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AG 9131 Hydrogeology
L. Elango
Professor Department of Geology Anna University, Chennai
elango@annauniv.edu www.elango.5u.com
Hydrogeology
Reference text: Groundwater - Freeze, R.A and Cherry, J.A, Groundwater Hydrology David Keith Todd Groundwater -- H.M. Raghunath
Elango, L
e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
5% 45% 50%
Hydrogeology
Syllabus
Introduction Hydrologic cycle groundwater in various geological formations role of geological structures - groundwater and geologic processes Groundwater flow Darcys law hydraulic conductivity estimation in lab and by tracer techniques Estimation of aquifer parameters Groundwater resources evaluation groundwater models Groundwater abstraction techniques Construction of wells shallow and deep wells Groundwater quality
Hydrogeology H drogeolog
Hydrogeology deals with the occurrence, distribution, movement of water and its constituents (quality of water) beneath the Earth's surface - that is groundwater
Elango, L
e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
Hydrogeology
To
e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
Importance
Virtually
Life on earth is possible primarily because of the availability of water on it. The first form of life originated in water.
every activity in the earth sciences requires some knowledge of i i k l d f groundwater Until the 1900 focus on groundwater as a resource (Still it is the important resource) ) In the past century Engineering and Environmental aspects also become important
Elango, L
Hydrogeology
Scope of Hydrogeology
Important resource
Agriculture
Domestic Industry
UNESCO, 2000
Elango, L
e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
Hydrogeology
Ice: 2.14% Groundwater: 0.61% Surface water: 0.009% Surface Moisture: 0.005% Atmosphere: 0.001%
Elango, L
USEPA 1987
e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
Hydrogeology
-GW is significantly less costly to develop than surface water. -GW is less susceptible to contamination than surface water - quite often requires little or no treatment to be used as drinking water.
Geotechnical
W E
e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
May 2007
Elango, L
Hydrogeology
Management strategy
Fig.1. Location of area considered for groundwater modeling. Fig. 8. Simulated of groundwater head in the beach well g g pumping at the rate of 7800m3/d.
Elango, L
e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
Fig. 4. Simulated of groundwater head in the beach well pumping at the rate of 5000m3/d. Fig.12. Simulated of groundwater head in the beach well pumping at the rate of 15600m3/d.
Hydrogeology
Mining
Neiveli Lignite Corporation Groundwater occurs below
the entire lignite bed, exerting an upward pressure of 6 to 8 kg/cm2. Pumping to depressurise the water pressure to the safe mining condition.
Contaminant migration
OBSERVED - SIMULATED NITROGEN (N(NNO3) CONCENTRATION IN THE UNSATURATED ZONE
N (m g /k g ) 6 4 2 0
e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
MODEL RESULTS
Observed Simulated
N (m g /K g )
10 5 0
20 10 0
2017
N ( m g /k g )
N (m g /K g )
N (m g /K g )
10 5
28
38
48
96
Elango, L
Hydrogeology
Contaminant migration
...contd
Love canal in Niagra Falls Dug in 1890 for shipping/hydropower but not completed Hooker chemical co dumped wastes (organic co. chemicals, pesticides etc.,) from 1942 to 1953 Covered with soil and sold High rainfall in 1975-76 eroded soil cover 1975Liquid wastes contaminated groundwater As wastes denser than water it could not penetrate soft clay
Contaminant migration
Health risks and source of contamination known in 1978 Declared as federal emergency School and homes evacuated Cleaning up perimeter drain and groundwater intercepted, onsite treatment plant installed Thi improved the environmental condition This i d h i l di i A clear hydrogeological problem!
Elango, L
e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
...contd
Hydrogeology
Contaminant migration
...contd
Elango, L
e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
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Hydrogeology
Water/Earth Interactions
Interactions go both ways Groundwater controls geologic processes Geology controls flow y and availability of groundwater
Water/Earth Interactions
Geology controls groundwater flow
Permeable pathways are controlled by distributions of geological materials
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Hydrogeology
Water/Earth Interactions
Geology controls groundwater flow
Permeable pathways are controlled by distributions of geological materials Where groundwater is available as a resource is controlled by geology
Water/Earth Interactions
Geology controls groundwater flow
Permeable pathways are controlled by distributions of geological materials Where groundwater is available as a resource is controlled by geology Contaminant transport in the subsurface is controlled by geology
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Hydrogeology
Water/Earth Interactions
Groundwater controls geologic processes Volcanic Processes: Processes:
Igneous Rocks: Rocks: Groundwater controls water content of magmas Metamorphic Rocks: Rocks: Groundwater injected by j y magmas can metamorphose country rocks Volcanism: Volcanism: Geysers are an example of volcanic activity interacting with groundwater
Water/Earth Interactions
Groundwater controls geologic processes
Earthquakes: Earthquakes: fluids control fracturing and fault movement, lubrication and pressures Landslides: Landslides: groundwater controls slope failure Landforms: Landforms: Valley development and karst topography
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Hydrogeology
Hydrogeologists in
Geotechnical Engineering Geology - Landslides Mining Landfills Waste disposal Oil Industry Insurance and Money lending .
e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
Elango, L
Your Career
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Hydrogeology
Hydrologic Cycle
The cyclic movement of water through atmosphere, Hydrosphere,Bio Hydrosphere Bio sphere and Lithosphere
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Hydrogeology
Precipitation
Types of Precipitation Natural Rain Snow Ice Hail Condensation/ Dew Man-Made Irrigation Wastewater Applications
Canopy Interception
Elango, L
e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
Percolation
Infiltration- Movement Water Into Soil Percolation - Water Movement Through the Soil
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Hydrogeology
Stomata
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e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
Low Infiltration Causes - Overland Flow- Loss Organic Material
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Hydrogeology
P ET R = S
Precipitation Evapotranspiration
Runoff
Infiltration
Throughfall
Snowpack
Soil Moisture Storage
Recharge
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Hydrogeology
Sources of Groundwater
Meteoric
water derived from rainfall water Connate water- fossil interstitial water Magmatic water or Juvenile water- from hot molten magma Plutonic water- very deeper condition (>5km) ( 5k ) Volcanic water- shallow depths (<5km) Metamorphic water- during metamorphism
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e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
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Hydrogeology
Soil Moisture
Groundwater
Pores Full of Combination of Air and Water Unsaturated Zone Zone of Aeration
Elango, L
e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
Zone of Saturation
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Hydrogeology
Caplillary Fringe:
Water is pulled above the water table by capilary suction Water Table: where fluid pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure
Saturated Zone:
Where all pores are completely filled with water. Phreatic Zone: Saturated zone below the water table
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Hydrogeology
Capillary Fringe
Surface tension sediments retain water Depends on Surface area: smaller grains higher surface area higher surface tension
Capillarity Due to Adhesion of Water to a Surface Capillary Rise Related to Size of Pores Smaller the Pore, The Larger the Capillary Rise
Elango, L
e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
Capillary Fringe
Water Held by Tension Zone above water table that is effectively saturated
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Hydrogeology
Soil water
Depth up to which the root zone extends Depth up to which the atmospheric conditions has an influence Intermediate/Gravitational water zone between soil water and capillary fringe
AQUIFERS
Aquifer
is derived from the Latin term meaning water bearer. Lithologic unit or collection of units capable of yielding water to wells
An
aquifer is not: A geological formation, A permeable geologic unit, unit A porous medium, or A petroleum reservoir
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Hydrogeology
AQUIFERS
Consolidated or unconsolidated geologic unit (material, stratum, or formation) or set of connected units that yields a significant (economic) quantity of water of suitable quality to wells in usable amounts. amounts
AQUIFER Types
unconfined (or
water-table) - the upper surface of the aquifer is the water table. Water-table if l i by t t d aquifers are di tl overlain b an unsaturated directly zone or a surface water body.
table separates saturated and unsaturated zones
Water
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Hydrogeology
AQUIFER Types
confined (or
artesian) - an aquifer that is immediately overlain by a low-permeability it (confining layer). A confined aquifer d ) fi d if does unit ( fi i l not have a water table.
Confined Aquifer
Artesian
condition
Permeable
Piezometric
surface
Water
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e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
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Hydrogeology
AQUIFER Types
perched -
a local, unconfined aquifer at a higher elevation than the regional unconfined aquifer An unsaturated zone is present aquifer. between the two unconfined aquifers.
AQUIFER Types
Leaky or
semi confined- an aquifer that receives recharge via cross-formational flow through confining layers. layers Leaky confining unit (K is too low to be an aquifer, but great enough to permit significant flow through the layer)
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Hydrogeology
massive
Spaces b S between solid grains Pores lid i Fractures Measure of pore volume - Porosity Measure of water yield Specific Yield Measure of water retention Specific Retention
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Hydrogeology
Porosity
n% = %
VV x100% 100% VT
n% = porosity (expressed as a percentage) VV = volume of the void space VT = total volume of the material (void + rock)
Primary Porosity
Sediments Sedimentary Rocks
Elango, L
e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
Secondary Porosity
Igneous Rocks Metamorphic Rocks
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Hydrogeology
Porosity Ranges for Sediments Well Sorted Gravel: Sand and Gravel Mix: Glacial Till: Silt: Clay: 25 50% 20 35% 10 20% 35 50% 33 60%
e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
FCC 26% BCC 32% Sand Simple cubic 47.6% Silt & Clay Gravel Siltstone karstic Basalt Pumice
Shale
Sandstone
16
24
32
40
48
56
64
Porosity, %
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Hydrogeology
Grain size G i shape Grain h Mode of arrangement Sorting Cementing Compaction Solution activity
e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
Sorting
Glacial
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Hydrogeology
Specific Yield
Sy= Vy/V
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Hydrogeology
Material coarse gravel medium gravel fine gravel gravelly sand coarse sand medium sand fine sand silt sandy clay clay
e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
Specific Yield (%) Maximum 26 26 35 35 35 32 28 19 12 5 Minimum 12 13 21 20 20 15 10 3 3 0 Average 22 23 25 25 27 26 21 18 7 2
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Hydrogeology
Sediment Properties
Storage Coefficient or Storativity (S) Volume of water that a permeable unit will absorb or expel from storage per unit surface area per unit change in head.
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Hydrogeology
Storage Coefficient
The storage coefficient (S) consists of two components: pore fluid draining of the aquifer water released from compressibility of aquifer For confined aquifers, there is no draining of the pores, so all storage comes from the compressibility component Ss = specific storage (1/L) b = saturated thickness (L) S < 0.005 For unconfined aquifers, most of the water is from draining, contribution from compressibility is very small S = Ssb S = Sy + Ssb usually, Sy >> Ssb S ~ Sy
b = saturated thickness (L) Sy = specific yield Ss = specific storage (1/L)
S: 0.02 to 0.30
Ss = wg( + n)
w = density of water g = acceleration of gravity = compressibility of aquifer skeleton n = porosity = compressibility of water
e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
S = Ssb
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Hydrogeology
Aquifer Compressibility:
1. Compressibility of Water 2. Compressibility of Porous Medium In the saturated zone the head create pressure which affect the arrangement of mineral grains as well as density of water in the voids The expansion of mineral skeleton and pressure are directly proportional (elasticity). The contraction of water in aquifer and the pressure created by head is inversely proportional.
e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
Filled with air under pressure When we release it it is still filled with air Skeleton Water
If pressure increases, increases Mineral skeleton will expand Water will contract
Expansion of mineral skeleton and pressure -> directly proportional (elasticity). Contraction of water in aquifer and pressure created by head -> inversely proportional.
P
Expansion of Water Compaction of the Aquifer Skeleton
When Pumping
Reduce the Pressure
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Hydrogeology
Springs
Discharge of groundwater from a spring in California. Springs generally emerge at th base of a hill l f hillslope. the b Some springs produce water that has traveled for many kilometers; while others emit water that has traveled only a few meters. Springs represent places where the saturated zone (below the water table) comes in contact with the land surface.
S. Hughes, 2003
Elango, L
e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
Decrea asing
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Hydrogeology
In Humid Areas: Water Table Subdued Replica of Topography In Arid Areas: Water table flatter
If water table flat no flow occurring Sloping Water Table Flowing Water Flow from high to low areas Discharge occurs in topographically low sites
Elango, L
e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
Need gradient for flow
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Hydrogeology
Recharge Topographically High Areas Deeper Unsaturated Zone Flow Lines Diverge
Elango, L
e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
Discharge Topographically Low Areas Shallow Unsaturated Zone Flow Lines Converge
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Hydrogeology
Unconsolidated formations
Glaciated terrains
(Munich) Project area Moraines of former Inn-glacier = Northern edge of Alps = Wrm moraines with (1994).
River alluvium
Heterogeneous Flood
plain deposits
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e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
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Hydrogeology
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e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
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Hydrogeology
Elango, L
e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
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Hydrogeology
conglomerate High
Limestone high
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Hydrogeology
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Hydrogeology
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Hydrogeology
Limestone
Igneous rocks
Groundwater percolates downward through the regolith which is a layer of weathered rock, alluvium, colluvium and soil to fractures in underlying bedrock.
Elango, L
e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
http://capp.water.usgs.gov/aquiferBasics/volcan.html
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Hydrogeology
Bedrock Hydrogeology
Hydraulic
unfractured
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Hydrogeology
Volcanic rocks
e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
Todd (1996)
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Hydrogeology
Hydrograph
is a graph showing changes in the discharge of a river over a period of time.
unit hydrograph is the response of the watershed to 1 unit of excess runoff distributed uniformly over the entire watershed
1 inch (English units) 1 mm (Metric units)
Elango, L
e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
http://www.tcnj.edu/~horst/classes.htm
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Hydrogeology
response to a given amount of excess precipitation is just a multiplier of the unit hydrograph Use unit hydrograph as a basis to determine the storm hydrograph from any given rainfall distribution
Elango, L
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Hydrogeology
Example
Given
The
Time 1 2 3 4
Precipitation 0.5
1.5 0.2
F lo w
e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
Example
Incremental Storm Hydrographs
500
400
300
200
100
0 0 5 10 15 Time 20 25 30 35
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Hydrogeology
Example
Incremental + Final Storm Hydrograph
00 500
400
A unit hydrograph is derived from historical rainfall and runoff data The volume of water produced by the storm (area under the hydrograph curve) divided by the area of the watershed equals depth of excess precipitation The ordinates of the storm hydrograph are divided by this depth to obtain the unit hydrograph Timing must be taken into consideration (S-curve (Stechnique to adjust timing)
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Hydrogeology
Attitude of formations
Elango, L
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Hydrogeology
Artesian Aquifers
Elango, L
e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
A. Although the contaminated water has traveled more than 100 m before reaching Well 1, the water moves too rapidly through the limestone to be purified. As the discharge from the septic tank percolates through the sandstone, it is purified i a relatively short ifi d in l ti l h t distance. B.
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Hydrogeology
desert spring
Joints and Faults Weak zones Increase porosity and K Increase rate of weathering
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Hydrogeology
Elango, L
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Hydrogeology
Igneous Intrusives
Legend
Dykes
Igneous Intrusives
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Hydrogeology
Impact of dykes
113
Impact of dykes
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Hydrogeology
Land subsidence
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Hydrogeology
http://tigger.uic.edu/~pdoran
KARST
e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
Karst Topography A. GW percolates through limestone along joints and bedding planes. Dissolution creates and enlarges caverns at and below the water table. Si kh l f h Sinkholes form when th the roof of a cavern collapses. Surface streams may disappear down sinkholes and reappear as springs. As time passes, caverns grow larger and the number and size of sinkholes increase. Collapse of caverns and coalescence of sinkholes form larger, flat-floored depressions (solution valleys). Eventually dissolution may remove most of the limestone from the area, leaving only isolated remnants (towers). B B. C.
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Hydrogeology
KARST
Guilin CHINA
http://tigger.uic.edu/~pdoran
GW Erosion
e An pt. na of U Ge iv ol er og si y ty
Caverns form as a result of dissolution of carbonate rocks below the water table
http://tigger.uic.edu/~pdoran
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Hydrogeology
Earth Fissures
http://www.mscd.edu/~eas/Janke/ENV_4010/readings/Keller_Ch06.pdf
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Hydrogeology
Subsidence
Subsidence of the ground surface occurs when GW is pumped out faster than it is replenished in some areas (compaction). S i Valley San J Joaquin V ll New Orleans, LA Mexico City
http://www.mscd.edu/~eas/Janke/ENV_40 10/readings/Keller_Ch06.pdf
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Hydrogeology
Now we can use i f i interferometric processing of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data.
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Hydrogeology
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Hydrogeology
Source: TWAD
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Elango, L
Seripalli
Hydrogeology
Dyke
Fracture
D
131
No. of Dykes 60 40 50
Geology
Rose diagram
10
20
30
100-500 501-1000 1001-1500 1501-2000 2001-2500 2501-3000 3001-3500 3501-4000 4001-4500 4501-5000 5001-5500 5501-6000 6001-6500 7000-7500 10000-10500
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Length of Dykes in m
Well no. 43
Well no. 2
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Hydrogeology
Semiarid or arid climate Flows only during wet periods (flashy runoff) Recharges groundwater
S. Hughes, 2003
Gaining Stream
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Losing Stream
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