubricants are used in applications not tolerated by more
conventional lubricants. The most common conditions requiring use of solid lubricants are discussed
below. Specific Corps of Engineers and Bureau of Reclamation facilities where solid lubricant bearings
have been used are discussed in paragraph 6-3 of this chapter.
(1) Extreme temperature and pressure conditions. These are defined as high-temperature applications
up to 1926 EC ( 3500 EF), where other lubricants are prone to degradation or decomposition; extremely
low temperatures, down to -212 EC (-350 EF), where lubricants may solidify or congeal; and high-to-full-
vacuum applications, such as space, where lubricants may volatilize.
(2) As additives. Graphite, MoS , and zinc oxide are frequently added to fluids and greases. Surface
2
conversion coatings are often used to supplement other lubricants.
(3) Intermittent loading conditions. When equipment is stored or is idle for prolonged periods, solids
provide permanent, noncorrosive lubrication.
(4) Inaccessible locations. Where access for servicing is especially difficult, solid lubricants offer a
distinct advantage, provided the lubricant is satisfactory for the intended loads and speeds.
(5) High dust and lint areas. Solids are also useful in areas where fluids may tend to pick up dust and
lint with liquid lubricants; these contaminants more readily form a grinding paste, causing damage to
equipment.

(6) Contamination. Because of their solid consistency, solids may be used in applications where the
lubricant must not migrate to other locations and cause contamination of other equipment, parts, or
products.
(7) Environmental. Solid lubricants are effective in applications where the lubricated equipment is
immersed in water that may be polluted by other lubricants, such as oils and greases.
d. Advantages of solid lubricants.
(1) More effective than fluid lubricants at high loads and speeds.
(2) High resistance to deterioration in storage.
(3) Highly stable in extreme temperature, pressure, radiation, and reactive environments.
(4) Permit equipment to be lighter and simpler because lubrication distribution systems and seals are
not required.
e. Disadvantages of solid lubricants.
(1) Poor self-healing properties. A broken solid film tends to shorten the useful life of the lubricant.
(2) Poor heat dissipation. This condition is especially true with polymers due to their low thermal
conductivities.
(3) Higher coefficient of friction and wear than hydrodynamically lubricated bearings.
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(4) Color associated with solids may be undesirable.
f. Types of solid lubricants.
(1) Lamellar solids. The most common materials are graphite and molybdenum disulfide.
(a) Graphite. Graphite has a low friction coefficient and very high thermal stability (2000 EC
[3632 EF] and above). However, practical application is limited to a range of 500 to 600 EC (932 to
1112 EF) due to oxidation. Furthermore, because graphite relies on adsorbed moisture or vapors to achieve
low friction, use may be further limited. At temperatures as low as 100 EC (212 EF), the amount of water
vapor adsorbed may be significantly reduced to the point that low friction cannot be maintained. In some
instances sufficient vapors may be extracted from contaminants in the surrounding environment or may be
deliberately introduced to maintain low friction. When necessary, additives composed of inorganic
compounds may be added to enable use at temperatures to 550 EC ( 1022 EF). Another concern is that
graphite promotes electrolysis. Graphite has a very noble potential of + 0.25V, which can lead to severe
galvanic corrosion of copper alloys and stainless steels in saline waters.
(b) Molybdenum disulfide (MoS ). Like graphite, MoS has a low friction coefficient, but, unlike
2 2
graphite, it does not rely on adsorbed vapors or moisture. In fact, adsorbed vapors may actually result in a
slight, but insignificant, increase in friction. MoS also has greater load-carrying capacity and its
2
manufacturing quality is better controlled. Thermal stability in nonoxidizing environments is acceptable to
1100 EC (2012 EF), but in air it may be reduced to a range of 350 to 400 EC (662 to 752 EF).
(2) Soft metal films. Many soft metals such as lead, gold, silver, copper, and zinc, possess low shear
strengths and can be used as lubricants by depositing them as thin films on hard substrates. Deposition
methods include electroplating, evaporating, sputtering, and ion plating. These films are most useful for
high temperature applications up to 1000 EC (1832 EF) and roller bearing applications where sliding is
minimal.
(3) Surface treatments. Surface treatments commonly used as alternatives to surface film depositions
include thermal diffusion, ion implantation, and chemical conversion coatings.
(a) Thermal diffusion. This is a process that introduces foreign atoms into a surface for various
purposes such as increasing wear-resistance by increasing surface hardness; producing low shear strength
to inhibit scuffing or seizure; and in combination with these to enhance corrosion-resistance.
(b) Ion implantation. This is a recently developed method that bombards a surface with ions to
increase hardness, which improves wear- and fatigue-resistance.
(c) Chemical conversion coatings. Frequently, solid lubricants will not adhere to the protected metal
surface. A conversion coating is a porous nonlubricating film applied to the base metal to enable adherence
of the solid lubricant. The conversion coating by itself is not a suitable lubricant.
(4) Polymers. Polymers are used as thin films, as self-lubricating materials, and as binders for
lamellar solids. Films are produced by a process combining spraying and sintering. Alternatively, a
coating can be produced by bonding the polymer with a resin. Sputtering can also be used to produce
films. The most common polymer used for solid lubrication is PTFE The main advantages of PTFE are
low friction coefficient, wide application range of -200 to 250 EC (-328 to 418 EF), and lack of chemical
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6-4
reactivity. Disadvantages include lower load-carrying capacity and endurance limits than other
alternatives. Low thermal conductivity limits use to low speed sliding applications where MoS is not
2
satisfactory. Common applications include antistick coatings and self-lubricating composites.
g. Methods of applying solids. There are several methods for applying solid lubricants.
(1) Powdered solids. The oldest and simplest methods of applying solid lubricants are noted below.
(a) Burnishing. Burnishing is a rubbing process used to apply a thin film of dry powdered solid
lubricant such as graphite, MoS , etc., to a metal surface. This process produces a highly polished surface
2
that is effective where lubrication requirements and wear-life are not stringent, where clearance
requirements must be maintained, and where wear debris from the lubricant must be minimized. Surface
roughness of the metal substrate and particle size of the powder are critical to ensure good application.
(b) Hand rubbing. Hand rubbing is a procedure for loosely applying a thin coating of solid lubricant.
(c) Dusting. Powder is applied without any attempt to evenly spread the lubricant. This method
results in a loose and uneven application that is generally unsatisfactory.
(d) Tumbling. Parts to be lubricated are tumbled in a powdered lubricant. Although adhesion is not
very good, the method is satisfactory for noncritical parts such as small threaded fasteners and rivets.
(e) Dispersions. Dispersions are mixtures of solid lubricant in grease or fluid lubricants. The most
common solids used are graphite, MoS , PTFE, and Teflon. The grease or fluid provides normal
2
lubrication while the solid lubricant increases lubricity and provides extreme pressure protection. Addition
of MoS to lubricating oils can increase load-carrying capacity, reduce wear, and increase life in roller
2
bearings, and has also been found to reduce wear and friction in automotive applications. However,
caution must be exercised when using these solids with greases and lubricating fluids. Grease and oil may
prevent good adhesion of the solid to the protected surface. Detergent additives in some oils can also
inhibit the wear-reducing ability of MoS and graphite, and some antiwear additives may actually increase
2
wear. Solid lubricants can also affect the oxidation stability of oils and greases. Consequently, the
concentration of oxidation inhibitors required must be carefully examined and controlled. Aerosol sprays
are frequently used to apply solid lubricant in a volatile carrier or in an air-drying organic resin. However,
this method should be limited to short-term uses or to light- or moderate-duty applications where thick films
are not necessary. Specifications for solid lubricant dispersions are not included in this manual. Readers
interested in specifications for solid dispersions are referred to Appendix A. Before using dispersions,
users should become familiar with their applications and should obtain information in addition to that
provided in this manual. The information should be based on real-world experiences with similar or
comparable applications.
(2) Bonded coatings. Bonded coatings provide greater film thickness and increased wear life and are
the most reliable and durable method for applying solid lubricants. Under carefully controlled conditions,
coatings consisting of a solid lubricant and binding resin agent are applied to the material to be protected
by spraying, dipping, or brushing. Air-cured coatings are generally limited to operating temperatures
below 260 EC ( 500 EF) while heat-cured coatings are generally used to 370 EC (698 EF). The most
commonly used lubricants are graphite, MoS , and PTFE. Binders include organic resins, ceramics, and
2
metal salts. Organic resins are usually stable below 300EC (572 EF). Inorganic binders such as metal
salts or ceramics permit bonded films to be used in temperatures above 650 EC (1202 EF). The choice of
binder is also influenced by mechanical properties, environmental compatibility, and facility of processing.
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6-5
Air-cured coatings applied by aerosol are used for moderate-duty applications; however, thermosetting
resin binders requiring heat-cure generally provide longer wear-life. The most common method of applying
bonded coatings is from dispersions in a volatile solvent by spraying, brushing, or dipping. Spraying
provides the most consistent cover, but dipping is frequently used because it is less expensive. Surface
preparation is very important to remove contaminants and to provide good surface topography for lubricant
adhesion. Other pretreatments used as alternatives or in conjunction with roughness include phosphating
for steels and analogous chemical conversion treatments for other metals. Specifications for solid film
bonded coating are not included in this manual. Readers interested in specifications for solid film bonded
coatings are referred to the references in Appendix A.
(3) Self-lubricating composites. The primary applications for self-lubricating composites include dry
bearings, gears, seals, sliding electrical contacts, and retainers in roller bearings. Composites may be
polymer, metal-solid, carbon and graphite, and ceramic and cermets.
(a) Polymer. The low thermal conductivity of polymers inhibits heat dissipation, which causes
premature failure due to melting. This condition is exacerbated if the counterface material has the same or
similar thermal conductivity. Two polymers in sliding contact will normally operate at significantly
reduced speeds than a polymer against a metal surface. The wear rate of polymer composites is highly
dependent upon the surface roughness of the metal counterfaces. In the initial operating stages, wear is
significant but can be reduced by providing smooth counterfaces. As the run-in period is completed, the
wear rate is reduced due to polymer film transfer or by polishing action between the sliding surfaces.
Environmental factors also influence wear rate. Increased relative humidity inhibits transfer film formation
in polymer composites such as PTFE, which rely on transfer film formation on counterfaces. The
presence of hydrocarbon lubricants may also produce similar effects. Composites such as nylons and
acetals, which do not rely on transfer film formation, experience reduced wear in the presence of small
amounts of hydrocarbon lubricants.
(b) Metal-solid. Composites containing lamellar solids rely on film transfer to achieve low friction.
The significant amount of solids required to improve film transfer produces a weak composite with reduced
wear life. Addition of nonlamellar solids to these composites can increase strength and reduce wear.
Various manufacturing techniques are used in the production of metal-solid composites. These include
powder metallurgy, infiltration of porous metals, plasma spraying, and electrochemical codeposition.
Another fabrication technique requires drilling holes in machine parts and packing the holes with solid
lubricants. One of the most common applications for these composites is self-lubricating roller bearing
retainers used in vacuum or high temperatures up to 400EC (752 EF). Another application is in fail-safe
operations, where the bearing must continue to operate for a limited time following failure of the normal
lubrication system.
(c) Carbon and graphites. The primary limitations of bulk carbon are low tensile strength and lack of
ductility. However, their high thermal and oxidation stabilities at temperatures of 500 to 600 EC (932 to
1112 EF) (higher with additives) enable use at high temperatures and high sliding speeds. For graphitic
carbons in dry conditions, the wear rate increases with temperature. This condition is exacerbated when
adsorbed moisture inhibits transfer film formation. Furthermore, dusting may also cause failure at high
temperatures and sliding speeds. However, additives are available to inhibit dusting.
(d) Ceramics and cermets. Ceramics and cermets can be used in applications where low wear rate is
more critical than low friction. These composites can be used at temperatures up to 1000 EC (1832 EF).
Cermets have a distinct advantage over ceramics in terms of toughness and ductility. However, the metal
content tends to reduce the maximum temperature limit. Solid lubricant use with bulk ceramics is limited
to insertion in machined holes or recesses.
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6-6
6-2. Self-Lubricating Bearings
a. Self-lubricating bearing research. The Corps of Engineers Hydroelectric Design Center (HDC)
has developed a standardized test specification for evaluating self-lubricating bearings for wicket gate
applications in hydroelectric turbines. Although the test criteria, procedures, and equipment were
established based on the requirements from hydropower applications, there is potential for other
applications such as bushings for miter and tainter gates. The tests are used as benchmarks to measure and
compare the performance of competing products. During the tests, bearings are subjected to accelerated
wear under the worst operating conditions possible. Testing is divided into three sections: initial set and
creep, accelerated wear, and edge loading.
(1) Initial set and creep. In this test the bushings and sleeves are subjected to static loads to 229.6 bar
(3300 lb/in ). The shaft is rotated at periodic intervals, and the shaft displacement wear relative to the test
2
block is continuously monitored.
(2) Accelerated wear test. In this test a radial load of 227.6 bar (3300 lb/in ) is superimposed by a
2
dynamic load of 68.9 bar (1000 lb/in ) at 2 Hz. The shaft is rotated according to established criteria, and
2
temperatures, static load, dynamic load to rotate (friction), stroke displacement, and wear are recorded.
(3) Edge load test. This test is similar to the accelerated wear test except that the sleeve is machined to
simulate shaft misalignment.
b. Application of self-lubricated bearings. Table 6-1 identifies Corps facilities using self-lubricating
bearings and their specific applications.
Table 6-1
Corps of Engineers and Bureau of Reclamation Facilities Using Self-lubricating Bearings
Corps Facilities
Location Facility Application
Portland, OR Little Goose Wicket gate, linkage bushing, operating rings
Portland, OR Lower Monumental Wicket gate, linkage bushing, operating rings
Portland, OR Bonneville Lock Swing bridge pivot bearing
Portland, OR Bonneville Lock Mooring rollers
Portland, OR Bonneville Lock Miter gate bushings
St. Paul, MN Lock No. 10, MS River Gate chain bushings
Louisville, KY Cannelton Lock Lock gate drive bushings
Little Rock, AK Dardanelles Dam Wicket gate, linkage bushing, operating rings
Nashville, TN Kentucky Lock Project Mooring rollers
Walla Walla, WA McNary Lock and Dam Fish screen sphericals
Rock Island, IL Rock Island Dam Wicket gate, linkage bushing, operating rings
Bureau of Reclamation Facilities
Grand Coulee, WA Grand Coulee Linkage bearing evaluation, sole plate keys
Denver, CO NA Bearing evaluation
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6-7
6-3. Self-Lubricating Bearings for Olmsted Wicket Gates Prototype Tests
a. Introduction. Applicable to this manual is a discussion of the self-lubricating bearings used in the
Olmsted Locks and Dams prototype hydraulically operated wicket gates, including lessons learned from the
testing of the bearings and monitoring of the hydraulic fluid used in operating the wickets. The discussion
is assembled from a report entitled Olmsted Prototype Hydraulically Operated Navigable Pass Wicket
Dam, Final Report August 1997, prepared by the Corps of Engineers Louisville District. The report
details project development, design, construction, testing, material evaluation, and lessons learned.
b. General.
(1) The Olmsted project has undergone numerous conceptual changes throughout its development.
One approved design included 220 remotely operated, hydraulically actuated wicket gates. Each wicket
was to be 2.74 m (9 ft, 2 in.) wide and 7.77 m (25 ft, 6 in.) long with a design lift of 6.7 m (22 ft). A full-
scale model (prototype) was constructed with five wickets to test the design, materials, and components
developed by Louisville District. New and unique materials and components were developed and tested,
such as self-lubricating bearings and biodegradable hydraulic fluid.
(2) Self-lubricating bearings by five different manufacturers were tested and evaluated. The
manufacturers are Merriman, Thordon, Lubron, Kamatics, and Rowend. Each wicket was installed with a
complete set of bearings from one manufacturer. The size of the bearings and corresponding pins were
determined based on load data collected on a 1:25 model of the wicket at the U.S. Army Engineer
Waterways Experiment Station Vicksburg, MS. The contact area/diameter and length of bearings were
designed to have a maximum distributed load of 552.7 bar (8000 psi). No seals were installed on any of
the bearings. The manufacturers were given the option to use whatever lubrication they chose for the
conditions specified. The conditions were that the bearings were to be in the Ohio River operating at slow
speeds under a minimum of 6.7 m (22 ft) of head. The bearings were installed dry and each was operated
approximately 50 times during the shake-down test before the site was flooded. Each set of bearings,
except Wicket #1, received 400 cycles of operation. The 400 cycles corresponded to the number of
operations the wickets would have been subjected to over a 25-year service life at the Olmsted facility.
Because of a wicket malfunction, Wicket #1 received only 255 cycles, but was exposed to the same
conditions throughout the test. The bearings were subjected to extended periods in which the wickets were
left in a fixed position and the river current was allowed to flow past. Each hinge bearing on each of the
wickets was subjected to the same loads and experienced the same conditions.
c. Test summary.
(1) Wicket #1, Lubron. The manufacturer of the bearings installed on Wicket #1 was Lubron Bearing
Systems, Huntington Beach, CA. Lubron used a bearing manufactured with a manganese bronze housing
with an inner lubricating coating of PTFE, trade name AQ100 . The material is a combination of PTFE,
fluorocarbons and epoxy resin, hardeners, and metallic and fibrous fillers.
! Hinge sleeve bushings and pins. Evaluation of the hinge sleeve bushings after operation indicated
no wear of the lubricated surface. The lubricating material inside the bushing was in good
condition. The hinge pins were in good condition with no sign of wear.
! Prop spherical bearing. The spherical bearing in the prop was designed with a stainless steel ball
mounted in a manganese bronze race. The race was coated with the AQ100 lubricant material.
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6-8
After testing, the ball and housing were in good condition with no indication of wear. The
lubricant material was well coated on the ball and not worn off the race.
(2) Wicket #2, Kamatics. The manufacturer of the bearings installed on Wicket #2 was Kamatics
Corporation (Kaman), Bloomfield, CT. Kamatics used a bearing manufactured with a fiberglass/epoxy
housing incorporating an inner lubricating liner (Karon V) of PTFE. Each of the bearings Kamatics
provided were designed for swell caused by the inherent absorption of water into the fiberglass bushing
housing.
! Hinge sleeve bushings and pins. Evaluation of the hinge sleeve bushings after operation indicated
that the lubricating liner (Karon V) material was ground and flaked off both the left and right
side sleeve bushings. Kamatics sent a letter to the Corps explaining that the company believed
contamination entering the bushing through unnecessarily large clearances was the reason the
bushings failed. The hinge pins were in good condition with no sign of wear.
! Prop spherical bearing. The spherical bearing on the prop was designed with a stainless steel ball
mounted in a stainless steel race. Observation of the prop after testing revealed the bearing applied
side loads on the cover plate caused bolts to shear off. Wear marks were evident on the stainless
steel ball where contact had been made between the ball and the stainless steel race. The Karon
V lubricating liner material was removed along the contact area of the race. Wear marks were
evident on the race where the ball and race had been rubbing steel-on-steel. Kamatics sent a letter
to the Corps explaining that improper location of the split of the outer race resulted in nonuniform
contact between ball and liner which caused chipping of the liner. The Kamatics letter stated that
with a properly located split line for the outer race, the Karon V lined spherical bearing would
function without difficulty.
! Direct-connect cylinder to gate connection pin. Wicket #2 was a direct-connected cylinder.
Therefore, the connection between the piston rod and the gate used two sleeve bushings.
Evaluation of the bushings after operation indicated the lubricating liner (Karon V) material was
worn away from the nonload side of the bushing. Material from the Kamatics lubricant used in the
bushing was present on the stainless steel pin. No scoring was present on the pin.
! Cylinder trunnion bushings. Evaluation of the bushings after operation indicated the lubricating
liner (Karon V) material was in good condition, with minor wear on the load-bearing surface of
the bushing. Lubricant material from the Kamatics bushings was deposited on the stainless steel
pins and from the thrust surface of the bushing on the side of the trunnion. The area where contact
was made between the cylinder trunnion pins and the bushings could be seen, but the pins were not
damaged.
(3) Wicket #3, Merriman. The manufacturer of the bearings installed on Wicket #3 was Merriman,
Hingham, MA. Merrimans product, Lubrite, used a bushing machined from manganese bronze. A
series of 6.35 10 m (1/4-in.) holes were drilled in a designated pattern in the housings and filled with
-3
Merriman G12 lubricant. The inner lubricating liner used in the housings was G12 lubricant. G12 is an
epoxy-based graphite-free lubricant.
! Hinge sleeve bushings and pins. Evaluation of the bushings after operation indicated the final inner
surface coating layer of Gl2 was removed and the G12 plugs were exposed. On the inside of the
left bushing, a couple of the plugs had begun to wear or wash out. Approximately 250 microns
(10 mils) of material was removed from the plugs and the manganese bronze had begun to show
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6-9
wear in a 13-cm (2-in. ) area of the bushing. The pins were in good condition with no sign of
2 2
wear. There was little to no lubricant material present on the pins.
! Prop spherical bearing. The spherical ball of the bearing was machined from manganese bronze.
Lubrite lubricant G12 was added to the ball by means of a series of machined rings and holes
and by inserting the lubricant into the voids. A 175-micron (7-mil) layer of G12 lubricant was
applied over the face of the ball for break-in purposes. The surface of the ball was rough with pits
where the G12 lubricant had worn or washed out. Observation of the ball indicated galvanic
corrosive action between the lubricant material and stainless steel could have caused the pitting of
the material. The noncontact surface of the ball still had signs of the initial break-in surface coat of
G12 lubricant on it. The race was in good condition.
! Cylinder trunnion bushing. Evaluation of the bushings after operation indicated the 200-micron (8-
mil) thick inner break-in surface layer of G12 was removed on the bottom, along the load area of
the bushings. The stainless steel trunnion pins had G12 lubricant deposited on the pins. The load
areas where the bushing contacted the pins showed no signs of wear. The pins were in good
condition with no signs of wear.
(4) Wicket #4, Thordon. The manufacturer of the bearings installed on Wicket #4 was Thordon
Bearings, Inc., of Burlington, Ontario, Canada. Thordon used a bushing machined from bronze. The inner
lubricating liner used in the bushing was Thordon SXL TRAXL. SXL is a polyurethane-based material
with multiple proprietary additives that the manufacturer will not disclose.
! Hinge sleeve bushings and pins. Evaluation of the bushings after operation indicated that the final
inner surface coating was in good condition, with minor deposits of black debris impregnated into
the material. The stainless steel hinge pins were in good condition with no signs of wear.
! Cylinder trunnion bushing. Evaluation of the bushings after operation indicated that the loads
caused the lubricating material to compress approximately 125 to 250 microns (5 to10 mils).
The manufacturer of the bushings provided the Corps of Engineers an overview of their interpretation of
the cause of dark areas observed in the bushing. They stated the discoloration most probably was iron
oxide from mild steel that was trapped between the bottom of the shaft and the bearing, subsequently
pressed into the bearing surface. The stainless steel trunnion pins showed no signs of wear and were in
good condition.
(5) Wicket #5, Rowend. The manufacturer of the bearings installed on Wicket #5 was Rowend,
Liberty Center, OH. Rowend used a bushing machined from manganese bronze. A series of 6.3-mm
(1/4-in.) holes were drilled in the bushing and filled with R-8 lubricant in a designated pattern around the
bushing. The inner lubricating material used was R-8, a proprietary material.
! Hinge sleeve bushings and pins. Evaluation of the bushings after operation indicated that galvanic
corrosion occurred between the manganese bronze bushing and the stainless steel pin. The
noncontact surface of the left hinge bushings had pits. The thrust surface of the left hinge bearing
also had pitting and the R-8 lubricant was beginning to wash out of the plug area. The right
hinge bushing side thrust surface experienced the majority of the side loading and was grooved and
worn from the rotation. The R-8 lubricant washed out of the plug area as much as 0.79 mm
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(1/32 in.) on the thrust surface. Pitting was not present on the load side of the right hinge bushing.
There were no indications of galvanic action found on the stainless steel hinge pins.
! Direct-connect cylinder to gate connection pin. Wicket #5 was a direct-connected cylinder;
therefore, the connection between the piston rod and the gate used two sleeve bushings. Evaluation
of the bushings after operation indicated the lubricating material fully coated the bushing surface
as required. There were minor traces of galvanic corrosion in the manganese bronze material.
Overall, the bushings were in good condition. Lubricant material used in the bushing was on the
pin. No scoring was present on the pin.
! Cylinder trunnion bushings. Evaluation of the bushings indicated that foreign material had gotten
into the bushing and damaged the manganese housing. Some grooves were in the base metal. The
R-8 material was distributed around the bushing, as is normal.
d. Lessons learned. Lessons learned in this study were.
(1) Bearing materials. Of the five self-lubricating bearing materials tested, each performed differently.
Four of the manufacturers made the housings of the bearings from manganese bronze into which a specific
lubricant was applied. The fifth manufacturer, Kamatics, used a fiberglass housing onto which a lubricant
was applied. Rowend used lubricant plugs with no break-in surface, and pitting occurred in the
manganese bronze. It is believed that galvanic action between the material and the stainless steel pin
caused the pitting. Merriman and Lubron used a break-in layer of lubricant which seemed to protect the
bronze from the galvanic action. Thordon used a material that was laminated to the bronze and absorbed
fine debris into the material. Kamatics used a PTFE-based lubricant that delaminated and flaked off the
housing of the bearings. Based on the testing conducted, the Lousville District rated the products in the
following order: Lubron and Thordon (equal) > Merriman > Rowend > Kamatics. The reason for the low
rating of the Kamatics bearing was the observed damage.
(2) Biodegradable hydraulic fluid. The fluid performed well once the proper size filters were
determined. Originally a 10-micron- (3.28 10 ft) filter was installed in the return line from the cylinders
-5
and on the supply line. In October and November, when the site was not in use, the cylinders were exposed
to cold weather. The cold fluid would not pass through the 10-micron filter fast enough, activating an
alarm in the control system. To correct the problem, the 10-micron filter in the return line was replaced
with a 20-micron (6.56 10 ft) filter, and the heater inside the reservoir was turned on. These actions
-5
solved the problem.
(3) Hydraulic fluid filters. It is important to position the filters on the reservoir in a location where
they are easily accessible for routine maintenance.
(4) Cleaning of hydraulic system. Initial cleaning of the system was performed by the mechanical
contractor. After operating the hydraulic system for a period of time, metal shavings were discovered in the
return filter. It was determined that the shavings came from the manifolds. It was believed that the shock
to the piping system from engaging of the alignment cylinder solenoids dislodged the shavings from the
manifold. Each manifold was removed and recleaned, and the problem no longer occurred.
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Chapter 7
Lubricant Additives
7-1. General
Oil quality is established by the refining processes and additives are most effective if the oil is well refined.
Although the overall performance of an oil can be improved by introducing additives, a poor quality oil
cannot be converted into a premium quality oil by introducing additives. Furthermore, there are limits to
the amount of additives that can be introduced to improve performance. Beyond these limits, the benefits
are minimal or may provide no gains in performance. They also may increase the cost of lubricants and, in
some cases, may even be harmful. An additive may function in any of the following three ways:
! Protecting lubricated surfaces. Extreme pressure (EP) additives and rust inhibitors are included in
this category. These additives coat the lubricated surfaces and prevent wear or rust.
! Improving performance. Viscosity index improvers and antifoaming agents are examples. They
make the oil perform in a desired manner for specific applications.
! Protecting the lubricant itself. Antioxidants reduce the tendency of oil to oxidize and form sludge
and acids.
The most common additives are listed in Table 7-1, and they are discussed individually in the following
paragraphs.
7-2. Surface Additives
The primary purpose of surface additives is to protect lubricated surfaces. Extreme pressure additives, rust
and corrosion inhibitors, tackiness agents, antiwear additives, and oiliness additives are included in this
category. These additives coat the lubricated surfaces to prevent wear or rust.
a. Rust inhibitors. Rust inhibitors are added to most industrial lubricants to minimize rusting of
metal parts, especially during shipment, storage, and equipment shutdown. Although oil and water do not
mix very well, water will emulsify--especially if the oil contains polar compounds that may develop as the
oil ages. In some instances the water will remain either suspended by agitation or will rest beneath the oil
on machine surfaces when agitation is absent. Rust inhibitors form a surface film that prevents water from
making contact with metal parts. This is accomplished by making the oil adhere better or by emulsifying
the water if it is in a low concentration.
b. Corrosion inhibitors. Corrosion inhibitors suppress oxidation and prevent formation of acids.
These inhibitors form a protective film on metal surfaces and are used primarily in internal combustion
engines to protect alloy bearings and other metals from corrosion.
c. Extreme pressure (EP) agents. Extreme pressure agents react with the metal surfaces to form
compounds that have a lower shear strength than the metal. The reaction is initiated by increased
temperature caused by pressure between asperities on wearing surfaces. The reaction creates a protective
coating at the specific points where protection is required. This coating reduces friction, wear, scoring,
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Table 7-1
Types of Additives
Main Type Function and Subtypes
Acid neutralizers Neutralize contaminating strong acids formed, e.g., by combustion of high sulfur fuels
or by decomposition of active EP additives.
Antifoam Reduce surface foam.
Antioxidants Reduce oxidation. Various types are: oxidation inhibitors, retarders; anticatalyst metal
deactivators, metal passivators.
Antirust Reduce rusting of ferrous surfaces swept by oil.
Antiwear agents Reduce wear and prevent scuffing of rubbing surfaces under steady load operating
conditions
Corrosion inhibitors Type (a) reduces corrosion of lead; type (b) reduces corrosion of cuprous metals.
Detergents Reduce or prevent deposits formed at high temperatures, e.g., in internal combustion
engines.
Dispersant Prevent deposition of sludge by dispersing a finely divided suspension of the insoluble
material formed at low temperature.
Emulsifiers Form emulsions; either water-in-oil or oil-in-water, according to type.
Extreme pressure Prevent scuffing of rubbing surfaces under severe operating conditions, e.g., heavy
shock load, by formation of a mainly inorganic surface film.
Oiliness enhancers Reduce friction under boundary lubrication conditions; increase load-carrying capacity
where limited by temperature rise by formation of mainly organic surface films.
Pour- point depressants Reduce pour point of paraffinic oils.
Tackiness agents Reduce loss of oil by gravity, e.g., from vertical sliding surfaces, or by centrifugal
force.
Viscosity index improvers Reduce the decrease in viscosity due to increase of temperature
Reference: Neale, M. J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England.
.
seizure, and galling of wear surfaces. Extreme pressure additives are used in heavy loading or shock
loading applications such as turbines, gears, and ball and roller bearings.
d. Tackiness agents. In some cases, oils must adhere to surfaces extremely well. Adding polymers
composed of long-chain molecules or aluminum soaps of long-chain fatty acids increases the tackiness or
adhesiveness of oils.
e. Antiwear (AW) agents. Additives that cause an oil to resist wear by coating the metal surfaces are
called antiwear agents. Molecules of the antiwear compound are polar and attach (adsorb) themselves to
metal surfaces or react mildly with the metal. When boundary lubrication conditions (direct contact
between metal asperities) occur, such as in starting and stopping of machinery, these molecules resist
removal more than ordinary oil molecules. This reduces friction and wear. However, they are effective
only up to about 250 EC (480 EF ).
f. Detergents and dispersant. Detergents and dispersant are used primarily in internal combustion
engines to keep metal surfaces clean by preventing deposition of oxidation products.
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g. Compounded oil. A small amount of animal fat or vegetable oil added to a mineral oil will reduce
the coefficient of friction without affecting the viscosity. The ability of an oil to provide a lower coefficient
of friction at a given viscosity is often called oiliness or lubricity. When fatty oil is added to obtain this
quality of oiliness, the lubricant is called a compounded oil. Fatty oil adheres to metal more strongly than
mineral oil and provides a protective film. Compounded oils are generally used in worm gears.
7-3. Performance-Enhancing Additives
These additives improve the performance of lubricants. Viscosity index improvers, antifoaming agents,
emulsifiers, demulsifiers, and pour-point depressants are examples.
a. Pour-point depressants. An oil's pour point is the temperature at which the oil ceases to flow
under the influence of gravity. In cold weather, oil with a high pour point makes machinery startup
difficult or impossible. The stiffness of cold oil is due to paraffin waxes that tend to form crystal
structures. Pour-point depressants reduce the size and cohesiveness of the crystal structures, resulting in
reduced pour point and increased flow at reduced temperatures.
b. Viscosity index (VI) improvers. The viscosity index is an indicator of the change in viscosity as
the temperature is changed. The higher the VI, the less the viscosity of an oil changes for a given
temperature change. Viscosity index improvers are used to limit the rate of change of viscosity with
temperature. These improvers have little effect on oil viscosity at low temperatures. However, when
heated, the improvers enable the oil viscosity to increase within the limited range permitted by the type and
concentration of the additive. This quality is most apparent in the application of multigrade motor oils.
c. Emulsifiers. In most industrial applications it is undesirable to have emulsified water in the oil.
However, soluble oils require emulsifiers to promote rapid mixing of oil and water and to form stable
emulsions. Soluble oils are used as lubricants and coolants for cutting, grinding, and drilling applications
in machine shops.
d. Demulsifiers. Demulsifiers promote separation of oil and water in lubricants exposed to water.
7-4. Lubricant Protective Additives
Lubricant protective additives are employed to protect the lubricant instead of the equipment. Oxidation
inhibitors and foam inhibitors are examples.
a. Oxidation inhibitors. Over time, hydrocarbon molecules will react to incorporate oxygen atoms
into their structure This reaction produces acids, sludge, and varnish that foul or damage metal parts. At
low temperatures and under minimal exposure to oxygen, this process is very slow. At temperatures above
82 EC (180 EF) the oxidation rate is doubled for every -7.78 to -6.67 EC (18 to 20 EF) rise in temperature.
Oxidation of hydrocarbons is a very complex chemical process and depends on the nature of the oil.
Oxidation inhibitors reduce the quantity of oxygen reacting with oil by forming inactive soluble compounds
and by passivating metal-bearing surfaces to retard the oxidation rate. As previously noted, oxidation
inhibitors are consumed as the oil ages. Oil condition should be monitored periodically to ensure that
essential additives are maintained at safe levels. Oxidation inhibitors are used in most industrial lubricant
applications where oil is continuously circulated or contained in a housing.
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b. Foam inhibitors. In many applications, air or other gases may become entrained in oil. Unless
these gases are released, a foam is produced. Foaming can result in insufficient oil delivery to bearings,
causing premature failure. Foam may also interfere with proper operation of equipment such as lubricating
pumps and may result in false oil level readings. Under some circumstances foam may overflow from oil
reservoirs. Foam inhibitors such as silicone polymers or polyacrylates are added to reduce foaming.
7-5. Precautions
a. Additives alone do not establish oil quality with respect to oxidation resistance, emulsification,
pour point, and viscosity index. Lubricant producers do not usually state which compounds are used to
enhance the lubricant quality, but only specify the generic function such as antiwear, EP agents, or
oxidation inhibitors. Furthermore, producers do not always use the same additive to accomplish the same
goal. Consequently, any two brands selected for the same application may not be chemically identical.
Users must be aware of these differences and that they may be significant when mixing different products.
(1) Additive depletion. Certain precautions must be observed with regard to lubricant additives. Some
additives are consumed during use. As these additives are consumed, lubricant performance for the
specific application is reduced and equipment failure may result under continued use. Oil monitoring
programs should be implemented to periodically test oils and verify that the essential additives have not
been depleted to unacceptable levels.
(2) Product incompatibility. Another important consideration is incompatibility of lubricants. Some
oils, such as those used in turbine, hydraulic, motor, and gear applications are naturally acidic. Other oils,
such as motor oils and transmission fluids, are alkaline. Acidic and alkaline lubricants are incompatible.
b. When servicing an oil lubricating system, the existing and new oils must be compatible. Oils for
similar applications but produced by different manufacturers may be incompatible due to the additives
used. When incompatible fluids are mixed, the additives may be consumed due to chemical reaction with
one another. The resulting oil mixture may be deficient of essential additives and therefore unsuitable for
the intended application. When fresh supplies of the oil in use are not available, the lubricant manufacturer
should be consulted for recommendation of a compatible oil. Whenever oil is added to a system, the oil
and equipment should be checked frequently to ensure that there are no adverse reactions between the new
and existing oil. Specific checks should include bearing temperatures and signs of foaming, rust, or
corrosion.
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Chapter 8
Environmentally Acceptable Lubricants
8-1. General
Mineral-oil-based lubricating oils, greases, and hydraulic fluids are found in widespread use throughout
Corps of Engineers facilities. However, these products are usually toxic and not readily biodegradable.
Because of these characteristics, if these materials escape to the environment, the impacts tend to be
cumulative and consequently harmful to plant, fish, and wildlife. Due to these potential hazards, the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and other government regulators have imposed increasingly
stringent regulations on the use, containment, and disposal of these materials. For instance, the EPA
requires that no visible oil sheen be evident downstream from facilities located in or close to waterways.
Another regulation requires that point discharges into waterways should not exceed 10 parts per million
(ppm) of mineral-based oils. Corps facilities such as hydropower plants, flood-control pumping plants, and
lock-and-dam sites either are or have the potential to become polluters due to the use of mineral-oil-based
materials in these facilities. Grease, hydraulic fluids, and oil leaking from equipment may be carried into
the waterway. Because of the difficulty in completely eliminating spills and discharges of these mineral-oil-
based materials, and to alleviate concerns about their impact on the environment, a new class of
environmentally acceptable (EA) materials is becoming available and starting to find increasing use in
sensitive locations. EA lubricants, as contrasted to mineral-oil-based equivalents, are nontoxic and
decompose into water and carbon dioxide (CO ). EA fluids are frequently made from renewable resources,
2
which reduces dependency on mineral oils.
8-2. Definition of Environmentally Acceptable (EA) Lubricants
a. The lubrication industry uses a variety of terms to address environmental lubricants. A few of
these terms, all preceded by the term environmentally, are: acceptable, aware, benign, friendly,
harmless, safe, sensitive, and suitable. Two other commonly used terms are green fluids and
food grade lubricants. The term green fluid is mostly used for lubricants manufactured from vegetable
oil. Food grade lubricants are rated by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and generally are used
in the food industry where incidental food contact may occur. Food grade lubricants may or may not
qualify as EA lubricants. Indeed, most food grade lubricants are made of U.S.P. White Mineral Oil which
is not toxic but does not meet the biodegradability criteria commonly required of EA lubricants.
Environmentally acceptable is the most commonly used term and is used by some ASTM committees to
address environmental lubricants. This manual uses the term EA.
b. At the present time there are no standards for EA lubricants or hydraulic fluids. Manufacturers
and end users agree that for a lubricant to be classified as an EA type it should be biodegradable and
nontoxic. This means that if a small quantity of EA fluid is inadvertently spilled into the environment, such
as a waterway, it should readily break down and not cause harm to fish, plants, or wildlife.
c. U.S. standards-writing organizations are currently working to develop nationally recognized tests
and procedures for demonstrating compliance with various environmental criteria such as biodegradability
and toxicity. The ASTM Committee on Petroleum Products and Lubricants has formed a subcommittee,
referred to as the Subcommittee on Environmental Standards for Lubricants, which is tasked with
developing test methods for determining aerobic aquatic biodegradation and aquatic toxicity of lubricants.
The methodology developed by this subcommittee, ASTM D 5864, for determining the aerobic aquatic
biodegradation of the lubricants, was accepted for standard use by the ASTM in December 1995. The
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subcommittee is also developing a test method for determining the aquatic toxicity of lubricants. With
approval of these standards, it is expected that these methods will be used by industry for evaluating and
specifying EA fluids.
d. However, lacking formally approved U.S. test procedures, suppliers of EA lubricants frequently
use established European standards to demonstrate their products' compliance with U.S. criteria. In this
manual, references are made to these European standards.
e. The base fluids discussed herein may be used for preparation of hydraulic fluids, lubrication fluids,
or greases. Environmental tests referred to in this manual are applicable to all three types of products.
8-3. Biodegradation
a. Definition.
(1) Biodegradation is defined as the chemical breakdown or transformation of a substance caused by
organisms or their enzymes.
(2) Primary biodegradation is defined as a modification of a substance by microorganisms that causes
a change in some measurable property of the substance.
(3) Ultimate biodegradation is the degradation achieved when a substance is totally utilized by
microorganisms resulting in the production of carbon dioxide, methane, water, mineral salts, and new
microbial cellular constituents.
b. Tests.
(1) ASTM test method D 5864 determines lubricant biodegradation. This test determines the rate and
extent of aerobic aquatic biodegradation of lubricants when exposed to an inoculum under laboratory
conditions. The inoculum may be the activated sewage-sludge from a domestic sewage-treatment plant, or
it may be derived from soil or natural surface waters, or any combination of the three sources. The degree
of biodegradability is measured by calculating the rate of conversion of the lubricant to CO . A lubricant,
2
hydraulic fluid, or grease is classified as readily biodegradable when 60 percent or more of the test material
carbon is converted to CO in 28 days, as determined using this test method.
2
(2) The most established test methods used by the lubricant industry for evaluating the
biodegradability of their products are Method CEC-L-33-A-94 developed by the Coordinating European
Council (CEC); Method OECD 301B, the Modified Sturm Test, developed by the Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD); and Method EPA 560/6-82-003, number CG-2000, the
Shake Flask Test, adapted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). These tests also
determine the rate and extent of aerobic aquatic biodegradation under laboratory conditions. The Modified
Sturm Test and Shake Flask Test also calculate the rate of conversion of the lubricant to CO . The CEC
2
test measures the disappearance of the lubricant by analyzing test material at various incubation times
through infrared spectroscopy. Laboratory tests have shown that the degradation rates may vary widely
among the various test methods indicated above.
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8-4. Toxicity
Toxicity of a substance is generally evaluated by conducting an acute toxicity test. While awaiting
acceptance of the ASTM test method for determining the aquatic toxicity of lubricants, the most common
test methods used by the lubricant industry for evaluating the acute toxicity of their products are EPA
560/6-82-002, Sections EG-9 and ES-6; and OECD 203. These tests determine the concentration of a
substance that produces a toxic effect on a specified percentage of test organisms in 96 hours. The acute
toxicity test is normally conducted using rainbow trout. Toxicity is expressed as concentration in parts per
million (ppm) of the test material that results in a 50 percent mortality rate after 96 hours (LC50). A
substance is generally considered acceptable if aquatic toxicity (LC50) exceeds 1000 ppm. That is, a
lubricant or a hydraulic fluid is generally considered acceptable if a concentration of greater than 1000 ppm
of the material in an aqueous solution is needed to achieve a 50 percent mortality rate in the test organism.
8-5. EA Base Fluids and Additives
Base fluids are mixed with additives to form the final products. These additives are necessary because they
provide the resulting end product with physical and chemical characteristics such as oxidation stability,
foaming, etc., required for successful application. However, most additives currently used for mineral-
based oil are toxic and nonbiodegradable. Therefore, they cannot be used with EA fluids. Furthermore,
since the physical and chemical properties of EA fluids are quite different than those of mineral oil, EA
fluids will require entirely different additives. Several additive manufacturers are working with the
lubricant industry to produce environmentally suitable additives for improving the properties of EA base
fluids. Additives that are more than 80 percent biodegradable (CEC-L33-T82) are available. Sulfurized
fatty materials (animal fat or vegetable oils) are used to formulate extreme pressure/antiwear additives, and
succinic acid derivatives are used to produce ashless (no metal) additives for corrosion protection.
Suppliers are using a variety of base fluids to formulate EA hydraulic fluids, lubricating oils, and greases.
The base fluid may be the same for all three products. For example a biodegradable and nontoxic ester
may be used as the base fluid for production of hydraulic fluid, lubricating oil, and grease. The most
popular base fluids are vegetable oils, synthetic esters, and polyglycols.
a. Vegetable oils.
(1) Vegetable oil production reaches the billions of gallons in the United States. However, due to
technical complexity and economic reasons, few are usable for formulating EA fluids. The usable
vegetable oils offer excellent lubricating properties, and they are nontoxic and highly biodegradable,
relatively inexpensive compared to synthetic fluids, and are made from natural renewable resources.
(2) Rapeseed oil (RO), or canola oil, appears to be the base for the most popular of the biodegradable
hydraulic fluids. The first RO-based hydraulic fluids were commercially available in 1985. Laboratory
tests have identified limits to the use of this oil, but extensive practical experience has yielded relatively few
problems. The quality of RO has improved over time, and it has become increasingly popular, but it has
problems at both high and low temperatures and tends to age rapidly. Its cost, about double that of mineral
oil, still makes it more affordable than many alternative EA fluids.
(3) The benefits of RO include its plentiful supply, excellent lubricity, and high viscosity index and
flash point. RO is highly biodegradable. One popular RO achieves its maximum biodegradation after only
9 days. RO possesses good extreme pressure and antiwear properties, and readily passes the Vickers
35VQ25 vane pump wear tests. It offers good corrosion protection for hydraulic systems and does not
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attack seal materials, varnish, or paint. Mixing with mineral oil is acceptable and has no influence on oil
performance. RO is not water soluble and is lighter than water. Escaped oil can be skimmed off the
surface of water. Molecular weight is high, indicating low volatility and low evaporation loss.
(4) Concerns about RO include poor low-temperature fluidity and rapid oxidation at high
temperatures. Vegetable oil lubricants, including rapeseed, castor, and sunflower oils, tend to age quickly.
At high temperatures, they become dense and change composition; at low temperatures, they thicken and
gel. Some RO products are not recommended for use in ambient temperatures above 32EC (90 EF) or
below -6EC (21EF), but other products gel only after extended periods below -18EC (0EF) and will perform
well up to 82EC (180EF). The major problem with RO is its high content of linoleic and linolenic fatty
acids. These acids are characterized by two and three double bonds, respectively. A greater number of
these bonds in the product results in a material more sensitive to and prone to rapid oxidation. These
problems can be only partially controlled by antioxidants. Refining the base oil to reduce these acids
results in increased stability. Testing indicates that vegetable oils with higher oleic content have increased
oxidative stability. Genetic engineering has produced rapeseed and sunflower oils with high oleic content
for applications requiring better oxidation stability.
(5) Conversion to vegetable-oil-based fluids should present few problems, as all are mixable with
mineral oil. However, contamination with mineral oil should be kept to a minimum so that biodegradability
will not be affected. Special filter elements are not required. Filters should be checked after 50 hours of
operation, as vegetable oils tend to remove mineral-oil deposits from the system and carry these to the
filters. Filter-clogging indicators should be carefully monitored, as filter-element service life may be
reduced in comparison to mineral-oil operation.
b. Synthetic esters (SE).
(1) Synthetic esters have been in use longer than any other synthetic-based fluid. They were originally
used as aircraft jet engine lubricants in the 1950s and still are used as the base fluid for almost all aircraft
jet engine lubricants. For EA base lubricants, the most commonly used synthetic esters are polyol esters;
the most commonly used polyol esters are trimethylolpropane and pentaerithritol.
(2) Synthetic esters are made from modified animal fat and vegetable oil reacted with alcohol. While
there are similarities between RO and SEs, there are important differences. Esters are more thermally
stable and have much higher oxidative stability.
(3) SE fluids can be regarded as one of the best biodegradable hydraulic fluids. Synthetic esters with
suitable additives can also be nontoxic. They perform well as lubricants. They have excellent lubrication
properties: high viscosity index and low friction characteristics. Their liquidity at low and high
temperatures is excellent, as is their aging stability. Although they mix well with mineral oils, this
characteristic negatively influences their biodegradability. SE fluids offer good corrosion protection and
lubricity and usually can be used under the same operating conditions as mineral oils. They are applicable
for extreme temperature-range operations and appear to be the best biodegradable fluids for heavy-duty or
severe applications. Synthetic esters do have higher first cost and are incompatible with some paints,
finishes, and some seal materials. However, it may be possible to extend oil-change intervals and partially
offset the higher cost.
(4) Since SE fluids are miscible with mineral oil, conversion may be accomplished by flushing the
system to reduce the residual mineral-oil content to a minimum. Special filter elements are not required.
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Filters should be checked after 50 hours of operation, as vegetable oil tends to remove mineral-oil deposits
from the system and carry them to the filters.
c. Polyglycols (PG).
(1) The use of polyglycols is declining due to their aquatic toxicity when mixed with lubricating
additives and their incompatibility with mineral oils and seal materials.
(2) Polyglycol hydraulic fluids have been available for several decades and are widely used,
particularly in the food-processing industry. They also have been used since the mid-1980s in construction
machinery (primarily excavators) and a variety of stationary installations. They were the first
biodegradable oils on the market.
(3) PG fluids have the greatest stability with a range from -45 to 250 EC (-49 to 482 EF). Polyglycols
excel where fire hazard is a concern. Oil-change intervals are similar to those for a mineral oil: 2000 hours
or once a year.
(4) PG oils are not compatible with mineral oils and may not be compatible with common coatings,
linings, seals, and gasket materials. They must be stored in containers free of linings. Some PG oils do not
biodegrade well. The rate and degree of biodegradation are controlled by the ratio of propylene to ethylene
oxides, with polyethylene glycols being the more biodegradable. The rate and extent of biodegradability
diminish with increasing molecular weight.
(5) When a hydraulic system is converted from mineral oil to PG, it is essential that the oil supplier's
recommendations are followed. Normally, total system evacuation and one or two flushing procedures are
required to avoid any mixing with previously used mineral oil. Mineral oil is less dense than PG fluids, so
any residual mineral oil will float to the top and must be skimmed off. According to the manufacturer's
recommendations, the final residual quantity of mineral oil may not exceed 1 percent of the total fluid
volume. Mineral oil must not be used to replace lost PG fluid, and other contamination of PG with mineral
oil must be avoided. Compatibility with varnish, seal, and filter materials also must be considered. Paper
filters may need to be replaced with glass-fiber or metal-mesh filters, and these should be checked after the
first 50 hours of operation. The filters will retain any residual mineral oil and may become clogged.
Because of their excellent wetting properties, PG fluids tend to remove deposits left from operation with
mineral oil, and these deposits are carried to the filter. Polyglycols are soluble in water, so water must be
excluded from the system.
d. Water.
(1) With the prospect of increasingly stringent environmental restrictions on the use of mineral-oil-
based hydraulic fluids, water may become a practical alternative. Pure water has poor lubricity and cannot
function as a lubricant in the traditional sense, but water has been used as hydraulic fluid in specialty
applications where leakage contamination and fire hazard are major concerns. New designs and use of
highly wear-resistant materials have opened up possibilities for new water hydraulic applications. Reasons
to use water include the following:
(a) Water costs a fraction of mineral oils and other EA fluids.
(b) Water disposal has little or no impact on the environment.
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(c) Water is nonflammable and can be used where high temperatures and oils could create fire
hazards.
(d) Water has better thermal conductivity than oil and can transfer heat better allowing smaller heat
exchanger to be used.
(e) Waters incompressibility makes it ideal for accurate actuator positioning, whereas oil may be
sluggish and imprecise.
(2) Water does have several performance drawbacks, however. Conventional hydraulic oil system
components will not work with water, and modifying oil system components for water has had poor results.
Component manufacturers are now designing parts specifically for water and are having good results. The
following list describes performance drawbacks of water and solutions for overcoming them:
(a) Water has low viscosity, so leakage is a concern. Components with tighter clearances are being
manufactured to compensate for this.
(b) Water has low viscosity and low film strength, which means lower lubricity and higher wear.
Also, water corrodes metal parts. Stainless steel and high-strength plastic and ceramic bearings and
component parts designed for high wear resistance are being developed.
(c) Water has higher vapor pressure than mineral oil which makes it more prone to cause cavitation.
Pumps are being manufactured with smoother and larger flow areas and throttling valves are being
redesigned with innovative flow geometries to mitigate the cavitation potential.
(d) Water freezes. Nontoxic antifreezes have been developed to lower waters pour point.
(3) The rate and extent to which water hydraulics are adopted depends on the motivation for further
technical development and EA additive development by lubricant producers. The driving factor would be
legislation regarding toxic and nonbiodegradable hydraulic fluids.
8-6. Properties of Available EA Products
The ecotoxicological properties, physical properties, and relative costs of the most widely used EA fluids,
as compared with conventional mineral-based oils, are shown in Table 8-1. The cost figures do not include
the expenses for changing over to the EA oils, which may be substantial. PG may require total evacuation
of the system plus one or two flushes. Disposal costs for EA oils may be greater than for mineral oils
because recyclers will not accept them. As previously noted, laboratory tests have shown that the
degradation rates may vary widely among the various biodegradation test methods. Table 8-1 indicates
that the vegetable oil and synthetic-ester-based fluids, if formulated properly, are readily biodegradable.
The toxicity tests show that the base stocks of most EA lubricants are nontoxic. The wide range of toxicity
in Table 8-1 is caused by additives in the formulated products. The following discussion summarizes
important properties of EA fluids.
a. Oxidation stability. One of the most important properties of lubricating oils and hydraulic fluids is
their oxidation stability. Oils with low values of oxidation stability will oxidize rapidly in the presence of
water at elevated temperatures. When oil oxidizes it will undergo a complex chemical reaction that will
produce acid and sludge. Sludge may settle in critical areas of the equipment and interfere with the
lubrication and cooling functions of the fluid. The oxidized oil will also corrode the equipment.
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Table 8-1
Comparison of Ecotoxicological and Physical Properties of Lubricants
Properties Mineral Oil Polyglycol Vegetable Oil Synthetic Ester
Conventional
% Biodegradability 42 - 49 6 - 38 72 - 80 55 - 84
EPA 560/6-82-003
Toxicity , LC50, Trout, EPA 560/6-82- 389 - >5000 80 - >5000 633 - >5000 >5000
1
002
Oxidation Stability , TOST, hours, 1000 - 2000 <500 <75 <500
1
ASTM D 943
Lubricity Good Good Good Good
2
ASTM D 2266
Viscosity Index 90 - 100 100 - 200 100 - 250 120 - 200
2
ASTM D 2270
Foaming , ASTM D 892 Pass Pass Pass Pass
2
Pour Point EC (EF) -54 to -15 -40 to 20 -20 to 10 -60 to 20
2
ASTM D 97 (-65 to 5) (-40 to 68) (-4 to 50) (-76 to 68)
Compatibility with Mineral Oil - Not miscible Good Good
2
Relative Cost 1 2 - 4 2 - 3 5 - 20
2
Cheng et al., 1994
1
Rhee 1996
2
Oxidation stability is normally measured by test method ASTM D 943. This test, which is commonly
known as Turbine Oil Stability Test (TOST), is used to evaluate the oxidation stability of oils in the
presence of oxygen, water, and iron-copper catalyst at an elevated temperature. As Table 8-1 shows the
TOST life of mineral oil is more than 1000 hours. Synthetic esters and polyglycols are hydrolytically less
stable than mineral oils at elevated temperatures, resulting in lower TOST lives. It has been shown that
formulated synthetic esters with proper additives will produce high TOST values. Vegetable oils, on the
other hand, have a TOST life of less than 75 hours. To improve the TOST life of vegetable oil products,
more research must be done on formulating a proper mixture of base oil with a suitable additive package.
Until acceptable commercial formulations are demonstrated, vegetable oils should be confined to
applications involving very dry conditions and low temperatures.
b. Lubricity. Lubricity is the degree to which an oil or grease lubricates moving parts and minimizes
wear. Lubricity is usually measured by test method ASTM D 2266, commonly known as the Four-Ball
Method. Laboratory tests have shown that EA lubricants normally produce good wear properties.
c. Pour point. Pour point defines the temperature at which an oil solidifies. When oil solidifies, its
performance is greatly compromised. Pour point is normally evaluated by test method ASTM D 97. The
low-temperature fluidity of vegetable-based fluids is poor compared to other fluids listed in Table 8-1.
However, the pour point of vegetable-based hydraulic fluids and lubricants may be acceptable for many
applications.
d. Viscosity index. Viscosity index (VI) is a measure of the variation in the kinematic viscosity of oils
as the temperature changes. The higher the viscosity index, the less the effect of temperature on its
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8-8
kinematic viscosity. VI is measured by test method ASTM D 2270. As Table 8-1 shows, the VI of most
EA fluids meets or exceeds the VI of petroleum-based fluids.
e. Foaming. The tendency of oils to foam can be a serious problem in lubricating and hydraulic
systems. The lubrication and hydraulic properties of oils are greatly impeded by excessive foaming.
Foaming characteristics of oils are usually determined by test method ASTM D 892. Laboratory tests have
shown that most formulated EA fluids do not have foaming problems.
f. Paint compatibility. Some common paints used in fluid systems are incompatible with many EA
fluids. When it is anticipated that EA fluids may be used in a fluid system, the use of epoxy resin paints
should be used to eliminate potential compatibility problems.
g. Elastomeric seal compatibility. Polyurethane seals should not be used with EA fluids. Instead,
the use of Viton and Buna N (low to medium nitrile) is recommended. EA fluids are compatible with steel
and copper alloys and provide excellent rust protection. The fluid manufacturer must be consulted for
specific compatibility data for each material encountered in the application.
h. Degradability. Since EA fluids are biodegradable they will break down in the presence of water
and bacteria. Moisture traps in breather intakes and other equipment modifications which will keep
moisture out of the system should be considered. EA fluids should be periodically monitored to insure that
biodegradation is not occurring.
8-7. Environmentally Acceptable Guidelines
At present there are no industry or guide specifications for EA fluids and greases. However, several
manufacturers have developed biodegradable and nontoxic fluids for limited applications. In addition,
several hydroelectric facilities operated by the Bureau of Reclamation and the Corps of Engineers are
testing these products and are obtaining good results. Until specific standards and specifications are
developed, it is recommended that the following guidance be used for qualifying the fluids to be
environmentally acceptable:
a. They must be nontoxic. That is, using test method EPA 560/6-82-002, concentrations greater than
1000 ppm of the test material are necessary to kill 50 percent of the test organisms in 96 hours
(LC50>1000).
b. They must be readily biodegradable. That is, using the ASTM test method D 5864, 60 percent or
more of the test material carbon must be converted to CO in 28 days.
2
8-8. Changing from Conventional to EA Lubricants
Plant owners and operators considering a change to biodegradable lubricants and hydraulic fluids should,
above all, be aware that these products are not identical to conventional mineral oil products. Furthermore,
the EA fluids are not necessarily equal to one another. It is important to make a thorough assessment of the
requirements of the specific application to determine whether a substitution can be made, and whether any
compromises in quality or performance will be compatible with the needs of the user. Switching to EA -
products may require special considerations, measures, or adaptations to the system. Depending on the
application and the product chosen, these could include the following:
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a. Some commercially available synthetic ester and vegetable-oil-based lubricants meet the
requirements of nontoxicity and biodegradability. However, the compatibility of these fluids with existing
materials encountered in the application, such as paints, filters, and seals, must be considered. The fluid
manufacturer must be consulted for specific compatibility data for each material of construction. The
manufacturer of the existing equipment must be consulted, especially when the equipment is still under
warranty.
b. Extreme care must be taken when selecting an EA oil or grease for an application. Product
availability may be impacted due to the dynamic nature of developing standards and environmental
requirements. EA lubricating oils should not be used in hydroelectric turbine applications, such as bearing
oil, runner hub oil, or governor oil, until extensive tests are performed. It is recommended that the Corps of
Engineers Hydroelectric Design Center be consulted prior to the initial purchase of any EA fluids and
greases for hydropower applications (see paragraph 8-10).
c. Accelerated fluid degradation at high temperature, change of performance characteristics at low
temperature, and possible new filtration requirements should be investigated carefully. The oxidation rate
of vegetable-based EA lubricants increases markedly above 82 EC (179.6 EF), and lengthy exposure at the
low temperature can cause some products to gel.
d. On a hydraulic power system, when changing over to EA lubricants, the system should be
thoroughly drained of the mineral oil and, if possible, flushed. Flushing is mandatory if diesel engine oil
was the previous hydraulic fluid. This will avoid compromising the biodegradability and low toxicity of the
EA fluids. Disposal of the used fluids should be in accordance with applicable environmental regulations
and procedures.
e. More frequent filter changes may be necesary.
f. Moisture scavengers may be necessary on breather intakes to keep water content in the lubricant
low.
g. Temperature controls for both upper and lower extremes may need to be added to the system.
h. Redesign of hydraulic systems to include larger reservoirs may be necessary to deal with foaming
problems.
i. The use of stainless steel components to protect against corrosion may be necessary.
j. The number of manufacturers who produce EA hydraulic fluids, lubricating oils, and greases
continues to expand. Names of the manufacturers include some well known companies that have marketed
lubricants for many years as well as a large number of smaller companies that appear to specialize in EA
products. Some of these companies also market specialty EA products such as gear oils, wire rope
lubricants, air tool lubricants and cutting and tapping fluids. EA turbine oils exist; however, to date, none
of the oil suppliers has recommended these products for hydroelectric power plants.
8-9. Survey of Corps Users
a. A survey of all Army Corps of Engineers districts was conducted to determine how extensively
alternative lubricants are being used, and with what results. A follow-up with manufacturers of some of
the products revealed that many installations that reported using environmentally acceptable products
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actually were using food-grade lubricants made from synthetic oils or mineral oils. Neither of these base
materials is readily biodegradable.
b. The use of environmentally friendly lubricants at Corps of Engineers installations still is far from
widespread. Six Corps districts reported using biodegradable oils in one or more applications. The longest
use to date has been about 5 years.
c. Several installations reported using rapeseed-based oils as hydraulic fluids. The products are being
used in Nashville District in hydraulic power units operating at 53.06 l/min (14 gpm) and 172.4 bar (2500
psi), in lock gate operating machinery in Huntington District and in pressure-activated pitch controls in a
pumping plant in Little Rock District. The Wilmington District has converted almost all of the hydraulics
in waterfront and floating plant applications to rapeseed oil products, and the Alaska District reports using
rapeseed oils in excavators, cranes, and dredges.
d. Nashville District also reported using rapeseed-based lubricants in gate and valve machinery, while
Rock Island District uses them to lubricate gate lift chains. Other districts reported having specified EA -
oils for specific applications, but have not yet put the new equipment in operation.
e. Operators of installations using the EA products generally are satisfied with their performance and
are considering expanding their use. Some operators who installed heaters or coolers to accommodate
fluids with limited temperature ranges report increased equipment life because the moderate temperatures
reduce stress on the pumps. Although the same environmental regulations apply to reporting and cleanup
of all spills, an environmental agency's response to a spill sometimes does take the environmentally
acceptable nature of the fluid into account. One user observed that a spill in quiet water gelled on the
surface like chicken fat, making cleanup easy. Finally, most operators report that installation of
rapeseed-based oil in a mineral-oil system is as easy as any other complete oil change.
f. Overall, the most positive reports on EA fluids were applications in closed hydraulic systems. In
systems open to the environment, degradation and temperature sensitivity cause problems. Exposure to
water also can spur biodegradation of the lubricant while in service, a problem of particular significance in
hydropower applications. The only two failures of the fluids reported in the Corps of Engineers survey
were cases of contamination that caused the fluids to biodegrade while in use.
8-10. USACE Contacts
a. Additional information on hydropower applications can be obtained from the Hydroelectric Design
Center, CENPP-HDC, at P.O. Box 2870, Portland, OR 97208.
b. Information on the survey, other EA applications, and associated new lubricants and technologies
can be obtained from the U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, CECER-FL-M, P.
0. Box 9005, Champaign, IL 61826-9005.
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Chapter 9
Gears
9-1. General
a. Energy is transmitted from a power source to a terminal point, through gears that change speeds,
directions, and torque. Gear lubricants are formulated and applied to prevent premature component failure,
assure reliable operation, reduce operating cost, and increase service life. The important objectives
accomplished by these lubricants include: reduction of friction and wear, corrosion prevention, reduction of
operating noise, improvement in heat transfer, and removal of foreign or wear particles from the critical
contact areas of the gear tooth surfaces.
b. Gears vary greatly in their design and in their lubrication requirements. Proper lubrication is
important to prevent premature wear of gear tooth surfaces. When selecting a lubricant for any gear
application the following issues must be considered: type and materials of gear; operating conditions,
including rolling or sliding speed, type of steady load, and temperature; method of lubricant application;
environment; and type of service. Enclosed gears -- those encased in an oil-tight housing -- usually require
an oil with various additives, depending on the operating conditions. Rust, oxidation, and foam inhibitors
are common. Extreme pressure (EP) additives are also used when loads are severe.
c. Worm gears are special because the action between the worm and the mating bull gear is sliding
rather than the rolling action common in most gears. The sliding action allows fluid film lubrication to take
place. Another significant difference is that worm gears are usually made of dissimilar materials, which
reduces the chance of galling and reduces friction. EP additives usually are not required for worm gears
and may actually be detrimental to a bronze worm gear. Lubrication can be improved by oiliness additives.
d. In open gear applications, the lubricant must resist being thrown off by centrifugal force or being
scraped off by the action of the gear teeth. A highly adhesive lubricant is required for most open gear
applications. Most open gear lubricants are heavy oils, asphalt-based compounds, or soft greases.
Depending on the service conditions, oxidation inhibitors or EP additives may be added. Caution must be
exercised when using adhesive lubricants because they may attract and retain dust and dirt, which can act
as abrasives. To minimize damage, gears should be periodically cleaned.
9-2. Gear Types
a. Spur gears. Spur gears are the most common type used. Tooth contact is primarily rolling, with
sliding occurring during engagement and disengagement. Some noise is normal, but it may become
objectionable at high speeds.
b. Rack and pinion. Rack and pinion gears are essentially a variation of spur gears and have similar
lubrication requirements.
c. Helical. Helical gears operate with less noise and vibration than spur gears. At any time, the load
on helical gears is distributed over several teeth, resulting in reduced wear. Due to their angular cut, teeth
meshing results in thrust loads along the gear shaft. This action requires thrust bearings to absorb the
thrust load and maintain gear alignment.
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d. Herringbone. Herringbone gears are essentially two side-by-side opposite-hand helical gears.
This design eliminates thrust loads, but alignment is very critical to ensure correct teeth engagement.
e. Bevel. Bevel gears are used to transmit motion between shafts with intersecting center lines. The
intersecting angle is normally 90 deg but may be as high as 180 deg. When the mating gears are equal in
size and the shafts are positioned at 90 degrees to each other, they are referred to as miter gears. The teeth
of bevel gears can also be cut in a curved manner to produce spiral bevel gears, which produce smoother
and quieter operation than straight cut bevels.
f. Worm. Operation of worm gears is analogous to a screw. The relative motion between these
gears is sliding rather than rolling. The uniform distribution of tooth pressures on these gears enables use
of metals with inherently low coefficients of friction such as bronze wheel gears with hardened steel worm
gears. These gears rely on full fluid film lubrication and require heavy oil compounded to enhance lubricity
and film strength to prevent metal contact.
g. Hypoid. Hypoid gears are similar to spiral bevel gears except that the shaft center lines do not
intersect. Hypoid gears combine the rolling action and high tooth pressure of spiral bevels with the sliding
action of worm gears. This combination and the all-steel construction of the drive and driven gear result in
a gear set with special lubrication requirements, including oiliness and antiweld additives to withstand the
high tooth pressures and high rubbing speeds.
h. Annular. Annular gears have the same tooth design as spur and helical gears, but unlike these
gears, the annular gear has an internal configuration. The tooth action and lubrication requirements for
annular gears are similar to spur and helical gears.
9-3. Gear Wear and Failure
The most critical function provided by lubricants is to minimize friction and wear to extend equipment
service life. Gear failures can be traced to mechanical problems or lubricant failure. Lubricant-related
failures are usually traced to contamination, oil film collapse, additive depletion, and use of improper
lubricant for the application. The most common failures are due to particle contamination of the lubricant
Dust particles are highly abrasive and can penetrate through the oil film, causing plowing wear or ridging
on metal surfaces. Water contamination can cause rust on working surfaces and eventually destroy metal
integrity. To prevent premature failure, gear selection requires careful consideration of the following: gear
tooth geometry, tooth action, tooth pressures, construction materials and surface characteristics, lubricant
characteristics, and operating environment. The first four items are related to design and application, and
further discussion is beyond the scope of this manual. These items may be mentioned where necessary, but
discussions are limited to those aspects directly related to and affected by lubrication, including wear,
scuffing, and contact fatigue. Refer to ANSI/AGMA Standard 1010-E95, and ASM Handbook Volume
18, for photographs illustrating the wear modes described in the following discussion.
a. Normal wear. Normal wear occurs in new gears during the initial running-in period. The rolling
and sliding action of the mating teeth create mild wear that appears as a smooth and polished surface.
b. Fatigue.
(1) Pitting. Pitting occurs when fatigue cracks are initiated on the tooth surface or just below the
surface. Usually pits are the result of surface cracks caused by metal-to-metal contact of asperities or
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defects due to low lubricant film thickness. High-speed gears with smooth surfaces and good film thickness
may experience pitting due to subsurface cracks. These cracks may start at inclusions in the gear
materials, which act as stress concentrators, and propagate below and parallel to the tooth surface. Pits are
formed when these cracks break through the tooth surface and cause material separation. When several
pits join, a larger pit (or spall) is formed. Another suspected cause of pitting is hydrogen embrittlement of
metal due to water contamination of the lubricant. Pitting can also be caused by foreign particle
contamination of lubricant. These particles create surface stress concentration points that reduce lubricant
film thickness and promote pitting. The following guidelines should be observed to minimize the onset of
pitting in gear units:
! Reduce contact stresses through load reduction or by optimizing gear geometry.
! Steel should be properly heat-treated to high hardness. Carburizing is preferable.
! Gear teeth should have smooth surfaces produced by grinding or honing.
! Use proper quantities of cool, clean, and dry lubricant with the required viscosity.
(2) Micropitting. Micropitting occurs on surface-hardened gears and is characterized by extremely
small pits approximately 10 m (400 -inches) deep. Micropitted metal has a frosted or a gra y
appearance. This condition generally appears on rough surfaces and is exacerbated by use of low-viscosity
lubricants. Slow-speed gears are also prone to micropitting due to thin lubricant films. Micropitting may
be sporadic and may stop when good lubrication conditions are restored following run-in. Maintaining
adequate lubricant film thickness is the most important factor influencing the formation of micropitting.
Higher-speed operation and smooth gear tooth surfaces also hinder formation of micropitting. The
following guidelines should be observed to reduce the onset of micropitting in gear units:
! Use gears with smooth tooth surfaces produced by careful grinding or honing.
! Use the correct amount of cool, clean, and dry lubricant with the highest viscosity permissible for
the application
! Use high speeds, if possible.
! Use carburized steel with proper carbon content in the surface layers.
c. Wear.
(1) Adhesion.
(a) New gears contain surface imperfections or roughness that are inherent to the manufacturing
process. During the initial run-in period, these imperfections are reduced through wear. Smoothing of the
gear surfaces is to be expected . Mild wear will occur even when adequate lubrication is provided, but this
wear is limited to the oxide layer of the gear teeth. Mild wear is beneficial because it increases the contact
areas and equalizes the load pressures on gear tooth surfaces. Furthermore, the smooth gear surfaces
increase the film thickness and improve lubrication.
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(b) The amount of wear that is acceptable depends on the expected life, noise, and vibration of the gear
units. Excessive wear is characterized by loss of tooth profile, which results in high loading, and loss of
tooth thickness, which may cause bending fatigue.
(c) Wear cannot be completely eliminated. Speed, lubricant viscosity, and temperature impose
practical limits on gear operating conditions. Gears that are highly loaded, operate at slow speeds, i.e., less
than 30 m/min (100 ft/min), and rely on boundary lubrication are particularly subject to excessive wear.
Slow-speed adhesive wear is highly dependent upon lubricant viscosity. Higher lubricant viscosities
provide significant wear reduction, but viscosities must be carefully selected to prevent overheating.
(d) The following guidelines should be observed to minimize the onset of adhesive wear in gear units:
! Gear teeth should have smooth surfaces.
! If possible, the run-in period for new gear units should be restricted to one-half load for the first
hours of operation.
! Use the highest speeds possible. High-load, slow-speed gears are boundary lubricated and are
especially prone to excessive wear. For these applications, nitrided gears should be specified.
! Avoid using lubricants with sulfur-phosphorus additives for very slow-speed gears (less than 3
m/min, or 10 ft/min).
! Use the required quantity of cool, clean, and dry lubricant at the highest viscosity permissible.
(2) Abrasion. Abrasive wear is caused by particle contaminants in the lubricant. Particles may
originate internally due to poor quality control during the manufacturing process. Particles also may be
introduced from the outside during servicing or through inadequate filters, breathers, or seals. Internally
generated particles are particularly destructive because they may become work-hardened during
compression between the gear teeth. The following guidelines should be observed to prevent abrasive wear
in gear units:
! Remove internal contamination from new gearboxes. Drain and flush the lubricant before initial
start-up and again after 50 hours of operation. Refill with the manufacturers recommended
lubricant. Install new filters or breathers.
! Use surface-hardened gear teeth, smooth tooth surfaces, and high-viscosity lubricants.
! Maintain oil-tight seals and use filtered breather vents, preferably located in clean, nonpressurized
areas.
! Use good housekeeping procedures.
! Use fine filtration for circulating-oil systems. Filtration to 3 m (120 -in.) has proven effective in
prolonging gear life.
! Unless otherwise recommended by the gear manufacturer, change the lubricant in oil-bath systems
at least every 2500 hours or every 6 months.
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9-5
! When warranted by the nature of the application, conduct laboratory analysis of lubricants.
Analysis may include spectrographic, ferrographic, acid number, viscosity, and water content.
(3) Polishing. Polishing wear is characterized by a mirror-like finish of the gear teeth. Polishing is
caused by antiscuff additives that are too chemically reactive. An excessive reaction rate, coupled with
continuous removal of surface films by very fine abrasive particles in the lubricant, may result in excessive
polishing wear. The following guidelines should be observed to prevent polishing wear in gearsets:
! Use less chemically active antiscuff additives such as borate.
! Remove abrasives from the lubricant by using fine filtration or by frequent oil changes.

d. Scuffing.
(1) General. The terms scuffing and scoring are frequently interchanged. The following definitions
are provided to assist in correctly ascertaining the type of damage observed. The ASM Handbook Vol 18
defines scuffing as localized damage caused by the occurrence of solid-phase welding between sliding
surfaces. It defines scoring as the formation of severe scratches in the direction of sliding. The handbook
also stipulates that scoring may be caused by local solid-phase welding or abrasion, but suggests that minor
scoring be considered as scratching. Gear scuffing is characterized by material transfer between sliding
tooth surfaces. Generally this condition occurs when inadequate lubrication film thickness permits metal-
to-metal contact between gear teeth. Without lubrication, direct metal contact removes the protective oxide
layer on the gear metal, and the excessive heat generated by friction welds the surfaces at the contact
points. As the gears separate, metal is torn and transferred between the teeth. Scuffing is most likely to
occur in new gear sets during the running-in period because the gear teeth have not sufficient operating time
to develop smooth surfaces.
(2) Critical scuffing temperature.
(a) Research has shown that for a given mineral oil without antiscuffing or extreme pressure additives,
there is a critical scuffing temperature that is constant regardless of operating conditions. Evidence
indicates that beyond the critical temperature, scuffing will occur. Therefore, the critical temperature
concept provides a useful method for predicting the onset of scuffing. The critical scuffing temperature is a
function of the gear bulk temperature and the flash temperature and is expressed as:
T = T + T (9-1)
c b f
where the bulk temperature T is the equilibrium temperature of the gears before meshing and the flash
b
temperature T is the instantaneous temperature rise caused by the local frictional heat at the gear teeth
f
meshing point. The critical scuffing temperature for mineral oils without antiscuffing or extreme pressure
additives increases directly with viscosity and varies from 150 to 300 EC (300 to 570 EF). However, this
increased scuffing resistance appears to be directly attributed to differences in chemical composition and
only indirectly to the beneficial effects of increased film thickness associated with higher viscosity.
Examination of the critical temperature equation indicates that scuffing can be controlled by lowering either
of the two contributing factors. The bulk temperature can be controlled by selecting gear geometry and
design for the intended application. The flash temperature can be controlled indirectly by gear tooth
smoothness and through lubricant viscosity. Smooth gear tooth surfaces produce less friction and heat
while increased viscosity provides greater film thickness, which also reduces frictional heat and results in a
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9-6
lower flash temperature. Furthermore, judicious application of lubricant can cool the gears by removing
heat.
(b) For synthetics and lubricants containing antiscuff additives, the critical temperature depends on the
operating conditions and must be determined experimentally for each case. Antiscuff additives commonly
used are iron sulfide and iron phosphate. These additives react chemically with the protected metal gear
surface to form very strong solid films that prevent metal contact under extreme pressure and temperature
conditions. As previously noted in the discussions of oil additives, the beneficial effects of extreme
pressure additives are enhanced as the temperature increases.
(c) The following guidelines should be observed to prevent scuffing in gear units:
! Specify smooth tooth surfaces produced by careful grinding or honing.
! Protect gear teeth during the running-in period by coating them with iron-manganese phosphate or
plating them with copper or silver. During the first ten hours of run-in, new gears should be
operated at one-half load.
! Use high-viscosity lubricants with antiscuff additives such as sulfur, phosphorus, or borate.
! Make sure the gear teeth are cooled by supplying adequate amount of cool lubricant. For
circulating-oil systems, use a heat exchanger to cool the lubricant.
! Optimize the gear tooth geometry. Use small teeth, addendum modification, and profile
modification.
! Use accurate gear teeth, rigid gear mountings, and good helix alignment.
! Use nitrided steels for maximum scuffing resistance. Do not use stainless steel or aluminum for
gears if there is a risk of scuffing.
9-4. Gear Lubrication
a. Lubricant characteristics. Gear lubricant must possess the following characteristics:
(1) General. The following characteristics are applicable to all gear lubricants. The lubrication
requirements for specific gears follow this general discussion:
(a) Viscosity. Good viscosity is essential to ensure cushioning and quiet operation. An oil viscosity
that is too high will result in excess friction and degradation of oil properties associated with high oil
operating temperature. In cold climates gear lubricants should flow easily at low temperature. Gear oils
should have a minimum pour point of 5 C (9 F) lower than the lowest expected temperature. The pour
0 0
point for mineral gear oil is typically -7 C (20 F). When lower pour points are required, synthetic gear
0 0
oils with pour points of -40 C (-40 F) may be necessary. The following equation from the ASM
0 0
Handbook provides a method for verifying the required viscosity for a specific gear based on the operating
velocity:
<
40
'
7000
V
0.5
V ' 0.262nd
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9-7
(9-2)
where
v = lubricant kinematic viscosity at 40EC (105EF) (cSt)
40
V = pitch line velocity (ft/min) given by :
(9-3)
where n is the pinion speed in rev/min and d is the pitch diameter (inches).
(b) Film strength. Good film strength helps prevent metal contact and scoring between the gear teeth.
(c) Lubricity (oiliness). Lubricity is necessary to reduce friction.
(d) Adhesion. Helps prevent loss of lubrication due to throw-off associated with gravity or centrifugal
force especially at high speeds.

(e) Gear speed. The now superseded Industrial Gear Lubrication Standards, AGMA 250.04, used
center distance as the primary criterion for gear lubricant selection. The new version of this standard,
designated AGMA 9005-D94 Industrial Gear Lubrication, has adopted pitch line velocity as the primary
selection criterion. As noted above, gear speed is a factor in the selection of proper oil viscosity. The pitch
line velocity determines the contact time between gear teeth. High velocities are generally associated with
light loads and very short contact times. For these applications, low-viscosity oils are usually adequate. In
contrast, low speeds are associated with high loads and long contact times. These conditions require
higher-viscosity oils. EP additives may be required if the loads are very high.
(f) Temperature. Ambient and operating temperatures also determine the selection of gear lubricants.
Normal gear oil operating temperature ranges from 50 to 55 C (90 to 100 F) above ambient. Oils
0 0
operating at high temperature require good viscosity and high resistance to oxidation and foaming. Caution
should be exercised whenever abnormally high temperatures are experienced. High operating temperatures
are indicative of oils that are too viscous for the application, excess oil in the housing, or an overloaded
condition. All of these conditions should be investigated to determine the cause and correct the condition.
Oil for gears operating at low ambient temperatures must be able to flow easily and provide adequate
viscosity. Therefore these gear oils must possess high viscosity indices and low pour points.
(2) Open gears. In addition to the general requirements, lubrication for open gears must meet the
following requirements:
(a) Drip resistance. Prevents loss of lubricant, especially at high temperatures which reduce viscosity.
(b) Brittle resistance. Lubricant must be capable of resisting embrittlement, especially at very low
temperatures.
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9-8
(3) Enclosed gears. In addition to the general requirements, lubrication for enclosed gears must meet
the following requirements:
(a) Chemical stability and oxidation resistance. Prevents thickening and formation of varnish or
sludge. This requirement is especially significant in high-speed gears because the oil is subjected to high
operating oil and air temperatures.
(b) Extreme pressure protection. Provides additional galling and welding protection for heavily
loaded gears when the lubricant film thickness fails. Extreme pressure lubricants are available for mild and
severe (hypoid) lubricant applications.
b. Types of gear lubricants
(1) Oil. Refer to AGMA 9005-D94 for the specifications for the following lubricants.
(a) Rust and oxidation oils. These petroleum-based oils are frequently referred to as RO gear oils.
RO oils are the most common gear lubricants and have been formulated to include chemical additives that
enhance their performance qualities. RO lubricating oils have easy application properties for gear and
bearings, good lubrication qualities, and adequate cooling qualities and they are economical to use.
Disadvantages include restriction to enclosed gear applications to prevent contamination.
(b) Compounded gear lubricants. These oils are a blend of petroleum-based oils with 3 to 10 percent
fatty or synthetic fatty oils. They are particularly useful in worm gear drives. Except as noted in the
AGMA applicable specifications, compounded oils should comply with the same specifications as RO oils.
(c) Extreme pressure lubricants. These gear lubricants, commonly referred to as EP lubricants, are
petroleum-based and specially formulated to include chemical additives such as sulfur-phosphorus or other
similar materials capable of producing a film that provides extreme pressure and antiscuffing protection.
(d) Synthetic oils. Synthetic oils have the advantage of stable application over wide temperature
range, good oxidation stability at high temperatures, high viscosity indices, and low volatility. Because
gear oils must be changed periodically, the main disadvantage of synthetics is high cost, which can only be
justified for applications at high temperature extremes where other lubricants fail. Another disadvantage of
synthetics is possible incompatibility with seals and other lubricants. The equipment manufacturer should
be consulted before using synthetic oils to ensure that exposed materials will not be damaged or warranties
voided. Gear units should be flushed of all mineral oils before the filling with the final synthetic oil.
(e) Residual compounds. These are higher-viscosity straight mineral or EP lubricants that are mixed
with a diluent to facilitate application. Viscosities range from 400 to 2000 mm /s at 100 EC (mm sq/sec
2
cST at 100 EC) without diluent. Once applied, the diluent evaporates and leaves a heavy residual lubricant
coating on the treated surface.
(2) Special compounds and greases. These lubricants include special greases formulated for
boundary lubricating conditions such as low-speed, low-load applications where high film strength is
required. These lubricants usually contain a base oil, a thickener, and a solid lubricant such as
molybdenum disulfide (MoS ) or graphite. The gear manufacturer should be consulted before using
2
grease. The primary disadvantage of using grease is that it accumulates foreign particles such as metal,
dirt, and other loose materials that can cause significant damage if adequate maintenance is not provided.
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9-9
Grease also has a tendency to be squeezed out of the gear tooth meshing zone, and it does not provide
satisfactory cooling.
(3) Open-gear lubricants. Open-gear lubricants are generally reserved for slow-speed low-load
boundary lubricating conditions. Due to the open configuration, the lubricants must be viscous and
adhesive to resist being thrown off the gear teeth surfaces. The disadvantages of these lubricants are
similar to those noted above for grease.
(4) Solid lubricants. The solid lubricants most commonly used in gear trains are molybdenum
disulfide, graphite, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), and tungsten disulfide (WoS ). Because they are
2
expensive to apply, use of these lubricants is reserved for special applications such as high and low
temperature extremes where other lubricants fail to perform adequately.
c. Applications.
(1) Spur, helical, bevel, and hypoid gears. Spur, helical, and bevel gears have similar load and speed
characteristics, and similar requirements for antiscuffing and viscosity.
(a) Spur and helical gears. Spur and helical gears usually require mineral oils with RO inhibitors.
Low-viscosity RO oils, such as turbine oils, are commonly used in high-speed, low-load gear units. For
high-speed, low-load gear applications, mineral oils without antiscuff/extreme pressure agents can be used
successfully provided the oil viscosity is capable of maintaining the required film thickness. However, low-
speed gears are usually heavily loaded so antiscuff/extreme pressure agents are necessary to ensure
adequate protection.
(b) Hypoid gears. Hypoid gears combine the rolling action and high tooth pressure of spiral bevel
gears with the sliding action of worm gears. These severe operating conditions result in high load, high
sliding speeds, and high friction. Therefore, hypoid gears are very susceptible to scuffing. Mineral oils
for this application must have high lubricity and high concentrations of antiscuffing/extreme pressure
additives.
(2) Worm gears. Worm gears operate under high sliding velocity and moderate loads. The sliding
action produces friction that produces higher operating temperatures than those that occur in other gear
sets. Normal operating temperature for worm gears may rise to 93 C (200 F) and is not a cause for
o o
concern. Lubricants for worm gears must resist the thinning due to high temperatures and the wiping
effect of sliding action, and they must provide adequate cooling. Mineral oils compounded with lubricity
additives are recommended. Extreme pressure additives are usually not required for worm gears. However,
when EP protection is required, the additive should be selected with caution to prevent damaging the bronze
worm wheel.
(3) Gear combinations. Many applications use different gears in the same gear housing. For these
applications the lubricant must be suitable for the gears with the most demanding requirements. Generally,
the other gears will operate satisfactorily with such high-performance lubricants.
(4) Gear shaft bearings. Gear shaft bearings are frequently lubricated by gear oil. In most instances
this condition is acceptable. Bearings in high-speed, low-load applications may operate satisfactorily with
the gear oil. However, low-speed, heavily loaded gears usually require a heavy oil. For these conditions a
low-viscosity EP oil may provide adequate lubrication for the gears and bearings. The low-viscosity oil
EM 1110-2-1424
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9-10
will adequately lubricate the bearings while the EP additive will protect the gear teeth from the effects of
using a low-viscosity oil.
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10-1
Chapter 10
Bearings
10-1. General
Bearings can be divided into two subgroups: plain bearings and rolling-contact bearings. Both have their
place in the world of machines. Each type has some obvious advantages and disadvantages, but there are
subtle properties as well that are often ignored. Each type of bearing can be found in a multiplicity of
places, and each can be lubricated with either oil or grease. Some bearings are lubricated by water, and
some are lubricated by air (as in the case of a dentist's drill).
10-2. Plain Bearings
Plain bearings consist of two surfaces, one moving in relation to the other. Plain bearings can be the
journal type, where both wear surfaces are cylindrical; thrust type, where there are two planar surfaces, one
rotating upon the other; and various types of sliding bearings where one surface slides in relation to the
other. All depend upon a lubricating film to reduce friction. Unless an oil pump is provided to generate the
oil film, these bearings rely on shaft motion to generate a hydrodynamic oil wedge.
a. Advantages of plain bearings.
(1) They have a very low coefficient of friction if properly designed and lubricated.
(2) They have very high load-carrying capabilities.
(3) Their resistance to shock and vibration is greater than rolling-contact bearings.
(4) The hydrodynamic oil film produced by plain bearings damps vibration, so less noise is
transmitted.
(5) They are less sensitive to lubricant contamination than rolling-contact bearings.
b. Types of plain bearings.
(1) Journal (sleeve bearings). These are cylindrical with oil-distributing grooves. The inner surface
can be babbitt-lined, bronze-lined, or lined with other materials generally softer than the rotating journal.
On horizontal shafts on motors and pumps, oil rings carry oil from the oil reservoir up to the bearing. In
the case of very slow-moving shafts, the bearings may be called bushings.
(2) Segmented journal. These are similar to the journal except that the stationary bearing consists of
segments or bearing shoes. Each shoe is individually adjustable. This type of bearing is commonly found
in vertical hydrogenerators and large vertical pumping units. This bearing is usually partially immersed in
an oil tub.
(3) Thrust bearings. These bearings support axial loading and consist of a shaft collar supported by
the thrust bearing, many times in segments called thrust shoes. The thrust shoes are sometimes allowed to
pivot to accommodate the formation of the supporting oil wedges. There are many different configurations
d
n
' n
D% d
2
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10-2
of the thrust bearing aimed at equalizing loading and oil wedges. The bearing is immersed in a tub of oil.
On large hydrogenerators and pumps an oil pump is sometimes used to provide an oil film at start-up.
(4) Self-lubricated bearings. These are journal (sleeve) bearings in which the bearing surface contains
a lubricant, usually solid, that is liberated or activated by friction in the bearing. This type of bearing is
gaining popularity as a wicket gate bearing or wicket gate linkage bushing.
c. Plain bearing lubrication selection.
(1) The most common lubricants for plain bearings are mineral and synthetic oils, and greases.
Mineral oils are generally used except in extreme hot and cold temperature applications where synthetics
provide superior performance. Oil is used for faster rotational speeds where the hydrodynamic oil wedge
can be formed and maintained. It also is used in high-temperature conditions where grease may melt or
degrade. Grease is used for slower rotational speeds or oscillating movements where the hydrodynamic oil
wedge cannot form. It is also used in cases of extreme loading where the bearing operates in boundary
conditions. Table 10-1 shows some of the important considerations regarding lubricant selection.
Table 10-1
Choice of Lubricant
Lubricant Operating Range Remarks
Mineral oils All conditions of load and speed Wide range of viscosities available. Potential
corrosion problems with certain additive oils (e.g.,
extreme pressure) (see Table 7.1).
Synthetic oils All conditions if suitable viscosity available Good high- and low-temperature properties. Costly.
Greases Use restricted to operating speeds below 1 Good where sealing against dirt and moisture is
to 2 m/s (3.28 to 6.56 fps) necessary and where motion is intermittent.
Process fluids Depends on properties of fluid May be necessary to avoid contamination of food
products, chemicals, etc. Special attention to design
and selection of bearing materials.
Reference: Neale, M. J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England.
(2) The lubricating properties of greases are significantly affected by the base oil and type of
thickeners used. Table 10-2 provides general guidelines for selecting the type of grease for bearing
lubrications. In Table 10-2, speed factor (also referred to as speed index) is determined by multiplying the
pitch diameter of the bearing by the bearing speed as follows;
(10-1)
where D is the bearing diameter (mm), d is the bore diameter (mm), and n is the rev/min. Speed factors
above 200,000 are usually indicative of fluid film lubrication applications. The load column provides
indications of the degree of loading on a bearing and is defined as the ratio of rated bearing load to the
actual bearing load.
u ' Bdn, m)sec
P
m
'
W
ld
, kN/m
2
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10-3
Table 10-2
Bearing Lubrication Considering Speed Factor
Load, Rated Applied Temperature, CE E ( F) Base Oil Thickener Additives
o
Speed Factor Less than 100,000
<10 -56.6-17.7 (-70-0) Mineral oil, synthetic, Lithium Graphite or MoS , rust
ester oxidation
2
<10 -17.7-176.6 (0-350) Mineral oil Lithium, calcium, Graphite or MoS , rust
barium, aluminum oxidation
sodium
2
<10 176.6+ (350+) Synthetic, ester Sodium, clay, calcium, Graphite or MoS , rust,
lithium, polyurea oxidation
2
Speed Factor 100,000 to 500,000
<10 -17.7-176.6 (0-350) Mineral oil, synthetic, Lithium, calcium, Graphite or Mos , rust,
PAG, ester aluminum, barium, oxidation
polyurea
2
<10 (high) -17.7-176.6 (0-350) Mineral oil, synthetic, Lithium, calcium, EP, rust, oxidation
>30 (low) PAG, ester aluminum, barium,
polyurea
>30 17-7-176.6 (0-350) Mineral oil, synthetic, Lithium, clay, polyurea, Antiwear, rust, oxidation
PAG, ester aluminum, barium,
calcium
Speed Factor Greater than 500,000
>30 -17.7-93.3 (0-200) Mineral oil, synthetic, Lithium, calcium, Rust, oxidation
ester barium
(3) Viscosity is the most critical lubricant property for insuring adequate lubrication of plain bearings.
If the viscosity is too high, the bearings will tend to overheat. If the viscosity is too low the load-carrying
capacity will be reduced. Figure 10-1 is a guide to selection of viscosity for a given operating speed. For
plain journal bearings the surface speed u is given by:
(10-1)
and the mean pressure p is given by
m
(10-2)
where
n = shaft speed, rev/s
l = bearing width, m
p
m
'
0.4W
lD
, kN)m
2
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10-4
Figure 10-1. Lubricant viscosity for plain bearings
(Reference: Neale, M. J., Lubrication: A Tribology
Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford
England)
d = shaft diameter, m
W = thrust load, kN
For thrust bearings, the surface speed u is given by Equation 10-1. The mean pressure is given by
(10-3)
where p , and l are as previously defined, W = thrust load, kN, and D = mean pad diameter, m. Equa-
m
tions 10-1 through 10-3 are intended to provide a means for understanding Figures 10-1 and 10-2. Refer to
Machinerys Handbook, 24th edition, for a detailed discussion and analysis of bearing loads and
lubrication.) Figure 10-2 shows the relationship between temperature and viscosity for mineral oils.
(4) Table 10-3 identifies some of the methods used to supply lubricants to bearings. The lubricant
should be supplied at a rate that will limit the temperature rise of the bearing to 20EC (68 EF).
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10-5
Figure 10-2. Typical viscosity/temperature
characteristics of mineral oils (Reference: Neale, M. J.,
Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-
Heinemann Ltd, Oxford, England)
Table 10-3
Methods of Liquid Lubricant Supply
Method of Supply Main Characteristics Examples
Hand oiling Nonautomatic, irregular. Low initial cost. High Low-speed, cheap journal bearings
maintenance cost.
Drip and wick feed Nonautomatic, adjustable. Moderately efficient. Cheap Journals in some machine tools, axles
Ring and collar feed Automatic, reliable. Efficient, fairly cheap. Mainly Journals in pumps, blowers, large electric motors
horizontal bearings
Bath and splash Automatic, reliable, efficient. Oiltight housing required. Thrust bearings, bath only. Engines, process
lubrication High initial cost. machinery, general
Pressure feed Automatic. Positive and adjustable. Reliable and High-speed and heavily loaded journal and thrust
efficient. High initial cost. bearings in machine tools, engines, and
compressors
Notes:
Pressure oil feed: This is usually necessary when the heat dissipation of the bearing housing and its surroundings are not sufficient to
restrict its temperature rise to 20 EC (68 EF) or less.
Journal bearings: Oil must be introduced by means of oil grooves in the bearing housing.
Thrust bearings: These must be lubricated by oil bath or by pressure feed from the center of the bearing.
Cleanliness: Cleanliness of the oil supply is essential for satisfactory performance and long life.
(Reference: Neale, M. J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Oxford, England)
EM 1110-2-1424
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10-6
(5) Generally, oil additives such as those noted in Table 7-1 are not required in plain bearing applica-
tions. Some additives and contaminants may cause corrosion, so caution should be exercised when using
bearing lubricants containing additives or when contaminants may be present. Table 10-4 identifies some
of the most common bearing materials used, and their resistance to corrosion when subjected to the
additives noted.
Table 10-4
Resistance to Corrosion of Bearing Metals
Maximum Additive or Contaminant
Operating
Temperature,
E EC (FE E)
Extreme-Pressure Weak Organic Strong Mineral Synthetic
Additive Antioxidant Acids Acids Oil
Lead-base white 130 (266) Good Good Moderate/poor Fair Good
metal
Tin-base white 130 (266) Good Good Excellent Very good Good
metal
Copper-lead 170 (338) Good Good Poor Fair Good
(without overlay)
Lead-bronze 180 (356) Good with good Good Poor Moderate Good
(without overlay) quality bronze
Aluminum-tin alloy 170 (338) Good Good Good Fair Good
Silver 180 (356) Sulfur-containing Good Good - except for Moderate Good
additives must not sulfur
be used
Phosphor-bronze 220 (428) Depends on quality Good Fair Fair Good
of bronze.
Sulfurized additives
can intensify
corrosion.
Copper-lead or 170 (338) Good Good Good Moderate Good
lead-bronze with
suitable overlay
Note:
Corrosion of bearing metals is a complex subject. The above offers a general guide. Special care is required with extreme-pressure
lubricants; if in doubt refer to bearing or lubricants supplier.
(Reference: Neale, M. J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Oxford, England)
.
10-3. Rolling-Contact Bearings
In rolling-contact bearings, the lubricant film is replaced by several small rolling elements between an inner
and outer ring. In most cases the rolling elements are separated from each other by cages. Basic varieties
of rolling-contact bearings include ball, roller, and thrust.
a. Advantages of rolling-contact bearings.
(1) At low speeds, ball and roller bearings produce much less friction than plain bearings.
(2) Certain types of rolling-contact bearings can support both radial and thrust loading simultaneously.
EM 1110-2-1424
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10-7
(3) Rolling bearings can operate with small amounts of lubricant.
(4) Rolling-contact bearings are relatively insensitive to lubricant viscosity.
(5) Rolling-contact bearings have low wear rates and require little maintenance.
b. Types of rolling-contact bearings.
(1) Ball bearing. This bearing has spherical rolling elements in a variety of configurations. It is able
to carry both radial and moderate axial loads. A special type, called maximum-type ball bearings, can take
an extra 30 percent radial load but cannot support axial loads.
(2) Roller bearing. The roller bearing has cylindrical rolling elements and can take much higher radial
loads than ball bearings but can carry no axial loads.
(3) Tapered roller bearing. This type has truncated-cone shaped rolling elements and is used for very
high radial and thrust loads.
(4) Double-row spherical. The bearing has a double row of keg-shaped elements. The inner surface
of the outer race describes part of a sphere. This bearing can handle thrust in both directions and very high
radial loads.
(5) Ball thrust. This type has ball elements between grooved top and bottom races.
(6) Straight roller thrust. This bearing has short segments of cylindrical rollers between upper and
lower races. The rollers are short to minimize skidding.
(7) Spherical thrust. This type is also called a tapered roller thrust bearing. The lower race describes
part of a sphere. The rolling elements are barrel-shaped and the outside has a larger diameter than the
inside.
(8) Needle bearing. These bearings have rollers whose lengths are at least four times their diameter.
They are used where space is a factor and are available with or without an inner race.
c. Rolling-contact conditions. The loads carried by the rolling elements actually cause elastic
deformation of the element and race as rotation occurs. The compressive contact between curved bodies
results in maximum stresses (called Hertzian contact stresses) occurring inside the metal under the surfaces
involved. The repeated stress cycling causes fatigue in the most highly stressed metal. As a result, normal
wear of rolling contact bearings appears as flaking of the surfaces. Lubrication carries away the excessive
heat generated by the repeated stress cycles. While lubrication is necessary, too much lubrication--
especially with grease lubrication--results in churning action and heating due to fluid friction.
d. Rolling bearing lubricant selection. In most cases, the lubricant type--oil or grease--is dictated by
the bearing or equipment manufacturer. In practice, there can be significant overlap in applying these two
types of lubricant to the same bearing. Often the operating environment dictates the choice of lubricant.
For example, a roller bearing on an output shaft of a gearbox will probably be oil-lubricated because it is
contained in an oil environment. However, the same bearing with the same rotational speed and loading
would be grease-lubricated in a pillow block arrangement.
(1) Selection of lubricant. Table 10-5 provides general guidance for choosing the proper lubricant.
EM 1110-2-1424
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10-8
Table 10-5
General Guide for Choosing Between Grease and Oil Lubrication
Factor Affecting the Choice Use Grease Use Oil
Temperature Up to 120 EC (248 EF) - with special greases or short Up to bulk oil temperature of 90 EC or
relubrication intervals up to 200/220 EC (392/428 EF) bearing temperature of 200 EC (428 EF) -
These temperatures may be exceeded
with special oils.
Speed factor* Up to dn factors of 300,000/350,000 (depending on Up to dn factors of 450,000/500,000
design) (depending on type of bearing)
Load Low to moderate All loads up to maximum
Bearing design Not for asymmetrical spherical roller thrust bearings All types
Housing design Relatively simple More complex seals and feeding devices
necessary
Long periods without attention Yes, depending on operating conditions, especially No
temperature
Central oil supply for other No - cannot transfer heat efficiently or operate Yes
machine elements hydraulic systems
Lowest torque When properly packed can be lower than oil on which For lowest torques use a circulating
the grease is based system with scavenge pumps or oil mist
Dirty conditions Yes - proper design prevents entry of contaminants Yes, if circulating system with filtration
* dn factor (bearing bore (mm) x speed (rev/min)).
Note: For large bearings (0.65-mm bore) and nd (d is the arithmetic mean of outer diameter and bore (mm)).
m m
(Reference: Neale, M. J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Oxford, England)
(2) Grease.
(a) Grease is used for slower rotational speeds, lower temperatures, and low to medium loads. Grease
is used in situations where maintenance is more difficult or irregularly scheduled. It can be used in dirty
environments if seals are provided. Tables 10-6 and 10-7 provide guidance on method of application and
environmental considerations when using grease.
Table 10-6
Effect of Method of Application on Choice of a Suitable Grade of Grease
System NLGI Grade No.
Air pressure 0 to 2 depending on type
Pressure-guns or mechanical lubricators Up to 3
Compression cups Up to 5
Centralized lubrication 2 or below
(a) Systems with separate metering values Normally 1 or 2
(b) Spring return systems 1
(c) Systems with multidelivery pumps 3
Reference: Neale, M. J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Oxford, England.
E
M

1
1
1
0
-
2
-
1
4
2
4
2
8

F
e
b

9
9
1
0
-
9
Table 10-7
Effect of Environmental Conditions on Choice of a Suitable Type of Grease
Type of Grease
NLGI
Grade
No.
Speed
Maximum
(percentage
recommended
maximum for
grease) Environment
Typical Service Temperature
Base Oil Viscosity
(approximate values) Comments
Maximum Minimum
EEC EEF EEC EEF
Lithium
Lithium
2
3
100
75
100
75
Wet or dry
Wet or dry
100
135
100
135
210
275
210
275
-25
-25
-13
-13
Up to 140 cSt at 37.7 EC
(100 EF)
Multipurpose, not advised at max. speed or max.
temperatures for bearings above 65-mm (2.5-in.) bore
or on vertical shafts
Lithium EP
Lithium EP
1
2
75
100
75
Wet or dry
Wet or dry
90
70
90
195
160
195
-15
-15
5
5
14.5 cSt at 98.8 EC
(210 EF)
Recommended for roll-neck bearings and heavily-
loaded taper-roller bearings
Calcium
(conventional)
1, 2,
and 3
50 Wet or dry 60 140 -10 14 140 cSt at 37.7 EC
(100 EF)
Calcium EP 1 and 2 50 Wet or dry 60 140 -5 25 14.5 cSt at 98.8 EC
(210 EF)
Sodium
(conventional)
3 75/100 Dry 80 175 -30 -22 30 cSt at 37.7 EC
(100 EF)
Sometimes contains 20% calcium
Clay 50 Wet or dry 200 390 10 50 550 cSt at 37.7 EC
(100 EF)
Clay 100 Wet or dry 135 275 -30 -22 Up to 140 cSt at 37.7 EC
(100 EF)
Clay 100 Wet or dry 120 248 -55 -67 12 cSt at 37.7 EC
(100 EF)
Based on synthetic esters
Silicone/
lithium
75 Wet or dry 200 390 -40 -40 150 cSt at 25 EC (77 EF) Not advised for conditions where sliding occurs at
high speed or load
Reference: Neale, M. J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Oxford, England
EM 1110-2-1424
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10-10
Figure 10-3. Approximate maximum speeds for grease-
lubricated bearings ((Reference: Neale, M. J., Lubrication:
A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd,
Oxford, England)
Figure 10-4. Variation of operating life of Grade 3
lithium hydroxystearate grease with speed and
temperature (Reference: Neale, M. J., Lubrication: A
Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd,
Oxford, England)
(b) Figure 10-3 shows approximate maximum bearing speeds for grease-lubricated bearings based on
the bore diameter and series of grease. Figure 10-4 provides guidance on grease life expectancy for
various operating speeds (given in percent) as a function of temperature. Correction factors for use with
Figure 10-3 are shown in Table 10-8.
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10-11
Table 10-8
Correction Factors for Figure 10-3
Bearing Type Bearing
Multiply Bearing Speed from Figure 10-1 by This
Factor to Get the Maximum Speed for Each Type of
B
a
l
l

b
e
a
r
i
n
g
s

a
n
d

c
y
l
i
n
d
r
i
c
a
l

r
o
l
l
e
r

b
e
a
r
i
n
g
s
Cage centered on inner race As Figure 10-1
Pressed cages centered on rolling elements 1.5-1.75
Machined cages centered on rolling elements 1.75-2.0
Machined cages centered on outer race 1.25-2.0
Taper- and spherical-roller bearings 0.5
Bearings mounted in adjacent pairs 0.75
Bearings on vertical shafts 0.75
Bearings with rotating outer races and fixed inner races 0.5
Reference: Neale, M. J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Oxford, England
(3) Oil.
(a) Oil is used for higher rotational speeds and higher operating temperatures. It is used in maximum
loading situations and for bearing configurations where a high amount of heat generated in the bearing can
be carried away by the oil. It is used in dirty conditions when the oil is circulated and filtered. For
moderate speeds, the following viscosities are recommended:
C Ball and cylindrical-roller bearings 12 cSt
C Spherical-roller bearings 20 cSt
C Spherical-roller thrust bearings 32 cSt
(b) In general, oils will be the medium to high viscosity index type with rust and oxidation inhibitors.
Extreme pressure (EP) oils are required for taper-roller or spherical-roller bearings when operating under
heavy loads or shock conditions. Occasionally EP oils may be required by other equipment or system
components.
(c) Figure 10-5 provides a means for selecting bearing oil lubricant viscosity based on the bearing
operating temperature, bore diameter, and speed. The following example shows how to use this figure.
Assume a bearing bore diameter of 60 mm (2.3 in.), speed of 5000 rev/min and an operating temperature of
65 EC. To select the viscosity, locate the bore diameter then move vertically to the required speed. At this
intersection move left to intersect the operating temperature. Since the required viscosity falls between an
S8 and S14 oil, select the oil with the higher viscosity (S14). The correct oil selection has a viscosity of
14 cSt at 50 EC. Table 10-9 provides guidance on applying oil to roller bearings.
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10-12
Figure 10-5. Roller bearing oil selection (Reference: Neale, M. J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook.
Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Oxford, England)
10-4 Calculation of Bearing Lubrication Interval
The following procedure for calculating lubrication intervals is extracted from Neale, Lubrication: A
Tribology Handbook (see Appendix A for complete reference). The required interval is calculated using
the data from Figures 10-3 and 10-4. The following example illustrates the procedure:
1. Given:
Bearing type: Medium series with 60-mm bore diameter
Cage: Pressed cage centered on balls
Speed: 950 rev/min
Temperature: 120 EC (bearing temperature)
Position: Vertical shaft
Grease: Lithium grade 3
Duty: Continuous
2. Determine the lubrication interval.
3. Procedure:
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10-13
Table 10-9
Application of Oil to Roller Bearings
System Conditions Oil Levels/Oil Flow Rates Comments
Bath/splash Generally used where speeds are low Bearings on horizontal and vertical
A limit in dn value of 100,000 is element
sometimes quoted, but higher values
can be accommodated if churning is
not a problem.
shafts, immerse half lowest rolling
Multirow bearings on vertical shafts,
fully immerse bottom row of elements
Oil flingers, drip- Normally as for bath/splash Flow rate dictated by particular Allows use of lower oil
feed lubricators, application; ensure flow is sufficient to level if temperature rise
etc. allow operation of bearing below is too high with
desired or recommended maximum bath/splash
temperature - generally between 70 EC
and 90 EC (158 EF and 194 EF)
Pressure circulating No real limit to dn value As a guide, use: *0.6 cm /min cm of The oil flow rate has
Use oil mist where speeds are very
high
3 2
projected area of bearing (o.d. x width) generally to be decided
by consideration of the
operating temperature
Oil mist No real limit to dn value As a guide use: * 0.1 to 0.3 x bearing In some cases oil-mist
Almost invariably used for small-bore
bearings above 50,000 rev/min, but
also used at lower speeds
bore (cm/2.54) x no. of rows - lubrication may be
cm /hour combined with an oil
3
Larger amounts are required for pre- a reserve supply which is
loaded units, up to 0.6 x bearing bore particularly valuable
(cm/2.54) x no. of rows - cm /hour when high-speed
3
bath, the latter acting as
bearings start to run
* It must be emphasized that values obtained will be approximate and that the manufacturers advice should be sought on the
performance of equipment of a particular type.
Reference: Neale, M. J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Oxford, England.
a. From Figure 10-3, determine the speed for a 60-mm bore medium series bearing (3100 rev/min).
b. Maximum speed correction factor for cage centered bearing from Table 10.8. (1.5).
c. Maximum speed = 1.5 x 3100 = 4650 rev/min.
d. Obtain correction factor for vertical shaft mounting from Table 10.8 (0.75).
e. Corrected speed = 0.75 x 4650 rev/min = 3,488 rev/min (this is the maximum speed rating,
i.e., 100 %).
f. Percent of actual speed to maximum speed = 100 x [950/ 3488] = 27 %.
g. Refer to Figure 10-4. Using 120 EC and the 25 % line, obtain the estimated operating life =
1300 hours.
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Change 1

11-1
Chapter 11
Lubrication Applications


11-1. Introduction

This chapter discusses lubrication as it applies to specific equipment generally encountered at dams,
hydroelectric power plants, pumping plants, and related water conveyance facilities. Lubrication of
equipment related to navigation structures is also discussed. Complete coverage of all the auxiliary
equipment to be encountered at these various facilities would be too extensive to include in this manual.
Furthermore, a significant amount of information related to proper lubrication of this equipment is readily
available. Therefore, auxiliary equipment, such as small pumps, air compressors, tools, etc., are not
specifically discussed. The following discussions emphasize major equipment such as turbines, pumps,
governors, gates, hoists, and gear drives. Much of this equipment is custom designed and constructed
according to specifications, at significantly greater cost than off-the-shelf commercial equipment.
Appendix B has results of a survey of locks and dams for lubricants and hydraulic fluids used to lubricate
and operate lock gates, culvert valves, and navigation dams. Appendix C contains a procurement
specification for turbine oil.

11-2. Turbines, Generators, Governors, and Transformers

a. Thrust and journal bearings.

(1) Hydro turbines, whether Francis, Pelton, or Kaplan designs, vertical or horizontal shaft, generally
have a minimum of two journal bearings and one thrust bearing. These bearings consist of some form of
babbitt surface bonded to a steel backing. The rotating element of the bearing is usually polished steel,
either an integral part of the turbine shaft or else attached mechanically to the shaft. The thrust bearing is
usually the most highly loaded bearing in the machine. The thrust bearing resists hydraulic thrust
developed by the axial component of the force of the water on the turbine wheel. In the case of vertical
shafts, the thrust bearing also supports the weight of the rotating parts of the hydro generator. The shaft
bearings in the case of horizontal shaft machines support the weight of the rotating parts; in the case of
Pelton wheels, they also support the component of the hydraulic thrust that is perpendicular to the shaft.
In the case of both horizontal and vertical shaft hydro generators, the shaft bearings support and stabilize
the shaft and resist the forces of imbalance.

(2) In general, the manufacturer of the hydro generator supplies, as part of the operation and
maintenance data, a list of acceptable lubricating oils for the particular unit. Specifically this
recommendation should include a chart of viscosities acceptable for various operating conditions. The oil
recommendation will also include whether antiwear (AW) additives are necessary. The manufacturer has
selected oils that will assure long life and successful operation of the equipment. The type of oil selected
is usually of the general type called turbine oil. Even though this designation refers more to steam and
gas turbines than hydro turbines, many of the operating requirements are similar. This makes turbine oil
the most common type of commercially available lubricating oil used in hydro turbines.

(3) Most hydro turbines are connected to a plant oil system that has a centrally located oil filtration
and moisture removal system. The governor system often uses oil from the same system, so in addition to
lubricating the bearings, the oil must function satisfactorily in the governor. The following discussion
identifies the requirements for selecting turbine lubricating oils. For additional information on lubrication
and oil requirements for hydroelectric applications, refer to Corps of Engineers Engineer Manual
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11-2
EM 1110-2-4205, Hydroelectric Power Plants, Mechanical Design. Also refer to Chapter 13 for
sampling, testing, and analysis of turbine oils.
b. Oil requirements.
Specific oil requirements are as follows.
(1) Viscosity.
(a) The viscosity is perhaps oils most important quality as it is directly related to film strength. The
manufacturer's operation and maintenance instructions usually contain suggested viscosities for specific
operating conditions. These suggestions should be followed. In absence of such suggestions, or if the
operating conditions have changed materially, or if there is compelling evidence of excessive wear that
could be linked to breakdown of the oil film between stationary and moving parts, it may become necessary
to revisit the viscosity selection process. Engineers at the oil company supplying the oil should be
consulted about this decision. To recommend the proper oil, they will require information on dimensions of
all the bearings, including area of the thrust bearing, rotational speed of the shaft, load supported by the
bearings, and normal operating temperatures.
(b) Note: when substituting or ordering lubricating oils, it is very important to use the correct units
for the viscosity. For example, many of the hydro generators in use today were built several years ago,
when the most common unit of viscosity was the Saybolt Universal Seconds (SUS). Thus, a generic
turbine oil called out in the O&M manual might be "Turbine Oil #44" (SUS). When the oil supplier is
called for replacement oil, the closest oil number available would be "Turbine Oil #46" (cSt) if viscosity
units are not mentioned. However, when the differing viscosity units are taken into account, the correct
equivalent in terms of modern viscosity units would be "Turbine Oil #32" (cSt). This is probably the most
common viscosity in use in hydro turbine bearings.
(2) Rust and corrosion inhibitors. The next requirement, which determines the corrosion protection
provided by the oil additive package, is often denoted by the letter R in the lubricants trade name. One
function of the oil must be rust protection for steel bearing surfaces because hydro turbine oils are naturally
susceptible to water contamination. There is also a risk of the additive packages in the oil reacting with the
metal in the bearings. Applicable standards that must be passed by the oil are:
! ASTM D 665 B, Rust Test using synthetic salt water (must be noted Pass).
! ASTM D 130, Copper Strip Corrosion Test, 3 hours at 100 EC (212 EF), Results 1B.
(3) Oxidation inhibitors. It is common for the lubricating oil in a hydraulic power unit to be kept in
service for 20 years or more. One of the ways that the oil degrades is oxidation, which causes gums and
varnishes to form. These contaminants may accumulate in narrow passages or oil system valves and
damage the machine. Even though the operating temperatures are moderate, the oil is exposed to the air
continuously and the extreme length of time the oil is kept in service makes it necessary to have a high-
performance antioxidation package, often denoted by a letter O in the trade name. The oil must pass
ASTM D 943, Turbine Oil Oxidation Test, and should be over 3500 hours to a 2.0 neutralization number.
(4) Antifoam additives. The oil in the bearing tubs splashes and entrains air. It is extremely difficult
to lubricate with small bubbles of air in the oil, so it is important that the lubricating oil release entrained
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11-3
air quickly. Additives that increase the air release rate are called antifoam additives. The oil must meet
ASTM D 892 , Foam Test, Sequence II.
(5) Water release or (demulsibility). The oil in hydro turbines often becomes contaminated with water.
It is important that the oil and water not remain in emulsion as this affects the oil's film strength and causes
increased oxidation and corrosion rates. The oil must pass ASTM D 1401, Emulsion Test, at 54 EC
(130 EF).
c. Lubricant maintenance. As there is usually a large amount of oil in the bearing oil system, it is
more pertinent to discuss maintenance rather than change intervals. Usually, the facility has a testing
laboratory run periodic tests on the oil. It is common for the oil company to offer this service, and this is
worth consideration as the company is more familiar with factors affecting the oil's performance --
especially in the additive package. Regular sampling and testing can indicate the timing and effectiveness
of filtration, can help pinpoint problem areas, and can indicate when the oil will need to be changed. The
lubricant has four different areas of possible degradation: viscosity breakdown, particulate contamination,
additive breakdown, and water contamination.
(1) Viscosity breakdown. The oil's ability to maintain separation between the surfaces in the bearing
depends on its film strength, which is related closely to viscosity. A loss in viscosity is usually due to
shearing stresses in the bearing that reduce the length of the oil molecules. An increase in viscosity usually
indicates that the oil temperature is high enough that the lighter molecules are being boiled off. While this
may not negatively affect the film strength, the increased viscosity can increase the bearing operating
temperature.
(2) Particulate contamination. Unless the bearing surfaces are actually touching, the major cause of
wear is through contamination by particles. The sources of particle contamination may be either internal or
external. Internal sources may be loose particles created during run-in or oxide particles created by water
in the oil. An increase in iron or other metallic oxide particles also may indicate additive breakdown.
Particles may also be present in new equipment due to inadequate flushing after system run-in. External
contamination may be due to dust and dirt introduced through vents, or poor filters. Contaminants may
also be introduced through unclean oil-handling practices, used make-up oil, or contaminated new oil. For
this reason, new oil should be tested before it is added to the system.
(3) Additive breakdown. As additives perform their intended functions they are used up. This
depletion of additives may increase wear by allowing corrosion to create particles of different oxides that
can damage bearings. Over-filtration may actually remove components of the additive system. As stated
above, maintaining the additive package is the best reason to use a lubricant maintenance program offered
by the manufacturer of the oil.
(4) Water contamination. This is the one form of degradation that can sometimes be observed
visually, usually by the oil taking on a whitish, cloudy, or milky cast. This is in some ways a disadvantage.
By the time enough water is mixed in the oil to be visible, the oil's film strength has been severely
decreased. Thus testing for water should be performed with the other tests even if the oil does not appear
to be contaminated with water.
d. Wicket gates.
(1) Wicket gates have two or three journal bearings and one thrust bearing or collar per gate. The
journal bearings resist the hydrostatic and hydrodynamic loads involved in regulating the flow of water into
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11-4
the turbine. They also resist bending in the shaft that results from the thrust of the actuating linkage. The
thrust bearing or collar positions the wicket gate vertically between the upper and lower surfaces of the
speed ring in the distributor. The thrust collar has to support the weight of the wicket gates but under some
conditions must resist an upward thrust as well. Wicket gate bearings are subject to high loads and the
shafts do not make complete revolutions, but instead move over an arc, with usually about 90 degrees of
motion from completely closed to completely open. This quarter-turn usually takes 5 seconds or more. An
improperly adjusted governor may hunt, moving the gates back and forth continually in an arc as small as 1
degree. Even when shaft seals are provided, the grease can come into contact with water. In the worst
cases, water can wash the lubricant out of the bearings.

(2) Traditionally, wicket gate bearings have been lubricated with a lithium-based, EP NLGI-2 grease.
Auto-lubrication can be used to provide fresh grease every day. Generally the bearings in the wicket gate
linkages are lubricated with the same grease and by the same system. Environmental concerns have led to
attempts to use environmentally acceptable greases. There are no standards for environmental
acceptability, but two areas generally acknowledged to be important are biodegradability and toxicity.
These areas are discussed in Chapter 8. It is important to note that greases meeting food grade standards
do not necessarily meet any of the standards for biodegradability or toxicity.
(3) A way to reduce or eliminate the release of greases to the environment is to use self-lubricating
bearings or bushings. There are many suppliers of such bushings, but there are no industry-wide standards
to determine quality or longevity of these products. Use of these products should be considered on a case-
by-case basis. Refer to Chapter 6, paragraph 6-3, for a description of Corps of Engineers and Bureau of
Reclamation experience using greaseless bearings for this and similar applications.
e. Governors. A governor consists of a high-pressure pump, an accumulator tank, an unpressurized
reservoir, control valves, hydraulic lines, filters, and actuators called servomotors. Servomotors develop
the force that is used by the wicket gates to regulate the flow of water through the turbine, and thus the
amount of power generation it generates. Governors generally utilize the same oil as is used in the hydro
generator guide and thrust bearing system. Governors that operate at over 68.9 bar (1000 psi) may require
an antiwear additive to the oil, but these are not common. Turbine oils operate successfully in the governor
system because the requirements for the oils are very similar. For example, antifoam characteristics
prevent compressible foam from being introduced into the high-pressure lines. Also RO characteristics are
needed because the high-pressure pumps and the pilot valve assembly have very small clearances. Rust or
other oxidation products could be transported into those clearances and cause the pump to wear or the
pilot valve to stick or be sluggish, resulting in a degradation or loss of governor function. Auxiliary filters
are sometimes used to keep the governor oil supply free of particulates.
f. Transformers and oil circuit breakers. Mineral-based insulating oil for electrical equipment
functions as an insulating and cooling medium. This oil usually is produced from naphthenic base stocks
and does not contain additives, except for an oxidation inhibitor. New electrical insulating oil, either
provided in new equipment or purchased as replacement oil, must meet the following standards:
(1) ASTM D 3847, Standard Specification for Mineral Insulating Oil Used in Electrical Apparatus -
Type II Mineral Oil. This is the general specification for mineral insulating oil and contains references to
more than 20 other ASTM standards that are used to determine the functional property requirements. The
appendices to the standard explain the significance of the physical, electrical, and chemical properties for
which the various tests are performed. One of the objectives of the standard is to specify insulating oils
that are compatible and miscible with existing oils presently in service.
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11-5
(2) ASTM D 4059, Analysis of Polychlorinated Biphenyls in Insulating Liquid by Gas
Chromatography Method. No detectable PCB content is permitted.
11-3. Main Pumps and Motors
Main pumps and motors come in various shapes and sizes, but can be divided into categories. The first
dividing criterion is the orientation of the shaft. Pumps are available in vertical-shaft and horizontal-shaft
configurations. The second criterion is the size of the unit. Large units are similar in layout and
component size to hydro generators. Some parts are embedded, and the pump appears to be built into the
pumping plant. Small units have a wide range of size, but generally have an identifiable pump and motor
and often are mounted on skids or plates. For additional information on pumps and lubrication refer to
Corps of Engineers Engineer Manual EM 1110-2-3105.
a. Large units.
(1) Large units with vertical shafts typically use journal bearings and a sliding contact thrust bearing.
These units sometimes are dual-purpose, being used both as pumping units and turbine generators. There
may be a plant oil system that has oil storage and filtering capabilities. RO turbine oil with viscosity
32 (cSt) is a common lubricant.
(2) Large units with horizontal shafts utilize journal bearings Each bearing has its own oil reservoir.
Oil rings that rotate with the shaft pick up oil from the reservoir, and it runs or drips down into holes in the
top of the bearing. Very large units may have an oil pump to provide an oil film before start-up. RO
turbine oil with viscosity 32 (cSt) is a common lubricant.
b. Small units.
(1) Smaller vertical-shaft machines may have a variety of pumps attached to the motor, such as
propeller, vertical turbine, or mixed flow. These pumps normally have a grease-lubricated suction bushing,
and the rest of the bearings in the pump itself are sleeve-type -- either lubricated by the fluid being pumped
(product-lubricated) or else by oil dripped into a tube enclosing the shaft bearings (oil-lubricated). There
are also vertical-pumps with bronze bearings or bushings that are grease-lubricated by individual grease
lines connected to grease points at floor level.
(2) Motors for the smaller vertical units generally utilize rolling-contact bearings. The upper bearing
is a combination of radial and thrust bearing -- many times a single-row spherical bearing. Because of the
large heat loads associated with these bearing types and conditions, they are usually oil-lubricated. The
lower bearing is either a ball or roller bearing and is lubricated by grease. This bearing provides radial
support and is configured in the motor to float vertically so it is not affected by axial thrust.
(3) Smaller horizontal units often have rolling-contact bearings in both pump and motor, and can be
lubricated by either grease or oil. Oil-lubricated bearings will have an individual oil reservoir for each
bearing that is fed by an oil-level cup that maintains the level of the oil. Grease-lubricated bearings can
have grease cups that provide a reservoir with a threaded top that allows new grease to be injected into the
bearing by turning the top a prescribed amount at set intervals of time. In some cases, grease nipples are
provided. These receive a prescribed number of strokes from a manual grease gun at specified time
intervals.
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11-6
c. Maintenance. For all of the bearing types that use oil, the most common type of oil found is RO
turbine oil. For the greased bearings, a lithium-based grease designated NLGI 2 is the most common.
Maintenance problems with these machines center around oil changes and grease changes.
(1) Oil changes sometimes do little good if the oil is cold and particulate matter has been allowed to
settle out. This problem is resolved by changing the oil after the pump has been running at normal
operating temperature. Running the pump helps mix particles into the oil before it is drained. Another
method that may work is to drain the oil, then flush the oil reservoir with warmed oil, discard the oil, then
fill the bearing. This can help to dislodge foreign matter that has settled to the bottom.
(2) Another problem is condensation caused by thermal cycling of the motor as it starts and stops. A
desiccant air breather on the bearing equalizing air intake will prevent extra moisture from being taken into
the reservoir. Proper flushing of the oil reservoir can help carry out water that has collected in the low
spots.
(3) Having adequate grease in rolling element bearings is important, but too much grease can cause
overheating and bearing failure. Maintenance procedures must be followed to avoid over greasing.
(4) Bearing housings need to be disassembled and all the old grease cleaned out and replaced at
intervals.
11-4. Gears, Gear Drives, and Speed Reducers
a. General. Lubrication requirements for gear sets are prescribed by the equipment manufacturers,
based on the operating characteristics and ambient conditions under which the equipment will operate.
Often the nameplate data on the equipment will indicate the type of lubricant required. If no lubricant is
specified on the nameplate, recommendations should be obtained from the equipment manufacturer. If the
manufacturer is unknown or no longer in business, a lubricant supplier should be consulted for
recommendations.
b. Gear drives. In general, gear lubricants are formulated to comply with ANSI/AGA 9005-D94,
Industrial Gear Lubrication Standard. Gear lubricants complying with AGA are also suitable for drive
unit bearings in contact with the gear lubricant.
(1) The AGA standard is intended for use by gear designers and equipment manufacturers because it
requires knowing the pitch line velocity of the gear set to select a lubricant. Because this information is
rarely known, except by the gear manufacturer, the standard provides little assistance for equipment
operators trying to select a gear lubricant. The superseded standards, AGA 250.01 and 250.02, require
that the operators know the centerline distance for the gear sets. The centerline distance can be calculated
or approximated by measuring the distance between the centerline of the driver and driven gear. Although
updated standards have been in use for several years, many gear unit manufacturers and lubricant
producers continue to publish selection criteria based on the old standard. Therefore, equipment operators
may want to save the old standard for reference until manufacturers and producers update all their
publications. When the pitch line velocity is unknown or cannot be obtained in a timely manner, an
educated guess may be necessary. A lubricant can be selected by referring to the old standard and
subsequently verified for compliance with the latest standard.
(2) Reference to manufacturers data indicates that an AGA 3 or 4 grade lubricant will cover most
winter applications, and an AGA 5 or 6 will cover most summer applications. EP oil should be used for
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11-7
heavily loaded low-speed equipment. Unlike the old standard, the new AGA standards no longer
recommend EP oils for worm gear drives. Instead, a compounded oil such as AGA 7 Comp or 8 Comp
should be used.
(3) Note that AGA provides recommended gear lubricants for continuous and intermittent operation.
Inspection of some gear sets in radial gate applications at Bureau of Reclamation facilities found wear that
may be attributable to use of improper oil due to runoff that left the tooth surfaces dry. The intermittent
lubricant recommendations are especially important for these applications where water flow regulation
requires that the gates remain in a fixed position for prolonged periods. Gear lubricants formulated for
continuous operation are too thin and may run off during the standing periods, resulting in inadequate
lubrication and possible gear tooth damage when the gate moves to a new position.
(4) Gear oils should be selected for the highest viscosity consistent with the operating conditions.
When very low ambient temperatures are encountered, the oil viscosity should not be lowered. A reduced
oil viscosity may be too low when the gears reach their normal operating temperature. If possible, oil
heaters should be used to warm the oil in cold environments. The heater should be carefully sized to
prevent hot spots that may scorch the oil. Another alternative is to switch to a synthetic oil that is
compatible with the gear materials.
(5) Environmental concerns will have a growing impact on the development and use of lubricants.
Although some lubricants are identified as food grade and have been FDA-approved and are subject to
ASTM standard testing procedures, there is no worldwide standard definition or specification for
environmental lubricants intended to replace standard lubricants. U.S. regulations are becoming more
restrictive with regard to the contents, use, and disposal of lubricants. Four are of particular interest at the
Federal level.
! Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA), which
imposes liability for cleaning up contamination caused by hazardous substances.
! Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), which regulates hazardous waste and solid
waste.
! Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) - Extended and amended CERCLA to
include toxicological profiles of hazardous substances.
! Toxic Substance Control Act (TSCA), which governs the manufacturing, importing, distribution,
and processing of all toxic chemicals. All such chemicals must be inspected and approved by the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) before entering the market.
(6) As environmental regulations become more restrictive, finding environmentally acceptable
lubricants that comply with gear drive manufacturers specifications is becoming increasingly difficult.
Product users should exercise caution when evaluating and accepting alternative lubricants to ensure that
the product selected complies with the gear manufacturers requirements.
(7) Lubrication of gear drives, such as limitorques used to operate gates and valves, are grease-
lubricated and are covered under the lubricating requirements for gates and valves.
(8) Corps of Engineers facilities should ensure that gear lubricants conforming to the Corps Guide
Specification CEGS 15005 are purchased and used for storm water pump gear reducer applications.
n '
200
d
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11-8
11-5. Couplings
Couplings requiring lubrication are usually spring, chain, gear, or fluid drive type. Table 11-1 provides
lubricant recommendations for couplings. Additional recommendations are provided below.
Table 11-1
Recommendations for the Lubrication of Gear, Spring-Type, Chain Couplings
Lubricant Type Period Remarks Pn d /2 (m/sec ) Dn (ft/sec )
Limiting Criteria
Lubricant Dissipation Pitch-line Range in
Change Acceleration Practical Units
Centrifugal Effects
Heat
2 2 2 2
No. 1 Grease 0.15 x 10 25 max - 2 years Soft grease preferred to ensure
(mineral oil base) 0.5 x 10 25-80 - 12 months penetration of lubricant to gear
3
3
teeth
No. 3 Grease 1.5 x 10 80-250 - 9 months Limitation is loss of oil causing
(mineral oil base) 5.0 x 10 250-850 - 6 months hardening of grease; No. 3 grease
3
e
12.5 x 10 850-2000 - 3 months is more mechanically stable than
3
No. 1
Semifluid 45.0 x 10 3000-5000 230 x 10 max 2 years Sealing of lubricant in coupling is
polyglycol grease main problem
or mineral oil
3 3
d = pcd, m; D = pcd, ft; = rads/sec; n = rev/sec; P = hp transmitted
Reference: Neale, M. J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Oxford, England
a. General lubrication. Lubrication should follow the manufacturers recommendations. When no
suitable recommendations are available, NLGI No 1 to 3 grease may be used for grid couplings. Gear and
chain couplings may be lubricated with NLGI No. 0 to 3 grease.
b. Grease-lubricated couplings.
(1) Normal applications. This condition is descriptive of applications where the centrifugal force does
not exceed 200 g (0.44 lb), motor speed does not exceed 3600 rpm, hub misalignment does not exceed
three-fourths of 1 degree, and peak torque is less than 2.5 times the continuous torque. For these
conditions, an NLGI No. 2 grease with a high-viscosity base oil (higher than 198 cSt at 40 EC (104 EF)
should be used.
(2) Low-speed applications. This application includes operating conditions where the centrifugal force
does not exceed 10 g (0.2 lb). If the pitch diameter d is known, the coupling speed n can be estimated
from the following equation (Mancuso and South 1994):
Misalignment and torque are as described for normal conditions in (1) above. For these conditions an
NGLI No. 0 or No. 1 grease with a high-viscosity base oil (higher than 198 cSt at 40 EC (104 EF)) should
be used.
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11-9
(3) High-speed applications. This condition is characterized by centrifugal forces exceeding 200 g
(0.44 lb), misalignment less than 0.5 degrees, with uniform torque. The lubricant must have good
resistance to centrifugal separation. Consult a manufacturer for recommendations.
(4) High-torque, high-misalignment applications. This condition is characterized by centrifugal forces
less than 200 g (0.44 lb), misalignment greater than 0.75 degrees, and shock loads exceeding 2.5 times the
continuous torque. Many of these applications also include high temperatures (100 EC (212 EF), which
limits the number of effective greases with adequate performance capability. In addition to the require-
ments for normal operation, the grease must have antifriction and antiwear additives (polydisulfide),
extreme pressure additives, a Timken load greater than 20.4 kg (40 lb), and a minimum dropping point of
150 EC (302 EF).
c. Oil-lubricated couplings. Most oil-filled couplings are the gear type. Use a high-viscosity grade
oil not less than 150 SUS at 36.1 EC (100 EF). For high-speed applications, a viscosity of 2100 to
3600 SUS at 36.1 EC (100 EF) should be used.
11-6. Hoist and Cranes
a. General. Various types of hoisting equipment are used in hydroelectric power plants and pumping
plants, including gantry cranes, overhead traveling cranes, jib cranes, monorail hoists, and radial gate
hoists. The primary components requiring lubrication are gear sets, bearings, wire ropes, and chains. The
lubrication requirements for gear sets should comply with the same AGA requirements for gears discussed
above. Lubrication of wire ropes and chains used in hoists and cranes is discussed later in this chapter.
b. Hydraulic brakes. Hydraulic brakes are commonly found on cranes and hoists. Both drum and
disk brakes are used in these applications. Components closely resemble automotive parts and similar
brake fluids are used. Brake fluid is glycol-based and is not a petroleum product. Hydraulic brake fluid
has several general requirements:
! It must have a high boiling temperature.
! It must have a very low freezing temperature.
! It must not be compressible in service.
! It must not cause deterioration of components of the brake system.
! It must provide lubrication to the sliding parts of the brake system.
(1) Hydraulic brake fluids are acceptable for use if they meet or exceed the following requirements:
(a) Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard (FMVSS) No. 116 (DOT 3). This includes a dry boiling
temperature of 205 EC (401 EF). This is commonly known as DOT 3 brake fluid. Some industrial braking
systems require Wagner 21B fluid, which is a DOT 3 fluid with a 232 EC (450 EF) dry boiling temperature
and containing additional lubrication and antioxidation additives.
(b) Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) Specification J1703 - Motor Vehicle Brake Fluid. This
standard assures all the necessary qualities of the brake fluid and also assures that fluids from different
manufacturers are compatible.
EM 1110-2-1424
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11-10
(2) SAE Recommended Practice J1707, Service Maintenance of SAE J1703, Brake Fluids in Motor
Vehicle Brake Systems. This guidance provides basic recommendations for general maintenance pro-
cedures that will result in a properly functioning brake system. The largest problem with glycol brake
fluids is that they absorb moisture from the atmosphere. If left in service long enough, the brake fluid will
become contaminated with water, and this can cause brake failure. Water can collect in the lowest part of
the system and cause corrosion, which damages seals or causes leak paths around them. DOT 3 brake
fluid that is saturated with water will have its boiling temperature reduced to 140 EC (284 EF). If water
has separated out, the brake fluid will have a boiling temperature of 100 EC (212 EF). Under heavy brak-
ing, the temperature of the brake fluid can become so high that the brake fluid will boil or the separated
water will flash into steam and make the brake fluid very compressible. This will result in loss of braking
capacity, from spongy brakes to a complete loss of braking function. Brake fluid should be completely
replaced every 3 years unless the manufacturer's recommended interval is shorter. Also if brake fluid deter-
ioration is noticeable due to a high-humidity working environment it should also be replaced more fre-
quently. Because brake fluid so readily absorbs moisture from the air, only new dry fluid from unopened
containers should be used as a replacement. This means that brake fluid left over from filling or refilling
operations should be discarded. For this reason it is recommended that the user purchase brake fluid in
containers small enough that the fluid can be poured directly from the original container into the brake
system fill point. Under no circumstances should brake fluid be purchased in containers larger than 3.7
liters (1 gallon).
11-7. Wire Rope Lubrication
a. Lubricant-related wear and failure. Wear in wire ropes may be internal or external. The primary
wear mode is internal and is attributed to friction between individual strands during flexing and bending
around drums and sheaves. This condition is aggravated by failure of the lubricant to penetrate the rope.
Additional information on wire rope selection, design, and lubrication can be found in Corps of Engineer
Engineer Manual EM 1110-2-3200, Wire Rope Selection.
(1) Corrosion. Corrosion damage is more serious than abrasive damage and is usually caused by lack
of lubrication. Corrosion often occurs internally where it is also more difficult to detect. Corrosion of wire
ropes occurs when the unprotected rope is exposed to weather, to corrosive environments such as
submergence in water (especially salt water), or to chemicals. Corrosion results in decreased tensile
strength, decreased shock or impact-load resistance, and loss of flexibility. Unprotected wire ropes that are
used infrequently have a greater potential for rust damage due to moisture penetration. Rust may prevent
relative sliding between wires, creating increased stresses when the rope is subsequently placed in service.
(2) Abrasion. A common misconception among facility operators is that stainless steel ropes do not
require lubrication. This misconception is probably due to corrosive operating conditions. This
misconception is easily corrected by considering a wire rope as a machine with many moving parts. The
typical wire rope consists of many wires and strands wrapped around a core. A typical 6 x 47 independent
wire rope core (IWRC ) rope, is composed of 343 individual wires that move relative to each other as the
rope is placed under load or wrapped around a drum. During service these wires are subject to torsion,
bending, tension, and compression stresses. Like all machine parts, ropes also wear as a result of abrasion
and friction at points of moving contact. Therefore proper lubrication is essential to reduce friction and
wear between the individual wires and to ensure maximum performance.
b. Lubrication. During operation, tension in the rope and pressure resulting from wrapping around
drums forces the internal lubricant to the rope surface where it can be wiped or washed off. Tests
EM 1110-2-1424
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11-11
conducted on dry and lubricated rope operating under similar conditions provide ample evidence of the
beneficial effects of lubrication. The fatigue life of a wire rope can be extended significantly (200 to 300
percent) through the application of the correct lubricant for the operating conditions. However, under
certain operating conditions lubrication may be detrimental. Unless recommended by the rope
manufacturer, wire rope operating in extremely dirty or dusty environment should not be lubricated.
Abrasives may combine with the lubricant to form a grinding compound that will cause accelerated wear.
In applications where ropes undergo frequent and significant flexing and winding around a drum, the rope
should be lubricated regardless of whether the wire rope is constructed from stainless steel. However,
Corps of Engineers experience has shown that wire ropes used in fairly static applications, where flexing
and winding are minimal, should not be lubricated. Tests have shown that lubricated ropes may actually
experience more severe corrosion than unlubricated ropes because the lubricant tends to tap and seal
moisture in the voids between the wires.
c. Lubricant qualities.
(1) To be effective, a wire rope lubricant should:
(a) Have a viscosity suitable to penetrate to the rope core for thorough lubrication of individual wires
and strands.
(b) Lubricate the external surfaces to reduce friction between the rope and sheaves or drum.
(c) Form a seal to prevent loss of internal lubricant and moisture penetration.
(d) Protect the rope against external corrosion.
(e) Be free from acids and alkalis.
(f) Have enough adhesive strength to resist washout.
(g) Have high film strength.
(h) Not be soluble in the medium surrounding it under actual operating conditions.
(i) Not interfere with the visual inspection of the rope for broken wires or other damage.
(2) New wire rope is usually lubricated by the manufacturer. Periodic lubrication is required to
protect against corrosion and abrasion and to ensure long service life. Wire rope lubricants may require
special formulations for the intended operating conditions (for example, submerged, wet, dusty, or gritty
environments). The rope manufacturers recommendations should always be obtained to ensure proper
protection and penetration. When the manufacturers preferred lubricant cannot be obtained, an adhesive-
type lubricant similar to that used for open gearing may be acceptable.
(3) Two types of lubricants are generally used: oils and adhesives. Often mineral oil, such as an SAE
10 or 30 motor oil, is used to lubricate wire rope. The advantage of a light oil is that it can be applied cold
with good penetration. However, the light oil may not contain adequate corrosion inhibitors for rope
applications. Also, it tends to work out of the rope just as easily as it works in, necessitating frequent
applications.
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(4) Heavy, adhesive lubricants or dressings provide longer lasting protection. To ensure good penetra-
tion, these lubricants usually require thinning before applying. Thinning can be accomplished by heating
the lubricant to a temperature of 71.1 to 93.3 EC (160 to 200 EF), or by diluting with a solvent. A properly
applied heavy lubricant will provide both internal lubrication and a durable external coating to prevent cor-
rosion and penetration of dust and abrasives.
(5) In addition to the qualities noted above, good adhesive lubricants or rope dressings:
(a) Must not cake, gum, or ball up when contaminated with dust and dirt.
(b) Must not thin and drip at the highest operating temperature.
(c) Must not become brittle or chip at the lowest operating temperature.
(d) Should have inherently high viscosity without adding thickeners or fillers.
(6) When damp conditions prevail, or when severe flexing under heavy loads is encountered, a two-
stage lubricant application may be the most effective. Application of a lighter adhesive followed by a very
heavy adhesive lubricant to seal in the oil provides the best protection. In certain ropes subjected to highly
corrosive environments such as acids, alkalis, or salt water, providing a heavy impervious exterior
lubricant coating to guard against corrosion may be more important than ensuring adequate penetration.
(7) Wire rope lubricants can be applied by brush, spray, drip, or -- preferably -- by passing the rope
through a heated reservoir filled with the lubricant. Before application the rope must be cleaned of any
accumulated dirt, dust, or rust to ensure good penetration. The lubricant should be applied to the entire
circumference of the rope and the rope slowly wound on and off the drum several times to work the
lubricant into the rope. If the lubricant is being applied by hand it may be helpful to apply the lubricant as
it passes over a sheave where the rope's strands are spread by bending and the lubricant can penetrate more
easily.
d. Rope applications and lubricant requirements. There are five general rope application categories
based on operating conditions: industrial or outdoor, friction, low abrasive wear and corrosion, heavy wear,
and standing. These conditions are summarized in Table 11-2. Each of these conditions has its own
lubrication requirements.
(1) Industrial or outdoor applications. This category includes mobile, tower, and container cranes.
Internal and external corrosion are possible, but external corrosion is the more serious and deserves
primary consideration. Desirable lubricant qualities include good penetration into the wires and core,
moisture displacement, corrosion protection, resistance to washout and emulsification, and freedom from
buildup due to repeated applications. The best lubricants for these applications are solvent-based that leave
a thick, semidry film after evaporation of the solvent. A tenacious semidry film will minimize adhesion of
abrasive particles that cause wear. Thin-film lubricants such as MoS and graphite are not recommended
2
because they tend to dry, causing surface film breakdown and subsequent exposure of the wires.
(2) Friction applications. This category includes elevators, friction hoists, and capstan winches.
Fatigue and corrosion are the primary considerations. Desirable lubricant qualities include corrosion
protection, internal lubrication, moisture displacement, lubricant buildup prevention, and minimizing loss
of friction grip. Note that unlike other lubrication applications, where efforts are made to reduce friction,
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11-13
Table 11-2
Lubrication of Wire Ropes in Service
Operating Conditions
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Ropes Ropes working
working in over sheaves
industrial or Ropes where (1) and As (3) but for
marine subject to (2) are not friction drive Standing ropes not
environments heavy wear critical applications subject to bending
Predominant cause Corrosion Abrasion Fatigue Fatigue - corrosion Corrosion
of rope deterioration
Typical applications Cranes and Mine haulage, Cranes and Lift suspension, Pendant ropes for cranes
derricks excavator grabs, jib compensating and and excavators. Guys
working on draglines, suspension governor ropes, for masts and chimneys
ships, on scrapers, and ropes, piling, mine hoist ropes on
docksides, or in slushers percussion, and friction winders
polluted drilling
atmospheres
Dressing Good Good antiwear Good penetration Non-slip property. Good corrosion
requirements penetration to properties. to rope interior. Good penetration to protection. Resistance to
rope interior. Good Good lubrication rope interior. Ability wash off. Resistance
Ability to adhesion to properties. to displace to surface cracking.
displace rope. Resistance to moisture. Internal
moisture. Resistance to fling off. and external
Internal and removal by corrosion protection
external mechanical
corrosion forces
protection.
Resistance to
wash off.
Resistance to
emulsification
Type of lubricant Usually a Usually a very Usually a good Usually a solvent- Usually a relatively thick,
formulation viscous oil or general purpose dispersed bituminous compound
containing soft grease lubricating oil of temporary corrosion with solvent added to
solvent leaving containing about SAE 30 preventative leaving assist application
a thick MoS or viscosity a thin, semihard
(0.1 mm) soft graphite. film
grease film Tackiness
2
additives can
be of
advantage
Application technique Manual or Manual or Mechanical Normally by hand Normally by hand
mechanical mechanical
Frequency of Monthly Weekly 10/20 cycles per Monthly Six monthly/2 years
application* day
* The periods indicated are for the general case. The frequency of operation, the environmental conditions, and the economics of
service dressing will more correctly dictate the period required.
Reference: Neale, M. J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Oxford, England
in this instance a desirable quality includes increasing the coefficient of friction. A solvent-based dressing
that deposits a thin slip-resistant semidry film offers the best protection.
(3) Low abrasive wear and corrosion applications. This category includes electric overhead cranes,
wire rope hoists, indoor cranes, and small excavators. Internal wear leading to fatigue is the primary
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11-14
consideration. Maximum internal and external lubrication are essential. Mineral-oil-base lubricants such
as SAE 30 are commonly accepted as the best alternative, but these oils provide minimal corrosion
protection and tend to run off. The best alternative is to use a lubricant specifically designed for wire rope
applications. These lubricants contain corrosion inhibitors and tackiness agents. Thin-film dry lubricants
such as MoS and graphite are also commonly used, but claims of increased fatigue life attributed to these
2
lubricants have been questioned by at least one wire rope manufacturer.
(4) Heavy wear applications. This category includes ropes used in excavators, winches, haulage
applications, and offshore mooring systems and dredgers. Protection against abrasion is the primary
consideration. Desirable lubricant qualities include good adhesion, crack and flake resistance, antiwear
properties, resistance to moisture, emulsification, and ultraviolet degradation, and corrosion-resistance --
especially in offshore applications. The best lubricants are those with thixotropic (resistance to softening
or flow under shear) characteristics to ensure good lubricity under shearing action. These lubricants offer
good penetration, and they resist cracking and ultraviolet degradation. Viscous oils or soft grease
containing MoS or graphite are commonly used. Tackiness additives are also beneficial.
2
(5) Standing rope applications. This category includes guy and pendant ropes for onshore use, and
towing cables, cranes, derricks, and trawl warps for offshore applications. Corrosion due to prolonged
contact in a corrosive environment is the primary consideration. Desirable lubricant qualities include high
corrosion protection, long-term stability over time and temperature, good adhesion, and resistance to wash-
off, emulsification, and mechanical removal. The best lubricants are thixotropic oils similar to those
required for heavy-wear applications, except that a higher degree corrosion-resistance additive should be
provided.
11-8. Chain Lubrication
Drive chains combine the flexibility of a belt drive with the positive action of a gear drive. Various designs
are available. The simplest consist of links that are rough cast, forged, or stamped. These chains are
seldom enclosed and therefore exposed to various environmental conditions. They are generally limited to
low-speed applications and are seldom lubricated. Roller chains have several moving parts and, except for
the self-lubricating type, require periodic lubrication. Lubricants should be applied between the roller and
links to ensure good penetration into the pins and inner bushing surfaces.
a. Lubricant-related wear and failure.
(1) Like wire ropes, chains experience both internal and external wear. Internal wear generally occurs
on the pins and adjacent bearing surface of the roller bushing, and at the link surfaces. Wear is attributed
to friction between metal contacting surfaces. Use of improper lubricant, inadequate lubricant penetration
into the pin and bushing clearances, poor lubricant retention, and inadequate or infrequent lubrication are
the primary causes of premature wear. Poor chain designs, such as those that provide no grease fittings or
other lubricating schemes, also contribute to premature wear.
(2) Corrosion damage is a serious problem and often occurs internally where it is difficult to detect
after the chain is assembled and placed in service. Corrosion occurs when the unprotected chain is exposed
to weather or corrosive environments such as prolonged submergence in water. Corrosion results in
decreased tensile strength, decreased shock or impact-load resistance, and loss of flexibility.
b. Lubricant characteristics. The most important considerations in chain lubrication are boundary
lubrication and corrosion. Chain life can be extended through the proper selection and application of
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11-15
lubricant for the operating conditions. An effective chain lubricant should possess the following
characteristics:
(1) Have a viscosity that will enable it to penetrate into the link pins and bearings.
(2) Lubricate the external surfaces to reduce friction between the sliding link surfaces and chain
sprockets.
(3) Form a seal to prevent moisture penetration.
(4) Protect the chain against corrosion.
(5) Be free of acids and alkalis.
(6) Resist washout.
(7) Have high film strength.
(8) Not be soluble in the medium surrounding it under actual operating conditions.
(9) Displace water.
(10) Not cake, gum, or ball up when contaminated with dust and dirt.
(11) Not thin and drip at the highest operating temperature.
(12) Not become brittle, peel, or chip at the lowest operating temperature.
c. Lubrication problems.
(1) Most chains, such as those used on conveyors, transporters, and hoists, are accessible and easily
lubricated while in service. Lubrication of these chains is generally accomplished through oil baths,
brushing, or spray applications.
(2) Lubrication of tainter (radial) gate chains poses an especially difficult challenge. Chain design,
construction, application, and installation often render them inaccessible. The operating constraints
imposed on these gates include water flow regulation, changing water surface elevations, poor accessibility,
and infrequent and minimal movement. These gates may remain in fixed positions for prolonged periods.
The submerged portions of chains have a significantly greater potential for rust damage due to exposure to
corrosive water, lubricant washout, and moisture penetration into the link pins and bearings. Infrequent
movement and inaccessibility adversely affect the frequency of lubrication.
d. Lubricants.
(1) Typical chain lubricants include light general purpose mineral oils, turbine oils, gear oils,
penetrating fluids, and adhesives. Light oils may be adequate for continuous chains exposed to oil baths.
Synthetic sprays employing solid lubricants such as graphite, MoS , and PTFE are also common. When
2
the potential for environmental contamination or pollution is a major concern, food-grade lubricant may be
required to prevent contamination of water supplies. When manufacturers data are not available,
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recommended lubricants are shown below. For heavily loaded chains, the extreme pressure (EP) grades
should be used.
! Low speed--0 to 3 m/s (0 to 10 ft/s) :
below 38 EC (100EF) ISO 100 (AGMA 3).
above 38 EC (100 EF) ISO 150 (AGMA 4)
! Medium speed--3 to 9 m/s (10 to 30 ft/s):
below 38 EC (100 EF) ISO 150 (AGMA 4)
above 38 EC (100 EF) ISO 220 (AGMA 5)
(2) Chain lubricants may require special formulation or incorporation of multiple lubricants to cope
with severe operating conditions including submerged, wet, dusty, and gritty environments. When possible,
the chain manufacturer should be consulted for lubricant recommendations. If the recommended lubricant
is not available, a lubricant manufacturer can recommend a substitute lubricant for the application
provided the operating conditions are accurately described. When necessary, an adhesive-type lubricant
similar to that used for open gearing may be acceptable.
(3) Heavy roller chains such as those used in radial gate applications require heavier lubricants to
ensure adequate protection over prolonged periods of submergence without benefit of periodic lubrication.
Chain lubricants used in this application must be especially resistant against washout.
(4) New or rebuilt gate chains are usually lubricated during assembly, but periodic lubrication is
required to protect against corrosion and abrasion and to ensure long service life. A properly applied
lubricant will provide both internal lubrication and a durable external coating to prevent corrosion and
penetration of dust and abrasives.
(5) The following example is provided to stress the complex nature of certain lubricant applications,
such as heavily loaded roller chains. In a 1996 radial gate rehabilitation at Folsom Dam, a three-stage
lubricant application was used during assembly of the new lift chains. The procedure was recommended by
Lubrication Engineers, Inc., based on their experience with similar applications. The Folsom chains were
not fitted with grease fittings , so once reassembled, the pins and bushings could not be lubricated. An
initial coat of open gear lubricant was applied to the pins and bushings. This coating provided primary
protection for the internal parts of the chain which would be inaccessible after the chain was placed in
service. After assembly, the entire chain received a coat of wire rope lubricant. This is a penetrating fluid
that will lubricate assembled areas of the chain that the final coat will not penetrate. The final coat
consisted of open gear lubricant similar to initial coating except that the product contained a solvent for
easier application -- especially at low temperatures. After evaporation of the solvent, the remaining
lubricant has characteristics similar to the initial coating. The top coat must be reapplied as necessary to
ensure lubrication and corrosion-protection between the sliding links.
(6) Although the multistage lubricant application described above was conducted on new chain, it
may also be possible to extend the service life of existing chains by using this procedure. However, since
this work is labor-intensive and requires placing the affected gate out of service, the economics and
logistics must be considered.
e. Lubricant application. The need for lubrication will be evident by discoloration appearing as
reddish-brown deposits. Often bluish metal discoloration can be detected. Chains can be lubricated by
various methods including brush, oil can, spray, slinger, dip, pump, or oil mist. The method of application
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11-17
depends on operating conditions such as load, speed, and size and whether the components are exposed or
enclosed. Lubricant should be applied to the lower strand of the chain immediately before engaging the
gear or sprocket. Centrifugal action will force the lubricant to the outer areas.
11-9. Trashrake Systems and Traveling Water Screens
a. Gear drives. The most common drive units are standard speed-reducers using helical gears,
although worm gears are also used. Lubrication requirements for these gear drives are similar to those
discussed in the gear lubrication section above.
b. Couplings. All types may be used. The lubrication requirements are similar to those discussed
above.
c. Chains. Roller chains are the most common type used. The lubrication should be selected
according to the requirements outlined in the section on chain lubrication above.
d. Hydraulic operated trashrakes. These trashrakes use a hydraulically operated boom. Bureau of
Reclamation projects specify a food-grade polymer oil complying with Code of Federal Regulations 21
CFR 178.3570 and USDA H1 authorization for food-grade quality. The oil must also comply with ASTM
D 2882 for hydraulic pump wear analysis.
e. Bearings. Trashrake conveyor belts or systems are commonly provided with rolling contact
bearings, either in the ends of the rollers or in pillow block bearings. These bearings are normally manually
lubricated with NLGI 2 lithium-based grease.
11-10. Gates and Valves
Various gates and valves and essential lubricated components for each are listed and discussed below. The
lubricated components discussed below also apply to unlisted gates and valves that incorporate these same
components. Hydraulic fluids for operating systems are also discussed. The discussion of gate trunnions
provides more detail as it encompasses lessons learned from the investigation of a 1995 tainter gate
failure at Folsom Dam. Recommended frequencies of lubrication are noted, but frequency should be based
on historical data. Each component has its own effect on lubricants, and each facility should pattern its
frequency of lubrication around its own particular needs. For example, lock culvert valves such as tainter
gates are lubricated more frequently than tainter gates on spillways of water storage dams because culvert
valves are operated much more often. The manufacturers schedule should be followed until operating
experience indicates otherwise. Gates and valves, and their lubricated components (shown in italics), are:
! Tainter (radial) gates and reverse tainter gates. Trunnions.
! Other lubricated hinged gates. Same lubricant as trunnions.
! Bonneted gates, including outlet, ring-follower, and jet-flow gates. Seats, threaded gate stems,
gears for electrically and manually operated lifts.
! Unbonneted slide gates. Threaded gate stems, gears for electrically and manually operated lifts.
! Roller-mounted gates, including stoney. Roller trains and roller assemblies.
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! Ring-seal and paradox gates. Roller trains and roller assemblies.
! Wheel-mounted, vertical-lift gates. Wheel bearings.
! Roller gates. See chains.
! Butterfly, sphere, plug valves. Trunnions. Gears for electrically and manually operated lifts.
! Fixed cone valves. Threaded drive screws, gears for electrically and manually operated lifts.
a. Trunnions. Grease for trunnions should be selected for high-load, low-speed applications
(boundary lubrication). Other considerations include frequency of operation, trunnion friction, temperature
range, condition of bearing surfaces (rust, scuffing, etc.), whether the trunnions are exposed to sunlight or
submerged, and contaminants such as moisture and debris. During the warranty period, specific greases
are recommended by equipment manufacturers and should be used. If another grease is desired, the testing
of a number of greases by a qualified lubricant expert to the exacting conditions of the application will
determine the optimal grease. However, testing can be expensive and is not necessary unless highly
unusual conditions exist. Suitable greases can be identified by finding out what works at other facilities
that use the same equipment under similar conditions. . Commonly used greases and lubrication
frequencies for trunnions on gates and culvert valves at navigational dams and locks are noted in the survey
in Appendix B. Also, lubricant suppliers are readily available to recommend a grease, but they should be
advised of all conditions for the particular application.
(1) Recommended greases and desirable properties from field experience.
A spillway tainter gate failure at Folsom Dam in 1995 led to an investigation and testing of greases for
trunnions. Table 11-3 lists desirable grease properties for the Folsom Dam trunnion bearings. Details of
the investigation may be found in the report Folsom Dam Spillway Gate 3 Failure Investigation Trunnion
Fixture Test, prepared by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Mid-Pacific Regional Office, July 1997. The
properties compiled for the trunnions at Folsom Dam are applicable to trunnions in general. Table 11-3
shows the purpose of the grease property, base oils for grease, grease gelling (thickening) agents, additives,
and ASTM grease test and properties. Further explanation of desirable trunnion grease properties are as
follows:
(a) Lubricity. Low breakaway (static) and running (kinetic) friction and no stick-slip are necessary for
smooth gate and valve operation. The grease should possess good lubricity for low start-up and running
torque.
(b) Rust prevention. Rust on a trunnion pin thickens with time. This thickening takes up bearing
clearance, soaks up the oil from grease, prevents film formation, causes high friction, and abrades bronze
bushing material. Since rust takes up about 8 times the volume of the iron from which it is formed, it is
very important for trunnion pin grease to inhibit rust.
(c) Low corrosion of leaded bronze. Grease degradation products such as organic acids and
chemically active sulfur and chlorine compounds used in gear oils can corrode leaded bronze bushings.
Some light tarnishing is acceptable, but excessive corrosion is indicated by stains, black streaks, pits, and
formation of green copper sulfate from sulfuric acid.
E
M

1
1
1
0
-
2
-
1
4
2
4
2
8

F
e
b

9
9
1
1
-
1
9
Table 11-3
Desirable Grease Properties for the Folsom Dam Trunnion Bearings. (Reference: Lubricating Grease Guide, NLGI 4 Ed., 1996)
th
Purpose of Grease
Property (a)
Examples of Composition
Additives ASTM Test
Base Oil Gelling Agent Type % Chemical Number Desired Result Maximum
Lubricity, that is, low static
and kinetic friction for bronze
on steel
Mineral or
synthetic
including polyol
ester, jojoba oil,
vegetable oils
Lithium or calcium
soaps, or polyurea
Lubricity (reduction
of friction)
2.5 Fatty materials,
oleic acid, oleyl
amine, jojoba oil
D 99-95
Pin-on-
disk
apparatus
applicable
Coefficient of static friction,
fs, (breakaway), 0.08, (b)
Coefficient of kinetic friction
at 5.1 mm/min (0.2-inch/
min, fk, 0.10)
fs,0.10, (b) fk,
0.12
Prevent rusting of steel Mineral, or
synthetic
Calcium, lithium or
aluminum complex
soaps, or calcium sul-
fonates, or polyurea
Rust inhibitors,
calcium sulfonate
0.2 to
3
Metal sulfonates,
amines
D 1743-94 Pass- no rusting of steel
after 48 hours in aerated
water
Pass
Low corrosion of leaded
bronze (Cu 83, Sn 8, Pb 8%)
Mineral, or
synthetic
Lithium or calcium
sulfonate and soaps,
or polyurea
Corrosion inhibitors,
metal deactivators
0.2 to
3
Metal sulfonates
phosphites
D 4048
(copper
strip)
1 to 1B 4C
Prevent scuffing of steel vs
bronze
Mineral or
synthetic
Lithium or calcium
soaps, or polyurea
Antiscuff (EP) 1 to 2 Sulfur and phos-
phorous com-
pounds, sulfurized
fats, ZDDP
D 99-95,
bronze pin
vs steel
disk
No scuffing, that is, transfer
of bronze to steel. EP film
formation
No scuffing
Resists wash-out by water Mineral or
synthetic
Polyurea or calcium
hydroxystearate
- - - D 1264-93 0 wash-out 1.9%
Does not harden in pipes Mineral or
synthetic
Lithium or calcium
soaps or polyurea
- - - No change in consistency
with aging
No change
Easy to pump and distribute
through tubing and grooves in
bronze bushing
Mineral or
synthetic, ISO
100 to 150
Polyurea, lithium or
calcium soaps
- - - a. D 217 a. NLGI 1 or 1.5, cone
penetration 340 to 275,
b. Pumps through 7.62 m to
0.0762 m (25' to 1/4")
copper tubing
NLGI 2
Adherence to metal, and
retention in areas of real
contact of trunnion
Mineral or
synthetic
Lithium or calcium
soaps or polyurea
Tackiness agent Polymers, iso-
butylene or
polyethelene
none Slightly tacky between
metals
Slightly tacky
Long life, oxidation stable Mineral or
synthetic
Polyurea Oxidation inhibitors Amines, phenols,
sulfur compounds
D 942-90 Pass, also no acid forma-
tion, odor, or discoloration.
Pass
Low bleeding, oil does not
separate from grease
excessively
Mineral or
synthetic
Lithium or calcium
soaps or polyurea
High-viscosity base
oil
- - D 1742-94
and
Federal
Test
Limited bleeding of oil,
less than 0.1%
1.6% in 24 hr,
3% in 48 hr.
(a) Applied to low carbon (SAE1045) steel pin 812.7 mm (32") diam., rotating in trunnion bronze bushing, at 5.1 mm/min (0.2 in/min) and
816,461 kg (1.8 million pounds) load.
dam site environment - temperature range -11 EC to 51.6 EC (30 to 125 EF), wet, long periods of no sliding under load.
(b) Only known bench test with Pin (bronze pad)-on-Disk (1045 steel) tribometer, at Herguth Laboratories, P.O. Box B, Vallejo, CA 94590 Douglas Godfrey, WEAR ANALYSIS
run at 50 N (11-2 lb of force) load, 5.1 mm (0.2 inch) per minute sliding velocity, and room temperature. San Rafael, California
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(d) Scuff prevention. Scuffing causes serious damage to surfaces in the form of metal transfer,
melting, and tearing. Antiscuffing additives are activated by the heat of friction and form a surface film. If
used in a trunnion grease, sulfur concentrations must be low to prevent chemical corrosion of sliding
surfaces.
(e) Wash-out resistance. Especially when trunnions are submerged, the grease should be resistant to
water wash-out.
(f) Pumpability. Grease should be nonhardening and flow into the load-bearing clearances of the
trunnion. A grease should easily pump and flow through piping and tubing. The grease should retain its
NLGI grade over long periods during any temperature fluctuations.
(g) Adherence to metal. Tackiness agents provide this characteristic
(h) Oxidation resistance. Grease oxidation will occur over long periods at dam environment
temperatures. Symptoms of oxidation are discoloration, hardening, and bronze corrosion. An effective
oxidation inhibitor will increase grease longevity.
(I) Low oil separation. Oil separation or bleeding from the gelling agent should be minimized
during inactivity and storage. Excessive bleeding hardens the remaining grease because of the decreased
oil-to-thickener ratio. However, some separation -- especially under pressure -- is desired so the oil and its
additives can flow into the molecular-scale clearances between pin and bushing for boundary lubrication.
(j) Solid lubricants. The Folsom Dam tainter gate failure investigation recommended that
molybdenum disulfide (MoSO ) and polytetrafluoroethylene (PFTE) not be used in greases for tainter
2
trunnions at Folsom. The lowest friction coefficients were achieved with greases that did not have these
solid additives. Furthermore, addition of MoSO to greases is shown to reduce their ability to prevent
2
corrosion. Although not a factor in the Folsom Dam tainter gate failure, graphite is not recommended as an
additive for lubricating trunnions because it has been found to promote corrosion.
(2) Load. Tainter gate trunnions operate under high loads and extremely low speeds. The load on the
trunnion is the water-level pressure plus a portion of the gate weight. Typical design loading on tainter
trunnions is 137.9 to 206.8 bar (2000 to 3000 psi) for leaded tin bronze bearing surfaces and 275.8 to
344.7 bar (4000 to 5000 psi) for aluminum bronze.
(3) Speed. Relatively speaking, a trunnion pin rotates at extremely low speeds. The tainter trunnion
pins at Folsom Dam rotate at 0.002 rpm. Trunnions in reverse tainter gates at locks have faster rotational
speeds than those in dam gates.
(4) Friction. Trunnion friction increases during operation as the bearing rotates. Friction increase is
caused by lubricant thinning at the loaded bearing surfaces. Trunnion friction is especially critical at high
water levels and low gate openings, but lessens as the gate is opened and the reservoir level drops. Typical
design coefficient of friction for grease-lubricated trunnion bearings is 0.3. There was no trunnion
coefficient of friction calculated into the design of the failed Folsom gate, but the friction coefficient rose to
0.3 over a long period of time, perhaps the entire life of the gate, due to rust on the trunnion pin. When
new equipment is purchased or existing bushings are replaced, self-lubricated bushings are recommended.
The trunnion bushings for the failed gate at Folsom Dam were replaced with self-lubricated bushings.
Modern gates such as the clamshell gate are specified exclusively with self-lubricated trunnion bushings.
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Typical design coefficient for self-lubricated trunnion bushings is 0.15, which translates into less structural
support (to keep gate arms from buckling under friction) than for grease-lubricated bearings.
(5) Lubrication regime. Two grease lubrication regimes are applicable to trunnions operating under
high-load, low-speed conditions. They are hydrostatic lubrication and boundary lubrication.
(a) Hydrostatic lubrication. Hydrostatic lubrication may be used when bearing surface velocities are
extremely slow or zero. Under hydrostatic lubrication, a pressurized grease physically separates the
bearing surfaces to produce a thick film. Trunnion friction can be reduced by about 40 percent if a grease
film can be maintained during operation by an automatic greasing system.
(b) Boundary lubrication. Boundary lubrication occurs when bearing surfaces are separated by a
lubricant film of molecular thickness and there is momentary dry contact between asperities (microscopic
peaks). Friction is caused by contact of bushing and pin surface asperities. Since viscosity depends on
film thickness, when boundary lubrication occurs, friction is not affected by of the grease viscosity and can
only be reduced through additives.
(6) Grease selection based on boundary lubrication. Grease should be selected based on its perform-
ance specifically for boundary lubrication, whether for manual lubrication or automatic greasing system.
Manual hydrostatic lubrication on stationary equipment under load reduces trunnion friction for the next
operation, but as the pin rotates, the lubricant film thins until pure boundary lubrication results. With rust
on the trunnion pins, the preferred method of trunnion lubrication is hydrostatic lubrication during gate
operation using an automatic greasing system. However, automatic systems are subject to occasional
breakdown which could produce catastrophic results.
(7) Frequency of lubrication.
(a) Frequency of lubrication depends on many factors, such as frequency of operation, trunnion
friction, temperature, condition of bearing surfaces (rust, pitting, etc.), whether the equipment is
submerged, replacement of grease lost to leakage or oxidation, and the need to flush out moisture or other
contaminants. An example of two different lubrication frequencies based on factors and gate conditions are
as follows:
! The Folsom Dam spillway tainter gate investigation suggests that, in general, if the allowable gate
trunnion friction in the design is at least 0.5 and the bearing is well protected from its given
environment, the Bureau of Reclamation standard of lubricating tainter gates twice a year is
adequate.
! The same Folsom investigation found there was no allowable trunnion friction in its gate design.
The trunnion pins were rusted, scuffed, and had inadequate protection from rain and spray. Based
on these factors, it was concluded that a reasonable lubrication schedule would be to grease once a
month when the lake level is below the gates; grease once a week when the lake level is above the
gate sill; and employ automatic greasing while the gate is in motion. Frequent applications can
remove moisture from trunnion surfaces and decelerate rust progress.
(b) Frequencies for lubricating gate and culvert valve trunnions at locks and dams are shown in the
survey in Appendix B. These vary from weekly to twice a year, indicating that there is no set frequency of
lubrication. Aside from recommendations for new equipment, lubrication frequencies become
individualized based on the factors and conditions noted above and operating experience.
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(8) General suggestions for tainter gates. Some of the recommendations made for Folsom Dam, such
as the automatic greasing system and the lubricant type, are made partly due to existing rust of the trunnion
pins and bushings. Other tainter gates may have different conditions such as local climate, frequency of
gate operation, the designed allowable trunnion friction, and the lubrication system. The following
procedures are suggested to determine the requirements for tainter gate trunnions at other locations:
(a) If exposed to water, air, and abrasive dust and debris, install weather protection seals on the edges
of the trunnions to protect the bearing. Seals will protect against rusting of the pin while protecting the
grease from oxidation and contamination.
(b) Determine the allowable trunnion friction. An allowable friction coefficient below 0.3 would be
considered low.
(c) Carefully review the design of the trunnion assembly and lubrication system.
(d) Review the frequency of gate operations.
(e) Inspect the trunnions using some of the techniques listed below to determine the presence of
rust and to estimate the existing trunnion friction. (These techniques have been established as a result of the
investigation. Their effectiveness or feasibility has not been extensively determined and may depend on
local conditions.) If corrosion is suspected, determine trunnion friction. Friction coefficients above design
value may require a change of lubricants and/or lubrication frequency. Techniques are:
! Send used grease that is pumped out of the trunnions to a laboratory to test for contaminants such
as rust.
! Measure the gate's hoist motor current as an indication of possible increased trunnion friction.
! Attach strain gages to the gate arms to measure induced stresses caused by trunnion friction.
! Attach a laser and target to the gate structure to measure deflections caused by trunnion friction.
! Fabricate probes that can access the trunnion pin through the lubrication ports to determine the
presence of rust.
(f) Review the type of lubricant in use. Consider the lubricant specification recommended for the
Folsom Dam trunnions (reference Table 11-3).
(g) Rotate trunnion pins 180 degrees. Loading is typically on one side of the pin, and the pin will
corrode first on the side with the thinnest lubricant film.
(h) If pins are rusted, use new steel pin, because previously rusted steel is susceptible to rapid rusting.
b. Seats for bonneted gates. With design loading on the bronze sliding surfaces of these gates at
206.8 to 275.8 bar (3000 to 4000 psi), seats are typically lubricated with a multipurpose lithium, lithium
complex, or lithium 12 hydroxystearate-thickened grease with EP additives. The grease must be suitable
for the temperature range intended. Desired grease properties are good water wash-out resistance, copper
alloy corrosion protection, and low start-up/running torque. Recommended greasing frequency is every 6
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months, however, but chattering or jerking during operation is a sign of inadequate lubrication and
indicates the need for more frequent lubrication. Greases recommended by gate manufacturers are usually
NLGI grade 2. However, it has been noted that cold seasonal temperatures may dictate a lower NLGI
grade for better flow through piping to the seats.
c. Threaded gate stems. The same multipurpose EP greases recommended by gate manufacturers for
seats are recommended for stems. The grease must be suitable for the temperature range intended. Good
water resistance and low start-up/running torque are also desired grease properties for stems. Cold
seasonal temperatures may necessitate a lower NLGI grade if the grease accumulates excessively at the lift
nut during operation due to low temperature. Keeping threaded stems clean and greased is critical. When
excess dried grease or other foreign material is carried into the threads of the lift nut, extremely hard
operation will result. If the foreign material is not cleaned from interior threads, seizure can result.
Moreover, if the foreign material is abrasive and the stem is coated with this grit, frequent use of the gate
will wear the threads in the thrust nut creating a potentially dangerous situation. An excessively worn
thrust nut may not support the weight of the gate and may cause it to fall. Use of pipe covers will protect
stems above the deck. Plastic stem covers will allow visual inspection. Recommended cleaning and
greasing frequency is at least every 6 months or 100 cycles, whichever occurs first, and more often if the
grease becomes dirty.
d. Threaded drive screws. The lubricant should have good water-separating characteristics and must
be suitable for the temperature range intended. It should have extreme pressure characteristics and low
start-up/running torque for quick start-up and smooth operation. The same multipurpose EP greases used
for threaded gate stems can be used on drive screws.
e. Roller trains and roller assemblies for roller-mounted gates. When chains are part of roller
assemblies, they should be lubricated according to the requirements discussed below for chains. Grease for
roller trains should contain an EP additive and generally be NLGI grade 2. It should be formulated for rust
and corrosion protection and be resistant to water wash-out. It should be suitable for the temperature range
intended and for the shock loading of wave action. Frequency of lubrication depends on factors such as
frequency of operation and accessibility, but roller trains should be lubricated a minimum of twice a year.
When possible, the equipment manufacturer should be consulted for lubricant and frequency
recommendations.
f. Wheel bearings. Grease should be suitable for boundary lubrication of a high-load, low-speed
journal bearing and contain EP additives. It should be noncorrosive to steel and resistant to water wash-out
conditions. It must be suitable for the temperature range intended. The grease should conform to the
recommendations of the bearing manufacturer. Bearings should be lubricated at least once a year. When
this is not possible they should be lubricated whenever accessible.
g. Grease-lubricated gears for electrically and manually operated lifts.
(1) Grease for the main gearboxes of operating lifts should contain an EP additive and be suitable for
the temperature range intended. It should be water- and heat-resistant, and be slightly fluid (approximating
NLGI grade 1 or 0). It should not be corrosive to steel gears, ball, or roller bearings, and should not create
more than 8 percent swell in gaskets. Its dropping point should be above 158 EC (316 E F) for temperature
ranges of -29 EC (-20 EF) to 66 EC (150 EF). It should not contain any grit, abrasive, or fillers.
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(2) Frequency of lubrication varies among manufacturers. One lift manufacturer recommends
pressure greasing through fittings after 100 cycles or every 6 months, whichever comes first. The frequency
of inspections and/or lubrication should be based on historical data. The manufacturers schedule should
be followed unless operating experience indicates otherwise. Grease should be inspected at least every 18
months. It should contain no dirt, water, or other foreign matter. Should dirt, water, or foreign matter be
found, the units should be flushed with a noncorrosive commercial degreaser/cleaner that does not affect
seal materials such as Buna N or Viton. All bearings, bearing balls, gears, and other close-tolerance parts
that rotate with respect to each other should be recoated by hand with fresh grease. The operator should
then be repacked with fresh grease. Different lubricants should not be added unless they are based on the
same soap (calcium, lithium, etc.) as the existing lubricant and approval has been given by the lubricant
manufacturer. (Oil-lubricated gears are discussed in paragraph 9.4 ).
h. Hydraulic fluids for operating systems. Commonly used hydraulic fluids for gates at locks and
dams and culvert valves at locks are tabulated in Appendix B. An oil with a high viscosity index should be
selected to minimize the change in pipe friction between winter and summer months. The oil selected must
have a viscosity range suitable for the system components and their expected operating temperature and
pressure ranges. Generally, the maximum viscosity range is between 4000 Saybolt Universal Seconds
(SUS) at start-up and 70 SUS at maximum operating temperature. However, this range will vary between
manufacturers and types of equipment. Hydraulic systems containing large quantities of fluid should
include rust and oxidation inhibitors. Consideration should also be given to biodegradable fluids composed
of vegetable-base oils with synthetic additives. These fluids should be used with caution to ensure that they
are compatible with the components used in the hydraulic system. A more detailed discussion of hydraulic
fluids properties can be found in Chapter 4 of this manual.
11-11. Navigation Lock Gates, Culvert Valves, and Dam Gates
a. General requirements.
(1) Corps of Engineers navigation facilities use many types of lock gates, including miter, sector,
vertical lift, and submergible tainter. The machinery required to operate these gates consists of speed
reducers, gear couplings, bearings, open gearing, wire ropes, and chains. Most of this equipment is heavily
loaded and operates at low speeds. Consequently, hydrodynamic lubrication cannot be established and
boundary lubricating conditions predominate.
(2) The general lubricating requirements for this equipment have already been discussed. The
following discussion is limited to the lubricating requirements specific to the lock gate noted. Refer to
paragraph 11-10 (gates and valves) for lubrication requirements for culvert valves and dam gate
components. Refer to the survey (Appendix B) discussed in the next paragraph for commonly used
lubricants and hydraulic fluids.
b. Survey of locks and dams for lubricants. About 45 Corps of Engineers locks and dams around the
country were surveyed for lubricants and hydraulic fluids used for lock gates, culvert valves, and
navigation dams. Twenty-three survey responses showed lubricant products from more than 25 different
lubricant companies. Each product appears suitable for the particular application. Information on
frequency of lubrication and method of application was also included in the responses. Respondents
expressed interests in environmentally acceptable lubricants, but use has been limited. Responses also
covered lubricants for equipment not specifically queried for on the survey. These responses and comments
on environmentally acceptable lubricants are included with the survey results in Appendix B.
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c. Speed reducers. Speed reducers are usually worm, helical. or herringbone-type gear trains in
accordance with the applicable American Gear Manufacturers Association (AGMA) standards. Integral
bearings are usually antifriction type. Gear oil must be suitable for the expected ambient temperatures.
Where ambient temperature ranges will exceed the oil producers recommendations, a thermostatically
controlled heater should be provided in the reducer case. The surface area of the heater should be as large
as possible to prevent charring of the oil. The density of heating elements should not exceed 21.44 hp/m
2
(10 watts per square inch). If possible, insulate the reducer case to minimize heat loss. If heaters are
impractical, synthetic gear oils should be considered. A number of locks are using synthetic oils in
gearboxes. One reason given is that in cold weather, heaters have scorched petroleum oils, requiring
additional maintenance. Synthetic oils eliminate the need for heaters. A synthetic gear lubricant with a
-40 EC (-40 EF) pour point is recommended if acceptable to the reducer manufacturer. Lubricant selection
should be based on published manufacturer's data for the required application and operating conditions.
Gear oils used at locks and dams are listed in the survey in Appendix B.
d. Couplings. Flexible couplings are usually the gear type. The lubrication requirements for these
couplings were discussed above.
e. Bearings.
(1) Antifriction bearings should be selected in accordance with manufacturers published catalog
ratings. Life expectancy should be based on 10,000 hours B-10 life with loads assumed equal to 75
percent of maximum.
(2) Bronze sleeve bearings should have allowable unit bearing pressures not exceeding the following:
! Sheave bushings, slow speed, 3500 psi.
! Main pinion shaft bearings and other slow-moving shafts, hardened steel on bronze, 1000 psi.
! Bearings moving at ordinary speeds, steel or bronze, 750 psi.

f. Open gearing. Open gears are usually the spur teeth involute form, complying with AGMA
201.02 ANSI Standard System, Tooth Proportions For Coarse-Pitch Involute Spur Gears (Information
Sheet A). Lubricants used at Corps of Engineers locks and dams are noted in the survey in Appendix B.
g. Hydraulic fluid. A petroleum oil with a high viscosity index should be selected to minimize the
change in pipe friction between winter and summer months. The oil selected must have a viscosity range
suitable for the system components and their expected operating temperature range. Generally, the
maximum viscosity range is between 4000 SUS at start-up and 70 SUS at maximum operating
temperature. However, this range will vary among manufacturers and types of equipment. Hydraulic
systems containing large quantities of fluid should include rust and oxidation inhibitors. Consideration
should also be given to biodegradable fluids composed of vegetable-base oils with synthetic additives.
These fluids should be used with caution to ensure that they are compatible with the components used in the
hydraulic system. Refer to Chapter 8 for a more detailed discussion of desirable properties and the survey
in Appendix B for hydraulic fluids commonly used at locks and dams.
h. Miter gates. There are various types of operating linkages for miter gates. Generally these gates
are operated through electric motors, enclosed speed reducers, a bull gear, sector arm, and spring strut.
Alternatively, the gates may be hydraulically operated. Miter gate gudgeon pins and pintles are grease-
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lubricated with automatic and manual greasing systems. Spring struts are lubricated with graphite-based
grease or lubricated with the same grease used on the pintles, depending on type of strut. Refer to the
survey in Appendix B for commonly used lubricants and frequency of application.
i. Sector gates. The operating machinery for sector gates is similar to that used in miter gate and
may consist of a hydraulic motor, or an electric motor, a herringbone gear speed reducer, and a specially
designed angle drive gear unit. In some applications a system consisting of a steel wire rope and drum
arrangement replaces the rack and pinion assembly, and is used to pull the gates in and out of their
recesses. Sector gates gudgeon pins and pintles are lubricated with the same grease used on miter gate
gudgeon pins and pintles.
j. Vertical-lift gates. The hoisting equipment for vertical-lift gates consists of a gear-driven rope
drum. The actual gear drive depends on the gate use. Emergency gates use two-stage open-spur gearing, a
herringbone or helical gear speed reducer, and an electric motor. The downstream gate is wheel-mounted.
These wheels may be provided with self-lubricating spherical bushings. Tide gate drums are operated by a
pinion gear driven by a triple-reduction enclosed gear unit. Vertical gates are also equipped with a
hydraulically operated emergency lowering mechanism. The hydraulic fluid is used to absorb heat so a
heat exchanger is required to ensure that the oil temperature does not exceed 49 EC (120 EF). Wire ropes
are usually 6 x 37, preformed, lang lay, independent wire rope core, 18-8 chrome-nickel corrosion-resistant
steel.
k. Submergible tainter gates. Submergible tainter gates are operated by two synchronized hoist units
consisting of rope drum, open gear set, speed reducer, and hoist motor. Due to continuous submergence,
stainless steel wire ropes are commonly used. Refer to paragraph 11-10 (gates and valves) for trunnion
lubrication requirements.
11-12. Information Sources for Lubricants
There are many valuable information resources on the subject of lubrication.
a. Operations and maintenance manuals. The primary information sources are the manufacturers
installation, operation, and maintenance manuals. The information contained in these manuals applies
specifically to the equipment requiring servicing.
b. Industry standards. Industry standards organizations such as ANSI, ASTM, AGMA, and IEEE
publish standard specifications for lubricants and lubricating standards for various types of equipment.
c. Journals. Engineering and trade publications and journals such as Lubrication, Lubrication
Engineering, and Wear specialize in the area of lubrication or tribology. Articles featured in these
publications are generally technical in nature and describe the results of current research. Occasionally
research results are translated into practical information that can be readily applied.
d. General trade publications. Magazines such as Power, Power Engineering, Hydraulics and
Pneumatics, Machine Design, Pump and Systems, and Plant Engineering Magazine frequently contain
practical articles pertaining to lubrication of bearings, gears, and other plant equipment. Of particular
interest is Plant Engineerings Chart of Interchangeable Industrial Lubricants and Chart of Synthetic
Lubricants. Each of these charts is updated every 3 years. These charts cross-reference lubricants by
application and company producing the product. Chart users should note that Plant Engineering Magazine
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product names are provided by the manufacturers, and that publishing of the data does not reflect the
quality of the lubricant, imply the performance expected under particular operating conditions, or serve as
an endorsement. As an example of the information contained in the interchangeable lubricant chart, the
1995 chart identifies available products from 105 lubricant companies in nine categories. Fluid products in
each category are listed within viscosity ranges. Greases are NLGI 2 only. Included is a chart entitled
Viscosity/Grade Comparison Chart that tabulates viscosity equivalents for ISO viscosity grade,
kinematic viscosity (CSt), Saybolt viscosity (SUS), gear lubricant (AGMA) specification, EP gear
lubricant, and worm gear lubricant (Comp). Lubricant categories include:
! General-purpose lubricants
! Antiwear hydraulic oil
! Spindle oil
! Way oil
! Extreme pressure gear oil
! Worm gear oil
! Cling-type gear shield (open gears)
! General-purpose extreme pressure lithium-based grease
! Molybdenum disulfide extreme pressure grease.
The 1997 chart for synthetic lubricants identifies available products from 69 lubricant companies in eight
categories. Fluid products in each category are listed within viscosity ranges. Greases are NLGI 2 only.
Included is a table entitled Performance Characteristic of Various Synthetic Lubricants that shows the
relative performance characteristics of seven types of synthetic lubricants and a paraffinic mineral oil.
Lubricant categories are:
! Gear and bearing circulation oil
! Extreme pressure gear oil
! High pressure (antiwear) hydraulic oil
! Fire-resistant hydraulic fluid
! Compressor lubricant
! Multipurpose extreme pressure grease (without molybdenum)
! Multipurpose molybdenum disulfide extreme pressure grease
! Multipurpose high temperature grease (without molybdenum).
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Plant Engineering Magazine notes that the synthetic lubricant products presented in each category are not
necessarily interchangeable or compatible. Interchangeability and compatibility depend on a variety of
interrelated factors, and each application requires an individual analysis.
e. Hydropower industry publications. Hydro Review and Water Power and Dam Construction are
widely known publications throughout the hydropower industry. Hydro Review tends to be more research-
oriented and, therefore, more technical. Water Power and Dam Construction includes technical and
practical information. Occasionally, lubrication-related articles are published.
f. Lubricant producers. Lubricant producers are probably the most valuable source for information
and should be consulted for specific application situations, surveys, or questions.
g. Internet. The Internet offers access to a large amount of information, including lubrication theory,
product data, and application information. The Internet also provides a means for communicating and
sharing information with personnel at other facilities. Problems, causes , and solutions are frequently
described in great detail. Since the credentials of individuals publishing information through the Internet
are more difficult to ascertain, caution should be used when evaluating information obtained through the
Internet. The amount of information located depends on the users ability to apply the most pertinent
keywords on any of the search engines. Hyperlinks are usually available and lead to other information
sources. Users should note that broad search categories, such as lubrication, will provide the greatest
returns but will undoubtedly include much extraneous data. Alternatively, searching on a phrase such as
lubrication of hydroturbine guide bearings may be too restrictive. Generally, inserting too many words in
the search field narrows the scope of the search and may produce little or no useful information. The
search field must be adjusted until the desired information is obtained or the search is abandoned for
another reference source.
h. Libraries. In a manner similar to Internet searches, librarians can also help locate information
within their collections or outside their collections by conducting book and literature searches. Unlike the
Internet, literature searches rely on large databases that require password entry not available to the general
public. Therefore, these searches are usually conducted by a reference librarian. The search process is a
very simple method used for locating books an a specific subject, or specific articles that have been
included in technical publications. Usually, searches begin with the current year to find the most recent
articles published. The search is expanded to previous years as necessary until useful articles or
information are located. All that is required is the subject keyword and the time period to be searched. For
example: locate all articles on guide bearing lubrication written over the past 2 years. If this does not
return the desired information, two options are available: extend the time period further into the past or
change the search title to journal bearing lubrication and try new search. Again, the amount of
information located depends on using the proper search keywords. Searches can be expanded or contracted
until the desired information is obtained.
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Chapter 12
Operation and Maintenance Considerations
12-1. Introduction
This chapter discusses the maintenance aspects of lubrication. Detailed discussions cover maintenance
scheduling; relative cost of lubricants; essential oil properties that must be retained to ensure adequate
lubrication of equipment; degradation of lubricating oils, hydraulic fluids, and insulating transformer oils;
particulate, water, and biological contamination; monitoring programs, including trend monitoring and oil
testing; storage and handling; and environmental impacts.
12-2. Maintenance Schedules
a. Modern maintenance schedules are computer-generated, and are frequently referred to as computer
maintenance management systems (CMMS). These systems are essential in organizing, planning, and
executing required maintenance activities for complex hydropower, pumping, and navigation facilities. A
complete discussion of CMMS is beyond the scope of this manual. Some Corps of Engineers and Bureau
of Reclamation facilities recognize the value of CMMS and are currently using these systems to document
operation and maintenance activities. The following discussion summarizes some key concepts of CMMS.
b. The primary goals of a CMMS include scheduling resources optimizing resource availability and
reducing the cost of production, labor, materials, and tools. These goals are accomplished by tracking
equipment, parts, repairs, and maintenance schedules.
c. The most effective CMMS are integrated with a predictive maintenance program (PdM). This
type of program should not be confused with preventive maintenance (PM), which schedules maintenance
and/or replacement of parts and equipment based on manufacturers suggestions. A PM program relies on
established service intervals without regard to the actual operating conditions of the equipment. This type
of program is very expensive and often results in excess downtime and premature replacement of
equipment.
d. While a PM program relies on elapsed time, a PdM program relies on condition monitoring of
machines to help determine when maintenance or replacement is necessary. Condition monitoring involves
the continuous monitoring and recording of vital characteristics that are known to be indicative of the
machines condition. The most commonly measured characteristic is vibration, but other useful tests
include lubricant analysis, thermography, and ultrasonic measurements. The desired tests are conducted on
a periodic basis. Each new measurement is compared with previous data to determine if a trend is
developing. This type of analysis is commonly referred to as trend analysis or trending, and is used to help
predict failure of a particular machine component and to schedule maintenance and order parts. Trending
data can be collected for a wide range of equipment, including pumps, turbines, motors, generators,
gearboxes, fans, compressors, etc. The obvious advantage of condition monitoring is that failure can often
be predicted, repairs planned, and downtime and costs reduced.
12-3. Relative Cost of Lubricants
Cost is one of the factors to be considered when selecting lubricants. This is especially true when making
substitutions such as using synthetics in place of mineral oils. Tables 12-1 and 12-2 provide basic
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Table 12-1
Relative Cost of Vegetable and Synthetic Oils
Lubricant Relative Cost to Mineral Oil
1,2
Vegetable Oils
1
2 - 3
Synthetic Fluids
2
Polybutenes 2
Polyalphaolefins 3
Dialkylbenzene 5
Polyalkyline glycols 3 - 5
Polyol esters 3 - 5
Diesters 2 - 6
Phosphate esters 4 - 7
Cycloaliphatics 9 - 15
Silicone fluids 12 - 24
Silicate esters 33 - 45
Halogenated hydrocarbons 100 - 450
Polyphenyl ethers 625 - 700
Rhee, 1996 (Vegetable oils).
1
Straiton, 1998 (Synthetic fluids).
2
Table 12-2
Relative Cost of Greases
Grease Type Base Oil Relative Cost to Lithium Grease
1
Aluminum Mineral 2.5 - 3
Calcium Mineral 0.8
Lithium Mineral 1
Sodium Mineral 0.9
Aluminum complex Mineral 2.5 - 4
Calcium complex Mineral 0.9 - 1.2
Lithium complex Mineral 2
Sodium complex Mineral 3.5
Lithium Ester 5 - 6
Lithium complex Ester 10
Lithium complex Silicone 20
Bentonites (organo clay) Mineral 2 - 6
Polyurea Mineral 3
Polyurea Silicone 35 - 40
Polyurea Fluorosilicone 100
Mancuso and South 1994.
1
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12-3
information on the relative cost of various lubricants. Reference to these tables and charts reveals that
synthetic lubricants are considerably more expensive than mineral lubricants. Therefore, justification for
their use must be based on operating requirements for which suitable mineral lubricants are not available.
12.4. Lubricating Oil Degradation
A lubricating oil may become unsuitable for its intended purpose as a result of one or several processes.
Most of these processes have been discussed in previous chapters, so the following discussions are brief
summaries.
a. Oxidation. Oxidation occurs by chemical reaction of the oil with oxygen. The first step in the
oxidation reaction is the formation of hydroperoxides. Subsequently, a chain reaction is started and other
compounds such as acid, resins, varnishes, sludge, and carbonaceous deposits are formed.
b. Water and air contamination. Water may be dissolved or emulsified in oil. Water affects
viscosity, promotes oil degradation and equipment corrosion, and interferes with lubrication. Air in oil
systems may cause foaming, slow and erratic system response, and pump cavitation.
(1) Results of water contamination in fluid systems
! Fluid breakdown, such as additive precipitation and oil oxidation
! Reduced lubricating film thickness
! Accelerated metal surface fatigue
! Corrosion
! Jamming of components due to ice crystals formed at low temperatures
! Loss of dielectric strength in insulating oils.
(a) Effects of water on bearing life. Studies have shown that the fatigue life of a bearing can be
extended dramatically by reducing the amount of water contained in a petroleum based lubricant. See
Table 12-3.
(b) Effect of water and metal particles. Oil oxidation is increased in a hydraulic or lubricating oil in
the presence of water and particulate contamination. Small metal particles act as catalysts to rapidly
increase the neutralization number of acid level. See Table 12-4.
Table 12-3
Effect of Water on Bearing Fatigue Life
Lubricant Water Concentration Relative Life Factor
SAE 20 25 ppm 4.98
SAE 20 100 ppm 1.92
SAE 20 400 ppm 1.00
Reference: Effect of Water in Lubricating Oil on Bearing Life, 31st annual ASLE meeting, 1975.
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Table 12-4
Effect of Water and Metal Particles on Oil Oxidation
Run Catalyst Water Hours Total Acid* Number Change
1 None No 3500+ 0
2 None Yes 3500+ +0.73
3 Iron No 3500+ +0.48
4 Iron Yes 400 +7.93
5 Copper No 3000 +0.72
6 Copper Yes 100 +11.03
*Total acid number increases that exceed 0.5 indicate significant fluid deterioration.
Reference: Weinshelbaum, M., Proceedings, National Conference on Fluid Power, VXXXIII:269.
(2) Sources of Water Contamination
! Heat exchanger leaks
! Seal leaks
! Condensation of humid air
! Inadequate reservoir covers
! Temperature drops changing dissolved water to free water.
(3) Forms of water in oil
! Free water (emulsified or droplets)
! Dissolved water (below saturation level).
(4) Typical oil saturation levels
! Hydraulic--200 to 400 ppm (0.02 to 0.04%)
! Lubricating--200 to 750 ppm (0.02 to 0.075%)
! Transformer--30 to 50 ppm (0.003 to 0.005%).
(5) Results of Dissolved Air and Other Gases in Oils
! Foaming
! Slow system response with erratic operation
! A reduction in system stiffness
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! Higher fluid temperatures
! Pump damage due to cavitation
! Inability to develop full system pressure
! Acceleration of oil oxidation
c. Loss of additives. Two of the most important additives in turbine lubricating oil are the rust- and
oxidation-inhibiting agents. Without these additives, oxidation of oil and the rate of rusting will increase.
d. Accumulation of contaminants. Lubricating oil can become unsuitable for further service by
accumulation of foreign materials in the oil. The source of contaminants may be from within the system or
from outside. Internal sources of contamination are rust, wear, and sealing products. Outside
contaminants are dirt, weld spatter, metal fragments, etc., which can enter the system through ineffective
seals, dirty oil fill pipes, or dirty make-up oil.
e. Biological deterioration. Lubricating oils are susceptible to biological deterioration if the proper
growing conditions are present. Table 12-5 identifies the type of infections and associated
characteristics. Hydraulic oils are also susceptible to this type of deterioration. These are discussed in
paragraph 12-5. Procedures for preventing and coping with biological contamination include cleaning and
sterilizing, addition of biocides, frequent draining of moisture from the system, avoidance of dead-legs in
pipes.
Table 12-5
Characteristics of Principal Infecting Organisms (Generalized Scheme)
Organism pH Relationship Products of Growth Type of Growth
Aerobic bacteria (use Prefer neutral to alkaline pH. Completely oxidized products Separate rods, forming slime when
oxygen) (CO and H O) and some agglomerated. Size usually below 5
2 2
acids. Occasionally generate Fm in length (1.64 10 ft)
ammonia.
-5
Anaerobic bacteria (grow Prefer neutral to alkaline pH Incompletely oxidized and As above. Often adhere to steel
in absence of oxygen) reduced products including surfaces, particularly swarf
CH , H , and H S.
4 2 2
Yeasts Prefer acid pH. Oxidized and incompletely Usually separate cells, 5-10 Fm
oxidized products. pH falls. (1.64 10 ft to 3.28 10 ft),
-5 -5
often follow bacterial infections or
occur when bacteria have been
inhibited. Sometimes filamentous.
Fungi (molds) Prefer acid pH, but some Incompletely oxidized product Filaments of cells forming visible
flourish at alkaline pH in organic acids accumulate. mats of growth. Spores may
synthetic metal working resemble yeasts. Both yeasts and
fluids. molds grow more slowly than
bacteria.
12.5 Hydraulic Oil Degradation
a. Water contamination.
(1) Due to the hygroscopic nature of hydraulic fluid, water contamination is a common occurrence.
Water may be introduced by exposure to humid environments, condensation in the reservoir, and when
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adding fluid from drums that may have been improperly sealed and exposed to rain. Leaking heat
exchangers, seals, and fittings are other potential sources of water contamination.
(2) The water saturation level is different for each type of hydraulic fluid. Below the saturation level
water will completely dissolve in the oil. Oil-based hydraulic fluids have a saturation level between 100
and 1000 ppm (0.01% to 0.1%). This saturation level will be higher at the higher operating temperatures
normally experienced in hydraulic systems.
b. Effects of water contamination. Hydraulic system operation may be affected when water
contamination reaches 1 to 2%.
(1) Reduced viscosity. If the water is emulsified, the fluid viscosity may be reduced and result in poor
system response, increased wear of rubbing surfaces, and pump cavitation.
(2) Ice formation. If free water is present and exposed to freezing temperatures, ice crystals may form.
Ice may plug orifices and clearance spaces, causing slow or erratic operation.
(3) Chemical reactions.
(a) Galvanic corrosion. Water may act as an electrolyte between dissimilar metals to promote
galvanic corrosion. This condition first occurs and is most visible as rust formations on the inside top
surface of the fluid reservoir.
(b) Additive depletion. Water may react with oxidation additives to produce acids and precipitates
that increase wear and cause system fouling. Antiwear additives such as zinc dithiophosphate (ZDTP) are
commonly used for boundary lubrication applications in high-pressure pumps, gears, and bearings.
However, chemical reaction with water can destroy this additive when the system operating temperature
rises above 60 EC (140 EF). The end result is premature component failure due to metal fatigue.
(c) Agglomeration. Water can act as an adhesive to bind small contaminant particles into clumps that
plug the system and cause slow or erratic operation. If the condition is serious, the system may fail
completely.
(d) Microbiological contamination. Growth of microbes such as bacteria, algae, yeast, and fungi can
occur in hydraulic systems contaminated with water. The severity of microbial contamination is increased
by the presence of air. Microbes vary in size from 0.2 to 2.0 m for single cells and up to 200 mM for
multicell organisms. Under favorable conditions, bacteria reproduce exponentially. Their numbers may
double in as little as 20 minutes. Unless they are detected early, bacteria may grow into an interwoven
mass that will clog the system. A large quantity of bacteria also can produce significant waste products
and acids capable of attacking most metals and causing component failure.
12-6. Transformer and Circuit Breaker Insulating Oil Degradation
a. The consequences of oil degradation in a transformer can be even more serious than with other
equipment. Combustible gases may form as the transformer develops faults. Some gases are present in a
dissolved state while others are found in the free space of the transformer. The type and concentration of
gases and the ratio in which they are present are commonly used to assess the serviceable condition of
transformers. Under the right conditions these gases may explode, causing significant damage and injury to
personnel. The testing of transformer oils and assessment of transformer serviceable conditions has
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become a specialty. The Bureau of Reclamation has published a manual that provides detailed procedures
and criteria for testing insulating oils. The reader should refer to Reclamation Facilities Instructions,
Standards, and Techniques (FIST) publication Volume 3-5, Maintenance of Liquid Insulation Mineral
Oils and Askarels for detailed information on transformer and circuit breaker oil maintenance and testing.
For information on monitoring, testing, and assessment of transformer serviceability, refer to IEEE
Standard C57.104-1991, IEEE Guide for the Interpretation of Gases.
b. Transformer and circuit-breaker insulating oils suffer degradation similar to that of lubricating oil
and hydraulic fluid including as oxidation, sludge formation, additive depletion, and moisture contamina-
tion. Sludge can significantly affect the flow of heat from the oil to the coolant and from the core and coils
to the cooling coil. If these conditions are prolonged, the excessive temperature and heat can damage the
transformer insulation and eventually cause short circuits and breakdown of the transformer. Moisture can
be present in three forms: dissolved, emulsified, or free state. Emulsified water is especially harmful since
it has significant influence in reducing the dielectric strength of the oil. Another form of contamination is
the presence of dissolved nitrogen, which can cause problems due to corona discharge. Circuit breakers
may have all the above problems plus the formation of carbon particles, which can cause short circuits.
12.7. Essential Properties of Oil
Several important properties of used oil must be retained to ensure continued service, as discussed below.
a. Viscosity. New turbine oils are sold under the International Standards Organization (ISO)
Viscosity Grade System. Oil manufacturers normally produce lubricating oil with viscosity of ISO-VG-22,
VG-32, VG-46, VG-68, VG-100, VG-150, VG-220, VG-320, and VG-460. The numbers 22 through 460
indicate the average oil viscosity in centistoke units at 40EC (104 EF) with a range of 10 percent. Most
hydroelectric power plants use ISO-VG -68 or ISO-VG-100 oils.
b. Oxidation stability. One of the most important properties of new turbine oil is its oxidation
stability. New turbine oils are highly stable in the presence of air or oxygen. In service, oxidation is
gradually accelerated by the presence of a metal catalyst in the system (such as iron and copper) and by the
depletion of antioxidant additives. Additives control oxidation by attacking the hydroperoxides (the first
product of the oxidation step) and breaking the chain reaction that follows. When oxidation stability
decreases, the oil will undergo a complex reaction that will eventually produce insoluble sludge. This
sludge may settle in critical areas of the equipment and interfere with lubrication and cooling functions of
oil. Most rust inhibitors used in turbine oils are acidic and contribute to the acid number of the new oil.
An increase in acid number above the value for new oil indicates the presence of acidic oxidation products
or, less likely, contamination with acidic substances. An accurate determination of the total acid number
(TAN) is very important. However, this test does not strictly measure oxidation stability reserve, which is
better determined by the Rotating Bomb Oxidation Test (RBOT), ASTM Test Method D 2272.
c. Freedom from sludge. Sludge is the byproduct of oil oxidation. Due to the nature of the highly
refined lubricant base stocks used in the manufacture of turbine oils, these oils are very poor solvents for
sludge. This is the main reason why the oxidation stability reserve of the oil must be carefully monitored.
Only a relatively small degree of oxidation can be permitted; otherwise, there is considerable risk of sludge
deposition in bearing housings, seals, and pistons. Filtration and centrifugation can remove sludge from oil
as it is formed, but if oil deterioration is allowed to proceed too far, sludge will deposit in parts of the
equipment, and system flushing and an oil change may be required.
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d. Freedom from abrasive contaminants. The most deleterious solid contaminants found in turbine
oil systems are those left behind when the system is constructed and installed or when it is opened for
maintenance and repair. Solid contaminants may also enter the system when units are outdoors, through
improperly installed vents, and when units are opened for maintenance. Other means of contamination are
from the wearing of metals originating within the system, rust and corrosion products, and dirty make-up
oil. The presence of abrasive solids in the oil cannot be tolerated since they will cause serious damage to
the system. These particles must be prevented from entering the system by flushing the system properly
and using clean oil and tight seals. Once abrasive solids have been detected, they must be removed by
filtration or centrifugation, or both.
e. Corrosion protection. The corrosion protection provided by the lubricant is of significant
importance for turbine systems. New turbine oil contains a rust-inhibitor additive and must meet ASTM
Test Method D 665. The additive may be depleted by normal usage, removal with water in the oil,
absorption on wear particles and debris, or chemical reaction with contaminants.
f. Water separability. Water can enter the turbine lubricating oil system through cooler leaks, by
condensation, and, to a lesser degree, through seal leaks. Water in the oil can be in either the dissolved or
insoluble form. The insoluble water may be in the form of small droplets dispersed in the oil (emulsion) or
in a separate phase (free state) settled at the bottom of the container. Water can react with metals to
catalyze and promote oil oxidation. It may deplete rust inhibitors and may also cause rusting and
corrosion. In addition to these chemical effects on the oil, additives, and equipment, water also affects the
lubrication properties of the oil. Oil containing large amounts of water does not have the same viscosity
and lubricating effect of clean oil. Therefore, turbine lubricating oil should not contain a significant
amount of free or dispersed water. Normally, if the oil is in good condition, water will settle to the bottom
of the storage tank, where it should be drained off as a routine operating procedure. Water may also be
removed by purification systems. If turbine oil develops poor water separability properties (poor
demulsibility), significant amounts of water will stay in the system and create problems. The water
separability characteristics of an oil are adequately measured using the ASTM Test Method D 1401
procedure. Insoluble water can be removed by filtration and centrifugation.
12-8. Other Properties of Used Oils
Other properties of lubricating oil that are important, but for which direct measurement of their quantitative
values is less significant, are described below.
a. Color. New turbine oils are normally light in color. Oil will gradually darken in service. This is
accepted. However, a significant color change occurring in a short time indicates that something has
changed. For example, if oil suddenly becomes hazy, it is probably being contaminated with water. A
rapid darkening or clouding may indicate that oil is contaminated or excessively degraded.
b. Foaming characteristics. Foaming characteristics are measured by ASTM Test Method D 892.
This test will show the tendency of oil to foam and the stability of the foam after it is generated. Foaming
can result in poor system performance and can cause serious mechanical damage. Most lubricants contain
antifoam additive to break up the foam.
c. Water content. Turbine oil should be clear and bright. Most turbine oil will remain clear up to
75 ppm water at room temperature. A quick and easy qualitative analysis of insoluble water in oil is the
hot plate test. A small amount of oil is placed on a hot plate. If oil smokes, there is no insoluble water. If
it spatters, the oil contains free or suspended water.
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d. Inhibitor content. The stability of turbine lubricating oil is based on the combination of high-
quality base stock with highly effective additives. Therefore, it is very important to monitor the oxidation
of the turbine oil. ASTM Test Method D 2272 (RBOT) is very useful for approximating the oxidation
inhibitor content of the turbine oil. The remaining useful life of the oil can be estimated from this test.
e. Wear and contaminant metals. Quantitative spectrographic analysis of used oil samples may be
used to detect trace metals (and silica) and identify metal-containing contaminants. System metals such as
iron and copper can be accurately identified if the sample is representative and the metals are solubilized or
are very finely divided. A high-silica level generally indicates dirt contamination.
12-9. Oil Monitoring Program
Periodic oil testing can measure the effects of oxidation, and detect the types and amount of various
contaminants in the oil. Periodic testing can provide early detection of problems within a lubricating
system; determine whether the oil is still serviceable; and provide information to prepare a filtering or
purification schedule. By monitoring the condition of the oil, premature equipment failure due to oil
deterioration can be prevented. Various standard tests are available depending on the type of oil and
service. Table 12-6 briefly identifies and compares the various analysis methods available, and their
benefits and limitations. Table 12-7 shows that each category of oil analysis is well suited to provide
important information, but no single test can provide complete information about the causes of lubricant
deterioration. The appropriate tests must be conducted to obtain the information desired. Field tests can
Table 12-6
Fluid Analysis Methods
Method Units Benefits Limitations
Optical particle count Number/ml Accurate size and quantity Sample preparation time
distribution
Automatic particle count Number/ml Fast, repeatable Sensitive to particle
concentration and
nonparticulate contaminants,
e.g., water, air, gels
Patch test and fluid Visual comparison/ Rapid analysis of fluid Provides approximate
contamination comparator cleanliness code cleanliness levels in field; contamination levels
helps to identify type of
contaminant
Ferrography Scaled number of large/small Basic information which will Cannot detect nonferrous
particles indicate the need for more particles, e.g., brass, copper,
sophisticated testing upon silica etc.
abnormal results
Spectrometry ppm Identifies and quantifies Cannot size contaminants;
contaminant material limited sensitivity above 5 m
(1.64 10 ft).
-5
Gravimetric mg/l Indicates total amount of Cannot distinguish particle
contaminant size; when comparing
samples, sensitivity is limited
to extremely large differences
in particulate level
Reference: Contamination Control and Filtration Fundamentals, Pall Corporation, Glen Cove, NY.
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Table 12-7
Categories of Oil Analysis
What is being analyzed Fluid Properties Contamination Wear Debris
Possible tests properties of used oil) contaminants) particles)
(Physical and chemical (Fluid and machine destructive (Presence and identification of
(aging process)
Particle counting NB PB MB
Moisture analysis NB PB NB
Viscosity analysis PB MB NB
Wear debris density NB NB PB
Analytical ferrography NB MB PB
TAN/TBN PB MB MB
FTIR PB MB NB
Patch test NB PB MB
Flash point test MB PB NB
Elemental Analysis PB MB PB
Note: PB - Primary Benefit, MB - Minor Benefit, NB - No Benefit
Reference: Reprinted by permission of Noria Corporation, Tulsa, OK
be performed to expedite assessment of an oil's condition. However, field testing is not as complete or as
accurate as laboratory analysis. Generally, laboratory tests should be performed to confirm field test
results. Project personnel should establish a monitoring program for their lubricating oils. This program
should include sampling and testing of significant oil properties at appropriate intervals, logging,
interpretation of test data, and action steps. In this section and in the discussion of sampling technique,
recommendations on properties to be tested, testing intervals, ASTM test methods, and action steps to
correct the problems are discussed.
a. Sampling and testing schedule.
(1) Sample collection. The sample should be drawn into clean oil bottles or oil-compatible containers
while the equipment is operating at normal temperature or immediately after shutdown. To minimize
sample contamination, bottle suppliers can provide bottles in three levels of cleanliness: clean (fewer than
100 particles greater than 10 m/ml (fewer than 100 particles in 1 ml (0.00026 gal) greater than 10 m
(3.28 10 ft)), superclean (fewer than 10), and ultraclean (fewer than 1). The sample should be labeled
-6
immediately with the date it was taken, the source, and the type and brand name of the lubricant.
(a) Lubricating oil. The oil sample must be representative of oil in the system. The preferred
sampling location is in the return lines upstream of filters. If a static oil sample must be drawn, a drop-
tube static sampling setup should be used to prevent contamination with sludge from the bottom of the
sump. If oil must be drawn from a tap on the oil sump, wipe the tap and let sufficient oil flow to clear
stagnant oil from the tap before taking the actual test sample.
(b) Hydraulic oil. The preferred sampling location is in the return line immediately upstream from the
return-line filter. This location will sample particles circulating in the system. An alternative location is the
supply line directly downstream from the pump. Extracting samples from the reservoir is not recommended
EM 1110-2-1424
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12-11
except when no other choice is available. When necessary, reservoir samples should be taken midway
between the surface and bottom of the reservoir. To ensure the most accurate results and to develop
meaningful trends, all samples should be taken from the same location, in the same manner, and under the
same conditions. Do not compare samples drawn from an operating machine with samples from a
stationary machine.
(c) Transformer and circuit breaker insulating oil. Sampling procedures for transformer and circuit
breaker insulating oils are covered in Reclamation FIST manual entitled Maintenance of Liquid Insulation
Mineral Oils and Askarels.
(2) Field testing. Many oil properties can be field-tested economically and with relatively simple
procedures and equipment. Suspicious test results should be verified by more comprehensive laboratory
analysis. The following procedures are intended for oils other than those used in transformers and circuit
breakers.
(a) Visual test. A visual inspection of an oil sample is the simplest type of field test. Table 12-8
outlines the procedures for conducting a visual test of oil samples. The sample to be inspected should be
stored at room temperature away from direct sunlight for at least 24 hours before the inspection. The
sample should be checked for sediment, and separated water. Oils also may have unusual color cloudiness
or unusual odors. For comparison, it is a good idea to keep a sample of new unused oil of the same type
and manufacturer stored in a sealed container in a cool dark place. The used sample can then be compared
with the new sample with respect to color, odor, and general appearance.
(b) Water contamination. Hazy or cloudy oil may indicate water contamination. The crackle test is
a simplified procedure that can be used to verify the presence of water in oil, but the test does not provide
quantitative results. The crackle test can be conducted by making a small cup from aluminum foil, adding
a few drops of the oil, and heating rapidly over a small flame. The test can also be conducted by using a
hot plate, as previously noted, or by immersing a hot soldering iron in a sample of the oil. An audible
crackling sound will be heard if water is present. Eye protection should be worn during the test to prevent
injury if oil splatters during the heating. If water contamination is evident, the oil should be purified and a
sample of the purified oil should be sent to a laboratory for analysis. If sediment is present, the oil should
be purified, and samples of both the unpurified oil and the purified oil should be submitted for analysis.
The sediment of the unpurified oil can be analyzed to determine its source.
(c) Microbial contamination. Initial microbial contamination of hydraulic fluids may also be detected
by a foul odor due to waste and decomposition products of the microbes. Fluid viscosity may appear
thicker due to the microbes. Fluid color may range from a light brown to a slimy green appearance.
(d) Neutralization number. An oil's neutralization number can also be determined in the field. With
the exception of some motor oils, which may be alkaline, most lubricating oils are essentially neutral. An
acidic oil is probably the result of oxidation due to extended service or abnormal operating conditions. The
neutralization number of new oil is usually less that 0.08. The maximum allowable number depends on the
type of oil and service, and this number should be obtained from the oil manufacturer. The maximum
value is usually less than 0.5. Of greatest concern in this test is the rate of increase, not necessarily the
neutralization number itself. A sudden increase in the neutralization number may indicate that an
operational problem exists or that the oil has reached the end of its useful life. In either case, action is
required to prevent further deterioration and equipment damage. If tests show a large increase in the
neutralization number, or if the neutralization number exceeds the maximum value allowable, the oil man-
ufacturer should be consulted to determine if the oil can be economically reclaimed.
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Table 12-8
Visual Examination of Used Lubricating Oil
Appearance of Sample Action To Be Taken
When Taken System without filter or System with filter or
After 1 hour Reason centrifuge centrifuge
(1) (1)
Clear --- --- None None
Opaque Clear Foaming Cause of foaming to be Cause of foaming to be
(2)
sought sought
(3) (3)
Clear oil with separated Unstable emulsion Runoff water (and sludge) Check centrifuge
water layer from drain
(4)
(5)
(6)
No change Stable emulsion Submit sample for analysis Check centrifuge: if
(7) (6)
centrifuge fails to clear
change oil
Dirty Solids separated Contamination Submit sample for analysis Check filter or centrifuge
(8) (7)
Black (acrid No change Oil oxidized Submit sample for analysis Submit sample for analysis
smell)
(7) (7)
1. Take sample of circulating oil in clean glass bottle (50-100 ml).
2. If dirty or opaque, stand for 1 hour, preferably at 60E C (an office radiator provides a convenient source of heat).
Notes:
(1) The term filter is restricted to units able to remove particles less than 50 m; coarse strainers, which are frequently fitted in oil
pump suctions to protect the pump, do not remove all particles liable to damage bearings, etc.
(2) Both foams (mixtures of air and oil) and emulsions (mixtures of water and oil) render the oil opaque.
(3) Foaming is usually mechanical in origin, being caused by excessive churning, impingement of high-pressure return oil on the
reservoir surface, etc. Foam can be stabilized by the presence of minor amounts of certain contaminants, e.g., solvents,
corrosion preventives, grease. If no mechanical reason can be found for excessive foam generation, it is necessary to
change oil.
(4) Steps should be taken to remove the water as soon as possible. Not only is water liable to cause lubrication failure, but it will
also cause rusting; the presence of finely divided rust tends to stabilize emulsions.
(5) Failure of water to separate from oil in service may be the result of inadequate lubricant capacity or the oil pump suction being
too close to the lowest part of the reservoir. More commonly, it results from re-entrainment of separated water from the
bottom of the sump when, by neglect, it has been allowed to build up in the system.
(6) The usual reason for a centrifuge failing to remove water is that the temperature is too low. The oil should be heated to 80 EC
(176 EF) before centrifuging.
(7) It is not always possible to decide visually whether the oil is satisfactory or not. In doubtful cases, it is necessary to have
laboratory analysis.
(8) In a dark oil, solids can be seen by inverting the bottle and examining the bottom.
Reference: Neale, M. J., Lubrication - A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England.
(e) Particle counting. Portable particle counters are available for in-house testing. The advantage is
that measurement results can be obtained quickly, as opposed to the 1- to 2-week waiting period typical for
laboratory testing. The quick results also allow timely preventive measures to reduce the potential for
severe damage. Two types of portable particle counters are generally available: laser and differential
pressure. Laser counters transmit a light beam through the fluid to a photodetector on the opposite side.
The light intensity measured varies with the number of particles in the fluid. As the number of particles
increases, the light scattering increases and the light intensity measured at the detector is reduced. The
intensity of the measured light is an indication of the number of particles in the fluid sample. Laser
counters are accurate and can measure a particle to 2 m (6.56 10 ft). Laser counters have several
-6
disadvantages, including sensitivity to other conditions that may restrict light passage through the fluid:
aeration, haziness (typically caused by water), fluid opacity, and emulsions. The differential particle
counter measures differential pressure across standard 5- and 15-m (1.64 10 and 4.96 10 ft)
-5 -5
screens, which correlate with ISO particle counting standards. As fluid passes through the screens, large
EM 1110-2-1424
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particles are filtered, causing the differential pressure across the screens to increase. This type of counter
is not affected by the disadvantages that affect laser counters.
(3) Laboratory testing and analysis. When field testing is inadequate or indicates that additional
testing is required, oil samples should be submitted for laboratory analysis. Laboratory analysis should in-
clude viscosity, neutralization number, water contamination, and the identification of wear metal and other
contaminants. Properties to be tested, along with the ASTM test method to be used, are listed in Table 12-
9. If possible, the oil's manufacturer should perform tests periodically. Since the composition and additive
content of oils is usually considered proprietary information, only the manufacturer can accurately
determine the extent of additive depletion. When analysis is conducted by independent laboratories, the oil
manufacturer should be contacted anytime the test results suggest questionable serviceability of an oil.
When problems arise or abnormal situations develop, other properties may be tested or the testing
frequency of the recommended properties should be increased. For example, if oil color suddenly becomes
hazy or dark, the oil should be tested immediately for water or other contamination. The tests included in
Table 12-9 are used to determine contamination and degradation of the oil. Viscosity, appearance, water
content, and cleanliness are related to contamination. Total acid number (TAN), color, and Rotating Bomb
Oxidation Test (RBOT) are related to degradation. The RBOT and TAN tests are excellent for following
the degradation of turbine oil. If RBOT results for the new oil are known, these can be compared with the
values for the used oil to determine the oxidation stability reserve of the used oil. Changes in the RBOT
and TAN of the oils are the best indication of the remaining useful life of the lubricating oil.
Table 12-9
Key Tests for Oil Quality Control Monitoring
Property Test ASTM Test Method
Total acid number (TAN) D 664, D 974
Color D 1500
Appearance Visual
Viscosity D 445
Rotating Bomb D 2272
Oxidation Test (RBOT)
Water content D 95, D 1744
Rust test D 665A
Cleanliness Particle Counter,
F 311 and F 312
(4) Test frequencies
(a) New oil. Oil should be tested prior to filling the unit and retested 3 months later. Sampling should
continue at this interval until a trend is established. The sampling interval can then be extended as dictated
by the test results.
(b) Installation of new components. When new components are installed the above oil testing
frequency should be followed.
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12-14
(c) Normal operation. Equipment maintenance records should suggest oil sampling frequencies.
Additional testing should be conducted on a periodic basis, and at increased frequencies as dictated by the
oil analysis results. In the absence of recommended sampling frequencies, 500 hours is commonly
suggested for journal and roller bearing lubricant applications. Oil samples should be drawn from
governors and all guide and thrust bearings annually and submitted for laboratory analysis. In addition to
the annual tests, samples should be visually inspected at frequent intervals. Test oil annually or more often
if conditions warrant. If oil appears clean and no operational problems have been noted, testing may be
postponed to the next unit overhaul. When a unit is overhauled, test the oil before draining into a storage
tank. If oil is degraded, discard it to prevent storage tank contamination.
(d) Logging and interpretation of test data. It is important to keep accurate records of test results.
Properties that change as the oil degrades, such as viscosity, oxidation, TAN, and RBOT, should be
graphed to provide a visual indication of relative changes or trends. This procedure highlights any unusual
trends and allows for a more accurate estimate of the remaining service life of lubricating oil. Oil
properties can be affected by routine addition of make-up oil and by the type of oil added. Whenever a
reservoir is topped, the data baseline must be reset to prevent erroneous interpretation of trend results.
(e) Recommended corrective action. The primary purpose of an oil monitoring program is to ensure
long, trouble-free operation of the turbine and generators, main pumps and motors, or other equipment. To
achieve this purpose, the monitoring program must include prompt and appropriate action steps. The
corrective action must be based on correct interpretation of the test data, as outlined in Tables 12-10 and
12-11. It is very important to follow the monitoring schedule that has been established. Interpretation is
more meaningful if the data have been collected over an extended period of time.
12-10. Oil Purification and Filtration
a. Cleanliness.
(1) Oil must be free of contaminants to perform properly. Most hydraulic systems use an in-line filter
to continually filter the oil while the system is operating to maintain the required cleanliness rating in
accordance with ISO standards (Table 12-12). ISO 4406 is an internationally recognized standard that
expresses the level of particulate contamination of a hydraulic fluid. The standard is also used to specify
the required cleanliness level for hydraulic components and systems. ISO 4406 is a hydraulic cleanliness
rating system that is based on a number of contamination particles larger than 2 microns, 5 microns, and 15
microns in a 1-milliliter fluid sample. Once the number and size of the particles are determined, the points
are plotted on a standardized chart of ISO range numbers to convert the particle counts into an ISO 4406
rating. The ISO 4406 rating provides three range numbers that are separated by a slash, such as 16/14/12.
In this rating example, the first number 16 corresponds to the number of particles greater than 2 microns in
size; the second number 14 corresponds to the number of particles greater than 5 microns in size; and the
third number 12 corresponds to the number of particles greater than 15 microns in size. All three values
for applicable range numbers can be determined through the use of the ISO 4406 standardized chart based
on the actual number of particles counted within the 1-milliliter (ml) sample for each size category (>2, >5,
>15 microns). For example, if a 1-ml sample contained 6000 2-mm particles, 140 5-mm particles, and 28
15-mm particles, the fluid would have a cleanliness rating of 20/14/12. The number of 2-mm particles
(6000) falls in the range greater than 5000 but less than 10,000, which results in an ISO 4406 range
number of 20. The number of 5-m particles (140) falls in the range greater than 80 but less than 160,
which results in an ISO 4406 range number of 14. The number of 15-mm particles (28) falls in the range
greater than 20 but less than 40, which results in an ISO 4406 range number of 12.
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Table 12-10
Interpretation of Test Data and Recommended Action
Test Warning Limit Interpretation Action Steps
Total acid 0.1-0.5 mg KCH/g This represents above-normal deteri- Investigate cause. Increase frequency
No. (TAN) oration. Possible causes are anti- of testing; compare with RBOT data.
increase, over oxidant depletion or oil contamination. Consult with oil supplier for possible
new oil reinhibition.
Exceeds 0.5 mg Oil at or approaching end of service Look for signs of increased sediment on
KOH/g life: oil may be contaminated. filters and centrifuge. Check RBOT. If
RBOT less than 25 percent of original,
review status with oil supplier and
consider oil change. Increase test
frequency if left in system.
RBOT2 Less than half Above-normal degradation. Investigate cause. Increase frequency
value of original of testing.
oil
Less than 25 per- Together with high TAN, indicates oil Resample and retest. If same, change
cent of original at or approaching end of service life. oil and consider discarding the oil.
Water content Exceeds 0.2 percent Oil contaminated: potential water leak Investigate and remedy cause. Clean
system by centrifugation. If still
unsatisfactory, consider oil change or
consult oil supplier
Cleanliness Exceeds 0.01 Source of particulates may be make- Locate and eliminate source of particu-
percent volume, up oil, dust, or ash entering system. lates. Clean system oil by filtration or
particulates or wear condition in system. centrifugation, or both.
Rust test, Failure, light Possibilities: (a) the system is wet or Investigate cause and make necessary
Procedure A rusting dirty, or both, (b) the system is not maintenance and operating changes.
maintained properly (for example, Check rust test. Consult oil supplier
water drainage neglected, centrifuge regarding reinhibition if test result
not operating, or (c) additive depleted. unchanged.
Appearance Hazy Oil contains water or solids, or both. Investigate cause and remedy. Filter or
centrifuge oil, or both.
Color Unusual and This is indicative of contamination or Determine cause and rectify.
rapid darkening excessive degradation.
Viscosity 20 percent from Possibilities: oil is contaminated, or Determine cause. If viscosity is low,
original oil oil is severely degraded. determine flash point. Consult oil sup-
viscosity plier. Change oil, if necessary.
Flash point Drop 30E F Probably contamination. Determine cause. Check other quality
(-1E C) or more parameters. Consider oil change.
compared to new oil
Foam test Exceeds follow- Possibly contamination or antifoam Rectify cause. Check with oil supplier
ASTM D 892, ing limits: ten- depletion. In new turbines, residual regarding reinhibition. (Note: plant
Sequence 1 dency - 450, rust preventatives absorbed by oil problems are often mechanical in origin.)
stability - 10 may cause problem.
Typical TAN value for new oil is 0.1 to 0.3 mg KOH/g.
1
Typical RBOT value for new oil is 250 min.
2
Reference: Reprinted by permission of Noria Corporation, Tulsa, OK.
(2) Table 12-13 shows the desirable cleanliness levels for different types of systems and typical
applications rated by the system sensitivity, from noncritical systems through super-critical systems.
Table 12-14 shows the desired ISO cleanliness code for specific components in hydraulic and lubricating
systems.
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12-16
Table 12-11
Oil Analysis Data Interpretation and Problem Indication
Problem Area Analytical Indications Inspection/Sensory Indications
(a) (b)
Air entrainment Increased viscosity, TAN , water, and/or FTIR for Oil clouding/foaming, increase in oil gage
(c) (b)
oxidation temperature.
Silicon defoamant levels too high/low Spongy/slow hydraulics, cavitation of pump/bearing,
Blotter test: cokelike carbon on patch noisy operation.
Abrasive wear Increased silicon, aluminum, particle count, and/or Scratch marking or/polishing of frictional surfaces
conditions ferrous particles Cutting wear on blotter/patch/filter media
Water contamination Filter/breather/seal failure
Ferrogram has cutting wear, silica particles
Corrosive wear Increased TAN , particle count, spectrographic iron Fretting, pitting, and etching on contact surfaces
conditions & bearing metals, water Transient electric currents, high-engine blowby
(c)
Decrease in TBN Rust on patch or filter media
(d)
Ferrogram shows submicron debris at ferrogram tail,
rust particles, metal oxides
Failed filter Increasing silicon/aluminum, particle count, ferrous Valve silt lock, noisy bearings
particles, and/or elemental iron Unchanging or high delta P of filter
Ferrograms show green-looking particles, cutting Frequent bearing failures, high levels of bottom
wear, filter fibers sediment
Overheating Increasing ferrous particles, particle count, flash Bearing distress/failure
point, viscosity, or oil specific gravity Hot spots and high bearing metal temperature
Ferrograms show friction polymers, oxides, Evidence of coking/sludge
bluing/tempering of particles, sliding wear particles, Burn/rancid odor, high oil gage temperature
bearing particles, e.g., babbitt metal
Misalignment, Ferrograms densely loaded with black-iron oxides, Engine lugging/stalling, black exhaust
imbalance, dark metal oxides, severe cutting and sliding wear, Raised oil, bearing metal, or jacket-water
overloading tempered particles, large, chunky particles, or temperature
bearing metals Dark, foul-smelling oil, bearing distress/failure, hard
Increase in viscosity, TAN , particle count, and/or turning of shaft
(c)
ferrous particles Abnormal vibration, noise
Depletion of Zn and P Blotter test: coke, metal chips
Metal chips on filter, highly loaded chip detectors
Impending failure of Exponential increase in particle count and number of Shaft wobble, vibration, acoustic changes, blue
bearing, gear, pump, wear particle concentration exhaust smoke, hot spots, hard turning shaft,
etc. Increase in iron or bearing metals and/or high-bearing metal temperatures
Ferrogram shows rate increase in spheres, dark Patch/blotter shows coking
metal oxides, particle bluing, spalling/chunks, severe
sliding/galling particles, cutting wear
Wrong lubricant Change in viscosity, VI, flash point, additive Change in oil gage or bearing temperature
elements, FTIR specta, TAN /TBN Bearing distress or noise
(b) (c) (d)
Change in wear patterns Hard turning of shaft
Antioxidant depletion Decreasing TAN , RBOT oxidation life, and Zn/P Oil darkening
(c)
content Pungent odor
Increasing viscosity, TAN , particle count Hot running
(c)
FTIR: decreasing antioxidant, increasing oxidation,
sulphation, and/or nitration
(a) Not all of the identified indications would be expected for each problem area; (b) Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy;
(c) Total Acid Number; (d) Total Base Number; (e) Vapor-Induced Scintillation Analysis; (f) Karl Fischer.
Reference: Reprinted by permission of Noria Corporation, Tulsa, OK.
(Continued)
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Table 12-11 (Concluded)
Problem Area Analytical Indications Inspection/Sensory Indications
(a) (b)
Dispersancy failure FTIR , low TBN Filter inspection: sludge on media, filter in bypass
(b) (d)
Increasing particle count, pentane insolubles Black exhaust smoke
Defined inner spot on blotter test Deposits on rings and valves
Base oil deterioration Increasing viscosity, TAN , particle count, and/or Poor oil/water separability
(c)
ferrous particles Air entrainment/foaming
Decreasing TBN Pungent odor, sludge/varnish formation
(d)
Change in VI and lower dielectric strength Blotter spot yellow/brown, oil darkening
Water contamination Increasing viscosity, TAN , Ca, Ma, and/or Na Oil clouding/opacity, water puddling/separating,
(c)
Rapid additive depletion/failure sludging, foaming
Crackle test, VISA , KF , FTIR Evidence of fretting wear/corrosion
(e) (f) (b)
Reduced dielectric strength Filter: paper is wavy, high-pressure drop, short life;
Blotter test: sharp or star burst periphery on inner ferrogram shows rust
spot Valve sticking, orifice silting, bearing
distress/failure, noisy pump/bearings
Coolant Increasing viscosity, copper, particle count, wear Bearings dark charcoal color, distressed
contamination metal, Na, B, and/or K Dispersancy failure, sludging, varnishing
FTIR , glycol Blotter test: sticky, black center
(b)
Crackle test, VISA , KF Filter plugs prematurely, oil has mayonnaise
(e) (f)
consistency, white exhaust smoke
Fuel dilution Low oil viscosity, flash point Rising oil levels and oil gage temperatures
Additive and wear metal dilution (elemental analysis) Blotter test: halo around center spot
FTIR /gas chromatography for fuel Blue exhaust smoke (collapsed rings), plugged air
(b
Rising particle count and wear metals filter, defective injectors
Oil has diesel odor, overfueling conditions
(3) However, for most lubricating systems filter or purify oil periodically as dictated by the results of
the oil testing program. Water is the most common contaminant found in hydroelectric plants, and its
presence in oil may promote oxidation, corrosion, sludge formation, foaming, additive depletion, and
generally reduce a lubricant's effectiveness. Solid contaminants such as dirt, dust, or wear particles also
may be present. These solid particles may increase wear, and promote sludge formation, foaming, and
restrict oil flow within the system. The following are some of the most common methods used to remove
contaminants from oil.
b. Gravity purification. Gravity purification is the separation or settling of contaminants that are
heavier than the oil. Gravity separation occurs while oil is in storage but is usually not considered an
adequate means of purification for most applications. Other purification methods should also be used in
addition to gravity separation.
c. Centrifugal purification. Centrifugal purification is gravity separation accelerated by the centrif-
ugal forces developed by rotating the oil at high speed. Centrifugal purification is an effective means of
removing water and most solid contaminants from the oil. The rate of purification depends on the viscosity
of the oil in a container and the size of the contaminants.
d. Mechanical filtration. Mechanical filtration removes contaminants by forcing the oil through a
filter medium with holes smaller than the contaminants. Mechanical filters with fine filtration media can
remove particles as small as 1 micron, but filtration under 5 microns is not recommended because
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12-18
Table 12-12
ISO 4406 Range Numbers
Number of Particles per Milliliter
Greater Than Less Than ISO 4406 Range Number
80,000 160,000 24
40,000 80,000 23
20,000 40,000 22
10,000 20,000 21
5,000 10,000 20
2,500 5,000 19
1,300 2,500 18
640 1,300 17
320 640 16
160 320 15
80 160 14
40 80 13
20 40 12
10 20 11
5 10 10
2.5 5 9
1.3 2.5 8
0.64 1.3 7
0.32 0.64 6
0.16 0.32 5
0.08 0.16 4
0.04 0.08 3
0.02 0.04 2
0.01 0.02 1
Reference: Contamination Control and Filtration Fundamentals, Pall Corporation, Glen Cove, NY.
many of the oil additives will be removed. A typical mechanical filter for turbine oil would use a 6- to
10-micron filter. The filter media will require periodic replacement as the contaminants collect on the
medium's surface. Filters have absolute, beta, and nominal ratings as follows:
(1) Absolute rating. Absolute rating means that no particles greater than a certain size will pass
through the filter and is based on the maximum pore size of the filtering medium.
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Table 12-13
Desirable Fluid System Cleanliness Levels
ISO Contaminations System
Code Sensitivity Types of Systems and Typical Applications
15/13/9 Supercritical Silt-sensitive control system with very high reliability. Laboratory apparatus,
aerospace systems.
17/15/11 Critical High-performance servo and high-pressure long-life systems, e.g., aircraft,
machine tools, industrial robots.
19/16/13 Very important High-quality reliable systems, e.g., turbo machinery (steam, gas, hydro), lube and
electro-hydraulic controls, general machine requirements.
20/18/14 Important General machinery and mobile hydraulic systems. Medium pressure, medium
capacity. Acceptable in-service oil quality for steam turbines without lift pumps.
21/19/15 Average Low oil pressure heavy-duty industrial system and construction equipment or
applications where long life is not critical, e.g., winches, mobile heavy equipment
transmissions.
23/21/17 Noncritical Low-pressure systems with large clearances, e.g., ships elevators.
Reference: Contamination Control and Filtration Fundamentals, Pall Corporation, Glen Cove, NY.
(2) Beta rating. The beta rating or beta ratio is a filter-rating expressed as the ratio of the number of
upstream particles to the number of downstream particles of a particular size or larger. It expresses the
separating effectiveness of a filter. The beta ratio counts the results from the multipass beta test for
filters, ANSI/(NFPA) T3.10.8.8, and ISO 4572, Hydraulic Fluid Power - Filters - Multi-Pass Method for
Evaluating Filtration Performance.
(3) Nominal rating. Nominal rating is not an industry standard but an arbitrary value assigned by the
filter manufacturer and means that a filter stops most particles of a certain micron size. Due to its
imprecision, filter selection by nominal rating could lead to system contamination and component failure.
e. Coalescence purification. A coalescing filter system uses special cartridges to combine small,
dispersed water droplets into larger drops. The larger water drops are retained within a separator screen
and fall to the bottom of the filter while the dry oil passes through the screen. A coalescing filter will also
remove solid contaminants by mechanical filtration.
f. Vacuum dehydration. A vacuum dehydration system removes water from oil through the ap-
plication of heat and vacuum. The contaminated oil is exposed to a vacuum and is heated to temperatures
of approximately 38 EC to 60 EC (100 EF to 140 EF). The water is removed as a vapor. Care must be
exercised to ensure that desirable low-vapor-pressure components and additives are not removed by the
heat or vacuum.
g. Adsorption purification. Adsorption or surface-attraction purification uses an active-type
medium such as fullers earth to remove oil oxidation products by their attraction or adherence to the large
internal surfaces of the media. Because adsorption purification will also remove most of an oils additives,
this method should not be used for turbine oil purification.
h. Filter system. A system consisting of a vacuum purifier to remove the water, a centrifuge to
remove large solid particles, and a 10-micron filter to remove the finer solid particles is the most desirable
EM 1110-2-1424
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12-20
Table 12-14
System Cleanliness Level Guidelines
Hydraulic System
Servo Valve A B C D E
Proportional Valve A B C D E
VariableVolume Pump A B C D E
Cartridge Valve A B C D E
Fixed Piston Pump A B C D E
Vane Pump A B C D E
Pressure/Flow Control A B C D E
Valve
Solenoid Valve A B C D E
Gear Pump A B C D E
Lubrication System
Ball Bearings A B C D E
Roller Bearings A B C D E
Journal Bearings A B C D E
Gear Box (Industrial) A B C D E
Gear Box (Mobile) A B C D E
Diesel Engine A B C D
Cleanliness Level 12/10/7 13/11/9 14/12/10 15/13/11 16/14/12 17/15/12 17/16/13 18/16/14 19/17/14
(PCC)
Hydraulic system pressure (kPa) range- C > 172,500, D 10,350 to 17,250, E < 10,350
Lubrication system: Pressure ranges do not apply. Start at midrange C and adjust per following guidelines:
To determine system cleanliness level:
1. Starting at the top of the system component list. Find the first item used in hydraulic or lubrication system.
2. Locate box to the right of selected component, which corresponds to the operating pressure range.
3. Recommended cleanliness level is given at the bottom of each column that the box falls into.
4. Shift one column to the left if any of the following factors apply:
a. System is critical to maintaining production schedules.
b. High cycle/severe duty application.
c. Water-containing hydraulic fluid is used.
d. System is expected to be in service more than seven years.
e. System failure can create a safety concern
5. Shift two columns to the left if two or more factors apply.
6. For lubrication systems, shift one column to the right if operating viscosity is greater than 500 SUS.
7. For flushing, shift one to two columns to the left.
Reference: Contamination Control and Filtration Fundamentals, Pall Corporation, Glen Cove, NY
system. The vacuum purifier should be specified as being suitable for the lubricating oil. The ability of a
filter system to remove water is especially important to prevent microbial contamination in lubricants and
hydraulic fluids. However, this type of system alone may not be sufficient. Introduction of biocides may
be necessary to minimize the chemical reaction byproducts and contamination due to microbes.
i. Location and purpose of filters. Table 12-15 provides information on the location and purpose of
filters. Table 12-16 lists various types of filters and the range of particle sizes filtered by each.
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12-21
Table 12-15
Location and Purpose of Filter in Circuit
Location Degree of Filtration Type Purpose
Oil reservoir vent Coarse Wire wool Removal of airborne contaminant
Paper
Oil bath
Oil reservoir filler Coarse Gauze Prevention of ingress of coarse solids
Suction side of pump Medium Paper Protection of pump
Gauze
Delivery side of pump Fine Sintered metal Protection of bearings/system
Felt
Paper
Return line to reservoir Medium Gauze Prevention of ingress of wear products
Paper to reservoir
Separate from system Very fine Centrifuge Bulk cleaning of whole volume of
lubricant
Reference: Neale, M.J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England.
Table 12-16
Range of Particle Sizes That Can be Removed by Various Filtration Methods
Filtration Method Examples Micrometers (m)
Range of Minimum Particle Size Trapped
Solid fabrications Scalloped washers, wire-wound tubes 5-200
Rigid porous media Ceramics and stoneware 1-100
Sintered metal 3-100
Metal sheets Perforated 100-1000
Woven wire 5-200
Porous plastics Plastic pads, sheets, etc. 3-100
Membranes 0.005-5
Woven fabrics Cloths of natural and synthetic fibers 10-200
Cartridges Yarn-wound spools, graded fibers 2-100
Nonwoven sheets Felts, lap, etc. 10-200
Paper - cellulose 5-200
- glass 2-100
Sheets and mats 0.5-5
Forces Gravity settling, cyclones, centrifuges Sub-micrometer
Reference: Neale, M.J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England.
12-11. Oil Operating Temperature
The recommended oil operating temperature range for a particular application is usually specified by the
equipment manufacturer. Exceeding the recommended range may reduce the oil's viscosity, resulting in
inadequate lubrication. Subjecting oil to high temperatures also increases the oxidation rate. As previously
noted, for every 18 EF (10 EC) above 150 EF (66 EC), an oil's oxidation rate doubles and the oils life is
EM 1110-2-1424
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12-22
Figure 12-1. Temperature limits for mineral oils (Reference: Neale, M.J., Lubrication: A Tribology
Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England)
essentially cut in half. Longevity is especially critical for turbines in hydroelectric generating units where
the oil life expectancy is several years. Ideally the oil should operate between 50 EC and 60 EC (120 EF
and 140 EF). Consistent operation above this range may indicate a problem such as misalignment or tight
bearings. Adverse conditions of this nature should be verified and corrected. Furthermore, when operating
at higher temperatures, the oil's neutralization (acid) number should be checked more frequently than
dictated by normal operating temperatures. An increase in the neutralization number indicates that the
oxidation inhibitors have been consumed and the oil is beginning to oxidize. The lubricant manufacturer
should be contacted for recommendations on the continued use of the oil when the operating temperatures
for a specific lubricant are unknown. Figures 12-1 through 12-3 show relationships between hours of
operation and temperature for mineral and synthetic oils and greases. Figure 12-4 shows base oil
temperatures for mineral and synthetic lubricants. Figure 12-5 shows usable temperature range for
greases. Table 12-17 shows pour point temperatures for mineral and synthetic lubricants. Table 12-18
shows practical high-temperature limits for solid lubricants.
12-12. Lubricant Storage and Handling
Lubricants are frequently purchased in large quantities and must be safely stored. The amount of material
stored should be minimized to reduce the potential for contamination, deterioration, and health and
explosion hazards associated with lubricant storage. Table 12-19 identifies the causes of lubricant
deterioration and prevention during storage. Although lubricant storage receives due attention, equipment
that has received a lubricant coating and stored is frequently forgotten. Stored equipment should be
inspected on a periodic basis to ensure that damage is not occurring. Table 12-20 lists recommended
frequency of inspection for stored equipment. Table 12-21 provides inspection and relubrication
recommendations for equipment in storage.
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12-23
Figure 12-2. Temperature limits for some synthetic oils (Reference: Neale, M.J., Lubrication: A Tribology
Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England)
Figure 12-3. Temperature limits for greases (Reference: Neale, M.J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook.
Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England)
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12-24
12-4. Base oil temperature limits (Reference: Booser, R.E., Reprinted with
permission from CRC Handbook of Lubrication (Theory and Practice of Tribology);
Volume II Theory and Design, Copyright CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida)
Figure 12-5. Usable temperature range for
greases (Reference: Neale, M.J., Lubrication: A
Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann
Ltd., Oxford, England)
Table 12-17
Lubricant Pour Point Temperatures
Type of Lubricant Pour Point, E E C (E EF)
Mineral oil -57 (min.) (-70.6)
Diester -60 (-76.0)
Phosphate ester -57 (-70.6)
Silicate ester -65 (-85.0)
Di-siloxane -70 (-94.0)
Silicone -70 (-94.0)
Polyphenyl-ether -70 (-94.0)
Perfluorinated polyether -75 to -90 (-103 to -130)
Reference: Neale, M.J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England
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Table 12-18
Temperature Limitations of Solid Lubricants
Example Limit, E E C* (E EF) Common Usages
Practical Temperature
1. Boundary lubricants and Metal soap (e.g., stearate) 150 (302) Metal cutting, drawing, and
extreme pressure additives Chloride (as Fe Cl ) 300 (572) shaping; Highly-loaded gears
(surface active) Sulphide (as FeS) 750 (1382)
3
Phthalocyanine (with Cu and Fe) 550 (1022) Antiseizure
2. Lamellar solids and/or low Graphite 600 (1112) General, metal working,
shear strength solids Molybdenum disulphide 350 (662) antiseizure, and antiscuffing
Tungsten disulphide 500 (932)
Lead monoxide 650 (1202)
Calcium fluoride 1000 (1832)
Vermiculite 900 (1652) Antiseizure
PTFE 250 (482) Low friction as bonded film or
reinforced composite
* The limit refers to use in air or other oxidizing atmospheres.
Bonded with silica to retard oxidation.
Reference: Neale, M.J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England.
a. Oil. Oil is stored in active oil reservoirs, where it is drawn as needed, and in oil drums for
replenishing used stock. Each mode has its own storage requirements.
(1) Filtered and unfiltered oil tanks. Most hydroelectric power plants use bulk oil storage systems
consisting of filtered (clean) and unfiltered (dirty) oil tanks to store the oil for the thrust bearings, guide
bearings, and governors. Occasionally the filtered oil tank can become contaminated by water condensa-
tion, dust, or dirt. To prevent contamination of the bearing or governor oil reservoirs, the filtered oil should
be filtered again during transfer to the bearing or governor reservoir. If this is not possible, the oil from the
filtered tank should be transferred to the unfiltered oil tank to remove any settled contaminants. The
filtered oil storage tank should be periodically drained and thoroughly cleaned. If the area where the
storage tanks are located is dusty, a filter should be installed in the vent line. If water contamination is
persistent or excessive, a water absorbent filter, such as silica gel, may be required.
(2) Oil drums. If possible, oil drums should be stored indoors. Store away from sparks, flames, and
extreme heat. The storage location must ensure that the proper temperature, ventilation, and fire protection
requirements are maintained. Tight oil drums breathe in response to temperature fluctuations, so standing
water on the lid may be drawn into the drum as it inhales. Proper storage is especially important when
storing hydraulic fluids due to their hygroscopic nature. To prevent water contamination, place a convex
lid over drums stored outdoors. Alternatively, the drums should be set on their side with the bungs parallel
to the ground. The bungs on the drums should be tightly closed except when oil is being drawn out. If a
tap or pump is installed on the drum, the outlet should be wiped clean after drawing oil to prevent dust
from collecting.
b. Grease. Grease should be stored in a tightly sealed container to prevent dust, moisture, or other
contamination. Excessive heat may cause the grease to bleed and oxidize. Store grease in clean areas
where it will not be exposed to potential contaminants, and away from excessive heat sources such as
furnaces or heaters. The characteristics of some greases may change with time. A grease may bleed,
change consistency, or pick up contaminants during storage. To reduce the risk of contamination, the
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Table 12-19
Causes of Lubricant Deterioration and Their Prevention
Cause Components Affected Effect Prevention
ATMOSPHERIC Forms gums, resins, and acidic products Use lubricant containing
Oxygen Lubricants with viscosity increase. antioxidation additive. Keep in
sealed containers.
Engines and components When moisture is present, causes corrosion, Coat with lubricant or
particularly to ferrous components. temporary protective. Wrap in
airtight packages using vapor
phase inhibitors. In sealed
units, include desiccants.
Cables and wires Corrosion in the presence of water. Coat with lubricant or
temporary protective.
Seals Promotes slow cracking of natural rubber Use of a different polymer. Do
and some similar materials. Negligible not store in a hot place.
normally at ambient temperatures.
Pollutants
(e.g., sulphur dioxide, Engines and components Rapid corrosion of most metals. Store in sealed containers.
hydrogen sulphide) Cables and wires Coat metals with temporary
Dust and Dirt
Brakes and clutches protective or lubricant. Filter
air supply to remove
pollutants.
Lubricants Increased rate of wear between bearing Keep covered or in containers.
surfaces.
Engines and components Increased rate of wear between bearing
Cables and wires surfaces. Promotes corrosion in the Keep covered or in containers
Brakes and clutches presence of moisture
TEMPERATURE
Heat Lubricants Increases rate of deterioration as under
Cold
Seals Increases deterioration rate as above.
Oxygen. Will increase oil separation from Keep store temperature no
greases. higher than 20E C (68 EF)
Lubricants In water-containing materials (e.g., cutting Keep temperature above
oils and certain fire-resisting hydraulic oils) freezing point
water could separate out.
HUMIDITY Seals Could become brittle.
Engines and components Promotes corrosion. More severe when Coat metal parts with lubricant
Cables and wires ferrous and nonferrous metals present. See or temporary protective.
Oxygen.
Brakes and clutches
Belts and ropes Promotes fungus/bacterial growth. Store in dry location.
Seals
LIGHT Lubricants Promotes formation of gums, resins, and Store in metal or opaque
acidity. containers.
FUNGI/BACTERIA Lubricants Growth occurs at water/oil interface. Keep water out of containers.
In certain cases, biocides and
fungicides can be added.
Brakes and clutches Surface covered and attacked by mold Store in dry location. Treat
Belts and ropes growth. with biocide and fungicide.
Seals
VIBRATION Engines and components Ball bearings, and to a lesser extent roller Do not store where there is
bearings, suffer false brinelling. vibration. Resilient mountings
can reduce effects of
vibration.
Reference: Neale, M.J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England.
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Table 12-20
Frequency of Inspection
Component How Stored Inspect
Lubricants Bulk tanks Each year, and when refilled.
Sealed containers Check annually for damage to containers. Limited tests
for serviceability of contents after
3 years.
Engines and components General storage Annually. Hand-turn engines where possible.
Packaged or sealed containers Two to four years.
Cables and wires
Brakes and clutches General storage Visual inspection annually.
Belts and seals
Ropes General storage Turn annually and test to destruction
Rot proofed Every 4 years
Untreated Every 2 years
Synthetic fiber Every 4 years
Reference: Neale, M.J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England.
Table 12-21
Relubrication and Reprotection
Component How Stored Inspection and Treatment
In general:
Engines and components Coated with lubricant or temporary Recoat annually. Lubricate when brought
protective into use.
Packaged or sealed containers Replace VPI, desiccants, or lubricant
every 2 to 4 years.
Special items:
Grease-packed ball and roller bearing After prolonged or adverse storage, or if Before use, clean out old grease with
Oil-impregnated porous metal bearings After prolonged or adverse storage Before use soak in warm oil of the same
Small mechanisms in their own cases, Coated with lubricant Relubricate every 4 years.
e.g., watches, servos
Small mechanisms and components, e.g., These will require specialized cleaning
gas bearings, watch components and lubrication before being brought into
Cables and wires Replace every 2 to 3 years.
oil bleeding has occurred solvent,* remove surplus solvent, and
replace with new grease.
type as originally impregnated.
use.
* For example, paraffin, trichlorethylene.
Note: Traces of chlorinated solvents such as trichlorethylene, particularly in the presence of moisture, can cause corrosion of most
metals. Therefore, after cleaning with chlorinated solvents all traces should be removed, ideally by blowing with warm dry air.
Reference: Neale, M.J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England
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amount of grease in storage should not exceed a one-year supply. Before purchasing grease supplies, the
manufacturer or distributor should be consulted for information about the maximum shelf life and other
storage requirements for the specific grease.
12-13. Safety and Health Hazards
Safety considerations related to lubricants include knowledge of handling and the potential hazards. With
this information, the necessary precautions can be addressed to minimize the risk to personnel and
equipment.
a. Material safety data sheets. When handled properly, most lubricants are safe, but when handled
improperly, some hazards may exist. Occupational Safety and Health Administrtion (OSHA) Communi-
cation Standard 29 CFR 1910.1200 requires that lubricant distributors provide a Material Safety Data
Sheet (MSDS) at the time lubricants are purchased. The MSDS provides essential information on the
potential hazards associated with a specific lubricant and should be readily accessible to all personnel
responsible for handling lubricants. The lubricant's MSDS should provide information on any hazardous
ingredients, physical and chemical characteristics, fire and explosion data, health hazards, and precautions
for safe use.
b. Fire, explosion, and health hazards
(1) Oils. Although lubricating oils are not highly flammable, there are many documented cases of fires
and explosions. The risk of an explosion depends on the spontaneous ignition conditions for the oil vapors
(see Figures 12-6 and 12-7). These conditions can be produced when oils are contained in enclosures such
as crankcases, reciprocating compressors, and large gear boxes.
(2) Hydraulic fluids. Hydraulic systems are susceptible to explosion hazards. A leaking hose under
high pressure can atomize hydraulic fluid, which can ignite if it contacts a hot surface. Use of fire-resistant
hydraulic fluids significantly reduces the risk of an explosion. Use of water-based hydraulic fluids can
prevent ignition by forming a steam blanket at the hot spot or ignition source. Synthetic fluids are less
flammable than mineral oils. Under normal circumstances, synthetic fluid will not support combustion
once the ignition source has been removed. Table 12-22 summarizes the properties of water-based and
synthetic hydraulic fluids and notes special precautions that must be taken when they are used.
(3) Health hazards. Lubricants also present health hazards when in contact with skin. Health hazards
associated with lubricants include :
! Toxicity--Some additives contained in mineral oils may be toxic.
! Dermatitis--May be caused by prolonged contact with neat or soluble cutting oil.
! Acne--Mainly caused by neat cutting and grinding oils.
! Cancer--May be caused by some mineral oil constituents.
Material Safety Data Sheets for products should be reviewed carefully by personnel to ensure that the
proper handling procedures are used.
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Figure 12-6. Spontaneous ignition limits for mineral oil
vapor air mixtures at atmospheric pressure (Reference:
Neale, M. J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook.
Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England)
Figure 12-7. Spontaneous ignition limits for 12% mineral
oil vapor as a function of pressure (Reference: Neale, M.
J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-
Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England)
12-14. Environmental Regulations
a. Development of environmental regulations.
(1) Legislation passed by Congress is termed an Act of Congress. The responsibility for developing
rules or regulations to implement the requirements of the Acts is given to various agencies of the Federal
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Table 12-22
Fire-Resistant Hydraulic Fluids
Water-containing Fluids Synthetic Fluids
Soluble-oil Water-in-oil Water-glycol Chlorinated
Emulsions Emulsions Blends (45% Hydrocarbon
(2% Oil) (40% Water) Water) Phosphate Blends
Esters
Phosphate-ester
Maximum system
temperature, E EC (E EF) 65 (149) 65 (149) 65 (149) 100 (212) 100 (212)
Restrictions on materials
used in normal oil systems:
(I) Internal paints
(ii) Rubber seals
(iii) Materials of
construction
None
None None Normally no Special seals Special seals
None None Avoid magnesium, Avoid aluminum Avoid aluminum
None Special paints
required required required
problem required required
zinc, and cadmium rubbing contacts rubbing contacts
plating
Special paints Special paints
Lubrication:
(I) Rolling bearings - apply
factor to load for design
calculations
(ii) Gear
Not suitable
Not recom- Limit pressure Limit pressure to Satisfactory Satisfactory
mended to 3.5 MN/m 3.5 MN/m (500
2.0
2
(500 lbf/in ) lbf/in )
2
2.5
2
2
1.2 1.2
Maintenance --- Water content Water content Should be kept dry Should be kept dry
must be must be
maintained* maintained
Cost relative to mineral oil --- 1.5-2 4-5 5-7 7-9
* Some separation of water droplets may occur on standing. The emulsion can, however, be readily restored by agitation. Care must
be taken to avoid contamination by water-glycol or phosphate-ester fluids as these will cause permanent breakdown of the emulsion.
Reference: Neale, M.J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England.
Government such as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The proposed regulations developed by
these agencies are published daily in the Federal Register. After publication, the public is permitted to
review and comment on the proposed regulations. All comments are evaluated after the specified review
time (30 days, 60 days, etc.) has passed. The comments may or may not result in changes to the proposed
regulations, which are published in the Federal Register as the final rules.
(2) The final rules from the Federal Register are compiled annually in the Code of Federal Regulations
(CFR). The CFR is divided into 50 titles, numbered 1 through 50, which represent broad areas subject to
Federal regulation. Title 40, Protection of the Environment contains regulations for the protection of the
environment. References to the CFR are made throughout this subchapter. Copies of the CFR are not
appended to this manual but can be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402.
(3) The general format for identifying a specific regulation in the CFR involves the use of a
combination of numbers and letters. For example, 40 CFR 112.20, "Facility Response Plans, indicates
that the regulation is found in Title 40 of the CFR. It is further identified as Part 112. A part covers a
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specific regulatory area, and can range in length from a few sentences to hundreds of pages. The number
20 that follows the decimal point indicates a given section where the specific information is found. A
section also may range in length from a few sentences to many pages. Although not shown in this example,
the section number may be followed by a series of letters and numbers in parentheses to further identify
individual paragraphs.
(4) The regulations discussed in this subchapter are current at the time (1997) of writing. However,
new regulations are being proposed and promulgated continuously. In addition, state or local regulations
may be more restrictive than the Federal regulations, and must be reviewed carefully.
b. Water quality regulations. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has developed water
pollution regulations under legal authority of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, also known as the
Clean Water Act. These regulations are found in 40 CFR Subchapter D, Water Programs, and
encompass Parts 100 through 149. Prominent parts of the regulation addressing oil pollution of the water
are 40 CFR 110 Discharge of Oil; 40 CFR 112 Oil Pollution Prevention; and 40 CFR 113, Liability
Limits for Small Onshore Storage Facilities.
(1) Reportable oil discharge. 40 CFR 110 requires the person in charge of a facility that discharges
harmful oil to report the spill to the National Response Center (800-424-8802). The criteria for
harmful oil discharges are:
(a) Discharges that violate applicable water quality standards.
(b) Discharges that cause a film or sheen upon or discoloration of the surface of the water or adjoining
shorelines. Sheen means an iridescent appearance on the surface of the water.
(c) Discharges that cause a sludge or emulsion to be deposited beneath the surface of the water or
adjoining shorelines.
(2) Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasures (SPCC) Plan. 40 CFR 112 requires regulated
facilities that which have discharged or could reasonably discharge harmful oil into navigable U.S. waters
or adjoining shorelines to prepare and implement a Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasures Plan.
The regulation applies to nontransportation related facilities provided:
! The facilitys total above-ground oil storage capacity is greater than 5000 liters (1320 gallons), or
the above-ground storage capacity of a single container is in excess of 2500 liters (660 gallons), or
the total underground storage capacity of the facility is greater than 160,000 liters
(42,000 gallons).
! Facilities which, due to their location, could reasonably expect spilled oil to reach U.S. waters.
(a) General requirements. 40 CFR 112.7 provides guidelines for preparing and implementing an
SPCC plan. The SPCC plan is to follow the sequence outlined in the section and includes a discussion of
the facilitys conformance with the appropriate guidelines. Basic principles to embody in an SPCC plan
are:
! Practices devoted to the prevention of oil spills such as plans to minimize operational errors and
equipment failures that are the major causes of spills. Operational errors can be minimized by
training personnel in proper operating procedures, and increasing operator awareness of the
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imperative nature of spill prevention. Equipment failures can be minimized through proper
construction, preventive maintenance, and frequent inspections.
! Plans to contain or divert spills or use equipment to prevent discharged oil from reaching navigable
waters. When it is impracticable to implement spill containment measures, the facility must
develop and incorporate a spill contingency plan into the SPCC plan.
! Plans to remove and dispose of spilled oil.
(b) Specific requirements
! Time limits. Prepare the SPCC within 6 months from startup. Implement the plan within
12 months from startup, including carrying out spill prevention and containment measures.
Extensions may be authorized due to nonavailability of qualified personnel or delay in construction
or equipment delivery beyond the control of the owner or operator. (40 CFR 112.3)
! Certification. A registered professional engineer must certify the SPCC and amendments. (40 CFR
112.3)
! Plan availability. Maintain a complete copy of the SPCC at an attended facility or at the nearest
field office if the facility is not attended at least 8 hours per day. (40 CFR 112.3)
! Training. Conduct employee training on applicable pollution control laws, rules and regulations,
proper equipment operation and maintenance to prevent oil discharge, and conduct spill prevention
briefings to assure adequate understanding of the contents of the SPCC plan. (40 CFR 112.7)
! Plan review. Review the SPCC at least once every three years. (40 CFR 112.5)
! Amendments. Certified amendments to the SPCC are required when:
! The EPA Regional Administrator requires amendment after a facility has discharged more than
3785 liters (1000 gallons) of oil into navigable waters in a single spill event or discharged oil
in harmful quantities into navigable waters in two spill events within any 12-month period. (40
CFR 112.4)
! There is a change in design, construction, operation, or maintenance that affects the potential
for an oil spill. (40 CFR 112.5)
! The required 3-year review indicates more effective field proven prevention and control
technology will significantly reduce the likelihood of a spill. (40 CFR 112.5)
(3) Facility response plans. 40 CFR 112.20 requires facility response plans to be prepared and
implemented if a facility, because of its location, could reasonably be expected to cause substantial harm to
the environment by discharging oil into or on navigable waters or adjoining shorelines. This regulation
applies to facilities that transfer oil over water to or from vessels and have a total oil storage capacity
greater than 160,000 liters (42,000 gallons), or the facilitys total oil storage capacity is at least
3.78 million liters (1 million gallons) with conditions. Most Corps of Engineers civil works facilities do not
fall under these categories.
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(4) Liability limits. 40 CFR 113 establishes size classifications and associated liability limits for small
onshore oil storage facilities with fixed capacity of 160,000 liters (1000 barrels, or 42,000 gallons) or less
that discharge oil into U.S. waters and removal of the discharge is performed by the U.S. Government.
Unless the oil discharge was a result of willful negligence or willful misconduct, the table in 40 CFR 113.4
limits liability as follows:
(a) Above-ground storage.
Size Class Capacity (barrels) Limit (dollars)
I Up to 10 4,000
II 11 to 170 60,000
III 171 to 500 150,000
IV 501 to 1,000 200,000
(b) Underground storage.
Size Class Capacity (barrels) Limit (dollars)
I Up to 10 5,200
II 11 to 170 78,000
III 171 to 500 195,000
IV 501 to 1,000 260,000
c. Soil quality regulations. Regulations regarding oil contamination of soil vary from state to state.
State and local laws and regulations should be reviewed for guidelines on preventing and handling soil
contamination from oil spills.
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Chapter 13
Lubricant Specifications and Selection
13-1. Introduction
Proper selection of a lubricant depends on understanding the lubricating regime (i.e., film, mixed,
boundary), established conventions of classifications, and an ability to interpret and apply the producers
product data specifications to the equipment. Without this background, it is impossible to make an
informed selection or substitution.
13-2. Lubricant Classification
Professional societies and organizations have established classifications for oil and grease. The most
widely encountered systems are those of the following organizations:
! SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers)
! API (American Petroleum Institute)
! AGMA (American Gear Manufacturers Association),
! ISO (International Standards Organization)
! NLGI (National Lubricating Grease Institute).
a. Oil classification. Oil is normally classified by viscosity grade, additives, use, or by the producer's
brand name. Some oils are classified as nonspecialized industrial oils.
(1) Classification by viscosity grade. Classification according to viscosity is the most prevalent
method of describing oils, and the most common classification systems are those of the SAE, AGMA, and
ISO. Each organization uses a different kinematic viscosity range numbering system.
(2) Classification by additives.
(a) Oil may be further classified according to the additives included in the oil to enhance its
performance properties as follows:
! Inhibited or RO (rust and oxidation inhibited)
! AW (antiwear)
! EP (extreme pressure)
! Compounded
! Residual.
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The first three classes are discussed throughout this manual and require no further explanation; they
contain the indicated additives. Compounded oil contains from 3 to 10 percent fatty or synthetic fatty oils.
It is also called steam cylinder oil. The added fat reduces the coefficient of friction in situations where an
extreme amount of sliding friction occurs. A very common application is in worm gear systems. Com-
pounded oil may be composed of either a normal mineral oil or a residual oil, depending on the desired
viscosity.
(b) Residual compounds are heavy-grade straight mineral oils or EP oils. These compounds are
normally mixed with a diluent to increase ease of application. After application, the diluent evaporates,
leaving a heavy adhesive lubricant coating. Residuals are often used for open-gear applications where
tackiness is required to increase adhesion. This type of heavy oil should not be confused with grease.
Residual oil with lower viscosity is also used in many closed-gear systems. Compounded oil may contain
residual oil if the desired viscosity is high.
(3) Classification according to use. This system of classification arises because refining additives and
type of petroleum (paraffinic or naphthenic) may be varied to provide desirable qualities for a given
application. Some of the more common uses are:
! Compressor oils (air, refrigerant).
! Engine oils (automotive, aircraft, marine, commercial).
! Quench oils (used in metal working).
! Cutting oils (coolants for metal cutting).
! Turbine oils.
! Gear oils.
! Insulating oils (transformers and circuit breakers).
! Way oils.
! Wire rope lubricants.
! Chain lubricants.
! Hydraulic oils.
(4) Nonspecialized industrial oil. This classification includes oils that are not formulated for a specific
application and are frequently referred to as general purpose oil in the manufacturers product literature.
These oils are generally divided into two categories: general purpose and EP gear oils.
(a) General purpose oils. General purpose oils contain R&O additives, AW agents, antifoamants, and
demulsifiers. They may be used in mechanical applications where a specialized oil is not required. Their
ISO viscosity ranges from about 32 to around 460. These oils are often referred to as R&O oils or
hydraulic oils although they may contain other additives and are not intended exclusively for hydraulic use.
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Some of these oils are more highly refined and provide longer life and better performance than others.
These are usually referred to as turbine oils or premium grades. Although used in turbines, the name
turbine oil does not mean their use is restricted to turbines, but refers to the quality of the oil.
(b) EP gear oils. These oils generally have a higher viscosity range, from about ISO grade 68 to
around 1500, and may be regarded as general purpose oils with EP additives. Although commonly used in
gear systems, these oils can be used in any application where their viscosity range and additives are
required. Gear oils should not be confused with SAE gear oils that are specially formulated for automotive
applications; automotive oils are not discussed in this manual.
(5) Producer brand names. Oil producers often identify their products by names that may or may not
be connected with standard classifications. For example, a name such as Jo-Lube 1525, a product of Jonell
Oil, tells nothing of its class. However, Conoco's Dectol R&O Oil 32 indicates that it is an R&O oil with
an ISO viscosity of 32. Regardless of how much information may be implied by the brand name, it is
insufficient to select a lubricant. A user must refer to the producers information brochures to determine
the intended use, additives, and specifications.
(6) Oil producers product data and specifications
(a) Product data. Oil producers publish product information in brochures, pamphlets, handbooks, or
on the product container or packaging. Although the amount of information varies, it generally includes the
intended use, the additives (AW, EP, R&O, etc.), oil type (i.e., paraffinic, naphthenic, synthetic,
compounded, etc.), and the specifications. Some producers may identify the product by its usage
classification such as those noted above, or they may simply note the machinery class where the product
can be used. Often, both methods of identification are used. Intended use designations can be misleading.
For example, fact sheets for three different oils by the same producer indicate that the oils can be used for
electric motors and general purpose applications. However, all three are not suitable for every application
of this equipment. One oil contains no oxidation inhibitors and is intended for use where the oil is
frequently replaced. The second is an R&O oil with the usual antifoaming and demulsifying agents. AW
agents are also included. The third is a turbine oil similar to the second except that the refining method and
additive package provide greater protection. One turbine viscosity grade, ISO 32, is treated to resist the
effects of hydrogen used as a coolant in generators. Failure to notice these differences when evaluating the
data can lead to incorrect application of these lubricants. Producers do not usually list additives. Instead,
they indicate characteristics such as good antiwear qualities, good water resistance, or good oxidation
resistance. These qualities are not inherent in oil or contained in sufficient quantities to provide the degree
of protection necessary. Therefore, the user is safe in assuming that the appropriate agent has been added
to obtain the given quality. Product literature also gives the oil type (i.e., paraffinic, naphthenic, residual
compounded, or synthetic).
(b) Producer specifications. Producer specifications amount to a certification that the product meets
or exceeds listed physical characteristics in terms of specific test values. The magnitude of chemical
impurities may also be given. Producers vary somewhat in the amount of information in their
specifications. However, kinematic viscosity (centistokes) at 40 and 100 EC (104 and 212 EF ), SUS
(saybolt viscosity) at 37 and 98 EC (100 and 210 EF ), API gravity, pour point, and flash point are
generally listed. Other physical and chemical measurements may also be given if they are considered to
influence the intended use.
b. Grease classifications.
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(1) Characteristics. Grease is classified by penetration number and by type of soap or other thickener.
Penetration classifications have been established by NLGI and are given in Chapter 5. ASTM D 217 and
D 1403 are the standards for performing penetration tests. A penetration number indicates how easily a
grease can be fed to lubricated surfaces (i.e., pumpability) or how well it remains in place. Although no
method exists to classify soap thickeners, the producer indicates which soap is in the product. The type of
soap thickener indicates probable water resistance and maximum operating temperature and gives some
indication of pumpability. Although these are important factors, they are not the only ones of interest.
These simple classifications should be regarded as starting requirements to identify a group of appropriate
grease types. The final selection must be made on the basis of other information provided in the producer's
specifications. Viscosity of the oil included in a grease must also be considered.
(2) Producers product data for grease. Producers also provide information and specifications for
grease in brochures, pamphlets, handbooks, or on the product container or packaging. Grease
specifications normally include soap thickener, penetration, included oil viscosity, and dropping point. The
producer may also include ASTM test information on wear, loading, lubrication life, water washout,
corrosion, oil separation, and leakage. Grease additives are not usually stated except for solid additives
such as molybdenum disulfide or graphite, or that an EP additive is included. If EP or solid additives are
used, the producer will often state this emphatically and the product name may indicate the additive.
13-3. Principles of Selection
a. Manufacturer recommendations.
(1) The prime considerations are film thickness and wear. Although film thickness can be calculated,
the wear properties associated with different lubricants are more difficult to assess. Lubricants are
normally tested by subjecting them to various types of physical stress. However, these tests do not
completely indicate how a lubricant will perform in service. Experience has probably played a larger role
than any other single criterion. Through a combination of testing and experience, machine manufacturers
have learned which classes of lubricants will perform well in their products.
(2) Professional societies have established specifications and classifications for lubricants to be used in
a given mechanical application. For example, AGMA has established standard specifications for enclosed
and open-gear systems. These specifications have been developed from the experience of the associations
membership for a wide range of applications. Thus, any manufacturer has access to the collective
knowledge of many contributors.
(3) It should be noted that the equipment manufacturer's recommendation should not necessarily be
considered the best selection. Individual manufacturers may have different opinions based on their
experience and equipment design. The concept of best lubricant is ambiguous because it is based on
opinion. Despite this ambiguity, the manufacturer is probably in the best position to recommend a
lubricant. This recommendation should be followed unless the lubricant fails to perform satisfactorily.
When poor performance is evident, the manufacturer should be consulted for additional recommendations.
This is especially critical if the equipment is still under warranty.
(4) Although some manufacturers may recommend a specific brand name, they can usually provide a
list of alternative lubricants that also meet the operating requirements for their equipment. One of the
recommended lubricants should be used to avoid compromising the equipment warranty if it is still in
effect. Physical qualities (such as viscosity or penetration number), chemical qualities (such as paraffinic
or naphthenic oils), and applicable test standards are usually specified.
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b. Lubricant producer recommendations.
(1) When manufacturers recommend lubricants for their products in terms of specifications or required
qualities rather than particular brand names, the user must identify brands that meet the requirements.
Following the suggestions given in this chapter may help the user identify appropriate products. When a
user is uncertain, lubricant producers should be consulted to obtain advice on products that comply with
the required specifications.
(2) Many lubricant producers employ product engineers to assist users in selecting lubricants and to
answer technical questions. Given a manufacturer's product description, operating characteristics, unusual
operating requirements, and lubricant specification, product engineers can identify lubricants that meet the
manufacturer's specifications. Viscosity should be the equipment manufacturers recommended grade. If a
recommendation seems unreasonable, the user should ask for verification or consult a different lubricant
producer for a recommendation. These products will probably vary in quality and cost. The application
should dictate lubricant selection. This will help prevent the unnecessary purchase of high-priced premium
quality lubricants when they are not required.
c. User selection.
(1) The user should ensure that applicable criteria are met regardless of who makes the lubricant
selection. Selection should be in the class recommended by the machinery manufacturer (R&O, EP, AW,
etc.) and be in the same base stock category (paraffinic, naphthenic, or synthetic). Furthermore, physical
and chemical properties should be equal to or exceed those specified by the manufacturer. Generally, the
user should follow the manufacturer's specification. Additional factors to be considered are shown in
Tables 13-1, 13-2, and 13-3. Each of these tables uses different criteria that can be beneficial when the
user is selecting lubricants.
(2) If the manufacturers specifications are not available, determine what lubricant is currently in use.
If it is performing satisfactorily, continue to use the same brand. If the brand is not available, select a
brand with specifications equal to or exceeding the brand previously used. If the lubricant is performing
poorly, obtain the recommendation of a product engineer. If the application is critical, get several
recommendations.
(3) Generally, the user will make a selection in either of two possible situations:
! Substitute a new brand for one previously in use.
! Select a brand that meets an equipment manufacturer's specifications. This will be accomplished
by comparing producer's specifications with those of the manufacturer.
Product selection starts by using a substitution list maintained by most lubricant producers. A substitution
list usually shows the products of major producers and the equivalent or competing product by other
producers. Substitution lists are useful but they have limitations. They may not be subdivided by classes
of lubricants. Furthermore, it is difficult to do more than compare a lubricant of one producer with one
given by the publishing producer. For example, consider three producers called A, B, and C. Producer As
substitution list may compare Bs products with As, or Cs with As. However, B and C cannot be
compared unless A has a product equivalent to both B and C. A user would need substitution lists from
many producers to be able to effectively select more than one option. Many producers claim they do not
have a substitution list, or are reluctant to provide one. As noted in Chapter 11, the chart of
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Table 13-1
Factors Affecting Lubricant Selection
Element Type Size Material Temperature Conditions Velocity Remarks
Operating Operating
Bearings Plain, needle Shaft rev/min
roller, ball diameter
Chain drives Links; number PCD of all Chain speed
and pitch wheels and ft/min
distance
between
centers
Cocks and Plug, ball, etc. Fluid being Depends on
valves controlled properties of the
fluid
Compressors BHP, Gas Max gas rev/min
manufacturers temperature pressure
name
Couplings Universal or rev/min
constant
velocity
Cylinders Bore, stroke Cylinder, Combustion and Combustion Crank speed,
piston, rings exhaust gas and exhaust rev/min
temperature gas pressure
Gears Spur, worm, BHP, Radiated heat rev/min Method of
helical, distance and heat lubricant
hyperbolic between generated application
centers
Glands and Stuffing box Fluid being Depends on
seals sealed design
Hydraulic BHP Pump Hydraulic fluid Lubricant type
systems type (gear, materials O adjusting to loss
piston vane) rings and rate
cups, etc.
Linkages Environmental Relative link
heat conditions speeds, ft/s,
angular vel.,
rad/s
Ropes Steel hawser Diameter Frequency of
use and
pollution, etc.
Slideways and Surface
guides relative
speed, ft/min
Reference: Neale, M.J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England.
Interchangeable Industrial Lubricants and Guide to Synthetic Lubricants published by Plant
Engineering Magazine (PEM) can be helpful. The PEM charts correlate products of many producers. The
chart of synthetic lubricants correlates products by category (class).
(4) A substitution list or chart is valuable because it correlates the array of brand names used by
producers. Furthermore, it eliminates producers who do not have the desired product in their line. A
substitution list should be regarded as a starting point to quickly identify potential selections. The lists
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Table 13-2
Types of Additive Oil Required for Various Types of Machinery
Type of Machinery Usual Base Oil Type Usual Additives Special Requirements
Food processing Medicinal white oil None Safety in case of ingestion
Oil hydraulic Paraffinic down to about Antioxidant Minimum viscosity change with
-20 EC (-4 EF), naphthenic Antirust temperature; minimum wear of
below Antiwear steel/steel
Pour point
depressant
VI improver
Antifoam
Steam and gas turbines Paraffinic or naphthenic Antioxidant Ready separation from water,
distillates Antirust good oxidation stability
Steam engine cylinders Unrefined or refined residual or None or fatty oil Maintenance of oil film on hot
high-viscosity distillates surfaces; resistance to washing
away by wet steam
Air compressor cylinders Paraffinic or naphthenic Antioxidant Low deposit formation tendency
distillates Antirust
Gears (steel/steel) Paraffinic or naphthenic Antiwear, EP Protections against abrasion
Antioxidant and scuffing
Antifoam
Pour point
depressant
Gears (steel/bronze) Paraffinic Oiliness Reduce friction, temperature
Antioxidant rise, wear, and oxidation
Machine tool slideways Paraffinic or naphthenic Oiliness; tackiness Maintains smooth sliding at very
low speeds. Keeps film on
vertical surfaces
Hermetically sealed refrigerators Naphthenic None Good thermal stability,
miscibility with refrigerant, low
flow point
Diesel engines Paraffinic or naphthenic Detergent Vary with type of engine thus
Dispersant affecting additive combination
Antioxidant
Acid-neutralizer
Antifoam
Antiwear
Corrosion inhibitor
Reference: Neale, M.J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England.
do not suggest or imply that lubricants listed as being equivalent are identical. The lists do indicate that the
two lubricants are in the name class, have the name viscosity, and are intended for the same general use.
The chart of interchangeable industrial lubricants lists the following categories:
! General purpose lubricants
! Antiwear hydraulic oil
! Spindle oil
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Table 13-3
Importance of Lubricant Properties in Relation to Bearing Type
Type of Component
Lubricant Property Bearing Bearing Gears etc. Pivots Latches, etc.
Plain Journal Rolling Closed Ropes, Chains, Instrument Slides,
Open Gears, Clock and Hinges,
1. Boundary lubricating properties 1 2 3 2 2 1
2. Cooling 2 2 3 - - -
3. Friction or torque 1 2 2 - 2 1
4. Ability to remain in bearing 1 2 - 1 3 1
5. Ability to seal out contaminants - 2 - 1 - 1
6. Temperature range 1 2 2 1 - 1
7. Protection against corrosion 1 2 - 2 - 1
8. Volatility 1 1 - 2 2 1
Note: The relative importance of each lubricant property in a particular class of component is indicated on a scale from 3 = highly
important to - = quite unimportant.
Reference: Neale, M.J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England.
! Way oil
! Extreme pressure gear oil
! Worm gear oil
! Cling-type gear shield (open gears)
! General purpose extreme pressure lithium based grease
! Molybdenum disulfide extreme pressure grease.
(5) Spindle and way oils are not widely used. One of the last three classes on the list is a special
preparation for open gears and the other two are classes of grease. General purpose oils, antiwear
hydraulic oils, and EP gear oils are best described by comparison with the nonspecialized industrial oils
discussed earlier. Nonspecialized oils contain a category called general purpose oils. This term is also
used in the PEM list but it differs from the previously described general purpose oil category in that the
additives may not be the same. In some cases, brand names indicate that EP additives have been included.
In other cases, AW is indicated but not R&O. This raises the possibility that R&O additives are not
present. AW hydraulic oil is a general purpose oil, but its antiwear properties are sufficient to pass the
Vickers vane test for hydraulic applications when this is required.
(6) The EP gear oils should correspond to those described under nonspecialized industrial oils except
that EP additives are included and viscosities may be as high as ISO 2200. The EP classification of gear
oil should not be confused with the SAE gear oil classification which is for use in automotive gear systems.
SAE gear oils are formulated differently and are not discussed in this manual.
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(7) While grease preparation varies greatly among producers, only two types are given in the PEM list:
No. 2 lithium EP and molybdenum disulfide EP No. 2. These are the two most widely used industrial
greases. The name molybdenum disulfide designates lubricant type, and does not reflect the type of soap,
but the soap will usually be lithium. While both types are intended to provide extra protection against
wear, one contains EP additives and the other contains molybdenum disulfide.
(8) Lithium greases are the most widely used, but calcium, aluminum, polyurea, and sodium-calcium
are also used. Furthermore, greases ranging from NLGI 00 to No. 3 are used. Consequently, in many
cases, the PEM tables will not be useful for selecting greases.
(9) The cling-type gear shield lubricants are residual oils to which a tackiness agent has been added.
They are extremely adhesive and so viscous that solvents are added to permit application. After
application, the solvent evaporates leaving the adhesive viscous material. Some products contain no
solvent and must be heated to reduce viscosity for application.
(10) Compounded oils are not included in the list as a separate class. When this type of oil is required,
producers must be contacted directly.
(11) Ultimately, information brochures provided by the producers must be examined to verify the
following:
(a) Viscosity. The product viscosity meets the manufacturers recommendation or is the same as a
previously used lubricant that performed well. When a grease is considered, the viscosity of the included
oil should be the same as the previous lubricant.
(b) Intended use. The products intended use, as given by the producer, corresponds to the
application in which the lubricant will be used.
(c) Class of lubricant. The class of lubricant is the same as that recommended by the equipment
manufacturer or the same as a previously used lubricant that performed well. If the manufacturer
recommended an R&O, AW, or EP oil, or a No. 2 lithium grease, that is what should be used.
(d) Specification. The product specifications are equal to or better than those recommended by the
equipment manufacturer or those of a previously used lubricant that performed well.
(e) Additives. The product additives perform the required function even though they may not be
chemically identical in several possible alternative lubricants.
.
13-4. Specification Types
Current government policy encourages use and adoption of nongovernment specifications and standards
instead of developing new or updating existing federal and military specifications. Types of specifications,
in order of usage preference are: (1) Nongovernment specifications; (2) Commercial Item Descriptions; and
(3) Federal and military specifications.
a. Nongovernment. Federal and military specifications are being replaced by specifications and
industry standards developed by trade associations such as SAE, AGMA, and API and professional
private-sector organizations and technical societies such as ISO, ANSI (American National Standards
Institute), and ASTM. Nongovernment specifications and standards (NGS) should not be confused with
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lubricant producer standards. NGS promote competition and usually provide a broad base of suppliers,
whereas producer-specific standards tend to limit competition to a single supplier.
b. Commercial item description. A Commercial Item Description (CID) is an indexed, simplified
product description that describes by salient function or performance characteristics, available and
acceptable commercial products that meet the governments needs. These items include references to
ASTM, ANSI, and other industry standards. CIDs are issued by the General Services Administration
(GSA) and are listed in the GSA Index of Federal Specifications, Standards and Commercial Item
Descriptions.
c. Federal and military. New Federal specifications are developed and existing specifications are
updated to establish requirements for commercial products only if specific design, performance, interface,
or other essential characteristics are not described adequately by nongovernment standards or Commercial
Item Descriptions. Federal Specifications are issued by the General Services Administration and are listed
in the GSA Index of Federal Specifications, Standards and Commercial Item Descriptions. New military
specifications are developed and existing specifications are updated to establish requirements for
military-unique products or commercial products that must be substantively modified to include
military-unique requirements. If a nongovernment standard exists that contains the basic technical
requirements for a product or process, it is referenced in the military specification, and the military
specification contains only those additional requirements needed by the Department of Defense. Military
specifications are issued by the Department of Defense and are listed in the Department of Defense Index
of Specifications.
d. Proprietary. Proprietary specifications refer to specifications owned by an oil producer or used
for acquisition of a product from a lone source.
(1) Oil producer. Some proprietary specifications contain confidential trade secrets, and are
developed and exclusively controlled by a lubricant producer. Producer specifications published in
company brochures, pamphlets, and handbooks contain nonproprietary information and are described in
subparagraph 132-a(6) Oil Producers Product Data and Specifications.
(2) Acquisition. Sometimes a proprietary specification is used as an acquisition method to specify a
product that is available from only one source. It identifies a product by manufacturers brand name,
product number, type, or other unique designation. A specification can be considered proprietary even if
brand name is not stated but the product is available from only one source. Specifying by product name is
suitable and advantageous when a specific product has proven successful or its use is specified by an
equipment manufacturer as an equipment warranty condition. Disadvantages to specifying a product by
brand name are that it eliminates competition and the purchaser may pay a premium price.
13-5. Lubricant Consolidation
a. General. Older machines tend to operate at slow speeds and light loads. These machines also
tend to have large clearances and few lubricating points. Lubrication of such older machines is not as
critical, comparatively speaking, as for modern machines that operate at higher speeds, under heavier loads,
and with closer mechanical tolerances. A common maintenance practice is to have inventories of several
types of lubricant to service both older and newer versions of similar equipment (e.g., speed reducers).
This problem is further aggravated by the different types of unrelated equipment operating at a complex
facility (e.g., turbines, speed reducers, ropes and chains, etc.), each requiring lubrication. Consolidation of
lubricants is usually undertaken to reduce inventories, storage requirements, safety and health hazards, and
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13-11
cost. Consolidation, done properly, is a rational approach to handling the lubrication requirements at a
facility while reducing the total number of lubricants in the inventory.
b. Manufacturers recommendations. Manufacturers may recommend lubricants by brand name or
by specifying the lubricant characteristics required for a machine. Depending on the machine, lubricant
specifications may be restrictive, or they may be general, allowing considerable latitude. Usually the
manufacturers warranty will be honored only if the purchaser uses the lubricants recommended by the
manufacturer. Voiding the terms of a warranty is not advisable, so the specified lubricants should be used
until the warranty has expired. After warranty expiration the machine and its lubrication requirements may
be included in the consolidation list for the facility.
c. Consolidation considerations. Consolidation of lubricants requires careful analysis and matching
of equipment requirements and lubricant properties. Factors that influence selection of lubricants include
operating conditions, viscosity, viscosity index, pour point, extreme pressure properties, oxidation
inhibitors, rust inhibitors, detergent-dispersant additives, etc. With a grease, consideration must also
include composition of the soap base, consistency, dropping point, pumpability. There are several
precautions that must be followed when consolidating lubricants.
(1) Characteristics. Consideration should be given to the most severe requirements of any of the
original and consolidated lubricants. To prevent equipment damage, the selected lubricant must also have
these same characteristics. This is true for greases.
(2) Special requirements. Applications with very specific lubricant requirements should not be
consolidated.
(3) Compatibility. Remember that some lubricant additives may not be compatible with certain metals
or seals.
d. Consolidation procedure. Consolidation may be accomplished through the services of a lubricant
producer or may be attempted by facility personnel who have knowledge of the equipment operating
characteristics and lubricating requirements, and an ability to read lubricant producers product data.
(1) Lubricant supplier. The preferred method for consolidating lubricants is to retain the services of a
qualified lubrication engineer. All major oil companies have engineers available to help users with
lubrication problems. There are also numerous independent lubricant suppliers with the necessary
personnel and background to provide assistance. Ultimately, the knowledge, experience, integrity, and
reputation of the lubricant supplier are the best assurance that the products recommended will meet the
lubrication requirements for the equipment. The supplier must be given a list of equipment, along with any
information about the operating characteristics, ambient conditions, and lubrication requirements. The
engineer can use this information to consolidate lubricating requirements where possible, and to isolate
equipment with highly specific requirements that cannot be consolidated. The primary disadvantage with
this approach is that the lubricant supplier will, in all probability, recommend only those products within
the companys product line. If this is a major concern, the services of an independent lubricating engineer
or tribologist, not affiliated with any supplier, may be retained.
(2) Consolidation by in-house personnel.
(a) In-house personnel should begin the consolidation process by preparing a spreadsheet identifying
equipment, lubricating requirements, lubricant characteristics, and brand names. The equipment should be
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13-12
Figure 13-1. Lubricant consolidation chart (Reference: Neale, M. J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook.
Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England
sorted by type of lubricant (oil, hydraulic fluid, synthetics, biodegradable, grease) required. Under each
type, the properties of each lubricant should be grouped such as oil viscosity, detergent-dispersant
requirements, EP requirements, rust and oxidation inhibitors, NLGI grade of grease, viscosity of oil
component in the grease, pumpability, etc. See Figure 13-1 for an example of a spreadsheet showing the
essential features.
(b) At this stage, viscosity grouping can be made. For instance, if three similar oils have viscosities of
110, 150, and 190 SUS at 100 EF, the 150 may be used as a final selection. If one of the original oils was
rust and oxidation inhibited, the final product should also have this property. A second group of oils with
viscosities of 280, 330, and 350 SUS at 100 EF could be reduced to one oil having a viscosity in the
neighborhood of 315 SUS at 100 EF. As shown in Figure 13-1, the goal is to identify the viscosity
requirements and range for various equipment and see if a single lubricant can span the range. If the range
can be covered, then consolidation is possible. However, recall that paragraph 13-3 included a warning
that the lubricant viscosity for a machine must comply with the manufacturers requirements. Obviously,
an exact match of viscosity for all equipment cannot be accomplished with the same lubricant when
consolidation is the goal. Lubricants with vastly different viscosity requirements must not be consolidated.
(3) Use higher quality lubricants. Another alternative for consolidation is to use higher grade
lubricants that are capable of meeting the requirements of various machinery. Although the cost of high-
grade lubricants is greater, this may still be offset by the benefits of consolidation (e.g., reduction in the
number of different lubricants needed, reduction in inventory-management requirements, possible price
discounts for purchasing certain lubricants in greater quantity, etc.).
(4) Use multipurpose lubricants. Multipurpose lubricants and other general purpose oils can be
applied to a wide range of equipment and help reduce the number of lubricants required. Although some
lubricants are not listed as multipurpose they may be used in this capacity. For example, assume two
lubricants by the same producer: one is listed as an R&O turbine oil and the other as a gear oil.
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Examination of product literature shows that the R&O turbine oil can also be used in bearings, gear sets,
compressors, hydraulic systems, machine tools, electric motors, and roller chains while the gear oil can also
be used in circulating system, chain drives, plain and antifriction bearings, and slides. These oils may be
suitable for use in a consolidating effort. Producers often have similar application overlaps in their product
lines.
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A-1
Appendix A
References
A-1. Industry Standards
American National Standards Institute:
American Gear Manufacturers Association, 1994, ANSI/AGMA Standard 9005-D94, Industrial Gear
Lubrication, Alexandria, VA.
American Gear Manufacturers Association, 1995, ANSI/AGMA Standard 1010-E95, Appearance of
Gear Teeth - Technology of Wear and Failure, Alexandria, VA.
National Fluid Power Association, 1990 (R1994), ANSI/NFPA Standard T3.10.8.8, ISO 4572,
Hydraulic Fluid Power - Filters - Multi-Pass Method for Evaluating Filtration Performance,
Milwaukee, WI.
American Gear Manufacturers Association. 1974. AGMA Standard 201.02, ANSI Standard System
Tooth Proportions for Coarse - Pitch Involute Spur Gears, Alexandria, VA.
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. 1991. IEEE Standard C57.104-1991, IEEE
Guide for the Interpretation of Gases.
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Standards:
D 95, Test Methods for Water in Petroleum Products and Bitumenous Materials by Distillations.
D 97, Standard Test Methods for Pour Point of Petroleum Oils.
D 130, Method for Detection of Copper Corrosion from Petroleum Products by the Copper Strip
Tarnish Test.
D 217, Standard Test Methods for Cone Penetration of Lubricating Grease.
D 445, Test Methods for Kinematic Viscosity of Transparent and Opaque Liquids (and the Calculation
of Dynamic Viscosity).
D 566, Standard Test Method for Dropping Point of Lubricating Grease.
D 664, Test Method for Neutralization Number by Potentiometer Titration.
D 665, Test Method for Rust-Preventing Characteristics of Inhibited Mineral Oil in the Presence of
Water.
D 892, Standard Test Method for Foaming Characteristics of Lubricating Oils.
D 942, Standard Test Method for Oxidation Stability of Lubricating Greases by the Oxygen Bomb
Method.
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A-2
D 943, Standard Test Method for Oxidation Characteristics of Inhibited Mineral Oils.
D 972, Standard Test Method for Evaporation Loss of Lubricating Greases and Oils.
D 974, Test Method for Neutralization Number by Color-Indicator Titration.
D 1092, Standard Test Method for Measuring Apparent Viscosity of Lubricating Greases.
D 1263, Standard Test Method for Leakage Tendencies of Automotive Wheel Bearing Greases.
D 1264, Standard Test Method for Determining the Water Washout Characteristics of Lubricating
Greases.
D 1401, Test Method for Water Solubility of Petroleum Oils and Synthetic Fluids.
D 1403, Standard Test Method for Cone Penetration of Lubricating Grease Using One-Quarter and
One-Half Scale Cone Equipment.
D 1500, Test Method for ASTM Color of Petroleum Products (ASTM Color Scale).
D 1742, Standard Test Method for Oil Separation from Lubricating Grease During Storage.
D 1743, Standard Test Method for Determining Corrosion Preventive Properties of Lubricating
Greases.
D 1744, Test Method for Water in Liquid Petroleum Products by Karl Fischer Reagent.
D 1831, Standard Test Method for Roll Stability of Lubricating Grease.
D 2161, Method for Conversion of Kinematic Viscosity to Saybolt Universal Viscosity or to Saybolt
Furol Viscosity.
D 2265, Standard Test Method for Dropping Point of Lubricating Grease Over Wide-Temperature
Range.
D 2266, Standard Test Method for Wear Preventive Characteristics of Lubricating Grease (Four-
Ball Method).
D 2270, Standard Test Method for Calculating Viscosity Index From Kinematic Viscosity at 40 and
100 EC.
D 2272, Rotating Bomb Oxidation Test (RBOT).
D 2509, Standard Test Method for Measurement of Extreme Pressure Properties of Lubricating
Grease (Timken Method).
D 2595, Standard Test Method for Evaporation Loss of Lubricating Greases Over Wide-Temperature
Range.
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A-3
D 2596, Standard Test Method for Measurement of Extreme-Pressure Properties of Lubricating
Grease (Four-Ball Method).
D 2882, Method for Indicating the Wear Characteristics of Petroleum and Non-Petroleum Hydraulic
Fluids in a Constant Vane Pump.
D 3232, Standard Test Method for Measurement of Consistency of Lubricating Greases at High
Temperatures.
D 3336, Standard Test Method for Performance Characteristics of Lubricating Greases in Ball
Bearings at Elevated Temperatures.
D 3847, Standard Specification for Mineral Insulating Oil Used in Electrical Apparatus - Type II
Mineral Oil - Practice for Rubber-Directions for Achieving Abnormal Test Temperatures.
D 4048, Standard Test Method for Detection of Copper Corrosion from Lubricating Grease.
D 4049, Standard Test Method for Determining the Resistance of Lubricating Grease to Water
Spray.
D 4059, Test Method for Analysis of Polychlorinated Biphenyls in Insulating Liquid by Gas
Chromatography Method.
D 4170, Standard Test Method for Fretting Wear Protection by Lubricating Greases.
D 5864, Standard Test Method for Determining Aerobic Aquatic Biodegradation of Lubricants or
Their Components.
D 02.12A, Proposed Standard Practice for Aquatic Toxicity Testing of Lubricants.
F 311, Practice for Processing Aerospace Liquid Samples for Particulate Contamination Analysis
Using Membrane Filters.
F 312, Method for Microbial Sizing and Counting Particles from Aerospace Fluids on Membrane
Filters.
A-2. Other Standards
Coordinating European Council (CEC). 1994. CEC-L-33-A-94, Biodegradability of Two Stroke
Outboard Engine Oil in Water, Coordinating European Council.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1982. EPA 560/6-82-002, Sections EG-9, ES-6, Guidelines
and Support Documents for Environmental Effects Testing, Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, DC.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1982. EPA 560/6-82-003, number CG-2000, Aerobic Aquatic
Biodegradation, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
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A-4
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), OECD 203, 1993, Guideline for
Testing of Chemicals, Fish Acute Toxicity Test, Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development, Paris, France.
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), OECD 301B, 1993, Guideline for
Testing of Chemicals, Ready Biodegradability: Modified Sturm Test, Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development, Paris, France.
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE). 1985. SAE Recommended Practice J 1707, Service
Maintenance of SAE J 1703, Brake Fluid in Motor Vehicle Brake Systems, Warrendale, PA.
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE). 1991. Specification J 1703, Motor Vehicle Brake Fluid,
Warrendale, PA.
U.S. Department of Transportation. Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard (FMVSS) No. 16 (DOT3),
Motor Vehicle Brake Fluid, Washington, DC.
A-3. Government Reports
Beitelman 1996
Beitelman, A. D. May 1996. Environmentally Friendly Lubricants, The REMR Bulletin, Vol. 13, No. 2,
Department of the Army, Washington, DC.
Beitelman and Clifton 1989
Beitelman, A. D., and Clifton, W. B. 1989. Lubricants for Hydraulic Structures, Technical Report
REMR-EM-5, Department of the Army, Washington, DC.
Campbell 1972
Campbell, M. E. 1972. Solid Lubricants: A Survey, First Edition, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, DC.
Cline 1990
Cline, R. 1990. Lubrication of Powerplant Equipment, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Colorado.
General Services Administration
General Services Administration. Index of Federal Specifications, Standards, and Commercial Item
Descriptions, Washington, DC.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Louisville District, August 1997
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Louisville District. August 1997. Olmsted Prototype Hydraulically
Operated Navigable Pass Wicket Dam, Final Report, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Louisville District,
KY.
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation 1980
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. 1980. Facilities, Instructions, Standards, and Techniques (FIST), Vol 3-5,
Maintenance of Liquid Insulation Mineral Oils and Askarels, Washington, DC.
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A-5
U.S. Department of Defense
U.S. Department of Defense. DoD Index of Specifications, Washington, DC.
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Mid-Pacific Regional Office 1997
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Mid-Pacific Regional Office. July 1997. Folsom Dam Spillway Gate 3
Failure Investigation Trunnion Fixture Test, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Mid-Pacific Regional Office,
Sacramento, CA.
A-4. Department of Defense Policies and Procedures
DOD 4120.3-M
Defense Standardization Program, Policies and Procedures
A-5. Text Publications
Oberg 1988
Oberg, E. 1988. Machinerys Handbook, 23rd Revised Edition, Industrial Press, New York.
Oberg 1992
Oberg, E. 1992. Machinerys Handbook, 24th Revised Edition, Industrial Press, New York.
American Society for Metals 1993
American Society for Metals. 1993. ASM Handbook Volume 18, Friction, Lubrication, and Wear
Technology, First Edition, ASM International.
Avallone and Baumeister 1996
Avallone, E. A., and Baumeister III, T. 1996. Marks Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers,
Tenth Edition, McGraw Hill, New York, NY.
Boehringer 1992
Boehringer, R. H. 1992. Grease, in ASM Handbook, Volume 18, Friction, Lubrication, and Wear
Technology, ASM International, U.S.A., p123.
Booser 1983
Booser, E. R. 1983. CRC Handbook of Lubrication (Theory and Practice of Tribology), Volume I,
Application and Maintenance, CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, FL.
Booser 1984
Booser, E. R. 1984. CRC Handbook of Lubrication (Theory and Practice of Tribology), Volume II,
Theory and Design, CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, FL.
Booser 1994
Booser, E. R. 1994. CRC Handbook of Lubrication (Theory and Practice of Tribology), Volume III,
Monitoring, Materials, Synthetic Lubricants, and Application, CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, FL.
Braithwaite 1964
Braithwaite, E. R., 1964, Solid Lubricants and Surfaces, First Edition, Macmillan Company, New York,
NY.
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A-6
Bridon American 1997
Bridon American. 1997. Technical Bulletin, Rope Lubrication and Preservation in Service, Bridon
American, Wilkes-Barre, PA.
Conoco 1981
Conoco. 1981. Lubrication Manual, Conoco Inc.
Electric Power Research 1993
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI). 1993. Report EPRI GS-7352, Palo Alto, CA.
Exxon 1998
Exxon. 1998. Exxon Lubricants Maintenance Conference, New Orleans, LA.
Fitch 1997
Fitch, J. C. 1997. Strategic Elements of a Successful Oil Analysis Program, Noria Corporation, Tulsa,
OK.
Gulliver and Arndt 1991
Gulliver, J. S., and Arndt, R. E. A. 1991. Hydropower Engineering Handbook, First Edition, McGraw-
Hill, Inc., New York, NY.
International Standards Organization 1987
International Standards Organization. 1987. Hydraulic Fluid PowerFluidsMethod for Coding Level
of Contamination by Solid Particles, Geneva, Switzerland.
Lubrizol 1997
Lubrizol. 1997. Grease Ready Reference, Lubrizol Corporation, OH.
Mancuso and South 1994
Mancuso, J. R., and South, D. W. 1994. Mechanical Power Transmission Components, First Edition,
Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, NY.
National Lubricating Grease Institute 1996
National Lubricating Grease Institute. 1996. Lubricating Grease Guide, Fourth Edition, National
Lubricating Grease Institute, MO.
Neale 1993
Neale, M. J. 1993. Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook, First Edition, Society of Automotive Engineers,
Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Oxford, England.
Noria Corporation 1998
Noria Corporation. 1998. Oil Analysis: The Complete Course for Professionals, Tulsa, OK.
Pall Industrial Hydraulics Company 1997
Pall Industrial Hydraulics Company. 1997. Contamination Control and Filtration Fundamentals, Pall
Corporation, Glen Cove, NY.
Parker Hannifin 1997
Parker Hannifin. 1997. Industrial Hydraulic Technology, Second Edition, Parker Hannifin Corporation,
Cleveland, OH.
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
A-7
Sperry Vickers 1970
Sperry Vickers. 1970. Industrial Hydraulics Manual, Sperry Corporation, Troy, MI.
Williams 1994
Williams, J. A. 1994. Engineering Tribology, First Edition, Oxford University Press, New York, NY.
A-6. Periodicals, Journals, and Conference Papers
Abou-Haidar 1995
Abou-Haidar, A. N. May 1995. Avoiding Troubles in Large Gear Boxes, Plant Engineering.
American Society of Lubrication Engineers 1975
American Society of Lubrication Engineers (ASLE). 1975. Effect of Water in Lubricating Oil on
Bearing Life, 31st Annual ASLE Meeting. (Changed to: Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers
(1987).) Park Ridge, IL.
Barbacki 1998
Barbacki, S. January 1998. Lube-free Chains Reduce Maintenance, Plant Engineering.
Barrett 1996
Barrett, C. D. May/June 1996. The Current Status of Heavy-Duty Open Gear Drive Lubrication, IEEE
Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol. 32, No. 3, p 678.
Barrett and Bjel 1994
Barrett, C., and Bjel, I. August 1994. Use of High Viscosity Base Oil Gels for Heavy Duty Open Gear
Drive Lubrication, NLGI Spokesman, Vol. 58, No. 5, p 13.
Beitelman 1998
Beitelman, A. D. April 1998. Time for a Change? Assessing Environmentally Acceptable Lubricants,
Hydro Review.
Cella 1997
Cella, A. F. April 1997. Oil, Filters, and the Environment, Plant Engineering.
Cheng, Wessol, Baudouin, BenKinney, and Novick 1994
Cheng, V. M., Wessol, A. A., Baudouin, P. M., BenKinney, T., and Novick, N. J. April 1994.
Biodegradable and Nontoxic Hydraulic Oils, 42nd Annual Society Automotive Engineers (SAE)
Earthmoving Industry Conference, Paper 910964.
Eichenberger 1991
Eichenberger, H. F. April 1991. Biodegradable Hydraulic Lubricant - An Overview of Current
Developments in Central Europe, Proceedings, 42nd Earthmoving Industry Conference, Peoria, IL, 9-10
April 1991, Society of Automotive Engineers Technical Paper Series 910962. (Work was done using the
European CEC-L-33-T-82 test procedure.)
Errichello 1995
Errichello, R., and Muller, J. May/June 1991. Ten Myths About Gear Lubrication, Gear Technology,
Vol. 12, No. 3, p 18.
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
A-8
Firestone 1997
Firestone, C. M. May 1997. Exclusive Guide to Synthetic Lubricants, Plant Engineering.
Fisher 1991
Fisher, J. May 1991. Water Hydraulics Getting Hot Again, Hydraulics and Pneumatics.
Fogel 1996
Fogel, G. August 1996. Minilab Approach to Inhouse Oil Analysis, Plant Engineering.
Fukunaga 1990
Fukunaga, K. September 1990. Grease for Gear Lubrication, Lubrication Engineering, Vol. 46, No. 9,
p 557.
Jentgen 1971
Jentgen, R. June 1971. Solid Lubricants: How They Work and Where to Use Them, IEEE Transactions
on Parts, Hybrids, and, Packaging, Vol. PHP-7, No. 2.
Kiovsky, Murr, and Voeltz 1994
Kiovsky, T. E., Murr, T., and Voeltz, M. November 1994. Biodegradable Hydraulic Fluids and Related
Lubricants, International Truck and Bus Meeting and Exposition, Paper 942287.
Korane 1996
Korane, K. J. February 1996. Keeping a Watchful Eye on Hydraulic Contamination, Machine Design.
Lauer 1996
Lauer, D. A. July 1996. Alternative Lubrication Methods for Large Open Gear Drives, Lubrication
Engineering Vol. 52, No. 7, p 515.
Mediate 1997
Mediate, J. September 1997. Using Wireless Communications to Automate Plant Maintenance, Plant
Engineering.
Newingham 1987
Newingham, T. D. July 1987. Hydraulic Fluid - the Often Overlooked Component, Hydraulic and
Pneumatics.
OConnor 1966
OConnor, J. J. August 1966. Lubricants, Power, Vol. 110, No. 8.
Rhee 1996
Rhee, In-Sik. August 1996. Evaluation of Environmentally Acceptable Hydraulic Fluids, NLGI Spokes-
man, Vol 60, No. 5.
Scheels 1994
Scheels, R. H. February 1994. The New Challenges for Hydraulic Fluids, Hydraulics and Pneumatics.
Scheffels 1996
Scheffels, G. December 1996. Developments in Water Hydraulics, Hydraulics and Pneumatics.
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
A-9
Skoog 1991
Skoog, P. N. November 1991. The Care and Maintenance of Water Glycol Hydraulic Fluids, Hydraulics
and Pneumatics.
Stevens 1995
Stevens, C. August 1995. Lubricant Selection Vital to Maintenance Solutions, Plant Engineering.
Straiton 1998
Straiton, J. 1998. Synthetic Fluids, Exxon Lubricants Maintenance Conferences.
Stricker 1996
Stricker, S. December 1996. Advances Make Tap Water Hydraulics More Practical, Hydraulics and
Pneumatics.
Texaco 1996
Texaco. 1996. Hydraulics, Lubrication, Vol. 82, No.1.
Thibault 1993
Thibault, L. May 1993. Taking Care of Enclosed Gear Drives, Chemical Engineering, Vol. 100 , No. 5,
p 145.
Thibault and Kolonco 1993
Thibault, L., and Kolonco, J. July 1993. Gear Drive Life, Performance Affected by Appropriate
Selection of Lubricant, Pulp and Paper, Vol 67, No. 77, p 91.
Tribble 1995
Tribble, J. February 1995. Spillway Gate Roller Chains, Hydro Review, Vol. XIV , No.1, p 90.
Watkins 1997
Watkins, J. P. July 1997. Going Beyond CMMS: Blending Preventive and Product Predictive
Techniques to Optimize Maintenance Operations, Plant Engineering.
Weimshelbaum 1968
Weimshelbaum, M. 1968. Proceedings, National Conference on Fluid Power, VXXXIII: 269.
Wessol and Whitacre 1993
Wessol, A. A., and Whitacre, B. January 1993. Operating Hydraulics on Green Fluids, Machine
Design.
Wills 1980
Wills, G. 1980. Lubrication Fundamentals, Marcel Dekker, New York, pp 75-87.
Zingaro 1994
Zingaro, A. April 1994. Walking the Fluid Cleanliness Tightrope, Part I, Hydraulics and Pneumatics.
Zingaro 1994
Zingaro, A. December 1994. Walking the Fluid Cleanliness Tightrope, Part II, Hydraulics and
Pneumatics.
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
B-1
Appendix B
Survey of Locks and Dams for Lubricants
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
B-2
Lock Gates - Miter
Lock and Temp Range for Sector Lubrication, for Pintles, Lubrication, for Strut Lubrication,
State E EC (E EF) Gears Method Gudgeon Pin Method Arms Method Comments
Lubrication Freq of Lubrication Freq of Lubrication Freq of
Aberdeen, Exxon EP0 Monthly Exxon EP0 Monthly
MS winter Air gun winter Air gun
Exxon EP1 Exxon EP1
summer summer
Cheatham, Chevron Open Weekly Keystone Monthly
TN Gear Lube SP Spray Velox 3 Air gun
Dashields, -36.6 to 3.5 Dubois Chem Monthly Lubriplate Monthly
PA (-25 to 95) MP2 Brush 630 AA Gun
Hiram M. 12.2 to 37.7 Certified Lube Weekly Water Certified and
Chittenden, (10 to 100) Trac Plus and Spray Dynaco work
WA Dynaco Tacky great
Lube Open
Gear Grease
John T. Keystone Moly As neces. Amoco Super Weekly Dixon 271 6 months
Meyers, OH 29 2 to 4 mo Permalube Elec gun Graphite
Calk. gun grease grease
Lock and -28.8 to 37.7 Lubriplate 1242 Weekly Lubriplate 2 weeks Lubriplate 2 weeks White, easy to
Dam (-20 to 100) Brush 1242 Gun 1242 clean up with
No. 12, IA putty knife and
towel.
Almaplex 1275
falls off when
cold, didnt
hold film.
Lock No. 8, -40 to 48.8 Lubricating Eng. 2-weeks Mobil EAL Weekly No problems
WI (-40 to 120) Pyroshield 5100 Spray or 102 Gun with biode-
Paddle gradable EAL.
Lock and -45.5 to 37.7 Lubrication Eng. 2 weeks Mobil Mobilux Monthly Mobil
Dam No. 7, (-50 to 100) Pyroshield 5182 Calk. gun EP 2 Gun Mobilux
MN and 5100 Spray EP 2
Lock and -28.8 to 40.5 Amoco Weekly Amoco 2 weeks
Dam No. 18, (-20 to 105) Amovis 8-X Brush Ryotec EP Gun
IL
Lockport, -28.8 to 48.8 Hydrotex 6 months Mobil Mobilith Monthly Mobil Mobilith- Good
IL (-20 to 120) Copper Coat Manual SHC 220 Gun Mobilith Gun in cold
Gear Grease SHC 220 temperature.
Marmet, -28.8 to 43.3 Chesterton Kendall L- Monthly
WV (-20 to 110) 715 Spraflex 427, Shell Gun
Alvania 2
McAlpine, -40 to 43.3 Chevron Open Weekly Keystone Weekly Dixon 271 Gun Chevron works
KY (-40 to 110) Gear Lubricant Spray Velox 3 Elec gun graphite very well.
SP grease Keystone
stains clothes
permanently.
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
Lock Gates - Miter
Lock and Temp Range for Sector Lubrication, for Pintles, Lubrication, for Strut Lubrication,
State E EC (E EF) Gears Method Gudgeon Pin Method Arms Method Comments
Lubrication Freq of Lubrication Freq of Lubrication Freq of
B-3
McNary, Below -17.7 Keystone 2 to 4 weeks, Husk-ITT Each gate Husk-ITT 6 months Enclosed
OR to 37.7 (0 to Moly 29 Manual caulk LVI-50 NT operation, LVI-50 NT Manual gun gears-Texaco
100+) above gun Grease every 4 hours, Grease Cepheus 150
water auto Farval change
10 years. LVI-
50 Biode-
gradable food
grade
Newburgh, 26.1 to 37.7 Keystone Monthly Valvoline Weekly Dixon 271
IN (-15 to 100) Moly 29 Caulk gun 612 EP Pwr gun
Old Hickory, -6.6 to 35 (20 Chevron Open Monthly Keystone Monthly May be hard to
TN to 95) Gear Lubricant Spray, Velox 3 Gun purchase
SP and Key- paddles Velox 3 in
stone Moly 29 future.
Port Allen, -28.8 to 40.5 B & R Open As needed Certified Lab. Weekly Certified Weekly B&R stays on,
LA (20 to 105) Gear Weekly Premalube Gun Lab. Gun few drips.
Spray Red Premalube Certified is
Red very tacky,
works well in
wet/high
pressure
environment.
Robert C. Chesterton Monthly Unocal 76 Monthly Dixon 270 3 months Chesterton-
Byrd, WV Sprayflex Gold Spray Redtac 2 Gun graphite Gun Good
grease adhesion in
wet conditions
Smithland, Keystone Moly Monthly British Weekly Dixon
IL 29 Paddles Petroleum Gun graphite
Ener-grease grease
LS-EP2
Starved -34.4 to 43.3 Bowman Dist. 6 months Chevron Pintles-daily, Chevron Enclosed
Rock, IL (-30 to 110) Barnes Grp. Spray Ultra-Duty Gudgeon Mo. Ultra-Duty gears
Part No. 19464 Grease EP Gun Grease EP
Open Gear & NLGI 2 NLGI 2
Fifth Wheel
Winfield, Kendall
WV L-427
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
B-4
Lock Gates - Sector
Lock and State E EC (E EF) Gudgeon Pin Lubrication Comments
Temp
Range Lubrication for Pintles, Freq of
Bayou Boeuf, LA Certified Premalube Weekly Gun
Lock Gates - Vertical Lift and Submergible Vertical Lift
Lock E EC (E EF) Wire Rope Lubrication Gears Lubrication Gears Comments Lubrication
Temp Lubrication Lubrication Lubrication Lubrication for
Range for Hoist Freq of for Open Freq of for Enclosed Other Equipment or Freq of
Lockport, -28.8 to 48.8 Stainless None Mobil SHC Told not to lube wire
IL (-20 to 120) steel 630 ropes
Lower -28.8 to 40.5 Chemsearch 3 months Tribol Molub- 3 months Texaco
Monu- (-20 to 105) High Core Manual Alloy 412-1 Manual Meropa 150
mental, Open Gear
WA
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
B-5
Culvert Valves - Reverse Tainter and Tainter
Lock and Range for Lubrication, Wire Rope, tion, for Open tion, Enclosed
State E EC (E EF) Trunnion Method Chains Method Gears Method Gears Other
Temp Lubrica-tion Freq of for Hoist Lubrica- cation Lubrica- tion for
Lubrication Freq of Lubri- Freq of Lubrica-
Aberdeen, Exxon EP0 Monthly
MS winter Gun
Exxon EP1
summer
Cheatham, Keystone Monthly Chevron Monthly Chevron Monthly
TN Velox 3 Air gun Open Gear Spray Open Spray
Lube SP Gear
Lube SP
John T. Amoco Monthly
Meyers, OH Super Elec gun
Permalube
grease
Lock No. 8, -40 to 48.8 Mobil EAL Weekly Rope - Yearly Mobil SHC Seals -
WI (-40 to 120) 102 Gun Lubriplate Spray 630 Mobil EP1,
L0135-063 EAL 101,
mo, gun
Lock and -45.5 to 37.7 Shaeffers Monthly Mobil SHC Cam limit
Dam No. 7, (-50 to 100) 271 Gun 630 switch -
MN Synthetic H- Mobilgear
1 629
Lock and -28.8 to 37.7 Lubriplate 2 Weeks Stainless None Lubriplate Lubricating
Dam No. 12, (-20 to 100) 1242 Gun steel 1242 Brush Eng.
IA Almasol
607 SAE
90, yearly
Lock and -28.8 to 40.5 Amoco 2 weeks Rope- 6 months Amoco 2 weeks Mobil SHC
Dam No. 18, (-20 to 105) Ryotek EP Gun Drumund Spray Ryotek Gun 630
IL Core EP
Lower -1.6 to 32.2 Mountain Oil Weekly Texaco
Monumental, (35 to 90) DY-80 Gun Meropa
WA 150, 3
months
McAlpine, -40 to 43.3 Keystone Weekly
KY (-40 to 110) Velox 3 Elec gun
McNary, OR Below 47.7 Husk-ITT Daily
to 37.7 (0 to LVI-50 Manual Farval
100+)
Newburgh, 26.1 to 37.7 Valvoline Monthly Keystone Rollers,
IN (-15 to 100) 612 EP Pwr gun Moly 29 Wheels-
Valvoline
612 EP
Old Hickory, -6.6 to 35 Keystone Monthly
TN (35 to 65) Velox 3 Gun
Port Allen, -28.8 to 40.5 Certified Weekly
LA (20 to 105) Prem-I-Lube Gun
Red
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
Culvert Valves - Reverse Tainter and Tainter
Lock and Range for Lubrication, Wire Rope, tion, for Open tion, Enclosed
State E EC (E EF) Trunnion Method Chains Method Gears Method Gears Other
Temp Lubrica-tion Freq of for Hoist Lubrica- cation Lubrica- tion for
Lubrication Freq of Lubri- Freq of Lubrica-
B-6
Robert C. Unocal 76 Monthly Stainless None Cylinder rod
Byrd, WV Redtac 2 Gun rope guide
Chesterton
Sprayflex
Gold
Culvert Valves - Stoney
Lock and Range Roller Freq of for Hoist Wire Lubrica- Lubrication for Lubrica- for Enclosed
State E EC (E EF) Trains Lubrication Rope, Chains tion Open Gears tion Gears Other
Temp tion for Lubrication Freq of Freq of Lubrication
Lubrica-
Hiram M. 12.2 to 37.7 Certified Lube 3 times per TexacoTexclad
Chittenden, (10 to 100) Trac Plus week 23/week,
WA Dynaco Tacky Spray paddle
Lube
Marmet, -28.8 to 43.3 Kendall Mobil SHC 634
WV (-20 to 110) L-427
Culvert Valves - Butterfly and Slide
Lock and Temp Range Lubrication, for Wheels, tion, for Open tion, Enclosed
State E EC (E EF) Type Trunnion Method Rollers Method Gears Method Gears
Freq of Lubrication Lubrica- Lubrication Lubrica- tion for
Freq of Freq of Lubrica-
Dashields, -31.6 to 35 Butterfly Lubriplate 630 AA Monthly
PA (-25 to 95) Gun
Lockport, -28.8 to 48.8 Slide Mobil Mobilith Monthly
IL (-20 to 120) SHC 220 Gun
Starved Rock, -34.4 to 43.3 Slide Chevron Ultra-
IL (-30 to 110) Duty Grease
EP NLGI 2
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
B-7
Dam Gates - Roller
Lock and Range for Hoist Lubrica- for Open Lubrica- Lubrication for Other Equipment Lubrica-
Dam E EC (E EF) Chain tion Gears tion Enclosed Gears or Comments tion
Temp Lubrication Freq of Lubrication Freq of Lubrication for Freq of
Lock and -45.5 to 37.7 Mobil EAL 224H 6 months Lubrication 6 months Mobil Mobilube
Dam No. 7, (-50 to 100) Hydraulic Oil Spray Eng. Spray HD 80w90,
MN Pyroshield Brush annually
5182 and 5100
and Mobiltac
375 NC
Lock and 28.8 to 37.7 Lubricating Eng. 6 months Lubriplate 6 months Lubricating Eng.
Dam (-20 to 100) Quinplex Plate Spray 1242 Gun Almasol 607
No. 12, IA Oil #10 SAE 90
Lock No. 8, -40 to 48.8 Mobil EAL 102 2 / year Mobil EAL 2 / year Shaeffers SYN Pillow blk bearings 2 / year
WI (-40 to 120) Gun 102 Brush 75-90 EAL 102
Marmet, -28.8 to 43.3 Chesterton 715 3 months Chesterton 3 months Gear Oil Wire rope 3 months
WV (-20 to 110) Spray Gold Spray 85-140 Chesterton 715
Robert C. Chesterton Chesterton 6 months Mobil SHC 634
Byrd, WV Sprayflex Gold Spray Sprayflex Gold Spray ISO VG 460
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
B-8
Dam Gates -Tainter
Lock and Range tion for tion, for Hoist Wire tion, for Open tion, Lubrication for
Dam E EC (E EF) Trunnions Method Rope, Chains Method Gears Method Enclosed Gears
Temp Lubrica- Lubrica- Lubrication Lubrica- Lubrication Lubrica-
Freq of Freq of Freq of
John T. Amoco 4 mo. or Keystone As need Helical - Gulf 100
Meyers, OH Super after Moly 29 6 to 12
Permalube submer. mo calk. Worm - Mobil -
grease gun SHC 634
Lock and -28.8 to 37.7 Lubriplate 6 months Chains - 6 months Lubriplate 6 months Lubricating Eng.
Dam (-20 to 100) 1242 Gun Lubricating Eng. Spray 1242 Gun Almasol 607
No. 12, IA Quinplex Plate SAE 90
Oil #10
Lock and -45.5 to 37.7 Mobil 6 months Mobil EAL 224H 6 months Lubrication 6 months Mobil Mobilube HD
Dam No. 7 (-50 to 100) Mobilux EP Hydraulic Oil Eng. 80w90, annually
2 Pyroshield
5182 and 5100
and Mobiltac
375 NC
Lock -40 to 48.8 Mobil EAL 6 months Chains - Mobil Yearly Mobil EAL 102 2 / year Shaeffers SYN
No. 8, WI (-40 to 120) 102 Gun EAL 102 Gun Brush 75-90, as needed
Lock and -28.8 to 40.5 Amoco 2 weeks Rope - 6 months Amoco Amovis Weekly Mobil SHC630
Dam (-20 to 105) Ryotek EP Gun Drummond Spray 8-X Brush
No. 18, IL Core
McAlpine, -40 to 43.3 Keystone 6 months Keystone Yearly Mobil SHC 634
KY (-40 to 110) Velox 3 Gun Moly 29 Calk. gun
(Excel staying
power)
Newburgh, -26 to 37.7 Valvoline 4 months Stainless rope Inspect Keystone 3 mo. Amoco Gear
IN (-15 to 100) 612 EP Pwr gun monthly Moly 29 more if Lube SAE 90
used freq
Starved -34.4 to 43.3 Chevron 6 months Bowman Dist. 6 months Mobil SHC 630
Rock, IL (-30 to 110) Ultra-Duty Gun Barnes Grp. Spray
Grease EP Part No. 19464
NLGI 2 Open
Gear&Fifth
Whl
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
B-9
Dam Gates - Vertical Lift
Lock E EC (E EF) Wire Rope Method Gears Method Enclosed Gears or Comments Method
Temp Lubrication Lubrica- Lubrication Lubrica- Lubrication for Lubrica-
Range for Hoist tion, for Open tion, Lubrication for Other Equipment tion,
Freq of Freq of Freq of
Aberdeen, Lubriplate 3 months Lubriplate 3 months Seals - Royal Oil 3 months
MS Gearshield Spray Gearshield Spray Grease NLGI 1 Gun
Extra Spray Extra Spray
Lower 28.8 to 40.5 Chemsearch 3 months Tribol Molub- 3 months Texaco Meropa Wheels - Mountain
Monumental, (-20 to 105) High Core Manual Alloy 412-1 Manual 150 Oil DY-80
WA Open Gear
McNary, Chevron Rust Yearly Keystone Yearly Mobil Mobilgear Wheels - Texaco Grease
OR Preventive Paint Moly 29 Caulk gun 632 Change Novatex 1 pump
EPS 254105 brush 8 years
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
B-10
Hydraulic Fluids
Lock bar (psi) or Testing Pump Type of Change Lock Gates Culvert Valves Dam Gates
Hydraulic Fluids For Operation Frequency
Press of Change Filter, Freq
Aberdeen, Shell Telus 22 Shell Telus 22
MS
Bayou Shell Tellus No. 46 17.2 to 34.6 Nachi- Fairey Arlon
Boeuf, Superior Ind. Turb. (250 to 500) Fujikoshi 200 series,
LA 1651 (Biodegradable) semi yearly or as
swashplate indicator
style - PVS requires
Cheatham, Shell Tellus Shell Tellus 24.1 (350) Vickers vane Vickers 100FF
TN No. 32 No. 32 45V50A1A2 1F 11, yearly
00880
Dashields, Army Hydraulic Army Hydraulic 27.6 (400) Racine var Magnatech,
PA Oil - 2075 Oil - 2075 vane 3 mo.
John T. Amoco Industrial Amoco Industrial 67.6 (980) Test Delaval IMO Cuno GPS
Meyers, No. 32 No. 32 annually worm gear (culvert)Cuno
OH PV2 (rest)-Turn
daily
Lockport, Amoco #68 Amoco #100 Lock 55.2-82.7 Analysis - 2-stage Schroeder line
IL Synthetic (800-1200) 6 months rotary #TF-1-2A10-S
Culvert vane Element A10
552-96.5 pump
(800-1400)
Lower Texaco Regal Texaco Regal Texaco Regal 48.3 (700) lock Yearly
Monumental, R&O 32 R&O 32 R&O 32 and dam. 51.7
WA (750) valves
Marmet, Mobil DTE 24 Comment: Have 103.4 (1500) Var displ 3 micron,
WV several hydraulic piston 3 mo
fluids for diff
equip. Seeking
to consolidate.
McAlpine, Mobil DTE 13M Mobil DTE 13M Bukhead crane 62.1-68.9 Screw Cuno 12569,
KY hydraulics- (900-1000) drain sed
Chevron ISO 32 for Mobil monthly/
McNary, Texaco Regal 32 Head gates - Culvert- Culvert filter
OR Chevron Grade 17.2 (250) change 6
E Mil-H-5606E Dam-199.9 months
(2900) Dam filter
change monthly
Newburgh, Amoco AW 32 Amoco AW 32 75.8 (1100) Screw const Cuno PV-2 auto
IN deliv clean
Old Hickory, Shell Telus 32 Shell Telus 32 10.3-41.4 Test 6 Vickers Fairey Arlon
TN (150-600) months model V460 370-L-210A,
2 mo. or as
needed
Port Allen, Lubriplate HO 1 Lubriplate HO 1 10.3-87.2 Test 6 Var disp Wix 51071 and
LA (150 to 1250) months gear 51092, yearly
Robert C. Unocal 76 Unax Unocal 76 Unax 120.7 (1750) Test yearly Vickers Vickers,
Byrd, WV AW 32 AW 32 6 months
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
Hydraulic Fluids
Lock bar (psi) or Testing Pump Type of Change Lock Gates Culvert Valves Dam Gates
Hydraulic Fluids For Operation Frequency
Press of Change Filter, Freq
B-11
Smithland, Bulkhead Crane
IL Jeffery Unit cone
drive Gulf Har-
mony 115 HD 680
Starved Chevron Clarity 6 months Vickers Schroeder A10,
Rock, IL Hydraulic Oil 2-stage vane 6 months
AW ISO 46
Winfield, WV Mobil DTE 11M Mobil DTE 11M Mobil DTE 11M 144.8 (2100)
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
B-12
Environmentally Acceptable Lubricants
Lock/Location Lubricant Comments
Bayou Boeuf, Superior Ind. Yes. Biodegradable hydraulic oil seemed to do a good job in our old equipment and will be used in new
LA Turbine 1651 equipment when warranty is out. Food grade grease will not hold up under EP or exposed to weather
as well as petroleum or synthetic.
Bayou Boeuf, Biodegradable hydraulic oil seemed to do a good job and will be used as soon as new equip. warranty
LA runs out. Food grade will not hold up under water or exposed to weather as well as petroleum or
synthetic.
Dashields, PA Dubois Chem - Satisfactory
MPG-2
Greenup, WV Yes. When the equipment was pulled out of the water, a black fungus looking substance coated it.
Hiram M. Mobil EAL Yes. So far so good. Used in floating plant equipment, cranes etc.
Chittenden, Hydraulic Fluid
WA
John T. Yes. Good comparison with petroleum or synthetic lubricants.
Meyers, OH
Lock No. 8, Mobil EAL 101 Working out fine. No problems yet. EAL 102 not avail in grease gun tubes.
WI and 102
Lock and Dam Yes. Not as good as petroleum or synthetic but adequate. Recently have tried Mobil EAL 224H on
No. 7 chains.
Lock and Dam Cenpeco Special Yes. Used for 3 years on dam roller and tainter gate chains to prevent river contamination. No
No. 12, IA Chain Penetrant problems but too early to tell if they are doing as well as the old petroleum oil used for many years.
Lock and Dam No. Tried food grade and found it to be a poor lubricant.
No. 18
Lockport, IL No. Actively seeking EALs for wire rope. Other locks have tried biodegradable hydraulic oil and had
poor results.
Lower Have been unable to find environmentally acceptable lubricants that will work in our environment. Used
Monumental, food acceptable grease that works well but will not work in grease gun or automatic Farval units.
WA
Marmet, WV Yes. Experienced bacterial growth.
McNary, OR Yes. Husk-ITT LVI-50 on lock gates and culvert valves. We have been phasing in LVI-50 since 1987
and have not seen any evidence of inadequate lubrication since changing to it. Also use Husk-ITT
15A14 Lube Oil on pump oil lube bearings.
Old Hickory, Have tested food grade lubricants on open gears, miter block (gates), and wire ropes. Grease does
TN not hold up in environment. When time to replace seal bearings, will replace greaseable bearings with
nongreaseable Thordon bearings.
Port Allen, LA No. Informed by sales people that food grade or environmentally acceptable are not as good as
petroleum or synthetic for our application.
Wheeler Aux. Mobil EAL 100H Satisfactory on culvert valve and miter gate machinery after 5 years of service.
Lock
Big Cliff Dam Mobil EAL 101 Satisfactory on turbine wicket gate bushings after 1 year.
Huxtable Mobil EAL 102-EP Satisfactory in right angle gear box.
Pumping Plant
Wheeler Aux. Mobil EAL 224H Satisfactory in miter gate hydraulic system.
Lock
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
Environmentally Acceptable Lubricants
Lock/Location Lubricant Comments
B-13
Petti Bone Mobil EAL 224H Satisfactory in hydraulic systems after 5 years. Spills congeal on surface of water making cleanup
Floating Snag easier.
Vessel
Carri Tuck Mobil EAL 224H Satisfactory. Using 3-year replacement cycle but may not be necessary.
Multipurpose
Vessel
Jordan Lake Mobil EAL 224H Satisfactory after 6 years of service in hydraulic system. Can see spill on concrete because of extreme
Intake Tower black biological growth. Change-over was easy .
Wilmington Mobil EAL 224H Four years service on crane. Installed heater and cooler to address temperature extremes.
District Repair
Facility
Olmsted Mobil EAL 224H Hydraulic fluid thickened in cold weather.
Prototype
Wicket Dam
Crane Barges Mobil EAL 224H In service in cranes for 4 years. Immersion heaters used at low temperatures.
Fry & Merritt
Ballard Locks Mobil Envirosyn H Satisfactory. Change-over was easy.
Huxtable Mobil EAL 224H Satisfactory.
Pumping Plant
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
B-14
Lubrication for Additional Equipment 1
Lock Mooring Bits Gear Box Bearings Cable Compressor Bubbler Crane Cables
Floating Tow Haulage Tow Haulage Tow Haulage
Cheatham, TN Keystone Valvoline
Velox 3 Hydro-Lube
SAE 80w90
Dashields, PA Lubriplate Mobil DTE Certified Lube-Trac Certified
630 AA Ex Heavy + CCx 77
John T. Meyers, Chemsearch
OH High Core
Lock No. 8, WI Shaeffers SYN Mobil EAL 102 Rotary-Roots LuBest Titan
75-90 Dresser ISO 999
VG 220
Lock and Dam Lubricating Lubriplate 1242
No. 12, IA Eng. Almasol
607 SAE 90
Lower Mountain
Monumental, Oil DY 80
WA
Marmet, WV Kendall L-427,
Shell Alvania 2
McAlpine, KY Mobil SHC 460 Fluid Film
WRO Rust &
corrossion
McNary, OR Husk-ITT LVI-50
NT Grease,
monthly w/gun
Old Hickory, Keystone Velox 3,
TN monthly w/gun
Robert C. Byrd, Unocal 76 Redtac
WV 2, 6 months
w/gun
Smithland, IL British Petroleum Chemsearch
Energrease LS-
EP2, 6 mo. w/gun
Starved Rock, Ingersoll-Rand
IL SSR
H-IF Food
Grade Coolant,
2000 hours
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
B-15
Lubrication for Additional Equipment 2
Lock Detroit, Onan Buildings Boxes Rope Boxes Universal Gates
Generator-Deisel- Chains in Derrick Gear Derrick Wire Hoist Gear Roots Wicket
Encoder Stiff-leg Stiff-leg Stoplog Blower - Turbine
John T. Amoco
Meyers, OH 300-30 wt
Lock and Mobilith SHC 220
Dam No. 7 and Mobil SHC 630
every 2000 hours
or yearly
Lockport, UZ Engineered
IL Products Chain
& Cable Lubri-
Tec # 190118
spray, mo.
McNary, Husk-ITT
OR LVI-50,
2 days,
auto Farval
Port Allen, Shell 85W90 Certified CCx97 Shell 85w90
Lock gear grease, clear, gear
no mess, rope
absorbs
Starved Rock, Chevron 400
IL Multigrade SAE
15W-40,
6 months
EM 1110-2-1424
26 Oct 07
Change 2

C-1

Appendix C
SPECIFICATION FOR TURBINE OIL


GUIDANCE ON THE USE OF THIS SPECIFICATION

This appendix contains Guidance on the Use of This Specification, Specification for Turbine Oils,
and Guidance for Specifying Off-Line Filtration Systems.

The specification below is for zinc and chlorine-free petroleum-based turbine oils for use at
hydroelectric power plants in generator and turbine bearings, Kaplan turbine hubs, and governor
systems. For additional guidance, reference Chapter 11 Engineer Manual EM 1110-2-1424,
Lubricants and Hydraulic Fluids for Civil Works Project

Compatibility between new oil and in-service oils must be evaluated and determined by lab testing.
Only oils found to be compatible shall be mixed with in-service oil or used as replacement oil.
The compatibility testing is necessary because the new oils currently readily available on the
market may have been formulated with different additives, which may not be fully compatible with
additives of the in-service oils.

This specification shall be used for the procurement of all turbine oils, whether purchased for
initial installation, filling rehabbed hydroelectric units, or for use as additional turbine oil at
operating projects.

The method of shipment, type of containers, delivery dates, delivery point, delivery point of
contact, and other required information should be included in appropriate sections of the contract
specifications.

The turbine oil shall meet or exceed the chemical and physical requirements specified in TABLE 1.
Additional characteristics or changes in listed values should not be included in the specifications
without prior consultation with the technical proponent of the specification. The Corps
Districts/Projects may perform Quality Assurance (QA) tests on samples taken at the delivery
point. The QA tests should include, as a minimum, the viscosity, acid number, elemental
spectroscopy, and oxidation stability. Samples shall be taken from each bulk shipment and from
not less than 10 percent of the drums taken at random from drum shipments. Such samples shall
be not less than 4 L (1 gal), which may be stored in more than one sample container, and a portion
of each sample shall be saved for later confirmation tests in the event that the results from the first
tests indicate that the oil does not meet the specification requirements.

When soliciting for new contracts or orders using this specification for purchase of turbine oil that
will be mixed with the in-service oil or as a replacement oil, the government should require all
offerors to provide a 1-gallon sample of the proposed oil, which must meet the requirements of this
specification in order to be eligible for award. The solicitation must include this language. The
Government may test this oil for compatibility with the in-service oil by sending a portion (1 qt) of
new oil in an unmarked container, and a sample of in-service oil to a lab. Prior to awarding the
Contract, the compatibility of new oil must be verified by the ASTM D 7155-06 test, Standard
Practice for Evaluating Compatibility of Mixtures of Turbine Lubricating Oils. The remaining
EM 1110-2-1424
26 Oct 07
Change 2

quantity of new oil should be retained by the Government for possible further testing.
Compatibility testing should be performed at no charge to the bidders.

The personnel from Corps Districts/Project offices can contact Hydroelectric Design Center for
assistance and/or request additional information/clarification related to the information contained
in the entire document (POC: John Micetic, 503.808.4216 or john.s.micetic@usace.army.mil).





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EM 1110-2-1424
26 Oct 07
Change 2

SPECIFICATION FOR TURBINE OIL

TURBINE OIL

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. GENERAL
2. REFERENCES
3. SUBMITTALS
4. TURBINE OIL CHARACTERISTICS AND REQUIREMENTS
5. COMPATIBILITY
6. PRE-DELIVERY TESTING
7. DELIVERY
8. INSPECTION AND ACCEPTANCE.

1. GENERAL

This specification covers zinc and chlorine-free rust and oxidation inhibited (R&O) mineral oils for
use in hydraulic turbine and generator bearings, Kaplan turbine hubs, hydraulic-turbine governors,
and other applications, where high-grade turbine oil having anti-corrosion, anti-oxidation, and
anti-foaming properties is required.

2. REFERENCES

The publications listed below form a part of this specification to the extent referenced. The
publications are referred to in the text by basic designation only.

AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS (ASTM)

ASTM D 92 (2002b) Flash and Fire Points by Cleveland Open
Cup

ASTM D 97 (2004) Pour Point of Petroleum Oils

ASTM D 130 (2004) Corrosiveness to Copper from Petroleum
Products by Copper Strip Test

ASTM D 445 (2004e1) Kinematic Viscosity of Transparent and
Opaque Liquids (and the Calibration of Dynamic
Viscosity)

ASTM D 664 (2004e1) Acid Number of Petroleum Products by
Potentiometric Titration

ASTM D 665 (2003) Rust-Preventing Characteristics of Inhibited
Mineral Oil in the Presence of Water
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EM 1110-2-1424
26 Oct 07
Change 2

ASTM D 892 (2003) Foaming Characteristics of Lubricating Oils

ASTM D 943 (2004a) Oxidation Characteristics of Inhibited
Mineral Oils

ASTM D 1401 (2002) Water Separability of Petroleum Oils and
Synthetic Fluids

ASTM D 2270 (2004) Calculating Viscosity Index from Kinematic
Viscosity at 40 and 100 Degrees C

ASTM D 2272 (2002) Oxidation Stability of Steam Turbine Oils by
Rotating Pressure Vessel Oxidation Test

ASTM D 3427 (2003) Air Release Properties of Petroleum Oils

ASTM D 4057 (2000) Manual Sampling of Petroleum and
Petroleum ProductsASTM D 4177 (2000)
Automatic Sampling of Petroleum and Petroleum
Products)

ASTM D 6304 (2004ae1) Water in Petroleum Products, Lubricating
Oils, and Additives by Coulometric Karl Fisher
Titration

ASTM D 7155 (2006) Standard Practice for Evaluating
Compatibility of Mixtures of Turbine Lubricating
Oils

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR STANDARDIZATION (ISO)

ISO 4406 (1999) Coding the Level of Contamination by Solid
Particles

ISO 11171 (1999) Calibration Of Automatic Particle Counters
for Liquids

3. SUBMITTALS

Government approval is required for submittals with a "G" designation; submittals not having a
G designation are for information only. When used, a designation following the G designation
identifies the office that will review the submittal for the Government. The following shall be
submitted:



C-4
EM 1110-2-1424
26 Oct 07
Change 2
3.1 DATA

Data of Chemical and Physical Characteristics of Turbine Oil, G [, _____]

The Contractor shall furnish [_____] copies of certified test data, which show that the oil meets or
exceeds characteristics values specified in TABLE 1. The certified test data shall be submitted for
approval 30 days before the oil delivery.

3.2 SAMPLES

A gallon of proposed turbine oil, G [, _____]

The prospective bidder shall send one gallon of oil to the Government along with the bid. This oil
shall be closely representative to the oil being offered in the bid. The Government plans to send a
quart of this oil in an unmarked container to an independent laboratory for compatibility testing
with the in-service oil. The compatibility testing will be performed at no charge to the prospective
bidder. If the submitted oil sample is found to be incompatible with the in-service oil, this oil will
not be further considered in the Contract awarding process.

4. TURBINE OIL CHARACTERISTICS AND REQUIREMENTS

4.1 GENERAL PROPERTIES

The turbine oil shall be a blend of virgin petroleum-based stocks plus additives, free of zinc and
chlorine, resulting in high-grade turbine oil having anti-rust, anti-oxidation and anti-foaming
properties suitable for use in hydraulic turbines, generator bearings, Kaplan turbine hubs and
related applications. Chemical and physical characteristics of oil shall meet or exceed the
requirements listed in TABLE 1. Oil characteristics shall be determined by tests conducted in
accordance with the tests methods as noted in the table.

4.2 CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

The turbine oil shall conform to the requirements established in TABLE 1 when tested according
to the standards indicated there.

4.3 DEGRADATION

The physical and chemical properties of the oil shall not be degraded (changed from the specified
values by filtration through two-micron mechanical type filters, by centrifugal purification, or by
vacuum type purifier, all of which have been designed for turbine oil.

4.4 HOMOGENEITY

Additive agents shall remain uniformly distributed throughout the oil at all temperatures above the
pour point and up to 120 C (250 F). When the oil is cooled below the pour point, it shall regain
homogeneity while standing at temperatures of 5 C (10 F) above the pour point, and retain clear
and bright appearance.
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EM 1110-2-1424
26 Oct 07
Change 2


5. COMPATIBILITY

Before the oil is being purchased for addition to existing (in-service) oil or as replacement oil, the
Government will send samples of new and in-service oil to an independent commercial laboratory
for evaluation of compatibility between the two oils. Compatibility evaluation shall be performed
in accordance with ASTM D 7155 test, Standard Practice for Evaluating Compatibility of Mixtures
of Turbine Lubricating Oils. Potential suppliers shall contact the Contracting Officer to obtain a
representative sample of the in-service oil necessary if they wish to conduct the test.

The compatibility test requirements in this paragraph, Paragraphs 3.2 and Paragraph 6 are not
applicable for new construction.

TABLE 1

CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS REQUIREMENTS AND TEST
METHODS FOR RUST AND OXIDATION (R&O) INHIBITED ISO 68 & 100 TURBINE OILS

Chemical and Physical Characteristics
Requirements
ISO 68 Oil ISO 100 Oil
Test Method
Viscosity at 40 C, centistokes (cSt) 65-70 95-102 ASTM D 445
Viscosity Index, minimum 98 95 ASTM D 2270
Flash Point, minimum, C (F) 204 (400) 210 (410) ASTM D 92
Pour Point, maximum, C (F) -9 (16) -9 (16) ASTM D 97
Acid Number (AN) mg KOH/g, maximum 0.15 0.15 ASTM D 664
Oxidation Stability by Rotating Pressure
Vessel Oxidation Test (RPVOT), minutes,
minimum
500 500 ASTM D 2272
Oxidation Characteristics, mg KOH/g, max 0.5* 0.5* ASTM D 943
Rust Preventive Characteristics, Procedures
A and B
Pass Pass ASTM D 665
Water Content, parts per million (ppm), max 250 250 ASTM D 6304
Water Separability of Petroleum Oil 40-40-0 (30) 40-40-0 (60) ASTM D 1401
Corrosion from Oil by Copper Strip Tarnish
Test
Classification 1 Classification 1 ASTM D 130
C-6
EM 1110-2-1424
26 Oct 07
Change 2
Foaming characteristics

After 5 minutes blowing period:
Sequence 1, foam volume in ml, maximum
Sequence 2, foam volume in ml, maximum
Sequence 3, foam volume in ml, maximum

After 10 minutes settling period:
Sequence 1, foam volume in ml, maximum
Sequence 2, foam volume in ml, maximum
Sequence 3, foam volume in ml, maximum



100
50
100


10
0
10



100
50
100


10
0
10

ASTM D 892
(Option A
excluded)
Air Release Properties, minutes, maximum 30 60 ASTM D 3427
Cleanliness, ISO Code Particle Count,
particle sizes of greater than 4, 6, and 14 m
(c)
17/15/12 (c) 17/15/12 (c)
ISO 4406-99
(ISO 11171 Cal.)
Appearance Clear & Bright Clear & Bright
Visual
Observation
* At the conclusion of the 1,000 hours test, measured AN should be 0.5 or less. In addition, at
that point, the oil and water phases shall be examined for evidence of sludge and catalyst metal
corrosion. Permitted maximum level of total sludge in the oil after 1000 hours is 50 mg/kg.

6. PRE-DELIVERY TESTING

The Contractor shall test the oil or a sample blend for all chemical and physical characteristics set
forth in TABLE 1, and provide the certified test results as well as one gallon sample of the oil to
the Government at least thirty days prior to delivery.

The Contractor may conduct compatibility testing of the oil or sample blend. The Government will
provide a sample of in-service oils for such purposes on request.

The Government will conduct compatibility testing of the sample, and notify the contractor of the
results prior to purchasing of the oil.

7. DELIVERY

The Contractor shall deliver the oil according to the delivery requirements specified elsewhere in
this contract.

8. INSPECTION AND ACCEPTANCE.

At the point of oil delivery, the Government will obtain samples in a manner specified in ASTM
D 4057 or ASTM D 4177, and may perform such tests as are deemed necessary to determine
whether the oil meets the specifications values listed in TABLE 1. The delivered oil will remain in
a storage tank (if applicable) and will not be used until the test results are received from the
laboratory. Should the oil fail any test, the Contractor shall be responsible for disposing of the
delivered oil and replacing the oil at its own expense.

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EM 1110-2-1424
26 Oct 07
Change 2

GUIDANCE FOR SPECIFYING OFF-LINE FILTRATION SYSTEMS

In FY07, the R&D titled Conditioning of Turbine Oils at Corps Hydropower Facilities was
conducted, and completed in Sep 2007. This R&D effort included collating data from a field test
of mechanical-type and electrostatic-type filtration systems. The field test was performed at Chief
Joseph powerhouse in Bridgeport, WA, where three commercially available mechanical-type
filtration systems from different manufacturers were plumbed to three different governor oil
sumps. The characteristics of these mechanical systems met a generic specification requirements
set by the Corps prior to the test. In addition, an electrostatic-type filtration system, equipped with
a cellulose-type moisture scrubber was plumbed to a fourth governor sump.

Monthly testing results of filtered oil were performed and tracked over a three month period.
Collated results showed that both types of filtration systems were effective and efficient in
removing varnish and other contaminants from turbine oil. Based on this R&D, it was concluded
that the following parameters should be used as a generic guideline by the Corps personnel in the
process of specifying off-line filtration systems.

o Flow rate of maximum 8.0 GPM

o Filtration system shall not have bypass valve installed

o A thermostatically controlled heater to be attached to the filter, capable of maintaining oil
temperature of 40 C (105 F).

o A low-watt-density type oil heater element; not to exceed 12 watt/square inch. The heater
designed to automatically turn off if the system shuts down for any reason.

o The pump (screw-type or gear-type) with a pump relief valve to be mounted to the bottom
of the filter housing, allowing oil to flow through the cellulose media in an outside-in
pattern.

o The system to include a maximum indicating pressure gauge (LENZ or equal), typically
set between 32 and 35 psi, and installed on top of the filter housing to alert the operator of
the maximum differential pressure reached, and need to change the filter insert. When
energized, it must illuminate a red light signal on the control panel.

o The filter system to be equipped with oil valves positioned before and after the filter to
enable sampling of unfiltered and filtered oil.

o An automatic low pressure air regulator (vent) to be installed on top of the filter housing,
designed to aid separation and discharge of air from the oil.

o The cellulose fiber filter element to be rated at maximum 3-micron absolute and 0.8-micron
nominal, at minimum of Beta 3 75.

Notes:
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EM 1110-2-1424
26 Oct 07
Change 2
C-9


1. The size of the filtration system and its dirt holding capacity varies depending on the
quantity of oil in a particular governor sump.

2. The same characteristic for the flow and the heaters apply for electrostatic filter systems. In
addition, these systems need to be equipped with a cellulose-type moisture scrubber,
because the efficiency of this technology significantly decreases if moisture is present in
oil.

3. Heaters are not needed for systems intended to off-line filter oil in the bulk oil storage
tanks.

Training Solutions

Training Solutions

Hydraulics

Training Manual 7

Repairer Hydraulic Systems

TABLEOFCONTENTS
Section Page
SubcourseOverview............................................................................................................i
AdministrativeInstructions.............................................................................................iii
GradingandCertificationInstructions............................................................................iv
Lesson1:HydraulicPumps...........................................................................................11
PartA:PositiveDisplacementPumps.....................................................................12
PartB:GearPump...................................................................................................15
PartC:VanePump.................................................................................................111
PartD:PistonPump...............................................................................................112
PracticeExercise.......................................................................................................119
AnswerKeyandFeedback.......................................................................................122
Lesson2: HydraulicValves............................................................................................21
PartA:PressureControlValves...............................................................................22
PartB:DirectionalControlValves...........................................................................25
PartCControlValveRepair.....................................................................................28
PracticeExercise.......................................................................................................215
AnswerKeyandFeedback.......................................................................................218
Examination....................................................................................................................E1
AppendixA:ListofCommonAcronyms.......................................................................A1
AppendixB:RecommendedReadingList....................................................................B1
AppendixC:MetricConversionChart.........................................................................C1
iii EN 5260
AppendixD:PublicationExtracts...............................................................................D1
StudentInquirySheets
EN 5260 iv
LESSON1
HYDRAULICPUMPS
CriticalTasks:0512351180
0512352186
OVERVIEW
LESSONDESCRIPTION:
Thislessonwillintroduceyoutopositivedisplacementpumpsusedonengineer
constructionequipment.Includedarethestepsrequiredtodisassemblepumps,repair
orreplacecomponents,andreassemblepumps.
TERMINALLEARNINGOBJECTIVE:
ACTION: Youwilllearnthetypesofpositivedisplacementpumpscommonly
usedonengineerconstructionequipmentandtheprocedures
requiredtodisassemble,repair,andreassemblethem.
CONDITION: Youwillbegiventhematerialcontainedinthislesson.Youwill
workatyourownpaceandinyourownselectedenvironmentwith
nosupervision.
STANDARD: Youwillcorrectlyanswerthepracticeexercisequestionsatthe
endofthelesson.
REFERENCES: ThematerialcontainedinthislessonwasderivedfromSTP
562B1SM,STP562B24SMTG,TM52350262201,TM
52350262202,TM5241023734,TM5380526220,and
TM5380526234.
INTRODUCTION
Hydraulicsisthescienceofusingforceandmotiontomoveconfinedliquid.Ina
hydraulicdevice,atransferofenergytakesplacewhenliquidissubjecttopressure.
Thefollowingfourbasicprinciplesgovernhydraulics:
1-1 EN 5260
Liquidshavenoshapeoftheirown;theyconformtotheshapeoftheir
container.
Liquidsareincompressible.
Liquidstransmitappliedpressureinalldirections.
Liquidsprovideincreasedforce.
Thefollowingkeyfactswillhelpyougainanunderstandingofhydraulics:
Hydraulicpowerisgeneratedfrommechanicalpower.
Hydraulicenergyisachievedbyconvertinghydraulicpowertomechanical
energy.
Hydraulicenergyconsistsofpotential(pressureenergy),kinetic(energyof
movingliquids),andheat(energyofresistancetofluidflow[friction]).
Hydraulicenergyisneithercreatednordestroyed,onlyconvertedto
anotherform.
Energyinahydraulicsystemisconsideredeitherwork(gain)orheat(loss).
Heatiscreatedandenergyislostwhenamovingliquidisrestricted.
PARTA:POSITIVEDISPLACEMENTPUMPS
11. General.Pumpsareusedtoliftortransportliquid.Theymayraisetheliquid
levelorforcetheliquidthroughahydraulicsystem.
a. Pumpsinahydraulicsystemareusedtoconvertmechanicalenergyto
hydraulicenergy.Mechanicalpowercreatesapartialvacuumatthepump'sinletport
sothatatmosphericpressureinthereservoircanforceliquidthroughtheinletlineand
intothepump.Mechanicalpowerthendeliversthisliquidtotheoutletport,forcing
theliquidintothehydraulicsystem.
b. Positivedisplacementpumpsarethemostcommonhydraulicpumpson
engineerconstructionequipment.Thesepumpshavearotarymotionthatcarries
liquidfromtheinletporttotheoutletport.Theyproduceapulsatingflowofliquid.
Becausethesepumpshaveapositiveinternalsealtopreventleakage,theiroutputis
relativelyunaffectedbysystemvariations.Forexample,ifanoutletportisblocked,
pressureinthepumpwillincreaseuntiltheequipmentstallsorthepump'smotorfails.
Positivedisplacementpumpsareclassifiedaccordingtotheelementthattransmitsthe
liquidgear,vane,orpiston.
EN 5260 1-2
12. GearPump.Thegearpump(Figure11)consistsofadrivinggearandadriven
gearenclosedinafittedhousing.Thegearsrotateinoppositedirections,andthegear
teethmeshinthehousingbetweentheinletandoutletports.Astheteethofthetwo
gearsseparate,apartialvacuumisformed,whichdrawsliquidthroughtheinletport
intochamberA.LiquidinchamberAisthentrappedbetweentheteethofthetwo
gearsandthehousingandiscarriedthroughtwopathstochamberB.Astheteeth
meshagain,liquidisforcedthroughtheoutletport.
Figure11.Gearpump
13. VanePump.Inavanepump,aslottedrotorsplinedtothedriveshaftrotates
betweenfittedsideplatesinsideanellipticalorcircleshapedring(Figure12,page
14).Polished,hardenedvanesslideinandoutoftherotorslotsandfollowthering's
contourbycentrifugalforce.Chambersformedbetweensucceedingvanescarryoil
fromtheinletporttotheoutletport.Apartialvacuumiscreatedattheinletasthe
spacebetweenthevanesincreases,forcingoilthroughtheoutletastheareainthe
pumpingchamberdecreases.Becausethenormalwearpointsonavanepumparethe
tipsandtheringsurface,thesepartsarespeciallyhardenedandground.
1-3 EN 5260
To inlet port
Chamber A
Driven gear
Housing
Chamber B
Outlet port
Driving gear
Figure12.Vanepump
a.Thevanepumpistheonlypumpdesignedwithautomaticwearcompensation.
Aswearoccurs,thevanesslideoutoftherotorslotsandcontinuetofollowthering's
contour.Thus,efficiencyremainshighthroughoutthelifeofthepump.
b.Vanepumpscanbeassembledtorotateeitherleftorright.Corresponding
arrowsstampedonthepump'sbodyandcartridgeindicaterotationdirection.Rotation
isalsoindicatedinthemodelnumber.Pumpsassembledforlefthandrotation
(counterclockwisewhenviewedfromthedriveshaftend)havetheletters"LH"addedto
themodelnumber.Pumpsassembledforrighthandrotationhavenomarkings.
14. PistonPump.Onaninlinepistonpump,thedriveshaftandthecylinderblock
areonthesamecenterline(Figure13).Reciprocationofthepistonsoccurswhenthe
pistonsrunagainstaswashplateasthecylinderblockrotates.Thedriveshaftturns
thecylinderblock,whichcarriesthepistonsaroundtheshaft.Thepistonshoesslide
againsttheswashplateandareheldagainstitbytheshoeretainerplate.Theangleof
theswashplatecausesthecylinderstoreciprocateintheirbores.Whenapistonbegins
toretract,theopeningontheendoftheboreslidesovertheinletslotinthevalveplate
andoilisdrawnintotheborethroughlessthanonehalfarevolutionofthecylinder
block.Asolidareaiscreatedinthevalveplate,andthepistonretracts.Asthepiston
beginstoextendtheopening,thecylinderbarrelmovesovertheinletportandoilis
forcedthroughtheoutletport.
a. Themajorcomponentsofapistonpumpconsistofahousing,a
bearingsupporteddriveshaft,arotatinggroup,ashaftseal,andavalveplate.The
valveplatecontainstheinletandoutletportsandfunctionsasthebackcover.The
rotatinggroupincludesacylinderblock,whichissplinedtothedriveshaft;asplined
sphericalwasher;acylinderblockspring;ninepistonswithshoes;aswashplate;anda
shoeretainerplate.Whenthisgroupisassembled,thecylinderblockspringforcesthe
cylinderblockagainstthevalveplateandthesphericalwasheragainsttheshoe
EN 5260 1-4
Outlet
port
Elliptical
ring
Slotted
rotor
Drive
shaft
Inlet
port
Vanes
retainerplate.Theninepistonshoesareheldpositivelyagainsttheswashplate,
ensuringthatthepistonsreciprocateasthecylinderturns.Infixeddisplacement
pumps,theswashplateisstationary.
1-5 EN 5260
Figure13.Pistonpump
Figure13.Pistonpump
b. Displacement(outflow)fromthepistonpumpdependsonthenumberofpistons,
theirbore,andtheirstroke.Theswashplate'sangledeterminesthestroke;therefore,
thestrokecanbechangedbyalteringtheangle(Figure14).
Figure14.Pistonpumpdisplacement
PARTB:GEARPUMP
15. General.TheJ.I.CaseModelMW24Cscooploaderhasatwosection
pumponesectionprovideshydraulicpowerforthesteeringsystem;theothersection
EN 5260 1-6
Piston
Piston
shoe
Spherical
washer
Drive shaft
Swash plate
Shoe-retainer plate
Housing
Cylinder-block spring
To inlet port
To outlet port
Valve plate
Cylinder block
Maximum
displacement
Partial
displacement
Zero
displacement
0

providespowerfortheloadersystem.Thismodelhasageartype,fixeddisplacement
pumplocatedontherearof,anditisdrivenbythetransmission.Hydrauliclinescarry
fluidfromthereservoirtothepumpandfromthepumptothecontrol,demand,and
reliefvalves.
16.RemovalandRepairoftheGearPump.Whenthegearpumpbreaksdownor
doesnotoperateproperly,themaintenancesupervisorinstructstheconstruction
equipmentrepairerintheproceduresnecessarytodeterminetheextentofdamageand
possiblerepairs.Thefirststepinthisprocessistodrainthereservoir.Thepumpis
thenremovedfromthetransmissionandcompletelydisassembledbeforecleaningor
repairsbegin.Theremovalanddisassemblyprocessrequiresseveralsteps;eachstep
mustbeperformedintheorderlisted.
a. RefertoFigure15andusethefollowingstepstodrainthereservoironthegear
pump:
Removethefillerplug(1)onthehydraulicreservoirslowlytorelieveair
pressure.
Removethedrainplug(2),anddrainthefluidfromthereservoirintoa
container.
Turnthefrontendloaderfullytotheleftorright,andengagethelocking
bar.
1-7 EN 5260
Figure15.HydraulicreservoirofaJ.I.CaseModelMW24Cscooploader
EN 5260 1-8
1
4
5
6 2
3
b.RefertoFigure16andusethefollowingstepstoremovethegearpump:
Removethehoseassembliesfromthegearpump,anddrainthehydraulic
fluidintoacontainer.
Supportthehydraulicpump(3),andremovethetwocapscrews(1)and
lockwasher(2).
Removethepump(3)andbracket(4)fromthetransmissioncarefully.
Placeaprotectivecoveroverthesplineddriveshaftonthepumpandthe
mountingpadtopreventforeignmaterialfromenteringthetransmission.
Figure16.Hydraulicgearpump
c. RefertoFigure17,page18,andusethefollowingstepstodisassemblethe
gearpump:
Scribealinelengthwisealongthepumptoaidinalignmentduring
reassembly.
Removetherollerbearings(6,18,and30)withabearingpuller.Replace
themasnecessary.
Removetheseals(7,10,11,19,25,and31)anddiscard.
Removetheseal(32)fromtheshaftendcover(34).
Discardthepreformedpackingandtheseal(32).
1-9 EN 5260
4
2
3
1
EN 5260 1-10
Figure17.Gearpump,explodedview
d. Cleanallmetalpartsusingcleaningsolvent(specificationPD680)andallow
partstoairdry.Donotuseclothstodryparts.
17. InspectionoftheGearPump.RefertoFigure17,andcompletethefollowing
stepstoinspectthegearpump:
1-11 EN 5260
15
27
1
2
3
8
7
6
5
4
5
5
13
3
14
15
19
17
11
9
10
20
18 17
16
12
17
31
1
30
30
29
30
29
29
0
28
30
26
30
25
0
25
30
24
30
23
0
22
30
21
32
1
17
30
17
17
30
16
30
18
19
30
32
0
34
33
1. Nuts (4) 10. Seal 19. Seals (2) 28. Thrust plate
2. Washers (4) 11. Seal 20. Dowel pin 29. Pocket seals
(6)
3. Port end cover 12. Dowel pin 21. Connecting shaft 30. Roller
bearings (2)
4. Thrust plate 13. Driving gear 22. Driving gear 31. Seal
5. Pocket seals (6) 14. Driven gear 23. Driven gear 32. Seal
6. Roller bearings (2) 15. Bearing carrier 24. Gear housing 33. Plug
7. Seal 16. Thrust plates (2) 25. Seals (2) 34. Shaft end cover
8. Dowel pin 17. Pocket seals (12) 26. Dowel pin
a.Inspectthegearsurfacesandtheedgesofthegearteethforburrs,scoring,or
wear.Removeburrswithafinestone.Replacethegearsiftheyarewornorbadly
scored.
NOTE: Gearsmustbereplacedinsets.
b. Inspectthedrivinggear(22),andreplaceitifitisroughordamagednearthe
sealorifwearatthebearingsurfaceshascausedtheshaftdiametertodifferfromthe
designateddiameterbymorethan0.001inch.
c. Inspecttherollerbearings(6,18,and30)forfreerollers,pitting,orwear.
Replacethebearingsasneeded.
d. Inspectthegearhousings(9and24)forwearanddamage,andreplacethemas
needed.Inspectthematingsurfacesofthegearhousings(9and24),bearingcarrier
(15),portendcover(3),andshaftendcover(34)forburrsanddamage.Removeburrs
withafinefileorstone.Replacetheentirepartifthesurfaceisbadlydamaged.
e. Inspectthethrustplates(4,16,and28)forwearandscoring.Replacethe
platesasneeded.
18. ReassemblyoftheGearPump.RefertoFigure17,andcompletethe
followingstepstoreassemblethegearpump:
a. Coatthepreformedpacking,thepocketseals(5,17,and29),andtheseals(7,
10,11,19,25,31,and32)withanoilsolublegreasebeforeinstallingthem.
b. Presstheseal(32)intotheshaftendcover(34)withthelipfacingtheinsideof
thebore.
c. Usesoftjawstoplacetheshaftendcover(34)inavise.Installthepreformed
packingandrollerbearings(30)intheshaftendcover(34).
d. Greasethesixpocketseals(17)andinstalltheminthetwomiddleslotsofthe
thrustplates(16).Installthethrustplate(4)onthedriveshaftwiththepocketseal
facingtheshaftendcover(34).Tapthethrustplate(4)inplace.Leaveaclearanceof
0.03125inchbetweenthethrustplate(4)andtheshaftendcover(34).
e.Installthesixouterpocketseals(5)inthethrustplate(4).Pushthepocket
seals(5)intotheslotsuntiltheendsmakecontactwiththerollerbearings(18).Tap
thethrustplate(4)solidlyintopositionontheportendcover(3).Usearazorbladeor
asharpknifetotrimtheexposedendsonthepocketseals(5)sothattheyareflush
withthesidesofthethrustplate(4).
EN 5260 1-12
f. Usesoftjawstoplacethegearhousing(24)inavise.Installthethrustplate
(16)asdescribedinparagraph18d.
g. Placetheportendcover(3)inavise.Installtheseal(7),therollerbearings
(6),andthethrustplate(4).
h. Placethebearingcarrier(15)inavise.Installtheseals(19),theroller
bearings(18),andthethrustplates(16).
i. Placetheassembledshaftendcover(34)inavise.Coatthethrustplate(28)
withengineoil.Installthedrivinggear(22)andthedrivengear(23)intheshaftend
cover(34).
j. Installtheseals(25)inthegroovesonthegearhousing(24).Installthe
housingoverthegearsontheshaftendcover(34).Tapthegearhousing(24)witha
leatherhammertoseatitonthecover.Lubricatethegearswithengineoiltoprovide
initiallubrication.
k. Installtheconnectingshaft(21)intheboreofthepumpshaftanddrivinggear
(22).Installthebearingcarrier(15)onthegearhousing(24),andalignthescribe
marks.Tapthebearingcarrier(15)inplace.
l. Installthedrivinggear(13)ontheconnectingshaft(21)andinstallthedriven
gear(14)intheboreofthebearingcarrier(15).Insertseals(10and11)inthegrooves
onthegearhousing(9).Placethegearhousing(9)overthegearsandtapthehousing
inplace.Lubricategearswithengineoil.
m.Placetheportendcover(3)onthegearhousing(9)andtapinplace.Thread
fourstudsthroughtheportendcover(3)andintotheshaftendcover(34)untilthe
stud'sendsextendabovetheportendcover(3).Insertthefourwashers(2)andnuts
(1).Tightenthenuts(1)toasnugfit.
n.Rotatetheconnectingshaft(21)andthedrivinggear(22)witha6inch
wrench.Checktheeaseofoperation.Iftheconnectingshaft(21)rotatesfreely,tighten
thenuts(1)toatorqueof200footpounds.Rotatetheconnectingshaft(21),andcheck
theeaseofoperationasecondtime.Thepumpshouldrotatefreelywithnoevidenceof
binding.
o.Coatthesplinesoftheconnectingshaft(21)andthedrivinggear(22)with
grease.
19.InstallationoftheGearPump.Completethefollowingstepstoinstallthe
assembledgearpump:
1-13 EN 5260
a. RefertoFigure17,page18.Removetheprotectivecoverfromthesplined
connectingshaft(21)ofthegearpump,andcoattheshaftwithgrease.Installthe
pumponthemountingpad.
b. RefertoFigure16,page17.Installthegearpumpandsecureitwithtwo
screws(1)andlockwashers(2).Connectthehydrauliclinestothepump.
c. RefertoFigure15,page16,andcontinuewiththefollowingstepstoinstall
theassembledgearpump:
Replacethedrainplug(2)andstrainerassembly(6)inthereservoir.
Replacethecover(4)andthegasket(5)onthereservoir,andsecurethe
coverwithscrews(3).
Refillthereservoirwithhydraulicfluid,andreplacethefillerplug(1).
Starttheengine,andcheckthepumpandlinesforleaks.Operatethe
hydrauliccontrolsandcheckpumpoperation.
PARTC:VANEPUMP
110. General.Adoublesection,insert,hydraulicvanepumpisusedonCaterpillar
D7Gtractors.Thepumpisboltedontheengine'srearpowertakeoffhousingandis
drivenbytherearpowertakeoffidlergear.
a.Avanepumpconsistsofasmallandalargesection,bothofwhichsharea
commoninlet.Thelargesectionprovideshydraulicpowerforthebladeliftandscraper
circuits.Thebladeliftcircuitiscontrolledbyavalvelocatedinthehydraulictank.
Thescrapercircuitiscontrolledbyavalvelocatedintheequipmentoperator's
compartment.Thesmallsectionpowersthebladetiltcircuitandiscontrolledbya
valvemountedinthehydraulictank.
b.Thevanepumprequiresacontinuousflowofcleanoiltolubricatetheclosely
fittedparts.Ifinletoilisnotavailable,thepumpmayseizeorsustaindamagewhen
theengineisstarted.Insufficientoilsupplymayresultfromcloggedorleakinginlet
linesoralowoillevel.Thepumpmayneedtoberemovedforcleaningorrepair.
111.RemovaloftheVanePump.Toremovethevanepumpfromitsmounting,
completethefollowingsteps:
a.Closetheshutoffvalvelocatedonornearthereservoir.
b.Disconnectthesuction(intake)andpressure(outlet)hoses.
EN 5260 1-14
c.Removethevanepumpfromitsmountingbracketorhousing.
112.DisassemblingtheVanePump.RefertoAppendixD,pagesD7throughD
10,todisassemblethevanepump.
113. Cleaning,InspectingandRepairingtheVanePump.Afterthevanepump
isdisassembled,thoroughlycleananddryallparts(refertoAppendixD,pagesD3
throughD6andD10).Carefullyinspectandrepaircleanedpartsaccordingtothe
followingprocedures:
a.DiscardtheintakeandexhaustplatesealsandOrings.Washallmetalparts
inmineraloilsolvent,anddrythemwithfiltered,compressedair.Placethepartsona
cleansurfaceforinspection.
b.Inspectthesurfacesofthepumphousing,rotorring,androtorforscoringand
wear.Removelightscoringmarksbylappingwithanextrafineemeryclothorlapping
compound.Replaceallheavilyscoredorbadlywornparts.
c.Checktheintakeandexhaustendplatesforscoringandwear.Replacebadly
wornorheavilyscoredendplates.
d. Inspectthevanesforburrs,wear,orplayintherotorslots.Iftoomuchplayis
noted,replacetherotorandvanes.Refertotherepairandreplacementstandards
listedintheappropriateTMtodetermineifreplacementisnecessary.
e.Checktheslipringandslipringwasherforscoringandwear.Replaceheavily
scoredorbadlywornparts.
f. Checkthebearingsforwearandfit.Tocheckforpittedorcrackedballsor
race,applypressureandslowlyrotatethebearing.Replacethebearingifitiswornor
scored.Placethedriveshaftintothepilotbearingandcheckforexcessiveplay.
Replacethepilotbearingifnecessary.Refertotherepairandreplacementstandards
listedintheappropriateTMtodeterminewhenreplacementisnecessary.
g.Inspecttheoilsealmatingsurfaceofthedriveshaftforscoringandwear.If
marksonthedriveshaftcannotberemovedwithlightpolishing,replacethedrive
shaft.
h.CoatOringswithasmallamountofpetroleumjellytoholdtheminplace
duringreassembly.
114.LubricatingandAssemblingtheVanePump.Lubricateallpartswithclean
oil.RefertoAppendixD,pagesD10throughD14toassemblethevanepump.
1-15 EN 5260
115. TestingtheVanePump.RefertoAppendixD,pagesD14throughD18,totest
thevanepump.
PARTD:PISTONPUMP
116. General.ThepistonpumpisusedontheACE.Thecompensatinghydraulic
pumpisatenpiston,variabledisplacement,constantpressure,radialpump.
WARNING
TheACE'shydraulicsystemisunderhighpressure.Relievepressurebefore
disconnectinganyhydrauliccomponents.Afterpressureisrelieved,waitat
least4minutesbeforedisconnectinganyhoseorfitting.Failuretocomply
mayresultinsevereinjury.
EN 5260 1-16
117 RemovingthePistonPump.Completethefollowingstepstoremovethe
pistonpumpfromitsmounting:
a. RefertoFigure112anddisconnectthepistonpumpusingthefollowingsteps:
Disconnectthehoses(1,2,and3)fromelbows(4,5,and6).
Loosenthescrew(8)ontheclamp(9),andremovetheclampfromthe
pump(7).

a. Disconnecthoses(1,2,and3)fromelbows(4,5,and6)atpump(7).
b. Loosenscrew(8)ofclamp(9),andremoveclamp(9)frompump(9).
Figure112.Disconnectingthepistonpump
b. RefertoFigure113,page114,toremovethepistonpump.Removethetwo
selflockingscrews(10),washers(11),pump(7),andgasket(12)fromthetransfercase
(13).Discardthescrews(10)andthegasket(12).
1-17 EN 5260
9
1
8
6
3
4
7
5
2
Figure113.Removingthepistonpump
118. Disassemblingthepistonpump.Completethefollowingstepstodisassemble
thepistonpump:
a. RefertoFigure114,anddisassemblethepistonpumpusingthefollowing
steps:
Figure114.Pumpdisassembly,PartI
Figure114.Disassemblingthepistonpump,partI
EN 5260 1-18
7
10
11
12
13
5
6
15
7
14
4
17
16
19
18
Removetheelbows(4and6)andtheseals(14and15)fromthepump
(7).Discardthepacking.
Removetheelbow(5),thereducer(16),theseal(17),theelbow(18),and
theseal(19)fromthepump(7).Discardtheseals(17and19).
b. RefertoFigure115,anddisassemblethepistonpumpusingthefollowing
steps:
Removethefourcapscrews(1),compensator(2),gasket(3),andseal(4)
fromthecover(5).Discardthegasket(3)andtheseal(4).
Figure115.Disassemblingthepistonpump,partII
Removethefourscrews(6),cover(5),andgasket(7)fromthehousing(8).
Discardthegasket.
WARNING
Removetherotatinggroupasanassembly.Failuretocomplymayresultin
damagetoequipment.
c. RefertoFigure116,page116,anddisassemblethepistonpumpusingthe
followingsteps:
1-19 EN 5260
1
2
6
4
5
7
8
3
Tipthehousing(8)forwardandremovetherotatinggroup(9)fromthe
shaft(10).
EN 5260 1-20
Figure116.Disassemblingthepistonpump,partIII
Removetheswashplate(11)andthetwoscrews(13)fromtheyoke(12).
Applypressuretotheyoke(12)anduseawooddoweltodriveoutthetwo
pintles(14).
Removetheyoke(12),seat(15),andtwosprings(16)fromtheshaft(10)
andhousing(8).
Removethepacking(17)fromthepintles(14).Discardtheseal(17).
119. ReassemblingthePistonPump.Completethefollowingstepstoreassemble
thepistonpump:
NOTE:Lightlycoatallpartswithlubricatingoilbeforeassembly.Apply
lubricatingoiltopackingbeforeinstallation.
a. RefertoFigure116,andreassemblethepistonpumpusingthefollowing
steps:
Installtheseal(17)onthepintles(14).
Installthetwosprings(16),seat(15),andyoke(12)onthehousing(8).
Pressdownontheyoke(12)andalignthescrewholeswiththeholesinthe
pintle(14)seat.Installtwopintlesonthehousing(8)andtheyoke(12).
NOTE:Thepintlegroovesmustaligninthecenteroftheyoke'sscrewholes.
1-21 EN 5260
9
11
17
3
12
15 16
14
10
8
13
Installthetwoscrews(13)ontheyoke(12).Tightenthescrews(13)to75
to80footpounds.
Installtheswashplate(11)ontheyoke(12),chamferedsidefirst.Coatthe
faceoftheswashplate(11)withlubricatingoil.
Laythehousing(8)onitssideandcarefullyslidetherotatinggroup(9)on
theshaft(10),aligningthesplines.Coatthefaceoftherotatinggroup(9)
withlubricatingoil.
NOTE:Thecoverwillnotfitflushuntilthescrewsaretightened.
b. RefertoFigure115,page115,andreassemblethepistonpumpusingthe
followingsteps:
Installthegasket(7)andcover(5)onthehousingwiththefourscrews(6).
Tightenthescrews(6)to25to35footpounds.
Installthepacking(4),gasket(3),andcompensator(2)onthecover(5)with
fourscrews(1).Tightenthescrews(1)to60to70footpounds.
120.InstallingthePistonPump.Completethefollowingstepstoinstallthepiston
pump:
NOTE:Newpumpsaredeliveredwitha0.25by0.25inchkeyinstalledonthe
shaft.Discardthiskeyandusea0.25by0.225inchkey.
a. RefertoFigure112,page113.Installtheclamp(8)onthepump(7).
b. RefertoFigure113,page114,andinstallthepistonpumpusingthe
followingsteps:

Cleanthemountingsurfacesofthepump(7)andtransfercase(13).
NOTE:Applylubricatingoiltothescrewthreadsandpackingbefore
installation.
Installthegasket(12)andthepump(7)onthetransfercase(13)withthe
washer(11)andselflockingscrews(10).
c. RefertoFigure114,page114.Installthepacking(14),elbow(4),packing
(15),elbow(6),packing(17),reducer(16),packing(19),elbow(18),andelbow(5)on
EN 5260 1-22
pump(7).Thepositionoftheelbow(6)shouldpointslightlydownwardtopreventthe
hosefrominterferingwiththeejector.
1-23 EN 5260
d. RefertoFigure112,page113,andinstallthepistonpumpusingthe
followingsteps:
WARNING
Ensurethatthepumpisprimedwithlubricatingoil.Failuretocomplymay
resultindamagetoequipment.
ConnectSPNSNPUMP7hose(3)totheelbow(6).
Turntheelbow(4)toanuprightposition.Fillthepump(7)with
lubricatingoilthroughtheuprightelbow(4)untiloiloverflowsfromthe
elbow(5).
Turntheelbow(5)toadownwardposition.
ConnectSPNSNPUMP9hose(2)totheelbow(5)andconnectSPNSN
DRAIN7Vhose(1)totheelbow(4).
EN 5260 1-24
LESSON1
PRACTICEEXERCISE
Thefollowingitemswilltestyourgraspofthematerialcoveredinthislesson.Thereis
onlyonecorrectanswerforeachitem.Whenyouhavecompletedtheexercise,check
youranswerwiththeanswerkeythatfollows.Ifyouansweranyitemincorrectly,
studyagainthatpartwhichcontainstheportioninvolved.
1. Hydraulicenergyisachievedbyconvertinghydraulicpowerto_____________
energy.
A. Electrical
B. Mechanical
C. Solar
D. Kinetic
2. Positivedisplacementpumpsareclassifiedaccordingtotheelementthattransmits
theliquid.Whatarethethreeclassifications?
A. Plunger,vane,androtary
B. Centrifugal,rotary,andsuction
C. Gear,vane,androtary
D. Gear,vane,andpiston
3. Followingdisassemblyofagearpump,youshould___________________oldseals
andpreformedpacking?
A. Reuse
B. Discard
C. Turnin
D. Store
4. Scribealinelengthwisealongthegearpumptoaidinalignmentduring
__________.
A. Replacement
B. Removal
C. Reassembly
D. Disassembly
5. Followinggearpumpdisassembly,use_________________tocleanallmetalparts.
1-25 EN 5260
A. Kerosene
B. Solvent
C. Gasoline
D. Dieselfuel
6. Allpreformedpacking,pocketseals,andsealsonagearpumpshouldbecoated
with__________________beforeinstallation.
A. Motoroil
B. Hydraulicfluid
C. Oilsolublegrease
D. Gearoil
7. Whatshouldbeusedtoremoveburrsfromthebearingcarrierofagearpump?
A. Grinder
B. Roughfile
C. Finefile
D. Steelwool
EN 5260 1-26
THISPAGEISINTENTIONALLYLEFTBLANK.
1-27 EN 5260
LESSON1
PRACTICEEXERCISE
ANSWERKEYANDFEEDBACK
Item CorrectAnswerandFeedback
1. B.Mechanical
Hydraulicenergyisachievedbyconverting...(page12,Introduction)
D.Gear,vane,andpiston
Positivedisplacementpumpsareclassified...(page12,para11b)
B.Discard
Removetheseals...(page17,para16c)
4. C.Reassembly
Scribealinelengthwisealongthepump...(page17,para16c)
5. B.Solvent
Cleanallmetalpartsusing...(page18,para16d)
6. C.Oilsolublegrease
Coatallpreformedpacking...(page19,para18a)
7. C.Finefile
Removeburrswitha...(page19,para17d)
EN 5260 1-28
LESSON2
HYDRAULICVALVES
CriticalTask:0512352188
OVERVIEW
LESSONDESCRIPTION:
Inthislesson,youwilllearnthestepsrequiredtotest,adjust,andrepairhydraulic
valvesonengineerconstructionequipment.
TERMINALLEARNINGOBJECTIVE:
ACTION: Youwilllearntorepairhydraulicvalvesonengineerconstruction
equipment.
CONDITION: Youwillbegiventhematerialcontainedinthislesson.Youwill
workatyourownpaceandinyourownselectedenvironmentwith
nosupervision.
STANDARD: Youwillcorrectlyanswerpracticeexercisequestionsattheendof
thelesson.
REFERENCES: ThematerialcontainedinthislessonwasderivedfromFM5499
STP562B24SMTG,TM5380526220,andTM5380526234.

INTRODUCTION
Hydraulicsystemsusevalvestomovehydraulicfluidoroilfromonepointtoanother.
Toensuretheefficientoperationofequipment,theconstructionequipmentrepairer
mustbeknowledgeableincontrolandrepairprocedures.Inahydraulicsystem,valves
controltheactuators.Anactuatorisacylinderthatconvertshydraulicenergyto
mechanicalenergy.Forexample,thetiltcylinderonaCaterpillarD7orD8dozerisan
actuatorthatcontrolsthebladedirection.
2-1 EN 5260
a.Valvesareoftenreferredtoasthe"control"ofthehydraulicsystem,
particularlywhenseveralarebuiltintoasingleassembly.Valvesassertcontrolinthe
hydraulicsystemto
Regulatepressureandcreatespecialpressureconditions.
Regulatetheflowrateanddirectionoffluidtopartsofthehydraulic
system.
b.Valvesareratedbytheirsize,pressurecapabilities,andpressuredropversus
flowcapabilities.Mostarenamedfortheirfunction,butsomearenamedfortheir
construction.Forexample,apressurereliefvalveisnamedforitsfunction,anda
poppetvalveisnamedforitsconstruction.
c. Valveconstructionrangesfromasimpleballandseatarrangementtoa
multielement,spooltypevalvewithjetpipepilotstageandelectricalcontrol.General
constructionclassificationbeginswithsimplevalvesandbuildstocomplexdesigns.
PARTA:PRESSURECONTROLVALVES
21. General.
a. Pressurecontrolvalvesarethemostcommonvalvesonengineerconstruction
equipmentwithhydraulicsystems.Theyareusedto
Regulatepressure.
Createspecificpressureconditions.
Controltheorderinwhichactuatorsoperate.
b. Pressurecontrolvalvesoperateinhydraulicbalance.Hydraulicbalanceoccurs
whenpressureononesideorendofaball,poppet,orspoolisopposedbyaspringon
theoppositeend.Duringoperation,thepositionofthevalvecausesthehydraulic
pressuretobalancewiththeforceofthespring.Becausespringforcedifferswith
compressiondistance,theamountofpressurecandiffer.Thepressurecontrolvalve
hasinfinitepositioning.Itcancontrolconditionsfromalargetoasmallvolumeoffluid
flow,oritcancompletelyrestrictfluidmovement.
EN 5260 2-2
22.Classification.
a. Pressurecontrolvalvesareclassifiedasnormallyclosedornormallyopen.The
mostcommontype,thenormallyclosed,blockstheflowoffluidfromtheinletportto
theoutletportuntilpressurebuildshighenoughtocauseunbalancedoperation.Flow
inanormallyopenvalvemovesfreelyuntilthevalveoperatesinbalance.Theflowis
thenpartlyrestrictedorcompletelycutoff.
b. Pressureoverrideoccurswhenanormallyclosedvalveoperatesinbalance.
Becausepressureincreasesastheheightofthecompressionspringisreduced,the
pressurewhenthevalvecracksorbeginstopassflowthroughtheoutletportisless
thanwhenitpassesalargevolume(fullflow).Thedifferencebetweenfullflow
pressureandcrackingpressureiscalledoverride.
23.PressureReliefValve.
a. Thereliefvalveisthemostcommonpressurecontrolvalve.Reliefvalveshave
twofunctions.Theyprovideoverloadprotectionforcircuitcomponents,andtheylimit
theforce(torque)exertedbyalinearactuatororrotarymotor.Thefunctionofthe
reliefvalvemaychange,dependingonthesystem'sneeds.Thesevalvesareclassified
assimpleorcompound,dependingontheirdesign.
b. Theinternaldesignofallpressurereliefvalvesissimilar.Thevalveshavetwo
sectionsabodyandacover.Thebodycontainsapiston,whichisretainedonitsseat
byoneormoresprings.Thecover,alsocalledthepilotvalvesection,containsthe
adjustingscrew.Theadjustingscrewcontrolsfluidmovementtothepump'sbodyand
controlsthepressure(expressedinpoundspersquareinch[psi])withinrangeofthe
valve'sratedcapacity.
24. SimplePressureReliefValve.
a. Asimplepressurereliefvalvehasonlyonespring.Thevalveisinstalledso
thatoneportconnectstothepressureline(inlet)andtheotherconnectstothe
reservoir(outlet).Theballonthesimplepressurereliefvalveisheldonitsseatbythe
thrustofthespring.Theamountofthrustexertedcanbemodifiedbyturningthe
adjustingscrew.Whenpressureattheinletisinsufficienttoovercomethespringforce,
theballremainsonitsseatandthevalveisclosedasshowninFigure21,page24.
Thepositionoftheballpreventstheflowoffluidthroughthevalve.Whenthepressure
attheinletexceedstheadjustedspring'sforce,theballmovesoffitsseatandthevalve
opens,allowinghydraulicfluidoroilfromthepressurelinetoflowthroughthevalveto
thereservoir.Thisflowpreventsapressureincreaseinthepressureline.When
pressuredecreasesbelowtheadjustedspring'sforce,theballisreseatedandthevalve
closes.
2-3 EN 5260
Figure21.Simplepressurereliefvalve
b. Thespringforceinasimplepressurereliefvalvecausesgreaterfullflow
pressurethancrackingpressure.Whenoperatingatfullflowcapacity,thehigh
pressurecausesthevalvetooperateinanoverridemode.Insomecases,theoverride
pressureisalmostashighorhigherthanthevalve'sratedcapacity.
25.CompoundPressureReliefValve.
a. Acompoundpressurereliefvalvehasapoppetandaspringtoadjustfluidflow
(Figure22).TheclosedviewinFigure22showsthatpassage1isusedtomaintain
thehydraulicbalanceinthepistonwhenthevalve'sinletpressureislessthanthe
pressuresetting.Thevalvesettingisdeterminedbythethrustoftheadjustingspring
againstthepoppet.Whenthepressureatthevalveinletreachesthevalvesetting,the
pressureinpassage2risestoovercomethethrustofspring1.Whentheflowthrough
passagelcreatessufficientpressuredroptoovercomethethrustofspring2,thepiston
risesoffitsseatasshownintheopenview.Thisallowshydraulicfluidoroiltopass
throughthedrainageporttothereservoirandpreventsanyfurtherincreasein
pressure.
EN 5260 2-4
Adjusting
screw
Spring
Seat
From pressure line
To reservoir
Ball
Figure22.Compoundpressurereliefvalve
b.Pressurereliefvalvesthatprovideemergencyoverloadprotectionmustbe
periodicallycleanedeveniftheyarenotoperatedoften.Tocleanthevalve,reducethe
pressureadjustmentandoperatethevalveunderreducedpressureforafewminutesto
cleanouttheaccumulatedsludgedeposits.Adjustthepressuretotheprescribed
setting.
PARTB:DIRECTIONALCONTROLVALVES
26. ComplexDirectionalControlValves.Complexdirectionalcontrolvalvesare
usedonengineerconstructionequipment,includingtheJ.I.CaseScoopLoaderModel
MW24C.Allcomplexdirectionalcontrolvalvescontrolthedirectionoffluidflow,but
theyvaryconsiderablyinphysicalcharacteristicsandoperation.Thevalvingelement
intheseunitsisclassifiedunderoneofthefollowingtypes:
Poppetthepistonorballmovesonandoffaseat.
Rotarythespoolrotatesarounditsaxis.
Slidingspoolthespoolslidesaxiallywithinabore.
2-5 EN 5260

Closed view Open view

Inlet
Adjusting
screw
Drainage port
Passage 2
Piston
Poppet
Spring 1
Spring 2
Passage 1
Outlet
27.ValveClassification.
a. Directionalcontrolvalvesmaybeclassifiedaccordingtothemethodusedto
actuatethevalvingelement.Apoppetvalveisusuallyhydraulicallyoperated.A
rotaryspoolvalvemaybeoperatedmanually(leverorpistonaction),mechanically(cam
ortripaction),orelectrically(solenoidaction).Theslidingspoolvalvemaybeoperated
manually,mechanically,electrically,hydraulically,orincombination.
b.Directionalcontrolvalvesmayalsobeclassifiedaccordingtothenumberof
positionsinthevalvingelementorbythetotalnumberofflowpathsprovidedinthe
extremeposition.Forexample,athreeposition,fourwayvalvehastwoextreme
positionsandacenter(neutral)position.Eachoftheextremepositionshastwoflow
paths.
28.PoppetValve.TheoperationofasimplepoppetvalveisshowninFigure23.
Thevalvehasamovablepoppetthatclosesagainstavalveseat.Pressurefromthe
inletholdsthevalvetightlyclosed.Aslightforceappliedtothepoppetstemopensthe
valve.ThepoppetstemusuallyhasanOringsealtopreventleakage.Onsomevalves,
poppetsareheldintheseatedpositionbysprings.
Figure23.Simplepoppetvalve
29.SlidingSpoolValve.
a.Aslidingspoolvalveisalsoknownasapistontypevalvebecauseithasa
pistonwithtwoinnerareasofequalsize.Pressurefromtheinletportactsequallyon
bothinnerareasregardlessofthepositionofthespool.Theportsaresealedbya
machinefitbetweenthespoolandvalvebodyorsleeve.
EN 5260 2-6
Outlet
Valve seat
Poppet
Inlet
Closed view Open view
b.Thespoolinaslidingspoolvalveisclassifiedbasedontheflowconditions
createdwhenitisintheneutral(normal)position.Forexample,aclosedcenterspool
blocksallvalveportswhenitisintheneutralposition.Anopencenterspoolopensall
valveportswhenitisintheneutralposition.Closedcenterandopencentervalvesare
twoofmanydesignsusedforslidingspool,directionalcontrolvalves.
c.TheslidingspoolvalveisshowninFigure24.Duringoperation,thevalve
elementslidesbackandforthtoblockoruncoverportsinthehousing.
Figure24.Slidingspoolvalve
2-7 EN 5260
Outlet port blocked by piston
Spool shifted
to left
Closed to flow
Closed view
Open view
Spool shifted
to right
Open to flow
Port open
210.TwoWayValves.Twowayvalvesareusedtocontrolthedirectionoffluidflow
inahydrauliccircuit.Thesevalvesareusuallytheslidingspooltype.Asthespool
movesbackandforth,itallowsorpreventstheflowoffluidthroughthevalve.
211.FourWayValves.Fourwayvalvesalsocontrolthedirectionoffluidflowina
hydrauliccircuit.Thefluidmovementcontrolsthedirectionofaworkcylinderorthe
rotationofafluidmotor.
a. Fourwayvalvesareusuallytheslidingspooltype.Theyhavearectangular
castbody,aslidingspool,andacontrolleverforpositioningthespool.Thespoolis
precisionfittedtoaborethroughthelongitudinalaxisofthevalve'sbody.Thelandsof
thespooldividetheboreintoaseriesofseparatechambers.Portsinthevalve'sbody
leadintothesechambers.Thepositionofthespooldetermineswhichportsareopento
eachotherandwhicharesealed.Portsthataresealedinonepositionmaybe
interconnectedinanotherposition.
b. Fourway,directionalcontrolvalveshavefourportsapressure,areturn
(exhaust),andtwoworking.Thepressureportconnectstothepressureline(inlet),the
returnportconnectstothereservoir(outlet),andthetwoworkingportsconnecttothe
actuatingunit.
PARTC:CONTROLVALVEREPAIR
212.General.ThecontrolvalveonaJ.I.CaseScoopLoaderModelMW24Cenables
theoperatortodirecttheflowofhydraulicfluidtothecylindersthatoperatetheloader.
Itservesacombinationofpurposesandfunctionsasapressurerelief,directional
control,andoverloadcheckvalve.Thevalvehasthreeoperatingspoolsasshownin
Figure25.
EN 5260 2-8
Figure25.Controlvalve
a.Theupperspool(1)controlstheliftcircuit,thecenterspool(2)controlsthetilt
circuit,andthelowerspool(3)controlstheclamcircuit.
b.Whenthespoolsareintheneutralposition,oilflowfromthepumpisdirected
throughthevalvetotheoutletportandreturnedtothereservoir.Whenthespoolis
movedbythecontrollinkage,thebypassisclosedandoilflowsthroughthespoolload
checkvalvetothedesiredcylinderport.Atthesametime,aportattheoppositeendof
thecylinderisopenedtoallowoiltoflowtothecontrolvalve'soutletport.
213.DisassemblingtheControlValve.RefertoFigure26,andcompletethe
followingstepstodisassemblethecontrolvalve:
2-9 EN 5260
1
2
3
Figure26.Controlvalve
EN 5260 2-10
10
10
9
10
8
10
6
10
4
10
19
10
17
10
16
06
10
15
0
10
14
10
13
10
12
10
11
10
18
10
7
10
23
10
24
10
22
10
10
21
10
20
10
10
31
8
10
32
10
29
10
27
10
28
10
26
10
25
10
2
1
10
3
2
10
1
10
30
10
33
10
5
1. Seal assembly 10. O-ring 19. Washer 28. O-ring
2. Wiper 11. Coil 20. Spring seat 29. Spool
3. O-ring 12. Spacer 21. Spring 30. O-
ring
4. Screws (4) 13. Screw 22. Spring 31. Spool eye
5. Contact wires 14. Washer 23. Spring seat 32. O-ring
6. Connector 15. Coil 24. Washer 33. Sleeve
7. Setscrew 16. Washer 25. Retainer
8. Retaining ring 17. Stud 26. O-ring
9. Cap 18. Detent housing 27. Retainer
NOTE:Beforebeginningthedisassemblyprocess,cleanthevalve'sexterior
andportswithcleaningcompoundsolventanddrythemthoroughly.
a. Placethecontrolvalveassemblyonacleanworkbench.
b. Useanopenendwrenchtoloosenandremovethesealassembly(1).
c. Useascrewdrivertoremovethewiper(2)fromthesealassembly(1).Discard
thewiper(2).
d. RemovetheOring(3)fromthesealassembly(1).DiscardtheOring(3).
WARNING
Donotovertightentheviseasitwillcausedamagetothecontrolvalve
body.
e. Placethecontrolvalveassemblyinasoftjawedvise.
f. Loosenthedetenthousing(18).
g. Installarodorsmallprybarinthespooleye(31).
h. Loosenandremovethefourscrews(4).
i. Pulltheconnector(6)upfromthecap(9)justenoughtogainaccesstothewires
solderedtothecontacts.Tagandunsolderthewiresfromtheconnector(6)contacts.
Removetheconnector(6).
j. Removethesetscrew(7).
k. Useascrewdrivertoremovetheretainingring(8).Removethecap(9).
l. RemoveanddiscardtheOring(10)fromthecap(9).
NOTE:Onsomeunits,tapemaybeusedtoholdthecoils(11and15)and
spacer(12)together,preventingtheirremoval.Ifremovalisnotpossible,
disregardparagraph213(m)andgotoparagraph213(n).
m.Removethecoil(11)andthespacer(12)fromthedetenthousing(18).
WARNING
Holdthecoil(11)againstthespring(21)tensionwhenlooseningthescrew.
Failuretodosocouldresultinseriousinjuryfromflyingparts.
2-11 EN 5260
n.Loosenthescrew(13)withthecoil(11)againstthespring(21)tension.
Iftapeisaroundthecoils(11and15),andthespacer(12)andthescrew
(13)havenotbeenloosenedfromthestud(17),removethecoils(11and
15),thespacer(12),thescrew(13),thewashers(14and16),thestud(17),
thewasher(19),thespring(22),andthewasher(24)asanassemblyandgo
toparagraph213(q).
Iftapeisaroundthecoils(11and15),thespacer(12),thescrew(13),and
thewashers(14and16)asanassembly,gotoparagraph213(o).
Iftapeisnotused,loosenandremovethescrew(13),thewasher(14),and
thestud(17)asanassembly.Ifthescrew(13)isloosenedfromthestud
(17),removeonlythescrew(13)andthewasher(14)andgotoparagraph2
13(s).
o. Removeanddiscardthetapesecuringthecoils(11and15)andthespacer
(12).
p. Tagandunsolderthecoil(11and15)wires.
q. Separatethecoils(11and15)andthespacer(12).Ifthescrew(13)wasnot
loosenedfromthestud(17),andthewasher(24)andthespring(22)wereremovedwith
thestud(17),workthewasher(24)fromthestud(17)andremovethespring(22)and
thewasher(19).Removethescrew(13)andthewasher(14)fromthestud(17).
r. Removethecoils(11and15)andthespacer(12).Ifthescrew(13)wasloosened
fromthestud(17),thespringseat(20),thesprings(21and22)andthewasher(24);
andifscrew(13)wasloosenedfromstud(17),andspringseat(23),gotoparagraph2
13(w).
s. Removethecoil(15),thewasher(16),andthedetenthousing(18).
t. Removethewasher(19)andthespringseat(20)fromthespring(21).
u. Removethetwosprings(21and22),thespringseat(20),andthewasher(24).
v. Unscrewandremovethestud(17)fromthespool(29)ifitisnotalready
removed.
w. Removetheretainer(27)andtheOrings(26and28)fromthespool(29)bore.
DiscardtheOrings(26and28).
EN 5260 2-12
x. Removetheretainer(27)andtheOring(28)fromthespool(29)bore.Discard
theOring(28).
NOTE:Cleanallmetalpartsincleaningcompoundsolventandletthemair
dry.Donotusecompressedair.
214. InspectingandRepairingtheControlValve.RefertoFigure26,page29,
andcompletethefollowingstepstoinspectandrepairthecontrolvalve:
a.Inspectthecontrolvalvebodyforcracks,breaks,orotherdamage.Inspectthe
spoolboreforgrooves,deepscratches,orothervisiblewear.Ifdamageisdiscovered,
replacetheentirecontrolvalvebody.
b.Inspectthespool(29)forgrooves,deepscratches,orothervisiblewear.Replace
thespoolifnecessary.
c.Thefreelengthofthespring(22)shouldbe2.63inches.Useaspringgaugeand
checkthattheforcerequiredtocompressthespring(22)to1.375inchesis13.5to16.5
pounds.Theforcerequiredtocompressthespring(22)to0.938inchshouldbe18to22
pounds.Replacethespring(22)ifthefreelengthortheforcerequiredtocompressitis
notasspecified.
d.Thefreelengthofthespring(21)shouldbe4.25inches.Useaspringgaugeand
checkthattheforcerequiredtocompressthespring(21)to2.25inchesis27to33
pounds.Theforcerequiredtocompressthespring(21)to1.375inchesshouldbe38to
48pounds.Replacethespring(21)ifthefreelengthortheforcerequiredtocompress
itisnotasspecified.
e.Connectamultimeteracrossthecoil(11)wires.Themultimetershouldindicate
a45to65ohmsresistance.Connectamultimeteracrossonewireofthecoil(11)and
itsmetalhousing.Themultimetershouldindicateinfinity(opencircuit).Repeatthe
multimetertestonthesecondcoilwireanditsmetalhousing.Again,thereading
shouldindicateinfinity.Replacethecoilifthemultimeterreadingisnotasspecified.
Repeatparagraph214(e)onthesecondcoil(15).
f.Inspecttheremainingpartsforcracks,breaks,deformation,distortion,and
damagedorstrippedthreads.
215. ReassemblingtheControlValve.RefertoFigure26,page29,andcomplete
thefollowingstepstoreassemblethecontrolvalve:
NOTE:Coatallvalvepartsandbodyboreswithengineoilbeforebeginning
thereassemblyprocess.
2-13 EN 5260
a.Placearodthroughoneholeinthespool(29).Placethespool(29)inasoft
jawedvise.
b. Installthesleeve(33)onthespool(29),sleeveshoulderup.
c. Placeasmallamountofretainingcompoundonthethreadsofthespool(29).
d.InstallanewOring(32)onthespooleye(31).Installthespooleyeinthespool
(29)andtightento19to21footpounds.InstallanewOring(30)inthespoolboreof
thecontrolvalvebody.
e.Lubricatethespool(29)anditsborewithcleanlubricatingoil.Installthespool
(24)initsbore.
f.Installarodoraprybarinthespooleye(31).
g.Placethecontrolvalveassemblyinasoftjawedvise.
h.InstallanewOring(28)intheboreonthecontrolvalvebody.Installthe
retainer(27)inthebore.
i.PlaceanewOring(26)onthespool(29)andinstalltheretainer(25).
j. Placethewasher(24)andthespringseat(23)onthespool(29).Makesurethat
thewasher(24)isinthespringseat(23)hole.
k. Installthetwosprings(21and22)andthespringseat(20).Installthewasher
(19)inthespringseat(20).
l. Installthedetenthousinginthecontrolvalvebody.Tightenthedetenthousing
to30to32footpounds.
m.Installthewasher(16).
n. Installthecoil(15)andfastentheleadendstogetherwithtape.
o. Applyasmallamountofretainingcompoundtothestud'sinternalthreadsifthe
screw(13)andstud(17)wereseparated.Installthewasher(14),screwonthestud,
andtightento10to12footpounds.
p. Applyasmallamountofretainingcompoundtothestud(17)threads.Install
thestud(17)inthedetenthousing(18).
EN 5260 2-14
q. Pushdownandturnthescrew(13)toinstallthestud(17)inthespool(29).
Tightento19to21footpounds.
r. Installthespacer(12)inthedetenthousing(18).
s. Installthecoil(11).
t. InstallanewOring(10)onthecap(9).
u. Feedtheleadsfromthecoils(11and15)throughthecap(9)hole.Installthecap
inthedetenthousing(18),aligningthesetscrew(7)holewiththeholeinthedetent
housing.
v. Installtheretainingring(8)andthesetscrew(7).Tightenthesetscrew(7).
w. Solderthecoil(11and15)leadstotheconnector(6)usingarosincoresolder.
Solderoneleadfromeachcoil(11and15)tocontactB(5)inconnector(6).Solderthe
secondleadfromthecoil(15)tocontactA(5)inconnector(6).Solderthesecondlead
fromthecoil(11)tocontactC(5)inconnector(6).
x. Positiontheconnector(6)onthecap(9).Installandtightenthefourscrews(4).
y. Removetherodortheprybarfromthespooleye(31).
z. InstallanewOring(3)inthesealassembly(1).
aa.Placethesealassembly(1)inahydraulicpress,threadedenddown.Place
thewiper(2)onthesealassembly.Usea13/4inchdiameterrodtopressthewiper(2)
intothesealassembly(1)untilthewiperisflushwiththetopofthepump.
bb.Installandtightenthesealassembly(1).
cc. Installthecontrolvalveassembly.
216.TestingandAdjustingtheControlValve.Testthecontrolvalveassemblyby
observingitduringoperation.Withtheoilattherecommendedoperatingtemperature
andtheenginerunningatafastidle,checkthetimerequiredtoraisetheemptybucket
onthescooploaderfromthegroundtoitshighestraisedposition.Thisshouldtake
approximately6seconds.Ifittakesmorethan6secondsforthebuckettoraise,ensure
thatthe
ReservoirisfilledtotheproperoillevelasstatedintheappropriateTM.
OilisthetypespecifiedintheappropriateTM.
2-15 EN 5260
Suctionlineisunrestrictedandthestrainerisclean.
Scooploaderisoperatingatthecorrectfastidlespeed,asstatedinthe
appropriateTM.
Powersteeringpumpandthedemandvalveareoperatingproperly.
NOTE:Repeatthistestwithaloadedbucket.Iftheliftingtimeisgood
(6seconds)withanemptybucketbutslowwithaloadedbucket,checkthe
cylinderpacking,mainpressurereliefvalve,andhydraulicpump.
EN 5260 2-16
LESSON2
PRACTICEEXERCISE
Thefollowingitemswilltestyourgraspofthematerialcoveredinthislesson.Thereis
onlyonecorrectanswerforeachitem.Whenyouhavecompletedtheexercise,check
youranswerwiththeanswerkeythatfollows.Ifyouansweranyitemincorrectly,
studyagainthatpartwhichcontainstheportioninvolved.
1. Valvesareratedbytheir__________________,pressurecapabilities,andpressure
dropversusflowcapabilities.
A. Function
B. Construction
C. Capacity
D. Size
2. ________________________occurswhenpressureononesideorendofaball,
poppet,orspoolisopposedbyaspringontheoppositeend.
A. Leveloperation
B. Restrictedoperation
C. Hydraulicbalance
D. Definiteflow
3. Whatisthemostcommontypeofpressurecontrolvalve?
A. Relief
B. Check
C. Plunger
D. Gate
4. Thedifferencebetweenfullflowpressureandcrackingpressureiscalled
________.
A. Override
B. Spoolvalve
C. Pressuredrop
D. Pilotstage
5. Whichvalvemaybeoperatedmanually,mechanically,electrically,hydraulically,
orincombination?
A. Poppet
2-17 EN 5260
B. Rotaryspool
C. Closedcenter
D. Slidingspool
6. Theslidingspoolvalveisalsoknownasthe__________typevalvebecauseithas
a_____________withtwoinnerareasofequalsize.
A. Plunger
B. Piston
C. Sleeve
D. Poppet
7. HowmanyspoolsareinthehydrauliccontrolvalveonaJ.I.CaseModelMW24C
scooploader?
A. Two
B. Three
C. Four
D. Five
8. Whentestingthecontrolvalve,howmanysecondsshouldittakeascooploaderto
liftanemptybucket?
A. 4
B. 6
C. 8
D. 10
EN 5260 2-18
THISPAGEISINTENTIONALLYLEFTBLANK.
2-19 EN 5260
LESSON2
PRACTICEEXERCISE
ANSWERKEYANDFEEDBACK
Item CorrectAnswerandFeedback
1. D.Size
Valvesareratedby...(page22,Introduction)
2. C.Hydraulicbalance
Hydraulicbalanceoccurswhen...(page22,para21b)
3. A.Relief
Thereliefvalveisthemostcommon...(page23,para23a)
4. A.Override
Thedifferencebetweenfullflowpressure...(page23,para22b)
5. D.Slidingspool
Theslidingspoolvalve...(page26,para27a)
6. B.Piston
Theslidingspoolvalveis...(page26,para29a)
7. B.Three
Thevalvehasthree...(page28,para212)
8. B.6
Thisshouldtakeapproximately...(page214,para216)
EN 5260 2-20
APPENDIXA
LISTOFCOMMONACRONYMS
C degreesCelsius
F degreesFahrenheit
ACCP ArmyCorrespondenceCourseProgram
ACE armoredcombatearthmover
AIPD ArmyInstituteforProfessionalDevelopment
AMEDD ArmyMedicalDepartment
APO ArmyPostOffice
ATTN attention
AUTOVON automaticvoicenetwork
AV automaticvoicenetwork
AWR answerweightreference
coml commercial
cont'd continued
DED dieselenginedriven
DETC DistanceEducationandTrainingCouncil
dia diameter
DINFOS DefenseInformationSchool
DOD DepartmentofDefense
A-1 EN 5260
DSN DefenseSwitchedNetwork
EM engineeringmanual
FM fieldmanual
ft foot(feet)
GPM gallon(s)perminute
HSTRU HydraulicSystemTestandRepair
ICE InterserviceCorrespondenceExchange
in inch(es)
IPD InstituteforProfessionalDevelopment
JFK JohnF.Kennedy
lb pound(s)
lbft pound(s)perfoot
lbin pound(s)perinch
LO lubricationorder
MI middleinitial
mil military
MOS militaryoccupationalspecialty
NSN nationalstocknumber
para paragraph
psi pound(s)persquareinch
RCOAC ReservedComponentOfficer'sAdvancedCourse
reg regulation
EN 5260 A-2
RYE retirementyearending
SGT sergeant
SSN socialsecuritynumber
SSN specificationserialnumber
STP soldiertrainingpublication
TM technicalmanual
TRADOC UnitedStatesArmyTrainingandDoctrineCommand
US UnitedStates
VA Virginia
vol volume
A-3 EN 5260
THISPAGEISINTENTIONALLYLEFTBLANK.
EN 5260 A-4
APPENDIXB
RECOMMENDEDREADINGLIST
Thefollowingpublicationsprovideadditionalinformationaboutthematerialinthis
subcourse.Youdonotneedthismaterialtocompletethissubcourse.
FM5499.Hydraulics.1August1997.
STP562B1SM.Soldier'sManual,MOS62B,ConstructionEquipmentRepairerSkill
Level1.25September1990.
STP562B24SMTG.Soldier'sManualandTrainer'sGuide:MOS62B,Construction
EquipmentRepairer(SkillLevel2/3/4).15October1990.
TM52350262201.UnitMaintenanceManualVol1of2forArmoredCombat
Earthmover(ACE),M9(NSN2350008087100)(ThisItemisIncludedon
EM0035).3January1997.
TM52350262202.UnitMaintenanceManual,Vol2of2forArmoredCombat
Earthmover(ACE),M9(NSN2350008087100)(ThisItemisIncludedon
EM0035).3January1997.
TM5241023720.UnitMaintenanceManualforTractor,FullTracked,LowSpeed:
DED,MediumDrawbarPull,SSNM061,TractorWithRipper,(NSN241001223
0350)TractorWithWinch,(2410012237261)TractorWithRipperandWinterized
Cab,(2410012532118)TractorWithWinchandWinterizedCab,(241001253
2117)(ThisItemisIncludedonEM0119).30March1993.
TM5241023734.DirectSupportandGeneralSupportMaintenanceManualfor
Tractor,FullTracked,LowSpeed:DED,MediumDrawbarPull,SSNM061
TractorWithRipper,(NSN2410012230350)TractorWithWinch,(241001223
7621)TractorWithRipperandWinterizedCab,(2410012532118)TractorWith
WinchandWinterizedCab,(2410012532117)(ThisItemisIncludedonEM0119).
30March1993.
TM5380526220.OrganizationalMaintenance,Loader,ScoopType,DED,4x4,
ArticulatedFrameSteer,21/2CubicYard(J.I.CaseModelMW24C)(NSN3805
011504814)(ThisItemisIncludedonEM0115).1September1987.
TM5380526234.DirectSupportandGeneralSupportMaintenanceManualFor
Loader,ScoopType,DED,4x4,ArticulatedFrameSteer,21/2CubicYard(J.I.
CaseModelMW24C)(NSN3805011504814)(ThisItemisIncludedonEM0115).
1September1987.
B-1 EN 5260
THISPAGEISINTENTIONALLYLEFTBLANK.
EN 5260 B-2
APPENDIXC
METRICCONVERSIONCHART
ThisappendixcomplieswithcurrentArmydirectiveswhichstatethatthemetric
systemwillbeincorporatedintoallnewpublications.TableC1isaconversionchart.
TableC1.Metricconversionchart
US Units Multiplied By Equals Metric Units
Length
Inches 2.54 Centimeters
Inches 0.0254 Meters
Inches 25.4001 Millimeters
Area
Square inches 6.4516 Square centimeters
Volume
Cubic yards 0.7646 Cubic meters
Gallons 3.7854 Liters
Weight
Ounces 28.349 Grams
Pounds 453.59 Grams
Pounds 0.45359 Kilograms
Metric Units Multiplied By Equals US Units
Length
Centimeters 0.3937 Inches
Meters 39.37 Inches
Millimeters 0.03937 Inches
Area
Square centimeters 0.155 Square inches
Volume
Cubic meters 1.3079 Cubic yards
Liters 0.2642 Gallons
Weight
Grams 0.03527 Ounces
Kilograms 2.2046 Pounds
C-1 EN 5260
THISPAGEISINTENTIONALLYLEFTBLANK.
EN 5700 C-2
APPENDIXDPUBLICATIONEXTRACTS
TM5241023734,30March1993.
Usetheabovepublicationextractstotakethissubcourse.Atthetimewewrotethis
subcourse,thiswasthecurrentpublication.Inyourownworksituation,alwaysrefer
tothelatestofficialpublications.
D-1 EN 5260
THISPAGEISINTENTIONALLYLEFTBLANK.
EN 5260 D-2
D-3 EN 5260
EN 5260 D-4
D-5 EN 5260
EN 5260 D-6
D-7 EN 5260
EN 5260 D-8
D-9 EN 5260
EN 5260 D-10
D-11 EN 5260
EN 5260 D-12
D-13 EN 5260
EN 5260 D-14
D-15 EN 5260
EN 5260 D-16
D-17 EN 5260
EN 5260 D-18
D-19 EN 5260

Training Solutions

Training Solutions

Hydraulics

Training Manual 8

Strength Design For Reinforced-Concrete Hydraulic Structures

EM 1110-2-2104

CECW-ED



Engineer Manual
No. 1110-2-2104



Engineering and Design
STRENGTH DESIGN FOR
REINFORCED CONCRETE HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

Table of Contents


Subject Paragraph Page

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Purpose 1-1
1-1
Applicability 1-2 1-1
References 1-3 1-1
Background 1-4 1-2
General Requirements 1-5 1-3
Scope 1-6 1-3
Computer Programs
1-7 1-3
Rescission 1-8 1-3

CHAPTER 2. DETAILS OF REINFORCEMENT

General 2-1 2-1
Quality
2-2 2-1
Anchorage, Bar Development, and Splices 2-3
2-1
Hooks and Bends 2-4 2-1
Bar Spacing 2-5 2-1
Concrete Protection for Reinforcement 2-6
2-2
Splicing 2-7 2-2
Temperature and Shrinkage Reinforcement 2-8 2-3

CHAPTER 3.
STRENGTH AND SERVICEABILITY REQUIREMENTS

General 3-1 3-1
Stability Analysis
3-2 3-1
Required Strength 3-3
3-2
Design Strength of Reinforcement 3-4 3-6
Maximum Tension Reinforcement 3-5 3-6
Control of Deflections and Cracking 3-6 3-6
Minimum Thickness of Walls 3-7 3-7






OS Software


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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1-1. Purpose
This manual provides guidance for designing reinforced-concrete hydraulic
structures by the strength-design method.
1-2. Applicability
This manual applies to all HQUSACE/OCE elements, major subordinate commands,
districts, laboratories, and field operating activities having civil works
responsibilities.
1-3. References
a. EM 1110-1-2101, Working Stresses for Structural Design.
b. EM 1110-2-2902, Conduits, Culverts, and Pipes.
c. CW-03210, Civil Works Construction Guide Specification for Steel
Bars, Welded Wire Fabric, and Accessories for Concrete Reinforcement.
d. American Concrete Institute, "Building Code Requirements and
Commentary for Reinforced Concrete," ACI 318, Box 19150, Redford Station,
Detroit, MI 48219.
e. American Concrete Institute, "Environmental Engineering Concrete
Structures," ACI 350R, Box 19150, Redford Station, Detroit, MI 48219.
f. American Society for Testing and Materials, "Standard Specification
for Deformed and Plain Billet-Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement," ASTM
A 615-89, 1916 Race St., Philadelphia, PA 19103.
g. American Welding Society, "Structural Welding Code-Reinforcing
Steel," AWS D1.4-790, 550 NW Le Jeune Rd., P.O. Box 351040, Miami, FL 33135.
h. Liu, Tony C. 1980 (Jul). "Strength Design of Reinforced Concrete
Hydraulic Structures, Report 1: Preliminary Strength Design Criteria,"
Technical Report SL-80-4, US Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station,
3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS 39180.
i. Liu, Tony C., and Gleason, Scott. 1981 (Sep). "Strength Design of
Reinforced Concrete Hydraulic Structures, Report 2: Design Aids for Use in
the Design and Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Hydraulic Structural Members
Subjected to Combined Flexural and Axial Loads," Technical Report SL-80-4,
US Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, 3909 Halls Ferry Road,
Vicksburg, MS 39180.
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j. Liu, Tony C. 1981 (Sep). "Strength Design of Reinforced Concrete
Hydraulic Structures, Report 3: T-Wall Design," Technical Report SL-80-4,
US Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, 3909 Halls Ferry Road,
Vicksburg, MS 39180.
1-4. Background
a. A reinforced concrete hydraulic structure is one that will be
subjected to one or more of the following: submergence, wave action, spray,
chemically contaminated atmosphere, and severe climatic conditions. Typical
hydraulic structures are stilling-basin slabs and walls, concrete-lined
channels, portions of powerhouses, spillway piers, spray walls and training
walls, floodwalls, intake and outlet structures below maximum high water and
wave action, lock walls, guide and guard walls, and retaining walls subject to
contact with water.
b. In general, existing reinforced-concrete hydraulic structures
designed by the Corps, using the working stress method of EM 1110-1-2101, have
held up extremely well. The Corps began using strength design methods in 1981
(Liu 1980, 1981 and Liu and Gleason 1981) to stay in step with industry,
universities, and other engineering organizations. ETL 1110-2-265, "Strength
Design Criteria for Reinforced Concrete Hydraulic Structures," dated
15 September 1981, was the first document providing guidance issued by the
Corps concerning the use of strength design methods for hydraulic structures.
The labor-intensive requirements of this ETL regarding the application of
multiple load factors, as well as the fact that some load-factor combination
conditions resulted in a less conservative design than if working stress
methods were used, resulted in the development of ETL 1110-2-312, "Strength
Design Criteria for Reinforced Concrete Hydraulic Structures," dated 10 March
1988.
c. The revised load factors in ETL 1110-2-312 were intended to ensure
that the resulting design was as conservative as if working stress methods
were used. Also, the single load factor concept was introduced. The guidance
in this ETL differed from ACI 318 Building Code Requirements and Commentary
for Reinforced Concrete primarily in the load factors, the concrete stress-
strain relationship, and the yield strength of Grade 60 reinforcement.
ETL 1110-2-312 guidance was intended to result in designs equivalent to those
resulting when working stress methods were used.
d. Earlier Corps strength design methods deviated from ACI guidance
because ACI 318 includes no provisions for the serviceability needs of
hydraulic structures. Strength and stability are required, but serviceability
in terms of deflections, cracking, and durability demand equal consideration.
The importance of the Corps hydraulic structures has caused the Corps to move
cautiously, but deliberately, toward exclusive use of strength design methods.
e. This manual modifies and expands the guidance in ETL 1110-2-312 with
an approach similar to that of ACI 350R-89. The concrete stress-strain
relationship and the yield strength of Grade 60 reinforcement given in ACI 318
are adopted. Also, the load factors bear a closer resemblance to ACI 318 and
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are modified by a hydraulic factor, H
f
, to account for the serviceability
needs of hydraulic structures.
f. As in ETL 1110-2-312, this manual allows the use of a single load
factor for both dead and live loads. In addition, the single load factor
method is required when the loads on the structural component include
reactions from a soil-structure stability analysis.
1-5. General Requirements
Reinforced-concrete hydraulic structures should be designed with the strength
design method in accordance with the current ACI 318, except as hereinafter
specified. The notations used are the same as those used in the ACI 318 Code
and Commentary, except those defined herein.
1-6. Scope
a. This manual is written in sufficient detail to not only provide the
designer with design procedures, but to also provide examples of their
application. Also, derivations of the combined flexural and axial load
equations are given to increase the designers confidence and understanding.
b. General detailing requirements are presented in Chapter 2.
Chapter 3 presents strength and serviceability requirements, including load
factors and limits on flexural reinforcement. Design equations for members
subjected to flexural and/or axial loads (including biaxial bending) are given
in Chapter 4. Chapter 5 presents guidance for design for shear, including
provisions for curved members and special straight members. The appendices
include notation, equation derivations, and examples. The examples
demonstrate: load-factor application, design of members subjected to combined
flexural and axial loads, design for shear, development of an interaction
diagram, and design of members subjected to biaxial bending.
1-7. Computer Programs
Copies of computer programs, with documentation, for the analysis and design
of reinforced-concrete hydraulic structures are available and may be obtained
from the Engineering Computer Programs Library, US Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station, 3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, Mississippi 39180-6199.
For design to account for combined flexural and axial loads, any procedure
that is consistent with ACI 318 guidance is acceptable, as long as the load
factor and reinforcement percentage guidance given in this manual is followed.
1-8. Recission
Corps library computer program CSTR (X0066), based on ETL 1110-2-312, is
replaced by computer program CASTR (X0067). Program CASTR is based on this
new engineer manual.
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CHAPTER 2
DETAILS OF REINFORCEMENT
2-1. General
This chapter presents guidance for furnishing and placing steel reinforcement
in various concrete members of hydraulic structures.
2-2. Quality
The type and grade of reinforcing steel should be limited to ASTM A 615
(Billet Steel), Grade 60. Grade 40 reinforcement should be avoided since its
availability is limited and designs based on Grade 40 reinforcement, utilizing
the procedures contained herein, would be overly conservative. Reinforcement
of other grades and types permitted by ACI 318 may be permitted for special
applications subject to the approval of higher authority.
2-3. Anchorage, Bar Development, and Splices
The anchorage, bar development, and splice requirements should conform to
ACI 318 and to the requirements presented below. Since the development length
is dependent on a number of factors such as concrete strength and bar
position, function, size, type, spacing, and cover, the designer must indicate
the length of embedment required for bar development on the contract drawings.
For similar reasons, the drawings should show the splice lengths and special
requirements such as staggering of splices, etc. The construction
specifications should be carefully edited to assure that they agree with
reinforcement details shown on the drawings.
2-4. Hooks and Bends
Hooks and bends should be in accordance with ACI 318.
2-5. Bar Spacing
a. Minimum. The clear distance between parallel bars should not be
less than 1-1/2 times the nominal diameter of the bars nor less than
1-1/2 times the maximum size of coarse aggregate. No. 14 and No. 18 bars
should not be spaced closer than 6 and 8 inches, respectively, center to
center. When parallel reinforcement is placed in two or more layers, the
clear distance between layers should not be less than 6 inches. In horizontal
layers, the bars in the upper layers should be placed directly over the bars
in the lower layers. In vertical layers, a similar orientation should be
used. In construction of massive reinforced concrete structures, bars in a
layer should be spaced 12 inches center-to-center wherever possible to
facilitate construction.
b. Maximum. The maximum center-to-center spacing of both primary and
secondary reinforcement should not exceed 18 inches.
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2-6. Concrete Protection for Reinforcement
The minimum cover for reinforcement should conform to the dimensions shown
below for the various concrete sections. The dimensions indicate the clear
distance from the edge of the reinforcement to the surface of the concrete.
MINIMUM CLEAR COVER OF
CONCRETE SECTION REINFORCEMENT, INCHES
Unformed surfaces in contact with foundation 4
Formed or screeded surfaces subject to cavitation or
abrasion erosion, such as baffle blocks and stilling
basin slabs 6
Formed and screeded surfaces such as stilling basin
walls, chute spillway slabs, and channel lining
slabs on grade:
Equal to or greater than 24 inches in thickness 4
Greater than 12 inches and less than 24 inches
in thickness 3
Equal to or less than 12 inches in thickness
will be in accordance with ACI Code 318.
NOTE. In no case shall the cover be less than:
1.5 times the nominal maximum size of aggregate,
or
2.5 times the maximum diameter of reinforcement.
2-7. Splicing
a. General. Bars shall be spliced only as required and splices shall
be indicated on contract drawings. Splices at points of maximum tensile
stress should be avoided. Where such splices must be made they should be
staggered. Splices may be made by lapping of bars or butt splicing.
b. Lapped Splices. Bars larger than No. 11 shall not be lap-spliced.
Tension splices should be staggered longitudinally so that no more than half
of the bars are lap-spliced at any section within the required lap length. If
staggering of splices is impractical, applicable provisions of ACI 318 should
be followed.
c. Butt Splices
(1) General. Bars larger than No. 11 shall be butt-spliced. Bars
No. 11 or smaller should not be butt-spliced unless clearly justified by
design details or economics. Due to the high costs associated with butt
splicing of bars larger than No. 11, especially No. 18 bars, careful
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consideration should be given to alternative designs utilizing smaller bars.
Butt splices should be made by either the thermit welding process or an
approved mechanical butt-splicing method in accordance with the provisions
contained in the following paragraphs. Normally, arc-welded splices should
not be permitted due to the inherent uncertainties associated with welding
reinforcement. However, if arc welding is necessary, it should be done in
accordance with AWS D1.4, Structural Welding Code-Reinforcing Steel. Butt
splices should develop in tension at least 125 percent of the specified yield
strength, f
y
, of the bar. Tension splices should be staggered longitudinally
at least 5 feet for bars larger than No. 11 and a distance equal to the
required lap length for No. 11 bars or smaller so that no more than half of
the bars are spliced at any section. Tension splices of bars smaller than
No. 14 should be staggered longitudinally a distance equal to the required lap
length. Bars Nos. 14 and 18 shall be staggered longitudinally, a minimum of
5 feet so that no more than half of the bars are spliced at any one section.
(2) Thermit Welding. Thermit welding should be restricted to bars
conforming to ASTM A 615 (billet steel) with a sulfur content not exceeding
0.05 percent based on ladle analysis. The thermit welding process should be
in accordance with the provisions of Guide Specification CW-03210.
(3) Mechanical Butt Splicing. Mechanical butt splicing shall be made
by an approved exothermic, threaded coupling, swaged sleeve, or other positive
connecting type in accordance with the provisions of Guide Specification
CW-03210. The designer should be aware of the potential for slippage in
mechanical splices and insist that the testing provisions contained in this
guide specification be included in the contract documents and utilized in the
construction work.
2-8. Temperature and Shrinkage Reinforcement
a. In the design of structural members for temperature and shrinkage
stresses, the area of reinforcement should be 0.0028 times the gross cross-
sectional area, half in each face, with a maximum area equivalent to
No. 9 bars at 12 inches in each face. Generally, temperature and shrinkage
reinforcement for thin sections will be no less than No. 4 bars at 12 inches
in each face.
b. Experience and/or analyses may indicate the need for an amount of
reinforcement greater than indicated in paragraph 2-8a if the reinforcement is
to be used for distribution of stresses as well as for temperature and
shrinkage.
c. In general, additional reinforcement for temperature and shrinkage
will not be needed in the direction and plane of the primary tensile
reinforcement when restraint is accounted for in the analyses. However, the
primary reinforcement should not be less than that required for shrinkage and
temperature as determined above.
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20 Aug 03
3-3. Required Strength

a. General. Reinforced concrete hydraulic structures and hydraulic structural members
shall be designed to have a required strength, , to resist dead and live loads in accordance
with the following provisions. The hydraulic factor is to be applied in the determination of
required nominal strength for all combinations of axial load, moments and shear (diagonal
tension). In particular, the shear reinforcement should be designed for the excess shear, the
difference between the hydraulic factored ultimate shear force, , and the shear strength
provided by the concrete, , where
h
U
the
uh
V
c
V is the concrete resistance factor for shear design.
Therefore, the design shear for the reinforcement, , is given by
s
V

c uh
s
V V
V
3 . 1

(3.1)


b. Single Load Factor Method. In the single load factor method, both the dead and live
loads are multiplied by the same load factor.

( ) L D U + = 7 . 1 (3.2)

where

U = factored loads for a nonhydraulic structure
D = internal forces and moments from dead loads
L = internal forces and moments from live loads


( ) [ ] L D H U
f h
+ = 7 . 1
(3.3)

where

= factored loads for a hydraulic structure
h
U
= hydraulic factor.
f
H

For hydraulic structures the basic load factor, 1.7, is multiplied by a hydraulic factor, ,
f
H
where , except for members in direct tension. For members in direct tension, = 1.65.
Other values may be used subject to consultation with and approval from CECW-ED.
3 . 1 =
f
H
f
H

An exception to the above occurs when resistance to the effects of unusual or extreme loads such
as wind, earthquake or other forces of short duration and low probability of occurrence are
included in the design. For those cases, one of the following loading combinations should be
used:
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CHAPTER 4
FLEXURAL AND AXIAL LOADS
4-1. Design Assumptions and General Requirements
a. The assumed maximum usable strain
c
at the extreme concrete
compression fiber should be equal to 0.003 in accordance with ACI 318.
b. Balanced conditions for hydraulic structures exist at a cross
section when the tension reinforcement
b
reaches the strain corresponding to
its specified yield strength f
y
just as the concrete in compression reaches
its design strain
c
.
c. Concrete stress of 0.85f
c
should be assumed uniformly distributed
over an equivalent compression zone bounded by edges of the cross section and
a straight line located parallel to the neutral axis at a distance a =
1
c
from the fiber of maximum compressive strain.
d. Factor
1
should be taken as specified in ACI 318.
e. The eccentricity ratio e /d should be defined as
(4-11)*
e
d
M
u
/P
u
d h/2
d
where e = eccentricity of axial load measured from the centroid of the
tension reinforcement
4-2. Flexural and Compressive Capacity - Tension Reinforcement Only
a. The design axial load strength P
n
at the centroid of compression
members should not be taken greater than the following:
(4-12)
P
n(max)
0.8 0.85f

c
(A
g
bd) f
y
bd
b. The strength of a cross section is controlled by compression if the
load has an eccentricity ratio e /d no greater than that given by Equation 4-3
and by tension if e /d exceeds this value.
______________________________________________________________________________
* P
u
is considered positive for compression and negative for tension.
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(4-13)
e

b
d
2k
b
k
2
b
2k
b
f
y
0.425f

c
where
(4-14) k
b

1
E
s

c
E
s

c
f
y
c. Sections controlled by tension should be designed so
(4-15)
P
n
0.85f

c
k
u
f
y
bd
and
(4-16)
M
n
0.85f

c
k
u
f
y

1
1
]
e
d
1
h
2d
bd
2
where k
u
should be determined from the following equation:
(4-17)
k
u
e
d
1
2

,
f
y
0.425f

c
e
d
e
d
1
d. Sections controlled by compression should be designed so
(4-18)
P
n
0.85f

c
k
u
f
s
bd
and
(4-19)
M
n
0.85f

c
k
u
f
s

1
1
]
e
d
1
h
2d
bd
2
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30 Jun 92
where
(4-20)
f
s
E
s

c

1
k
u
k
u
f
y
and k
u
should be determined from the following equation by direct or iterative
method:
(4-21)
k
3
u
2
e
d
1 k
2
u

,
E
s

c
e
0.425f

c
d
k
u

1
E
s

c
e
0.425f

c
d
0
e. The balanced load and moment can be computed using either
Equations 4-5 and 4-6 or Equations 4-8 and 4-9 with k
u
= k
b
and
e

b
e
d
=
d
. The values of e

b
/d and k
b
are given by Equations 4-3 and 4-4,
respectively.
4-3. Flexural and Compressive Capacity - Tension and Compression
Reinforcement
a. The design axial load strength P
n
of compression members should not
be taken greater than the following:
(4-22)
P
n(max)
0.8 0.85f

c
A
g
bd
f
y
bd
b. The strength of a cross section is controlled by compression if the
load has an eccentricity ratio e /d no greater than that given by
Equation 4-13 and by tension if e /d exceeds this value.
(4-23)
e

b
d
2k
b
k
2
b
f

s
1
d
d
0.425f

c
2k
b
f
y
0.425f

c
f

s
0.425f

c
The value k
b
is given in Equation 4-4 and f
s
is given in Equation 4-16 with
k
u
= k
b
.
c. Sections controlled by tension should be designed so
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30 Jun 92
(4-24)
P
n
0.85f

c
k
u
f

s
f
y
bd
and
(4-25)
M
n
0.85f

c
k
u
f

s
f
y

1
1
]
e
d
1
h
2d
bd
2
where
(4-26)
f

s
k
u

1
d
d

1
k
u
E
s

y
f
y
and k
u
should be determined from the following equation by direct or iterative
methods:
(4-27)
k
3
u

1
1
]
2
e
d
1
1
k
2
u

'

f
y
0.425f

1
1
]

e
d
d
d
1
e
d

;
)
2
1
e
d
1 k
u
f
y

1
0.425f

1
1
]
d
d
e
d
d
d
1
e
d
0
d. Sections controlled by compression should be designed so
(4-28)
P
n
0.85f

c
k
u
f

s
f
s
bd
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30 Jun 92
and
(4-29)
M
n
0.85f

c
k
u
f

s
f
s

1
1
]
e
d
1
h
2d
bd
2
where
(4-30)
f
s
E
s

c

1
k
u
k
u
f
y
and
(4-31)
f

s
E
s

1
1
]
k
u

1
d
d
k
u
f
y
and k
u
should be determined from the following equation by direct or iterative
methods:
(4-32)
k
3
u
2
e
d
1 k
2
u
E
s

c
0.425f

e
d
1
1
]
1
d
d
k
u

1
E
s

c
0.425f

d
d
e
d
d
d
1
1
1
]

e
d
0
Design for flexure utilizing compression reinforcement is discouraged.
However, if compression reinforcement is used in members controlled by
compression, lateral reinforcement shall be provided in accordance with the
ACI Building Code.
e. The balanced load and moment should be computed using
e

b
Equations 4-14, 4-15, 4-16, and 4-17 with k
u
= k
b
and
e
d
=
d
. The
values of e

b
/d and k
b
are given by Equations 4-13 and 4-4, respectively.
4-4. Flexural and Tensile Capacity
a. The design axial strength P
n
of tensile members should not be taken
greater than the following:
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30 Jun 92
(4-33) P
n(max)
0.8 f
y
bd
b. Tensile reinforcement should be provided in both faces of the member
if the load has an eccentricity ratio e /d in the following range:
1
h
2d

e
d
0
The section should be designed so
(4-24)
P
n
f
y
f

s
bd
and
(4-25)
M
n
f
y
f

1
1
]
1
h
2d
e
d
bd
2
with
(4-26)
f

s
f
y
k
u
d
d
k
u
1
f
y
and k
u
should be determined from the following equation:
(4-27) k
u

d
d
1
d
d
e
d

e
d

e
d
1
d
d
e
d
c. Sections subjected to a tensile load with an eccentricity ratio
e /d < 0 should be designed using Equations 4-5 and 4-6. The value of k
u
is
(4-28)
k
u
e
d
1
e
d
1
2

,
f
y
0.425f

c
e
d
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30 Jun 92
d. Sections subject to a tensile load with an eccentricity ratio
e /d < 0 should be designed using Equations 4-14, 4-15, 4-16, and 4-17 if
A
s
> 0 and c > d .
4-5. Biaxial Bending and Axial Load
a. Provisions of paragraph 4-5 shall apply to reinforced concrete
members subjected to biaxial bending.
b. For a given nominal axial load P
n
= P
u
/, the following
nondimensional equation shall be satisfied:
(4-29) (M
nx
/M
ox
)
K
(M
ny
/M
oy
)
K
1.0
where
M
nx
, M
ny
= nominal biaxial bending moments with respect to the x and y
axes, respectively
M
ox
, M
oy
= uniaxial nominal bending strength at P
n
about the x and y
axes, respectively
K = 1.5 for rectangular members
= 1.75 for square or circular members
= 1.0 for any member subjected to axial tension
c. M
ox
and M
oy
shall be determined in accordance with paragraphs 4-1
through 4-3.
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CHAPTER 5
SHEAR
5-1. Shear Strength
The shear strength V
c
provided by concrete shall be computed in accordance
with ACI 318 except in the cases described in paragraphs 5-2 and 5-3.
5-2. Shear Strength for Special Straight Members
The provisions of this paragraph shall apply only to straight members of box
culvert sections or similar structures that satisfy the requirements of 5-2.a
and 5-2.b. The stiffening effects of wide supports and haunches shall be
included in determining moments, shears, and member properties. The ultimate
shear strength of the member is considered to be the load capacity that causes
formation of the first inclined crack.
a. Members that are subjected to uniformly (or approximately uniformly)
distributed loads that result in internal shear, flexure, and axial
compression (but not axial tension).
b. Members having all of the following properties and construction
details.
(1) Rectangular cross-sectional shapes.
(2)
n
/d between 1.25 and 9, where
n
is the clear span.
(3) f
c
not more than 6,000 psi.
(4) Rigid, continuous joints or corner connections.
(5) Straight, full-length reinforcement. Flexural reinforcement shall
not be terminated even though it is no longer a theoretical requirement.
(6) Extension of the exterior face reinforcement around corners such
that a vertical lap splice occurs in a region of compression stress.
(7) Extension of the interior face reinforcement into and through the
supports.
c. The shear strength provided the concrete shall be computed as
(5-1)
V
c

1
1
1
1
]

,
11.5
n
d
f

c
1
N
u
/A
g
5 f

c
bd
5-1
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Apr 92
at a distance of 0.15
n
from the face of the support.
d. The shear strength provided by the concrete shall not be taken
greater than
(5-2)
V
c
2

1
1
]
12

,
n
d
f

c
bd
__
and shall not exceed 10 f
c
bd.
5-3. Shear Strength for Curved Members
At points of maximum shear, for uniformly loaded curved cast-in-place members
with R/d > 2.25 where R is the radius curvature to the centerline of the
member:
(5-3)
V
c

1
1
1
1
]
4 f

c
1
N
u
/A
g
4 f

c
bd
__
The shear strength shall not exceed 10 f
c
bd.
5-4. Empirical Approach
Shear strength based on the results of detailed laboratory or field tests
conducted in consultation with and approved by CECW-ED shall be considered a
valid extension of the provisions in paragraphs 5-2 and 5-3.
5-2
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
APPENDIX A
NOTATION
a
d
Depth of stress block at limiting value of balanced condition
(Appendix D)
d
d
Minimum effective depth that a singly reinforced member may have and
maintain steel ratio requirements (Appendix D)
e Eccentricity of axial load measured from the centroid of the tension
reinforcement
e
b
Eccentricity of nominal axial load strength, at balanced strain
conditions, measured from the centroid of the tension reinforcement
H
f
Hydraulic structural factor equal to 1.3
k
b
Ratio of stress block depth (a) to the effective depth (d) at
balanced strain conditions
k
u
Ratio of stress block depth (a) to the effective depth (d)
K Exponent, equal to 1.0 for any member subject to axial tension, 1.5
for rectangular members and 1.75 for square or circular members, used
in nondimensional biaxial bending expression
n
Clear span between supports
M
DS
Bending moment capacity at limiting value of balanced condition
(Appendix D)
M
nx
, M
ny
Nominal biaxial bending moments with respect to the x and y axes,
respectively
M
ox
, M
oy
Uniaxial nominal bending strength at P
n
about the x and y axes,
respectively
R Radius of curvature to centerline of curved member
A-1
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
APPENDIX B
DERIVATION OF EQUATIONS FOR FLEXURAL AND AXIAL LOADS
B-1. General
Derivations of the design equations given in paragraphs 4-2 through 4-4 are
presented below. The design equations provide a general procedure that may be
used to design members for combined flexural and axial load.
B-2. Axial Compression and Flexure
a. Balanced Condition
From Figure B-1, the balanced condition, Equations 4-3 and 4-4 can be derived
as follows:
From equilibrium,
(B-1)
P
u

0.85 f

c
b k
u
d A
s
f
s
let
(B-2)
j
u
d
a
2
d
k
u
d
2
from moment equilibrium,
(B-3)
P
u
e

0.85 f

c
b k
u
d j
u
d
Rewrite Equation B-3 as:
(B-4)
P
u
e

0.85 f

c
b k
u
d

,
d
k
u
d
2
0.85 f

c
bd
2

,
k
u
k
2
u
2
0.425 f

c
2k
u
k
2
u
bd
2
B-1
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
From the strain diagram at balanced condition (Figure B-1):
c
b
d

c

y
(B-5)

,
k
b
d

1
d

c

y
f
y
since
y
=
__
E
s
(B-6, Eq. 4-4) k
b

1
E
s

c
E
s

c
f
y
(B-7) since e

b
P
b
e

P
b
e
b

is obtained by substituting Equations B-4 and B-1 into Equation B-7 with
k
u
= k
b
, f
s
= f
y
and P
u
= P
b
.
(B-8) e

b
0.425f

c
2k
b
k
2
b
bd
2
0.85f

c
k
b
bd f
y
bd
Therefore
(B-9, Eq. 4-3)
e

b
d
2k
b
k
2
b
2k
b
f
y

0.425f

c
B-2
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
b. Sections Controlled by Tension (Figure B-1).
(B-10, Eq. 4-5)
P
n
is obtained from Equation B 1 with f
s
f
y
as:
P
n
0.85 f

c
b k
u
d A
s
f
y
P
n
0.85 f

c
k
u
f
y
bd
The design moment M
n
is expressed as:
(B-11)
M
n
P
n
e
M
n
P
n

1
1
]
e
d
1
h
2d
d
Therefore,
(B-12, Eq. 4-6)
M
n
0.85 f

c
k
u
f
y

1
1
]
e
d
1
h
2d
bd
2
Substituting Equation B-1 with f
s
= f
y
into Equation B-4 gives
(B-13)
0.85 f

c
k
u
bd f
y
bd e 0.425f

c
2k
u
k
2
u
bd
2
which reduces to
(B-14) k
2
u
2
e
d
1 k
u
f
y
e
0.425f

c
d
0
Solving by the quadratic equation:
(B-15, Eq. 4-7)
k
u
e
d
1
2

,
f
y
0.425f

c
e
d
e
d
1
B-3
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
c. Sections Controlled by Compression (Figure B-1)
P
n
is obtained from Equation B-1
(B-16, Eq. 4-8)
P
n
0.85 f

c
k
u
f
s
bd
and M
n
is obtained by multiplying Equation B-16 by e.
(B-17)
M
n
0.85 f

c
k
u
f
s

1
1
]
e
d
1
h
2d
bd
2
The steel stress, f
s
, is expressed as f
s
= E
s

s
.
From Figure B-1.
c
d

c

s
or

,
k
u
d

1
d

c

s
Therefore,
(B-18, Eq. 4-10)
f
s
E
s

c

1
k
u
k
u
Substituting Equations B-1 and B-18 into B-4 gives
(B-19)
0.85 f

c
k
u
bde

1
1
1
]
E
s

c

1
k
u
k
u
bde
0.425 f

c
2k
u
k
2
u
bd
2
B-4
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
which can be arranged as
(B-20, Eq. 4-11)
k
3
u
2
e

d
1 k
2
u

,
E
s

c
e

0.425f

c
d
k
u

1
E
s

c
e

0.425f

c
d
0
B-3. Flexural and Compressive Capacity-Tension and Compression Reinforcement
(Figure B-2)
a. Balanced Condition
Using Figure B-2, the balanced condition, Equation 4-13 can be derived as
follows:
From equilibrium,
(B-21)
P
u

0.85 f

c
k
u
bd f

bd f
s
bd
In a manner similar to the derivation of Equation B-4, moment equilibrium
results in
(B-22)
P
u
e

0.425 f

c
2k
u
k
2
u
bd
2
f

bd(d d

)
As in Equation B-6,
(B-23) k
b

1
E
s

c
E
s

c
f
y
(B-24)
since e

b
P
b
e
P
s
and using Equations B-21 and B-22:
(B-25) e

b
0.425 f

c
(2k
b
k
2
b
)bd
2
f

bd(d d

)
0.85 f

c
k
b
bd f

s
bd f
s
bd
B-5
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
which can be rewritten as
e

b
2k
b
k
2
b
d
f

0.425f

c
(d d

)
2k
b
f
s

0.425f

c
f
y

0.425f

c
or
(B-26, Eq. 4-13)
e

b
d
2k
b
k
2
b
f

s
1
d
d
0.425f

c
2k
b
f
y

0.425f

c
f

s

0.425f

c
b. Sections Controlled by Tension (Figure B-2)
P
n
is obtained as Equation B-21 with f
s
= f
y
.
(B-27, Eq. 4-14)
P
n
0.85 f

c
k
u
f

s
f
y
bd
Using Equations B-11 and B-27,
(B-28, Eq. 4-15)
M
n
0.85 f

c
k
u
f

s
f
y

1
1
]
e
d
1
h
2d
bd
2
From Figure B-2

s
c d

y
d c
; f

s
E
s

s
; c
k
u
d

1
B-6
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
Therefore,
f

s
E
s

,
k
u
d

1
d

y
d
k
u
d

1
or
(B-29, Eq. 4-16)
f

s
k
u

1
d
d

1
k
u
E
s

y
Substituting Equation B-21 with f
s
= f
y
into Equation B-22 gives,
(B-30)
0.85 f

c
k
u
bd f

s
bd f
y
bd e
0.425 f

c
2k
u
k
2
u
bd
2
f

s
bd(d d )
Using Equation B-29, Equation B-30 can be written as:
(B-31, Eq. 4-17)
k
3
u

1
1
]
2
e
d
1
1
k
2
u

'

f
y
0.425f

1
1
]

e
d
d
d
1
e
d

;
)
2
1
e
d
1 k
u
f
y

1
0.425f

1
1
]

d
d
e
d
d
d
1
e
d
0
c. Sections Controlled by Compression (Figures B-2)
P
n
is obtained from equilibrium
(B-32, Eq. 4-18)
P
n
0.85 f

c
k
u
f

s
f
s
bd
B-7
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
Using Equations B-11 and B-32,
(B-33, Eq. 4-19)
M
n
0.85 f

c
k
u
f

s
f
s

1
1
]
e
d
1
h
2d
bd
2
From Figure B-2

s
d c

c
c
; f
s
E
s

s
; c
k
u
d

1
which can be written as
(B-34, Eq. 4-20)
f
s
E
s

c

1
k
u
k
u
Also,

s
c d

c
c
which can be rewritten as
(B-35, Eq. 4-21)
f

s
E
s

1
1
]
k
u

1
d
d
k
u
From Equations B-21 and B-22
(B-36)
0.85f

c
k
u
bd f

s
bd f
s
bd e
0.425 f
c
2k
u
k
2
u
bd
2
f

s
bd(d d )
B-8
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
Substituting Equations B-34 and B-35 with k
b
= k
u
into Equation B-36 gives
(B-37, Eq. 4-22)
k
3
u
2
e
d
1 k
2
u
E
s

c
0.425f

1
1
]
( )
e
d
1
d
d
k
u

1
E
s

c
0.425f

1
1
]

d
d
e
d
d
d
1
e
d
0
B-4. Flexural and Tensile Capacity
a. Pure Tension (Figure B-3)
From equilibrium (double reinforcement)
(B-38)
P
n
A
s
A

s
f
y
For design, the axial load strength of tension members is limited to
80 percent of the design axial load strength at zero eccentricity.
Therefore,
(B-39, Eq. 4-23) P
n(max)
0.8( )f
y
bd
b. For the case where 1 - h e 0, the applied tensile resultant
2d d
P
u lies between the two layers of steel.

From equilibrium
P
n
A
s
f
y
A

s
f

s
or
(B-40, Eq. 4-24)
P
n
f
y

s
bd
and
M
n
P
n

1
1
]
1
h
2d
e

d
d
B-9
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
or
(B-41, Eq. 4-25)
M
n
f
y
f

1
1
]
1
h
2d
e
d
bd
2
From Figure B-3,

s
a d

y
a d
which can be rewritten as
(B-42, Eq. 4-26)
f

s
f
y
k
u
d
d
k
u
1
From Figure B-3 equilibrium requires:
(B-43)
A
s
f
s
e A

s
f

s
(d d e )
Substituting Equation B-42 and f
s
= f
y
into Equation B-43 results in
(B-44, Eq. 4-27) k
u

d
d
1
d
d
e
d

e
d

e
d
1
d
d
e
d
c. The case where (e/d) < 0 is similar to the combined flexural and
compression case. Therefore, k
u
is derived in a manner similar to the
derivation of Equation B-15 and is given as
(B-45, Eq. 4-28)
k
u
e
d
1
e
d
1
2

,
f
y
0.425f

c
e
d
B-10
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
Figure B-1. Axial compression and flexure, single reinforcement
B-11
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
Figure B-2. Axial compression and flexure, double reinforcement
B-12
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
Figure B-3. Axial tension and flexure, double reinforcement
B-13
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
APPENDIX C
INVESTIGATION EXAMPLES
C-1. General
For the designers convenience and reference, the following examples are
provided to illustrate how to determine the flexural capacity of existing
concrete sections in accordance with this Engineer Manual and ACI 318.
C-2. Analysis of a Singly Reinforced Beam
Given: f

c
= 3 ksi
1
= 0.85
f
y
= 60 ksi E
s
= 29,000 ksi
A
s
= 1.58 in.
2
Solution:
1. Check steel ratio

act
A
s
bd
1.58
12(20.5)
0.006423
C-1
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92

b
0.85
1
f

c
f
y

,
87,000
87,000 f
y
0.85 (0.85)
3
60
87,000
87,000 60,000
0.02138
in accordance with Paragraph 3-5 check:
0.25
b
0.00534
0.375
b
0.00802

act
0.00642
0.25
b
<
act
< 0.375
b

act
is greater than the recommended limit, but less than the maximum permitted
upper limit not requiring special study or investigation. Therefore, no
special consideration for serviceability, constructibility, and economy is
required. This reinforced section is satisfactory.
2. Assume the steel yields and compute the internal forces:
T A
s
f
y
1.58 (60) 94.8 kips
C 0.85 f

c
ba
C 0.85 (3)(12)a 30.6a
3. From equilibrium set T = C and solve for a:
94.8 30.6a a 3.10 in.
Then, a
1
c c
3.10
0.85
3.65 in.
4. Check
s
to demonstrate steel yields prior to crushing of the
concrete:
C-2
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92

s
20.5 c
0.003
c

s
16.85
0.003
3.65
0.0138

y
f
y
E
s
60
29,000
0.00207

s
>
y
Ok, steel yields
5. Compute the flexural capacity:
M
n
A
s
f
y
(d a/2)
0.90 (94.8) 20.5
3.10
2
1616.8 in. k
134.7 ft k
C-3. Analysis of an Existing Beam - Reinforcement in Both Faces
C-3
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
Given: f

c
= 3,000 psi
c
= 0.003
f
y
= 60,000 psi
1
= 0.85
A
s
= 8.00 in.
2
E
s
= 29,000,000 psi
A
s

= 4.00 in.
2
Solution:
1. First analyze considering steel in tension face only

A
s
bd
8
(60)(12)
0.011

bal
0.85

1
f

c
f
y
87,000
87,000 f
y
0.0214

0.011
0.0214

bal
0.51
b
Note: exceeds maximum permitted upper limit not requiring special study
or investigation 0.375
b
. See Chapter 3.
T A
s
f
y
T 8(60) 480 kips
then C
c
0.85f

c
ba 30.6a
T C
c
a 15.7 in. and c 18.45 in.
By similar triangles, demonstrate that steel yields

c
18.45

s(2)
54 c

s(2)
0.0057 >
y
0.0021
ok; both layers of steel yield.
Moment capacity = 480 kips (d - a/2)
= 480 kips (52.15 in.)
M = 25,032 in.-k
C-4
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
2. Next analyze considering steel in compression face

4
12(60)
0.0056
0.0054
0.85

1
f

c
f
y
d

,
87,000
87,000 f
y
0.016
- 0.0116 compression steel does not yield, must do general
analysis using : compatability
Locate neutral axis
T 480 kips
C
c
0.85f
c
ba 30.6a
C
s
A

s
(f

s
0.85f

c
) 4(f

s
2.55)
By similar triangles

s
c 6
0.003
c
Substitute c
a
0.85
1.176a
Then

s
0.003
0.0153
a
Since f

s
E

s
f

s
87
443.7
a
ksi
C-5
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
Then
C
s
4 87 2.55
443.7
a
kips
T C
c
C
s
480 kips
Substitute for C
c
and C
s
and solve for a
30.6a 337.8
1774.8
a
480
a
2
4.65a 58 0
Then a 10.3 in.
and c 12.1 in.
Check

s
>
y
By similar triangles
0.003
12.1

s
d 12.1

s
0.0119 > 0.0021
C
c
30.6a 315 kips
C
s
4(41.37) 165 kips
C
c
C
s
480 kips T
Resultant of C
c
and C
s
315
10.3
2
(165)(6)
480
5.4 in.
Internal Moment Arm 60 5.4 54.6 in.
M 480(54.6) 26,208 in. k
Comparison
Tension Steel Compression
Only Steel
a 15.7 in. 10.3 in.
c 18.45 in. 12.1 in.
Arm 52.15 in. 54.6 in.
M 25,032 in.-k 26,208 in.-k 4.7 percent increase
C-6
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
APPENDIX D
DESIGN EXAMPLES
D-1. Design Procedure
For convenience, a summary of the steps used in the design of the examples in
this appendix is provided below. This procedure may be used to design
flexural members subjected to pure flexure or flexure combined with axial
load. The axial load may be tension or compression.
Step 1 - Compute the required nominal strength M
n
, P
n
where M
u
and P
u
are
determined in accordance with paragraph 4-1.
M
n
M
u

P
n
P
u

Note: Step 2 below provides a convenient and quick check to ensure that
members are sized properly to meet steel ratio limits. The expressions in
Step 2a are adequate for flexure and small axial load. For members with
significant axial loads the somewhat more lengthy procedures of Step 2b should
be used.
Step 2a - Compute d
d
from Table D-1. The term d
d
is the minimum
effective depth a member may have and meet the limiting requirements on steel
ratio. If d d
d
the member is of adequate depth to meet steel ratio
requirements and A
s
is determined using Step 3.
Step 2b - When significant axial load is present, the expressions for d
d
become cumbersome and it becomes easier to check the member size by
determining M
DS
. M
DS
is the maximum bending moment a member may carry and
remain within the specified steel ratio limits.
(D-1)
M
DS
0.85f

c
a
d
b d a
d
/2 d h/2 P
n
where
(D-2) a
d
K
d
d
and K
d
is found from Table D-1.
Step 3 - Singly Reinforced - When d d
d
(or M
n
M
DS
) the following
equations are used to compute A
s
.
D-1
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
(D-3)
K
u
1 1
M
n
P
n
d h/2
0.425f

c
bd
2
(D-4)
A
s
0.85f

c
K
u
bd P
n
f
y
Table D-1
Minimum Effective Depth
f

c
(psi)
f
y
(psi)

b
K
d
d
d
(in.)
3000 60 0.25 0.125765
3.3274M
n
b
4000 60 0.25 0.125765
2.4956M
n
b
5000 60 0.25 0.118367
2.1129M
n
b
* See Section 3-5. Maximum Tension Reinforcement
** M
n
units are inch-kips.
D-2
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
where
K
d

c
f
y
E
s
d
d
M
n
0.85f

c
k
d
b

,
1
k
d
2
D-2. Singly Reinforced Example
The following example demonstrates the use of the design procedure outlined in
paragraph D-1 for a Singly Reinforced Beam with the recommended steel ratio of
0.25
b
. The required area of steel is computed to carry the moment at the
base of a retaining wall stem.
Given: M = 41.65 k-ft
(where M = moment from unfactored
dead and live loads)
f
c
= 3.0 ksi
f
y
= 60 ksi
d = 20 in.
First compute the required strength, M
u
.
M
u
1.7 H
f
D L
M
u
(1.7)(1.3)(41.65) 92.047 k ft
Step 1. M
n
= M
u
/ = 92.047/0.90 = 102.274 k-ft
D-3
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
(Table D-1)
Step 2. d
d
3.3274M
n
b
18.45 in.
d > d
d
therefore member size is adequate
(D-3)
Step 3. K
u
1 1
M
n
P
n
d h/2
0.425f

c
bd
2
K
u
1 1
(102.274)(12)
(0.425)(3.0)(12)(20)
2
0.10587
(D-4)
A
s
0.85f

c
K
u
bd
f
y
(0.85)(3.0)(0.10587)(12)(20)
60
A
s
1.08 sq in.
D-3. Combined Flexure Plus Axial Load Example
The following example demonstrates the use of the design procedure outlined in
paragraph D-1 for a beam subjected to flexure plus small axial compressive
load. The amount of tensile steel required to carry the moment and axial load
at the base of a retaining wall stem is found.
Given: M = 41.65 k-ft
P = 5 kips (weight of stem)
where M and P are the moment and
axial load from an unfactored
analysis.
f
c

= 3.0 ksi
f
y
= 60 ksi
d = 20 in.
h = 24 in.
D-4
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
First compute the required strength, M
u
, P
u
M
u
1.7 H
f
(D L)
M
u
(1.7)(1.3)(41.65) 92.047 k ft
P
u
1.7 H
f
(D L)
P
u
(1.7)(1.3)(5.0) 11.05 kips
Since axial load is present a value must be found for .
For small axial load =

0.9 - [(0.20 P
u
)/(0.10f
c

A
g
)]
=

0.88
Step 1. M
n
= M
u
/ = 92.047/0.88 = 104.60 k-ft
P
n
= P
u
/ = 11.05/0.88 = 12.56 kips
Step 2. a
d
= K
d
d (D-2)
a
d
= (0.12577)(20) = 2.515
M
DS
= 0.85f
c

a
d
b(d - a
d
/2.0) - (d - h/2.0)P
n
(D-1)
M
DS
= (0.85)(3.0)(2.515)(12)(20 - 1.258) -
(20 - 12)(12.56)
M
DS
= 1341.9 k-in. or 111.82 k-ft
M
DS
> M
n
therefore member size is adequate
D-5
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
Step 3. K
u
1 1
M
n
P
n
(d h/2)
0.425f

c
bd
2
K
u
1 1
(12)104.6 12.56(20 12)
(0.425)(3.0)(12)(20)
2
K
u
0.11768
(D-4)
A
s
0.85f

c
K
u
bd P
n
f
y
A
s
(0.85)(3.0)(0.11768)(12)(20) 12.56
60
A
s
0.99 sq in.
D-4. Derivation of Design Equations
The following paragraphs provide derivations of the design equations presented
in paragraph D-1.
(1) Derivation of Design Equations for Singly Reinforced Members. The
figure below shows the conditions of stress on a singly reinforced member
subjected to a moment M
n
and load P
n
. Equations for design may be developed
by satisfying conditions of equilibrium on the section.
By requiring the M about the tensile steel to equal zero
(D-5)
M
n
0.85f

c
ab(d a/2) P
n
(d h/2)
D-6
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
By requiring the H to equal zero
(D-6)
A
s
f
y
0.85f

c
ab P
n
Expanding Equation D-5 yields
M
n
0.85f

c
abd 0.425f

c
a
2
b P
n
(d h/2)
Let a = K
u
d then
M
n
0.85f

c
K
u
bd
2
0.425f

c
K
2
u
d
2
b P
n
(d h/2)
The above equation may be solved for K
u
using the solution for a quadratic
equation
(D-3)
K
u
1 1
M
n
P
n
(d h/2)
0.425f

c
bd
2
Substituting K
u
d for a in Equation D-6 then yields
A
s
0.85f

c
K
u
bd P
n
f
y
(2) Derivation of Design Equations for Doubly Reinforced Members. The
figure below shows the conditions of stress and strain on a doubly reinforced
member subjected to a moment M
n
and load P
n
. Equations for design are
developed in a manner identical to that shown previously for singly reinforced
beams.
D-7
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
Requiring H to equal zero yields
(D-7)
A
s
0.85f

c
K
d
bd P
n
A

s
f

s
f
y
By setting a
d
=
1
c and using the similar triangles from the strain diagram
above,
s
and f
s
may be found:
f

s
a
d

1
d

c
E
s
a
d
An expression for the moment carried by the concrete (M
DS
) may be found by
summing moments about the tensile steel of the concrete contribution.
(D-1)
M
DS
0.85f

c
a
d
b d a
d
/2 d h/2 P
n
Finally, an expression for A
s

may be found by requiring the compression steel

to carry any moment above that which the concrete can carry (M
n
- M
DS
).
(D-8)
A

s
M
n
M
DS
f

s
d d

(3) Derivation of Expression of d

d
. The expression for d
d
is found by
substituting a
d
= k
d
d
d
in the equation shown above for M
DS
and solving the
resulting quadratic expression for d
d
.
(D-9) d
d
M
DS
0.85f

c
K
d
b 1 K
d
/2
D-5. Shear Strength Example for Special Straight Members
Paragraph 5.2 describes the conditions for which a special shear strength
criterion shall apply for straight members. The following example
demonstrates the application of Equation 5-1. Figure D-1 shows a rectangular
conduit with factored loads, 1.7 H
f
(dead load + live Load). The following
parameters are given or computed for the roof slab of the conduit.
D-8
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
f
c

= 4,000 psi
n
= 10.0 ft = 120 in.
d = 2.0 ft = 24 in.
b = 1.0 ft (unit width) = 12 in.
N
u
= 6.33(5) = 31.7 kips
A
g
= 2.33 sq ft = 336 sq in.
(D-10,
Eq. 5-1)
V
c

1
1
1
1
1
1
]
11.5
120 in.
24 in.
4,000 1

,
31,700 lb
336 sq in.
5 4,000
(12 in.)(24 in.)
V
c
134,906 lb 134.9 kips
Check limit V
c
10 f

c
bd 10 4,000 (12 in.)(24 in.) 182,147 lb
Compare shear strength with applied shear.
V
c
0.85(134.9 kips) 114.7 kips
V
u
at 0.15(
n
) from face of the support is
V
u
w

,
n
2
0.15
n
15.0 kips/ft

1
1
]
10 ft
2
(0.15)(10 ft)
52.5 kips < V
c
; shear strength adequate
D-6. Shear Strength Example for Curved Members
Paragraph 5-3 describes the conditions for which Equation 5-3 shall apply.
The following example applies Equation 5-3 to the circular conduit presented
in Figure D-2. Factored loads are shown, and the following values are given
or computed:
D-9
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
f
c

= 4,000 psi
b = 12 in.
d = 43.5 in.
A
g
= 576 sq in.
N
u
= 162.5 kips
V
u
= 81.3 kips at a section 45 degrees from the crown
V
c
4 4,000

1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

,
162,500 lb
576 sq in.
4 4,000
(12 in.)(43.5 in.)
V
c
192,058 lb 192.1 kips
Check limit V
c
10 f

c
bd 10 4,000 (12 in.)(43.5 in.) 330,142 lb
Compare shear strength with applied shear
V
c
= 0.85(192.1 kips) = 163.3 kips
V
u
< V
c
; shear strength adequate
D-10
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
Figure D-1. Rectangular conduit
Figure D-2. Circular conduit
D-11
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
APPENDIX E
INTERACTION DIAGRAM
E-1. Introduction
A complete discussion on the construction of interaction diagrams is beyond
the scope of this manual; however, in order to demonstrate how the equations
presented in Chapter 4 may be used to construct a diagram a few basic points
will be computed. Note that the effects of , the strength reduction factor,
have not been considered. Using the example cross section shown below compute
the points defined by 1, 2, 3 notations shown in Figure E-1.
Given: f
c
= 3.0 ksi
f
y
= 60 ksi
A
s
= 2.0 sq in.
d = 22 in.
Figure E-1. Interaction diagram
h = 24 in.
b = 12 in.
E-1
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
E-2. Determination of Point 1, Pure Flexure
(D-5)
M
n
0.85 f

c
ab(d a/2)
a
A
s
f
y
0.85 f

c
b
(2.0)(60.0)
(0.85)(3.0)(12)
3.922 in.
M
n
(0.85)(3.0)(3.922)(12)(22 1.961)
M
n
2404.7 k in.
M
n
200.4 k ft
E-3. Determination of Point 2, Maximum Axial Capacity
E-2
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
(4-2)
P
n(max)
0.80 P
o
P
n(max)
0.80 0.85 f

c
A
g
bd f
y
bd
P
n(max)
0.80 (0.85)(3.0)(288 2.0) (60.0)(2.0)
P
n(max)
0.80(849.3) 679.44 kips
E-4. Determination of Point 3, Balanced Point
(4-4)
(1) Find k
b

1
E
s

c
E
s

c
f
y
k
b
(0.85)(29,000)(0.003)
(29,000)(0.003) 60
0.5031
(4-3)
(2) Find
e

b
d
2k
u
k
2
u
2k
u
pf
y
0.425f

c
e

b
d
(2)(0.5031) (0.5031)
2
(2)(0.5031)
(0.00758)(60)
(0.425)(3.0)
1.15951
E-3
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
(3) Find P
b
0.85 f

c
k
b
f
y
bd
P
b
[(0.85)(3.0)(0.5031) (0.00758)(60.0)](12)(22.0)
P
b
218.62 kips
(4-6)
(4) Find M
b
0.85f

c
k
b
f
y

1
1
]
e
d
1
h
2d
bd
2
M
b
[(0.85)(3.0)(0.5031) (0.00758)(60)]
[1.15951 (1 24.0/44.0)](12)(22.0)
2
M
b
3390.65 k in.
M
b
282.55 k ft
E-4
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
Figure E-2. Interaction diagram solution
E-5
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
APPENDIX F
AXIAL LOAD WITH BIAXIAL BENDING - EXAMPLE
F-1. In accordance with paragraph 4-5, design an 18- by 18-inch reinforced
concrete column for the following conditions:
f
c
= 3,000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi
P
u
= 100 kips, P
n
= P
u
/0.7 = 142.9 kips
M
ux
= 94 ft-kips, M
nx
= M
ux
/0.7 = 134.3 ft-kips
M
uy
= 30 ft-kips, M
ny
= M
uy
/0.7 = 42.8 ft-kips
Let concrete cover plus one-half a bar diameter equal 2.5 in.
F-2. Using uniaxial design procedures (Appendix E), select reinforcement for
P
n
and bending about the x-axis since M
nx
> M
ny
. The resulting cross-section is
given below.
F-3. Figures F-1 and F-2 present the nominal strength interaction diagrams
about x and y axes. It is seen from Figure F-2 that the member is adequate
for uniaxial bending about the y-axis with P
n
= 142.9 kips and M
ny
= 42.8 ft-
kips. From Figures F-1 and F-2 at P
n
= 142.9 kips:
M
ox
= 146.1 ft-kips
M
oy
= 145.9 ft-kips
F-1
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
For a square column, must satisfy:
(M
nx
/M
ox
)
1.75
+ (M
ny
/M
oy
)
1.75
1.0
(134.3/146.1)
1.75
+ (42.8/145.9)
1.75
= 0.98 < 1.0
If a value greater than 1.0 is obtained, increase reinforcement and/or
increase member dimensions.
Figure F-1. Nominal strength about the X-axis
F-2
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
Figure F-2. Nominal strength about the Y-axis
F-3

Training Solutions