Code-switching
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Code-switching
is a term inlinguisticsreferring to using more than one language or variety in conversation.Bilinguals,who can speak at least two languages, have the
ability to use elements of both languages when conversing with another bilingual.Code-switching is the syntactically and phonologically appropriate use of multiplevarieties.Code-switching can occur betweensentences (intersentential) or within a single
sentence (intrasentential).Although some commentators have seen code-switching as reflecting a lack of language ability, most contemporary scholars consider code-switching to be a normaland natural product of interaction between the bilingual (or multilingual) speaker'slanguages.
Code-switching can be distinguished from other language contact phenomena such asloan translation (calques), borrowing, pidginsandcreoles, and transfer or
interference.There are different perspectives on code-switching. A major approach insociolinguisticsfocuses on the social motivations for switching, a line of inquiryconcentrating both on immediate discourse factors such as lexical need and the topicand setting of the discussion, and on more distant factors such as speaker or groupidentity, and relationship-building (solidarity). Code-switching may also be reflectiveof the frequency with which an individual uses particular expressions from one or theother language in his/her daily communications; thus, an expression from onelanguage may more readily come to mind than the equivalent expression in the other language.A second perspective primarily concernssyntacticconstraints on switching. This is aline of inquiry that has postulated grammatical rules and specific syntactic boundariesfor where a switch may occur.While code-switching had previously been investigated as a matter of peripheralimportance within the more narrow tradition of research on bilingualism, it has nowmoved into a more general focus of interest for sociolinguists, psycholinguists andgeneral linguists.Code-switching can be related to and indicative of group membership in particular types of bilingual speech communities, such that the regularities of the alternating useof two or more languages within one conversation may vary to a considerable degree between speech communities. Intrasentential code-switching, where it occurs, may beconstrained by syntactic and morphosyntactic factors which may or may not beuniversal in nature.
Motivation
People code-switch for a number of reasons.
•
Code-switching a word or phrase from language-B into language-A can bemore convenient than waiting for one's mind to think of an appropriatelanguage-B word.
•
Code-switching can help anethnic minoritycommunity retain a sense of cultural identity, in much the same way that slangis used to give a group of
people a sense of identity and belonging, and to differentiate themselves fromsociety at large.
•
Code-switching is a common means to shift
footing
(Goffman 1979) or contextualization(Gumperz 1982).One of the more complete theories of code switching withinsociolinguisticsis theMarkedness Model, developed byCarol Myers- Scotton(1993). According to themarkedness model, language users arerational, and choose a language that markstheir rights and obligations relative to others in the conversational setting. When thereis no clear unmarked choice, code switching is used to explore possible choices.
Many sociolinguists object to the markedness model, and to the suggestion thatlanguage choice is entirely rational (e.g. Auer 1998; Woolard 2004).Competing sociolinguistic theories examine code-switching as language behavior,often usingdiscourse analysis, ethnography, or elements of both. Scholars such as
Monica Heller (1988, 1992, 1995), Ben Rampton (1995, 2007), and Joan Pujolar (2004) describe the effects that the use of multiple language varieties have on class,ethnicity, gender, or other identitypositions.Scholars in interactional linguistics and conversation analysisalso study code-
switching as a means of structuring talk in interaction. Analysts such as Peter Auer (1984) suggest that code-switching does not simply reflect social situations, but is ameans to create them. Other conversation analysts studying code-switching include LiWei (1998, 2005), Mark Sebba (2000; Sebba and Wooton 1998), and Jakob Cromdal(2001, 2004).
Code-switching is distinct from pidgin, in which features of two languages arecombined. However,creole languages(which are very closely related to pidgins),when in close contact with related standard languages (such as withJamaican CreoleEnglishor Guyanese Creole English), can exist in a continuumwithin which speakers
may code-switch along a basilect-
-
hierarchy depending oncontext. Code-switching is also different from (but is often accompanied by)spontaneous borrowing of words from another language, sometimes outfitted with the
inflectionsof the host language, sometimes not.Linguists have made significant efforts to define the differences between borrowingand code-switching.
Borrowing is generally said to occur within the lexicon,while code-switching occurs at the level of syntax or utterance construction.Code-switching within a sentence tends to occur more often at points where thesyntaxof the two languages align; thus it is uncommon to switch fromEnglishto
Frenchafter anadjectiveand before a noun, because a French noun normally
"expects" its adjectives to follow it. It is, however, often the case that even unrelatedlanguages can be "aligned" at the boundary of arelative clauseor other sentence sub-structure.Work in syntax and morphology has suggested several constraints on where languagealternation can occur. None of these suggestions are universally accepted, however,and linguists have offered apparent counter-examples to each proposed constraint(e.g. Bokamba 1989; Bhatt 1995).
•
The
free-morpheme constraint
states that switching cannot occur between bound morphemes (Sankoff & Poplack 1981).
•
The
equivalence constraint
says that code-switching can only take place in positions where "the order of any two sentence elements, one before and oneafter the switch, is not excluded in either language" (Sankoff & Poplack 1981). For example, the sentence "I like you porque eres simpatico" isallowed, since it obeys the rules for relative clause formation in both Spanishand English.
•
The
closed-class constraint
says that closed classitems such as pronouns,
prepositons or conjunctions cannot be switched (Joshi 1985).
•
The Matrix Language Frame model (Myers-Scotton 1997, 2002) distinguishesthe roles of the participating languages.
The Matrix Language provides thegrammatical frame of bilingual clause. This model is complemented by the 4-M model of morpheme classification (Myers-Scotton and Jake, 2000).
•
The
functional head constraint
says that code-switching cannot occur betweena functional head (such as a complementizer, determiner or inflection) and itscomplement (a sentence, noun phrase or verb phrase) (Belazi et al. 1994).
Note that some of these constraints make specific assumptions about the nature of syntax, and are therefore controversial, especially among linguists who make differenttheoretical assumptions.Shana Poplack 's approach to language mixing is relatively independent of choice of syntactic theory, and use notions such as equivalence switching, nonce borrowing,flagged switching and constituent insertion to categorize, based on quantitativeanalysis of large corpora of bilingual conversation, the intrasentential mixing phenomena characteristic of different bilingual speech communities. These patternscan be rather different for even for two communities sharing the same language pairs.
Scholars use different names for various types of switching.
•
Intersentential switching
is switching outside the sentence or clause level,for example at sentence or clause boundaries.
•
Intra-sentential switching
is switching within a sentence or clause.
•
Tag-switching
is switching a tag phraseor word from language B into
language A. (This is a common
intra-sentential switch
.)
•
Intra-word switching
Zentella (1997)
offers the following example of code-switching from her work withSpanish speakers in New York city. In this example, Marta and her younger sister Lolita speak both Spanish and English with Zentella (ACZ) outside of their apartment building.Lolita: Oh, I could stay with Ana?Marta: - but you could ask
papi
and
mami
to see if you could come down.Lolita: OK.Marta: Ana, if I leave her here would you send her upstairs when you leave?ACZ: I'll tell you exactly when I have to leave, at ten o'clock.
Y son las nueve y cuarto.
("And it's nine fifteen.")
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