7/12/04 CIDER/ITP Short Course

Composition and Structure of

Earths Interior
A Perspective from Mineral
Physics
Mineral Physics Program
Fundamentals of mineralogy, petrology, phase equilibria
Lecture 1. Composition and Structure of Earths Interior (Lars)
Lecture 2. Mineralogy and Crystal Chemistry (Abby)
Lecture 3. Introduction to Thermodynamics (Lars)
Fundamentals of physical properties of earth materials
Lecture 4. Elasticity and Equations of State (Abby)
Lecture 5. Lattice dynamics and Statistical Mechanics (Lars)
Lecture 6. Transport Properties (Abby)
Frontiers
Lecture 7. Experimental Methods and Challenges (Abby)
Lecture 8. Electronic Structure and Ab Initio Theory (Lars)
Lecture 9. Building a Terrestrial Planet (Lars/Abby)
Tutorials
Constructing Earth Models (Lars)
Constructing and Interpreting Phase Diagrams (Abby)
Interpreting Lateral Heterogeneity (Abby)
Molecular dynamics (Lars)


Outline
Earth as a material
What is Earth made of?
What are the conditions?
How does it respond?
How do we find out?
Structure and Composition
Pressure, Temperature,
Composition
Phases
Radial Structure
Origins of Mantle
Heterogeneity
Phase
Temperature
Composition

What is Earth made of?
Atoms
Contrast plasma ...
All processes governed by
Atomic arrangement
(structure)
Atomic dynamics
(bonding)
F = kx
F : Change in energy,
stress
x : Change in temperature,
phase, deformation
k : Material property
Beyond continuua
Measure k
Understanding

What is Earth made of?
Condensed Matter
Potential Energy, i.e. bonds,
are important
No simple theory (contrast
ideal gas)
Pressure Scale
Sufficient to alter bonding,
structure
Not fundamental state
P
bond
~eV/
3
=160 GPa~P
mantle


What is Earth made of?
Solid (mostly)
Response to stress
depends on time scale
Maxwell relaxation time




t
M
~1000 years
Crystalline
Multi-phase
Anisotropic


t
M
=
q
G
viscosity
shear modulus
How does it respond?
To changes in energy
Change in temperature
Heat Capacity C
P
, C
V

Change in Density
Thermal expansivity, o
Phase Transformations
Gibbs Free Energy, G
Influence all responses
in general

How does it respond?
To hydrostatic stress
Compression
Bulk modulus, K
S
, K
T

Adiabatic heating
Grneisen parameter
=oK
S
/c
P

Phase Transformations
Gibbs Free Energy
To deviatoric stress
Elastic deformation
Elastic constants, c
ijkl

Flow
Viscosity, q
ijkl

Failure

How does it respond?
Rates of Transport of
Mass: chemical diffusivity
Energy: thermal
diffusivity
Momentum: viscosity
Electrons: electrical
conductivity
Other Non-equilibrium
properties
Attenuation (Q)


How do we find out?
How does interior differ from
laboratory?
The significance of the differences
depends on the property to be
probed
Equilibrium thermodynamic
properties
Depend on Pressure, Temperature,
Major Element Composition.
So: Control them and measure
desired property in the laboratory!
Or compute theoretically
Non-equilibrium properties
Some also depend on minor element
composition, and history
These are more difficult to control
and replicate

How do we find out?
Experiment
Production of high
pressure and/or
temperature
Probing of sample in
situ
1.08
1.07
1.06
1.05
1.04
1.03
1.02
1.01
1.00
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

V
o
l
u
m
e
,

V
/
V
0
2000 1600 1200 800 400
Temperature (K)
Forsterite
0 GPa
Bouhifd et al.
(1996)

0
0.1
q
0
1
How do we find out?
Theory
Solve Kohn-Sham
Equations (QM)
Approximations
35
30
25
20
15
10
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

D
e
r
i
v
a
t
i
v
e

o
f

G
,

-
d
G
/
d
T

(
M
P
a

K
-
1
)
140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0
Pressure (GPa)
MgSiO
3
Perovskite
2500 K
Marton & Cohen
(2002)
Wentzcovitch et al.
(2004)
Oganov et al.
(2002)
q
S
~
q
S
~q
q
S
~q
q
S
=q
S0
Pressure, Temperature,
Composition
P/T themselves depend on
material properties
Pressure: Self-gravitation
modified significantly by
compression
Temperature: Self-
compression, energy,
momentum transport
Composition
Heterogeneous
Crust/Mantle/Core
Within Mantle?

Pressure, Temperature,
Composition

Pressure

Combine


K=bulk modulus
Must account for phase
transformations


350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
G
P
a
)
6000 4000 2000 0
Depth (km)
Inner
Core
Outer
Core
Lower
Mantle
T
r
a
n
s
i
t
i
o
n

Z
o
n
e
U
p
p
e
r

M
a
n
t
l
e
PREM

cP
cr
= (r)g(r)

cP
c
=
K

Temperature
Constraints: near surface
Heat flow
Magma source
Geothermobarometry
Constraints: interior
Phase transformations
Grneisen parameter
Physical properties
Properties of Isentrope
AT1000 K
Verhoogen effect
Questions
Boundary layers?
Non-adiabaticity?
2800
2600
2400
2200
2000
1800
1600
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
K
)
3000 2000 1000 0
Depth (km)
Composition
Constraints: extraterrestrial
Nucleosynthesis
Meteorites
Constraints: near surface
Xenoliths
Magma source
Constraints: Interior
Physical properties
Fractionation important
Earth-hydrosphere-space
Crust-mantle-core
Mantle homogeneous
because well-mixed?
Not in trace elements
Major elements?
Pyrolite/Lherzolite/Peridotite/
Phases
Upper mantle
Olivine, orthopyroxene,
clinopyroxene,
plagspinelgarnet
Transition Zone
OlivineWadsleyiteRingwoo
dite
Pyroxenes dissolve into garnet
Lower mantle
Two perovksites + oxide
What else?
Most of interior still relatively
little explored
Radial Structure
Influenced by
Pressure
Phase
transformation
Temperature
6.5
6.0
5.5
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
S
h
e
a
r

W
a
v
e

V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

(
k
m

s
-
1
)
600 400 200 0
Depth (km)
plg
sp
ol
wa
ri
opx cpx
C2/c
gt
mj
capv pv
mw
ak
Radial Structure of Pyrolitic
Mantle
Lower mantle
Questions
Homogeneous in
composition, phase?
Problems
Physical properties at
lower mantle conditions
Phase transformations
within lower mantle?
5.5
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
D
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
g

c
m
-
3
)
3000 2000 1000 0
Depth (km)
Pyrolite
100 Ma
Radial Structure of Pyrolitic
Mantle
Upper Mantle and
Transition Zone
Shallow discontinuities
Local minimum
410, 520,660
High gradient zone at
top of lower mantle
Questions
Role of anisotropy
Role of attenuation
4.6
4.4
4.2
4.0
3.8
3.6
3.4
3.2
D
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
g

c
m
-
3
)
1000 800 600 400 200 0
Depth (km)
Pyrolite
100 Ma
Radial Structure of Pyrolitic
Mantle
Discontinuities
Questions:
Structure as
f(composition)
How well do we know
phase equilibria?
4.4
4.3
4.2
4.1
4.0
3.9
3.8
D
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
g

c
m
-
3
)
700 680 660 640 620 600
Depth (km)
Origin of Mantle Heterogeneity

Mantle Heterogeneity
Temperature
Most physical
properties depend on
temperature
Elastic constants mostly
decrease with
increasing T
Rate varies
considerably with P, T,
composition, phase
Few measurements,
calculations at high P/T
Dynamics: thermal
expansion drives

350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
E
l
a
s
t
i
c

M
o
d
u
l
u
s

(
G
P
a
)
2000 1500 1000 500 0
Temperature (K)
C
11
C
12
C
44
Periclase
P=0
Anderson &
Isaak (1995)
Mantle Heterogeneity
Phase
Mantle phase
transformations are
ubiquitous
Phase proportions
depend on T: vary
laterally
Different phases have
different properties
Dynamics: heat, volume
of transformation
modifies

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
A
t
o
m
i
c

F
r
a
c
t
i
o
n
30 25 20 15 10 5
Pressure (GPa)
ol wa ri
opx
cpx
gt
pv
Ca-pv
mw
il
C2/c
Pyrolite
Stacey Geotherm
150 450 300 600 750
Depth (km)
Mantle Heterogeneity
Composition
Physical properties
depend on composition
Phase proportions
depend on composition
Major element
heterogeneity is
dynamically active

Origin of Lateral Heterogeneity

Temperature Composition
Phase
Differentiation
Radioactivity
Chemical
Potential
Entropy
Latent
Heat