KBL Srivastava

Primary data: information obtained rsthand by the researcher on the variables of interest for the specific purpose of the study.
Examples: individuals, focus groups, panels Secondary data: information gathered from sources already existing.

Examples: company records or archives, government publications, industry analyses offered by the media, web sites, the Internet, and so on.

Surveys ask respondents for information using verbal or written questioning

Respondents are a representative sample of people

Quick Inexpensive Efficient Accurate Flexible

Poor Design Improper Execution

Random sampling error

Total error

Systematic error (bias)

A statistical fluctuation that occurs because of change variation in the elements selected for the sample

Systematic error results from some imperfect aspect of the research design or from a mistake in the execution of the research

Administrative error

Systematic error (bias) Respondent error

Sample bias - when the results of a sample show a persistent tendency to deviate in one direction from the true value of the population parameter

Nonresponse error Respondent error

Response bias

A classification of sample bias resulting from some respondent action or inaction

Nonresponse bias Response bias

Nonrespondents - people who refuse to cooperate Not-at-homes Self-selection bias

Over-represents extreme positions Under-represents indifference

Deliberate falsification

Response bias
Unconscious misrepresentation

bias that occurs when respondents tend to answer questions with a certain slant that consciously or unconsciously misrepresents the truth

Acquiescence bias

Extremity bias
Interviewer bias

Auspices bias

Social desirability bias

A category of response bias that results because some individuals tend to agree with all questions or to concur with a particular position.

A category of response bias that results because response styles vary from person to person; some individuals tend to use extremes when responding to questions.

A response bias that occurs because the presence of the interviewer influences answers.

Bias in the responses of subjects caused by the respondents being influenced by the organization conducting the study.

Bias in responses caused by respondents desire, either conscious or unconscious, to gain prestige or appear in a different social role.

Administrative error

Systematic error (bias) Respondent error

Improper administration of the research task Blunders Confusion Neglect Omission

Data processing error

Sample selection error Interviewer error

Interviewer cheating

Interviewer cheating - filling in fake answers or falsifying interviewers Data processing error - incorrect data entry, computer programming, or other procedural errors during the analysis stage. Sample selection error -improper sample design or sampling procedure execution. Interviewer error - field mistakes

CLASSIFYING SURVEY RESEARCH METHODS

METHOD OF COMMUNICATION

STRUCTURED AND DISQUISED QUESTIONS

TEMPORAL CLASSIFICATIONS

Cross-sectional Longitudinal

Personal interviews
Door-to-door Shopping mall intercepts

Telephone interviews Self-administered questionnaires

Door-to-Door Personal Interview

Speed of data collection: Moderate to fast Geographical flexibility: Limited to moderate Respondent cooperation: Excellent Versatility of questioning: Quite versatile Questionnaire length: long Item nonresponse: Low Possibility of respondent misunderstanding: Lowest Degree of interviewer influence of answer: High Supervision of interviewers: Moderate Anonymity of respondent: Low Ease of call back or follow-up: Difficult Cost: Highest Special features: Visual materials may be shown or demonstrated; extended probing possible

Speed of data collection: Fast Geographical flexibility: Confined, urban bias Respondent cooperation: Moderate to low Versatility of questioning: Extremely versatile Questionnaire length: Moderate to long Item nonresponse: Medium Possibility of respondent misunderstanding: Lowest Degree of interviewer influence of answers: Highest Supervision of interviewers: Moderate to high Anonymity of respondent: Low Ease of call back or follow-up: Difficult Cost: Moderate to high Special features: Taste test, viewing of TV commercials possible

Speed of Data Collection: Very fast Geographical Flexibility: High Respondent Cooperation: Good Versatility of Questioning: Moderate Questionnaire Length: Moderate Item Nonresponse: Medium Possibility of Respondent Misunderstanding: Average Degree of Interviewer Influence of Answer: Moderate Supervision of interviewers: High, especially with central location Anonymity of respondent: Moderate Ease of call back or follow-up: Easy Cost: Low to moderate Special features: Fieldwork and supervision of data collection are simplified; quite adaptable to computer technology

SELF-ADMINISTERED QUESTIONNAIRES

PAPER QUESTIONNAIRES

ELECTRONIC QUESTIONNAIRES

MAIL

IN-PERSON DROP-OFF

INSERTS

FAX

E-MAIL

INTERNET WEB SITE

KIOSK

Speed of data collection: Researcher has no control over return of questionnaire; slow Geographical flexibility: High Respondent cooperation: Moderate--poorly designed questionnaire will have low response rate Versatility of questioning: Highly standardized format Questionnaire length: Varies depending on incentive Item nonresponse: High Possibility of respondent misunderstanding: Highest--no interviewer present for clarification Degree of interviewer influence of answer: None--interviewer absent Supervision of interviewers: Not applicable Anonymity of respondent: High Ease of call back or follow-up: Easy, but takes time Cost: Lowest

 Write a sales oriented cover letter Money helps - As a token of appreciation - For a charity Stimulate respondents interest with interesting questions Follow Up - Keying questionnaires with codes Advanced notification Sponsorship by a well-known and prestigious institution

Effective cover letter Money helps Interesting questions Follow-ups Advanced notification Survey sponsorship Keying questionnaires

Flexible, but
Extensive differences in the capabilities of respondents computers and e-mail software limit the types of questions and the layout

E-mails are not secure and eavesdropping can possibly occur Respondent cooperation
Varies depending if e-mail is seen as spam

A self-administered questionnaire posted on a Web site. Respondents provide answers to questions displayed online by highlighting a phrase, clicking an icon, or keying in an answer Speed of data collection: Instantaneous Cost effective Geographic flexibility : Worldwide Visual and interactive Respondent cooperation: Varies depending on website; depending on type of sample; When user does not opt-in or expect a voluntary survey cooperation is low. Self-selection problems in web site visitation surveys - participants tend to be more deeply involved than the average person Versatility of questioning: Extremely versatile Questionnaire length: Individualized based on respondent answers on Longer questionnaires with panel samples Item nonresponse: Software can assure none

Representative samples The quality of internet samples may vary substantially. A sample of those who visit a web page and voluntarily fill out a questionnaires can have self-selection error not all individuals in the general public have internet access many respondents lack powerful computers with high-speed connections to the internet many respondents computer skills will be relatively unsophisticated Possibility for respondent misunderstanding: High Interviewer influence of answers: None Supervision of interviewers: not required Anonymity of Respondent: Respondent can be anonymous or known Ease of Callback or Follow-up: difficult unless e-mail address is known Special Features: allows graphics and streaming media

Welcome Screen like a cover letter It contains the name of the research company and how to contact the organization if there is a problem or concern. "If you have any concerns or questions about this survey, or if you experience any technical difficulties, please contact (NAME OF RESEARCH ORGANIZATION).

Please enter your personal password from your invitation.Then, press the "enter" key to begin the survey or simply click on the right arrow at the bottom of the page to begin the survey (after you have read the remaining instructions): During the survey, please do not use your browser's FORWARD and BACK buttons. Use the arrows on the lower right to move backward and forward through the survey.

What can be observed? Physical actions Verbal behavior Expressive behavior Spatial relations and locations Temporal patterns Verbal and pictorial records

Phenomena

Example

Human behavior or physical Shoppers movement action pattern in a store Verbal behavior Statements made by airline travelers who wait in line Facial expressions, tone of voice, and other form of body language

Expressive behavior

Phenomena Spatial relations and locations

Example How close visitors at an art museum stand to paintings

Temporal patterns

How long fast-food customers wait for their order to be served

What brand name items are stored in consumers pantries Bar codes on product packages

Physical objects

Verbal and Pictorial Records

Human versus mechanical Visible versus hidden Direct Contrived

Certain data may be obtained more quickly Environmental conditions may be recorded May be combined with survey to provide supplemental evidence

Limitations

Cognitive phenomena cannot be observed Interpretation of data may be a problem Not all activity can be recorded Only short periods can be observed Observer bias possible Possible invasion of privacy

Physical-trace evidence Wear and tear of a book indicates how often it has been read

The creation of an artificial environment to test a hypothesis

Recording the decision time necessary to make a choice between two alternatives It is presumed to indicate the strength of preference between alternatives.

Obtains data by observing and analyzing the content of advertisements, letters, articles, etc. Deals with the study of the message itself Measures the extent of emphasis or omission

Traffic Counters Web Traffic Scanners Peoplemeter Physiological Measures

Hits and page views Jupiter Media Metrics Nielsen//NetRatings

Eye tracking Pupilometer Psychogalvanometer Voice pitch Eye Tracking Monitors Record how the subject actually reads or views an advertisement Measure unconscious eye movements

This device observes and records changes in the diameter of the subjects pupils.

Measures galvanic skin response Involuntary changes in the electrical resistance of the skin Assumption: physiological changes accompany emotional reactions

Measures emotional reactions through physiological changes in a persons voice

A QUESTIONNAIRE IS ONLY AS GOOD AS THE QUESTIONS IT ASKS A Good Questionnaire AppearsAs easy to compose as a good poem But, it is usually the result of long, painstaking work

1. What should be asked? 2. How should each question be phrased? 3. In what sequence should the questions be arranged? 4. What questionnaire layout will best serve the research objectives? 5. How should the questionnaire be pretested? Does the questionnaire need to be revised?

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Definition
A questionnaire is a pre-formulated, written set of questions to which the respondent records his answers

Steps
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Determine the content of the questionnaire Determine the form of response Determine the wording of the questions Determine the question sequence Write cover letter

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Framework

Need information for all constructs in framework

Measurement: Operationalizing
Objective construct:
1 element/items => 1 question

Subjective construct:

multiple elements/items => multiple questions

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Closed vs. Open-ended questions

Closed questions
Helps respondents to make quick decisions Helps researchers to code First: unbiased point of view Final: additional insights Complementary to closed question: for interpretation purpose

Open-ended question

Cfr. Measurement: Response scales

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Avoid double-barreled questions Avoid ambiguous questions and words Use of ordinary words

Avoid leading or biasing questions

Social desirability

Avoid recall depended questions

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Use positive and negative statements

Dresdner delivers high quality banking service Dresdner has poor customer operational support Avoid double negatives

Limit the length of the questions

Rules of thumb: < 20 words < one full line in print

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Personal and sensitive data at the end

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The cover letter is the introductory page of the questionnaire It includes:

Identification of the researcher Motivation for respondents to fill it in Confidentiality Thanking of the respondent

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Questionnaire relevance Questionnaire accuracy Phrasing Questions Open-ended questions Fixed-alternative questions

Classifying Surveys by Degree of Structure and Degree of Disguise

Structured
Example: Typical descriptive survey with straight-forward, structured questions

Unstructured
Example: Survey with open-ended questions to discover new answers or focus group interview

Undisguised

Example:

Example: Projection techniques used mostly for exploratory research

Disguised

Survey interview to measure brand As image versus competitive brands images or brand recall (unaided recall)

No hard and fast rules, only guidelines Avoid Complexity: use simple, conversational language
Avoid leading and loaded questions Avoid ambiguity: be as specific as possible Avoid double-barreled items Avoid making assumptions Avoid burdensome questions

1. Do you believe that private citizens have the right to own firearms to defend themselves, their families, and property from violent criminal attack? Yes No Undecided

2. Do you believe that a ban on the private ownership of firearms would be significantly reduce the number of murders and robberies in your community? Yes No Undecided

1a. How many years have you been playing tennis on a regular basis? Number of years: __________ b. What is your level of play? Novice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lower Intermediate . . . . . Upper Intermediate . . . . . -1 -2 -3 Advanced . . . . . . . Expert . . . . . . . . . Teaching Pro . . . . -4 -5 -6

c. In the last 12 months, has your level of play improved, remained the same or decreased? Improved. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Remained the same . . . . . -1 -2 Decreased. . . . . . . -3

2a. Do you belong to a club with tennis facilities?

Yes . . . . . . . No . . . . . . .

-1 -2

b. How many people in your household - including yourself - play tennis? Number who play tennis ___________ 3a. Why do you play tennis? (Please X all that apply.) To have fun . . . . . . . . . . To stay fit. . . . . . . . . . . . To be with friends. . . . . . To improve my game . . . To compete. . . . . . . . . . . To win. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6

b. In the past 12 months, have you purchased any tennis instructional books or video tapes? Yes . . . . . . . -1 No . . . . . . . -2

Dear Passenger: Indian Airlines is pleased to have you on board today. To help us provide the best service possible, we need to know more about you and your opinions of our service. If you are over 11 years old, we would appreciate it if you would complete this questionnaire.

Your flight attendant will pick up your completed questionnaire shortly.

Thank you.

1. Please indicate: Flight number ___________ Date_____________ 2a. At the city where you boarded this particular plane, did you make a connection from another flight? Yes, from American . . . . 1 Yes, from Other Airline . . 2 No . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 b. Did you board this plane at the airport from which it just took off, or were you a through passenger for which that was an intermediate stop? Boarded here . . . . . . . . . . Through passenger. . . . . . 1 2

3. How would you rate the overall service from American for this flight, all things considered, from your arrival at the airport terminal until now? Excellent Good 1 2 Fair 3 Poor 4

Overall Service . . . . . . . . . .

4. Please rate each of the following with regard to this flight, if applicable. Excellent Good
Courtesy and Treatment from the: Skycap at airport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Airport Ticket Counter Agent . . . . . Boarding Point (Gate) Agent . . . . . Flight Attendants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Your Meal or Snack. . . . . . . . . . . . . Beverage Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seat Comfort. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carry-On Stowage Space. . . . . . . . Cabin Cleanliness . . . . . . . . . . . . . Video/Stereo Entertainment . . . . . . On-Time Departure . . . . . . . . . . . .

Fair

Poor

Question sequence
Order bias Funnel technique Filter bias

Question layout PRETESTING IS IMPORTANT

Graphical User Interface (GUI) Paging layout going from screen to screen Scrolling layout gives the respondent the ability to scroll down Push buttons Status bar