the

indian
histonian Volume 12 1979 Number.l

PubÍshed b the Amqictn Indian Hístoical Society

EDITORIAL BOARI)
.,èannert. Hén.y, Edtror a
CONTENTS

Errors Multiply in Smithsonian 2

Handbook, Rupeft Costo
HONORED INDIAN I!ISTORIANS Shamans and Charlatans, The 6
JohrSr.ndsin Tinlìfr ( hè!enn., 1965 Popularization of Native American
Joh. Porter, Mi'r!i, lró5 Religion iri Magazines,
tane P.nn Cahui t. t9ó5
Rupèr Coro, Crr,ùilr. l9óó Cha es Reagan Wilson
t.annerrè }lèóry. Cherok@. 19ó6
B.rrh^ Stesart, Tolo||., 1966
Henry Azbnt, Mdidu, t967
The Chiìula Indians ofcalifornia, 14
Robeft Lake, JL
Ednù.d racLen. O!..r,,, /9ól
latrì. B.ck, Karck.r9ó8
Neìlié Sha* Harnar, Prirré, ,9ó, Icon and ldea: A Symbolic Reading 27
Edv^rd P Dozi.î. Puebto. t969
. of Pictures in a Peruvian
w itti^m ll,nryan. Na wjo, 1 9 70
Elizab.ttl wlir., Hopi, 1970 lndian chtonicle, Rolena Adomo
M.ti. Pórrs, Maidu. t97i
The Institute for American 51
CONTRIBUTORS Indian Arts

Book Review Page55

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Dublishers,
 ICON AND IDEA: A
SYMBOLIC READING
OF PICTURES IN A
PERUVIAN INDIAN
CH RON ICLE

Rolena Adorno

Photos lrom L Insl tur d Ethnotogie, Paris. pubtisher of

lhe racsimile edilion ol lhe manuscripl in 1936.-rhis
edrlron is lhe lrst, aod lo lhis daie, lhe ony reirabte
vers on ol Pomas wofk.

The Indian Historian, Volume 12. Number 3 Page 27

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ffi,u
sryFD utHtoqytdtPrrpnguou.dí
 dcienr Peru w;x the lirer-
h€ hrsror', ,rr
î! ,nsprralron rnd ava:arion oi.t geat
rnan! rl'rropear chronrclers in rhe
decades iollolvill8 destruction oflhe
'he
Inca cmpire. úd the vanished Inca was
a subjelt that .iJrnneiled much hisloncal
interest. Wh e Andeans Ìvho rirher survivcd the
Conquest or qho werc Ì)orn shorîly ailerward s€rved
ar anonymous inlorman6 ior Inany o1 Lhesc works,
there werc oniy a few,vnre* ), formal treatises who
were themseives ,r!hnr. 1nd.lns. Iheìr works
appeared lround îhe ,um .i he lerenicenth century,
and lhey jnciudcd: Ùei,so de Castro 'fili Cussi
Yupanqui (1570), .luan je !aD1a Cllrz Pachacùti
Yamqui (1613?); ql rnca:larcrlalo le la vega (l6t)9,
1616)i and lìelipe (ìuaman i).mà de Ayala 1!ói5).
,{lthough ql llìca (larcìia$ . ls jhe,nos! Iamous of
thes€ indigenous fe.:ron! rl ìr(iein.n!lor", Guaman
Poma'\.\uera.rrotu.a ) Due, ltbrcrno:s thè \nosr
unique. ljìe ,vrerd.o..,n.? i rcrtt ror .nh !he distant
past, hut rt is nho jt 'i\ldh ,lelaileC trnd .ixciting
commenrarv on lilì ìn,he a"rùlian:/iccroyalty, a
topic on {hìch rhe rrhsl !noiqenous vrirers were
uniformly !iien.. 'iecondly. rn.c rlramarì Poma was a
social rciormer. \t\ tnaqnurn ,xùts desc.ibes a variety
oî plans lor socie! reaorm vhrsh inigh! ,cem truly
utopian. were rhef ro! ra:ect rn rradilional Andean
patterns,ri organizaùon. l:inall). b:sides i|s conteni,
the form ol rhe book ,Éelf .5 \traordinary, for lhere
aÌe about {00 lìlll'Daqe rrawrngs rnlerspersed among
rhe cther ll(,tl Dages. {hich rc .vrilten in Castiiian
with frcquent inlerpoialrons ,n .luechùa-
Ihe Nrevd coronrca ,s 'le*ly a Jomplex and
formrdable texl, -rnd thlr ììciurcs arc the part which
have been mosi lìequùrl) :eporriuced but most
seldom discussed. 'iincc L rrLr:;rmiie eCition oi the
original manusc pt vai rxDlisned 5y P'lal Rivet and
his colleagues d l-''ns!ilut r"ìlnrclogie r l'a-ris in
1936.' rhe \vork has lec.mc ,:nown as 3n rmportant
documentar\ lollrce 'c,r .hs -lesciÌpùon Jl .\ndean
insutullons,' and nu.]ies .n h! lnde3n inlellequal
world view lìave l)!ex 5?ts.r spicrlìcalltr' uoon il.'
Nevertheless, ihr! xmiuai rxl rar ')..n rnai;gned.
wh€n nor iqnorcd. w|lh _eD:.: io ]ts llatus rn,iolo al
Latn \rnen.rn iLcr:rr' rr.r,,r". rnd tuerions
lhe lndian Hisloflaf, VolLrÍìe t2, Nurnber i
concernrng ils lìterary and afistic composition are yet
to be fuìly expiored.'
Besides this use of the frame. whos€ focus seems to
fall ov€r differ€nt scen6 or sesments ofa much more
vast panorama, the pictorial background is likeúse
ùrilized to bring oul lhe verisimilar illusion ofthe main
represenration. Il is the convenlionalily of the pictoriaì
backgroùnd lhat enhances ihe more natural appear-
arce of the Ìnain represemation; thal is, the greater
semiotic qualiiy of rhe former enhances lhe rela(ìvely
lesser seniotic quality of the lart€r.'r Guaman Poma's
use of rhis device is uriv€rsal in his oortraits oflhe ln-
cas, the coyar, the imperial caprains, and the first
several viceroys of Peru. In e-ach of these series, the
backgrounds arehishly conveniionalized: rhe lrcas are
posed against barren landscapes; the co.yas are picturd
ìnside their palaces whi€h are decorated by the com-
mon marks suegesting wal€overinSs and a rug on the
trled tloor. The Viceroys are similarly piciured in in-
rerior seuinss wjth delorated walls, occasionally rii€d
Iìoors. and windows of various shaDes and sizes.
In each ofihe above cases, the great sìmlarìly ofthe
bacxgrounds \eLs off the dirrnrriveness of lhe various
ligures. The individualization of the main representa-
tions is not achieved by great variation inthefacial por-
lraitsi on lhe contrary, it js the costume and lhe boclily
posture of the cenlral figuÌe thal function lo par-
licularize each hisrorical personage. ,A.ltlough the gar-
ments arc conventionalìzed to th€ extent that rhey rep-
resent royal and courtly dress, each is differ€ntly
decoratedi no lwo are identical. Thesameis lrueofthe
viceroy's costumes which aft aÌl dìsrinc!ìve vaîiations
rl the courtier's costume. Thus lhe indìviduation of
these pictorial subj€cts is achiev€d by thepanicularsof
dress and stance, in conlrast to the monotonous back-
grounds against which rhey are porrrayd. Perceptual-
Iy, the similar backerounds se€m to disapp€ar in these
portrayais, leaving the viewerl atlention lo wander
over tbe unique features of each personase. The con-
lentionalsign siv€s way lo the individual one and rhuj
ft is iitling, then, that ùe piclurer should take
priority in an esiheric examinadon o! he work, for
lhey consritute ùe foregJourd€d te"\t of which ùe
*lÍen one rs a \ubseouenr elaborarion or
Page 29
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Page 30 The lndian Historìan. Volume 12. Number 3

complement. That is, Guaman Poma's graphic
r€presentations do not merely illuminate or illustrate
the written text, in the European manuscript tradition,
nor are they as unimaginative and arbitrarily placed as
lhe convenlional sood-cul or copper en8raving
d€corations found in early print€d books.
These full-pag€ drawings visually narrate hundreds
of events in Cuaman Poma's chronìcle, and the
unusual combinations of pictorial elements found in
them sugg€sr that they might be read as an exercise m
cultural s€miotics, For exampl€, ìvhen an ancient Inca
sorcerer is pictured befor€ a ritualhtic bonfire which is
attended by the European icon ofthe Christians' devil
with wings, horns, and tail (277), it is evident that such
a drawing represenls the visual intersection ot tÌvo
5eparale cultLrral sphefes. I or rhrs reason. the eÀamind-
tion ofthedrawings promises to be interesting, and we
begin it by turning to the author's own assessment of
his art.
hen Cuaman Poma dedicated his Ìvork
to King Philip lll ofSpain, he expressed
the hope that the variety and inventiv€-
ness of the draw;nas would, in accor-
dance with the King's fondness lbr art,
relieve the tedium of reading a written
text that was flawed by its lack ofornament and polish-
ed style (10). The read€r who examines CÌraman
Poma's sketches, however, will notice the inevitable
repetition of certain types of pictorial composition in
the hundr€ds of drawiogs that depict scenes from an-
cient Andean history as well as the cont€mporary Peru-
vian colony. ln contrast to Gùaman Poma's own view
of his artwork in this global book that attempts to set
down the whole ofAnd€an reality, it is theprincipleof
repetition, and the structural consistency which it im-
plies, that make these visual texts a rich prospect for
analys$,
Th€ project of deciphering Cuiman Poma's pic-
torialsystem can b€unde(aken atvarious levels, either
from the viewpoint of the specificity of the objects
represented, rhat is, the semantics of the iconographìc
syst€m, or from the perspective ofthe means of repre-
sentation, i. e., the syntagmatic functioning ofthe pic-
torial rext.'In th€ semiotics ofvisual art, the represen-
tation of space is considered to be a fundamental
category of analysis;ó in the case of Andean sym-
bolism, som€ basic principles of spatial signification
have already been analyzed as they appear concretely
iî rhe Nueva corcnica lerr. l here precepts serve as in-
dispensible clues to the discov€ry ofth€ organization of
cuaman Poma's entire iconographic syst€m; the no-
tion of the symbolic, rather than the mimetic, value of
spatial representation in the work already done sug-
The Indian Historian, Volume 12, Number 3
gests that the drawings of the Nueva coronica mighl
profitably be viewed from the perspective of the
semiotic study ofart. Such an approach posits that the
interest of the objects represented li€s not so much in
their mimetic value as copies of objects in the real
world as in thesymbolic indication of the place they oc-
cupy in the represented world surrounding them.l
To speak of Cuama[ Poma's incognography as a
system of symbolic values allows us to propose an
analysis ofthe pictorial text as visual mlth, that is, as
a mode of communication which conveys a system of
values, nóL of facrs. which mediates belwe€n various
levels of social reality, between that which is physica.lly
true and that which is hoped for.' DepartiriS from the
definirion ofan as a myl hjc form which functions as a
method of mediation and transformation, the semiotic
analysis is mobilized according to the principle that are
functions as a system of signs with the same flexibility
as any other language." Accofding toBarthes'
semiological analysis of m,'th, the m'1hic formùlation
can be broken dowri into two systems which stand in
staggered relationship to one another, such that a
verbal or visual sign (the associative total of ar image
and a concept) in the first system becomes a mere
signifier in the second; that which is meaning at the
first level becomes form at the second.'l
In visual myth, the organizarion of the signitiers $
spatial, since their mode of appearance is based on
place and proximity. L': Therefore, for the present pur-
pose, we will define Cuaman Poma's iconographic text
as a system of siSns that communicates on more th:rn
one level, and identifythe first syfem as the set ofpic-
torial signs that constitutes the immediate substanceof
the particular representation, and the second level
system as ihe syntagmatic combination of those
elements in space. It is this secord level rhat reveals the
conceptual relationships that are the essence of
Cuaman Poma's art as a mytbic form; in this semiotic
.reading, meaning will ultimately be defined as position
in a qualified space.':
The importance that Cuaman Poma himself placed
upon the visual text of the Núeya coroíicd suggests
that the iconographic analysis may $,ell have implica-
lions fbr the general understanding of the work as a
whole, ln fact, the organization ofihe €ntire rext resrs
on the piclorial foundation, since the drawings
physically precede the written text with which rhey are
coordinated. Each new topic for discussion is present-
ed first pictorially, then verbally, and there Are orily
half a dozen chapters in the book that are not
represenred in drawings. " The primacy of the pictures
is also evident from the fact that certain eìaborate
graphic compositions, rich in interpretative
Page 31
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Page 32 The Indian Historian, Volume 12, Number 3

possibilities, are completely autonomous and indepen-
dent of any w.itten counterparl. On€ ofthese, the title
page drawing, will be examined here. The ori€ntation
of the present discussion wiu be lo discover how
Guama Poma organized the entirety of his visual sub-
ject matter into a personal handwriting.'r
In visual art, there are certain local propefties ofihe
p€rc€ptual field which affect our understanding of the
signs. Apart from the represent€d objects, pictorial
space itself has a lalent expressiveness; contrasts such
as upperversus lower, riSht versus left, andtheproper-
ty of directedness when figures are either in motion or
portrayed in successive episodes, are all pot€ntial
signifiers.'ó Like the phoneme in spoken langùa8€, the
visual sign acquires value by virtue of its contrastive,
relarional property. That is, the locadon of a pictorial
sign in the upper portion of the field is synractically ac-
liveinsofar as it is contrasted with anothersign in adif-
ferent place on th€ fi€ld; position b€comes meaningful
primarily when a counter-position is represented.
e priority of positional values in
bolic Andean organization has been des-
cribed in Wachtel's study, where a spa-
tial distribution, consisting of a quadri-
ile division of space organized
around a center, has been abstracted
from rhree of Cuaman Poma's key drawings which
pictorially describe the symbolic shape of lhe And€an
empìre and rhe organization of its political hierarchy.
The first division of space divides upper and lo,,ver
fi€lds, with the upper position carrying the preferred
vahre, and the second division, an intersection of the
lii5l, !imuhaneoudy fixes the center of the composi-
tion (rhe fifth sector) as well as the positions to the Ieft
and right. Along this horizontal dimension, thecentral
position represenls the maximum value, and the posi-
1io[ to the riSht ofcenter carries a sùp€rior value com-
n'rei rh,r rh. lpfr 17
'ò ^f
This evaluation of distribution in space is explicitly
based on Cuaman Poma's view ofrhe And€an ì{orld
represenr€d in the Mazrmradt map oftheworld (Fig.
l),and its paradigm of authority as set fo h in the
"Crear Council of the Inca" (Fig. 2). Thes€ structures
are lhe prototypical spatial patterns that underlie all
cuaman Poma's drawinas, and they grant to the pic-
torìal signs a secondary, non'mimetic and symbolic,
level of meaning. Whìle conceptually the position to
the right ofceúter is the more privileged, this position is
repr€sented by the pictorial left from the exrernal
observer's point ofview, b€cause ofthe reversal of the
field which is lhe same as that of a mirror image.'. ln
the present dis€ussion, we wili considerthe represenred
pictorial space from within its own confin€s, as it were,
The Indlan Historian, Volume 12, Number 3
so that that ìvhich is described as b€ing in the right-
hand position will be found ìn the pictures. a5 \re view
them from without, in the left-hand position.
kr the Nueva corcnica lext, ther€ are five basic com-
binations of the three contrastive cateSories ofcentrali_
ty versus other posilions, upper-overlower, and right-
over-left which reveal the Andean construct of
Cuaman Pomas piclorial world. These five majol
qays in which rhe picLorial signs ol Ihe connotative
language are assembled according to the metalanguage
of Andean spatìal organization are:
I. Centrality x Upper-over-lower x Right-oveFleft
ll. - Upper-overlow€r x Right-overleft
III. Centralityx Right-over-left
IV. Right-over-lef!
Lelì-over-right
The procedure to be followed here is to d€scribe ex_
amples from each category, particularly lhose
representations which are semiotically colnplex or
which vividly demonstrate the inlerpretation of Euro-
sym- pean symbols according to lhe Andean conceptual
paradigm. A percentage ofthe proportion which each
typ€ of pictoriaì composition represents will be Siven
for each cateSory,''
I. CENTRALITY X
UPPER-OVER-LOWER X
RIGHT-OVER-LEFT
(THE MAPAMUNDI MODEL)
Although this corfiguration is employ€d in only
4.5q0 ofthe drawings, its manifestations inclùde some
of Cuaman Poma's most interpr€tatively pro-
blematical composùions. Since the archetypical sym-
bolic structure of the Nr eya coronica is the Mapamun-
d,; it is not surprising to find that th€ very title pag€ of
the work, ì{hich functions as an announ€ement of the
book that follows it, subscribes to thar conceptual
as model its examDle s€rves as the initial critical illustra-
tion of how non-Andeafl subject mat!€r is rendered ac-
cording to the Andean patiern (Fig. 3).
The viewer sees, running vertically down the center
of of the page, three shields: the Papal coat of arms, the
arrns of the Kingdom of Castile, and curioudy,
Cuaman Poma's own shield on which are represented
the falcon and the lionofhis appellation. Th€ Pope, in
fronral posirion and seated on his rhrone, appear\ ìn
the upper left-hand corner ofthe drawing, on the same
plane as his crest; the King of Spain, opposite his own
emblem, is pictured kneeling on the righi side of lhe
page, and immediately b€low him is Guaman Poma,
"author and Drince." Like the former. th€ chroricl€r
Page 33
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Page 34 The Indiafl Historian, Volume 12, Number 3

appears in profile and is kneeÌing alongside his own
shield
A r€ading of these pictorìal signs and th€ir positions
on the fietd througlì Westem eyes suggests a humble
&rd submissive acquiescence on the part of th€
chronicler to European authority; such an interpreta-
tion is undoubt€dly the one that Cuaman Poma in-
tend€d for his imperiaÌ reader's p€rc€ption of this
unusual piec€. However, a semiotic rcadiDg of this
texr, in the light of the Andean spatial priÍciples outlin-
erl above, rev€als the s€cret, subversìve quality of this
fepresentation. Two signs in particular, Guaman
Poma's coat of arms and the position of the King of
Spain, are both signifiers of unusual value.
This €ntire composition must be seen fiom the point
oi vìew of the author, Cuaman Poma, who appears
within the labìeau: First of all, the Pope occupics the
uppermost right-hand positiou both chronicler and
King look right'*ard in the di.ection of that supreme
autiroriry. Secondly, the centrality of the v€rticaly ar-
ranged coats of arms signifies the prefered symboúc
value of thc insaitutional office over arìd above tàe
signi oi the individuals t\,ho occupy them; in this
regard, both Spanish king and Andean prince ar€ plac-
ed ro the lefi of the symbols of their nobility. Reading
the shìelds downward, the Papacy has primacy over the
Carilian monarchy, and the latter has authority over
ihe ,q.ndean linease, Yano Bika of Auauca Guonoco.
The significant featùre here is not that the Andcan sign
occupies ihe lowest rung of the hierarchy, but that it
appears at all. This single gesture represents two
semiotic moves: the first, to establish the arìstoc.atic
prestigc of the chronicler, and the second, to iDsert his
sign into the esiablished hierarchy of universally
recognized imperial colonial authority.'o The boldness
of this move is b€sr understood semiotically; Guarnan
Poma has successfully taken away the sun from the
sign-makers. The invention of th€ European-slyle coat
ol afms which bears the emblem of his indiSenous
lineag€ is, in effect, a piciorial dialed that assum€s the
value of the culturally estabtished symbolic langùagÉ of
nobility. lis presence in this title page codposition
thwarts ihe expected, charact€ristic repr€sentation of
ìmDerial domination and establishes, by the judicious
placemenl of a bogus sign, a new rank of autlority on
tlÌe verdcal axis.
ln addirion to thh vertical projection in space, ifs in-
lersection by the diagonal coordinate of the corceptua!
uppff right to lower left fixes tlle sien of the Castilian
monarchy as central on the page in pìacement and
therefore in privitege. Along the diagonal axis, the cen-
ter s€Amenî joins rhe upper right (the Pope) to the
ìower lef! (the indigenous prince), symbolizing the link
thal joins the ancient Andean capital to Rome. Nev€r-
_Ihe
lndian Historian. Volume f2. Number 3
theless, this cent.al symbol is institutional, not D€r-
sonal. The .epresentation of the King thus becomÉs
problematical, since his sign is lhe onìy personalized
one that does not app€ar on either the verical or
diagonal axis. If referene \s made to lhe Mapamundi
model, one fioals that the privileged position, that oî
Chiachty Suyo, ishercoccupied by the Pope, arld that
its less favor€d coùtrter positio!, lhat of CoLs &ryo, is
matched by the placem€dt of the King in the present
drawing.
Cola Srto, in Gùaman Poma's descriptioDs, is al-
ways charactenzed by its secondary ranl( after Crrir-
chal Suyo, atd by the personal corruplion and im-
morality of its inhabita$ts, who arc d€scritled a5
wealthy due to th€ exploitation of the mines at Potori,
located úthin theil Fovinc€." Since the chro cler
reminds the King on numerous ocslsions that all the
w€alú of Castile comes directly from the Poltri mines.
the analogy betwecrì the port alai of the nativ€s of
Corl4 Sr.ryo atrd the Spanish monarch supports tle no-
tion that the King is pùrposefully placed in a position
of less than prefered value. The location of the larcel-
irig King on the perceptual field is, accordrng to lhe
values assigned to the Mzpdmudi paladiem, a s€cret
sign of p€jorative valùe.
Other examples from rhis calegory ìnclud(
.* "cod CYeared the world" (12) (Fig. 4): The
Christian Crcator God is ceúral while Adam
tn€els at his right, Eve a1his left. Th€ placement
of the male on the dght, lhe female to his left, is
a constmt feature of Andesn slmbolism, as
dia8rasned by Juan Santà Cruz PachaQti
Yam$ri io his Reldcion de antíSuedadet d6E
retno del ],enr.'.
** "The A$isan Paintlr" (673) (Fig. 5): Two
lndian artisaDs refubish a life-siz! crucifix. Th€
dÉwing is composed so that the upright alld the
crossbar of the Irtin cross repeaf the first and
s€cond Andean rpatjal divisions r€sp€clively (Cf.
the Mcwmundi). The head of the crucified
Christ is directed uÈ and rightward, and îhe
dominent lirc on the pag€, the up.ight of the
cross, echo€s the privile8ed diagonal of And€an
6patial division.
+r "Atagualpa ir the City of Caxamarca" (384)
(fig. 6): The Inca, in cenúal superior posirioo, is
su.round€d by his lords at a sligltly lower lever,
ard th€ inf.rior horizontal plane is occupied by
the corquero$. On this horizontal right-l€ft axis,
the possibilities sùggested by a semiotic r€adiDg
are particularly rich. The ordy two subdivrsiotr
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Page 36 The lndian Historian. Volume 12. Number 3

 lords who are recognizable by their headgear ap-
pear in positions opposit€ from their customary
ones in th€ "Great Council ofthe lnca" (Fig.2):
Chinchal Suro, normally represented to the In'
ca's dght, now appears at his left while its coun-
lervalue, Col/a.tul4 is found to the Inca's right,
thus signifying the disorder and confusion that
attend this scene. At the lowest level, Almag.o
and Pizarro fill the preferred positions to
Atagualpa's right and Fray Vicente de Valverde
and F€lipillo the lndian interpreter are below and
to his left. By reading the values of these posi-
tions in accordance with the Andean schem€, th€
priest is more despicable than the conquerors,
and the Indian intermediary, from Cuaman
Poma's viewpoint, is the most feprehensible of
all. This spatial reading is corroborated by the
written account on the succeeding page which
describes the relative mdlelicence of the rarious
characters (385).
II. UPPER-OVER-LOWER X theArk into upper and lower quadripanik divi
RIGHT-OVER-LEFT (THE FI RST
LINE DRAWN IN THE ANDEAN
DtvtstoN oF sPAcE)
The second major syntactic pattern of (he spauar
m€talanguage r€procluces rhe privileged diagonal liDe
of And€an priority; l4qo of the drawings are arranged
along its axis.
f* "The First Generatior of lndians]. Vaú Via
Cocha Runa" (48) (Fig. 7) The male figure
wìelds an Andean digging stick while the fenale
figure, kneeling to his left, assists in theplanting.
These figures, representing Guaman Poma's
portotypes of the lndian race, repeat the
iradìtional and symbolic spatial relationship of
man to woman that the artist also applied to
Adam and Eve (12, 22). When Adam and Eve
are shown alter rhe expulsion from Paradise in a
composition identical to the presenr one (22), the
repetition of the spatial arrangement confers
historical digniry upon the chronicler's version
of the first Andeans as much as it €asrs the
European versron of lhe dawn of man in an
Andean mold.
**"The Seventh Captain Inca Mailac"
(l55tbisl) (Fig. 8): The warriors of Cuaman
Poma's home prorinae of Andamarcas-Sorqs-
Lucanas aÍe shown atop their fori, defending
The Indian Historian, Volume 12, Number 3
themselves against the Incas who hold up à|ldcas
to the gaze of the soldiers who will soon be
eonqu€fed and converted to idol worship. The
moral and social superiority ol the provincials,
signalled spafially by th€ir position on the upper
right in contrast to their enemies on the lower
left, is reiterated in the written text that follows
(156).
The relationship of man to his gods is consistently
portrayed by mapping along rhis privileged diagonal
** Events from Judeo-Christian tradition: "The
S€cond r'Vorld of Noah" (24) (Fig. 9): Noah in
his Ark beseeches his Cod to preserve him ffom
d€struction. While rhe Old Testament hero oc-
cupies the center ofthe composition, he Iooks ùp-
and riShtward toward the Godhead, as do
Abraham and David in representations ofoner
ancienr Biblical epochs on rhe following pages
(26, 28).1r The division of the compartmelts in
sions is an explicit example ofCuaman Poma's
interpretation of Western concepts according to
AOdean patierns,
** Inca worship of the ,rard.s.. ,,Idols ofthe In-
cay'(2ú) (Fig. 10): Repeating the same spatial
man/god relationship of the Old Testament fig-
ures above, the Incas gaze upward and to their
right to the objects ofrheir adoration which fill
that pÌlvileged corner of space. The same ar-
rangemenr is found in all lhe oLher drawings
clevoted to the theme of ancient religious belief
and pra€tice.:'
'lh€ Christianized lrdians: "Married Chris-
'*
Iian Indians (821) (Fig. I l): From rhe same in-
ferior posirion in space, the lndians of colonial
times kneel in ìvorship before a crucifix, or
before the object ofa local cult like SantaMaria
de la Pena de Francia, which is consisrently plac-
ed abovethem and to theirright in the place pre-
viously inhabit€d by the huacas (823,833).
**
"The Second fndian Aee: Va Runa" (5!,
(Fig. l2): The efficacy of rhe value described
above is demonstrated by the presence ofa coun-
ter positio[. Only in the second ancient age of the
Indian\. rhe I/a.1 Rrra, is a human figure pic-
tured at worship, kneeling and looking upward
to hh left toward the invisible object of hh adora-
tìon. This iigureùtters in Quechuathe imploring
prayer, "Creator ofthe World, whereare yoù?"
Page 37
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The Indian Historian, Volume 12, Number 3
 The leftward orieniation of this worshìpper, ìn
contradiction to all the others, suggests that his
metaphysi€al search is rightly disposed, but bas-
ed on imperfect spiritual knowledge, that "lirrle
shadow of Cod" so frequendy described by
Guaman Poma (51, 55, 62, 78).
The same diagonal scheme is used ro plot theline
temporal authority:
** "His Majesty Inqùires" (9ól) (Fis. l3): ln a
partial reiteration of the tirle page drawing.
Guaman Poma portrays himself here, g€s-
ticulating and holding up his chronicle, as he in-
forms King Philip lll about the crisis that narive
Andeans face in lhe colonial world; rhe scene is
rendered in writing in the invented dialogue be-
tween King and vassal that folloìvs rhis picrure
(962-981), The author locares aurhodry, on€e
again, above and to his right; thh composition is,
in fact, a repetition of a much earlier scene in
which an enthroned Emperor Charles V hands a
kreeling President La Casca a letter of pardon
for Conzalo Pizarro (417). In that tableau, as
here, a ì{ritien document significantly fills the
privileged spatial center of the drawing. In rhe
other, ir was rheimperial leuer ofpardon: here, iL
is the Nueva coronica ! buen gobiemo itselÍ.
III. CENTRALITY X
RIGHT.OVER-LEFT
[ÍHE GREAT COUNCIL
oF THE |NCA MODEL)
The lhird category of spatial organization accounK
for 6q0 of th€ pictures; its symmetry suggests a sratic
hierarchical arrangement of figures deployed on the
percepiual field, like the model from which ir is de-
rived. One example suffices ro elucidate the form:
** "Devorion 10 AII the Saims" (829) (Fig. l4):
Saint Peter is flanked by a company of saints; the
male saints, St. Sebastian and St. Bartholomew,
are pfedictably to hh ri8ht, as per ihe Andean
model, and the female saints, St. Catharine of
Alexandria and St. Barbara are on hh left. All
are recognizable because they carry the conven-
tional attributes assigned to them by medieval
European iconographic tradition, a system of
representation that Guaman Poma had com-
pletely mastered.'r
The Indian Historian, Volume '12, Number 3
IV. RIGHT-OVER.LEFT
(cHtNCHAY SUyo ovER
coLLA SUYO)
of The fourth type of represenration is rhe most
popular in the work as a whole and accounts for the
spatial configurations of 4090 of the drawings. The
figures represenring the superior social or ecclesiastical
position, the greater ethical practice or moral virtue,
are found exclusively on the conceptual right (pictorial
left).
Examples lrom political hìstory:
Whereas the Incas had been placed in the inferior
position vis-a-vis the lords of the author's home pro-
vince to indicate the superiority of the latter (Fig. 8),
the Incas are moved into the preferred position when
they are depicted encountering either barbarous tribes
in ancient times, orSpanish forces during theperiodof
the Conquest. As a resùli, in those pictures in which the
Incas are at least righteous if not victorious, they
always occupy the position on the dght. Thus, tlle an-
lagonists of the lncas, whether they be the Carari or
the Indians of Crarc4 Spanish explorers, con-.
qubladores or îehels against the Crown, are consistent-
ly found on the left in the position of pejorative value
(15t, t6\, 369, 37 5, 432),
Examples f rom the desc ptions
of colonial society:
In the pictures representing contemporary events,
the positional values are most easily apprehended by
observing the placement of the native Andeans on rne
visual field. For example, when they are placed on the
l€ft, it is conshtently the figure occupying the position
on the right who represents a superior social or ec-
clesiastical status. Whell the sign ofthe Indian is on the
right, ii h because he or she represents the grearer
moral virhe or ethical practice; from the point ofview
of privilege, the active moral interpretation of events
always takes precedence over the description of social
distinction, and thus the Indian figures are regularlv
found on the right. To approach these representations
of life in the Cotony from the Indian perspe.tive ac-
cords well ìvith the "position from Within', thaiwijlie
page 39
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specifically examined in the second part ofthis study;
is also exemplified in the drawing described belo$,:
'* "The encomendero has th€ Indian Chief
Hanged" (557) (Fie. ls)i A cruel encomenctero
has jusL ordered lhe hanging oi an lndian caci'
que; Cuaman Poma's negative interpretation of
rhe deed can be read lhrough the spatial signs.
'While the Spaniardd social authority ov€r the In-
dians would normally place the encomendero to
the right ofthe Indian (551), here the importance
of social hierarchy has been overrùled; the mar_
tyred Indian is located in the position of priority
in the upper righ!, the en comendero is below hiÍl
and to his left. The position of maximum p+
jorative value is reserved for the vìcioùs co.-
j.eSrdor whose complicity in the plot and execu_
tion of the heinous deed are signalled by his
gesture commanding silence. This disposition of
Indian and Spaniard in space is repeatecl more
tharl a dozen times in Cuamarn Poma's pictorial
narration of the abuses suffered by his people at
the hands ofthe colonizers;'?ó lndians engaged in
the performance of exemplary moral acts ale
rr
always pictured in the same position
V. LEFT.OVER.RIGHT
(REVERSAL AND DISORDER:
COTLA SUYO OVER
CHINCHAY SUYO' AS IN-
..ATAGUALPA IN THE CITY OF
CAXAMARCA"
In thh final category, leftward orientation signifies
not mer€ly lesser status, but rather is filled with pic_
torial signs that are giveÍ active negative values. This
disposition occurs about óq0 of the time.
r*
"The Drunken ones" (862) (Fi8. 16): In this
picture representing the practices of the
revitalization movement of Taki UnquY, the daî'
cing sickness, a woman at right plays a drum
while the drunken male figur€ to her left, no
longer able to dance, crouches and vomits while
an icon of the Christian devil, larger than life'
perches on his shoulders. The signifiers of chaos
and disorder here are multiple. First, the ap_
pearance ofth€ devil marks spiritìral corruption'
and he is located in the l€ft-hand posidon with
fhe Indian Historian, Volume 12, Number 3
it which he is typically associated in Cuaman
Poma's draìÀ,ings; hh position on a plane
superior to that of the man is another siSn of a
spiritual "world upside down."
Socìal disorder is signified here, as it is on a
few other occasions in the entire work, by the
reversal of male and female signs. That this
reversed ordering connates social chaos of the
most fundamental kind is corroborat€d by the
evenh depict€d on the other instanc€s of its oc_
currence: lhe first is associaied wilh the misguid-
ed spiritual quest of the Vo Runa (Fig.7), and
the second, with the age of the Putun Runa, the
men of the desert who lacked social organization
altogether (57).
*. "The City of Hell" (941) (Fig. l7): As the
devil ìval pictured on the left in the previous ex-
ample (Fig. 16), here too the Christian icon for
the mouth of Hell, the gaping jaws of a mon-
strous beast, dhplays a leftward directedness.
Again, the Christian concept is filtered through
the Andean paradigm.
r'"They cut off the Head of Aragualpa Inca"
(390) (Fig. 18): The doomed [nca, l]'Ìng prostrate
on the ex€{ution slab, is pictured with his head
oriented leftward as the spanish soldiers preparc
to execute him in cajamarca. The execution of
the boy Topa Afiaru in Cuzco is idedtrcally por-
trayed inanother composilion (451). The
negative value of both events is understoocl
through the orientation of the subiect's body
along the horizontal axis; this position contrasts
the rightward bodily orientation in events which
cuaman Poma had evaluated positively, namely
the slaying of Inca captains in batde by the Cap-
tain Luis de ,{valos de Ayala and by the miracu-
Ious vision of the warrior Santiago (392,404).
Here, instead, the leftward orientalioÍ is a spa-
tial sign connoting the a$ist's disapproval of
these acts; this visual interpretation is codfirmed
by the author's subsequent verbal condemnation
of the deeds (391,452).tl
hese, then, are the signifyinS attributes
of the spatial confiSùrations as they ap-
pear consistentiy throughoùt the Ntlevd
coronica, they are comprehensively
^s
organized into a second level ofsignifi-
cation that stands behind the immediate
substance, the pictorial signs, ofthe visual text. If, in
thebroadest sense, the right connotes positiv€, theleft,
negative, values, then consistency with thh scheme
Page 41
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Page 42 The Indian Historian. Volume 12. Number 3
should be apparent even to the last drawing in the
manuscript. That final representation, although not
contained in the last chapter ofthe book as we know it,
is the picture of Cuaman Poma and his son, leaving
their homeland province to journey to Lima for the
purpose of delivering the authoas manuscript to the
King's r€presentative (1095) (Fis. l9).:'
Viewed in profile, the litde entourage, including the
author's horse and two dogs, moves leftward. This
orientation is sugg€stive of movement toward the
hostile world of Lima; the symbolic meaning of this
movement can be understood in f€lationshìp to the
representations of movement toward Cuzco, which
generally always display rightward directedness.r0 It
must also be remembered that it is Cuzco, never Lima,
that fills the cenrral posilion in symbolic geoSraphical
repres€ntations, Therefore, Guaman Poma's leftward
orientation here signifies a movement away from his
anci€nl imperialcapitalas wellas from hi own provin-
cial home. The physical spatial representation of the
€onveyanceofthe authols book to its destin€d read€r,
(he Spanish King, stands for an intellectual and
spiritual movemenl away from the cultural cent€r.
whilethis sens€ ofdivergence and rupture probably
dominaaed Cuaman Poma's own life, his artisiic work
is marked by the opposite tendency; at th€ graphìc
level, he coordinated disparate realities and effected
the convergence of disiinci cultural spheres. Out of this
synthesis of pictorial and spatial signs spriogs a new
mythic formulation: the recreation of religious rites,
both ancient and modern, indigenous and foreign, and
therendition ofpolitical and social reality are all plot
ted according to the symbolic Andean paradigm of
spatial organizatioo. By these artistic and therefore
mythical means, Guaman Poma rendered comprehen-
sible and orderly thepeculiar contours ofa reality that
he so frequently called a "\rorld upside down."
The Deformation of the
Boundaries between
Representation and
Reality
esides the sp€cifically Andean symbolic
use of space, there are general semiotic
and artistic feaiures that carryashareof
meaning in the Nreva corcnica. One of
th€se techniques, characteristic of an-
cient and medieval pairting, istheuseof
inv€rse perspective in which th€ position oftheimagin-
ing consciousness is considered to be inside, not out-
The Indian Hìstorian, Vol{rme 12, Number 3
side, the scene depicted. This means that the afist
locates himself hypothetically within the pictorial
world he represents,r' which is the posiiion, in fact,
from which we have aheady viewed the symbolic An-
dean treatement of space. One of the most vivid ex-
amples of the phenomenon of inverse perspective and
the internal position in the Nuel)a coronica is the por-
trait of the mother of the first Inca, Malco Capac; she
is called Mama Uaco Coia (120) (Fig. m).
The figure of Maama Uaco is pictured in an interior
in which three characteristics of inverse perspective are
apparent. The first is the carpet \{hich appears to be
tilted upward but upon which the principal figure is
seated. As from the position of an internal observer,
the rug is seen both from above and from the side at the
same time, The second feature is the smallness of the
figure of the lady-in-waiting in the foreS.ound in com-
parison with the larger size ofthe figures in the back'
ground.r': lt is contrary to the expectations of the
vieìrver accustomed to linear perspective to find back-
ground figures larger tllan those in the foreground; we
expect the reduction of sizes to coÍespond to our point
of view as external observers. In inverse perspective,
however, the viewpoint is that ofsome abstract inter-
nal obs€rver for whom the background figures are
closer, and therefore larger, thanthose in thepictorial
foreground.' Finally, whileMamaUaco is looking in
a mirror, weseeborh her face and irs reflecr€d imag€ in
the glass. This phenomenon is visually impossible
within the framework of linear perspective, but it is
perfectly possible f.om the viewpoint of that internal
observer who would be capable of seeing both rhe face
and its mirror refl€ction simultaneously.:'
Other examples of the way that the size of
represented figures is used to enhance the expr€ssion of
the internal position can be found in the dra*ings of
the scenes of children at school; in one of these, the
teacher in the background is shown whipping one of
his charges while an lndian aide attempts to carry the
child away from the malevolent priest (585) (Fig. 21).
The disproportionately large size of
backgound figures
these
is not a result of their identificaiion
as adults to serve as contrast to the class ofchildrenj in
fact, the abused child, onthesameplane as theadults,
is also outsized. What is represented herc is the poinr of
view of a person inside the scene, for whom the figures
in the background are closer than those in the
forearound; additional instances ofthe use ofoversiz-
ed figures canbecited." All ofthese cases point to the
conclusion that the artist is taking an internal point of
vìew wùh rcspect to the world portrayed in the draw-
ings.
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 tn medieval painting, with which Cuaman Poma's
arl shar€s many features, size was often correlated not
only with spatial position in the field, but also with
symbolic position and spiritual rank.'" Notwithstan-
ding his variations in the relative size of figures,
however, cuaman Poma does not follow th€ practice
ofequating greater physicalsize ì{ith a greater degree
of spiritual or moral imporlanc€. On the contrary,
when he does attach evaluative significance to size, he
does so in a manner €xactly opposite to that of Euro-
pean painting. For example, when larger than average
human figures appear in the discussion ofahe Spanish
colonists, "On the Heights and Sizes of Men and
women," their extraordinary size carries a negativ€
value (534) (Fig.22). That this €xcessive volume
represents physical dovenliness and obesity, the results
oftheir dissipat€d habits, is verified in the subs€quent
verbal description of such Europeans (535)
Cuaman Poma us€s dz€ to denote hierarchical posi-
tion only occasionally, as when, for example, he
sho,,vs himself and his son journeying toward Lima
(Fig. l9). Here, the author portrays himself as a
vigorous, youthful adult while he seems ao depict his
son as a young boy. Yet this representation does not
conform ro th€ illusion of verisimilitude, for the
author describes himself as being eighty years of age
and as having just returned to his home after a thirty-
year absence (1096). It would have been impossible for
him io have sired a legitimate son by his wife within
the previous ten years, yet "Don Francisco de Ayala"
is indispuiably that. The smaller size of the son does
not, th€refore, seem designed to connote the son's
tender aee, for he would be a grown man at the time.
His siz€ instead signifies his status and age relative to
that of his father. Thus, larger size is not utilized to
represent the superiority of a pafticular figure; father,
ihe smaller size of a related figure is employed to in-
dicate the hicher rank of the other. Aside from such
examples, size in the Nrerd colorica functions most
consistendy within the prerogatives of the inverse
perspective system; further implications of this inter-
nalized position are related to the semiotic value ofthe
use of the pictorial frame.
The artistic frame marks rhe boundary between rhe
real and represented worlds; the natural tendency of
the imaaining consciousness is ro violaterhe borders of
artistic space and ro bring rhe spheres of illusion and
realiry logerher in order to oblain as reatj5lic or veri-
similar a representation as possible.rr The frame
The lndian Historian. Volume 12. Number 3
belongs to th€ spa€€ of the observer rather than to that
of the "illusory thr€e-dimensional world disclosed
within and behind it";r'ìvh€n the painting is composed
from the point of view of an oìrtsider, the function of
the frame is simply to mark the limits of the representa-
When the artistic representarion is composed from
the viewpoint of someone who is inside the spa€e rep-
resented, which is rhe case in the Nuevo corcnica
analyzed above, the frame takes on another function: ^s
it desiSnates the transition from rhe external to the in-
ternal viewpoint and vice versa. The resuh is rhat the
frame is marked by an alternation of forms correspon-
ding to ahe artist's internal position in themain part of
th€ r€presentation and to an external position along the
periphery of the drarlina.'o îhe Nucva corcnica paF
takes of the most common manifestation ofthis phe-
nomenon by which buildings ar€ simultaneously por-
trayed both externally and internally. Thus, the palace
oÎ lhe aclaconas oî vir9ens is seen al ollce from with-
out and from within (298) (Fig. 23)j rhe background
bears the short pairs of marks that Cuaman Pomacon-
ventionally uses to indicate the walls of an interior
scene, and while the chosen maidens are clearly por-
rrayed insid€ (heir quarLeh as lh€y do their spinning,
we see at the sam€ time th€ exterior facade of their
compound. The same pheriomenon h lbund in the
drawings of the palaces of the lnca (329) and of thejail
in *hich Atagualpa was held prisoner by the con-
querors (387).r,
While the effect of this technique is to soften and
dissolve the barrier btween represenration and reality
by providing the occasionally possibl€ simultaneous
views of ihings that we see in the external world, there
are additional techniques which Cuaman Poma uses
to make his representations as realistic as possible.
These recourses involve the manipulation of the pic-
torial frame and the background in ways that enhance
the expressiven€ss of the drawinAs themselves. One of
these devices is the use of the cropped picture, in
which th€ frame cuts off part of ahe represented im-
ages in order to bring out the partial, fragmentary
quality of the picture itself. That is, rhe image, abrupt-
ly brought into the observer's field of vision, seems
holated from a larger whole as if it were suddenly torn
from the larger sphere of which it is a parr..i Dozens
of Cuaman Poma's drawings exploit thh technique
such that even portions of principal foregrounded
figures are cut offin the artist's margin, giving the im-
pression that th€s€ characters have just happened, by
chance, to wander across the observeis field ofvision.
Page 45
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fhe Indian Historian, Volume 12, Number 3
 uch are the visual ie€hniques employ€d
in the Nueya coronica which function to
bridge the gulf between the artistic rep-
resentation and world that it pur-
ports to reflect. In global terms, the im-
pact on pictorial language is that it h
more rmperative than writing. The visual signs fall sud-
denly or the vi€wer; $,iihout argùment or debarc, the
pictorial or spatial sign does not propose an idea, but
rather materializes it. The pictorial mode freezes in
space a particular and highly individualized image of
history and contemporary affairs. At the same time,
however, its values appear naturalized and domes-
ticated, neutral and innocent."
The ultimate meaning of these artistic signs is not
that they prove historical cause and effect, but that
they set up mythic equivalences. As repetition is to
myth what verification is to science, it is the principle
of repetition, active here, that allows a whole system of
values to pass itselfoffas an exposition offact.'r The
process of mythic mediation consists of the employ-
ment of two strataSems. The first involves reshaping
alien European values according to an ancient in-
digenous scheme, ofdistributing strange icons across
pictorial space into traditional con€eptual cateSories;
the second consists of creating the illùsion tha! lhe
boundades whi€h separate representation from reality
can beerased. Cuaman Poma's visual languag€, a syn-
thetic pictorial dialect, representsan activ€ attempt to
synthesize the disparate and to make the discreiecon-
verge. It is in this silent, semiotic space that the most
strideni and personal message is uttered.

L!Z\!!ZINZNZSIZN!ZS
Rolena Adorno teaches Spanish American Litera-
ture Before 1900 at Syracuse University. Her research
interest is in the artistic response of indigenous
Americans to the Spanish Conquest. With John V.
Murra, she is currently preparing a critical edition of
the Nueva coronica \\hich nill be publish€d by Siglo
Veintiuno, Mexico City.

_s!z N zN! rz \! ztN!ztN!zN

The Indian Historian. Volume 12, Number 3 Page 47

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The lndian Historian, Volume 12, NÚmber 3

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NOTES
r. FeliDe Guanan Poúa de Ay^la, Nue,a corcaica y buq Eobiùno
(codex petueien ilBtre) (\936j rpr. Pdis: L'l.srirut rl'Eúnolosie,
i 1968), AI cnadons oirh.lext willrefer to ùis editior, and Mll be
gjlen 6 parenthetical r€ferenc6 consistiq of the auùor's ori8ìnal
pasinatio. d leprodu@d in the facsioile ednion,
2, John V. Mùiia. "Cùrrent Rseùch and Prosftcrs in Andean
Erhnohtsróry," Ldtin Aù4ìcsn RMh Reviev 5 (1970), p.6,
3. Nath& Wachrel, "Perse sauvale et accùltùratior," r4r4ol5,
26 (19?l) pp. 793-8:|{}, lrmskred into Spanish d "Pecanicnto
salvaje t aculîuracion, ' in Suiedad e ìdeoloeìa, ed, N. wachtcl
(Lima, 1973), pp. 165-228, Ciratioùs willreferlo the Spùish edfion.
Also, Jud M. Ossio A., "CtrMe Pona: Nueva coronica ó caía al
rey. Un inlento d€ aprcimacio. a lss cale8orio del pensmicnto del
únrdo $d\to, ' i^ Lleolosid nesianics del nu"do zndi"o, eó. lúú
M, Ossio ,4,, (Lima. 19?3).
4. Rolena Adorno, "Racial Scor. md Crirical
Dìaùìris, 4 (1914), po.2-1.
5, B, A. Usp€nsky, "Th. Le8uase of Ancient
Ditposito. | (t916), p.220.
9. lack Burnhao, a/E srz.rlE o/-4.r (Nry york, 1971, p.3.
10.
Il , Ralond Rdrîhd, MltholÒgia, Íars, Ann€tt Lav4s (Ne* York,
1912), p.l\4,
ll, Mich€l Sedes. "Pel€Fstephen Isonorphisns. 2," Drn .tri6, , enuneration whicb wqe made
(1915), p,4l.
14. 'rhose chapres whichúe ror representcd in piciurB @sist of
catalosùe lisls oi information, 6ùch ù the laws of the In@s or the
ndd of ùe rddAd Édi8 or *ay statioú alons the hishways ot th€
Peruvian *ingdon, or of teÍs such d stiric dialogues or culo8istic
iJ. Burnhm,
D. 23-
16, Mey€r Schapiro, "On Sone Problds in ùe Senjolics of
visual Alt: Field ard Vehicle ir lúagssi8is," &uiori.4 I (1969),
p9.22v?34.
pp. l8ù181.
17. W.chtel,
19, Of lhe 399 draeings in the {ork, 134 €nno! be ualyzld for
rhei directional or relarional orinradon, (Of rhese 134 Dictùc, 82
comai. only ooe fiBure i! the pcreptùal fi.Id, ùd 3? a!. bnd'F €
vieqs of coÌo.ial clies. ) 'Iher.for€. the calculàtjon ofthe Face aeó
of frequency of appdancc of 6h of úe five @tegorjes will bc b&
ed on lhe remaining 265 drawines which lend thd*lvs to posi
20, Whil€ it ws conv€ntinal for ùislroaatic coun chroniclds like
Anbnio de H€rrera ro siSrify thcir nobiny by thc placndt of rheìr
ranilia.l emblem on the title pa8e ol thei! works, such a sisn would
nornaìly aunction 4 an isolald foo1nor., withoùl uy r.l.tiorlhiD
to ùe nain úlepase repr*ntation,
21, Cite<! in Wacblel, pp, 179.180.
22. Cned in Wachlel, p. 20o. rr perhaps beas repeari.s lhat ùe Posi_
rion defined conceDruatly is reveded pictorklly; thùs, a one vrds
"cod created the world, rhat rishtwùd posiîion ol th. male .È
oea^ on the lcLhand side of the drawing
23. The asumDrion that Noah is nere looki4 rowùd Cod through
the clóud-tilled heavcns is confirmed in the sùbseqùcnt drawiu6
Z\IZNIZII!ZN!'ZTIZNZ\!!ZN'ZNIZNZS!ZINIZNZI
The Indian Historian, Volume '12. Number 3
NI!Z N Z N!Z \I!Z \! ZI!Z\!'
which sho{ the Hebrew God l@kim down ùpon Abrand d he
prepdes to slay Isúc ed upon David 4 he plays his harp.
Z, Goùd Pom., pp. 238, 240,26t,264,2ó4,268,2j0. 272.
2J. Cuand Poma may have fe.lured Sr Sebdr'm in rhis dÉwins,
remdberirS lhe plasues of h6lcs ed sftaltpox mons the Indiùs
in ú€ lat 1580s. St, Srebdtian wd on€ oi the chief saiú traditionat-
Iy irvokcd for prot*tion asai.st plague, acc, Ceorse Fdsuson, ,t
srr
and Stalbol: in Chahaa A lN.* Yort. 1955). D, 2jl
26, CuMePoma,pp.564,5ó7,576, J82,585,591,@1,606,609,
u1. 641 , 610, 922, 925.
?t. tbid., Dp, 631, 8'!l, 841.913.
28. The aulhor of úe .xecutior of the l.@ prince Topa Anùù,
Frarcùco d. Toledo, js pictured at his d€ú in úe coln at Ma&id
slùmpi.g leftwed i! a chairi lh€ dirarionat orientaion is nodoùh a
sigtr sienifying ir ore nore *ay "aI ú€ evjls úat he had dore ir rhi3
Kinsdom" (458459). Arc1bq exmple óf ùe sisn oi rtirffrmnss ts
found in the pictùr. depicrins ù€ progsion which beús ùe d€d
Guayna Capac i. hi6 Urer lrom Quno 10 Cuco (371, Wndeú all lhe
otner rcpresentadons of litler-bohc Incd ùe shown moùns 10 th.
riSht (331, 333, 3:lO), this exc.ption, novins leftwdd, bds th.
ne8aliv€ valuc Asocirr.d wiù úe unrihcly d€th of th€ In@, This
hovdcnt also contradicls the roroal synbolic mov€ndr 1owùd
C!ao. which is els.where reprsenred o a dsht*ed movcocnr.
29, "The Aùtho. Journets" was cleùly added ldr ro ùe work,
b€cause lhe quir€ ebich @mpo*s n is crudely inseded inro rhe othú
aLeady sown quires, ard it beùs only one set of pas. numbds whil.
rhe chaptcn folÌosh8 it b@ rhrR, rnd(atrve ot rÒnions rn
aftù the Ínscnion oi ù.
0otild, boud lor the Indies dd úrioarely for
30. T1. Speish
Cue, ,e (ónsrenily srven rishrsùd diÉ.l.dn$., evcr rh; fish
rwiomine in ù€ s€ ù€ so orierFd (46, 373).
31, B. A, Uspensky, "Structurat konorphkn of Verbat ùd Visùat
Afi." Poetics, 5 (1912), pp. lr-t2.
32. This sia diff€roc€ is ror du€ to rhc tact that rh€ senol hùe
ponrayed h a nùrchbacki rhe 5d€ fisure is dra*n in tùs€r plopor-
tións when she is rol depicled io lelationship
1o othú fisures rGs!4
al the p.riphcry of th€ dra*ids (134),
33. Uspctuky, 'Srlcrurúl IsomorphisE,., p. 13,
35, S€e als lTle Tecnes of Choir ùd School" (670). I. ..Makins
P.tjtios and Chù86" (J88), tndid fisures, standins at the b4k oi
loon much leger úe the pnd in
lh€ pjctorial field bchind a tabl€,
thc for.s.ourd; i. The Pn€l Em€rains rhe D.unkù&," th€
li8!res far hsr frcm rh€ Atemat ! i* cr de asain rhe tùs6r rn thc
16. Schapi.o, pp, 235-236.
37. Usp.nsky, nskucrúal lsomolDhism, D. t5.
18, SchaDiro. D. 227.
39, Uspensky, "Srructùral honorphisnr" D. t?.
41. Tl. .hapl€r on .he cnj$ ed provinces of tne lndi6 conr.ìns
simild r€pr*ntalio.s sverat ol then d€ viewed sinultùsustv
ftomwnhoJt. fromabo\e, ed trom qirhin Norabtedonsrhois
the drawinS ofth€ public cenr€! oiCùrofr05tì,
41. Usp.nsty, Srructural leóorphÀm, ,D t5.
45, Bhhm, p, lq Búh.s, p. l3t.
Page 49
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Page S0 lhe Indian Historjan, Volume 12, Number 3