STRATEGIES IN TEACHING MATHEMATICS

TUTORIAL 4

Definition :
helping students construct a deep understanding of mathematical ideas and processes by engaging them in doing mathematics: creating, conjecturing, exploring, testing, and verifying (Lester et al., 1994, p.154). the process of reaching solutions (Gupta, 2005). the attempt to find the solution to a problem when the method is not known to a problem-solver

PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES Exploration Polya Model Newman Model Mastery Learning Direct Learning

EXPLORATION
Students explore to solve the problems in mathematics Students play a very active role in their learning - exploring problem situations with teacher guidance and inventing their own solution strategies.

 Obtaining knowledge for oneself. Pushing students to try out their hyphoteses, methods, and strategies with processes similar to those that experts use to solve problems. Through exploration, learners are encouraged to carry out expert problem solving processes on their own.

 Learners become independent of the teacher and begin to apply what experts do regarding forming and testing hyphoteses, formulating rules, and gathering information. Students are force to make discoveries on their own.

Example Of Question

Which container contains more marbles? Give reason.

Conclusion
it is important for teachers to provide enough support for students mathematical exploration, but not so much support that they take over the process of thinking for their students (e.g., Ball, 1993; Lampert, 1985, Hiebert et al., 1997).

POLYA MODEL
George Polya was a Hungarian who immigrated to the United States in 1940. His major contribution is for his work in problem solving. Growing up he was very frustrated with the practice of having to regularly memorize information. He was an excellent problem solver. In 1945 he published the book How to Solve It which quickly became his most prized publication. It sold over one million copies and has been translated into 17 languages. In this text he

Polyas Four Principles

First principle: Understand the problem This seems so obvious that it is often not even mentioned, yet students are often stymied in their efforts to solve problems simply because they don't understand it fully, or even in part. Plya taught teachers to ask students questions such as:

 Can you state the problem in your own words? What are you trying to find or do? What information do you obtain from the problem What are the unknown? What information , if any is missing or not needed?

Second principle: Devise a plan Plya mentions (1957) that there are many reasonable ways to solve problems. The skill at choosing an appropriate strategy is best learned by solving many problems. You will find choosing a strategy increasingly easy. A partial list of strategies is included: Guess and check Make an orderly list Eliminate possibilities Use symmetry Consider special cases Use direct reasoning Solve an equation

Also suggested: Look for a pattern Draw a picture Solve a simpler problem Use a model Work backward Use a formula Be creative Use your head/noggen

Third principle: Carry out the plan This step is usually easier than devising the plan. In general (1957), all you need is care and patience, given that you have the necessary skills. Persist with the plan that you have chosen. If it continues not to work discard it and choose another. Don't be misled, this is how mathematics is done, even by professionals.

Use the strategy you selected and work the problem Check each step of the plan as you proceed Ensure that the steps are correct

Fourth principle: Review/extend Plya mentions (1957) that much can be gained by taking the time to reflect and look back at what you have done, what worked and what didn't. Doing this will enable you to predict what strategy to use to solve future problems, if these relate to the original problem. Reread the question Did you answer the question asked? Is your answer correct? Does your answer seems reasonable

NEWMAN MODEL
Anne Newman (1977) an Australian educator May and Newman describe problem solving as "an internal and sequential process that includes cognitive, affective, and psychomotor behaviors." suggested five significant prompts to help determine where errors may occur in students attempts to solve written problems

 A student wishing to solve a written mathematics problem typically has to work through five basic steps (hierarchy) :

 Newman used the word "hierarchy" because she reasoned that failure at any level of the above sequence prevents problem solvers from obtaining satisfactory solutions (unless by chance they arrive at correct solutions by faulty reasoning). According to Newman (1977, 1983), any person confronted with a written mathematics task needs to go through a fixed sequence: Reading (or Decoding), Comprehension, Transformation (or Mathematising), Process Skills, and Encoding. Errors can also be the result of unknown factors, and Newman (1983) assigned these to a composite category, termed

 In Newman experiment to 124 low grade students, she classified 3002 mistakes done in a written test containing 40 questions Category Numbers of Percentage of
mistakes done 390 665 361 779 72 735 3002 mistakes 13 22 12 26 2 25 100 Reading Comprehension Transformation Process skills Encoding Careless & Motivation SUM

EXAMPLE
Ali have 3 books. He buy 6 books more. How many books does Ali have?
Newman (1983b, p. 11) recommended that the following questions be used in order to classify students' errors on written mathematical tasks: 1) Please read the question to me. (Reading) 2) Tell me what the question is asking you to do. (Comprehension) 3) Tell me a method you can use to find and answer to the question. (Transformation) 4) Show me how you worked out the answer to the question. Explain to me what you are doing as you do it. (Process Skills) 5) Now write down your answer to the question.

MASTERY LEARNING
The simplest definition of Mastery Learning is when a child achieves the understanding and the ability to do certain skills in a subject area, moving ahead only after showing a high competency level in those skills. Student / learner evaluation = teacher Students who have mastered the material are given "enrichment" opportunities, Jue those who have not mastered it receive

Example
Stage 1 : USING PICTURE - How many apples on the tree? Stage 2: - how many apples fell down? Stage 3: - what number is missing?

ML IS ALSO USED IN TEACHING MATH

Involves discrimination, matching, and grouping or categorizing according to attributes and attribute values. Begin working on simple discrimination and matching with objects that are familiar to the child and that occur naturally in his or her world (e.g., shoes,toothbrush, squeezetoys, blocks, etc.),

 (Example) classified according to : * Shape (square, circle, triangle, rectangle) * Size (large, small, big, little) * Weight (heavy,light) * Length (short, long) * Width (wide,narrow, thick, thin) * Height (tall, short)

Activities:
Give children numerous opportunities to use everyday items for matching and categorizing: eating utensils, grooming tools, foods, and toys for function; shoes and shoelaces for matching by size or length. Children can explore shapes and size bybuilding with Legos and Unifix blocks; Ask the studnts to help in sorting different sizes of books, different colour paper ordifferent shapes of legos.

Area of Instruction Number Sense

Description

Suggested Instructional Methods

Basic understandings about whole numbers, decimals Hands-on experiences and fractions, ways numbers can be represented with concrete objects concretely and visually, one-to-one correspondence, & Mastery Learning part to whole relationships, etc.

Content

Knowledge level - number facts, math terms, formulas, algorithms for computation, etc. Application level - rounding numbers, comparing fractions, creating graphs, interpreting function tables, doubling a recipe, etc.

Mastery Learning

Skills

Mastery Learning

Problem Solving

Evaluation and synthesis - solving problems in which Daily Problem Solving solutions are not readily apparent, solving brainteasers, drawing on a variety of strategies to tackle a complex problem, etc.

Conclusion
Teaching students by stages From lower and easy stage to higher and difficult stage Student need to master each stage to continue to next stage. Teacher gives remedial activities to weak students and enrichment activities to the fast learners.

Direct Learning in Math Word Problems: Students With Learning Disabilities

Anis

 Everyday acts such as deciding whether one can afford to purchase an item require the application of problemsolving skills. Because students with mild disabilities will live independent and productive lives, problem-solving skills are as essential for them as for students without disabilities. However, students with disabilities are less likely to adopt a strategic approach to problem solving (Torgesen & Kail, 1980); thus, they are likely to experience difficulty in mastering the skill. It is crucial that the mathematics program for these students include

 Two studies (Darch et al., 1984; Jones et al., 1985) evaluated the effectiveness of direct instruction. Darch et al. compared the effectiveness of a direct-instruction approach to that of a basal-math approach for teaching fourth graders without disabilities to solve word problems. The results indicated that students who were taught using direct instruction performed significantly higher on the posttest than did students who were taught by more traditional methods.

Direct Instruction Learning Visual Concept Diagram

Description
Based on Zig Engelmann's theory of instruction, DI is probably the most popular teaching strategy that is used by teachers to facilitate learning. It is teacher directed and follows a definite structure with specific steps to guide pupils toward achieving clearly defined learning outcomes. The teacher maintains the locus of control over the instructional process and monitors pupils' learning throughout the process. Benefits of direct instruction include delivering large amounts of information in a timely manner. Also, because this model is teacher directed,

Introduction/Review Topics or information to be learned is presented to the pupils or review of information sets the stage for learning. Development The teacher provides clear explanations, descriptions, examples, or models of what is to be learned while checking for pupils' understanding through questioning. Guided Practice Opportunities are provided to the pupils to practice what is expected to be learned while the teacher monitors the activities or tasks assigned. Closure Teachers conclude the lesson by wrapping up what was covered. Independent Practice Assignments are given to reinforce the learning without teacher assistance.

Principles of Direct Instruction

Procedures
1. Introduction/Review The first step in DI is for the teacher to gain the pupils' attention. Sometimes this step is referred to a 'focusing event' and is meant to set the stage for learning to take place. At this stage, the pupils are 'informed' as to what the learning goal or outcome is for the lesson and why it is important or relevant. This step can either take the form of introducing new information or building

2. Development Once the goal is communicated to pupils, the teacher models the behavior (knowledge or skill) that pupils are ultimately expected to demonstrate. This step includes clear explanations of any information with as many examples as needed to assure pupils' understanding (depending on pupils' learning needs) of what is to be learned. During this step, the teacher also "checks for understanding" by asking key questions relative to what is to be learned or by eliciting questions from pupils. At this stage, teachers can also use 'prompts' (visual aids, multimedia presentations, etc.)

3. Guided Practice Once the teacher is confident that enough appropriate examples and explanation of the material to be learned has been modeled with sufficient positive pupil response to the instruction, activities or tasks can be assigned for pupils to practice the expected learning with close teacher monitoring. It is at this stage that teachers can offer assistance to pupils who have not yet mastered the material and who may need more 'direct instruction' from the

4. Closure As a final step to this model, closure brings the whole lesson to a 'conclusion' and allows the teacher to recap what was covered in the lesson. It is meant to remind pupils about what the goal for instruction was and for preparing them to complete the independent practice activities that are then assigned by the teacher.

5. Independent Practice Activities or tasks related to the defined learning outcomes are assigned in this step usually after pupils have demonstrated competency or proficiency in the 3rd step. Independent practice is meant to eliminate any prompts from the teacher and is meant to determine the degree of mastery that pupils have achieved. (Homework can be classified as an independent practice because it is meant to provide the opportunity for pupils to practice without the assistance

6. Evaluation Evaluation tools are used to assess pupils' progress either as it is occurring (worksheets, classroom assignments, etc.) or as a culminating event (tests, projects, etc.) to any given lesson. Evaluation of pupils' learning provides the necessary feedback to both the teacher and the pupil and can be used to determine whether expected learning outcomes have been met or have to be revisited in

 This study focused on the effects of sequencing problem types and using a direct-instruction strategy for problem solving. This study sought to build on a study by Jones et al. (1985), who compared two variations of a direct-instruction strategy for teaching students without disabilities to solve addition and subtraction word problems. In both variations, the "big number" concept (Silbert, Carnine, & Stein, 1981) was taught. With it, students determined whether a problem gives the big number of a fact family. If it does, the problem requires subtraction; if not, the problem requires addition.

 This approach calls for direct teaching of articulated strategies for translation of word problems into equations. In the sequential variation, students practiced solving word problems sequenced according to type; in the concurrent variation, students practiced a balanced combination of problem types. Jones et al. found that students in the sequential condition made significantly greater gains over the 9-day instructional period than did the concurrent group.