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20

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.............................................................................34
(necklaces) (bracelets)...........................34
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Alan Turing, the

Alan Turing, the
enigma, Andrew
enigma, Andrew
Hodges,
Hodges,
Gdel, Escher, Bach: Minds, Brains, &
an eternal golden braid, Science, John
Douglas Hofstadter Searle
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The man who loved
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Hoffman
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Douglas Hofstadter Searle

Profiles of the future,

Arthur C. Clarke
Alan Turing, the
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12

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18

20

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24

25

20

a 0 , a1 , , a n , . ,
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26

20

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20

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n =1

n=0

an z n = an z n a0 .

27

28

20

n =1

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n
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20

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z
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z
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29

20

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30

31

20

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32

20

x 2 y 2 z 2 1. ,
2 , 2 2 .
,

(1 + x + x

)(

)(

+ x3 + x 4 + x5 1 + y + y 2 + y3 + y 4 1 + z + z 2 + z 3 :

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+x 3 y 2 z +x 4 y 4 z 2 +x 2 y 4 z +x 3 y z +x 2 y 4 z 3 +x 3 y z 2 +x 4 y 2 z 3 +x 3 y 2 z 3 +x y 4 z 3
+x 4 y 4 z 3 +x 4 y z 2 +x 5 y z 3 +y +x 4 y 2 z +x 4 y z 3 +x y 2 z +x 3 y 3 z 3 +x 5 y z +x 3 y 3 z 2
+x 3 y 3 z +x 4 y 3 z 3 +x 2 y 3 z 3 +x y 4 z 2 +x 3 y 4 z 3 +x 2 y 3 z 2 +x 2 y z +x 2 y 2 z 2 +x 2 y 4 z 2

+x y 3 z +x 5 y 3 z 3 +x 4 y z +x 4 y 2 z 2 +x y z +x 2 y z 2 +x 4 y 3 z 2 +x 5 y 2 z +x 2 y 2 z
+x y 3 z 3 +x 3 y 4 z +x y 4 z +x 5 y z 2 +x 2 y z 3 +x y 2 +x 5 y 4 z 2 +x 5 y 3 z +x y 3 +x 2 y 3
+x 4 y 4 z +x 5 y 4 z 3 +x 2 y 2 +x 2 y +x y 4 +x y 2 z 2 +x 5 y 3 z 2 +x 3 y 4 z 2 +x 2 y 4 +x y 3 z 2
+x 3 y +x 5 y 4 z +x 4 y 3 z +x 3 y 2 z2 +x 3 y 2 +x 3 y 3 +x 3 y 4 +x 4 y +x 4 y 2 +x 4 y 3 +x 4 y 4

+x 5 y +x 5 y 2 +x 5 y 3 +y z 3 + y z 2 +y z +x z 3 +x z 2 + x z + x 5 y 4 +y 4 z 3 +y 4 z 2 +y 4 z
+y 3 z 3 +y 3 z 2 + y 3 z +y 2 z 3 +y 2 z 2 +y 2 z +x 5 z 3 +x 5 z 2 +x 5 z +x 4 z 3 +x 4 z 2 +x 4 z
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33

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1 +3 z +6 z2 +10 z 3 +14 z 4 +17 z 5 +18 z 6 +17 z 7 +14 z 8 +10 z 9 +6 z 10 +3 z 11 +z 12

18. , 18
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20

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34

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37

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38

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40

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41

20

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42

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43

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46

20

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47

20

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48

49

20

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2

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24

x16 + 6 x12 x 4 + 3 x12 x 22 + 6 x 23 + 8 x32

x1 = R + G + B , x 2 = R 2 + G 2 + B 2 , x3 = R 3 + G 3 + B 3 ,
x 4 = R 4 + G 4 + B 4 , 24,
, :

50

20

2 R G B 4 +2 R 4 G B +3 R G 2 B 3 +3 R 2 G B 3 +3 R 2 G 3 B +3 R G 3 B 2 +2 R G 4 B
+3 R 3 G B 2 +6 R 2 G 2 B 2 + 3 R 3 G 2 B +R 6 + G 6 + B 6 +R G 5 + R B 5 +2 R 3 B 3
+2 R 3 G 3 +2 R 4 B 2 +2 R 4 G 2 + R 5 B + R 5 G +2 R 2 G 4 +2 R 2 B 4 +G B 5 +2 G 3 B 3
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51

52

20

C 6 H 2 Cl 2 Br2 C 6 H 2 IClBr2
(, ) (, ,
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53

20

(Sequence): ,
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, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21 ...

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!
. Fibonacci
!
(Mutually Exclusive Events):
.
(Independent Events):

.
(Recurrence Relation):
a n
ai , i < n .

54

20

(Linear Recurrence Relation):

a n ai , i < n
ai , i < n ,
.
Fibonacci
a n = a n 1 + a n 2 , a1 = 1 a 2 = 1 .
n i ai , i < n . ,
Fibonacci 2 ( n i i = n 2 ).
(Non-Linear Recurrence Relation):
a n ai , i < n
(
) ai , i < n .
n + 1 :
n

Tn +1 = T kTn k , T0 = 1 . ,
k =0

.
(Inverse Element): G *,
x ,
x 1 , x 1 * x = e = x * x 1 x
G.

Burnside (Burnside Lemma): Burnside

( ).

55

56

20

(Exponential Generating Function EGF):

an n
z .
n = 0 n!

a 0 , a1 , , a n , A( z ) =

n! .

(
).
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n
a 0 , a1 , , a n , A( z ) = a n z .
n =0

,

(
).
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a 0 , a1 , , a n , a 0 = 1
: =

an
,n 1.
a n 1

.
(Geometric Progression):

, .
n S n = 1 , n 1 .
1
n

57

20

(Sample Space): , ..
,
. ,
, .
, ,
1 6.
.
.
(Cycle index of Permutation):
bi ( ) i
,
b ( )

x1 i

x2

b2 ( )

xk

bk ( )

(Cycle Index of Permutation

Group): ,
PG =
b ( )

x1 i

x2

b2 ( )

xk

bk ( )

1
G

bi ( )

x2

b2 ( )

xk

bk ( )

(Rooted Binary Tree):

()
().
( ),
( ).

58

20

(Discrete Mathematics):

, .
,
,
.
(Distinguished): ,

(.. ).
(Permutation): n , k

k n . k n
P (n, k ) n ( n 1) (n k + 1) .
(Power Set): S
( ) 2 S . S
n ( S = n ),
2 S = 2 n .
(Binomial Theorem): ,
n
n i n i
n
a b n , (a + b) = a b
i 0 i

).

( a + b) n = b n +
i =1

n(n 1)(n 2) ( n i + 1) i n i
ab .
i!

59

20

(Binomial Coefficients): ,
n
() C ( n, k ) , k
k
n (a + b) n ,
.
de Moivre (de Moivres Theorem): To
Abraham de Moivre de Moivre.

(cos + i sin ) n = cos( n ) + i sin( n ), n 0 , i = 1 .

z = r (cos + i sin ) , , , z n = r n [ cos( n ) + i sin( n )] .
(Event): ,
( ) .
Fibonacci (Fibonacci Recurrence Relation):
Fibonacci a n = a n 1 + a n 2 , a1 = 1 a 2 = 1 .
(Addition Rule): ,
m n
,
m + n .

60

20

(Product Rule): ,
m n ,

mn

.
(Palindrome):

. , abbabba
, abbaaba .

. ( )
.
(Cycle Representation): ,

1 2 3 4
(1 3 4 )
. ,
3 2 4 1
( 2 ) , .
(Ratio of Geometric Progression):
,
: =

an
, n 1 .
a n 1

, (Partial Fraction Expansion):

,
,
. ,

61

20

1
1 1
1 1

.
3 z 1 3 z + 2
z + z2
2

,
.
(Permutation): n ,

.

n!= n ( n 1) 1 .
(Complex Numbers):
z = x + iy , x, y i = 1 .
z = x + iy , r = x 2 + y 2

y
= arctan ,
x

y
. ,
x

z = x + iy z = r (cos + i sin ) .
(Monomial): (
, ,
) .
3z 2 , z 3 y 2 .
(Group):
: ) , )
) .

20

(Permutation Group):
,
.
(Birthday Paradox):
23
1/2, 23
365
.
(Univariate Polynomial): ( )

. z 3 + 3 z 2 + z + 2 .
(Multivariate Polynomial):

.
z 3 y 2 +3 z 2 y 5 + z + 2 y .
(Operation):
.

.
(Commutative Operation): *
S x, y , z S
x * ( y * z ) = ( x * y ) * z .
.

62

63

20

, , ,
x /( y / z ) ( x / y ) / z .
(Bracelet Problem):

. .
(Necklace Problem):
.
.
Plya, (Plya Counting Theory): Plya
Burnside
, ,
.
(Partial Function):
.

3z + 5
,
z + z2
2

cos( z )
,
z + z2
2

.
(Series): a 0 , a1 , , a n , S
n 1

n S n = ai i 1 .
i =0

(Symmetries): , ,

64

20

.


.
(Probability Function):
p = {1 , 2 , , n }
: ()
i = {1 , 2 , , n } , 0 p( i ) 1 ()

i =1

= 1 .

p( i ) i .
(Combinations): n
, k
k n . k
n!
n
n C (n, k )
.
k!( n k )!
k
C ( n, k ) .
(Combinatorics):

(.. ).
(Combinatorial Argument):

,

C ( n, k ) = C ( n, n k ) ,

65

20

k n ,
n k n .
, .
(Convolution): a 0 , a1 , , a n , b0 , b1 , , bn , ,
(convolution) c 0 , c1 , , c n ,
,

c n = a n * bn

c n = a i bn i = a 0 bn + a1bn 1 + a 2 bn 2 + a n b0 .
i =0

(Set): (
).
,
(.. ) (..
).
/ (Boundary Values/Conditions):

.
, k ,
, k
( k ,
a 0 , a1 , , a k 1 ).
(Elementary Event): ,
. ,
/ :

66

20

. , /
: .
(Balls in Bins/Urns):
, ,
. ,

.
(Identity Element): G *,
e
x * e = x = e * x x G . ,
(Unit Element), ,
, (Zero Element).
(Quadratic Equation):
az 2 + bz + c = 0 ( ).
, r1 =

b + b 2 4ac
b b 2 4ac
r2 =
,
2a
2a

az 2 + bz + c a ( z r1 )( z r2 ) .

( !).
(Imaginary Unit): i i = 1

x 2 + 1 = 0 ,
.
(Probability Space): , ,

20

,
.

67