Energy conservation opportunities of PCM free cooling system

Uro Stritih, Domen Resnik, Vincenc Butala University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Ljubljana, Slovenia Corresponding email: uros.stritih@fs.uni-lj.si

SUMMARY Alternative solutions for cooling and ventilation of buildings have appeared in practice as a counterweight to expensive energy wasting conventional systems. PCM free cooling principle has been used as an alternative method of cooling and ventilating buildings which combines increased thermal mass and night ventilation. A simulation model defining the transient behavior of the phase change unit was used. The heat transfer problem of model, which was treated as two-dimensional, was solved numerically by an enthalpy-based finite differences method. The computer program was written in Fortran program language and can calculate temperature fields in certain time in paraffin area, as well as air temperatures. Energy conservation was calculated from meteorological data for a reference year in a specific country. The difference between inlet and outlet temperature were calculated, from which energy conservation for a cooling season were obtained.

INTRODUCTION Alternative systems for cooling and ventilation of the buildings have their power dependent on the environmental conditions. Therefore they usually need an efficient thermal storage system. Such a system should meet many demands. Among them the most important are: to store as much energy as possible in the defined volume, to have large area for heat transfer and to conduct heat as quickly as possible. One of the important parameters is also the temperature at which energy is stored. This temperature has an influence on the efficiency of the system and on the other hand it has an influence on the indoor environment condition of the buildings. One of the solutions is to use phase change materials PCM. Phase change materials have a large melting heat. That can store or release heat at melting and solidification. This heat is released or absorbed at nearly constant temperature. The content of stored heat is from 5 to 14 times grater compared to the classical thermal storage systems (like water, stones etc.). Thermal storages with PCM have a major part of the research in the building area. Researchers have made fundamental investigations for more than 20 years. Chen at al [1] have experimentally investigated cold storage in an encapsulated thermal storage tank. Lamberg [2] made analytical model for two-phase solidification problem in a finned PCM. She calculated location of the solidification points and temperature profile. Simard and Lacroix [3] have analyzed the behavior of the plate thermal storage with PCM. They calculated optimal panel depth and distance between them. Seeniraj and Narasimhan [4] analyzed performance enhancement of a solar dynamic LHTS module. They have numerically calculated that fins increases heat transfer in PCM. Cabeza at all [5] have studied heat transfer enhancement in water as PCM with insertion of three possible materials: stainless steel, cupper and graphite. They have found that heat flux increases the most at insertion of the

graphite. Stritih [6] have experimentally found out that heat transfer at melting is not a problem. At solidification heat transfer can be enhanced with fins. Applicative researchers on this field deals with insertion of PCM into wall and ceiling panels, heating and air-conditioning systems and use of PCM in thermal storage systems. Most of the researchers have shown that integration of PCM into walls increase their characteristics. Lee at all [7] have presented the results of macro scale tests that compare the thermal storage performance of ordinary concrete blocks with those that have been impregnated with two phase change materials. Zalba at all [8] have found out that the capacity of PCM influences on the reduction of the internal temperature oscillations compared to the external ones. Darkwa and Collagham [9] have shown that PCM panels with narrow phase change area are the most efficient for applications in buildings. Liu and Awbi [10] have compared natural convection beside ordinary wall and wall with PCM. They have found out increased thermal capacity and decreased thermal conductivity. Zhou at all [11] have analyzed the room with PCM panels. They have found out that the efficiency is better if the PCM panel is located on the internal side of the wall. Ahmad at all [12] experimentally shown that wallboards with PCM have the same characteristics even after 400 cycles. Numerical simulations [13] have shown that optimal melting temperature for PCM panels in passive solar buildings is 21 C. Kuznik at al [14] made optimization of PCM wallboard for building use. They have found out that optimal thickness depends on the time interval of the operation. Research of the integration of PCM into double glass window [15] has shown that in winter thermal comfort is increased and in summer heat loads are decreased. Results show that the transmisivity of the glass remains good. Huang at all [16] have found out that integration of PCM increases the efficiency of the photovoltaic (PV) system. Wang at all [17] have analyzed the influence of PCM on coefficient of performance (COP) of the cooling system. The objective of this paper is to present energy conservation opportunities at PCM free cooling. This is an alternative method of cooling and ventilating buildings, which combines increased thermal mass and night ventilation. The thermal inertia of a building is actively adjusted by integrating PCM into the ceiling board of a building. Cool night air is used to cool the building interior and the PCM storage. Outside air for night cooling can be introduced into the space locally by window, wall fans or by a central air supply system. During the daytime hot indoor air is circulated in the unit (Figure 1). The aim of the use of PCM-products is to reduce the energy needed for cooling the building where there is overproduction of heat.

PCM

PCM

Figure 1. Principal function of PCM free cooling system: (left) night time, (right) day time.

METHODS Mathematical model enables to calculate stored cold in PCM and air cooling. Physical picture is the following: cold storage with dimensions W, H and L is filled with PCM. Cold is transferred and stored in PCM as it is written below. Air is cooled with convection heat transfer (Figure 2). Energy storage in PCM includes moving boundary problem: we have solid phase on one side and liquid phase on the other.
L

Tout

H Tin

x
Ti,j+1

W
Ti-1,j

Ti,j Ti,j-1 x

Ti+1,j y

Figure 2. Control volume of the PCM. Partial differential equation for heat conduction T = adiv ( gradT ) = aT t

(1)

must be written for solid (s) Ts = a s div ( gradTs ) t

and liquid (l) phase Tl = a l div ( gradTl ) t

(2)

(3).

Since the heat is transferred through the borders of the system the increase of the energy can be written with the introduction of specific enthalpy: d (4). .h.dV = .gradT .dA dt V A The following equation can be written for this finite element: dh Vi , j dt t
t +1

dT = . A dx

i +1

dT . A dx

i 1

dT + . A dy

j +1

dT . A dx

j 1

(5)
j

and with standardized differential method (x = y = l) we get: .t hit,+j1 = hit, j + (Ti , j 1 + Ti , j +1 + Ti 1, j + Ti +1, j 4Ti , j ) .(l ) 2

(6).

This equation is used for all control volumes except for the borders where the boundary conditions are defined:
dT dx =
x =0

dT dx

and
x=L

dT dy

=
y = H 2

dT dy

= (Tout ,i Tin ,i )
y =+ H 2

(7).

Since thermal conductivity of PCM is very low, the heat conduction can be increased with fins. Increased thermal conductivity can be calculated by following equation:

= pcm +

fin

f 1 + pcm fin pcm 3 pcm

(8).

The computer program was written in FORTRAN program language and can calculate temperature fields in certain time in paraffin area as well as air temperatures. Its main advantage over other commercial software packages is its flexibility since it makes possible to define specific parameters, especially latent heat in different temperature intervals. The program numerically solves transient two-dimensional heat transfer equations, which contains equation for convection on air-PCM side and conduction inside PCM.

CALCULATIONS

The program was written in such a way, that it reads external file with values of inlet air temperatures for every hour in a whole year (Test Reference Year). As a result it gives us outlet temperatures. Energy conservation is calculated from the difference between inlet and outlet air temperature. Calculations have been made for four representative European cities that are located in different climate conditions: Ljubljana, Rome, London and Stockholm. Program works in the following steps: 1. Constant parameters during calculations: - geometry of storage (length, width, height, depth), - thermal characteristics (thermal conductivity, density, specific heat), - geometry of the air channel, - thermal characteristics of PCM (melting heat, solidification temperature, melting temperature, density and specific heat in solid and liquid phase), - air flow, - thermal characteristics of air (specific heat, thermal conductivity, viscosity), - time steps and - number of control volumes. 2. Program reads values of inlet air temperatures for selected city every hour for the whole year (from external file). 3. Through presented equations 5-7 program calculates values of the temperature for each control volume of the paraffin and air in each time step. 4. Values of the selected temperatures are written on the screen and saved into external file for future analysis.

Table 1 presents key parameters for cold thermal storage with PCM. Table 1: Parameters of PCM storage
Cold Storage Height H 0.2 m Length L 0.5 m Width W 2 x 0.03 m Width of air channel 2 x 0.015 m Phase-change material Latent heat 100 kJ/kg / 200 kJ/kg Solidus / liquidus 20 C / 22 C temperature Specific heat solid / liquid 1800 kJ / 2400 kJ Density solid / liquid 840 kg/m3 / 760 kg/m3

RESULTS

Simulations have been made at four different conditions: two different latent heat of PCM (100 kJ/kg, 200 kJ/kg) and two different air flows (10 m3/h, 40 m3/h) have been used. The calculations of energy conservation with cold storage were made on the following way. For selected parameters (city, latent heat and air flow) we have calculated: a) monthly energy for cooling outside air to the room temperature (Eo), b) monthly energy for cooling air from cold storage to the room temperature (Epcm). The difference between a) and b) represents energy savings. The percentage was calculated by the equation 9 and results are presented in Figure 3.

E o E pcm Eo

*100

(9)

Energy conservation with PCM cold storage for Ljubljana

100 90
La tent he a t: 100kJ/kg, Air flow : 40m^3/h La tent he a t: 200kJ/kg, Air flow : 40m^3/h La tent he a t: 100kJ/kg, Air flow : 10m^3/h La tent he a t: 200kJ/kg, Air flow : 10m^3/h

Energy conservation with PCM cold storage for Rome

100 90 Percente of saved energy [%] 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Latent he at: 100kJ/kg, Latent he at: 200kJ/kg, Latent he at: 100kJ/kg, Latent he at: 200kJ/kg, Air Air Air Air flow : flow : flow : flow : 40m^3/h 40m^3/h 10m^3/h 10m^3/h

Percente of saved energy [%]

80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 April May June July August September October

April

May

June

July Month

August

September

October

Month

Energy conservation with PCM cold storage for London

Latent Latent Latent Latent he a t: he a t: he a t: he a t: 100 200 100 200 kJ/kg, kJ/kg, kJ/kg, kJ/kg, Air Air Air Air flow : 40 flow : 40 flow : 10 flow : 10 m^3/h m^3/h m^3/h m^3/h

Energy conservation with PCM cold storage for Stockholm

100 90 Percente of saved energy [%] 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 May June July Month August September
Late nt hea t: 100 kJ/kg, Air flow : 40 m^3/h Late nt hea t: 200 kJ/kg, Air flow : 40 m^3/h Late nt hea t: 100 kJ/kg, Air flow : 10 m^3/h Late nt hea t: 200 kJ/kg, Air flow : 10 m^3/h

100 90 Percente of saved energy [%] 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

May

June

Month

July

August

Figure 3. The share of saved energy for different European cities

In figure 3 we can see monthly energy savings with PCM cold storage for 4 different European cities. From the case of Ljubljana we can see that in April and October the needs for cooling are not high. Therefore we can even with PCM with low latent heat (100 kJ/kg) cool down the whole air. As we go to the hottest part of the year, needs for cooling are higher and the efficiency is lower. In July when the need for cooling is the highest, the share of saved energy is in the range of 20 to 60%. We can see that the higher the volume flow is and the lower latent heat is, more cold have to be added with conventional cooling. The example from Rome shows us that the efficiency of cold storage is decreasing in the hotter environment. In July and August the temperature does not fall below 20 C, so the cold can not be stored as latent heat in thermal storage. The consequence is that we can not cool the air at daytime and the efficiency is lower as 10%. At other moths the efficiency is increasing since the need for cooling is smaller and the night time temperatures are lower. Examples from London and Stockholm shows us that in colder climate, where needs for cooling are lower, we can reach more than 50% of efficiency during all cooling period with cold storage. We have also made integral calculations of cold storage in different cities. Data are presented in table 2. They are more representative like those on Figure 3 - they include the share and also absolute values. Table 2: Annual energy use and savings for cooling
Latent heat [kJ/kg]/ Air flow [m3/h] Energy for cooling [kWh] Saved energy [kWh] Percent of saved energy [%] Latent heat [kJ/kg]/ Air flow [m3/h] Energy for cooling [kWh] Saved energy [kWh] Percent of saved energy [%] Latent heat [kJ/kg]/ Air flow [m3/h] Energy for cooling [kWh] Saved energy [kWh] Percent of saved energy [%] Latent heat [kJ/kg]/ Air flow [m3/h] Energy for cooling [kWh] Saved energy [kWh] Percent of saved energy [%] Ljubljana 100 / 10 12.9 8.5 66 Rome 100 / 10 35.9 7.8 22 London 100 / 10 1.5 1.3 87 Stockholm 100 / 10 5.3 3.7 70 100 / 40 51.9 14.2 27 100 / 40 143.7 14.0 10 100 / 40 5.9 2.6 44 100 / 40 21.3 6.4 30 200 / 10 12.9 10.1 78 200 / 10 35.9 9.2 26 200 / 10 1.5 1.5 100 200 / 10 5.3 4.2 79 200 / 40 51.9 26.3 51 200 / 40 143.7 123.6 14 200 / 40 5.9 3.7 63 200 / 40 21.3 9.4 44

Table 2 shows that the quantity of cooling energy at 40 m2/h is four times lower as at 10 m2/h. This means that the dependence from quantity of the air and cooling energy is proportional. The value of needed cooling energy for Ljubljana at lower volume flow is 12.9 kWh. The energy savings are 8.5 kWh at melting heat 100 kJ/kg and 10,1 kWh at melting heat 200

kJ/kg. At higher volume flow needed cooling energy on the yearly basis is 51.9 kWh. Energy savings are 14.2 kWh and 26,3 kWh. The share of saved energy at volume flow 10 m2/h is over 60% and at volume flow 40 m2/h is reduced to 27 and 51 %. The share of saved energy is in the case of Stockholm similar to the case of Ljubljana. That means that both cities have the similar temperature fluctuation. The needed cold energy is on the other hand for 60% lower. Rome and London represents two extreme conditions. In the case of Rome we have 20 times higher cooling energy as in the case of London. With this fact cooling efficiency is connected: in the case of Rome we save less energy (till 30%), whereas in the case of London we can get major part of cold (more than 60%) with PCM.

CONCLUSION

Cold storage with PCM could be a very useful component of ventilation system in buildings since it uses cold from the environment. But from the analysis we can see that such a system could be only an addition to the conventional cooling systems and not an individual part. The shares of energy savings are different from one place to another and we have to know that the savings are very dependant on the weather conditions: day and night temperature of the air, melting heat of PCM in cold storage and quantity of circulating air. In places with hot weather conditions the temperatures will be too high at night to solidify PCM at used parameters. That means that at daytime we could not cool the air. On the other side in places with cold weather conditions we have plenty of night time cold but there is not a need for cooling. The influence of volume flow on energy savings is also important. At low volume flows energy savings are higher as in the case of high volume flows. But low volume flows in general do not satisfy the needs for building ventilations. From the analysis we can conclude that the most efficient system would be cold storage with highest possible latent heat and with lowest possible volume flow through the system.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This work was made in the framework of the Research group: Heat and Mass transfer (Project No: P3-0308).

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