Page 1 Pgina 1 'The Liberal Project': 'Project O Liberal ": Globalization, Modernity and Identity Modernidade, Globalizao e Identidade

Giorgio S Giorgio S HANI HANI Abstract Abstrato This article argues that globalization, or rather the globalization of modernity, Este artigo argumenta que a globalizao, ou melhor, a globalizao da modernidade, can be conceived of as a 'liberal project.' pode ser concebida como um "projeto liberal." At the heart of the 'liberal project' is the No corao do "projeto liberal" o creation of a global civil society based upon universal values: human rights and criao de uma sociedade civil global baseada em valores universais: os direitos humanos e the rule of law. o Estado de Direito. However, a 'liberal' global civil society requires, as a precondition No entanto, a sociedade global um 'liberal' civil exige, como condio prvia for its existence, the erasure of difference: the creation of 'unencumbered' para a sua existncia, o apagamento da diferena: a criao de 'livre' individuals out of communal identities and the universalization of liberal indivduos fora de identidades comunitrias ea universalizao da liberal democracy and capitalism. democracia e capitalismo. Historically, a product of the European Historicamente, um produto da Europeia Enlightenment, the 'liberal project' has taken the form of colonialism, Iluminismo, o "projeto liberal" tomou a forma de colonialismo, imperialism and genocide in the non-European world, in the process imperialismo e genocdio no mundo no-europeu, no processo compromising its central ideal of universal freedom. comprometer a sua central ideal de liberdade universal. However, it will be argued No entanto, ser discutido that, in the light of the present ethnoreligious revival, this 'liberal' project has que, luz do renascimento tnico-religioso presente, este projecto "liberal" tem failed. falhou. Three different but interrelated sets of explanations help account for its Trs conjuntos diferentes, mas inter-relacionados de explicaes ajudar a explicar a sua failure to transform the world in the image of the West: the incommensurability incapacidade de transformar o mundo imagem do Ocidente: a incomensurabilidade of cultural value systems, the dynamism of modernity and the distorting effects de sistemas de valores culturais, o dinamismo da modernidade e os efeitos distorcivos of pre-modern practices which make multiple non-western modernities possible. de pr-modernas prticas que fazem mltiplas modernidades no ocidentais possvel. Introduction Introduo This article will examine the impact of globalization upon collective identities. Este artigo analisar o impacto da globalizao sobre as identidades coletivas. Globalization in a conventional sense refers to the globalization of liberal A globalizao no sentido convencional refere-se globalizao liberal capitalist modernity. modernidade capitalista. Following the collapse of Stalinism in the 1990s, it has been Aps o colapso do stalinismo na dcada de 1990, tem sido argued by neo-liberals that liberal capitalist modernity remains the only viable argumentado por neo-liberais que a modernidade capitalista liberal continua a ser a nica vivel mode of economic, social and political organization. modo de organizao econmica, social e poltico. Furthermore, although most Mais Alm disso, embora liberals acknowledge that a global political identity is at best embryonic, or liberais reconhecem que uma identidade poltica global , na melhor das embrionrias, ou 37 37 (37) 37 Associate Professor, College of International Relations, Ritsumeikan University, Kyoto, Japan. Professor Associado, Faculdade de Relaes Internacionais, Universidade Ritsumeikan, Kyoto, Japo. The International Studies Association of Ritsumeikan University: O International Studies Association de Ritsumeikan University: Ritsumeikan Annual Review of International Studies,

2003. Ritsumeikan Annual Review of International Studies, 2003. ISSN 1347-8214. ISSN 13478214. Vol.2, pp. 37-57 Vol.2, pp 37-57 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 2 Pgina 2 presently limited to the developed North, they insist that globalization will atualmente limitada ao Norte desenvolvido, eles insistem que a globalizao inevitably lead to the dissemination of a global political cultural identity and the inevitavelmente levar disseminao de uma identidade poltica cultural global e creation of a global civil society. criao de uma sociedade civil global. This will be referred to as 'liberal' global civil Isso vai ser referido como 'liberal' civil global society. sociedade. The liberal conception of a global civil society refers to a society where 'social A concepo liberal de uma sociedade civil global refere-se a uma sociedade onde "social life (the public sphere) is modelled on exchange and persons meet in order to vida (esfera pblica) modelada na troca e pessoas a fim de atender arbitrate their pre-existing interests which have been self-authored (chosen in arbitrar seus interesses pr-existentes que foram "auto-autoria" (escolhido em the private sphere)' (Hopgood 2000:1). a esfera privada) "(Hopgood 2000:1). David Jacobsen speaks for many when he David Jacobsen fala por muitos quando ele writes that what 'we are witnessing is the development of a global (if still limited escreve que o que estamos testemunhando o desenvolvimento de um mercado global (se ainda limitado to the northern hemisphere) political culture based on human rights - which is para o hemisfrio norte) cultura poltica baseada nos direitos humanos - o que demarcated (in principle) in non-territorial terms and, in its domain, is distinct demarcada (em princpio) em termos no-territoriais e, no seu domnio, diferente from territorial states (the local political authorities)' (Jacobson 2001:177). de estados territoriais (as autoridades polticas locais) "(Jacobson 2001:177). Mary Maria Kaldor is more emphatic in her assertion that horizontal transnational networks Kaldor mais enftico em sua afirmao de que horizontais redes transnacionais are replacing vertical territorial based forms of civil society on a global scale. esto substituindo verticais territoriais baseadas em formas da sociedade civil em escala global. For Para Kaldor: Kaldor: (T)he coming together of humanitarian and human rights law, the establishment of (T), ele vem junto da ajuda humanitria e de direitos humanos, o estabelecimento de an international criminal court, the expansion of international peace-keeping, betoken um tribunal penal internacional, a expanso internacional de manuteno da paz, betoken an emerging framework of global governance, what Immanuel Kant described as um quadro emergente de governana global, o que Immanuel Kant descreveu como universal civil society, in the sense of a cosmopolitan rule of law, guaranteed by a universal da sociedade civil, no sentido de uma regra cosmopolita de direito, garantido por um combination of treaties and institutions. combinao de tratados e instituies. (Kaldor 2003:7) (Kaldor 2003:7) Sceptics, on the other hand, are suspicious of claims that a global political Os cticos, por outro lado, so suspeitos de alegaes de que uma poltica global culture based on human rights exists or is constitutive of a global civil society. cultura baseada nos direitos humanos existe ou constitutivo de uma sociedade civil global. Human rights are seen as the weapon of strong states, their abuses used to justify Os direitos humanos so vistos como a arma de Estados fortes, seus abusos usado para justificar coercive intervention in weak states such as in Yugoslavia, Afghanistan, Iraq and interveno coercitiva

em Estados fracos, como na Iugoslvia, Afeganisto, Iraque e now Liberia. agora Libria. Whilst tribunals have been set up by the UN Security Council to Tribunais, enquanto foram criados pelo Conselho de Segurana da ONU deal with mass human rights violations in the Former Republic of Yugoslavia and acordo com a massa violaes dos direitos humanos na exRepblica da Jugoslvia e Rwanda, powerful states, including the 'liberal' United States, have refused to Ruanda, Estados poderosos, incluindo o 'liberal' dos Estados Unidos, se recusaram a ratify the Treaty of Rome that proposed the establishment of an International ratificar o Tratado de Roma, que props a criao de uma Internacional Criminal Court. Tribunal Penal. The US has suggested that there might be illegitimate political Os EUA tm sugerido que pode haver poltica ilegtima motivations in accusing US citizens, notably US military personnel, for alleged motivaes de acusar cidados americanos, pessoal nomeadamente militares dos EUA, por alegada viola of 'universal' norms. viola de "universais" normas. However, it has derided the idea that there might be No entanto, tem ridicularizado a idia de que pode haver illegitimate political motivations in accusing citizens of Yugoslavia or Rwanda. ilegtimas motivaes polticas em acusar os cidados da Iugoslvia ou Ruanda. One is, therefore, left with the impression that, a double standard exists at the Um deles , portanto, deixou com a impresso de que, um duplo padro existente no heart of the global civil society: those from weak states such as Yugoslavia, corao da sociedade civil global: os de estados fracos como a Iugoslvia, Rwanda and, Iraq, may be prosecuted whilst those from strong states, defined in Ruanda e, no Iraque, pode ser processado, enquanto que os de Estados fortes, definida em 38 38 38 (38) Giorgio S Giorgio S HANI HANI -------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 3 Pgina 3 realist terms as states possessing both a UN security council veto and, termos realistas como estados que possuem tanto uma ONU segurana veto no Conselho e, importantly, weapons of mass destruction, such as the PRC, Russia and the US, importante, as armas de destruio em massa, como a Repblica Popular da China, Rssia e os EUA, will not be prosecuted. no sero processados. However, the conventional sceptical critique begs the No entanto, a crtica convencional ctico levanta a question of what is civil society and whether the globalization of civil society is questo do que a sociedade civil e se a globalizao da sociedade civil indeed possible. realmente possvel. Global Civil Society Mundial da Sociedade Civil The term 'civil' society emerged in Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth O termo sociedade 'civil' surgiu na Europa nos sculos XVII e XVIII century to denote a type of society distinct from the state of nature. sculo para designar um tipo de sociedade distinto do estado de natureza. For Thomas Para Thomas Hobbes, the state of nature was conceived of as a 'war, as if of every man, against Hobbes, o estado de natureza foi concebida como uma guerra ", como se de cada homem, contra every man' characterized by mutual fear, distrust and anarchy - a concept cada homem "caracteriza-se por mtuo medo, desconfiana e de anarquia - um conceito which as we shall see later was seized upon by international relations theorists to que, como veremos mais tarde foi aproveitado pelos tericos de relaes internacionais para describe the contemporary international system of states. descrever o sistema internacional contemporneo dos Estados. Civil society, in Sociedade civil, em contrast, was characterized by the rule of law, based on certain fundamental contraste, foi caracterizado pela regra de

direito, com base em fundamentais certo rights enforced by a political authority also subject to the rule of law (Kaldor direitos impostas por uma autoridade poltica tambm sujeitos regra de direito (Kaldor 2003:17). 2003:17). The origins of the term civil society lay in the societas civilis of classical As origens do termo sociedade civil estava nas civilis societas de clssico antiquity. Antiguidade. The term societas civilis was derived by pre-modern Europeans from Os civilis societas prazo foi obtido por pr-modernos europeus a partir de Cicero's definition of the state ( civitas ) as a partnership in law ( societas ) and Definio de Ccero do Estado (civitas) como uma parceria em Direito (societas) e became a generic term foe a secular legal and political order (Black 2001:33). tornou-se um inimigo termo genrico de uma ordem jurdica e poltica secular (Black 2001:33). The O societas civilis was conceived of as a zone of 'civility,' entailing respect between societas civilis foi concebido como uma zona de "civilidade", que implica respeito entre members of a political community, based on security and trust. membros de uma comunidade poltica, com base na segurana e confiana. Civility was A civilidade foi associated with the term 'civilization' which for Plato entailed bringing the associada com a "civilizao", o termo que, para Plato, implicava trazer o private interests and passions of men under control. interesses privados e das paixes dos homens sob controle. For Aristotle, the societas Para Aristteles, a societas civilis was equated with the polis , a political community based upon public reason civilis foi igualado com a polis, uma comunidade poltica baseada na razo pblica and public deliberation (Kaldor 2003:23). e deliberao pblica (Kaldor 2003:23). Civil society receives its first systematic consideration in political thought in A sociedade civil recebe a sua primeira considerao sistemtica no pensamento poltico em John Locke's Second Treatise on Civil Government . Segundo Tratado de John Locke sobre o Governo Civil. For Locke, the term 'civil Para Locke, o termo 'civil society' refers to a society of free men, equal under the rule of law, bound together sociedade "se refere a uma sociedade de homens livres, iguais perante o Estado de Direito, unidos by no common purpose but sharing a respect for each other's rights (Gray por nenhum propsito comum, mas que partilham um respeito para cada um dos outros direitos (Gray 1986:12). 1986:12). These rights differ from the earlier pre-modern emphasis upon duties in Estes direitos diferir da nfase anterior pr-moderna em funes em that they are conferred exclusively upon individuals and are fundamental and que so conferidos exclusivamente sobre os indivduos e so fundamentais e inalienable, and remain embedded in a context of Christian theism. inalienvel, e permanece inserida num contexto do tesmo cristo. For John Para John Dunn, Locke was a 'theocentric thinker for whom the truth of the Christian Dunn, Locke era um pensador "teocntrica para quem a verdade do cristo religion ... religio ... was an indispensable major premise of a scheme of practical reason era uma premissa indispensvel importante de um esquema de razo prtica within which most human beings had sufficient most human beings had sufficient dentro do qual a maioria dos seres humanos haviam suficientes maioria dos seres humanos teve suficiente motivational grounds for behaving as ... motivos de motivao para se comportar como ... they ought' (Dunn 2001: 41). eles deveriam "(Dunn 2001: 41). A civil Um civil, 39 39 (39) 39 'The Liberal Project': Globalization, Modernity and Identity "O Projeto Liberal: Modernidade, Globalizao e Identidade -------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 4 Pgina 4

society was seen to have been constituted by a social contract whereby men sociedade era vista como tendo sido constituda por um contrato social pelo qual os homens exchanged their natural freedom in return for rights guaranteed by law. trocaram sua liberdade natural em troca de direitos garantidos por lei. For Para Thomas Hobbes, the fundamental right had been a security which could only be Thomas Hobbes, o direito fundamental tinha sido um segurana que s poderia ser provided by a Leviathan commanding absolute authority. fornecido por uma autoridade absoluta Leviathan comandante. For Locke, 'natural' Para Locke, 'natural' rights included those of the preservation of life, liberty and property granted to direitos includos os da preservao da vida, liberdade e propriedade concedidos a individuals by God . indivduos por Deus. Consequently, these rights may not be taken away or Conseqentemente, esses direitos no pode ser tirado ou exchanged by men as they are God's property. trocadas por homens como eles so propriedade de Deus. The link between civil society and a market economy was further developed A ligao entre a sociedade civil ea economia de mercado foi desenvolvido by a group of Scottish thinkers in the late eighteenth century, particularly Adam por um grupo de pensadores escoceses no sculo XVIII, principalmente Adam Smith. Smith. In the Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations , Smith No Inqurito sobre a Natureza e as Causas da Riqueza das Naes, Smith argued that the private self-interest of individuals guided by the 'invisible hand' argumentou que o auto-interesse privado de indivduos guiados pela "mo invisvel" of the market would lead to the greater prosperity of society as a whole. do mercado levaria maior prosperidade da sociedade como um todo. In order A fim for the market mechanism to be allowed to operate, civil and political liberties para o mecanismo de mercado para ser autorizado a operar, liberdades civis e polticas needed to be guaranteed. precisava ser garantida. Thus, the system of commercial liberty finds its natural Assim, o sistema de liberdade comercial encontra a sua natural counterpart in constitutional government (Gray 1986:25). contrapartes no governo constitucional (Gray 1986:25). Economic and political Econmica e poltica liberty were to be, from this point on, indivisible in the classical liberal tradition liberdade eram para ser, a partir deste ponto, indivisvel, na tradio clssica liberal and form the theoretical foundations of contemporary neo-liberal globalization. e formam os fundamentos tericos da globalizao neo-liberal contemporneo. Adam Ferguson had earlier attempted to historicize the concept of civil society in Adam Ferguson j havia tentado a historicizar o conceito de sociedade civil na his Essay on the History of Civil Society . Ensaio sobre a Histria da Sociedade Civil. Civil society, for Ferguson, was a A sociedade civil, para Ferguson, foi um distinctly modern form of social and political organization which could be forma distintamente moderna de organizao social e poltica que poderia ser contrasted, not with a mythical state of nature based on mere 'conjecture', but contrastado, no com um estado mtico da natureza com base em "conjectura" mera, mas with 'rude nations': the 'uncivilised world' which were in the process of being com 'rude' naes: o "mundo civilizado", que se encontravam em processo de ser incorporated into European empires. incorporada imprios europeus. Civil society for Ferguson was not A sociedade civil no era para Ferguson necessarily superior to the societies of rude nations but was different, necessariamente superior s sociedades das naes rudes, mas era diferente, characterized by legality and individualism. caracterizada pela legalidade e individualismo. Both Smith and Ferguson, in Tanto Smith e Ferguson, em common with their contemporaries, attempted to ground their theories in a comum com seus contemporneos, tentou fundamentar suas teorias em um comprehensive account of human social development

and a theory of social and conta global de desenvolvimento social, humano e uma teoria do desenvolvimento social e economic structure whose terms had the status of general laws and not merely estrutura econmica, cujos termos tinham o estatuto de leis gerais e no apenas historical generalizations (Gray 1986:24). generalizaes histricas (Gray 1986:24). They, furthermore, introduced a stadial Eles, alm disso, introduziu um estadial theory of history whereby society developed through different stages defined in teoria da histria em que a sociedade se desenvolvia atravs de diferentes estgios definidos no terms of 'modes of subsistence', methods of producing basic human needs (Kaldor termos de "modos de subsistncia", mtodos de produo de necessidades humanas bsicas (Kaldor 2003:24). 2003:24). The Scottish thinkers, in other words, paved the way for the Os pensadores escoceses, em outras palavras, pavimentou o caminho para a development of modern thought: the Enlightenment. evoluo do pensamento moderno: o Iluminismo. For Immanuel Kant, enlightenment referred to 'the freedom to make use of Para Immanuel Kant, o esclarecimento que se refere o "a liberdade de fazer uso de one's freedom in all matters' (Kant 1991:55).Through enlightenment, man sua liberdade em todos os assuntos "(Kant 1991:55). atravs da iluminao, o homem emerged from 'self-incurred immaturity' to individual, moral autonomy. surgiu a partir de "imaturidade auto-suportadas" para a autonomia, moral individual. For Kant, Para Kant, morality could be derived from reason in a way that was independent of actual moralidade poderia ser derivada a partir da razo de uma maneira que foi independente da real 40 40 40 (40) Giorgio S Giorgio S HANI HANI -------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 5 Pgina 5 experience. experincia. Human beings were enjoined by a categorical imperative to treat Os seres humanos foram intimados por um imperativo categrico para tratar other individuals as 'ends' in themselves. outros indivduos como 'fins', em si mesmos. It was this categorical imperative which Foi esse imperativo categrico que provided the basis for the realization of a 'community of ends.' forneceu a base para a realizao de uma "comunidade de fins". As Mary Kaldor Como Mary Kaldor points put, this was conceived of as a universal civil society, the telos of human colocar pontos, este foi concebido como uma sociedade civil universal, o telos do ser humano development and was attained through conflict between man's 'asocial desenvolvimento e foi atingido atravs do conflito entre o "associal do homem socialibility': man's ability to live in society as a social being and his tendency to socialibility ': capacidade do homem de viver em sociedade como um ser social e sua tendncia de think and act as an individual, 'to isolate himself, since he also encounters in pensar e agir como um indivduo, "a isolar-se, j que ele tambm encontra em himself the unsocial characteristic of wanting to direct everything in accordance se a caracterstica insocivel de querer dirigir tudo de acordo with his own ideas' (Kaldor 2003:25-6). com suas prprias idias "(Kaldor 2003:25-6). Hegel, however, criticized Kant's notion that reason was independent of Hegel, no entanto, criticou a idia de Kant de que a razo era independente da human experience; rather reason for Hegel was an historical product and could experincia humana, e sim razo para Hegel era um produto histrico e poderia not exist beyond the constraints of time and space. no existe para alm das restries de tempo e espao. For Hegel reason was Por razes de Hegel foi embodied in language and culture. incorporada na lngua e cultura. As the world was

characterized by the medida que o mundo foi caracterizado pela existence of a multiplicity of different languages and cultures which differed existncia de uma multiplicidade de lnguas e culturas diferentes, que diferiram across time and space, it followed that reason should be the highest expression of atravs do tempo e espao, ele seguiu esse motivo deve ser a mais alta expresso da the geist , or spirit, of a particular linguistic or cultural group (Jones 2001:106). o Geist, ou esprito, de um determinado grupo lingustico ou cultural (Jones 2001:106). Thus reason was simultaneously universal and particular. Assim, a razo era ao mesmo tempo universal e particular. The geist was a real, O Geist foi um real, concrete, objective force that remains one, yet is particularized as geists of specific fora, concreto objectivo que continua a ser um, mas particularizado como geists de especfico cultural groups and impersonated in particular individuals as the Weltgeist or grupos culturais e representadas em indivduos particulares como o Weltgeist ou world spirit. esprito do mundo. The Weltgeist progresses towards self-consciousness through history O Weltgeist progride em direo autoconscincia atravs da histria and is seen by Hegel as the gradual realization of freedom (Hegel 1991). e visto por Hegel como a realizao gradual da liberdade (Hegel, 1991). As he Como ele states in his introduction to The Philosophy of History , the essence of Spirit is afirma em sua introduo filosofia da Histria, a essncia do Esprito Freedom: Liberdade: As the essence of Matter is Gravity, so, on the other hand, we may affirm that the medida que a essncia da matria a gravidade, assim, por outro lado, pode-se afirmar que o substance, the essence of Sprit is Freedom. substncia, a essncia do Esprito Liberdade. All will readily assent to the doctrine that Todos iro prontamente concordar com a doutrina de que Spirit, among other properties, is also endowed with Freedom; but philosophy teaches Esprito, entre outras propriedades, tambm dotado de liberdade, mas a filosofia ensina that all the qualities of Spirit exist only through freedom; that all are but means for que todas as qualidades do Esprito s existem atravs da liberdade, que todos so, mas meios para attaining Freedom; that all seek and produce this and this alone. alcanar a liberdade, que todos buscam e produzir isto e isto sozinho. It is a result of um resultado de speculative Philosophy that Freedom is the sole truth of Spirit. Filosofia especulativa que a liberdade a nica verdade do Esprito. (Hegel 1991b:17- (Hegel 1991b: 17 - italics mine). itlicos meus). For Hegel, freedom does not merely consist of what Isaiah Berlin referred to Para Hegel, a liberdade no consiste simplesmente do que Isaiah Berlin referido as negative freedom (Berlin 1969), the freedom not to have one's 'natural' rights to como liberdade negativa (Berlin 1969), no a liberdade de ter as 'naturais' direitos life, liberty and property interfered with, but is 'none other than self- vida, liberdade e propriedade interferncia, mas "ningum menos do que auto- consciousness - consciousness of one's own being' (Hegel 1991b:17). conscincia - a conscincia do prprio ser "(Hegel 1991b: 17). History is A histria none other than progress towards the consciousness of freedom (Hegel 1991b:18). ningum menos que o progresso em direo conscincia de liberdade (Hegel 1991b: 18). 41 41 (41) 41 'The Liberal Project': Globalization, Modernity and Identity "O Projeto Liberal: Modernidade, Globalizao e Identidade -------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 6 Pgina 6

For Hegel, freedom was actualized in civil society ( burgerliche Gesselschaft ), the Para Hegel, a liberdade foi atualizada na sociedade civil (burgerliche Gesselschaft), o arena of ethical life ( Sittlichkeit ) in between state and family. arena da vida tica (Sittlichkeit) entre Estado e da famlia. In the Philosophy of Na Filosofia do Right Hegel subdivides the sphere of ethnical life into family, civil society and Direito Hegel subdivide a esfera da vida tnica na famlia, sociedade civil e state. Estado. They are the 'moments' of 'the ethical order' and 'are the ethical powers Eles so os 'momentos' de "ordem tica" e "so os poderes ticos which regulate the life of individuals. que regulam a vida dos indivduos. The norms of the ethical order are As normas de ordem tica so actualized in different ways in the actions of and relations of individuals who atualizada de diferentes maneiras nas aes de e relaes de indivduos que belong to the three types of ethical order. pertencem aos trs tipos de ordem tico. In the family, ethical duties are Na famlia, deveres ticos so determined by one's place in the family. determinado por um de lugar na famlia. In civil society, however, this type of Na sociedade civil, no entanto, este tipo de ethical unity disintegrates: ticos desintegra a unidade: in civil society, each individual is his own end, and all else means nothing to him. na sociedade civil, cada indivduo seu prprio fim, e tudo o mais no significa nada para ele. But Mas he cannot accomplish the full extent of his end without reference to others; these ele no pode realizar toda a extenso do seu fim, sem referncia aos outros, estes others are therefore means to the end of the particular person. outros so, por conseguinte, meios para o fim da pessoa em particular. But through its reference to others, the particular end takes on the form of Mas atravs da sua referncia aos outros, a fim particular, assume a forma de universality, and gains satisfaction by simultaneously satisfying the welfare of others. universalidade e satisfao ganhos por satisfazer, simultaneamente, o bem-estar dos outros. (Hegel 1991a: 2278) (Hegel 1991a: 227-8) Individuals, in civil society, are primarily concerned with the satisfaction of Os indivduos, na sociedade civil, esto principalmente preocupados com a satisfao de their private, selfish wants. seus desejos particulares, egostas. This is done through working, producing and Isto feito atravs de trabalho, produo e exchanging their product in the market which is regulated by a framework of troca de seu produto no mercado, que regulada por um quadro de rules, which define the rights of individuals, their person and property. regras, que definem os direitos dos indivduos, a sua pessoa e propriedade. The O market, however, is constitutive of another kind of bond. mercado, no entanto, constitutiva de um outro tipo de vnculo. Through the market Atravs do mercado men enter into social relations with one another and are socialized into playing os homens entram em relaes sociais entre si e so socializados em jogar socially useful roles for which they are rewarded not only financially but with papis socialmente teis para os quais so recompensados no s financeiramente, mas com recognition . reconhecimento. Thus, civil society was not merely a system of needs but equally a Assim, a sociedade civil no era meramente um sistema de necessidades, mas igualmente um sphere of recognition enabling the possibility of identifications and connections of esfera de reconhecimento que permite a possibilidade de identificaes e conexes de mutuality between individuals and embodied rationally grounded norms that reciprocidade entre os indivduos e incorporadas normas racionalmente fundamentadas que determined conduct (Khilnani 2001: 24).Civil society was, for Hegel, 'the conduta determinada (Khilnani 2001: 24). A sociedade civil era, para Hegel, "o achievement of the modern world' and thus the telos of history (Kaldor 2003:27). realizao do mundo moderno "e, portanto, o telos da histria (Kaldor 2003:27). Global civil society, in a liberal

sense, refers to the 'space of uncoerced human A sociedade civil global, no sentido liberal, refere-se ao espao "do ser humano sem coao association' (Walzer 1995:7), existing in opposition to the state and a states- associao "(Walzer 1995:7), existente em oposio ao Estado e os estados- system representing the interests of particular national communities. sistema representa os interesses de determinadas comunidades nacionais. The liberal O liberal conception of global civil society assumes the existence of the 'unencumbered concepo de sociedade civil global pressupe a existncia do livre ' individual' that is, individuals unfettered by cultural or social norms and values indivduo, isto , indivduos sem restries por normas culturais ou sociais e valores (Hopgood 2000) This gives rise to a contradiction: On the one hand all human (Hopgood 2000) Isto d origem a uma contradio: Por um lado, todos os direitos humanos beings are assumed to be free, equal and bearers of inalienable rights to life, os seres so considerados livres, iguais e portadores de direitos inalienveis de vida, liberty and property, yet on the other hand, as Margaret Canovan has pointed liberdade e propriedade, mas por outro lado, como Margaret Canovan apontou 42 42 42 (42) Giorgio S Giorgio S HANI HANI -------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 7 Pgina 7 out, 'human beings as we encounter them are not free, not equal, not the bearers fora, dos seres humanos como nos deparamos com elas no so livres, no igual, no os portadores of inalienable rights'(Canovan 1990:5). de direitos inalienveis "(Canovan 1990:5). Human beings are born and live within a Os seres humanos nascem e vivem dentro de um particular political community, and are bound to their fellow citizens by special comunidade poltica particular, e esto vinculados aos seus concidados por especial ties. laos. These ties usually include a common interest in maintaining the stability Esses laos costumam incluir um interesse comum na manuteno da estabilidade and integrity of their community. e integridade da sua comunidade. Since human beings grow up within a Como os seres humanos cresam dentro de um particular community, they tend to feel a part of it and define their identity in comunidade em particular, tendem a se sentir parte dela e definir sua identidade em terms of it. termos do mesmo. They, in the words of Bhikhu Parekh, 'see their community as theirs, Eles, nas palavras de Bhikhu Parekh, "ver a sua comunidade como a deles, feel a particular sense of responsibility for it, experience pride or shame when it uma sensao especial de responsabilidade por isso orgulho experincia, ou vergonha quando does or does not live up to certain ideals, and take interest in its problems' faz ou no jus a certos ideais, e ter interesse em seus problemas " (Parekh 2003:8). (Parekh 2003:8). These communities frequently have different social and cultural norms and Essas comunidades freqentemente tm diferentes normas sociais e culturais e values and relate to one another asymmetrically, according to local and global valores e se relacionam com uma outra forma assimtrica, de acordo com local e global hierarchies of power and inequality. hierarquias de poder e desigualdade. The special ties that bind members of these Os laos especiais que unem os membros desses communities together may be national, ethnic, religious, regional, linguistic or comunidades juntas pode ser nacional, tnica, religiosa, regional, lingstico ou even civilizational (Huntington 1993;1996) but can not be global . mesmo civilizacional (Huntington 1993, 1996), mas no pode ser global. This is because, Isto porque, as Chris Brown points out, 'a global identity would have no

borders, no frontiers, como Chris Brown aponta, "uma identidade global no teria fronteiras, sem fronteiras, no sense of the Other' (Brown 2001:131). nenhum sentido do Outro "(Brown 2001:131). Brown follows Hegel in arguing that Brown segue Hegel na argumentao de que individuals become who they are through a process of differentiation . indivduos tornam-se quem eles so atravs de um processo de diferenciao. Identity is A identidade about difference: identity is not simply a matter of who you are, equally it is about sobre a diferena: a identidade no simplesmente uma questo de quem voc , igualmente se trata de who you are not (Brown 2001:129). que voc no (Brown 2001:129). The creation of a 'liberal' global civil society, requires the erasure of A criao de um "liberal" sociedade civil global, requer o apagamento de difference, the creation of 'unencumbered' individuals out of communal identities. diferena, a criao de 'desonerados dos indivduos fora de identidades comuns. This may be seen as a distinctively modern project, embodying many of the ideals Isso pode ser visto como um projeto distintamente moderna, incorporando muitos dos ideais of the Enlightenment. do Iluminismo. Margaret Canovan, John Gray and Tom Young see the Margaret Canovan, John Gray e Tom Young ver o Enlightenment explicitly as a 'liberal project' (Canovan 1990; Gray 1995; Young Iluminismo explicitamente como um "projeto liberal" (Canovan 1990; Cinza 1995; jovem 1995). 1995). In the words of John Gray, the liberal project is that 'of specifying Nas palavras de John Gray, o projeto liberal que 'de especificar universal limits to the authority of government, and, by implication, to the scope limites universais para a autoridade do governo, e, por implicao, para o escopo of political life'(Gray 1995:131italics mine). da vida poltica "(Gray 1995:131 - grifo meu). Gray goes on to suggest that Cinza continua a sugerir que liberalism is the political theory of modernity, in that all other modern ideologies o liberalismo a teoria poltica da modernidade, em que todas as outras ideologias modernas are parasitic upon it or share the same enlightenment ideals. so parasitas em cima dele ou partilhar os mesmos ideais iluministas. Liberalism, or O liberalismo, ou rather the classical liberal tradition, is, according to Gray, characterized by a vez a tradio clssica liberal, , segundo Gray, caracterizada por uma definite conception of man and society which is individualist, egalitarian, concepo do homem e da sociedade, que individualista, igualitria, meliorist and universalist. meliorist e universalista. Liberalism is individualist in that it asserts the moral O liberalismo individualista em que ele afirma a moral primacy of the individual against the claims of any social collectivity; egalitarian primazia do indivduo contra as pretenses de qualquer coletividade social; igualitria in that it confers on all men the same moral status; meliorist in its affirmation of na medida em que confere a todos os homens o mesmo status moral; meliorist em sua afirmao de the improvability of all political arrangements and social institutions; and o improvability de todos os arranjos polticos e instituies sociais, e universalist in its affirmation of the moral unity of the human 'race' (Gray 1986: universalista na sua afirmao da unidade moral da "raa" humana (Gray 1986: 43 43 (43) 43 'The Liberal Project': Globalization, Modernity and Identity "O Projeto Liberal: Modernidade, Globalizao e Identidade -------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 8 Pgina 8 x). x). At the heart of the liberal project, and by extension, of modernity, lies a belief No corao do projeto liberal e, por extenso, da modernidade, encontra-se uma crena in the

possibility of a universal standpoint, 'the view from nowhere' (Nagel 1986) na possibilidade de um ponto de vista universal, "A viso de lugar nenhum" (Nagel 1986) which can be applied across time and space. o que pode ser aplicada ao longo do tempo e espao. The view from nowhere, however, far from being frozen in time and space, A viso de lugar nenhum, no entanto, longe de ser congelado no tempo e no espao, developed in post-renaissance Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth century, desenvolvido no ps-renascentista Europa no sculo XVII e XVIII, in the aftermath of the Thirty Years' War (1618-48) and gradually was adopted as na sequncia da Guerra dos Trinta Anos (1618-48) e, gradualmente, foi adotado como the worldview of an assertive, mainly Protestant bourgeoisie. One of the central a viso de mundo de uma burguesia, assertivo principalmente protestante. Uma central elements of this 'view from nowhere' was the privileging of the individual as a elementos desta "viso de lugar nenhum" foi o privilgio de o indivduo como um rational , autonomous and selfdetermining being whose consideration outweighed ser racional, autnomo e autodeterminao, cuja considerao superados that of the community into which he or she was born. da comunidade em que ele ou ela nasceu. Science, a form of Science, uma forma de knowledge that brought control and mastery over one's physical environment, conhecimento que trouxe controle e domnio sobre o prprio ambiente fsico, was also seen as being able bring the emancipation of the individual from the tambm foi visto como sendo capaz trazer a emancipao do indivduo a partir da ignorance and servitude of his or her social mileux . ignorncia e da servido de sua mileux social. Thus, above all, the Assim, acima de tudo, o Enlightenment world-view was characterized by a commitment to rationalism : Iluminismo mundo-view foi caracterizado por um compromisso com o racionalismo: the belief in the power of reason to establish conclusive truths that lead to the a crena no poder da razo para estabelecer verdades conclusivas que levam progressive emancipation of the individual from the constraints imposed upon his progressiva emancipao do indivduo das restries impostas a sua or her liberty by the physical or social environment. ou sua liberdade pelo ambiente fsico ou social. Modernity and Identity Modernidade e Identidade The idea of progress towards a universal human civilization characterized by A idia de progresso rumo a uma civilizao universal humano caracterizada por individualism, rationality and secularism, although absent from some of the racionalidade, o individualismo eo secularismo, embora ausente de alguns dos earliest thinkers associated with the Enlightenment such as Hobbes, was integral primeiros pensadores associados ao Iluminismo, como Hobbes, foi integrante to the subsequent development of modern thought, most notably in the work of para o desenvolvimento posterior do pensamento moderno, principalmente no trabalho de Kant, Hegel, Marx and Weber. Kant, Hegel, Marx e Weber. Modernity was conceived of as a single, A modernidade foi concebido como um nico, homogenous process that encompassed many distinct aspects and could be traced processo homogneo, que englobava muitos aspectos distintos e pode ser rastreada to a single causal principle: the rise of capitalist commodity production for Marx a um nico princpio causal: o aumento da produo mercantil capitalista, para Marx, and of rationalization for Weber. e de racionalizao de Weber. Modernity was associated with the development Modernidade foi associada com o desenvolvimento of industrial capitalism and its distinct social forms, the most prominent of which do capitalismo industrial e suas distintas formas sociais, o mais proeminente dos quais was the nation-state. foi o Estado-nao. Industrial capitalism comprised of two dimensions: O capitalismo industrial composta por duas dimenses: industrialism and capitalism. industrialismo e do capitalismo.

Industrialism refers to the social relations implied O industrialismo se refere s relaes sociais implicados in the widespread use of material power and machinery in production processes, no uso generalizado do poder material e mquinas nos processos de produo, whilst capitalism refers to a system of commodity production involving the enquanto o capitalismo se refere a um sistema de produo de mercadorias, envolvendo a private ownership of the means of production and the commodification of labour propriedade privada dos meios de produo ea mercantilizao do trabalho (Giddens 1991:15). (Giddens 1991:15). Industrial capitalism necessitated new forms of social and O capitalismo industrial exigia novas formas de social e political control. controle poltico. Social control was provided by organization - the regularized O controle social foi fornecido pela organizao - a regularizao control of social relations across indefinite time-space distances (Giddens controle das relaes sociais atravs indefinidas do espao-tempo (Giddens distncias 44 44 44 (44) Giorgio S Giorgio S HANI HANI -------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 9 Pgina 9 1991:16), whilst a specific type of organization, the state, was to maintain 1991:16), enquanto um tipo especfico de organizao, o Estado, era manter political control through its 'monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force controle poltico atravs de seu monoplio do uso legtimo da fora fsica within a given territory' (Weber 1991:78). dentro de um determinado territrio "(Weber 1991:78). Although both Marx and Weber saw modernization as a universal process, Embora tanto Marx e Weber viu a modernizao como um processo universal, their theories of modernity helped to qualify the universality of the suas teorias da modernidade ajudou a qualificar a universalidade da Enlightenment project. Projeto iluminista. Whilst Marx particularized liberal-capitalist modernity as Enquanto Marx particularizado modernidade liberal-capitalista como the ideology of the bourgeoisie, Weber explored its cultural roots in Protestant a ideologia da burguesia, Weber explorou suas razes culturais na protestante asceticism. ascetismo. Following Marx and Weber, liberal-capitalist modernity may be seen Seguindo Marx e Weber, a modernidade liberal-capitalista pode ser visto as encompassing a specifically bourgeois , Protestant world-view. como abrangendo uma especificamente burgus, protestante viso de mundo. It refers to the Refere-se institutions and modes of behaviour established first of all in post-feudal Europe, instituies e modos de comportamento estabelecidos em primeiro lugar na ps-feudal da Europa, but which in the twentieth century became world-historical in their impact mas que no sculo XX tornou-se histrico-mundial no seu impacto (Giddens 1991:15). (Giddens 1991:15). Modernization, conceived of teleologically as progress towards Modernizao, concebida como o progresso em direo teleologicamente a universal civilization implied not only the incorporation of the rest of the world uma civilizao universal implcita no s a incorporao do resto do mundo into a single world market but also the progressive Westernization (or, more em um nico mercado mundial, mas tambm a ocidentalizao progressiva (ou, mais precisely, Protestantization) of indigenous cultures. precisamente Protestantizao) das culturas indgenas. For most of the post- Para a maioria dos ps- enlightenment period, this took the form of colonialism and imperialism: varying perodo de iluminao, esta tomou a forma de colonialismo, imperialismo e: variando degrees of European political and economic control

over the rest of the world. graus de controlo poltico e econmico europeu sobre o resto do mundo. This Este Imperial 'mission' in Asia, to use Karl Marx phrase, was simultaneously 'Misso' Imperial na sia, para usar a frase de Karl Marx, era simultaneamente destructive and regenerating, entailing 'the annihilation of old Asiatic society and destrutiva e regeneradora, o que implica "a aniquilao da velha sociedade asitica e the laying of the material foundations of Western society in Asia' (Marx a colocao das bases materiais da sociedade ocidental na sia "(Marx 1977:332). 1977:332). Colonial practice, however, significantly diverged from this model. Prtica colonial, no entanto, divergiram significativamente a partir deste modelo. Today, the custodians of the 'liberal project' are the United States and its Hoje, os guardies do 'liberal projeto so Estados Unidos e sua North Atlantic allies in NATO and in the G7. Aliados da NATO no Atlntico Norte e no G7. The US is wedded to liberal Os EUA se une liberal universalism where it remains an 'ideology of undiminished strength' reflected universalismo onde permanece uma "ideologia da fora intacta" refletida not only in a legalist discourse of fundamental rights but also in public life and no s a vida em um discurso legalista de direitos fundamentais, mas tambm em pblico e academic world where 'there is no tradition of thought or reflection that is not mundo acadmico, onde "no h tradio de pensamento ou reflexo que no liberal' (Gray 1995:173). liberal "(Gray 1995:173). The US and its allies, despite differences over policy as Os EUA e seus aliados, apesar das diferenas sobre a poltica como recently manifested in the war against Iraq, are committed to the globalization of recentemente manifestado na guerra contra o Iraque, esto comprometidos com a globalizao da the 'liberal project' and use their leverage over indebted Southern societies o 'liberal projeto e use sua influncia sobre endividados sociedades do Sul through principal institutions of the international political economy, the atravs de instituies principais da economia poltica internacional, o International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank and, to a lesser extent, the Fundo Monetrio Internacional (FMI), Banco Mundial e, em menor medida, a World Trade Organization (WTO), to achieve this goal. Organizao Mundial do Comrcio (OMC), para atingir esse objetivo. Their main instrument Seu principal instrumento used for liberalizing the economies and societies of the South are structural utilizado para a liberalizao das economias e sociedades do Sul so estruturais adjustment policies (SAPs). polticas de ajuste (SAPS). SAPs refer to policies prescribed by the IMF/ World SAPs se referir a polticas prescritas pelo FMI / Mundo Bank nexus to heavily indebted societies which seek radical institutional reform Banco nexo de sociedades altamente endividados que buscam a reforma institucional radical along neo-liberal lines. ao longo de linhas neo-liberais. Nominally they seek an efficient form of management by Nominalmente eles buscam uma forma eficiente de gesto por emphasizing market forces and the benefits of export-led growth, but, as Robert enfatizando as foras de mercado e os benefcios do crescimento liderado pelas exportaes, mas, como Robert 45 45 (45) 45 'The Liberal Project': Globalization, Modernity and Identity "O Projeto Liberal: Modernidade, Globalizao e Identidade -------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 10 Pgina 10 Biel has argued, they also serve to make the internal economic and political Biel argumentou, eles tambm servem para fazer o interno econmico e poltico structures of the South conform to the dictates of the international system of estruturas do Sul em conformidade com

os ditames do sistema internacional de capital accumulation and thus may be seen as new instruments of imperial acumulao de capital e, portanto, pode ser visto como novos instrumentos de imperial control (Biel 2001:231). controlo (Biel 2001:231). Globalization in a neo-liberal sense refers to the attempt to universalize A globalizao num sentido neo-liberal refere-se tentativa de universalizar liberal-capitalist modernity. liberal-capitalista modernidade. It is manifested through political, economic and Ela se manifesta atravs de polticos, econmicos e cultural homogenization on a global scale. homogeneizao cultural em escala global. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, Desde o colapso da Unio Sovitica, liberal-democratic institutions have emerged in most states and even self- liberal-democrticas instituies surgiram na maioria dos estados e at mesmo auto- proclaimed 'socialist' states such as the PRC participate in a world economy proclamados "socialistas" Estados como a Repblica Popular da China participar de uma economia mundial organized on capitalist lines. organizada em linhas capitalistas. Francis Fukuyama has famously seen in this the Francis Fukuyama famosa visto neste a culmination of the Hegelian dialectic: the 'end of history'. ponto culminante da dialtica hegeliana: o "fim da histria". For Fukuyama: Para Fukuyama: There is a fundamental process at work that dictates a common evolutionary pattern No um processo fundamental no trabalho que determina um padro comum evolutiva for all human societies ... para todas as sociedades humanas ... something like a Universal History of mankind in the algo como uma histria universal da humanidade na direction of liberal democracy. direo da democracia liberal. (Fukuyama 1992: 48). (Fukuyama 1992: 48). The idea of a universal history of mankind was first suggested by Immanuel A idia de uma histria universal da humanidade foi sugerido por Immanuel Kant in his An Idea for a Universal History of Mankind . Kant em sua idia para uma Histria Universal da Humanidade. Kant suggested that Kant sugeriu que history would have an end point or a final purpose that was implied in mans histria teria um ponto final ou um propsito final que estava implcito no homem current potentialities and which made the whole of history intelligible. potencialidades atuais e que fez toda a histria inteligvel. For Kant, Para Kant, as for Hegel and Marx after him, this end point was the realization of human como para Hegel e Marx depois dele, este ponto final foi a realizao do humano freedom, defined as the universalization of a just civic constitution. liberdade, definida como a universalizao de uma Constituio apenas cvica. Only when all S quando todo states accept such a constitution, adopting a republican form of government, and Estados aceitem tal constituio, adotando uma forma republicana de governo, e join a Foedus Pacificum , a pacific federation or union guaranteeing ' the Right of participar de um pacificum foedus, uma federao ou unio pacfica garantir "o direito de a foreigner not to be treated with hostility when he arrives on someone elses um estrangeiro no deve ser tratado com hostilidade quando ele chega na outra pessoa territory,' would there be an end to conflict and, therefore, perpetual peace (Kant territrio, "haveria um fim ao conflito e, portanto, a paz perptua (Kant 1991). 1991). For Kant, belligerency was equated with the existence of tyranny - an Para Kant, beligerncia foi equacionado com a existncia de tirania - uma assertion which has been resurrected in the post-Cold War period by afirmao que foi ressuscitada no perodo ps-Guerra Fria por international political theorists operating from the Liberal tradition. tericos polticos internacionais que operam a partir da tradio liberal. Kant argued Kant argumentou in Perpetual Peace that if the decision to go to war was taken by the people rather em A Paz Perptua que se a deciso de ir guerra foi tomada pelo povo em vez than the sovereign, then the frequency of conflict would be drastically reduced. que o soberano,

ento a freqncia de conflito seria drasticamente reduzido. Recently, Michael Doyle has proposed a 'democratic peace thesis' which has Recentemente, Michael Doyle props uma "tese da paz democrtica", que tem assumed the status of an axiom of international relations (Doyle 1999). assumiu o status de um axioma de Relaes Internacionais (Doyle 1999). Doyle Doyle equates Kant's republic with contemporary liberal democracies and has equivale repblica de Kant com democracias liberais contemporneas e tem persuasively (if incorrectly) argued that no two liberal democracies have gone to persuasivamente (se incorretamente) argumentou que no h duas democracias liberais foram para war with another. guerra com o outro. Kant's project for a universal history of mankind was undertaken by Hegel in Projeto de Kant de uma histria universal da humanidade foi realizado por Hegel na 46 46 46 (46) Giorgio S Giorgio S HANI HANI -------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 11 Pgina 11 the generation following his death. a gerao aps a sua morte. The task of such a universal history was to A tarefa de uma histria universal era 'provide the exhibition of Spirit ( geist ) in the process of working out the "Proporcionar a exposio de Esprito (Geist) no processo de trabalhar a knowledge of that which it is potentially' (Hegel 1991b:17-8). conhecimento daquilo que potencialmente "(Hegel 1991b :17-8). History proceeds A histria procede through a continual process of conflict, wherein societies and systems of thought atravs de um processo contnuo de conflito, sociedades wherein e sistemas de pensamento based upon different ideas clash and then fall apart due to their own internal com base em confronto ideias diferentes e depois desmoronar devido ao seu prprio interno contradictions. contradies. This dialectic took place between different societies as successive Essa dialtica ocorreu entre diferentes sociedades como sucessiva systems of thought are replaced by less contradictory ones. sistemas de pensamento so substitudos por outros menos contraditrias. For Hegel, the 'history Para Hegel, a histria ' of the world is none other than the progress of the consciousness of freedom' do mundo no outro seno o progresso da conscincia da liberdade " (Hegel 1991b:19). (Hegel 1991b: 19). The consciousness of freedom was absent amongst the A conscincia da liberdade era ausente entre os 'Orientals' living under despotic rule and first emerged amongst the Greeks. Vida "dos orientais sob o domnio desptico e surgiu entre os gregos. However, they -and the Romans later- knew only that some were free not No entanto, eles e os romanos mais tarde, sabia apenas que alguns eram livres - no man as such since they kept slaves and ' their whole lives and the maintenance of homem como tal, uma vez que mantinha escravos e de toda a sua vida ea manuteno de their splendid liberty, was implicated with the institution of slavery' (Hegel sua liberdade esplndida, estava implicado com a instituio da escravido "(Hegel 1991b:18). 1991b: 18). The Roman Empire ultimately collapsed because it established the O Imprio Romano entrou em colapso em ltima anlise, pois estabeleceu a universal legal equality of men, without recognizing their rights and dignity. igualdade jurdica universal dos homens, sem reconhecer seus direitos e dignidade. This Este recognition was to be found in the ideology of Christianity that established the reconhecimento era para ser encontrada na ideologia do cristianismo, que criou o universal equality of man on the basis of his moral freedoms. igualdade universal do homem sobre a base das suas liberdades morais. It was only under Foi apenas sob the influence of

Christianity that the 'German nations' were able to attain the a influncia do cristianismo que os dos pases alemes foram capazes de atingir o consciousness that man as man is free. conscincia de que o homem como o homem livre. Thus: Assim: the Eastern nations knew only that one is free; the Greek and Roman world only that as naes do Leste sabia apenas que um livre, o mundo grego e romano s que some are free, while we know that men absolutely (man as man) are free (Hegel Alguns so gratuitos, enquanto ns sabemos que os homens absolutamente (o homem como homem) so livres (Hegel 1991b:19) 1991b: 19) Freedom finds its embodiment in the modern constitutional state, which A liberdade encontra a sua incorporao no Estado constitucional moderno, que Fukuyama equates with a specifically liberal-democratic one. Fukuyama se equipara ao especificamente um liberaldemocrtico. It is only in the apenas no social and political institutions of the modern state, that man becomes conscious instituies sociais e polticas do Estado moderno, que o homem se torna consciente of his/her freedom. de seu / sua liberdade. The realization of individual self-consciousness would, A realizao da autoconscincia individual seria, therefore, close the dialectic and bring 'history' - defined as the progress of man portanto, fechar a dialtica e trazer "histria" - definido como o progresso do homem to consciousness of freedom - to an end. a conscincia de liberdade - ao fim. For Fukuyama, 'the monumental Para Fukuyama, "o monumental failure of Marxism as a basis for real-world societies' (Fukuyama 1992:65) fracasso do marxismo como base para as sociedades do mundo real "(Fukuyama 1992:65) invalidates Marx's critique of Hegel's philosophy of history. invalida a crtica de Marx da filosofia hegeliana da histria. Marx had argued that Marx argumentava que the realisation of self-consciousness was dependent upon man first satisfying his a realizao de autoconscincia era dependente de primeiro homem satisfazer sua material needs since 'the mode of production of material life conditions the social, necessidades materiais uma vez que "o modo de produo das condies materiais a vida social, political and intellectual life process' (Marx 1977:388). processo da vida poltica e intelectual "(MARX, 1977:388). It followed that a Seguiu-se que um sufficiently large surplus product must be available to release men from direct suficientemente grande excedente do produto deve estar disponvel para libertar os homens da direta productive activity in order for them to realise their freedom. atividade produtiva, para que elas realizem a sua liberdade. This was not Isto no era 47 47 (47) 47 'The Liberal Project': Globalization, Modernity and Identity "O Projeto Liberal: Modernidade, Globalizao e Identidade -------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 12 Pgina 12 possible under capitalism as a fundamental contradiction remained between the possvel sob o capitalismo como uma contradio fundamental manteve-se entre o interests of two classes: the bourgeoisie, the owners of the means of production, interesses de duas classes: a burguesia, os proprietrios dos meios de produo, and the proletariat. eo proletariado. The formal political equality and freedom of individuals are A igualdade formal poltica e liberdade dos indivduos so contradicted by the unequal nature of capitalist relations of production: the contrariada pela natureza desigual das relaes capitalistas de produo: o expropriation of the labourer's surplus value by the capitalist. expropriao de valor do trabalhador excedente pelo capitalista. Under capitalism, Sob o capitalismo, men become 'more and more enslaved

under a power alien to them ... os homens se tornam "cada vez mais escravizada em um aliengena poder para eles ... a power um poder which has become more and more enormous and ... que se tornou mais e mais enorme e ... turns out to be the world acaba por ser o mundo market' (Marx and Engels 1965:48-9). mercado "(Marx e Engels 1965:48-9). Hegel's constitutional state was unable to Estado constitucional de Hegel no foi capaz de resolve this contradiction since it was 'but a committee for managing the common resolver esta contradio, uma vez que era ", mas um comit para gerir o comum affairs of the whole bourgeoisie' (Marx and Engels 1848). assuntos de toda a classe burguesa "(Marx e Engels 1848). Only the socialization of Apenas socializao do the means of production and the establishment of a communist society by the os meios de produo ea criao de uma sociedade comunista pela proletariat, 'the universal class' would bring history to an end. proletariado ", a classe universal" seria trazer a histria para um fim. The establishment of 'communist' societies in the Socialist world, however, O estabelecimento de 'comunistas' sociedades no mundo socialista, no entanto, did not bring the anticipated 'withering away of the state' predicted by Marx and no trouxe o to esperado "definhamento do Estado" prevista por Marx e Engels but instead the establishment of proletarian dictatorships and 'state Engels, mas sim o estabelecimento de ditaduras proletrias e do "Estado capitalism'. capitalismo ". Under state capitalism, the state itself constituted a class of Sob o capitalismo de estado, o prprio estado constitua uma classe de apparatchiki and took on the historic task of the bourgeoisie in expropriating the apparatchiki e assumiu a tarefa histrica da burguesia na expropriao do surplus value of the labourer and maintaining control over the principal maisvalia do trabalhador e mantm o controle sobre o principal institutions of civil society. instituies da sociedade civil. The failure of state capitalism to match standards of O fracasso do capitalismo de Estado para corresponder aos padres de living in the more developed West triggered a wave of democratic protests que vivem no Ocidente mais desenvolvido desencadeou uma onda de protestos democrticos through the Soviet bloc in 1989 which led to its eventual demise. atravs do bloco sovitico em 1989 que levou sua eventual extino. For Fukuyama, Por Fukuyama, the 'triumph' of liberal-capitalism over both socialism in the last century constitutes 'the end point of mankind's ideological evolution' and the 'final form of human government.' Furthermore, Fukuyama argues that the universalization of liberaldemocracy constitutes the end of history as it is 'free of fundamental internal contradictions' (Fukuyama 1992:xi). It follows, as Fukuyama's support for the recent Anglo-American wars against Afghanistan and Iraq suggests, that those societies without liberal-democratic institutions whose leaders prefer to remain insulated from the fluctuations of the world market, stand 'outside of history' waiting to be brought in, perhaps coercively, by those more 'advanced' states which best embody liberal ideals. This is the flip-side of the democratic peace thesis proposed by Doyle and influential in foreign policy circles in Washington and London. Doyle has argued that in order to preserve a liberal community of states, or, following Kant, the 'zone of peace', it is necessary to extend the liberal zone through inspiration (hoping peoples in non-democratic regimes will struggle for their liberty), instigation (economic restructuring) and, if all else fails as in Iraq, intervention (Doyle 1999: 41-6). 48 48 Giorgio S HANI -------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 13 Pgina 13

Furthermore, 'successful' or stable liberal democracies require a participatory or 'democratic' political culture: one in which rights-bearing individuals reflexively participate in politics. Thus the 'liberal project', as Tom Young has pointed out, requires a form of social engineering: the creation of a reflexive citizenry from communities with differing value-systems (Young 1995). Here a comparison of US policy towards post-war Japan during its occupation (1945-52) and contemporary post-Saddam Iraq (2003) is instructive. The occupation of Japan has been evoked frequently by contemporary American policy-makers in the light of the Iraq war. Following their overwhelming victory in the Pacific war (1941-5), the American authorities under the command of General Douglas MacArthur attempted to impose a 'democratic revolution from above.' In the words of John Dower, the Americans set out 'doing what no other occupation force had done before: remaking the political, social, cultural, and economic fabric of a defeated nation, and in the process changing the very way of thinking of the populace' (Dower 1999: 78). Its relative success, despite the considerable divergence from the western model, particularly in the sphere of economic policy, has encouraged the Bush administration to attempt, or at least pay lip service to, a similar transformation in Iraq. The 'liberal project' in its economic dimension also requires the creation of a world market of consumers . Culturally, the 'liberal project' will manifest itself in the emergence of what Benjamin Barber termed 'McWorld': a homogenous cultural space in which the forces of global consumerism reduce differences to trivialities (Barber 1992; 1995). However, as the events of September 11 th 2001 aptly demonstrate, jihad is as much part of our present era of globalization as is McWorld. Jihad , whose generic meaning in Arabic is 'struggle', is used by Barber to refer to 'a hundred narrowly conceived faiths against every kind of interdependence, every kind of artificial social cooperation and civic mutuality' which threaten a 'retribalization of large swaths of humankind by war and bloodshed: a threatened Lebanonization of national states in which culture is pitted against culture, people against people, tribe against tribe' (Barber 1992: 54). Contrary to the hopes espoused by the philosophes of the Enlightenment thinkers throughout the modern period, we find at its close, as John Gray points out, a 'renaissance of particularlisms, ethnic and religious' (Gray 1995:145). A global ethno-religious revival has accompanied the collapse of Soviet variant of the modernist project. Nowhere is this more noticeable than in the birthplace of the Enlightenment: Europe itself. For a Para uma decade following the introduction of multi-party elections and a market economy in 1990, ethnic conflict simmered and then shattered the ethnic mosaic of 49 49 'The Liberal Project': Globalization, Modernity and Identity -------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 14 Pgina 14 societies in the then Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY). Why then has the 'liberal project' failed to remake the world in the image of the Western prototype and to have universalized Enlightenment ideals? We can Podemos isolate at least three different types of explanation for the contemporary failure of liberal- capitalist modernity to take root in the non-western world. The first type of explanation sees the 'liberal project' itself as deeply flawed from its very conception. concepo. For Alasdair MacIntyre, the 'liberal' project, like its Marxist-Leninist variant, was destined to fail. MacIntyre conceives of the Enlightenment as the project of an independent, rational justification of morality (MacIntyre 1981:51). A project which given the

incommensurability of different cultural viewpoints or premises, is, according to MacIntyre, bound to end in failure since there remains 'no theoretically, neutral, pre-theoretical ground from which the adjudication of competing claims can proceed' (MacIntyre 1990:173). The globalization of the 'liberal' project has so far failed to 'empty' the self of inherited modes of thought and conduct. The reason why the 'western' self appears more modern than the nonwestern self lies in the continuity between western modern and pre-modern patterns of thought and practice. The modern western self, like the 'liberal project' itself, remains anchored in the social and cultural norms of Christianity. The second type of explanation locates its failure, paradoxically, in the very dynamism of modernity. For Giddens, the very dynamism of modernity works against the replication of the 'liberal project' throughout the world. For Giddens, the modern world is a 'runaway' world marked by uncertainty, risk and doubt. Three elements, or sets of elements, help explain the dynamic character of modern life: the separation of time and space, disembedding mechanisms and institutional reflexivity. The separation of time and space involves an 'emptying' out of time and space through the widespread use of mechanical timing devices and zones. Disembedding mechanisms consist of symbolic tokens - interchangeable media of exchange which have standard value- and expert systems which bracket time and space through deploying modes of technical knowledge which have independent validity. The transformation of time and space, coupled with the disembedding mechanisms, propel social life away from the hold of inherited modes of practice encouraging a greater institutional reflexivity . Modernity's reflexivity refers to the susceptibility of most aspects of social activity and material relations with nature, to chronic revision in the light of new information or knowledge. It is the very reflexivity of modernity, however, that turns out to undermine the foundations of Enlightenment thought. For the Para o philosophes of the Enlightenment, reason could overcome the dogmas of tradition 50 50 Giorgio S HANI -------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 15 Pgina 15 by offering certainty of knowledge in place of habit. However, the reflexivity of modernity erodes certitude by exposing widely established' scientific' theories, including those of modernity, to the methodological principle of doubt (Giddens 1991:15-21). A common reaction to such dislocation is to seek reaffirmation of one's self-identity by drawing closer to any collective that is able to reduce uncertainty and anxiety. Religion and ethno-national identities and are viewed as particularly relevant organizing principles at a time when modern society is making increasing demands on individuals as religion -like nationalism- supplies existential answers to individuals' quest for security by providing order from the chaos and uncertainty in the world (Kinvall 2001: 89). Finally, the third set of explanations, which are crucial to the development of the following argument in this chapter, focus on the ways in which liberal capitalist modernity encounters traditional, indigenous societies. For Sudipta Kaviraj, conventional theories of modernity are 'faulty' in three different respects. First, Kaviraj argues that, although the coming of modernity entails a massive alteration of social practices, not all modern practices are either historically unprecedented or accepted uncritically by the modernizing society. Background Fundo skills of earlier inherited practices work inside and through new ones 'to bend them into unfamiliar shapes' (Kaviraj 2000:139). Modernization in

Islamic societies, for example, has not led to the creation of modern, secular liberaldemocratic societies and has instead, as Gellner has argued, strengthened the position of the ulemma , urban, literate religious scholars who were in the vanguard of the Iranian revolution in 1978 (Gellner 1994). However, the 'failure' of secular, liberal democracies to emerge in Islamic societies 1 1 may be contrasted on the one hand with the appeal of an 'Islamic democracy' for the Shi'ite Muslims of Iran and Iraq and with the distinctiveness and longevity of Indian and Japanese democracies on the other. Although a modern democratic form of government was first introduced India and Japan by their respective conquerors, once institutionalized Indian and Japanese democracy took on a distinctive shape of its own, broadening and deepening its appeal by drawing upon indigenous practices and beliefs. A similar accommodation between modern and indigenous practices may well be needed for democracy to take root in Iraq after the collapse of the regime of Saddam Hussein despite the best intentions of her American conquerors. Iraq could do worse than emulate her southern neighbour where the 51 51 'The Liberal Project': Globalization, Modernity and Identity 1. 1. Turkey, Malaysia, Pakistan under civilian rule and contemporary Indonesia provide exceptions to this rule. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 16 Pgina 16 establishment of an 'Islamic democracy' in the wake of the Islamic revolution have so far proved successful, despite an inhospitable regional environment. Second, modernity is, contrary to the conventional theories of Marx and Weber, not a single, homogenous process that can be traced to a single causal principle but is, in fact, constituted by a plurality of historically distinct processes (Kaviraj 2000:139). Modernity is not a homogeneous process and in Asia, Africa or Latin America was not experienced in the same way as it was in the West. The O centralized state, for example, was not a natural outgrowth from previous inherited forms of political and social organization but was imposed coercively by the colonial powers on indigenous societies. The colonial state, however, was neither hegemonic nor uniform; its patterns of control varied from genocide, as in the Belgian Congo, German South West Africa or British Australia 2 2 , to , Para constitutional government, as in the latter years of the British Raj 3 3 or Japan 4 4 under the American occupation. Capitalism was also unevenly experienced by different societies in different historical epochs. Sub-saharan Africa and Latin America were incorporated into the modern world system of capitalism as producers of primary commodities, including labour, at a time when most of East Asia remained firmly outside, giving to theories of development and underdevelopment which have sought to explain the poverty of the former (Frank 1973, Rodney 1980) with reference to the operations of a global capitalist economy which has enriched the latter. The different paths to modernity, or rather, the different ways of experiencing the different aspects of modernity help explain the distinctive character of modern cultural identities. Third, following Giddens, Kaviraj suggests that because of the existence of the principle of reflexivity at the heart of modernity, it is doubtful that all societies, once freed of colonial rule, would voluntarily choose to emulate the experience of Western modernity (Kaviraj 2000:141). The attractiveness of the Soviet variant of modernity until its collapse in the early 1990s was indicative of a deep hostility on the part of post-colonial elites towards the Western powers and suspicion of their goals and interests in

promulgating market-oriented growth 52 52 Giorgio S HANI 2. 2. See Mann (2001) or a discussion of genocidal colonial policies in South West African and Australia. Austrlia. 3. 3. It should be pointed out that the early years of British rule in India after the 1857 mutiny was characterized by a considerable degree of repression and that India was only able to experience a limited form democracy when the Raj was confronted by a powerful, mass-based nationalist movement. 4. 4. See Dower (1999) for an analysis of the coercive imposition of a 'democratic revolution from above.' -------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 17 Pgina 17 strategies designed to benefit private capital, much of it in foreign hands. This Este hostility, born of experiences of colonialism, has not, however, resulted in a rejection of western modernity but a search for more effective solutions to indigenous problems - solutions which in East Asia has taken the form of a preference for more consensual and collective forms of decision-making, whilst in much of the Islamic world and South Asia, this reflexive rationality has led to an accommodation between politics and religion. Although conventional western models of modernity are flawed, they have not been rejected outright by the pre- modern cultures they encounter but have been adopted in different ways and have taken a distinctly local flavour. Thus, it is possible to speak, not of a grand narrative of modernity or of a single modern project, but of multiple modernities (Eisenstadt 2000). The modern project has not failed as much as been transformed by the various pre-modern practices it has sought to confine to the dustbin of history and, in so doing, has fractured along ethno-national or religious lines . Conclusion Concluso A world culture which was simply a uniform culture would be no culture at all. We Ns should have a humanity de-humanised. It would be a nightmare. But on the other hand, we cannot resign the idea of world-culture altogether. [...] We must aspire to a common world culture, which will yet not diminish the particularity of the constituent parts. partes. (Eliot, 1948:62-63) As the above quotation from Eliot suggests, a world, or global culture remains a dream worth pursuing. A global identity also remains a distant possibility as identities in general are 'never completed, never finished; ... they are always as subjectivity itself is, in process .... Identity is always in the process of formation' (Hall 1997: 47). This dream however could easily turn into a nightmare. If Se globalization is to produce a global culture which does not recognize difference, a homogenous McWorld, then indeed it would de-humanize humanity. What O que advocates of conventional theories of globalization understand by the global, is, as Stuart Hall has pointed out, 'the self-presentation of the dominant particular'. It is the way in which the dominant particular, in this case the West, 'localizes and naturalizes itself and associates with it a variety of other minorities' (Hall 1997: 67). Conventional liberal theories of globalization may therefore be seen as both a statement of western ideals and the intellectual tools through which the West, 53 53 'The Liberal Project': Globalization, Modernity and Identity -------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 18 Pgina 18

and the United States in particular, have attempted to rationalize and legitimize its political, economic and cultural hegemony since the collapse of the Soviet Union. Unio. This is not, however, to deny the reality of globalization, or rather the intensification of the globalizing processes, particularly in the economic sphere, but merely to question the 'Liberal Project's' claims to universality, to a 'view from nowhere' (Nagel 1986). We must, as Foucault insists, 'never forget that the Enlightenment is an event, or rather a set of events and complex historical processes that is located at a certain point in the development of European societies' (Foucault 1991:43). A recognition of globalization as a distinctively western project, however, does not necessarily imply that alternative forms of modernity can not take root in nonwestern societies. India, Iran and Japan may all in their different ways be seen as modern societies, indeed a case could be made for regarding Japan as more modern than many if not all western societies, certainly if one were to employ strictly economic or institutional criteria. Similarly, politicized ethno- religious movements should not be seen as reactions to, but as products of globalization and modernity. Certainly, the recent technological revolution has facilitated, through the improvement of communications and information technology, the formation of transnational identities. It is now possible for members of the same ethnic, cultural, religious or political group to remain in contact across time and space. To take an extreme example, al-Qaeda despite its 'fundamentalist' ideology, is perhaps as modern, in terms of its technological sophistication and its ability to maintain links between members in different parts of the world, as the more conventional and labour intensive agencies and forces attempting to crush it. In this sense, even 'fundamentalist' groups which reject outright the central tenets of the Enlightenment, may be considered modern, even though they seek not to capture but to destroy state power. As Como Chris Brown puts it, 'Osama bin Laden is as modern a figure as Tony Blair, but represents a different kind of modernity' (Brown 2002:298). Modernity, shorn of its ideological Enlightenment baggage, thus becomes a purely descriptive term, used to describe the acquisition of a particular level of economic and/or technological competency. However, the acquisition of a certain degree of 'scientific' competency presupposes a commitment to a rationality which can not be constrained by traditional forms of social or political authority. Modernity can, therefore, best be seen, following Foucault, as an attitude . By attitude, Foucault means a 'mode of relating to contemporary reality; a voluntary choice made by certain people; in 54 54 Giorgio S HANI -------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 19 Pgina 19 the end, a way of thinking and feeling; a way too, of acting and behaving that at one and the same time marks a relation of belonging and presents itself as a task' (Foucault 1991:39). However, a modern attitude is a particular kind of attitude. Foucault terms it a limit-attitude , one that consists of analyzing and reflecting upon limits (Foucault 1991:45). In other words, modernity may be seen as comprising a critical or, to use Giddens's term, reflexive attitude towards the inherited boundaries of reality which consequently mark one's identity. All identities, therefore, which involve reflection and analysis may be termed modern identities. identidades. Modernity, therefore, does not, a the philosphes of the Enlightenment teleologically suggest, entail a single political project which will culminate in the establishment of a global (liberal) civil society, but multiple projects whose outcomes can neither be

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