Variational Principle Approach

to General Relativity
Chakkrit Kaeonikhom
Submitted in partial fullment of
the requirements for the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Science in Physics
B.S.(Physics)
Fundamental Physics & Cosmology Research Unit
The Tah Poe Academia Institute for Theoretical Physics & Cosmology
Department of Physics, Faculty of Science
Naresuan University
March 15, 2006
To Mae
Variational Principle Approach
to General Relativity
Chakkrit Kaeonikhom
The candidate has passed oral examination by members of examination panel.
This report has been accepted by the panel as partially fullment of the course 261493
Independent Study.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Supervisor
Dr. Burin Gumjudpai, BS MSc PhD AMInstP FRAS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Member
Dr. Thiranee Khumlumlert, BSc(Hons) MSc PhD
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Member
Alongkorn Khudwilat, BS(Hons) MSc
I
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Burin Gumjudpai, who gave motivation to me to learn story
that I have never known, thank for his inspiration that lead me to the elegance of
Physics, thank for his explanation of dicult concepts and thank for his training of
L
A
T
E
X program. I also thank Daris Samart for willingness to spend his time discussing
to me and for help on some dicult calculations. Thanks Chanun Sricheewin and
Alongkorn Khudwilat for some discussions and way out of some physics problems. I
also thank Artit Hootem, Sarayut Pantian and all other members in the new founded
Tah Poe Academia Institute for Theoretical Physics & Cosmology (formerly the Tah
Poe Group of Theoretical Physics: TPTP). Thank for their encouragement that push
me to do my works. Finally, thank for great kindness of my mother who has been
teaching me and giving to me morale and everything.
II
Title: Variational Principle Approach to General Relativity
Candidate: Mr.Chakkrit Kaeonikhom
Supervisor: Dr.Burin Gumjudpai
Degree: Bachelor of Science Programme in Physics
Academic Year: 2005
Abstract
General relativity theory is a theory for gravity which Galilean relativity fails to
explain. Variational principle is a method which is powerful in physics. All physical
laws is believed that they can be derived from action using variational principle.
Einsteins eld equation, which is essential law in general relativity, can also be derived
using this method. In this report we show derivation of the Einsteins eld equation
using this method. We also extend the gravitational action to include boundary terms
and to obtain Israel junction condition on hypersurface. The method is powerful and
is applied widely to braneworld gravitational theory.
III
Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.4 Expected Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.5 Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.6 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.7 Outcome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 Failure of classical mechanics and introduction to special relativity 4
2.1 Inertial reference frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2 Failure of Galilean transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3 Introduction to special relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3 Introduction to general relativity 11
3.1 Tensor and curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.1.1 Transformations of scalars, vectors and tensors . . . . . . . . . 11
3.1.2 Covariant derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1.3 Parallel transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.1.4 Curvature tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2 The equivalence principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.3 Einsteins law of gravitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.3.1 The energy-momentum tensor for perfect uids . . . . . . . . 19
3.3.2 Einsteins eld equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
IV
4 Variational principle approach to general relativity 24
4.1 Lagrangian formulation for eld equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.1.1 The Einstein-Hilbert action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.1.2 Variation of the metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.1.3 The full eld equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.2 Geodesic equation from variational principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.3 Field equation with surface term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.3.1 The Gibbons-Hawking boundary term . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.3.2 Israel junction condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5 Conclusion 38
A Proofs of identities 40
A.1
c
g
ab
= 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
A.2
c
g
ab
= 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
A.3 Covariant derivative for scalar eld,
a
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
A.4 R
a
bcd
= R
a
bdc
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
A.5 R
a
bcd
+ R
a
dbc
+ R
a
cdb
= 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
A.6 Bianchi identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
A.7 Conservation of Einstein tensor:
b
G
ab
= 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
B Detail calculation 45
B.1 Variance of electromagnetic wave equation under Galilean transformation 45
B.2 Poissons equation for Newtonian gravitational eld . . . . . . . . . . 46
B.3 Variation of Cristoel symbols :
a
bc
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
V
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Background
Classical mechanics is useful to explain physical phenomena but it fails to explain
gravity. General relativity (GR) is proposed to be a satisfactory theory for gravity.
Studying GR leads to the Einsteins eld equation which can be derived in standard
way. Our interest is to apply variation principle to derive the eld equation in GR.
1.2 Objectives
To study general relativity and tensor calculus which is applied to derive, with vari-
ational principle, Einsteins eld equation and Israel junction condition.
1.3 Frameworks
To explain failure of Newtonian mechanics, special relativity.
To study general relativity.
To use variational principle for Einsteins eld equation and for Israel junction
condition.
1
1.4 Expected Use
To obtain Einsteins eld equation from variational method and to obtain junc-
tion condition by including of surface term in action.
A derived-in-detailed report for those who interest with thoroughly calculation
from variational method in general relativity.
Attaining understanding of concept of general relativity and having skills on
tensor calculus.
1.5 Tools
Text books in physics and mathematics.
A high eciency personal computer.
Software e.g. L
A
T
E
X, WinEdit and Photoshop
1.6 Procedure
Studying special relativity.
Studying tensor analysis and calculation skills.
Studying concepts of general relativity.
Studying Einsteins eld equation by evaluating coupling constant.
Studying Einsteins eld equation by variational principle.
Including surface term in action and deriving junction condition.
Making conclusion and preparing report and other presentation.
2
1.7 Outcome
Understanding of basic ideas of classical mechanics, special relativity and gen-
eral relativity.
Attaining skills of tensor calculation.
Understanding in detail of the variation method in general relativity.
3
Chapter 2
Failure of classical mechanics and
introduction to special relativity
2.1 Inertial reference frames
Newton introduced his three laws of motion as axioms of classical mechanics. These
laws have successfully explained motion of most objects known to us. The Newtons
rst law states that a body remains at rest or in uniform motion. This law introduces
a frame of reference called inertial frame. All proceeded dynamical laws base on this
law. But what and where is it?
To know or to measure velocity of a particle, we need a frame of reference. For
example when we measure speed of a car, a particular spot on ground is inertial
frame. The ground is on the Earth and is not really inertial frame due to gravity.
Furthermore, all stars in the universe possess gravity therefore nowhere is really locate
on true inertial frame! However we will discuss about inertial frame again in chapter 3.
2.2 Failure of Galilean transformation
In Newtonian mechanics, the concept of time and space are completely separable.
Furthermore time is assumed to be absolute quantity and independent of any ob-
servers. Consider inertial frames of reference moving with constant velocity to each
other. In classical mechanics there is transformation law between two inertial frames.
4
v
vt
(x, y, z, t),
(x, y, z, t)
Figure 2.1: Relative velocity of two inertial frames
That is so called Galilean transformation:
x

= x vt
y

= y
z

= z
t

= t. (2.1)
Newtons laws are invariant with respect to Galilean transformation
F
i
= m x
i
= m x

i
= F

i
(2.2)
The principle of Galilean transformation yields that the velocity of light in two dif-
ferent inertial frames is measured with dierent values
u

= c u and u = c. (2.3)
However the Galilean transformation fails to explain electromagnetic wave equation;
electromagnetic wave equation is not invariant under Galilean transformation. Con-
sider electromagnetic wave equation:

2
=
1
c
2

t
2
or

x
2
+

2

y
2
+

2

z
2

1
c
2

t
2
= 0. (2.4)
5
Figure 2.2: Illustration of four-dimensional spacetime, time axis is orthogonal to all
three-dimensional spatial axes
Using chain rule and equation (2.1) to transform coordinate, the wave equation
becomes
c
2
v
2
c
2

x
2
+
2v
c
2

+

2

y
2
+

2

z
2

1
c
2

t
2
= 0. (2.5)
This equation contradicts to Einsteins postulates in special relativity that physical
laws should be the same in all inertial frames. Therefore we require new transforma-
tion law, Lorentz transformation which we shall discuss in the next section.
2.3 Introduction to special relativity
In framework of Newtonian mechanics we consider only three-dimensional space and
at geometry while in special relativity we consider space and time as one single entity
called spacetime. We do not separate time from space and we have four dimensions
of spacetime. Considering four-dimensional spacetime, time axis is orthogonal to all
axes of space (x, y, z ).
The mathematical quantity which represents space and time is components of
spacetime coordinates
x
a
= (x
0
, x
1
, x
2
, x
3
)
= (ct, x, y, z) in Cartesian coordinate (2.6)
Special Relativity (SR) is a theory for physics in at spacetime called Minkowski
spacetime. If we are talking about spacetime, we must have events. Any events
6
Figure 2.3: Lightcone and trajectory of a particle in four-dimensional spacetime
possess four coordinates describing where and when the particle is. Trajectories of
particles in four-dimensional spacetime form a set of particles worldline. If we reduce
to one dimensional space, we will have two spatial dimensions left. Plotting these two
spatial coordinate axes versus time, we have spacetime diagram as shown in Fig. 2.2
The electromagnetic wave equation introduces speed of light in vacuum which
is c = 1/

0
, where
0
and
0
are permeability and permittivity of free space
respectively. The value c is independent to all reference frame. This statement is
conrmed by Michelson-Morley experiment. Einsteins principle of special relativity
states that
The law of physical phenomena are the same in all inertial reference frames.
The velocity of light is the same in all inertial reference frames.
The spacetime interval or line-element in four dimensional spacetime is
ds
2
= c
2
dt
2
+ dx
2
+ dy
2
+ dz
2
. (2.7)
We can see that if ds
2
= 0, this equation becomes equation of spherical wave of light
with radius cdt. We can classify four-vectors into 3 classes namely spacelike, lightlike
and timelike vectors. Any line elements are called
spacelike if they lie in region ds
2
< 0
lightlike or null if they lie in region ds
2
= 0
timelike if they lie in region ds
2
> 0.
7
equation (2.7) can be expressed in general form as
ds
2
= dx
a
dx
a
=
3

a,b=0
g
ab
dx
a
dx
b
= g
ab
dx
a
dx
b
. (2.8)
We use Einsteins summation convention. In this convention we do not need to use
summation symbol in equation (2.8). If upper indies and lower indies of four-vectors
are similar (repeated) in any terms, it implies sum over that indices. The symmetrical
tensor g
ab
is called metric tensor. When considering at Minkowski spacetime, we
write
ab
instead of g
ab
,
g
ab
=
ab
=
_
_
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
. (2.9)
The line element can be computed in matrix form,
ds
2
=
_

_
_
_
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
dx
0
dx
1
dx
2
dx
3
_
_
_
_
_

_
T
_
_
_
_
dx
0
dx
1
dx
2
dx
3
_
_
_
_
= (dx
2
)
2
+ (dx
1
)
2
+ (dx
2
)
2
+ (dx
3
)
2
= cdt
2
+ dx
2
+ dy
2
+ dz
2
. (2.10)
Coordinate transformation law in SR is Lorentz transformation, a translation or
boosts in one direction between two inertial frames moving relative to each other
with constant velocity.
In relativity, time is not an absolute quantity. Time measured in each reference
frame are not equal. Time measured in one inertial frame by observer on that frame
is called proper time. Since speed of light is the same in all inertial frames, then the
transformation law between two frames is written as
cdt

= (dt vdx/c)
dx

= (dx vdt)
dy

= dy
dz

= dz. (2.11)
8
This set of equations is Lorentz transformation. The symbol is Lorentz factor,
=
1
_
1 v
2
/c
2
. (2.12)
Lorentz transformation can also be written in general form,
dx
a
=
a
b
dx
b
. (2.13)
where
a
b
is Lorentz matrix,

a
b
=
_
_
_
_
0 0
0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
. (2.14)
Here we dene
1
v/c and 1/
_
1
2
. Therefore equation (2.13) is
_
_
_
_
cdt

dx

dy

dz

_
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
0 0
0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
cdt
dx
dy
dz
_
_
_
_
. (2.15)
Using equation (2.10) and equation (2.11), we obtain
c
2
dt
2
+ dr
2
= c
2
dt
2
+ dr
2
or c
2
dt
2
+ dx
2
= c
2
dt
2
+ dx
2
(2.16)
Therefore ds
2
= ds
2
(2.17)
where dr
2
= dx
2
+ dy
2
+ dz
2
and dr
2
= dx
2
+ dy
2
+ dz
2
. Equation ( 2.16) is
rotational transformation in (x, ct) space. Values of and range in 0 1 and
1 respectively. If we introduce new parameter and write and in term
of this new variables as
= tanh
= cosh , (2.18)
where in the angle of rotation in this (x, ct) space, then Lorentz transformation
becomes
_
_
_
_
ct

_
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
cosh sinh 0 0
sinh cosh 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
ct
x
y
z
_
_
_
_
. (2.19)
1
is speed parameter. For photon = 1.
9
We can see that the Lorentz boost is actually rotation in (x,ct) space by angle .
Lorentz transformation yields two important phenomena in SR. These are time dila-
tion and length contraction. The dilation of time measured in two inertial reference
frames is described by
t = t
0
(2.20)
and length contraction of matter measured in two inertial reference frames is described
by
L =
L
0

(2.21)
where t
0
and L
0
are proper time and proper length respectively.
10
Chapter 3
Introduction to general relativity
3.1 Tensor and curvature
In last chapter, we consider physical phenomena based on at space which is a spa-
cial case of this chapter. In this chapter is curved space is of interest. A physical
quantity needed here is tensors which are geometrical objects. Tensor is invariant in
all coordinate systems. Vectors and scalars are subsets of tensors indicated by rank
(order) of tensors i.e. vector is tensor of rank 1, scalar is zeroth-rank tensor. Any
tensors are dened on manifold M which is n-dimensional generalized object that
it locally looks like Euclidian space R
n
.
3.1.1 Transformations of scalars, vectors and tensors
In general relativity, vectors are expressed in general form, X = X
a
e
a
where X
a
is
a component of vector and e
a
is basis vector of the component. Here
a
b
is general
transformation metric. Contravariant vector or tangent vector X
a
transforms
like
X
a
=
x
a
x
b
X
b
=
a
b
X
b
(3.1)
or can be written in chain rule,
dx
a
=
x
a
x
b
dx
b
.
We dene Kronecker delta,
a
b
as a quantity with values 0 or 1 under conditions,

a
b
=
_
1 if a = b
0 if a = b.
11
Therefore
x
a
x
b
=
x
a
x
b
=
a
b
. (3.2)
Another quantity is scalar which is invariant under transformation,

(x
a
) = (x
a
). (3.3)
Consider derivative of scalar eld = (x
a
(x

)) with respect to x
a
, using chain rule,
we obtain

x
a
=
x
b
x
a

x
b
.
Covariant vector or 1-form or dual vector X
a
in the x
a
-coordinate system, trans-
forms according to
X

a
(x
a
) =
x
b
x
a
X
b
(x
a
) =
b
a
X
b
(x
a
). (3.4)
There is also a relation

a
b

b
c
=
a
c
. (3.5)
For higher rank tensor transformation follows
T
k

1
k

2
...k

k
l

1
......l

l
=
x
k

1
x
k
1
......
x
k

k
x
k
k
x
l
1
x
l

1
......
x
l
l
x
l

l
T
k
1
k
2
......k
k
l
1
......l
l
=
k

1
k
1
......
k

k
k
k

l
1
l

1
......
l
l
l

l
T
k
1
k
2
......k
k
l
1
......l
l
. (3.6)
The metric tensor
Any symmetric covariant tensor eld of rank 2 such as g
ab
, denes a metric ten-
sor. Metrics are used to dene distance and length of vectors. The square of the
innitesimal distance or interval between two neighboring points (events) is dened
by
ds
2
= g
ab
dx
a
dx
b
. (3.7)
Inverse of g
ab
is g
ab
. The metric g
ab
is given by
g
ab
g
ac
=
b
c
. (3.8)
We can use the metric tensor to lower and raise tensorial indices,
T
... ...
...a...
= g
ab
T
...b...
... ...
(3.9)
and
T
...a...
... ...
= g
ab
T
... ...
...b...
. (3.10)
12
3.1.2 Covariant derivative
Consider a contravariant vector eld X
a
dened along path x
a
(u) on manifold at a
point P where u is free parameter. There is another vector X
a
(x
a
+ x
a
) dened at
x
a
+ x
a
or point Q. Therefore
X
a
(x + x) = X
a
(x) + X
a
. (3.11)
We are going to dene a tensorial derivative by introducing a vector at Q which is
parallel to X
a
. We can assume the parallel vector diers from X
a
by a small amount
denoted by

X
a
(x). Because covariant derivative is dened on curved geometry,
therefore parallel vector are parallel only on at geometry which is mapped from
manifold. We will explain about it in next section.
The dierence vector between the parallel vector and the vector at point Q illus-
trated in Fig. 3.1 is
[X
a
(x) + X
a
(x)] [X
a
(x) +

X
a
(x)] = X
a
(x)

X
a
. (3.12)
We dene the covariant derivative of X

by the limiting process

c
X
a
= lim
x
c
0
1
x
c
_
X
a
(x + x)
_
X
a
(x) +

X
a
(x)

_
= lim
x
c
0
1
x
c
_
X
a
(x)

X
a

X
a
(x) should be a linear function on manifold. We can write

X
a
(x) =
a
bc
(x)X
b
(x)x
c
(3.13)
where the
a
bc
(x) are functions of coordinates called Cristoel symbols of the second
kind. In at space
a
bc
(x) = 0. But in curved space it is impossible to make all the

a
bc
(x) vanish over all space. The Cristoel symbols of second kind are dened by

a
bc
=
1
2
g
ad
_
g
dc
x
b
+
g
bd
x
c

g
cb
x
d
_
. (3.14)
Following from the last equation that the Cristoel symbols are necessarily symmetric
or we often called it that torsion-free, i.e.

a
bc
=
a
cb
. (3.15)
13
a
X
a a
X X
a a
X X
( )
a
x u
P
Q
a
X
a
X
Figure 3.1: Vector along the path x
a
(u)
We now dene derivative of a vector on curved space. Using equation (3.13) and
chain rule, we have

c
X
a
= lim
x
c
0
1
x
c
_
X
a
(x)
x
c
x
c
+
a
bc
(x)X
b
(x)x
c
_
.
Therefore the covariant derivative is

c
X
a
=
c
X
a
+
a
bc
X
b
. (3.16)
The notation
c
is introduced by
c
/x
c
. We next dene the covariant derivative
of a scalar eld to be the same as its ordinary derivative (prove of this identity is
in Appendix A),

c
=
c
. (3.17)
Consider

c
=
c
(X
a
Y
a
)
= (
c
X
a
)Y
a
+ X
a
(
c
Y
a
)
= (
c
X
a
)Y
a
+ X
a
(
c
Y
a
+
a
bc
Y
b
)
and

c
= (
c
X
a
)Y
a
+ X
a
(
c
Y
a
).
From equation (3.17), we equate both equations together:
(
c
X
a
)Y
a
+ X
a
(
c
Y
a
) = (
c
X
a
)Y
a
+ X
a
(
c
Y
a
+
a
bc
Y
b
).
14
Renaming a to b and b to a for the last term in the right-hand side of the equation
above because they are only dummy indices therefore,
(
c
X
a
)Y
a
= (
c
X
a
)Y
a
+ (
c
X
a

b
ac
X
b
)Y
a
.
Covariant derivative for covariant vector is then

c
X
a
=
c
X
a

b
ac
X
b
. (3.18)
The covariant derivative for tensor follows

c
T
a....
b....
=
c
T
a....
b....
+
a
cd
T
d....
b....
+ ....
d
cb
T
a....
d....
..... (3.19)
The last important formula is covariant derivative of the metric tensor,

c
g
ab
= 0 (3.20)
and

c
g
ab
= 0. (3.21)
The proves of these two identities are in Appendix A.
3.1.3 Parallel transport
The concept of parallel transport along a path is in at space. A parallel vector
transporting from a point to another point maintains its unchange in magnitude and
direction. In curve space, components of a vector are expected to change under
parallel transport in dierent way from the case of at space. Consider the parallel
transport along a curve x
a
() with a tangent vector X
a
= dx
a
/d where is a
parameter along the curve. Beginning from the formula of the covariant derivative
X
a

a
X
b
= 0, (3.22)
we get
dx
a
d
_

a
dx
b
d
+
b
ac
dx
c
d
_
= 0
dx
a
d

x
a
dx
b
d
+
b
ac
dx
a
d
dx
c
d
= 0
d
d
_
dx
b
d
_
+
b
ac
dx
a
d
dx
c
d
= 0.
15
Figure 3.2: Parallel transport of vectors on curved space
We rename a to b and b to a, then
d
2
x
a
d
2
+
a
bc
dx
b
d
dx
c
d
= 0. (3.23)
This equation is known as the geodesic equation. The geodesic distance between
any two points is shortest. The geodesic is a curve space generalization of straight
line in at space.
3.1.4 Curvature tensor
We now discuss the most important concepts of general relativity, That is concept the
of Riemannian geometry or curved geometry which is described in tensorial form.
We will introduce the Riemann tensor by considering parallel transport along an
innitesimal loop illustrated in Fig. 3.3. The Riemann curvature tensor R
a
bcd
is
dened by the commutator of covariant derivatives,
R
a
bcd
X
b
= (
c

c
)X
a
. (3.24)
16
a
X
1
a
X'
2
a
X'
a
x
a a
x x
d
a a
x x
a a
x x d
a
x
Figure 3.3: Transporting X
a
around an innitesimal loop
Consider
(
c

c
)X
a
=
c

d
X
a

c
X
a
=
c
(
d
X
a
+
a
db
X
b
)
d
(
c
X
a
+
a
cb
X
b
).

d
X
a
is a tensor type(1, 1). Using equation (3.19) we get
(
c

c
)X
a
=
c
(
d
X
a
+
a
db
X
b
)
e
cd
(
e
X
a
+
a
eb
X
b
) +
a
ce
(
d
X
e
+
e
db
X
b
)

d
(
c
X
a
+
a
cb
X
b
) +
e
dc
(
e
X
a
+
a
eb
X
b
)
a
de
(
c
X
e
+
e
cb
X
b
)
=
c

d
X
a
+
a
db

c
X
b
+
c

a
db
X
b

e
cd

e
X
a

e
cd

a
eb
X
b
+
a
ce

d
X
e
+
a
ce

e
db
X
b

c
X
a

a
cb

d
X
b

a
cb
X
b
+
e
dc

e
X
a
+
e
dc

a
eb
X
b

a
de

c
X
e

a
de

e
cb
X
b
.
We rename e to b in the terms
a
ce

d
X
e
and
a
de

c
X
e
. Assuming torsion-free condition
of Cristoel symbols and using equation (3.24), we have Riemann tensor expressed
in terms of Cristoel symbols:
R
a
bcd
=
c

a
bd

a
bc
+
e
bd

a
ec

e
bc

a
ed
. (3.25)
R
a
bcd
depends on the metric and the metrics rst and second derivatives. It is
anti-symmetric on its last pair of indices,
R
a
bcd
= R
a
bdc
. (3.26)
The last equation introduces identity:
R
a
bcd
+ R
a
dbc
+ R
a
cdb
= 0. (3.27)
17
Lowering the rst index with the metric, the lowered tensor is symmetric under
interchanging of the rst and last pair of indices. That is
R
abcd
= R
cdab
. (3.28)
The tensor is anti-symmetric on its rst pair of indices as
R
abcd
= R
bacd
. (3.29)
We can see that the lowered curvature tensor satises
R
abcd
= R
abdc
= R
bacd
= R
cdab
and R
abcd
+ R
adbc
+ R
acdb
= 0. (3.30)
The curvature tensor satises a set of dierential identities called the Bianchi iden-
tities:

a
R
bcde
+
c
R
abde
+
b
R
cade
= 0. (3.31)
We can use the curvature tensor to dene Ricci tensor by the contraction,
R
ab
= R
c
acb
= g
cd
R
dacb
. (3.32)
Contraction of Ricci tensor then also denes curvature scalar or Ricci scalar R
by
R = g
ab
R
ab
. (3.33)
These two tensors can be used to dene Einstein tensor
G
ab
= R
ab

1
2
g
ab
R, (3.34)
which is also symmetric. By using the equation (3.31), the Einstein tensor can be
shown to satisfy the contracted Bianchi identities

b
G
ab
= 0 (3.35)
3.2 The equivalence principle
In chapter 2, we introduced some concepts about inertial frames of reference. We will
discuss about its nature in this chapter.
An inertial frame is dened as one in which a free particle moves with constant
velocity. However gravity is long-range force and can not be screened out. Hence an
18
purely inertial frame is impossible to be found. We can only imagine about. According
to Newtonian gravity, when gravity acts on a body, it acts on the gravitational mass,
m
g
. The result of the force is an acceleration of the inertial mass, m
i
. When all bodies
fall in vacuum with the same acceleration, the ratio of inertial mass and gravitational
mass is independent of the size of bodies. Newtons theory is in principle consistent
with m
i
= m
g
and within high experimental accuracies m
i
= m
g
to 1 in 1,000.
Therefore the equivalence of gravitational and inertial mass implies:
In a small laboratory falling freely in gravitational eld, mechanical phenomena are
the same as those observed in an inertial frame in the absence of gravitational eld.
In 1907 Einstein generalized this conclusion by replacing the word mechanical phe-
nomena with the laws of physics. The resulting statement is known as the principle
of equivalence. The freely-falling frames introduce the local inertial frames which
are important in relativity.
3.3 Einsteins law of gravitation
In this section, we use Riemannian formalism to connect matter and metric that leads
to a satised gravitational theory.
3.3.1 The energy-momentum tensor for perfect uids
The energy-momentum tensor contains information about the total energy density
measured by an arbitrary inertial observer. It is dened by the notation T
ab
. We start
by considering the simplest kind of matter eld, that is non-relativistic matter or
dust. We can simply construct the energy-momentum tensor for dust by using four-
velocity u
a
dened as u
a
= (c, 0, 0, 0) for rest frame and the proper density :
T
ab
= u
a
u
b
. (3.36)
Notice that T
00
is the energy density.
In general relativity, the source of gravitational eld can be regarded as perfect
uid. A perfect uid in relativity is dened as a uid that has no viscosity and no
heat conduction. No heat conduction implies T
0i
= T
i0
= 0 in rest frame and energy
can ow only if particles ow. No viscosity implies vanishing of force paralleled to
the interface between particles. The forces should always be perpendicular to the
19
interface, i.e. the spatial component T
ij
should be zero unless i = j. As a result we
write the energy-momentum tensor for perfect uids in rest frame as
T
ab
=
_
_
_
_
c
2
0 0 0
0 p 0 0
0 0 p 0
0 0 0 p
_
_
_
_
(3.37)
where p is the pressure and is the energy density. Form equation (3.37), it is easy
to show that
T
ab
=
_
+
p
c
2
_
u
a
u
b
+ pg
ab
. (3.38)
We simply conclude from the above equation that the energy-momentum tensor is
symmetric tensor. The metric tensor g
ab
here is for at spacetime (we often write

ab
instead of g
ab
for at spacetime). Notice that in the limit p 0, a perfect uid
reduces to dust equation (3.36). We can easily show that the energy-momentum
tensor conserved in at spacetime:

b
T
ab
= 0. (3.39)
Moreover, if we use non-at metric, the conservation law is

b
T
ab
= 0. (3.40)
3.3.2 Einsteins eld equation
Einsteins eld equation told us that the metric is correspondent to geometry and
geometry is the eect of an amount of matter which is expressed in energy-momentum
tensor. Matters cause spacetime curvature. We shall use Remannian formalism to
connect matter and metric. Since covariant divergence of the Einstein tensor G
ab
vanishes in equation (3.35), we therefore write
G
ab
= R
ab

1
2
g
ab
R = T
ab
. (3.41)
If there is gravity in regions of space there must be matter present. The proportional
constant is arbitrary. Contract the Einstein tensor by using the metric tensor, we
obtain
G = g
ab
G
ab
= g
ab
T
ab
g
ab
R
ab

1
2
g
ab
g
ab
R = g
ab
T
ab
R
1
2

a
a
R = T.
20

a
a
is 4 which is equal to its dimensions. Therefore equation (3.41) can be rewritten
as
R
ab
=
_
T
ab

1
2
g
ab
T
_
. (3.42)
We want to choose appropriate value of constant . Let us consider motion of particle
which follows a geodesic equation
d
2
x
a
d
2
+
a
bc
dx
b
d
dx
c
d
= 0. (3.43)
In Newtonian limit, the particles move slowly with respect to the speed of light.
Four-velocity is u
a

= u
0
, therefore the geodesic equation reduces to
d
2
x
a
d
2
=
a
00
dx
0
d
dx
0
d
= c
2

a
00
. (3.44)
Since the eld is static in time, the time derivative of the metric vanishes. Therefore
the Christoel symbol is reduced to:

a
00
=
1
2
g
ad
_

0
g
d0
+
0
g
0d

d
g
00
_
=
1
2
g
ad

d
g
00
. (3.45)
In the limit of weak gravitational eld, we can decompose the metric into the Minkowski
metric, the equation (2.9), plus a small perturbation,
g
ab
=
ab
+ h
ab
, (3.46)
where h
ab
1 here. From denition of the inverse metric, we nd that to the rst
order in h,
g
ab
=
1
g
ab
= (
ab
+ h
ab
)
1

=
ab
h
ab
.
Since the metric here is diagonal matrix. Our approximate is to only rst order for
small perturbation of inverse matric. Equation (3.45) becomes

a
00
=
1
2
_

ad
h
ad
_

d
h
00

=
1
2

ad

d
h
00
. (3.47)
21
Substituting this equation into the geodesic equation ( 3.44),
d
2
x
a
d
2
=
c
2
2

ad

d
h
00
. (3.48)
Using
0
h
00
= 0 and since d
2
x
0
/d
2
is zero, we are left with spacelike components of
the above equation. Therefore,
d
2
x
i
d
2
=
c
2
2

ij

j
h
00
. (3.49)
Recall Newtons equation of motion
d
2
x
i
d
2
=
i
(3.50)
where is Newtonian potential. Comparing both equations above, we obtain
h
00
=
2
c
2
. (3.51)
In non relativistic limit (dustlike), the energy-momentum tensor reduce to the equa-
tion (3.36). We will work in uid rest frame. Equation (3.38) gives
T
00
= c
2
(3.52)
and
T = g
ab
T
ab

= g
00
T
00

=
00
T
00
= c
2
. (3.53)
We insert this into the 00 component of our gravitational eld equation (3.42). We
get
R
00
=
_
c
2

1
2
c
2
_
=
1
2
c
2
. (3.54)
This is an equation relating derivative of the metric to the energy density. We shall
expand R
i
0i0
in term of metric. Since R
0
000
= 0 then
R
00
= R
i
0i0
=
i

i
00

i
i0
+
i
ib

b
00

i
0b

b
i0
.
22
The second term is time derivative which vanishes for static eld. The second order of
Christoel symbols ()
2
can be neglected since we only consider a small perturbation.
From this we get
R
00

=
i

i
00
=
i
_
1
2
g
ib
_

0
g
b0
+
0
g
0b

b
g
00
_
_
=
1
2

i
g
ib

b
g
00

1
2
g
ib

b
g
00

=
1
2

ij

j
h
00

1
2

ij

j
h
00
=
1
2

ij

j
h
00
=
1
2

2
h
00
. (3.55)
Substituting equation (3.51) into the above equation and using equation (3.54), we
nally obtain

2
=
1
2
c
4
. (3.56)
The connection to Newtonian theory appears when this equation is compared with
Poissons equation for Newtonian theory of gravity. The theory of general relativity
must be correspondent to Newtons non-relativistic theory in limiting case of weak
eld. Poissons equation in a Newtonian gravitational eld is

2
= 4G (3.57)
where G is classical gravitational constant. Comparing this with equation (3.56) gives
the value of ,
=
8G
c
4
. (3.58)
From equation (3.41) then the full eld equation is
G
ab
= R
ab

1
2
g
ab
R =
8G
c
4
T
ab
. (3.59)
23
Chapter 4
Variational principle approach to
general relativity
4.1 Lagrangian formulation for eld equation
4.1.1 The Einstein-Hilbert action
All fundamental physical equation of classical eld including the Einsteins eld equa-
tion can be derived from a variational principle. The condition required in order to
get the eld equation follows from

_
Ld
4
x = 0. (4.1)
Of course the quantity above must be an invariant and must be constructed from
the metric g
ab
which is dynamical variable in GR. We shall not include function
which is rst the derivative of metric because it vanishes at a point P M. The
Riemann tensor is of course made from second derivative set of the metrics, and the
only independent scalar constructed from the metric is the Ricci scalar R. The well
denition of Lagrangian density is L =

gR, therefore
S
EH
=
_

gRd
4
x (4.2)
24
is known as the Einstein-Hilbert action. We derive eld equation by variation of
action in equation (4.2),
S
EH
=
_

gRd
4
x
=
_
d
4
x
_

gg
ab
R
ab
_
=
_
d
4
x

gg
ab
R
ab
+
_
d
4
x

gR
ab
g
ab
+
_
d
4
xR

g.
Now we have three terms of variation that
S
EH
= S
EH(1)
+ S
EH(2)
+ S
EH(3)
(4.3)
The variation of rst term is
S
EH(1)
=
_
d
4
x

gg
ab
R
ab
. (4.4)
Considering the variation of Ricci tensor,
R
ab
= R
c
acb
=
c

c
ab

c
ac
+
c
cd

d
ba

c
bd

d
ac
(4.5)
R
ab
=
c

c
ab

c
ac
+
d
ba

c
cd
+
c
cd

d
ba

d
ac

c
bd

c
bd

d
ac
=
_

c
ab
+
c
cd

d
ba

d
ac

c
bd

d
bc

c
ad
_

c
ac
+
c
bd

d
ac

d
ba

c
cd

d
bc

c
ad
_
and the covariant derivative formula:

c
ab
=
c

c
ab
+
c
cd

d
ba

d
ac

c
bd

d
bc

c
ad
(4.6)
and also

c
ac
=
b

c
ac
+
c
bd

d
ac

d
ba

c
cd

d
bc

c
ad
(4.7)
we can conclude that
R
ab
=
c

c
ab

c
ac
. (4.8)
Therefore equation (4.4) becomes
S
EH(1)
=
_
d
4
x

gg
ab
_

c
ab

c
ac
_
=
_
d
4
x

g
_

c
_
g
ab

c
ab
_

c
ab

c
g
ab

b
_
g
ab

c
ac
_
+
c
ac

b
g
ab
_
.
25
Remembering that the covariant derivative of metric is zero. Therefore we get
S
EH(1)
=
_
d
4
x

gg
ab
_

c
ab

c
ac
_
=
_
d
4
x

g
_

c
_
g
ab

c
ab
_

b
_
g
ab

c
ac
_
_
=
_
d
4
x

g
c
_
g
ab

c
ab
g
ac

b
ab
_
=
_
d
4
x

g
c
J
c
where we introduce
J
c
= g
ab

c
ab
g
ac

b
ab
. (4.9)
If J
c
is a vector eld over a region M with boundary . Stokess theorem for the
vector eld is _
M
d
4
x
_
|g|
c
J
c
=
_

d
3
x
_
|h|n
c
J
c
(4.10)
where n
c
is normal unit vector on hypersurface . The normal unit vector n
c
can
be normalized by n
a
n
a
= 1. The tensor h
ab
is induced metric associated with
hypersurface dened by
h
ab
= g
ab
+ n
a
n
b
. (4.11)
Therefore the rst term of action becomes
S
EH(1)
=
_

d
3
x
_
|h|n
c
J
c
= 0. (4.12)
This equation is an integral with respect to the volume element of the covariant di-
vergence of a vector. Using Stokess theorem, this is equal to a boundary contribution
at innity which can be set to zero by vanishing of variation at innity. Therefore
this term contributes nothing to the total variation.
4.1.2 Variation of the metrics
Firstly we consider metric g
ab
. Since the contravariant and covariant metrics are
symmetric matrices then,
g
ca
g
ab
=
c
b
. (4.13)
We now consider inverse of the metric:
g
ab
=
1
g
(A
ab
)
T
=
1
g
A
ba
(4.14)
26
where g is determinant and A
ba
is the cofactor of the metric g
ab
. Let us x a, and
expand the determinant g by the ath row. Then
g = g
ab
A
ab
. (4.15)
If we perform partial dierentiation on both sides with respect to g
ab
, then
g
g
ab
= A
ab
. (4.16)
Let us consider variation of determinant g:
g =
g
g
ab
g
ab
= A
ab
g
ab
= gg
ba
g
ab
.
Remembering that g
ab
is symmetric, we get
g = gg
ab
g
ab
. (4.17)
Using relation obtained above, we get

g =
1
2

g
g
=
1
2
g

g
g
ab
g
ab
. (4.18)
We shall convert from g
ab
to g
ab
by considering

a
d
= (g
ac
g
cd
) = 0
g
cd
g
ac
+ g
ac
g
cd
= 0
g
cd
g
ac
= g
ac
g
cd
.
Multiply both side of this equation by g
bd
we therefore have
g
bd
g
cd
g
ac
= g
bd
g
ac
g
cd

c
b
g
ac
= g
bd
g
ac
g
cd
g
ab
= g
ac
g
bd
g
dc
. (4.19)
Substituting this equation in to equation (4.18) we obtain

g =
1
2

g g
ab
g
ac
g
bd
g
dc
=
1
2

g
b
c
g
bd
g
dc
=
1
2

g g
cd
g
dc
.
27
Renaming indices c to a and d to b, we get

g =
1
2

g g
ab
g
ab
. (4.20)
The variation of Einstein-Hilbert action becomes
S
EH
=
_
d
4
x

gR
ab
g
ab

1
2
_
d
4
xR

g g
ab
g
ab
=
_
d
4
x

g
_
R
ab

1
2
g
ab
R
_
g
ab
(4.21)
The functional derivative of the action satises
S =
_

i
_
S

i
_
d
4
x (4.22)
where {
i
} is a complete set of eld varied. Stationary points are those for which
S/
i
= 0. We now obtain Einsteins equation in vacuum:
1

g
S
EH
g
ab
= R
ab

1
2
g
ab
R = 0. (4.23)
4.1.3 The full eld equations
Previously we derived Einsteins eld equation in vacuum due to including only gravi-
tational part of the action but not matter eld part. To obtain the full eld equations,
we assume that there is other eld presented beside the gravitational eld. The action
is then
S =
1
16G
S
EH
+ S
M
(4.24)
where S
M
is the action for matter. We normalize the gravitational action so that we
get the right answer. Following the above equation we have
1

g
S
g
ab
=
1
16G
_
R
ab

1
2
g
ab
R
_
+
1

g
S
M
g
ab
= 0.
We now dene the energy-momentum tensor as
T
ab
= 2
1

g
S
M
g
ab
. (4.25)
This allows us to recover the complete Einsteins equation,
R
ab

1
2
Rg
ab
= 8GT
ab
. (4.26)
28
4.2 Geodesic equation from variational principle
Consider motion of particle along a path x
a
(). We will perform a variation on this
path between two points P and Q. The action is simply
S =
_
d. (4.27)
In order to perform the variation, it is useful to introduce an arbitrary auxiliary
parameter s. Here ds is displacement on spacetime. We have
d =
_
g
ab
dx
a
ds
dx
b
ds
_
1/2
ds (4.28)
We vary the path by using standard procedure:
S =
_
d
=
_

_
g
ab
dx
a
ds
dx
b
ds
_
1/2
ds
=
1
2
_
ds
_
g
ab
dx
a
ds
dx
b
ds
_
1/2
_
g
ab
dx
a
ds
dx
b
ds
2g
ab
dx
a
ds
dx
b
ds
_
.
Considering the last term,
2g
ab
dx
a
ds
dx
b
ds
=
d
ds
_
2g
ab
x
a
dx
b
ds
_
+ 2
dg
ab
ds
x
a
dx
b
ds
+ 2g
ab
x
a
d
2
x
b
ds
2
.
The two points, P and Q are xed. We can set rst term of above equation to zero.
Therefore we obtain
S =
1
2
_
ds
_
g
ab
dx
a
ds
dx
b
ds
_
1/2
_
g
ab
dx
a
ds
dx
b
ds
+ 2
dg
ab
ds
dx
b
ds
x
a
+ 2g
ab
d
2
x
b
ds
2
x
a
_
=
1
2
_
d
ds
2
d
2
_
g
ab
dx
a
ds
dx
b
ds
+ 2
dg
ab
ds
dx
b
ds
x
a
+ 2g
ab
d
2
x
b
ds
2
x
a
_
=
1
2
_
d
_
g
ab
dx
a
d
dx
b
d
+ 2
dg
ab
d
dx
b
d
x
a
+ 2g
ab
d
2
x
b
d
2
x
a
_
.
By using chain rule we get
S =
1
2
_
d
_

g
ab
x
c
dx
a
d
dx
b
d
x
c
+ 2
g
ab
x
c
dx
c
d
dx
b
d
x
a
+ 2g
ab
d
2
x
b
d
2
x
a
_
=
1
2
_
d
_

b
g
ac
dx
a
d
dx
c
d
x
b
+
c
g
ba
dx
c
d
dx
a
d
x
b
+
a
g
bc
dx
c
d
dx
a
d
x
b
+ 2g
ba
d
2
x
a
d
2
x
b
_
=
_
dx
b
_
1
2
_

b
g
ac
+
c
g
ba
+
a
g
bc
_
dx
a
d
dx
c
d
+ g
ba
d
2
x
a
d
2
_
.
29
We set the variation of action to zero, S = 0 and multiply by g
db
,
1
2
g
db
_

b
g
ac
+
c
g
ba
+
a
g
bc
_
dx
a
d
dx
c
d
+
d
a
d
2
x
a
d
2
= 0
We therefore recover geodesic equation:
d
2
x
d
d
2
+
d
ac
dx
a
d
dx
c
d
= 0 (4.29)
4.3 Field equation with surface term
In section 4.1 we have derived eld equation without boundary term which is set to
be zero at innity. In this section, we shall generalize eld equation to general case
which includes boundary term in action.
4.3.1 The Gibbons-Hawking boundary term
We begin by putting boundary term in the rst part of the action in section 4.1 of
Einstein-Hilbert action,
S
EH
=
1
16G
_
M

g
_
R
ab

1
2
g
ab
R
_
g
ab
d
4
x +
1
16G
_

hn
c
J
c
d
3
x. (4.30)
Considering vector J
c
in the last term of equation (4.9) we have
J
c
= g
ab

c
ab
g
ac

b
ab
.
Using formula (prove in appendix B)

c
ab
=
1
2
g
cd
_

a
g
bd
+
b
g
ad

d
g
ab
_
, (4.31)
we get
J
c
= g
ab
_
1
2
g
cd
_

a
g
bd
+
b
g
ad

d
g
ab
_
_
g
ac
_
1
2
g
bd
_

a
g
bd
+
b
g
ad

d
g
ab
_
_
=
1
2
g
ab
g
cd

a
g
bd
+
1
2
g
ab
g
cd

b
g
ad

1
2
g
ab
g
cd

d
g
ab

1
2
g
ac
g
bd

a
g
bd

1
2
g
ac
g
bd

b
g
ad
+
1
2
g
ac
g
bd

d
g
ab
.
30
Interchanging dummy indices a and b in the second term, a and d in the fourth term,
and a and d in the last term, we obtain result
J
c
= g
ab
g
cd
_

a
g
bd

d
g
ab
_
. (4.32)
Now our discussion is on hypersurface. Lowering index of J
c
with metric g
ce
,
J
c
= g
ab
_

a
g
bd

d
g
ab
_
. (4.33)
By using equation (4.11), we have
n
c
J
c
= n
c
_
h
ab
n
a
n
b
__

a
g
bd

d
g
ab
_
= n
c
h
ab

a
g
bd
n
c
h
ab

d
g
ab
n
a
n
b
n
c

a
g
bd
+ n
a
n
b
n
c

d
g
ab
.
From boundary condition, the rst term of this equation vanishes since it is projected
on hypersurface which variation of metric and induced metric vanish at such as
g
ab
= 0, (4.34)
h
ab
= 0 (4.35)
and we use denition
n
a
n
b
n
c
= 0. (4.36)
Therefore we obtain
n
c
J
c
= n
c
h
ab

d
g
ab
. (4.37)
Now let us consider arbitrary tensor T
a
1
...a
k
b
1
...b
l
at P . It is a tensor on the
tangent space to at P if
T
a
1
...a
k
b
1
...b
l
= h
a
1
c
1
...h
a
k
c
k
h
d
1
b
1
...h
d
l
b
l
T
c
1
...b
k
d
1
...d
l
(4.38)
Dening h
a
b

b
as a projected covariant derivative on hypersurface by using notation
D
a
, it satises
D
c
T
a
1
...a
k
b
1
...b
l
= h
a
1
d
1
...h
a
k
d
k
h
e
1
b
1
...h
e
l
b
l
h
f
c

f
T
d
1
...d
k
e
1
...e
k
. (4.39)
The covariant derivative for induced metric on hypersurface automatically satises
D
a
h
bc
= h
a
d
h
b
e
h
c
f

d
_
g
af
+ n
e
n
f
_
= 0 (4.40)
since
d
g
ef
= 0 and h
ab
n
b
= 0 (remembering n
b
is perpendicular to hypersurface.
Therefore its dot product with metric on hypersurface is zero). Next we introduce
extrinsic curvature in the form
K
ab
= h
a
c

c
n
b
(4.41)
31
and we can use contract it with induced metric,
K = h
ab
K
ab
= h
ab
h
a
c

c
n
b
= h
ab

a
n
b
. (4.42)
Variation of extrinsic curvature given by
K =
_
h
ab

a
n
b
_
= h
ab

a
n
b
+ h
ab

a
n
b
h
ab

c
ab
n
c
h
ab

c
ab
n
c
= h
ab

a
n
b
h
ab

c
ab
n
c
h
ab

c
ab
n
c
= h
ab

a
n
b
h
ab

c
ab
n
c
= h
bc
h
a
c

a
n
b
h
ab

c
ab
n
c
= D
c
_
h
bc
n
b
_
h
ab

c
ab
n
c
= D
c
_

_
h
bc
n
b
_
n
b
h
bc
_
h
ab

c
ab
n
c
= h
ab

c
ab
n
c
. (4.43)
Using equation (4.31),
K = h
ab
n
c
_
1
2
g
cd
_

a
g
bd
+
b
g
ad

d
g
ab
_
_
=
1
2
h
ab
n
d

d
g
ab
. (4.44)
Notice that when substituting equation (4.37) to this equation, we obtain
K =
1
2
n
c
J
c
. (4.45)
Considering boundary term from Einstein-Hilbert action
_

hn
c
J
c
d
3
x =
_

hn
c
J
c
d
3
x
= 2
_

hKd
3
x
= 2
_

hKd
3
x + 2
_

hKd
3
x
and using equation (4.20),
_

hn
c
J
c
d
3
x = 2
_

hKd
3
x
_

hKh
ab
h
ab
d
3
x.
Since h
ab
vanishes at boundary. Therefore we get
_

hn
c
J
c
d
3
x = 2
_

hKd
3
x. (4.46)
32
Now we have variation of Einstein-Hilbert action in the form
S
EH
=
1
16G
_
M

g
_
R
ab

1
2
g
ab
R
_
g
ab
d
4
x
1
8G

hKd
3
x. (4.47)
We generalize this equation by naming the rst term as the variation of gravitational
action, S
Gravity
, we nally get
S
EH
= S
Gravity

1
8G

hKd
3
x
S
Gravity
= S
EH
+
1
8G

hKd
3
x
S
Gravity
=
1
16G
_
M

gRd
4
x +
1
8G
_

hKd
3
x. (4.48)
The last term is known as Gibbons-Hawking boundary term. In next section,
we will vary this term using junction condition.
4.3.2 Israel junction condition
We begin from considering the action
S
Gravity
= S
EH
+ S
GH
=
1
16G
_
M

gRd
4
x +
1
8G
_

hKd
3
x.
Its variation is
S
Gravity
=
1
16G
_
M

gG
ab
g
ab
d
4
x +
1
16G
_

hn
a
J
a
d
3
x
+
1
8G
_

hKd
3
x +
1
8G
_

hKd
3
x. (4.49)
In this section, we are not interested in boundary when performing variation of grav-
itational action then there is no boundary condition. Variation of K is
K =
_
h
b
a

a
n
b
_
= h
b
a

a
n
b
+ h
b
a

a
n
b
h
b
a

b
ac
n
c
+ h
b
a

b
ac
n
c
= h
b
a

a
n
b
+ h
b
a

b
ac
n
c
+ h
b
a

a
n
b
. (4.50)
Considering the rst term of equation (4.50),
h
b
a

a
n
b
=
_

b
a
+ n
a
n
b
_

a
n
b
=
_
n
a
n
b
+ n
b
n
a
_

a
n
b
.
33
Using identity
n
b
= n
b
n
c
n
c
, (4.51)
we get
h
b
a

a
n
b
=
_
n
a
n
b
n
c
n
c
+ n
b
n
a
_

a
n
b
=
_
n
a
n
c
n
c
+
c
a
n
c
_
n
b

a
n
b
= n
b
n
c
h
c
a

a
n
b
= n
b
n
c
K
c
b
= 0. (4.52)
Since extrinsic curvature is associated with hypersurface then its dot product with
normal vector on vanishes yielding equation (4.52). We continue to do variation of
the second term of the equation (4.50) by using formula (4.31), we then have
h
b
a

b
ac
n
c
=
1
2
h
b
a
n
c
g
bd
_

a
g
cd
+
c
g
ad

d
g
ac
_
.
Therefore variation of K is
K =
1
2
h
ad
n
c
_

a
g
cd
+
c
g
ad

d
g
ac
_
+ h
b
a

a
n
b
. (4.53)
Applying similar procedure to the equation (4.20) for

h, we obtain

h =
1
2

hh
ab
h
ab
. (4.54)
Using the equation (4.32), nally the gravitational action is
S
Gravity
=
1
16G
_
M

gG
ab
g
ab
d
4
x
1
16G
_

hh
ab
Kh
ab
d
3
x
+
1
16G
_

hn
a
g
cb
g
ad
_

c
g
bd

d
g
cb
_
d
3
x
+
1
16G
_

h
_
h
ad
n
c
_

a
g
cd
+
c
g
ad

d
g
ac
_
+ 2h
b
a

a
n
b
_
d
3
x.
Considering
n
a
g
cb
g
ad
= n
d
_
h
cb
+ n
c
n
b
_
= n
d
h
cb
. (4.55)
Therefore
S
Gravity
=
1
16G
_
M

gG
ab
g
ab
d
4
x
1
16G
_

hh
ab
Kh
ab
d
3
x
+
1
16G
_

h
_
_
n
d
h
cb

c
g
bd
n
d
h
cb

d
g
cb
+ h
ad
n
c

a
g
cd
+h
ad
n
c

c
g
ad
h
ad
n
c

d
g
ac
_
+ 2h
b
a

a
n
b
_
d
3
x.
34
Interchanging dummy indices between d and c and rename b to a of the rst and the
second term in bracket of the third integral term results that the rst term and the
last term in bracket cancel out. So do the second and the forth term in bracket of
the third integral term. Therefore
S
Gravity
=
1
16G
_
M

gG
ab
g
ab
d
4
x
1
16G
_

hh
ab
Kh
ab
d
3
x
+
1
16G
_

h
_
h
ad
n
c

a
g
cd
+ 2h
b
a

a
n
b
_
d
3
x. (4.56)
Considering the rst term in the third integral term
h
ad
n
c

a
g
cd
= h
ad

a
(n
c
g
cd
) h
ad
g
cd

a
n
c
.
Using equation (4.19), we get
h
ad
n
c

a
g
cd
= h
ad

a
(n
c
g
cd
) + h
ad
g
de
g
cf
g
ef

a
n
c
= h
ad

a
(n
c
g
cd
) + h
ad
(h
de
+ n
d
n
e
)g
cf
g
ef

a
n
c
= h
ad

a
(n
c
g
cd
) + h
a
e
g
ef

a
n
f
= h
ad

a
(n
c
g
cd
) + K
ef
g
ef
.
Considering
g
ef
= (h
ef
+ n
e
n
f
)
= h
ef
+ n
f
n
e
+ n
e
n
f
= h
ef
+ n
f
n
e
n
a
n
a
+ n
e
n
f
n
b
n
b
= h
ef
. (4.57)
Therefore
h
ad
n
c

a
g
cd
= h
ad

a
(n
c
g
cd
) + K
ef
h
ef
. (4.58)
Substituting this equation in equation (4.56), we obtain
S
Gravity
=
1
16G
_
M

gG
ab
g
ab
d
4
x
1
16G
_

hh
ab
Kh
ab
d
3
x
+
1
16G
_

h
_
h
ad

a
_
n
c
g
cd
_
+ K
ef
h
ef
+ 2h
b
a

a
n
b
_
d
3
x
=
1
16G
_
M

gG
ab
g
ab
d
4
x +
1
16G
_

h
_
K
ab
h
ab
K
_
h
ab
d
3
x
+
1
16G
_

h
_
h
ad

a
_
n
c
g
cd
_
+ 2h
b
a

a
n
b
_
d
3
x (4.59)
35
Considering the two terms in bracket of the last integral term
h
ad

a
(n
c
g
cd
) + 2h
b
a

a
n
b
= h
ad

a
_

_
n
c
g
cd
_
g
cd
n
c
_
+ 2h
b
a

a
n
b
= h
ad

a
n
d
h
a
c

a
n
c
+ 2h
b
a

a
n
b
= h
ad

a
n
d
+ h
b
a

a
n
b
= g
bd
h
b
a

a
n
d
+ h
b
a

a
n
b
= h
b
a

a
_
g
bd
n
d
+ n
b
_
= h
b
a

a
_
g
bd
n
d
n
c
n
c
+
b
c
n
c
_
= h
b
a

a
_
_
n
b
n
c
+
b
c
_
n
c
_
= D
b
_
h
b
c
n
c
_
(4.60)
and substituting the last equation into equation (4.59), we obtain
S
Gravity
=
1
16G
_
M

gG
ab
g
ab
d
4
x +
1
16G
_

h
_
K
ab
h
ab
K
_
h
ab
d
3
x
+
1
16G
_

hD
b
_
h
b
c
n
c
_
d
3
x. (4.61)
Since the last term in the equation (4.61) is divergence term. It yields vanishing of
this integral with boundary at innity on . Finally, the variation of gravity is
S
Gravity
=
1
16G
_
M

gG
ab
g
ab
d
4
x
+
1
16G
_

h
_
K
ab
h
ab
K
_
h
ab
d
3
x. (4.62)
The action for matter on hypersurface is
S
mat
=
_

L
mat
d
3
x (4.63)
and its variation is
S
mat
=
_

ht
ab
h
ab
(4.64)
where the energy-momentum tensor on hypersurface is
t
ab
= 2
1

h
S
mat
h
ab
. (4.65)
The total action is
S
Gravity
= S
EH
+ S
GB
+ S
mat
. (4.66)
36
Since we include energy-momentum tensor on hypersurface, then Einstein tensor in
the bulk vanishes.
1
Therefore the total action gives the Israel junction condition
K
ab
h
ab
K = 8Gt
ab
. (4.67)
The energy-momentum tensor on hypersurface is not necessarily conserved because
energy can ow from the hypersurface to the bulk. The idea has been recently widely
applied to the research eld of braneworld gravity and braneworld cosmology (see e.g.
[8] for review of application of Israel junction condition to braneworld gravity.)
1
The bulk is the region of one dimension left beyond the hypersurface. The bulk and hypersurface
together form total region of the manifold.
37
Chapter 5
Conclusion
Relativity begins with concept of inertial reference frame which is dened by Newtons
rst law. Therefore relative frames in one direction is considered allowing us to do
Galilean transformation for inertial frame moving not so fast. However under this
transformation, the speed of light is no longer invariant and electromagnetic wave
equations are neither invariant. Special relativity came along based on Einsteins
principle of spacial relativity. In this theory, there is a unication of time and space
so called spacetime. It uses Lorentz transformation under which electromagnetic
wave equations are invariant. Moreover it reduces to Galilean transformation in
case of small velocity. Therefore SR implies no absolute inertial reference frame
in the universe. Einstein introduced transformation law when including eects of
gravitational eld and also introduced the equivalence principle which suggest that
purely inertial reference frame is not sensible. It introduces us local inertial frame in
gravitational eld. Therefore Newtonian mechanics based on inertial frame fails to
explain gravity. SR based on at space is extended to general relativity using concept
of curved space. Curved space is indicated by Riemann tensor, R
a
bcd
. This theory
attempts to explain gravity with geometry. It tells us that mass is in fact curvature
of geometry This fact is expressed in the Einsteins eld equation,
G
ab
= 8GT
ab
.
All physical laws are believed to obey principle of least action, S = 0. The dynamical
variable in GR is g
ab
therefore the Lagrangian density in action must be a function of
g
ab
. We used Ricci scalar in term of second derivative of metric. We did not choose
function of rst derivative of metric since it vanishes at any point on manifold. With
38
the action
S
EH
=
_

gRd
4
x
we can derive Einsteins eld equation by neglecting boundary term (surface term).
If including boundary term then, we must have dynamical variable on boundary or
hypersurface, such as h
ab
which is an induced metric on the hypersurface. Bounding
the manifold, we obtain extrinsic curvature K which is constructed from h
ab
in the
action on the hypersurface. That is
S
GH
=
_

hKd
3
x.
This is called Gibbon-Howking boundary term. The result of this variation is Israel
junction condition,
K
ab
h
ab
K = 8Gt
ab
which is shown in detail calculations in this report. This result can be applied widely
to braneworld gravity.
39
Appendix A
Proofs of identities
A.1
c
g
ab
= 0
The identity
c
g
ab
= 0 is proved by using covariant derivative to tensor type(0, 2):

c
g
ab
=
c
g
ab

d
ca
g
bd

d
cb
g
ad
(A.1)
Using equation (3.14), we have

c
g
ab
=
c
g
ab

1
2
g
bd
g
de
_

c
g
ae
+
a
g
ce

e
g
ac
_

1
2
g
ad
g
de
_

c
g
be
+
b
g
ce

e
g
bc
_
=
c
g
ab

1
2

b
e
_

c
g
ae
+
a
g
ce

e
g
ac
_

1
2

a
e
_

c
g
be
+
b
g
ce

e
g
bc
_
=
c
g
ab

1
2
_

c
g
ab
+
a
g
cb

b
g
ac
_

1
2
_

c
g
ba
+
b
g
ca

a
g
bc
_
= 0. (A.2)
A.2
c
g
ab
= 0
The identity
c
g
ab
= 0 is proved by using covariant derivative to tensor type(2, 0):

c
g
ab
=
c
g
ab
+
a
cd
g
bd
+
b
cd
g
ad
(A.3)
40
Therefore

c
g
ab
=
c
g
ab
+
1
2
g
bd
g
ae
_

c
g
de
+
d
g
ce

e
g
cd
_
+
1
2
g
ad
g
be
_

c
g
de
+
d
g
ce

e
g
cd
_
=
c
g
ab
+
1
2
g
ae
g
bd

c
g
de
+
1
2
g
bd
g
ae

d
g
ce

1
2
g
ae
g
bd

e
g
cd
+
1
2
g
be
g
ad

c
g
de
+
1
2
g
ad
g
be

d
g
ce

1
2
g
be
g
ad

e
g
cd
=
c
g
ab
+
1
2
g
ae
_

c
_
g
de
g
bd
_
g
de

c
g
bd
_
+
1
2
g
bd
_

d
_
g
ce
g
ae
_
g
ce

d
g
ae
_

1
2
g
ae
_

e
_
g
cd
g
bd
_
g
cd

e
g
bd
_
+
1
2
g
be
_

c
_
g
de
g
ad
_
g
de

c
g
ad
_
+
1
2
g
ad
_

d
_
g
ce
g
be
_
g
ce

d
g
be
_

1
2
g
be
_

e
_
g
cd
g
ad
_
g
cd

e
g
ad
_
=
c
g
ab
+
1
2
g
ae
_

b
e
g
de

c
g
bd
_
+
1
2
g
bd
_

a
c
g
ce

d
g
ae
_

1
2
g
ae
_

b
c
g
cd

e
g
bd
_
+
1
2
g
be
_

a
e
g
de

c
g
ad
_
+
1
2
g
ad
_

b
c
g
ce

d
g
be
_

1
2
g
be
_

a
c
g
cd

e
g
ad
_

a
c
are constant then their partial derivatives vanish. Therefore we get

c
g
ab
=
c
g
ab

1
2
g
ae
g
de

c
g
bd

1
2
g
bd
g
ce

d
g
ae
+
1
2
g
ae
g
cd

e
g
bd

1
2
g
be
g
de

c
g
ad

1
2
g
ad
g
ce

d
g
be
+
1
2
g
be
g
cd

e
g
ad
=
c
g
ab

1
2

a
d

c
g
bd

1
2
g
bd
g
ce

d
g
ae
+
1
2
g
ae
g
cd

e
g
bd

1
2

b
d

c
g
ad

1
2
g
ad
g
ce

d
g
be
+
1
2
g
be
g
cd

e
g
ad
=
c
g
ab

1
2

c
g
ba

1
2
g
bd
g
ce

d
g
ae
+
1
2
g
ae
g
cd

e
g
bd

1
2

c
g
ab

1
2
g
ad
g
ce

d
g
be
+
1
2
g
be
g
cd

e
g
ad
.
Interchanging dummy indices d and e, we get

c
g
ab
=
1
2
g
be
g
cd

e
g
ad
+
1
2
g
ad
g
ce

d
g
be

1
2
g
ad
g
ce

d
g
be
+
1
2
g
be
g
cd

e
g
ad
= 0. (A.4)
41
A.3 Covariant derivative for scalar eld,
a

We will show that covariant derivative for scalar eld is just ordinary derivative.
Considering

a
=
a
_
X
b
X
b
_
= X
b

a
X
b
+ X
b

a
X
b
= 2X
b

a
X
b
+ 2X
b

b
ac
X
c
= 2
a
_
X
b
X
b
_
2X
b

a
X
b
+ X
b
X
c
g
bd
_

a
g
dc
+
c
g
ad

d
g
ac
_
= 2
a
2X
b

a
X
b
+ X
c
X
d

a
g
dc
+ X
c
X
d

c
g
ad
X
c
X
d

d
g
ac
.
Interchanging dummy indices c and d yields that the last and the forth term cancel
out. Therefore we get

a
= 2
a
2X
b

a
X
b
+ X
c
X
d

a
g
dc
= 2
a
2X
b

a
X
b
+ X
c

a
_
g
dc
X
d
_
X
c
g
dc

a
X
d
= 2
a
2X
b

a
X
b
+ X
c

a
X
c
X
d

a
X
d
= 2
a
X
b

a
X
b
X
d

a
X
d
= 2
a

a
_
X
b
X
b
_
=
a
(A.5)
A.4 R
a
bcd
= R
a
bdc
Proving the identity R
a
bcd
= R
a
bdc
is as follows
R
a
bcd
=
c

a
bd

a
bc
+
e
bd

a
ec

e
bc

a
ed
=
_

a
bd
+
d

a
bc

e
bd

a
ec
+
e
bc

a
ed
_
=
_

a
bc

a
bd
+
e
bc

a
ed

e
bd

a
ec
_
R
a
bcd
= R
a
bdc
(A.6)
42
A.5 R
a
bcd
+ R
a
dbc
+ R
a
cdb
= 0
Proving the identity R
a
bcd
+ R
a
dbc
+ R
a
cdb
= 0 is as follows
1. R
a
bcd
=
c

a
bd

a
bc
+
e
bd

a
ec

e
bc

a
ed
2. R
a
dbc
=
b

a
dc

a
db
+
e
dc

a
eb

e
db

a
ec
3. R
a
cdb
=
d

a
cb

a
cd
+
e
cb

a
ed

e
cd

a
eb
R
a
bcd
+ R
a
dbc
+ R
a
cdb
=
c

a
bd

a
bc
+
e
bd

a
ec

e
bc

a
ed
+
b

a
dc

a
db
+
e
dc

a
eb

e
db

a
ec
+
d

a
cb

a
cd
+
e
cb

a
ed

e
cd

a
eb
= 0 (A.7)
A.6 Bianchi identities
Considering covariant derivative of Riemann tensor evaluated in locally inertial coor-
dinate:

a
R

b c

d e
=
a
R

b c

d e
(A.8)
Hats on their indices represent locally inertial coordinate. Notice that for locally
inertial coordinate, Cristoel symbols which contain rst-order derivatives of metrics
must vanish at any points. But the second derivatives of metrics in Riemann tensor
do not vanish. Therefore
R

b c

d e
= g
a

b
R
a
c

d e
= g
a

b
_

a
c e

d c
_
= g
a

b
g
a

f
_

c
g
e

f
+

e
g
c

f

f
g
c e

d
g
c

f

e

c
g

d

f
+
e

f
g

d c
_
R

b c

d e
=
1
2
_

c
g
e

b
g
c e

c
g

b
+
e

b
g

d c
_
. (A.9)
We therefore obtain

a
R

b c

d e
+
c
R
a

d e
+

b
R
c a

d e
=
1
2
_

c
g
e

b
g
c e

c
g

b
+
a

b
g

d c
+
c

b
g
e a

a
g

b e

b
g

d a
+
c

a
g

b
+

a
g
e c

c
g
a e

a
g

d c
+

c
g

d a
_
= 0. (A.10)
43
A.7 Conservation of Einstein tensor:
b
G
ab
= 0
Considering Bianchi identities,

e
R
abcd
+
d
R
abec
+
c
R
abde
= 0
g
ae
g
bc
_

e
R
abcd
+
d
R
abec
+
c
R
abde
_
= 0

a
R
ad

d
R +
b
R
bd
= 0.
Renaming indices b to a, we have
2
a
R
ad

d
R = 0

a
R
ad

1
2

d
R = 0

a
_
R
ad

1
2
g
ad
R
_
= 0.
We then see that twice-contracted Bianchi identities is equivalent to

a
G
ad
= 0. (A.11)
44
Appendix B
Detail calculation
B.1 Variance of electromagnetic wave equation un-
der Galilean transformation
Consider electromagnetic wave equation

x
2
+

2

y
2
+

2

z
2

1
c
2

t
2
= 0. (B.1)
Transforming t t

t
=
t

+
x

+
y

+
z

.
Using x

= x vt, y

= y, z

= z, t

= t, we get

t
=

t

v

x

t
2
=

t
_

_
v

t
_

_
=
_
t

t
2
+
x

+
y

+
z

_
v
_
t

+
x

x
2
+
y

+
z

_
=

2

t
2
2v

2

+ v
2

2

x
2
. (B.2)
45
Transforming x x

x
=
t

+
x

+
y

+
z

=

x

x
2
=

2

x
2
(B.3)
The y-axis and z-axis do not change, we have

y
2
=

2

y
2
(B.4)
and

z
2
=

2

z
2
. (B.5)
Substituting all equations of transformation into equations (B.1),

x
2
+

2

y
2
+

2

z
2

1
c
2

t
2
+
2v
c
2

v
2
c
2

x
2
,
we nally have equation (2.5):
c
2
v
2
c
2

x
2
+
2v
c
2

+

2

y
2
+

2

z
2

1
c
2

t
2
= 0 (B.6)
B.2 Poissons equation for Newtonian gravitational
eld
Considering a close surface S enclosing a mass M. The quantity g ndS is dened as
the gravitational ux passing through the surface element dS where n is the outward
unit vector normal to S. The total gravitational ux through S is then given by
_
S
g ndS = GM
_
S
e
r
n
r
2
dS. (B.7)
By denition (e
r
n/r
2
dS) = cos dS/r
2
is the element of solid angle d subtended
at M by the element surface dS. Therefore equation (B.7) becomes
_
S
g ndS = GM
_
d = 4GM.
= 4G
_
v
(r)dV
46
From application of divergence theorem, the left side of this equation can be rewritten
_
S
g ndS =
_
v
gdV. (B.8)
Therefore we obtain
g = 4G.
Recall that
g = . (B.9)
We therefore have result as in equation (3.57),

2
= 4G.
B.3 Variation of Cristoel symbols :
a
bc
From equation (3.14) we have

a
bc
=
1
2
g
ad
_

b
g
dc
+
c
g
bd

d
g
bc
_

a
bc
=
1
2
g
ad
_

b
g
dc
+
c
g
bd

d
g
bc
_
+
1
2
g
ad
_

b
g
dc
+
c
g
bd

d
g
bc
_
.
Considering variation of g
ad
,
g
ad
=
f
d

d
f
g
ad
=
f
d
g
de
g
ef
g
ad
=
f
d
g
ef
_

_
g
de
g
ad
_
g
ad
g
de
_
=
f
d
g
ef
_
(
e
a
) g
ad
g
de
_
= g
ed
g
ad
g
de
,
therefore

a
bc
=
1
2
g
ed
g
ad
g
de
_

b
g
dc
+
c
g
bd

d
g
bc
_
+
1
2
g
ad
_

b
g
dc
+
c
g
bd

d
g
bc
_
.
= g
ad

e
bc
g
ed
+
1
2
g
ad
_

b
g
dc
+
c
g
bd

d
g
bc
_
=
1
2
g
ad
_

b
g
dc
+
c
g
bd

d
g
bc
2
e
bc
g
ed
_
=
1
2
g
ad
_

b
g
dc

e
bc
g
ed

e
bd
g
ec
+
c
g
bd

e
bc
g
ed

e
dc
g
eb

d
g
bc
+
e
bd
g
ec
+
e
dc
g
eb
_

a
bc
=
1
2
g
ad
_

b
g
dc
+
c
g
bd

d
g
bc
_
. (B.10)
47
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48