Bi ging Thng tin mi trng & GIS

PHN I: L THUYT
CHNG I: GII THIU H THNG THNG TIN A L(GIS)
1.1 M u Qu trnh pht trin x hi loi ngi ny sinh yu cu giao lu gia nhng ngi ng thi vi nhau v gia ngi i trc v ngi i sau. Nhng ni dung h thng tin vi nhau l phi vt cht nhng cn c th hin thng qua mt hnh thc no nh hnh v, m hnh, ch vit... Vic sinh ra ch vit l mt bc ngot ln ca nhn loi v kh nng thng tin. Bng mt quyn sch nh h c th miu t chi tit mt s vt, mt hin tng t nhin hay x hi v lu tr li cho cc th h sau ny nhn thc li. Th ri thng tin ch vit vn cha tho mn c nhu cu ngy cng cao ca qu trnh trao i thng tin khng gian nht l nhiu thng tin trn mt din rng th vic biu din bng vn bn bc l nhng yu im. Mt hnh thc thng tin khc ra i, l bn . Ngi ta biu din cc thng tin khng gian bng cch thu nh kch thc s vt theo mt t l no ri v ln mt phng. biu din cao thp th dng cc dng k hiu ring (mu, ghi cao, ng bnh ). Nhng thng tin biu din cc im tnh cht ca s vt th gii thch bng ch v s km theo cc s vt c biu din. S c mt ca h thng tin bn lm cho nhiu ngnh khoa hc k thut pht trin thm mt bc di, nht l khoa hc qun s. T lu bn l mt cng c thng tin quen thuc i vi loi ngi. Trong qu trnh pht trin kinh t k thut, bn lun c ci tin sao cho ngy cng y thng tin hn, ngy cng chnh xc hn. Khi khi lng thng tin qu ln trn mt n v din tch bn th ngi ta tin n vic lp bn chuyn . bn chuyn , ch c nhng thng tin theo mt chuyn no c biu din. Trn mt n v din tch a l s c nhiu loi bn chuyn : bn a hnh, bn hnh chnh, bn a cht, bn du lch, bn giao thng, bn hin trng xy dng... Trong nhng nm u thp k 60 (1963-1964) cc nh khoa hc Canada cho ra i h thng tin a l. H thng thng tin a l k tha mi thnh tu trong ngnh bn c v tng ln thnh tu ca k thut bn . H thng tin a l bt u hot ng cng bng vic thu thp d liu theo nh hng tu thuc vo mc tiu t ra. Bn cnh Canada, nhiu trng i hc M cng tin hnh nghin cu v xy dng H thng tin a l. Trong cc H thng tin a l c to ra cng c rt nhiu
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Khoa Cng ngh ha hc & Mi trng

Bi ging Thng tin mi trng & GIS

h khng tn ti c lu v n c thit k cng knh m gi thnh li cao. Lc ngi ta t ln hng u vic khc phc nhng kh khn ny sinh trong qu trnh x l cc s liu ha truyn thng. H tp trung gii quyt vn a bn , hnh dng, hnh nh, s liu vo my tnh bng phng php s x l cc d liu ny. Tuy k thut s ha c s dng t nm 1950 nhng im mi ca giai on ny chnh l cc bn c s ha c th lin kt vi nhau to ra mt bc tranh tng th v ti nguyn thin nhin ca mt khu vc. T my tnh c s dng v phn tch cc c trng ca cc ngun ti nguyn , cung cp cc thng tin b ch, kp thi cho vic quy hoch. Vic hon thin mt H thng tin a l cn ph thuc vo cng ngh phn cng m thi k ny cc my tnh IBM 1401 cn cha mnh. Giai on u nhng nm 60 ca th k trc nh du s ra i ca H thng tin a l ch yu c phc v cho cng tc iu tra qun l ti nguyn. n gia thp k 60 th H thng tin a l pht trin, c kh nng phc v cng tc khai thc v qun l th nh DIME ca c quan kim ton M, GRDSR ca c quan thng k Canada,... Nm1968, Hi a l quc t quyt nh thnh lp U ban thu thp v x l d liu a l. Trong nhng nm 70 Bc M c s quan tm nhiu hn n vic bo v mi trng v pht trin H thng tin a l. Cng trong khung cnh , hng lot yu t thay i mt cch thun li cho s pht trin ca H thng tin a l, c bit l s gim gi thnh cng vi s tng kch thc b nh, tng tc tnh ton ca my tnh. Chnh nh nhng thun li ny m H thng tin a l dn dn c thng mi ha. ng u trong lnh vc thng mi phi k n cc c quan, cng ty: ESRI, GIMNS, Intergraph.... Chnh thi k ny xy ra lon khun dng d liu v vn phi nghin cu kh nng giao din gia cc khun dng. Nm 1977 c 54 H thng tin a l khc nhau trn th gii. Bn cnh H thng tin a l, thi k ny cn pht trin mnh m cc k thut x l nh vin thm. Mt hng nghin cu kt hp H thng tin a l v vin thm c t ra v cng bt u thc hin. Thp k 80 c nh du bi cc nhu cu s dng H thng tin a l ngy cng tng vi cc quy m khc nhau. Ngi ta tip tc gii quyt nhng tn ti ca nhng nm trc m ni ln l vn s ha d liu: sai s, chuyn i khun dng... Thi k ny c s nhy vt v tc tnh ton, s mm do trong vic x l d liu khng gian. Thp k ny c nh du bi s ny sinh cc nhu cu mi trong ng dng H thng tin a l nh: Kho st th trng, nh gi kh thi cc phng n quy hoch, s dng ti u cc ngun ti nguyn, cc bi ton giao thng, cp thot nc... C th ni y l thi k bng n H thng tin a l. Nhng nm u ca thp k 90 c nh du bng vic nghin cu s ho nhp gia vin thm v H thng thng tin a l. Cc nc Bc M v chu u gt hi c
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Khoa Cng ngh ha hc & Mi trng

Bi ging Thng tin mi trng & GIS

nhiu thnh cng trong lnh vc ny. Khu vc chu - Thi Bnh Dng cng thnh lp c nhiu trung tm nghin cu vin thm v H thng thng tin a l. Rt nhiu hi tho quc t v ng dng vin thm v H thng thng tin a l c t chc nhm trao i kinh nghim v tho lun v kh nng pht trin cc ng dng ca cng ngh H thng thng tin a l. H thng tin a l c th c nh ngha nh l tp hp cc cng c thu thp, lu tr, chnh sa, truy cp, phn tch v cp nht cc thng tin a l cho mt mc ch chuyn bit. 1.2 Nhng ct mc trong lch s hnh thnh v pht trin cng ngh GIS Di y lit k vn tt nhng thi im, s kin lch s, tn tui cc t chc v cc nh khoa hc c ng gp quan trng vo qu trnh hnh thnh v pht trin ca cng ngh GIS. 1963 Phng ha vi tnh ca trng i hc tng hp Harvard (R. Fisher, J. Dangermond, D. Sinton, N. Chrisman, G. Dutton, S. Morehouse, T. Peuker). 1963 Thnh lp Hip hi cc h thng thng tin th v khu vc (URISA). 1964 Symap ra i (H thng phn mm v bn c s do i hc tng hp Harvard xy dng). Gia nhng nm 60 Tng cc iu tra dn s ca M xy dng quy trnh v bn a chnh theo a ch (D. Cooke, M. White xy dng l thuyt v quan h khng gian cho cc d liu a l). 1967 GIS Canaa ra i (R. Tomlinson l tc gi ca thut ng GIS). 1967 Thnh lp C quan o v bn thc nghim Anh (Boyle, Rhind). 1969 Thnh lp Intergraph v ESRI (Dangermond v Morehouse). 1973 Cc hi ngh v H thng thng tin th (URPIS) c t chc ti xtrylia dn n s thnh lp ca T chc cc h thng thng tin th xtrylia (AURISA) nm 1975. 1974 Cc hi ngh v AutoCarto c t chc. 1973 ODYSSEY (tin thn ca phn mm GIS do Harvard xy dng) ra i. 1978 H thng hin th thng tin ni a Nh Trng (M) ra i. 1980 Phn mm ArcINFO ra i. 1987 Phn mm MapINFO ra i. 1987 Tp ch GIS quc t ra i. 1.3 Cc thnh phn ca GIS H thng thng tin a l bao gm su thnh phn quan trng l phn cng ca my tnh, tp hp cc modul phn mm ng dng, c s d liu GIS v yu t con ngi. Yu t con ngi y bao hm c cc chuyn gia trong lnh vc GIS ln lnh
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Khoa Cng ngh ha hc & Mi trng

Bi ging Thng tin mi trng & GIS

vc chuyn mn hp l i tng ca cc ng dng GIS. y l thnh phn quan trng nht, v ch c con ngi mi c th s dng cc cng c GIS xy dng c s d liu v to ra cc sn phm GIS. C s d liu GIS s c cp n trong chng II. Di y s gii thiu chi tit hn v cc phn cng v phn mm, vn c chc nng nh l cc cng c ca mt h thng thng tin a l.

Hnh 1.1.Cc thnh phn ca GIS 1.3.1 Phn cng Phn cng tng qut ca H thng thng tin a l gm nhng thit b c th hin theo s sau (Hnh 1.2)

Hnh 1.2: Cc thnh phn cng chnh ca h thng thng tin a l B x l trung tm (CPU) B x l trung tm hay cn gi l CPU, l phn cng quan trng nht ca my vi tnh. CPU khng nhng thc hnh tnh ton trn d liu, m cn iu khin sp t phn cng khc m n th cn thit cho vic qun l thng tin theo sau thng qua h thng. Mc d b vi x l hin i rt nh ch khong 5mm2- n c kh nng thc hin hng ngn, hoc ngay c hng triu thng tin trong mt giy(the Cyber 250"my vi tnh siu hng") c th thc hin 200 triu thng tin trn giy).. B nh trong (RAM) Tt c my vi tnh c mt b nh trong m chc nng nh l "khng gian lm
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Khoa Cng ngh ha hc & Mi trng

Bi ging Thng tin mi trng & GIS

vic" cho chng trnh v d liu. B nh truy xut ngu nhin (RAM) ny c kh nng gi 1 gii hn s lng d liu mt s hng thi gian (v d, h iu hnh MS- DOS mu c 640Kb RAM ). iu ny c ngha n s t c kh nng thc hin iu hnh phc tp trn b d liu ln trong h iu hnh. B sp xp v lu tr ngoi. Bng c t tnh c gi khng nhng trong cun bng ln (ging trong cun bng my ht a) m cn trong cun bng nh (ging nh cun bng c dng trong my ht nhc). Thun li ca dy bng c t tnh l n c th lu tr mt s lng ln d liu (v d ton b Landsat MSS i hi 8MB ca kh nng lu tr trn mt bng) S gia tng kh nng lu tr thc hin bng cc a c t tnh. Cc a cng vi kh nng lu tr rt ln (c s dng trn PCs ph bin 20 hoc 30Mb) m cn cc a mm vi kh nng gii hn (2.25 inch, vi 360Kb hoc 1.2 Mb hay 3.5inch vi 720Kb hoc 1.4Mb). a cng thng thng c s dng cho lu tr tm thi m thng qua qu trnh x l, sau khi d liu c gn trong a floppy hoc dy bng c t tnh. Cc b phn dng nhp d liu. Digitizer Bng s ho bn bao gm 1 bng hoc bn vit, m bn c tri rng ra, v 1 cursor c ngha ca cc ng thng v cc im trn bn c nh v. Trong ton b bn s ho (digitizer) vic t chc c ghi bi phng php ca mt ct li tt gn vo trong bng. Dy tc ca cursor pht ra do s y ca t tnh in m n c tm thy bi ct li st v c chuyn giao n my vi tnh nh mt cp tng xng (mm trn 1 bng XY h thng tng hp). Hu nh cc cursor c va vn vi 4 hoc nhiu nt cho vic chuyn cc tn hiu c bit cho vic iu khin chng trnh, v d ch ra im cui ca ng thng. Cc bng s ho (digitizer) hin nay c kch thc thay i t bng nh 27cmx27cm n bng ln 1m x1.5m. Scanner My ghi scanner s chuyn cc thng tin trn bn tng xng 1 cch t ng di dng h thng raster. Mt cch lun phin nhau, bn c th c tri rng ra trn bn m u scanning di chuyn trong 1 lot ng thng song song nhau. Cc ng qut (scan) phi c vector ho trc khi chng c a vo h thng c s d liu vector. Cc b phn in n. - My in (printer) L b phn dng in n cc thng tin, bn , di nhiu kch thc khc nhau tu theo yu cu ca ngi s dng, thng thng my in c kh t A3 n A4. My in
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Khoa Cng ngh ha hc & Mi trng

Bi ging Thng tin mi trng & GIS

c th l my mu hoc trng en, hoc l my in phun mc, Laser, hoc my in kim. - My v (plotter) i vi nhng yu cu cn thit phi in cc bn c kch thc ln, thng my in khng p ng c m ta phi dng n my Plotter (my v). My v thng c kch thc ca kh A1 hoc A0. 1.3.2 Cc modul phn mm ca h thng thng tin a l Cc thnh phn phn mm c bn ca H thng thng tin a l c th hin qua s trn hnh 1.3. H thng phn mm ca H thng thng tin a l li bao gm nm thnh phn c bn, thc hin cc chc nng sau:

Hnh 1.3. Thnh phn phn mm c bn ca h thng thng tin a l Nhp v kim tra d liu. Lu tr v qun l c s d liu. Xut d liu. Chnh sa d liu. Tng tc vi ngi s dng. Di y trnh by chi tit bn chc nng chnh ca h thng phn mm s dng trong mt h thng thng tin a l. l cc chc nng nhp, lu tr-qun l, bin i v xut d liu. 1. Nhp d liu

Hnh 1.4. S nhp s liu

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Khoa Cng ngh ha hc & Mi trng

Bi ging Thng tin mi trng & GIS

H thng ny bao gm tt c cc cng c v phng php thc hin quy trnh bin i d liu dng bn , d liu quan trc, cc d liu o t cc b cm bin (bao gm nh v tr, nh hng khng, thit b ghi) thnh dng s tng thch. Rt nhiu cng c my tnh sn c cho cng vic ny bao gm cc thit b u cui tng tc, thit b hin th nhn thy c, thit b s ha, thit b qut, cc d liu trong tp vn bn. D liu nhp vo s c lu tr trn thit b t nh a, bng t. Qu trnh nhp v kim tra d liu rt cn thit cho vic xy dng c s d liu a l. S h thng nhp d liu trong mt h thng tin a l c minh ha trn hnh 1.4. 2. Lu tr v qun l c s d liu Lu tr v qun l c s d liu cp n phng php kt ni cc d liu khng gian v thng tin thuc tnh ca cc i tng a l (im, ng, vng i din cho cc i tng thc trn b mt Tri t). C hai loi d liu c cu trc, t chc lin h vi cch chng s c thao tc trong my tnh sao cho ngi s dng h thng c th hiu c. M hnh ca modul qun l v lu tr c s d liu minh ha trn hnh 1.5.

Hnh 1.5. M hnh ca modul qun l v lu tr c s d liu 3. Chnh sa d liu Chnh sa d liu gm hai loi thao tc nhm mc ch xo b li t d liu v cp nht chng. Modul ny p dng cc phng php phn tch d liu khc nhau tm ra cu tr li cho cc yu cu, cc cu hi ca h thng thng tin a l. Vic chnh sa d liu c th thc hin ring bit i vi cc d liu khng gian v thng tin thuc tnh hoc ng thi i vi c hai loi d liu ny. Chnh sa d liu c th hiu nh cc hnh ng c kt ni vi vic thay i t l, ph hp d liu khi chuyn sang li chiu mi, tnh ton chu vi din tch... Ni chung cc thao tc ph thuc vo mc ch c th ca ng dng h thng thng tin a l.

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Khoa Cng ngh ha hc & Mi trng

Bi ging Thng tin mi trng & GIS

Hnh 1.6.Chnh sa d liu 4. Xut d liu Modul xut d liu (hnh 1.7) a cc bo co kt qu ca qu trnh phn tch d liu ti ngi s dng. D liu c a ra c th di dng bn , bng, biu , lu c th hin bng hnh nh trn mn hnh, my in, my v hoc c ghi trn cc thit b t di dng s.

Hnh 1.7. Xut d liu Cc phn mm tiu chun v s dng ph bin hin nay trong khu vc Chu l ARC/INFO, MAPINFO, ILWIS, WINGIS, SPANS, IDRISIW,... Hin nay c rt nhiu phn mm my tnh chuyn bit cho GIS, bao gm cc phn mm nh sau: Phn mm dng cho lu tr, x l s liu thng tin a l: ACR/INFO, SPAN, ERDAS-Imagine, ILWIS, MGE/MICROSTATION, IDRISIW, IDRISI,WINGIS Phn mm dng cho lu tr, x l v qun l cc thng tin a l: ERMAPPER, ATLASGIS, ARCVIEW, MAPINFO,.. 1.3.3 C s d liu C s d liu c th c hiu nh l mt tp hp lin hon cc d liu v mt i tng no . C s d liu a l ( d liu khng gian ) cha ng d liu mang tnh cht khng gian ca mt i tng trn mt khu vc no , n l mt thnh phn rt quan trng ca mt h thng GIS. N quan trng bi hai l do c bn sau: - Chi ph cho vic xy dng, duy tr cp nht c s d liu rt ln. - nh hng n tt c cc php phn tch, m hnh ha v vic ra quyt nh
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Khoa Cng ngh ha hc & Mi trng

Bi ging Thng tin mi trng & GIS

Hnh 1.7. Cc thnh phn ca h qun tr c s d liu ca h thng tin a l. 1.3.4 Con ngi Mt h thng GIS s l v dng nu khng c ngi thit k, lp trnh, duy tr, vo s liu cng nh nh gi kt qu. S lng nhn vin v vai tr c th ca h ph thuc vo tng d n GIS c th. Mi nhn vin m nhn mt vai tr khc nhau (V d: Vic qun l hnh chnh v trin khai ng dng GIS c th do mt nhn vin k thut m nhim) hoc nhiu nhn vin c th thc hin mt nhim v(Nhiu nhn vin k thut cng thc hin vic s ha).

Hnh 1.8.i ng nhn vin trong d n GIS 1.3.5 H thng mng Mt thnh phn rt quan trng ca mt h thng GIS l h thng mng. Nu khng c h thng mng. Nu khng c h thng mng s khng c s kt ni nhanh
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Khoa Cng ngh ha hc & Mi trng

Bi ging Thng tin mi trng & GIS

chng hay chia s thng tin dng s, ngoi tr gia cc nhm ngi tp trung xung quanh mn hnh ca my tnh. Ngy nay GIS ph thuc nhiu vo Internet. Ban u Internet c thit k nh mt h thng kt ni cc my tnh vi nhau, nhng ngy nay n tr thnh cng ngh hin i pht trin khng ngng trao i thng tin nhanh chng v hiu qu nht. u im ni bt ca h thng mng l ngi s dng kt ni Internet s tc ng trc tip c vo cc phn bn ch c thao tc n gin nh click chut vo a ch ng dn trang Web cha bn m khng cn phi ci t bt k mt phn mm khai thc d liu no v c bit l chng ta c th khai thc c s lng ln ti liu trong thi gian nhanh chng thng qua nhng trang web chuyn ngnh. 1.3.6 Chnh sch v qun l y l hp phn rt quan trng m bo kh nng hot ng ca h thng, l yu t quyt nh s thnh cng ca vic pht trin cng ngh GIS. H thng GIS cn c iu hnh bi mt b phn qun l, b phn ny phi c b nhim t chc hot ng h thng GIS mt cch c hiu qu phc v ngi s dng thng tin. hot ng thnh cng, h thng GIS phi c t trong mt khung t chc ph hp v c nhng hng dn cn thit qun l, thu thp, lu tr v phn tch s liu, ng thi c kh nng pht trin c h thng GIS theo nhu cu. H thng GIS cn c iu hnh bi mt b phn qun l, b phn ny phi c b nhim t chc hot ng h thng GIS mt cch c hiu qu phc v ngi s dng thng tin. Trong qu trnh hot ng, mc ch ch c th t c v tnh hiu qu ca k thut GIS ch c minh chng khi cng c ny c th h tr nhng ngi s dng thng tin gip h thc hin c nhng mc tiu cng vic. Ngoi ra vic phi hp gia cc c quan chc nng c lin quan cng phi c t ra, nhm gia tng hiu qu s dng ca GIS cng nh cc ngun s liu hin c. Nh vy, trong 6 hp phn ca GIS, hp phn chnh sch v qun l ng vai tr rt quan trng m bo kh nng hot ng ca h thng, y l yu t quyt nh s thnh cng ca vic pht trin cng ngh GIS. Trong phi hp v vn hnh cc hp phn ca h thng GIS nhm a vo hot ng c hiu qu k thut GIS, 2 yu t hun luyn v chnh sch - qun l l c s ca thnh cng. Vic hun luyn cc phng php s dng h thng GIS s cho php kt hp cc hp phn: (1) Phn cng (2) Phn mm (3) C s d liu v (4) Con ngi vi nhau a vo vn hnh. Tuy nhin, yu t chnh sch v qun l s c tc ng n ton b cc hp phn ni trn, ng thi quyt nh n s thnh cng ca hot ng GIS.
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Khoa Cng ngh ha hc & Mi trng

Bi ging Thng tin mi trng & GIS

1.4 ng dng GIS 1.4.1 Gii thiu chung v ng dng GIS trong mi trng. Cc ng dng GIS c lin tc pht trin trong lnh vc qun l v bo v mi trng. T chng trnh kim k ngun ti nguyn thin nhin ca Canada trong nhng nm 1960, n cc chng trnh GIS cp bang ca M bt u vo cui nhng nm 1970, n m hnh ho qun l cc s c mi trng hin ang c pht trin, cng ngh GIS cung cp cc phng tin qun l v phn tch cc yu t nh hng n mi trng ngy cng hu hiu hn. Xu hng hin nay trong qun l mi trng l s dng ti a kh nng cho php ca GIS. S pht trin ca phn cng lm cho my tnh c nhiu kh nng hn, mnh hn v cc ng dng GIS cng tr nn thn thin hn vi ngi s dng bi cc kh nng hin th d liu ba chiu, cc cng c phn tch khng gian v giao din tu bin. Nh kh nng x l cc tp hp d liu ln t cc c s d liu phc tp, nn GIS thch hp vi cc nhim v qun l mi trng. Cc m hnh phc tp cng c th d dng cp nht thng tin nh s dng GIS. GIS c s dng cung cp thng tin nhanh hn v hiu qu hn cho cc nh hoch nh chnh sch. Cc c quan chnh ph dng GIS trong qun l cc ngun ti nguyn thin nhin, trong cc hot ng quy hoch, m hnh ho v quan trc. GIS cng c s dng nh gi cc s c mi trng. Cc c quan chnh ph v a phng phi i ph nhanh chng vi thin tai, cc ri ro trong cng nghip v cc s c mi trng. Thng tin a l l nhng thng tin quan trng a ra nhng quyt nh mt cch nhanh chng. Cc phn tch GIS ph thuc vo cht lng, gi tr v tnh tng thch ca cc d liu a l dng s. Vic chia x d liu s kch thch s pht trin cc nhu cu v sn phm v dch v GIS. Cc ngun d liu tng thm nh s kt hp ca GIS vi GPS (h thng nh v ton cu) v cng ngh vin thm, cung cp cc cng c thu thp d liu hiu qu hn. 1.4.2 Qun l ti nguyn thin nhin GIS l cng c c lc trong qun l ti nguyn thin nhin. GIS c th c dng to bn phn b ti nguyn, kim k, nh gi tr lng ti nguyn, ... Nhng ng dng ca GIS trong lnh vc ny l khng gii hn 1.Ti nguyn sinh vt a.Phn tch Qun th ng vt hoang d Bn c th s dng GIS hin th v phn tch d liu thuc tnh. Chng hn, Chambers Group s dng GIS v cc d liu thu thp c t h thng nh v ton cu (GPS) dn ra s phn b v mt ca cc qun th ra cn sa mc. Cng ty Duke Power dng GIS qun l cc d liu a l v cc loi c nc m
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Khoa Cng ngh ha hc & Mi trng

Bi ging Thng tin mi trng & GIS

(open water). S kt hp gia GIS v cng ngh nh v bng ting di cho nhng thng tin v nhng nh gi loi chi tit hn so vi cc phng php trc y. Sau khi thu thp d liu, GIS c s dng m phng v phn tch tnh a dng theo khng gian, s phn b theo su v kch c ca cc loi c. b.Phn tch phn b loi Hin nay nhim mi trng ang e do s tn ti ca nhiu loi sinh vt, trong c nhiu loi c. GIS h tr tch cc trong cng vic bo tn nhng loi c ang b e do. Cc d liu bao gm thng tin v rng v su ca dng chy, cht lng v nhit nc, s phn b ca cc loi c. Phn mm ARC/INFO c s dng nhp d liu vo mt c s d liu gm 250 lp thng tin bao ph ton b vng chu th sng Columbia. Nhng thng tin ny c xut bn trn CD-ROM v cung cp cho cc nh qun l ti nguyn. Trng i hc Wisconsin s dng GIS phn tch s xm thc tr li ca loi si lng xm min ng cng cc yu t a n s ti thit lp thnh cng vng phn b ny. Bn cho thy hng di chuyn n nh ca loi si ny n min ng. Cc c tnh t nhin ca cc vng sinh l Maine c th c nh gi ngay lp tc bng vic s dng d liu GIS lp bn . Vn phng GIS vng Maine dng GIS phn chia 15 vng t nhin ca Maine cng vi cc loi trong mi vng. c.Kim sot cc khu bo tn T chc Bo tn quc t v Chnh ph Malagasy s dng GIS kim sot s phn b ca cc loi thc vt Madagascar. Bn ny biu din cc loi thc vt ca min nam Madagascar bng cc mu khc nhau v biu din cc khu bo tn bng nn cho. Vi nhng thng tin ny, c th d dng xc nh cc vng cn c bo v hoc cc vng hin c bo v c kh nng b xm hi. d. Kim sot a dng sinh hc Mt s t chc s dng GIS phn tch s phn b v mc bo tn i vi mt s thnh phn ca a dng sinh hc. GIS gip cc nh nghin cu xc nh cc loi c kh nng hin din trong vng qun l hay khng (vng gin on). Nhng loi ny c dng lm ch th cho a dng sinh hc hoc cho s vng mt, i vi mt vng c th. e. Bo tn nhng loi ang b e do Hin nay nhim mi trng ang e do s tn ti ca nhiu loi sinh vt, trong c nhiu loi c. GIS h tr tch cc trong cng vic bo tn nhng loi c ang b e do. Cc d liu bao gm thng tin v rng v su ca dng chy, cht lng v nhit nc, s phn b ca cc loi c. Phn mm ARC/INFO c s dng nhp d liu vo mt c s d liu gm 250 lp thng tin bao ph ton b vng chu th sng Columbia. Nhng thng tin ny c xut bn trn CD-ROM v cung cp cho
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Khoa Cng ngh ha hc & Mi trng

Bi ging Thng tin mi trng & GIS

cc nh qun l ti nguyn. Cc chuyn gia Corvallis, Oregon s dng d liu GIS pht trin chin lc bo tn loi c hi Coho, mt loi c hi mu hng bc c tm thy ch yu vng ca sng ca Oregon v Washington. Trong nghin cu ny, vng chu th sng Umpqua c la chn, y l vng trc y rt nhiu c hi Coho, nhng nay do khai thc g, xy dng, nn thng dng chy sng sui, ph hu ni sng ca loi c ny, lm s lng ca chng gim st nghim trng, ch khong 3% so vi trc kia. Cng vic bo tng c bt u vi vic xc nh ni c tr ca cc qun th v gip cho chng m rng qun th. GIS c s dng hin th v phn tch thng tin v iu kin sng ca loi. Tm kim ni sng ph hp: Cc nh phn tch to ra cc bng biu v bn chi tit v h thng dng chy, t tm kim nhng ni thch hp cho c hi Coho. Cc yu t c trng ca dng chy nh hng trc tip n c hi Coho u c a ng thi vo bn . Cng c phi hp hot ng: thc hin nhim v bo tn c hi Coho, cc nh nghin cu cn phi hp vi cc t chc bo tn khc. GIS tr thnh cng c hu ch trao i phi hp, to cc n phm ho pht hnh cng nh tho lun v l cng c chia x cc thng tin mi, a cc d liu ln Internet. Cc c quan qun l cc cp, cc nh khoa hc, nhng ngi hot ng mi trng v nhng i tng khc u c th s dng v ng gp thng tin trc tip vo c s d liu ca h thng. 2.Du m, kh t Du m v kh t l ngun ti nguyn ang c khai thc rng khp trn ton th gii v lun phi m bo hn ch nhng s c mi trng. Bi l qun l cht ch ngun ti nguyn ny lun l vn c quan tm. Vi cng ngh GIS, cng vic ny c h tr rt nhiu, nng cao hiu qu qun l cng nh khai thc. Thm d trong nhng khu vc nhy cm S dng GIS v cc cng ngh khoan thm d hin i, ngi ta c th nh v v tin hnh x l cc d liu b mt mt cch d dng, cch xa vng nhy cm m vn m bo t c nhng yu cu chuyn mn c gi tr ca vng di mt t. Chevron, mt tp on du la quc t, s dng phn mm ArcView GIS nh v du m trong vng chu th Niger. Cng ty trch nghim hu hn Chevron Nigeria thuc tp on Chevron ng dng GIS trong phn ln cc hot ng ca cng ty. GIS cho php thm d v qun l ngun du m m hn ch ti thiu nh hng c hi i vi h ng, thc vt. Cc s liu thu c t quan trc a chn c thu thp to nn cc bn 3 chiu di mt t. Cc chuyn gia c th s dng nhng nh 3 chiu ny a ra cc quyt nh v v tr c th ca cc ti du m khng cn tin hnh khoan nhiu ln.
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Khoa Cng ngh ha hc & Mi trng

Bi ging Thng tin mi trng & GIS

Nhng vn lin quan trong qun l ti nguyn du m C rt nhiu vn v mi trng c lin quan trong qu trnh khai thc du m, h thng thot nc, sng sui b nhim, s bin mt ca c v ng vt hoang d. Do cc cng ty du m khai thc trong vng phi lm vic vi chnh quyn a phng v vn d tr du m, xy dng ng giao thng, no vt knh mng, m bo iu kin sng ca dn c cng nh cc sinh vt hoang d. Cc nh khoa hc ca Charvon nhp cc nh v tinh v d liu quan trc khng gian vo h thng ArcView GIS to bn c s ca vng. H kim tra v hiu nh cc v tr ca cc i tng c nh nh cc ging du v ng giao thng so vi s liu nhn c t h thng nh v ton cu (GPS). Nhng d liu khc, chng hn nh v tr vng t ngp nc, nhng loi b e do, dn c, u c thm vo cc bn s. Tt c nhng d liu GIS ny cng vi cc s liu thm d gip xc nh v tr thch hp nht to mt ging khoan, ng thi h tr tch cc cho cc nh qun l ti nguyn. Quan trc cht lng nc: Khi du m c khai thc t lng t, n lun cha mt lng kh t nhin, mt s cht gy nhim (nh lu hunh) v nc. Nhng cht lng ny c x l v sau mt thi gian s quay tr li lng t. Kim sot lng nc thi t cc ging khoan l cn thit xc nh cc x l phng php x l an ton thch hp. Cc phn tch ho hc v cht lng nc cng c lu trong GIS, gip cho cc nh qun l xc nh nhanh chng bt k s tng ln no ca cc cht gy nhim v a ra nhng bin php kp thi. Qun l an ton khai thc GIS c s dng to bn v cc vng nc ngm nhy cm, vi s chng lp d liu v v tr dn khoan, su ca nc. Nhng bn ny s gip thit k tuyn ng ng dn du. GIS cng c s dng nu c s c trn du. Nhng d liu trn du c chnh ph v cc cng ty du m lu gi v nhp vo h GIS v c m ho vi nhng thng s nh s lng du trn, thi gian, nhng ngi c lin quan. Nhng d liu ny s h tr cc nh qun l rt nhiu. Khi s c xy ra, GIS c th xc nh nhanh chng nhng v tr ng ng c u tin v nhng ni c tr cn c bo v. 3.Ti nguyn nc GIS c th h tr nh gi mc nc ngm, m phng h thng sng h v nhiu ng dng lin quan n qun l ti nguyn nc khc. Nhng v d di y l mt vi ng dng ca GIS trong lnh vc ny. Kim sot mc nc ngm Duy tr mc nc ngm thch hp trong cc vng khai khong l mt vn ln. Trng i hc K thut Aachen, c s dng GIS kim sot mc nc ngm
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Khoa Cng ngh ha hc & Mi trng

Bi ging Thng tin mi trng & GIS

cho cc vng khai thc than, to cc bn mc nc ngm, kt hp vi cc d liu khc nh th nhng, a hnh, quy m khai thc m, cng ngh k thut c s dng, cung cp cng c c lc cho cc nh phn tch. Kim sot s phc hi mc nc ngm nh gi s phc hi mc nc ngm l rt kh khn, nhng vi cng ngh GIS cng vic ny tr nn d dng hn. Umlandverband Frankfurt, c, dng GIS xy dng cc lp bn cho mi tnh ton v s phc hi mc nc ngm. Nhng lp ny sau c kt hp li to nn mt bn cui cng biu din s phc hi ca mi vng. GIS gip cho cc nh nghin cu d dng tnh ton v m phng ng thi tc phc hi mc nc ngm ca cc vng khc nhau. Phn tch h thng sng ngi Vin a cht Zagreb, Croatia, s dng GIS phn tch h thng sng cng nh ton b vng lu vc sng Drava. Vi cng ngh GIS c th xy dng m phng mng li sng ngi ca khu vc cng cc thng s c trng cho mi dng chy v phn tch nhng nh hng m chng c th chu tc ng. Qun l cc lu vc sng Lu vc sng l mt h thng nhy cm v phc tp. Qun l lu vc sng i hi lu lng nc y , duy tr s n nh ca cc h sinh thi, kim sot l. Cng ty Qun l Cht thi v Nng lng Ht nhn Thu in v Nespak, Pakistan phi hp s dng GIS h tr qun l vng lu vc sng Torrent Pakistan. GIS c s dng m hnh ho s cn bng nc, qu trnh xi mn, v kim sot l cho khu vc. Hammon, Jensen, Wallen & Associates dng GIS kim sot vng lu vc sng Santa Lucia Preserve. M hnh khng gian ba chiu c xy dng nh cng ngh GIS, gip cc nh nghin cu tip cn chnh xc v a hnh v th nhng ca khu vc, t xy dng nhng quy lut din bin quan trng cho ton b vng lu vc sng. Kim sot cc ngun nc Ti M, GIS c dng qun l s phn b ca cc ngun nc, nh cc nh khoa hc c th d d xc nh v tr cc ngun nc ny trong ton b h thng. 4.Ti nguyn t GIS c dng m phng v quy hoch s dng ti nguyn t ca mt thnh ph, mt quc gia hay mt vng. Cc v d di y s cho thy cc cch s dng GIS trong qun l s dng ti nguyn t. Qun l phn vng cc dng t GIS c th c dng lp bn phn loi t ca mt vng. Mi loi t c biu din bi mt mu v nn khc nhau theo quy nh. Km theo cc polygon biu din phn b ca cc loi t l cc thng tin thuc tnh nh a im, din tch,... Nhng
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Khoa Cng ngh ha hc & Mi trng

Bi ging Thng tin mi trng & GIS

thng tin di dng bn gip cho cc nh qun l phn tch d dng nhng xu hng bin i do cc tc ng ca thin nhin hoc ca con ngi. Qui hoch s dng ti nguyn t Cng ngh GIS h tr rt nhiu trong cng vic quy hoch s dng t. Nhng d liu v hin trng s dng t c thu thp t nhng quan trc khng gian c x l trong h GIS, lp bn hin trng, km l nhng s liu phn tch. Da vo cc nh qui hoch c th d dng qun l v pht trin cc k hoch s dng t hp l. Thnh ph Brno, Cng ho Czech, dng cng ngh GIS pht trin qui hoch tng th ca thnh ph v hin th thng tin theo c s d liu GIS a chnh ca thnh ph. Mlada, Cng ho Czech cng s dng GIS h tr k hoch quy hoch li mt khu sn bi qun s, nh gi v m phng cc loi ti nguyn t: t nng nghip, t nng nghip, t t nhin. Vin a l "Agustin Codazzi" (IGAC) ca Colombia dng cng ngh GIS hin th v kim sot hin trng s dng t hin nay v trong tng lai ca thnh ph Ibague. Phn tch xu hng xy dng S Pht trin Nh v th Adelaide, Australia s dng GIS phn tch xu hng xy dng ca thnh ph, t ch ra s m rng ca thnh ph v nh hng ca n i vi c s h tng. Kim sot ti nguyn t Cc d n pht trin c xut dc theo bin gii Mexico v M c h tr bi cc thng tin ca GIS, chng hn kim k, lp bn cc ngun ti nguyn, ch thu vn, tc ng ca con ngi, c s h tng dc theo bin gii. 5.Ti nguyn rng Ngy nay, cng vic qun l ti nguyn rng ang l mt thch thc ln. Vi GIS cc nh qun l c th thc hin nhim v ny d dng hn. Nhng v d di y s minh ho cho nhn nh ny Kim k trng thi rng hin ti Vi GIS bn c th kim k trng thi g, thu h, ng giao thng, ng tu ho v cc h sinh thi v s dng nhng thng tin ny nh gi v ma v, chi ph vn chuyn, hoc iu kin sng ca cc ng vt hoang d ang b e do. H tr pht trin chin lc qun l Vi GIS bn c th nh gi cc c im ca mt khu rng da trn cc iu kin qun l khc nhau. Trn c s cc d bo ny, bn c th quan st tng tai ca khu rng di dng bn v s liu phn tch, t vch ra chin lc qun l v pht trin cc ngun ti nguyn rng sao cho t c hiu qa cao.
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Khoa Cng ngh ha hc & Mi trng

Bi ging Thng tin mi trng & GIS

M hnh ho h sinh thi rng GIS c th c dng nh mt thnh phn ca h thng h tr quyt nh (DSS) trong qun l lm nghip, chng hn, c dng m hnh ho cc thnh phn khng gian. S Bo v mi trng Alberta, Trung tm o to mi trng Alberta (Canada) dng GIS m hnh ho cc qun hp h sinh thi, cc iu kin sng,... lm c s cho vic d bo. Dng m hnh GIS nh mt phn ca DSS cho php nng cao cht lng qun l ti nguyn rng. DORIS-Systemgruppe-AMT s dng GIS m phng cc khu rng ca c bng m hnh 3 chiu. Hin th d liu theo khng gian gip cc nh qun l nm bt c th hn v i tng.

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Khoa Cng ngh ha hc & Mi trng

Bi ging Thng tin mi trng & GIS

CHNG II: CU TRC C S D LIU TRONG GIS

2.1 Lnh vc hin din ca GIS Ni chung cc nh khoa hc mi trng, cc nh qun l ti nguyn, hay nhng ngi s dng h thng tin a l thng lm vic trong cc lnh vc sau y: - Quan st v o c cc thng s mi trng ( Measuring). - Xy dng cc bn din t c tnh no ca trao t ( Mapping). - Theo di v gim st cc din bin mi trng theo khng gian v thi gian ( Monitoring). - M hnh ha cc qu trnh, din bin xy ra trong mi trng ( Modelling). Cc hot ng trn c th c tng cng qua vic s dng cc cng ngh thng tin c bit l GIS.

Hnh 2.1: Bn lnh vc hin din ca GIS 2.2 Cc khi nim a l c bn dng trong GIS Cc i tng khng gian c phn nh trong GIS bao gm: i tng ri rc v i tng lin tc. 2.2.1 i tng ri rc n gin th gii xung quanh bng cch t tn cho i tng, xem xt i tng mt cch n l, ngi ta s dng cc i tng ri rc. Vi cch xem xt ny, th gii b coi l trng rng ngoi tr nhng ni b chim lnh bi cc i tng vi ranh gii c xc nh r rng. V d : Trn mt bn c mt s sch, bt ch v my tnh hay ln hn l trong th gii a l c nh ca, cnh ng v nhiu i tng ri rc khc. c im ni bt ca cc i tng ri rc l c th m c. Cc i tng a l c nhn bit bi chiu tn ti ca chng trong th gii
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Khoa Cng ngh ha hc & Mi trng

Bi ging Thng tin mi trng & GIS

thc di cc dng sau: th tch ( ba chiu), din tch ( hai chiu), ng ( mt chiu), im ( khng chiu). 2.2.2 i tng lin tc i tng lin tc c inh ngha l tp hp lin tc ca cc i tng ri rc. Vi quan im ny, th gii a l c m t nh mt s cc bin s c th o c, xc nh c ti bt k im no trn mt t v nhng gi tr ny thay i trn mt t. i tng lin tc c phn bit bi yu t gy nn s bin i v mc trn tru ca s bin i. V d cao trnh ca b mt c to bi do ct bi s thay i u n trn tru hn nhiu so vi trng hp b mt do dung nham ni la to nn. Nhng v d th hin c trng v tnh cht ca cc i tng lin tc : Mt dn s, thc trng s dng t Mt dng na ca i tng lin tc ny c xc nh bi s bin i lin tc dc theo chiu no : V d nh mt giao thng trn mt con ng, dng chy trn mt con sng. 2.3 M hnh ha th gii hin hin thc vi GIS C th ni trung tm ca bt k h thng GIS no cng l m hnh d liu. M hnh d liu c th hiu nh mt tp hp cu trc m t v th hin cc i tng v cc qun trnh trong mt mi trng s (digital environment ) ca my tnh. Ngi s dng GIS giao din vi n c th thc hin cc nhim v nh xy dng bn , truy cp d liu, phn tch s ph hp s dng tV cc dng bi ton thc hin chu nh hng rt nhiu vo cch thc m th gii hin thc c m hnh ha, cho nn vic la chn dng m hnh d liu ph hp c ngha v cng quan trng trong xc nh s thnh cng ca mt d n GIS. Ngi s dng cn phi nhn thc c tnh cht cc m hnh khc nhau v n nh hng n hiu qu ca vic x l d liu. Khi m hnh th gii hin thc trong GIS, thun tin ta thng gp cc i tng hnh hc cng loi vo vi nhau ( v d nh tt c cc i tng khch hng s dng cng mt loi hnh dch v no hoc nh h thng sng ngi c dng ng c th tp hp lu tr cng nhau). Tp hp cc i tng c cng mt hnh thc th hin v mang mt ni dung thng tin c s dng rng ri trong GIS c gi l mt lp. Vic tp hp theo lp nh vy lm cho vic lu tr v truy nhp d liu hiu qu hn. Ngoi ra n cng gip cho vic cp nht, nh chnh d liu cng nh xy dng cc mi quan h gia cc i tng d dng hn ( v d nh vic thm bt cc khu vc hnh chnh, ng giao thng ,vvvo c s d liu c sn). Tm li mi loi thng tin khng gian hoc c ch khc nhau c cng mt cch th hin hnh hc nh nhau ( v d nh im, ng, vng ) c bit nh mt lp thng tin.
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Khoa Cng ngh ha hc & Mi trng

Bi ging Thng tin mi trng & GIS

Hnh 2.2: Lp thng tin trong GIS Mi lp thng tin li c m hnh, cu trc d liu chi tit hn. V nguyn l lp thng tin l tp hp cc d liu a l v kh cnh no ca i tng a l thc t, do n s mang cu trc chung cho loi d liu . Khng ging nh cc loi d liu thng thng khc, d liu a l phc tp hn, n bao gm cc thng tin v v tr, cc quan h khng gian ( topo) v cc thuc tnh phi khng gian. Kha cnh khng gian v topo ca d liu a l chnh l im khc bit r rng nht trong cc h x l s liu khng gian v cc h x l s liu thng dng khc nh s liu ngn hng, th vin. Mi d liu a l u c th c m hnh ha thnh ba thnh phn c bn ca quan h khng gian ( topo) l im, ng, vng. Bt k mt i tng t nhin no v nguyn tc u c biu din di dng im, ng, vng v cc thng tin i km. Cc thng tin i km c th l tn ca i tng. Cc thng tin khc t bng s liu khi c nhu cu tra cu, thng qua tn i tng c th kt ni trc tip vi i tng em li ton b thng tin cho ngi s dng.

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Khoa Cng ngh ha hc & Mi trng

Bi ging Thng tin mi trng & GIS

Bng 2.1: Cc hnh thc th hin d liu a l

M hnh d liu a l bao gm 4 thnh phn sau ( Zerger 2000) : 1. M kha 2. nh v 3. Thnh phn phi khng gian 4. Thnh phn khng gian M kha l m s duy nht cho thc th, c trng duy nht cho thc th, phn bit thc th ny vi thc th khc. nh v l xc nh v tr ca thc th trn thc t. Thng thng ngi ta dng cc h ta xc nh thc th. Thnh phn phi khng gian: L thnh phn cha ng cc s liu v thuc tnh ca thc th. Cc thuc tnh tnh ny c th l nh lng hoc nh tnh. Thnh phn phi khng gian cha ng cc thuc tnh ca i tng a l. Thnh phn khng gian: L thnh phn cha ng s liu v tr ca thc th.

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Khoa Cng ngh ha hc & Mi trng

Bi ging Thng tin mi trng & GIS

Bng 2.2: Minh ha cc i tng khng gian v cc thuc tnh i km

2.4 Cc d liu a l Thng thng, chi ph cho vic thu thp v qun l d liu trong cc d n GIS chim mt t l kh ln, trong nhiu trng hp t ti 60 80% tng kinh ph chi cho ton b d n. Thc t cho thy rng, cc d liu s dng trong mt H thng thng tin a l mang c tnh a khi nim, hay ni cch khc l chng thng rt phc tp v th loi, khun dng, t l, tin cy, v.v... Chnh v vy, vn xy dng v qun l c s d liu GIS thng ng vai tr quan trng trong ton b quy trnh thc hin mt d n GIS. Trong chng ny, chng ta s lm quen vi cc d liu c s dng trong mt H thng thng tin a l. Cc d liu ny c gi l cc d liu a l. D liu a l c to bi thc t cha ng cc thng tin v v tr, v nhng mi quan h khng gian tt yu v nhng thuc tnh ca cc i tng c ghi nhn li. Cc mi quan h khng gian ca d liu a l c to ra bi nhng h thng thit k cho th v bn mt cch c bit. Kiu d liu ny khc vi cc kiu h thng d liu c s dng nh h thng nh bng, th vin, hng khng.... D liu a l c tham chiu ti cc v tr trn b mt Tri t thng qua vic s dng mt h thng cc ta chun. H thng ny c th mang tnh cht cc b nh trong trng hp kho st mt khu vc c din tch nh, hoc cng c th c nh v trong mt h to mang tnh quc gia hoc quc t (ta a l, to UTM, v.v...). D liu a l thng c cng nhn v c miu t trong cc giai on thit lp ca i tng a l hoc hin tng. Mi ngnh hc ca a l u s
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Khoa Cng ngh ha hc & Mi trng

Bi ging Thng tin mi trng & GIS

dng nhng khi nim c hin tng ha nh th trn, sng, bi ph sa,... lm c s phn tch v t hp cc thng tin phc tp xy dng nn cc khi. Cc khi mang tnh hin tng thng c nhm li hoc chia vo cc nhm di nhng gc khc nhau dng nh ngha nhng nguyn tc phn cp.V d s phn cp t nc-thnh ph-th trn- a ht, s phn cp ca cc lp ng thc vt... Cn lu rng, mc d nhiu hin tng a l c cc nh khoa hc miu t nh l cc i tng c th song chnh xc v kch thc ca chng c th thay i theo thi gian v cn nhiu tranh ci. 2.5 Cc d liu khng gian v cc d liu thuc tnh Cc d liu a l c phn ra thnh cc d liu khng gian v d liu thuc tnh. Cc d liu khng gian biu din cc i tng a l ng vi nhng s vt c nh v ca th gii thc. Trong H thng thng tin a l, cc d liu khng gian c quy v v biu din di dng ba i tng c bn nht l im, ng v vng. Cc d liu thuc tnh m t cc c im ca cc i tng a l, chng hn: Tn ca mt ng ph; Chiu rng mt chic cu ; Phn loi lp ph thc vt; Cht liu lm nn mt con ng... Trn bn , cc s vt trn th gii thc c biu th qua cc tp hp im, ng v vng, trong khi cc k hiu, nhn v ch gii truyn t cc thng tin v thuc tnh. Trong mt H thng thng tin a l, cc d liu khng gian v thuc tnh c lin kt vi nhau mt cch cht ch, khin cho mi bn c th tr thnh mt cng c tra vn khng gian rt hiu qu. Cc v d sau y minh ho cho mi lin h gia d liu khng gian v d liu thuc tnh: - Biu din mt ng ph v tn gi ca n trn bn ; - Biu din mt ci cu v chiu rng ca n trn bn ; - Biu din mt khonh t v lp ph thc vt ca n trn bn . 2.6 Cc cu trc d liu a l Sau khi cc d liu a l c nhp vo my tnh, vic la chn mt cu trc d liu s quyt nh hai yu t rt quan trng l: khng gian lu tr d liu v hiu qu ca cc php x l. C nhiu cch t chc d liu trong mt H thng thng tin a l, nhng ph bin nht hin nay vn l: cu trc d liu phn cp, cu trc d liu mng v cu trc d liu quan h.

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2.6.1 Cu trc d liu phn cp Cu trc d liu phn cp lu tr d liu theo mt trt t v th bc c thit lp gia cc mc ca d liu. Mi im nt c th c chia ra thnh mt hay nhiu im nt con. S cc nt con tng ln t l thun vi s cp, ging nh s phn nhnh trn mt ci cy. Trn hnh 2.3 minh ha mt th d v cch t chc d liu a l theo cc m hnh Phn cp v Mng cho bn M, biu din hai vng I v II di dng hai a gic vi cc nh c nh s (1, 2, 3, 4 cho a gic I v 4, 3, 5, 6 cho a gic II) v cc cnh k hiu bng cc ch (a, b, c, d cho a gic I v c, e, f, g cho a gic II). D liu phn cp c t chc theo quan h cha/con hoc 1 - nhiu (V d nh qun l nh dn dng theo cp I, cp II, cp III, cp IV). Cu trc ny to thun li cho vic truy nhp d liu. H thng phn cp chp nhn mi phn ca cp a ra s dng mt kha m n th hin y cu trc d liu. Cho php c mt s tng quan gia cc thuc tnh kt hp v mc d liu c th c. H thng ny cng tin li cho vic b sung, sa i v m rng, tin li cho vic truy nhp d liu theo thuc tnh kha, nhng kh khn cho nhng thuc tnh khng phi l kha. Bt li ca cu trc d liu phn cp l tp ch s ln cn phi c duy tr v cc gi tr ca thuc tnh cn phi c lp li nhiu ln gy ra d tha d liu lm tng chi ph lu tr v truy nhp. 2.6.2 Cu trc d liu mng Cu trc d liu mng tng t nh cu trc d liu phn cp, ch c khc l trong cu trc ny mi im nt con c th c nhiu hn mt im nt cha. ng thi, mi im nt li c th c chia ra thnh mt hay nhiu im nt con. Trong cu trc d liu a l, vic th hin cc i tng m v tr tng ng ca chng trn bn hay s l gn nhau, nhng d liu v chng li c lu tr ti cc vng cch xa nhau ca c s d liu c th hin c hiu qu nh h thng cu trc mng. Cu trc mng ph hp khi quan h v mi lin kt c xc nh trc, trnh c d tha d liu, bt tin cho vic m rng bi tng s cc im. Vic sa i v duy tr c s d liu khi thay i cu trc cc im i hi tng chi ph ln.

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Hnh 2.3: Cc cu trc d liu a l mng v phn cp. 2.6.3 Cu trc d liu quan h Cu trc d liu quan h t chc d liu theo dng cc bng hai chiu, trong mi bng l mt tp ring bit. Mi hng ca bng l mt bn ghi, v mi bn ghi c mt tp hp cc thuc tnh. Mi ct ca bng biu th mt thuc tnh. Cc bng khc nhau c th c lin h vi nhau thng qua mt ch s chung thng c gi l kho. Cc thng tin c khai thc thng qua phng thc tra vn. Cu trc d liu quan h rt mm do, n c th tha mn c tt c cc yu cu m phi c cng thc ha bi s dng cc quy tc ton hc lgic v cc thao tc ton hc. Chng cho php cc loi d liu khc nhau c tm kim, so snh. Vic b sung v di chuyn cc mc d liu d dng. C iu bt tin l nhiu thao tc i h i tm kim tun t. i vi c s d liu ln mt nhiu thi gian tm kim. Tuy nhin, vi nhng my tnh c cu hnh mnh hin nay, y khng cn l vn ln i vi vic qun l mt c s d liu GIS. 2.7 Cc m hnh d liu a l M hnh d liu a l l s hnh dung th gii thc c s dng trong GIS to cc bn , trnh din cc tra vn gia ngi v my, v thc hin cc php x lphn tch. Hai m hnh d liu a l ph bin nht trong mt H thng thng tin a l l d liu vector v d liu raster. Trn hnh 2.4 minh ha vic s dng hai m hnh d liu khc nhau ny biu din cng mt s vt.

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Hnh 2.4: S vt c biu din dng raster(a) v dng vector (b) 2.7.1 M hnh Vector. M hnh d liu vector s dng cc ng hay im, c xc nh tng minh bng cc to x, y ca chng trn bn . Cc i tng ri rc (trong c c cc i tng a gic), c to bi s lin kt cc on cung (ng) v cc im nt.

Hnh 2.5: M hnh Vector im nt: Dng cho tt c cc i tng khng gian c biu din nh mt cp to (X,Y). Ngoi gi tr to (X,Y), im cn th hin kiu im, mu, hnh dng v d liu thuc tnh i km. Do trn bn im c th c biu hin bng k hiu hoc vn bn.

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Hnh 2.6: S liu vector c biu th di dng im (Point) Cung: Dng biu din tt c cc thc th c dng tuyn, c to nn t hai hoc hn cp to (X,Y). V d ng dng biu din h thng ng giao thng, h thng ng thot nc. Ngoi to , ng cn c th bao hm c gc quay ti u mt.

Hnh 2.7: S liu vector c biu th di dng ng Vng: L mt i tng hnh hc 2 chiu. Vng c th l mt a gic n gin hay hp ca nhiu a gic n gin. Mc tiu ca cu trc d liu a gic l biu din cho vng. Do mt vng c cu to t cc a gic nn cu trc d liu ca a gic phi ghi li c s hin din ca cc thnh phn ny v cc phn t cu to nn a gic.

Hnh 2.8: S liu vector c biu th di dng vng( Polygon)

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Hnh 2.9: Mt s khi nim trong cu trc c s d liu bn 2.7.2 M hnh Raster M hnh d liu raster s dng mt tp hp cc . Cu trc n gin nht l mng gm cc ca bn . Mi trn bn c biu din bi t hp ta (hng, ct), v mt gi tr biu din kiu hoc thuc tnh ca trn cc bn . Trong cu trc ny mi tng ng l mt im. Khi nim ng l mt dng cc lin nhau. Vng l mt nhm cc lin nhau. Dng d liu ny d lu tr, thao tc v th hin. Cu trc d liu ny cng cn c ngha l nhng khu vc c kch thc nh hn mt th khng th hin c. Hy xt mt lp thng tin c cu trc Raster. Trn hnh 2.10 l th hin bn t, mi vng c nh du bng cc c cc gi tr khc nhau. Ta c c mi li cc c gi tr khc nhau. Nu gn nc l gi tr = 1, rng = 2, t nng nghip = 3 ta s c mt mng s liu cc gi tr 1,2,3.

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Hnh 2.10: M hnh Raster Hai cu trc lu tr raster c bn l cu trc lu m chi tit v cu trc lu m chy di . i vi cu trc m chi tit mi im li c gn vi gi tr duy nht, v vy y s liu khng c nn gn.

Hnh 2.11 :Cu trc Raster Lu m chi tit Cu trc m chy di c ngha nh mt k thut nn d liu nu raster cha cc nhm im li c cng mt gi tr. Khi thay v phi lu tr ring cho tng im li, cu trc ny lu tr theo tng thnh phn c mt gi tr duy nht v s lng im li cha ng gi tr duy nht v s lng im li cha ng gi tr . Nu tt c cc im li u c cc gi tr khc nhau th cu trc ny lm tng gp i b nh, tuy nhin nu c 2 hoc hn s im li trng gi tr th cu trc lm gim b nh. Nu cng c nhiu im li lin tc c gi tr ging nhau th mc nn cng cao. Cu trc ny c bit thch hp cho vic m ha nh n sc hoc nh nh phn ( Zenger 2000).

Hnh 2.12 : Cu trc Raster Lu m chy di

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D liu raster c dung lng rt ln nu khng c cch lu tr thch hp. V d trn cho ta thy c rt nhiu gi tr ging nhau, do c nhiu phng php nn tp d liu lu tr tr nn nh. Thng thng ngi ta hay dng cc phng php nn TIFF, RLE, JPEG, GIF... Pixel l n v phn t nh nht m mt thit b c th hin th trn mn hnh my tnh, v hnh nh trn mn hnh c xy dng nn t cc phn t . 2.7.3 Chuyn i c s d liu dng vector v raster Vic chn ca cu trc d liu di dng vector hoc raster tu thuc vo yu cu ca ngi s dng, i vi h thng vector, th d liu c lu tr s chim din tch nh hn rt nhiu so vi h thng raster, ng thi cc ng contour s chnh xc hn h thng raster. Ngoi ra cng tu vo phn mm my tnh ang s dng m n cho php nn lu tr d liu di dng vector hay raster. Tuy nhin i vi vic s dng nh v tinh trong GIS th nht thit phi s dng di dng raster. Mt s cng c phn tch ca GIS ph thuc cht ch vo m hnh d liu raster, do vy n i hi qu trnh bin i m hnh d liu vector sang d liu raster, hay cn gi l raster ho. Bin i t raster sang m hnh vector, hay cn gi l vector ho, c bit cn thit khi t ng qut nh. Raster ho l tin trnh chia ng hay vng thnh cc vung (pixcel). Ngc li, vector ho l tp hp cc pixcel to thnh ng hay vng. Nt d liu raster khng c cu trc tt, th d nh v tinh th vic nhn dng i tng s rt phc tp. Nhim v bin i vector sang raster l tm tp hp cc pixel trong khng gian raster trng khp vi v tr ca im, ng, ng cong hay a gic trong biu din vector. Tng qut, tin trnh bin i l tin trnh xp x v vi vng khng gian cho trc th m hnh raster s ch c kh nng a ch ho cc v tr to nguyn. Trong m hnh vector, chnh xc ca im cui vector c gii hn bi mt h thng to bn cn v tr khc ca on thng c xc nh bi hm ton hc.

Hnh 2.13 : S chuyn i d liu gia raster v vector.

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2.7.4 So snh cc m hnh d liu vector v raster Raster u im 1. Cu trc d liu n gin 2. Cc thao tc chp bn thc hin d dng v hiu qu hn. 3. M hnh ny cn thit cho vic thao tc x l c hiu qu cc nh s( digital images manipulation) 4. Thch hp vi vic s dng d liu vin thm. 5. Bi ton m phng c th hc hin c do n v khng gian ging nhau. 6. K thut t tn km v c th pht trin mnh. Nhc im 1. D liu cng knh ( dung lng ln, chim nhiu b nh - tuy nhin k thut nn c th gi quyt vn ny. 2. Mi quan h topo kh c th thc hin c vi cc cu trc raster. Do vy cc bi ton mng rt kh thc hin. 3. Bn raster trnh by khng p mt nh vi bn vector v ng ranh gii vng hin din dng gp khc ch khng trn tru nh bn v tay. 4. chnh xc c th gim nu s dng kch thc mt li khng hp l. 5. Khi lng tnh ton trong bin i h to l rt ln. 1. Cu trc d liu phc tp hn raster 2. Cc php chp bn kh thc hin c v n i hi tc x l my tnh cao. 3. S bin thin khng gian kh c th th hin mt cch hiu qu ( cc bi ton m phng thng kh gii) 4. Cc thao tc x l nh s kh thc hin trn m hnh vector. 5. Chi ph in n cao, k thut tn km. 1. D liu gn chim t b nh hn m hnh Raster. 2. Cho php m ha topo hiu qu hn v v vy cho php thc hin cc php lin quan n cc thng tin topo. 3. M hnh ny thch hp cho cc th hin bn ging vibn v tay thng thng. 4. Thch hp vi d liu to , o c trc tip. Vector

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CHNG III : CC PHP CHIU BN

3.1 M u Php chiu bn l s chuyn i d liu a l t dng ba chiu v dng hai chiu. Trong lch s, ti ny c khng t cc nh khoa hc li lc trong nhng lnh vc chuyn mn rt khc nhau quan tm nh : nh ton hc Gauss, nh trit hc Roger Bacon, nh vt l hc Lambert, nh thin vn hc Cassini v c ngh s Durer. Cng chnh v vy, c rt nhiu m hnh php chiu bn c pht minh cho n nay. Cc cng thc s dng trong cc php chiu l cc biu thc ton hc cho php chuyn i d liu t mt v tr a l (c nh v bng kinh v v ), nm trn mt cu hay gi cu (spheroid) v mt v tr tng ng trn mt mt phng. Cc bn c v trn cc mt phng, trong khi trong thc t, b mt m chng biu din li l nhng mt cong. Do , vic thc hin mt php chiu ng nhin s ko theo sai s ca t nht mt trong cc tnh cht ca s vt c m t trn bn : l hnh dng, din tch, khong cch v hng. V th, iu quan trng i vi mt ngi s dng bn nh mt cng c phn tch l anh ta cn bit c php chiu no s dn n sai s ca c tnh no, v vi mc ra sao. 3.2 Kin thc c s Mc d trong thc t, Tri t c dng mt hnh gi cu (spheroid), trong nhiu trng hp, thun tin cho cc php tnh ton, n c m phng bng mt mt cu. i vi cc bn c t l nh, c th chp nhn gi thit v hnh dng cu ca Tri t, nhng i vi cc bn t l ln, cn thit phi s dng cc php x l i vi dng gi cu hay dng ellipsoid. Hnh gi cu chnh l mt hnh ellipsoid c hnh dng xp x ca mt hnh cu. Nu ta quay mt ng trn quanh trc ca chnh n, ta s c mt mt cu, cn nu quay mt hnh lp xung quanh mt trong cc trc ca n, ta s c mt hnh llipsoid. dt ca mt hnh cu hay ellipsoid c c trng bi i lng c gi l tnh lp (ellipticity). Cc i lng ny c gi tr bng 0,0 i vi mt cu, v bng 0,003353 i vi Tri t. Cng ngh quan trc bng v tinh pht hin thm mt s lch ca Tri t so vi mt hnh ellipsoid. Chng hn, Cc Nam ca Tri t gn vi xch o hn so vi Cc Bc. T cc nghin cu, ngi ta to ra rt nhiu hnh spheroid m phng hnh dng Tri t. Tuy nhin, mi m hnh ch p dng tt nht cho mt khu vc c th ca th gii.

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Hnh 3.1.B mt ba chiu c a v mt phng hai chiu 3.3 Cc tnh cht ca php chiu bn Nh cp trn, cc tnh cht sau y ca cc i tng s c kh nng b thay i sai lch khi thc hin mt php chiu bn : l hnh dng, din tch, khong cch v hng. Cc php chiu khc nhau c lu ti vic bo tn nhng c tnh khc nhau, v cho n nay vn cha c bin php hu hiu no cho php bo tn tt c cc c tnh nu trn trong cng mt php chiu. Cc php chiu bo tn hnh dng ch trng duy tr hnh dng cc i tng mc a phng. c im ca cc php chiu ny l cc li a l c dng hnh vung. Tuy nhin, khng c php chiu no c th bo tn c hnh dng i tng trn cc vng rt ln. Cc php chiu bo tn din tch, cn c gi l cc php chiu ng din tch hay cc php chiu tng ng. Cc php chiu ny c gng duy tr din tch ca cc vng trn bn v do , cc gc to bi cc kinh tuyn v v tuyn c th khng chnh xc. Cc php chiu bo tn khong cch, cn c gi l cc php chiu ng khong cch, biu din chnh xc khong cch gia cc im trn bn . Thc ra, tn gi ca php chiu ny ch ng mt cch tng i. Thng thng i vi mi php chiu loi ny, nu t l bn l chnh xc theo phng kinh tuyn th bn c coi l ng khong cch theo phng kinh tuyn, cn nu t l bn l chnh xc theo phng v tuyn th bn c coi l ng khong cch theo phng v tuyn. Khng c bn no ng khong cch theo mi hng. Cc php chiu bo tn hng, cn c gi l cc php chiu theo gc phng v c s dng ni cc im nm trn b mt Tri t theo hng hay gc phng v cho trc, hay ni cch khc l xc nh cung ngn nht ni hai im vi nhau. y l
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Khoa Cng ngh ha hc & Mi trng

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cung trng vi ng trn ln ca qu a cu. 3.4 Phn loi cc php chiu bn V bn l mt mt phng nn cc php chiu n gin nht thng s dng cc hnh hnh hc c th tri ln mt mt phng m khng phi ko cng b mt ca chng ra. Ba hnh hnh hc tho mn tt nht iu kin ny l cc hnh nn, tr v mt phng. chiu mt mt phng ln mt mt phng khc, bc u tin l phi to ra mt hoc nhiu im tip xc. Cc im ny gi l cc tip im. Nh c th thy trn cc hnh t 3.2 n 3.4, php chiu phng ch c mt tip im vi mt cu. Cc php chiu nn v tr tip xc vi mt cu qua mt ng thng. Nu mt chiu ct qua hnh cu thay v tip xc vi b mt cu th php chiu c gi l php chiu ct thay v php chiu tip xc. Trong s cc php chiu hin ang c s dng, c rt nhiu php chiu c th quy v mt trong cc php chiu nn, tr v phng cn c vo b mt chiu. 3.4.1 Cc php chiu nn Php chiu nn n gin nht tip xc vi mt qu a cu qua mt v tuyn. V tuyn ny c gi l v tuyn chun ca php chiu ang xt. Cc kinh tuyn c chiu ln mt nn v ct nhau ti nh ca hnh nn. Cc v tuyn chiu ln mt nn thnh hnh cc ng trn ng tm. Hnh nn c ct theo mt kinh tuyn v tri phng ra. Kinh tuyn nm i din vi ng ct c gi l kinh tuyn trung tm. Nhn chung, bin dng tng dn theo hng bc v nam ca v tuyn chun. Do , nu ct bt phn chp ca hnh nn s cho mt kt qu chiu chnh xc hn. Trong thc t, iu ny c th thc hin bng cch khng s dng php chiu cho cc khu vc nm gn cc. Cc php chiu nn phc tp hn s dng hai v tuyn chun v c gi l cc php chiu nn ct. bin dng ca cc php chiu nn ct khng ng u ti cc vng nm bn trong v bn ngoi hai v tuyn chun ny. Phc tp hn na, trong cc php chiu nn xin, trc ca hnh nn khng trng vi trc ca qu a cu.

a)

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b) Hnh 3.2. Cc php chiu nn: tip xc (a) v ct (b) 3.4.2 Cc php chiu tr Cc php chiu tr cng c mt tip tuyn hoc hai ct tuyn vi qu a cu. Trong s cc php chiu tr, php chiu Mercator l ph bin nht, vi tip tuyn chnh l ng xch o. Cc kinh tuyn c chiu ln mt tr mt cch hnh hc, cn cc v tuyn c chiu ln hnh tr mt cch ton hc, to ra cc gc li 90o. Hnh tr c th b ct dc theo mt kinh tuyn bt k to ra mt li chiu tr. Cc kinh tuyn cch u nhau, trong khi khong cch gia cc v tuyn tng dn v pha hai cc. y l php chiu bo tn hnh dng v phn nh chnh xc v hng dc theo cc ng thng. Nu cc kinh tuyn c s dng lm tip tuyn th php chiu c gi l php chiu tr ngang. Trong trng hp ny, chnh xc v t l c bo tn theo hng bc-nam. Trng hp tip tuyn nm xin (khng trng vi ng xch o hoc kinh tuyn) th php chiu c gi l php chiu tr xin.

Hnh 3.3: Cc php chiu tr: thng (a), ngang (b) v xin (c)

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3.4.3 Cc php chiu phng Cc php chiu phng chiu d liu bn ln mt mt phng tip xc vi qu a cu. Cc php chiu phng thng tip xc vi qu a cu ti mt im, nhng cng c trng hp ct. Tip im c th l Cc Bc, Cc Nam c th nm trn ng xch o hay ti mt im bt k khc ca qu a cu, tng ng vi la chn ny l cc php chiu phng mang tn gi cc, xch o hay xin. Php chiu cc l php chiu n gin nht trong s cc php chiu phng. Trong php chiu ny, cc v tuyn to t cc thnh nhng ng trn ng tm, cn kinh tuyn l cc ng thng ct nhau ti cc. Ti mi v tr khc, php chiu phng c cc gc li bng 90o. Hng t tiu im l hng chnh xc.

Hnh 3.4. Cc php chiu phng: cc (a), xch o (b) v xin (c) 3.5 H to 3.5.1 H to cu Trong h ta cu, b mt Tri t c chia thnh cc ng chy theo phng nm ngang (c gi l cc v tuyn) v cc ng chy theo phng thng ng (c gi l cc kinh tuyn). Tt c cc ng ny to nn mt mng li c gi l li a l. Cc Nam v Cc Bc l hai im ti cc ng kinh tuyn gp nhau. Gc ta a l c xc nh ti giao im ca kinh tuyn gc chy qua Greenwich (Anh) v ng xch o. Cng nh gc ta cc, gc ta cu cng c cc gi tr (0,0). Trn c s gc ta , b mt ca Tri t c chia thnh bn phn c tn gi theo hng ca a bn l ng, Ty, Nam v Bc. V v kinh l gi tr ca cc gc tm to bi cc bn knh ca Tri t chy qua cc im nm trn b mt ca n, do kinh v v ca mt im xc nh v tr ca im trn b mt Tri t. Cn lu rng kinh v v l cc gi tr khng ng nht v n v o trn ton b b mt Tri t. Ch c ti xch o, khong cch gia mt kinh mi xp x khong cch gia mt v. l do xch o l ng v tuyn duy nht c di tng ng vi di ca mi kinh tuyn. Cng cn nhn mnh rng, do h to cu c s dng cho b mt cong ca Tri t, nn n khng phi l mt php chiu bn
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Bi ging Thng tin mi trng & GIS

. Nu ni mt cch chnh xc th cc gi tr kinh v v c chc nng nh mt h thng tham chiu nh v cc im trn b mt Tri t phc v cho cc php chiu bn . Chnh v vy m h ta cu cn c gi l H thng tham chiu ton cu.

Hnh 3.5. H ta cu 3.5.2.H thng ta vung gc phng Gauss-Kruger. Mi mi chiu l mt ta phng vung gc. khng c tr s honh m, thun li cho vic tnh ton, ngi ta qui c chuyn trc X v bn tri 500km (Hnh 3.6). Tung c tr s dng k t gc ta 0 v pha bc v tr s m t gc ta v pha nam. Tri t chia thnh 60 mi chiu 6o nn c 60 mi ta . ch r ta ca mt im trn mt t nm mi ta no ngi ta ghi bn tri honh s th t ca cc mi chiu. V d: Ta ca im M l XM = 2.209 km, YM = 18.646 km c ngha l M nm na bn phi mi ta th 18, cch xch o v pha Bc 2.209 km v cch kinh tuyn trc ca pha bc 2.209 km v cch kinh tuyn trc ca mi th 18 mt khong bng 646 500 146 km (Hnh 3.6).

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Bi ging Thng tin mi trng & GIS

Hnh 3.6: H thng ta vung gc phng Gauss-Kruger. Nc ta nm Bc bn cu, trn mi ta th 18, 19 nn c tr s X lun lun dng v hai ch s u ca Y l 18 hoc 19. tin cho vic s dng bn a hnh, ti khu vc bin gip nhau gia hai mi chiu thng th hin c hai li ta rng bng mt mnh bn mi bn. H ta Gauss Vit Nam c thnh lp nm 1972 c gi l h ta Nh nc H Ni 72. H ny chn Ellipsoid quy chiu Krasovski. Gc ta t ti i thin vn Punkovo (Lin X c), truyn ta vi Vit Nam thng qua li ta quc gia Trung Quc. 3.5.3.H ta thng vung gc UTM VN 2000 Trong h ta thng vung gc UTM trc tung c k hiu l X hoc N (vit tt ca ch North l hng Bc), trc honh c k hiu l Y hoc E (vit tt ca ch East l hng ng). H ta ny cng qui c chuyn trc X v bn tri cch kinh tuyn trc 500km (Hnh 3.7). Cn tr s qui c ca gc tung bc bn cu cng l 0, nam bn cu l 10.000km, c ngha l gc 0 tung nam bn cu c di xung nh nam cc. Nc ta nm bc bn cu nn d tnh theo h ta Gauss hay h ta UTM th gc ta cng nh nhau. Hin nay ti cc tnh pha nam vn cn s dng cc loi bn c Cc Bn ca qun i M sn xut trc nm 1975 theo php chiu v h ta UTM, ly Ellipsoid Everest lm Ellipsoid quy chiu, c im gc ti n . Bt u t gia nm 2001 nc ta chnh thc a vo s dng h ta quc gia VN2000 thay cho h ta H Ni-72. H ta quc gia VN 2000 s dng php chiu UTM, Ellipsoid WGS-84 v gc ta t ti Vin nghin cu a chnh H Ni.

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Khoa Cng ngh ha hc & Mi trng

Bi ging Thng tin mi trng & GIS

Hnh 3.7: H ta thng vung gc UTM

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Khoa Cng ngh ha hc & Mi trng