Journal of Arid Environments (1997) 37: 419432

Characteristics of desertication and its rehabilitation in China

Yong Zha* & Jay Gao *School of Geographical Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210097, Peoples Republic of China Department of Geography, University of Auckland, Auckland Private Bag 92019, New Zealand
(Received 20 March 1997, accepted 16 June 1997)
The denition of desertication and its causes in the Chinese literature are reviewed and compared with those in international publications. Both Chinese researchers and their western counterparts have difculty in reaching a generally accepted denition for desertication and an agreement upon the exact role played by human activities and environmental settings in desertication initiation and development. Tremendous efforts in China have gone into rehabilitating desertied land into productive uses with great contribution to existing knowledge in reclaiming desertied land. The early biological-oriented measures based solely on economic return have recently been replaced by a much more successful, multi-disciplinary approach of rehabilitation combined with preventive measures that follow sound ecological principles. 1997 Academic Press Limited Keywords: desertication; causes of desertication; severity assessment; rehabilitation of desertied land; land reclamation; China

Introduction With a territory of 96 million km2, China is one of the most severely desertied countries in the world. Desertication is threatening the lives of close to 400 million people and has affected about 33 million km2 of land (Chen et al., 1996). It is thus very important to study desertication and rehabilitate desertied land into productive uses. Although sand transport and sand dune movements were studied in the 1960s (Zhu et al., 1964; Wu, 1965), these efforts were highly limited in their scope and quantity. Spurred by the United Nations Conference on Desertication (UNCOD) held in Nairobi, Kenya in 1977, immense research on desertication and its rehabilitation has been carried out with fruitful results. In this paper the characteristics of desertication in China are identied through a review of published papers. The literature cited, with a few exceptions, comes chiey from journals and books recently published in Chinese. Wherever relevant, the issues under consideration are discussed
Corresponding author. 01401963/97/030419 + 14 $25.00/0/ae970290 1997 Academic Press Limited

420

Y. ZHA & J. GAO

in a wider scientic context through citing articles published internationally in English books and journals. According to UNCOD (1978), desertication refers to the diminution or destruction of the biological potential of the land that can lead ultimately to desert-like conditions. Increasingly, it has been agreed that the term desertication should be restricted to dryland environments only (Thomas, 1993). Therefore, land degradation in humid regions is beyond the scope of this paper. The various denitions of desertication are rst presented, followed by consideration of its spatial extent and the magnitude of the desertication problem. The causes of desertication and its development are discussed next. Efforts to monitor desertication and to rehabilitate desertied land into productive uses are reviewed. Finally, the outcome of the rehabilitating efforts are summarized.

Denition of desertication Coined by the French botanist and ecologist Aubr ville (1949) nearly half a century e ago, the term desertication has undergone numerous modications in its meaning since then. More than one hundred denitions have appeared in the English literature so far (Glantz & Orlovsky, 1983). For instance, Rapp (1974) dened it as the spread of desert-like conditions in arid or semi-arid areas due to mans inuence or to climatic change. However, no single denition is generally accepted (Dregne, 1983). Much confusion in the literature has occurred as a result of its unscrupulous use (Thomas & Middleton, 1994) in three aspects: (a) indiscrimination between the process of desertication and its state; (b) non-consensus regarding the geographic regions to which it applies; and (c) its exact causes. Recently, Rhodes (1991) and Thomas (1993) suggest that the concept of desertication be revised in light of renewed scientic advances that have enhanced our understanding of the problem. Namely, natural uctuation in environment causing long-term detrimental impact must be distinguished from land degradation caused by human actions. The concept of desertication was not introduced into the Chinese literature until after the UNCOD in 1977 (Chen et al., 1996). Prior to that, the term tudi shahua (land sandication) was in common use (Dong & Liu, 1993). It refers to the coarsening process of the land surface after ne sandy and nutrient particles are lost to aeolian erosion. Though close to desertication in meaning, it at most forms a stage in the development of desertication (Zhu et al., 1989). Another related term is called fengshahua (aeolian sandication). It refers to the process of forming desert-like landforms by sand outside arid and semi-arid zones (Zhu, 1986). However, Li (1988) argued that this process should be called strictly land degradation. Profoundly affected by its constantly changing international meaning, desertication has been dissimilarly dened by Chinese researchers. Zhu & Liu (1981) referred to it as the process of environmental degradation in non-sandy areas where the fragile ecology is disturbed by excessive human activities. It was dened by Yang (1987) as a series of climatic and geomorphologic processes in arid, semi-arid, and some semihumid sandy areas under the inuence of various conditions at diverse time scales. According to Chen (1991), desertication is the contemporary process of land degradation that is caused mainly by sand in a fragile ecosystem and forms a desert-like landform. It is the process of environmental change that is characterized by sandblasting and forms a desert-like landform in formerly non-sandy areas (Dong et al., 1988). Apparently, these denitions differ from one another widely in the process and time scale involved. Lack of agreement in dening desertication originates in part from its confusion with desertization because of inappropriate translation. Referring to desert encroachment in arid and semi-arid areas of non-desert landforms due to improper human

DESERTIFICATION AND REHABILITATION, CHINA

421

activities, desertization was translated as shamohua (desertication), whereas desertication was translated as huangmohua (barrenication) in Chinese. Zhou & Pu (1996) argued that the international denition was by no means perfect and had to be altered to suit desertication peculiarities in China. The term huangmohua should be used in its broadest sense to encompass desert creeping, land degradation in the forms of soil erosion, waterlogging and soil salinization to avoid confusion. Unlike the international ones, these Chinese denitions place a much greater emphasis on the material (sand) that is essential in desertication initiation than on climatic, especially precipitation, variables that are incorporated in the denition implicitly. All sandy deserts and lands are located in northern China that has an arid or semi-arid climate (Fig. 1). The proposed adoption of huangmohua will undoubtedly make the concept of desertication in Chinese closer to its international meaning. Severity of desertication Historically, many parts of China are susceptible to desertication. All of them are concentrated in the north-western, northern and north-eastern (Three North) dryland (Fig. 2). Some of these historical events of desertication have been documented by various scholars. Zhu et al. (1986) cited notable instances of widespread desertication in the semi-arid steppe (A in Fig. 2) dating back to the Han Dynasty (202 BCAD 220). Dong et al. (1988) found that the Mu Us Sandy Land (B in Fig. 2) has existed since the Quaternary, even though its size uctuated over the years. It has been subject to the southward encroachment of a sandy desert since the

Figure 1. Distribution of sandy deserts (18) and lands (912) with respect to climatic zones in China. Sandy deserts and sandy lands are differentiated because the latter is formed out of human activities (Source: modied from Fullen & Mitchell, 1994).

422

Y. ZHA & J. GAO

Tang Dynasty (AD 618906) (Guo et al., 1989). As a remarkable example of desertication in Chinese history, the Ordos Plateau (Fig. 2) contains 120,000 km2 of land that were desertied during the prehistoric period (Guo et al., 1989). At its southern fringe a belt of migratory sand about 60 km wide formed along the Great Wall during the last three centuries. The history of desertication in the Taklimakan Desert (1 in Fig. 1 and F in Fig. 2) can be dated back to 31,000 years ago (Wang & Dong, 1994). At present China still faces a serious problem of desertication. Approximately 13% of the territory comprises of deserts and desertied land (Qu, 1980). It is estimated that 33 million km2 have been affected by desertication, accounting for 34% of total land area (Chen et al., 1996). Desertied land in China totals 11 million km2 by the account of Zhu & Cui (1996), but 22 million km2 by the account of Zhou & Pu (1996). None of the authors provided accuracy for their estimates. The sheer scale of the desertication problem, combined with its complex causes, makes accurate estimates impossible (Fullen & Mitchell, 1994). The massively disparate gures reported are attributed to three reasons: (a) denition of desertication. The land affected by a specic type of degradation was included in one gure, but not in another. Guo et al. (1989) reported a total of 13 million km2 of desert and desertied land without specifying the quantity for desertied land alone; (b) types of desertied land. Some authors included desertied land in arid and semi-arid areas whereas others also counted the land degraded by erosion in humid and semi-humid areas. Zhu

Figure 2. Distribution of historical and contemporary desertication in China. Numbers represent sandy deserts/lands; for their names refer to Fig. 1 (Source: modied from Sheehy, 1992).

DESERTIFICATION AND REHABILITATION, CHINA

423

and Cui (1996) included desertied land by water erosion (037 million km2) and the areas affected by physical and chemical erosion (038 million km2) in their estimate. The gure given by Zhou & Pu (1996) included land affected by soil erosion (179 million km2) and salinization (0065 million km2); and (c) degree of desertication. Areas already affected by desertication were included in one gure whereas areas vulnerable to desertication were also counted in another. For instance, Zhu et al. (1989) included 81,000 km2 of land susceptible to desertication in their estimate. According to Thomas (1993), hyperarid environments should not be considered desertied because they are desert-like in their natural state. Furthermore, vulnerability to desertication should be distinguished from desertication itself (Rhodes, 1991). The amount of desertied land estimated by different authors converges at around 334 million ha (Fig. 3) if the revised international denition of desertication by Rhodes (1991) is adopted. This trend of drastic reduction conrms that previous assessments of desertication may have over-estimated the worldwide extent of the phenomenon (Thomas, 193), at least for China. Desertied areas are widely scattered in a few clusters in northern drylands (Fig. 3). The most prominent cluster is formed by 207 agropastoral counties in 13 Three North provinces where 1095 million ha of land have been desertied, accounting for 92% of the total area in China (Hou, 1985). In this zone alone, 269% of the affected land is severely desertied, 257% strongly under development, and 474% under development. Characterized by a landform of partially stabilized sand dunes covered with shrubs, these areas are usually located at the periphery of a desert, oasis, or the lower stretch of a rive (Figs 2 and 3) (Guo et al., 1982). All of them have a patchy and fragmented pattern of spatial distribution (Zhu & Cui, 1996).

Figure 3. Distribution of contemporary desertication in China separated into actual and potential categories (Source: modied from Zhu, 1992).

424

Y. ZHA & J. GAO

The problem of contemporary desertication has worsened in a number of areas. In North China 50,000 km2 of land were desertied in the second half of this century (Guo et al., 1989). In the agropastoral zone (Fig. 2) desertied land increased from 137,000 km2 in the late 1950s to 176,088 km2 in the 1970s, with another 158,000 km2 potentially vulnerable to desertication (Wang, 1990). In the 1980s desertied areas expanded at an annual rate of 2103 km2 (Shou et al., 1992). Desertication of steppe grazing land throughout North China has reached crisis proportions (Sheehy, 1992). The percentage of desertied land in the Korqin Steppe (A in Fig. 2) grew from 20 in the 1950s to 52 in the late 1970s (Zhu et al., 1984a). Sandy land in Uxin Qi (an administrative unit equivalent of county), Inner Mongolia (Fig. 1) increased from 4193 km2 in 1957 to 5685 km2 in 1977 (Lin et al., 1983). Mobile and semi-mobile sand dunes encroached upon the oasis in the Gurban Tunggut Desert (2 in Fig. 1), Xinjiang Autonomous Region, by 0526 m annually during 19581986 (Anon, 1987). Affecting millions of people over a vast area, desertication has caused colossal environmental detriment and economic loss. Its direct destruction includes reduced soil fertility, degraded soil structure, and deteriorated vegetation quality (Zhu & Cui, 1996). Loss of soil nutrients by aeolian erosion totals 5600 tons, or the equivalent of fertilizers worth 17 billion yuan (Luo et al., 1994). It causes a direct economic loss estimated between US$23 billion (Anon, 1994; Chen et al., 1996). The indirect loss associated with desertication is 23 times more.

Causes of desertication Internationally, the causes of desertication have been identied as overcultivation, overgrazing, deforestation, and salinization (Goudie, 1990; Thomas & Middleton, 1994). These human-related factors have also been reported to cause desertication in China. Destructive human activities range from overcultivation, overgrazing of livestock, excessive gathering of fuelwood and plants for medicinal purposes, mining, to construction of transportation routes (Zhu et al., 1981; Sheehy, 1992). Under the same natural settings, plowing sandy land accelerates aeolian erosion by tens, even hundreds of times (Dong et al., 1987). Frequent ethnic wars, recurrent conversion and reversal of land use from crop to pasture triggered desertication 30 km south of the Great Wall in the 1670s (Fig. 2) (Bao et al., 1984). In addition, human errors in policymaking were responsible for rapid desertication in drought-prone sandy lands between the mid-1960s and mid-1970s (Zhu & Cui, 1996). Of the 34 million ha newly desertied land in the agropastoral north, 429% was caused by overcultivation, 311% by overgrazing, 222% by excessive collection of fuelwood, and the rest by mining and construction (Zhu et al., 1994b). Although not explicitly identied as a separate factor, overpopulation is the reason for most of the excessive human activities mentioned above. Zhu et al. (1984b) recommended that population be controlled to prevent desertication from worsening. Dong (1992) identied a close correlation between changes in desertication and populations of human beings and livestock. However, he questioned whether overpopulation caused desertication, a process arising from multiple elements. No quantitative relationship between population growth and desert expansion has been established yet. Unlike human-related factors, the environmental settings conductive to desertication in China are quite unique. Commonly identied ones include sandy, loose surfacial sediment deposits and the coincidence of droughts with the windy season

DESERTIFICATION AND REHABILITATION, CHINA

425

(Zhu & Cui, 1996). The former provides the materials to be transported, and the latter fuels the power to move them. No consensus has been reached regarding the exact role played by the two categories of factors. On the one hand, Dong (1992) argued that historical desertication was caused mainly by natural factors, especially climatic uctuation. It was found that desertication in the Mu Us Sandy Land (9 in Fig. 1) was caused primarily by climatic uctuation during the Ice Age, and secondly by modern tectonic activities and inappropriate human activities (Dong et al., 198). According to the Expedition Team of Academia Sinica (1978), desertication in ancient agricultural areas resulted from the worsened physical environment, especially climate change. On the other hand, many others are of the opinion that human factors are more important. The main reason for desertication in the Ordos Plateau (Fig. 2) lies not in climate change but in human activities (Hou, 1985). Human activities are largely responsible for desertication in arid and semi-arid China (Zhu, 1982). Desertication worsened in all areas heavily inuenced by human activities in north-east Urumqi (Fig. 1), but remained little changed wherever human inuence was small or nil (Liu & Jiang, 1996). After correlating the desertication rate in the Mu Us Sandy Land (9 in Fig. 1) with yearly precipitation, Luk (1983) found that droughts did not always lead to desert expansion, but excessive clearing of land for cultivation and grazing did. Sites of ruined ancient cities in the Mu Us Sandy Land convinced Lin et al. (1983) that desertication was not problematic in historic times. Instead, large-scale cultivation and grazing since the mid-seventeenth century triggered rapid desertication. The seeming contradiction of these ndings can be resolved by a simultaneous examination of both categories of factors. Anthropogenic factors are intrinsically interacting with environmental settings in desertication initiation and evolution. Neither of them can function independently without the other, and thus they should be analysed simultaneously. Based on the results from principal component analysis, Dong (1992) found that human factors accounted for 60% of the variation in desertication, and natural ones 40%. Feng (1987) reported that only 10% of the desertied land in China was caused by natural factors such as droughts and aeolian erosion, and the remaining 90% by human activities. Results published in the English literature contribute little to elucidate the debate. Le Hou rou (1992) thought that global warming could accelerate the process of e desertization. Similarly, Wang & Dong (1994) found that global warming would cause desertication in the Taklimakan Desert (1 in Fig. 1) to continue, and the process would be accelerated by human impact. Rising temperatures and declining rainfall for a period of 3050 years in Sudan may accelerate desertication there (Alvi, 1994). Because of the limited length of climatic records and thus the difculty in establishing long-term prediction of climate, the question whether continual climate change gives rise to desert expansion cannot be answered with condence (Anon, 1977). Indeed, it is difcult to separate human- and climatically-induced changes. Desertication research in the revisionist era requires an ongoing awareness of anthropogenic vs. climatic inuences on dryland resources (Rhodes, 1991). More detailed studies on the extent of desertication and its long-term monitoring at regional and national levels are needed for the realistic assessment of roles played by desertication-triggering factors (Thomas, 1993). In the absence of convincing evidences from the western literature, the conict of opinions is reconciled by taking into account the differential temporal and spatial scales of desertication initiation and development. While environmental conditions and physical factors created a fragile ecosystem and initiated the formation of deserts, human elements were principally responsible for their deterioration and expansion (Dong & Liu, 1993). Natural variables played a major role in historic desertication. Anthropogenic elements such as improper land management practices taking precedence over ecological principles are blamed for contemporary desertication. At

426

Y. ZHA & J. GAO

the regional level the physical elements are more important than the human ones whose importance becomes increasingly larger as the scale is progressively reduced to a local one.

Desertication rehabilitation The history of rehabilitating desertied land in China is essentially the history of converting it into productive uses in sandy areas (Chen et al., 1996). Most of the rehabilitating efforts concentrated on the agropastoral zone (Fig. 2) because 55 million people and 10 million ha of cropland and pasture have been affected by desertication (Guo et al., 1989). A prerequisite of a successful rehabilitation scheme is the identication of desertied areas and assessment of desertication severity.

Monitoring and assessment of desertication Historically, desertication information is obtained from ground surveys and expeditions. Such inefcient methods of information acquisition have gradually been replaced by the increasing use of small-scale aerial photographs (Zhu et al., 1984b; Shou et al., 1992). As a supplementary means, eld trips are carried out occasionally to verify the results obtained from photointerpretation and to assess their accuracy (Zha, 1989; Guo, 1990; Liu & Jiang, 1996). Since the emergence of space-borne remote sensing, satellite images such as Landsat Multispectral Scanner (MSS) and TM have been utilized to delineate the extent of desertied areas (Luk, 1983; Guo, 1990; Liu & Jiang, 1996). At a spatial resolution of 30 m, TM data enable them to be mapped at an accuracy level comparable to that from aerial photographs (Liu & Jiang, 1996). Desertication severity levels mapped from TM images are consistently within 90% of those obtained from colour infrared aerial photographs (Guo, 1990). Despite these high accuracy levels, satellite images have not completely eliminated the need for aerial photographs. The results interpreted from historical aerial photographs guided the mapping of desertied land from MSS data (Luk, 1983). Two methods have been used to process the remotely sensed data, manual interpretation for aerial photographs and satellite images, and digital analysis for satellite data (Luk, 1983; Guo, 1990; Liu & Jiang, 1996). Desertication monitoring comprises identication of changes in desertied areas, which can be accomplished by overlaying time-sequential data such as remotely sensed images. Comparison of one 1977 MSS image with one 1989 TM image revealed the shrinkage of vegetative cover in a 2100 km2 area near Urumqi (Fig. 1), Xinjiang, and the southward shift of a sandy desert (Liu & Jiang, 1996). Since satellite images were not available prior to the early 1970s, historical aerial photographs were relied upon to determine the expansion of desertied land (Bao et al., 1984). In the absence of historical aerial photographs, ground survey results were used as a surrogate (Lin et al., 1983). Comparison of the two sets of results could indicate the general trend of desertication change, but not the location where the changes had occured. Overlay of multiple images or maps is ideally carried out in a Geographic Information System (GIS). So far GIS has found limited applications in identifying desert expansion. Zha & Gao (1997) overlaid two desertication distribution maps of Yulin County (Fig. 1), Shaanxi Province, to identify the areas desertied or converted to productive uses between 1960 and 1987. The acquired spatially-based information facilitated the identication of desertication causes at some sites inside the study area. Wang & Kang (1990) outlined a prototype microcomputer-based information system for desertication rehabilitation, dynamic monitoring, and trend forecasting at the

DESERTIFICATION AND REHABILITATION, CHINA

427

country level. However, no further progress has been reported on the planned research. Various criteria have been proposed to assess desertication severity. Bao et al. (1984) employed the depth of underlying sand, the degree of aeolian erosion, and the amount of vegetative cover and shifting sand dunes to map severity at four levels (latent, ongoing, severe and most severe). Percentage of mobile sand dunes was also used to classify desertication as severe, strongly affected and under development (Zhu et al., 1984b). Zhu et al. (1981) applied a combination of the amount of aeolian erosion and the change in surface landforms. An annual removal of 3 cm and deposition of > 5 cm of sand were considered severe, < 1 cm of erosion and deposition slight. However, vegetative cover proves to be a more popular criterion, especially if the results are obtained from remotely sensed images. A vegetative cover of < 5, 15, 30 and 50% is considered, respectively, extremely severe, severe, moderate and slight (Guo, 1990). Similarly, Liu & Jiang (1996) considered a vegetative cover of < 5% extremely severe and < 20% severe. However, a vegetative cover of > 80% represents no desertication hazard. Instead of using a single factor, Dong (1996) derived desertication severity levels from weighted averaging of 16 desertication contributing factors, including potential hazard, current status, desertication rate, human population and livestock size. All these studies were carried out at the regional or local level. No research has been reported on the assessment and classication of desertication severity at the national level. GIS has not been utilized to map desertication severity or to assess desertication hazard and its environmental impact.

Desertication rehabilitation In sandy drylands desertication occurs in two manners, direct encroachment of mobile sand dunes upon grazing land, and deposition of drifting sand over grasses, both under the action of wind (Lin et al., 1983). Therefore, rehabilitating desertication is essentially to slow down wind velocity through increased surface roughness (Zou et al., 1981). Construction of engineering works and planting of vegetation are applied to halting the advance of migratory sand dunes (Dong et al., 1987). Engineering works such as straw checkerboards can effectively reduce wind velocity and minimize the amount of sand transported, even though their optimal width is still debatable (Feng et al., 1994). Checkerboards at a height of 01502 m above the ground increase the roughness of a sand surface by 400600 times, and reduce wind velocity by 2040% at a height of 05 m and by 10% at 2 m above the surface (Zou et al., 1981). The quantity of sand transported over a checkerboard is only 1% of that over a shifting sand dune (Zhu, 1992). Moreover, checkerboards increase soil organic content by 23-fold after a surface crust is formed. Soil crust with moss growing on it can resist aeolian erosion force within a speed as high as 25 m s1. Nevertheless, engineering works alone cannot eliminate desertication hazards on roads (Chen, 1992). If combined with vegetation networks, their effectiveness is considerably improved (Zou et al., 1981). Planting of shrubs and trees brings more ecological and economic benets from the control efforts, making it sustainable. The direct benets are decreased wind velocities, increased soil temperature and organic matter inputs from biomass, improved soil moisture retention, and reduced soil erosion (Yang, 1990; Fullen & Mitchell, 1994). Species of dwarf shrubs suitable for entraining sand include Salix avida, Hedysarum scopariu, and Caragana korshinkskii planted at an interval of 12 m. At a density of > 20%, shrubs can achieve the same effect as a 1 m by 1 m checkerboard (Yang, 1990). However, planted vegetation alone

428

Y. ZHA & J. GAO

in partially desertied areas cannot bring desertication under complete control, especially during its later stages of succession (Chen, 1981). Because of the signicance of vegetative cover in reducing wind speed and generating economic benets, prior to the 1970s biological means were relied upon exclusively to stabilize sand dunes while other factors were neglected (Shou et al., 1992). However, if the land is exploited beyond its carrying capacity, no single control measure can function effectively (Dong, 1992). It was realized later that desertication is a process resulting from multiple factors. Accordingly, a multi-disciplinary approach of rehabilitation and prevention was adopted. The measures were designed for rehabilitating the deteriorated ecosystem based on both ecological principles and economic return. The rehabilitation methods include regulating growth of cropland and livestock, reconverting infertile cropland at the margin of steppe grazing land to semi-natural ecosystems, and developing land use patterns that integrate combinations of grazing land, woodland and cropland (Sheehy, 1992). A ratio of 3:3:4 for land allocated to farming, pasture and forestry in semi-arid sandy areas can lead to an ecological balance (Zhu & Cui, 1996). This ratio varies with the severity of desertication. The more severely an area is desertied, the higher the proportions for woodland and pasture (Zhu et al., 1984b). With a combination of rehabilitation and preventive measures following basic ecological principles, desertication can be harnessed and desertied land be reclaimed for productive uses. Common land reclamation strategies include windbreaks, irrigation with silt-laden river water, and dune stabilization using straw checkerboards and planted xerophytes (Fullen & Mitchell, 1994). The disastrous consequence of the mistaken policy of stressing the paramount importance of grain yield in the 1970s has been corrected by reducing cropland if its cultivation is conducive to aeolian erosion and desertication (Lin et al., 1983). The effectiveness of these rehabilitating measures has not been comprehensively assessed. Zhu & Cui (1996) qualitatively outlined the successful measures in arid and semi-arid areas. Zha & Gao (1997) found planting grasses at the fringe of sandy land is the least effective as they are readily topped by the shifting sand dunes. Instead, scrubs and trees are more resistant to being buried by sand and thus more effective in halting desertication.

Outcome of desertication rehabilitation The achievements of tackling desertication are exemplied by the Three North project in the agropastoral zone of North China. Approved by the State Council in 1978, this programme of constructing shelter-belt systems was launched in an area of 4069 million km2 spreading across 13 provinces. Internationally renowned as Chinas Green Great Wall, this multiple-stage project is expected to be completed by the year 2025 when forest coverage will reach 1495%. In the rst stage 79 million ha of protective forests were planted (Guo et al., 1989), bringing forest cover from 505% in 1978 to 709 in 1989 (Zhu, 1990). Of the 5736 km2 of mobile sand dunes in the region, 3068 km2 have been stabilized (Yang, 1990). If they function as anticipated, the farmland-protective forests will protect 85 million ha of cropland and increase grain yield by 55 million tons. The direct economic benets from the project are estimated at 2555 billion yuan, or 27 times the initial investment. Valued at 446 billion yuan, the indirect benets come from increased grain yield, soil conservation, sand xation and protection of pasture. However, as unveiled by observations of areas planted with trees, the actual achievements are much less spectacular than reported due to the low survival rate of the trees (Becker, 1985). At a smaller scale, the reversion of desertied land to productive uses has taken place in a number of areas. A shelter belt of 170 km long by 300400 m wide has been

DESERTIFICATION AND REHABILITATION, CHINA

429

established in north-east Ulan Buh Desert (7 in Fig. 1) in Inner Mongolia, protecting tens of thousand hectares of rangeland and cropland in more than 150 counties (Qu, 1980). Thanks to decades of desertication control efforts, oasis area in the southeastern Tengger Desert (6 in Fig. 1) increased by 120 km2 between 19591990, with the reclaimed land used for cropping, orchards, forestry, and shelter belts (Zhu, 1992). Desertied land in northern Shaanxi Province (around 9 in Fig. 1) has been reclaimed for farmland and woodland along the river banks and in low-lying moist alluvial fans (Bao et al., 1984). Although the moderately and slightly desertied areas in Yulin Country (Fig. 1), Shaanxi Province are predicted to increase by 104,000 ha, the most severely affected area is forecast to decrease by 190,000 ha, forming an overall decreasing trend (Kang et al., 1995).

Summary and conclusions Enormous efforts have gone toward tackling desertication in China since the United Nations held its rst conference on combating desertication 20 years ago. These efforts concentrated on dening desertication, determining its causes, assessing its spatial distribution and severity, and rehabilitating desertied land into productive uses. Some of the problems facing Chinese scholars are identical to those facing their western counterparts. These issues include how to dene desertication properly and how to assess the exact role played by human-related and environmental factors in desertication. Due to the insufcient amount of data collected, it is difcult to disentangle the impact of anthropogenic desertication effectively from that of environmental desertication. Because of the pressure generated by an ever increasing population and dwindling arable land in China, it is of paramount importance to rehabilitate the land lost to desertication to productive uses. Consequently, restoration of desertied land makes up a huge portion of the scientic endeavour in desertication research. A disproportionate amount of emphasis is placed on desertication control whereas insufcient attention is given to prevention. Subsequently, desertied land is rehabilitated to productive uses on the one hand, but on the other, formerly stabilized sandy land is encroached upon by shifting sand dunes. In taming desertication by biological means, huge efforts are devoted to planting grasses and tree saplings. However, inadequate efforts are made to ensure their survival and the sustainability of the rehabilitation programme. These earlier problems have been remedied after the realization that desertication resulted from a variety of factors, both human activities and natural settings. The multi-disciplinary approach of rehabilitation and prevention based on ecological principles and economic return has achieved much more success in rehabilitating the deteriorated ecosystem than the biological means. To conclude, China is facing a serious desertication problem. Most of the affected areas are located in the arid and semi-arid north. They are caused by both environmental settings and inappropriate human activities including overcultivation, overgrazing, and excessive gathering of fuelwood and plant species for medicinal purposes. The natural settings are important to the initial formation of desert conditions in historical times, whereas anthropogenic factors are critical to contemporary desertication. After preventive measures following sound ecological principles were adopted, the desertication trend has been reversed at various geographic scales. Engineering measures alone are not so effective in halting the encroachment of sand dunes as biological measures that can bring more economic return from the rehabilitating efforts. The multi-disciplinary, ecologically-sound rehabilitating approach proves to be most effective in restoring desertied land to productive uses.
Jay Gao would like to thank the University of Auckland for granting him research leave during which this research was undertaken.

430

Y. ZHA & J. GAO

References
Alvi, S.H. (1994). Climatic changes, desertication and the Republic of Sudan. GeoJournal, 33: 393399. Anon (1977). Desertication: an overview. In: Secretariate of the UNCOD (Ed.), Desertication: its causes and consequences, pp. 161. Oxford: Pergamon Press. 448 pp. Anon (1977). Desertication in Xinjiang Autonomous Region gets worse day by day. Geographical Knowledge, 11: 32 (Reprinted from Jingji Ribao, 6 July 1987). Anon (1994). Desertication control. In: State Planning Commission and State Science Commission (Ed.), Chinas Agenda 21, pp. 142151. Beijing: Chinese Environment Science Publishing House. 192 pp. Aubr ville, A. (1949). Climats, Forts, et Dsertication de lAfrique Tropicale. Societe de Editions e e e Geographiques. Paris: Martime et Coloniales. 255 pp. Bao, Y., Wen, Z., Dong, S., Zhang, J. & Yang, T. (1984). Inventorying desertication types and its prevention in northern Shaanxi Province. Journal of Desert Research, 4(2): 3544. Becker, J. (1985). Sand trickles through Chinas other great wall. New Science, October 24. Chen, W. (1981). The changes in soil properties after an effort in articial sand-xation and plantation in the Shapotou area. Journal of Desert Research, 1(1): 4048. Chen, G. (1991). On desertication and aeolian sandy land. Research of Arid Areas, 8: 5760. Chen, G. (1992). Effect of sand-drifting prevention on roads in the Tengger Desert. Journal of Desert Research, 12(3): 3841. Chen, G., Dong, Z. & Yan, P. (1996). Desertication: international research topics and research strategies of China. Exploration of Nature, 15: 15. Dong, Y. (1992). Role of human factors in desertication. Journal of Desert Research, 12(1): 1626. Dong, Y. (1996). Assessment of hazard degree and analysis of desertication trend in sandy China. Journal of Desert Research, 16(2): 127131. Dong, Y. & Liu, Y. (1993). Review and prospect of the studies on desertication in China. Geographical Research, 12(2): 94102. Dong, G., Li, C. & Jin, J. (1987). Some results of simulated experimentation on aeolian erosion using a wind tunnel. Chinese Science Bulletin, 32: 297301. Dong, G., Shen, J., Jin, J. & Gao, S. (1988). The conceptualization of desertication and desertization. Arid Land Geography, 11: 5861. Dregne, H.E. (1983). Desertication of Arid Lands. London: Harwood Academic Publishers. 242 pp. Expedition Team of Academia Sinica (1978), Soil Geography in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region and West of Northeast China, pp. 1228. Beijing: Science Publishing House. Feng, J. (1987). Willing to be the foundation upon which desert science is developed: a visit with Professor Zhu Zhenda of the Lanzhou IDRAS. Geographical Knowledge, 12: 2021. Feng, L., Lu, J. & Di, Y. (1994). Review on the prevention of sand damage to railway lines in desert areas of China. Journal of Desert Research, 14(3): 4753. Fullen, M.A. & Mitchell, D.J. (1994). Desertication and reclamation in north-central China. Ambio, 23: 131135. Glantz, M.H. & Orlovsky, N. (1983). Desertication: a review of the concept. Desertication Control Bulletin, 9: 1522. Goudie, A.S. (1990). Desert degradation. In: Goudie, A.S. (Ed.), Techniques for Desert Reclamation, pp. 133. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. 271 pp. Guo, S. (1990). Application of remote sensing imagery in studying desertication in Yulin Country. In: Wang, C. (Ed.), Comprehensive Study on the Forested Areas in the Loess Plateau, pp. 188194. Beijing: Science and Technology Publishing House. 402 pp. Guo, S.L., Qi, W.H. & Li, L.X. (1982). Use of the catastrophe theory model to study the process of desertication an example of sandy land of northeast China. Acta Geographica Sinica, 37: 183193. Guo, H., Wu, D. & Zhu, H. (1989). Land restoration in China. Journal of Applied Ecology, 26: 787792. Hou, R. (1985). Ancient city ruins in the deserts of the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region of China. Journal of Historical Geography, 11: 241252. Kang, G., Yao, F., Wang, X. & Dong, Y. (1995). Application of gray prediction theory in desertication monitoring. Journal of Desert Research, 15: 353356.

DESERTIFICATION AND REHABILITATION, CHINA

431

Le Hou rou, H.N. (1992). Climatic change and desertization. Impact of Science on Society, 166: e 183201. Li, X. (1988). Explanation of barrenication, sandication, and desiccation and their uses in China. In: China Natural Resource Research Committee (Ed.), Study on Natural Resources in Arid and Semi-arid China, pp. 2326. Beijing: Science Publishing House. 230 pp. Lin, Y., Chen, C.K. & Chen, C.T. (1983). A discussion on the direction of production development and way of halting desertication in the Mu Us sandy land, Ordos Plateau based on its physical conditions. Acta Geographica Sinica, 38: 230240. Liu, X. & Jiang, X. (1996). Extraction of desertication information from the optical and digital processing of multiple-date remotely sensed images. Arid Land Geography, 19(3): 16. Luk, S.H. (1983). Recent trends of desertication in the Maowusu Desert, China. Environmental Conservation, 10: 213224. Luo, B., Zhou, S., Zhang, X. & Meng, X. (1994). World desertication status and the successful experience of desertication control in China. Journal of Desert Research, 14(2): 4954. Qu, G. (1980). Deserts in China and their prevention and control. Mazingira, 4(2): 7479. Rapp, A. (1974). A review of desertization in Africa water, vegetation and man. Sweden: Secretariat for International Ecology, Report No. 1. 77 pp. Rhodes, S.L. (1991). Rethinking desertication: what do we know and what have we learned? World Development, 21: 11371143. Sheehy, D.P. (1992). A perspective on desertication of grazingland ecosystems in North China. Ambio, 21: 303307. Shou, W., Li, N., Zhou, J., Zhang, X. & Zhao, Y. (1992). Discussion on the fundamental models of controlling desertied land in China. Journal of Desert Research, 12(3): 2227. Thomas, D.S.G. (1993). Sandstorm in a teacup? Understanding desertication. The Geographical Journal, 159: 318331. Thomas, D.S.G. & Middleton, N.J. (1994). Desertication: exploring the myth. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. 194 pp. UNCOD (1978). United Nations Conference on Desertication, Round-up, Plan of Action and Resolutions. New York: United Nations. 43 pp. Wang, S. (1990). Ecological environment in north, northwest and northeast China. In: He, H. (Ed.), Study on Remote Sensing of Ecology and Environment, pp. 115. Beijing: Science Publishing House. 375 pp. Wang, Y. & Dong, G. (1994). Sand sea history of the Taklimakan for the past 30,000 years. Geograska Annaler, 76A(3): 131141. Wang, Y. & Kang, G. (1990). A microcomputer-based desertication environment information system. In: ESCAP/UNEP (Ed.), Remote Sensing for Desertication and Vegetation Mapping, pp. 9598. Tehran: UNEP. 134 pp. Wu, Z. (1965). Observations on sand dune movement and preliminary study on the prevention of desertication hazard. Research on Desertication Control, 7: 714. Yang, G. (1987). Discussion on several issues related to desertication. Research on Arid Regions, 1987: 7377. Yang, Z. (1990). Benet analysis of the Three North protective forest in Yulin prefecture. In: Wang, C. (Ed.), Comprehensive Study of the Forested Areas in the Loess Plateau Using Remote Sensing, pp. 112121. Beijing: Science and Technology Publishing House of China. 402 pp. Zha, Y. (1989). Research on Quantifying the Desertication Processes Using Remote Sensing, Unpublished Masters thesis, Institute of Remote Sensing Applications, Academia Sinica, Beijing. 34 pp. Zha, Y. & Gao, J. (1997). Effectiveness of measures to combat desertication in Yulin Country, Shaanxi, Western China using remote sensing and GIS. Applied Geography (submitted). Zhou, J. & Pu, L. (1996). Rustic opinions on concept of desertication and its practical signicance. Journal of Desert Research, 16: 191195. Zhu, Z. (1982). Historical physical geography. In: Physical Geography of China (Ed.), pp. 249260. Beijing: Science Publishing House. 262 pp. Zhu, Z. (1986). Problems of land desertication in humid and semi-humid zones. Journal of Desert Research, 6(4): 112. Zhu, J. (1990). Comprehensive evaluation of the ecological benet of the entire Three North Protective Forest. In: Nu, X. & He, H. (Eds), Study on Remote Sensing of Ecology and Environment, pp. 1625. Beijing: Science Publishing House. 375 pp.

432

Y. ZHA & J. GAO

Zhu, Z. (1992). China: desertication mapping and desert reclamation. In: UNEP (Ed.), World Atlas of Desertication, pp. 4649. London: Edward Arnold. 69 pp. Zhu, Z. & Cui, S. (1996). Distribution patterns of desertied land and assessment of its control measures in China. China Environmental Science, 16: 328334. Zhu, Z. & Liu, S. (1981). Desertication Process in North China and Its Regional Control. Beijing: Chinese Forestry Publishing House. 83 pp. Zhu, Z., Guo, H. & Wu, G. (1964). Study on sand dune movement near the oasis in southwest Taklimakan Desert. Acta Geographica Sinica, 30(1): 3550. Zhu, Z., Liu, S. & Xiao, L. (1981). The characteristics of the environment vulnerable to desertication and the ways of its control in steppe zone. Journal of Desert Research, 1(1): 212. Zhu, Z., Liu, S. & Di, X. (1984a). Retrospect of the history of desert research and problems in the eld in China. Journal of Desert Research, 4(2): 37. Zhu, Z., Liu, S. & Yang, Y. (1984b). The possibilities and realities of re-managing desertied land in the interlacing agropastoral areas in northern China. Scientia Geographica Sinica, 4(9): 197206. Zhu, Z., Liu, S., Wu, Z. & Di, X.M. (1986). Deserts in China. Lanzhou: Institute of Desert Research, Academia Sinica. 132 pp. Zhu, Z., Liu, S. & Di, X. (1989). Desertication and its Control in China. Beijing: Science Publishing House. 126 pp. Zou, B., Cong, Z. & Liu, S. (1981). A preliminary observation on the basic characteristics of sand-carrying currents and the effects of adopted prevention and control measures in Shapotou. Journal of Desert Research, 1(1): 3339.