Chng I. CU TAO NGUYN T H THNG TUN HON CC NGUYN T I. Cu to nguyn t.

. Nguyn t gm ht nhn tch in dng (Z+) tm v c Z electron chuyn ng xung quanh ht nhn. 1. Ht nhn: Ht nhn gm: Proton: in tch 1+, khi lng bng 1 .v.C, k hiu in tch). (ch s ghi trn l khi lng, ch s ghi di l

Ntron: Khng mang in tch, khi lng bng 1 .v.C k hiu Nh vy, in tch Z ca ht nhn bng tng s proton. * Khi lng ca ht nhn coi nh bng khi lng ca nguyn t (v khi lng ca electron nh khng ng k) bng tng s proton (k hiu l Z) v s ntron (k hiu l N): Z + N A. A c gi l s khi. * Cc dng ng v khc nhau ca mt nguyn t l nhng dng nguyn t khc nhau c cng s proton nhng khc s ntron trong ht nhn, do c cng in tch ht nhn nhng khc nhau v khi lng nguyn t, tc l s khi A khc nhau. 2. Phn ng ht nhn: Phn ng ht nhn l qu trnh lm bin i nhng ht nhn ca nguyn t ny thnh ht nhn ca nhng nguyn t khc. Trong phn ng ht nhn, tng s proton v tng s khi lun c bo ton. V d:

Vy X l C. Phng trnh phn ng ht nhn. 3. Cu to v electron ca nguyn t. Nguyn t l h trung ho in, nn s electron chuyn ng xung quanh ht nhn bng s in tch dng Z ca ht nhn. Cc electron trong nguyn t c chia thnh cc lp, phn lp, obitan. a) Cc lp electron. K t pha ht nhn tr ra c k hiu: Bng s th t n = 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Bng ch tng ng: K L M N O P Q Nhng electron thuc cng mt lp c nng lng gn bng nhau. Lp electron cng gn ht nhn c mc nng lng cng thp, v vy lp K c nng lng thp nht. S electron ti a c trong lp th n bng 2n2. C th s electron ti a trong cc lp nh sau: Lp : KLMN S electron ti a: 2 8 18 32 b) Cc phn lp electron. Cc electron trong cng mt lp li c chia thnh cc phn lp. Lp th n c n phn lp, cc phn lp c k hiu bng ch : s, p, d, f, k t ht nhn tr ra. Cc electron trong cng phn lp c nng lng bng nhau. Lp K (n = 1) c 1 phn lp : 1s. Lp L (n = 2) c 2 phn lp : 2s, 2p. Lp M (n = 3) c 3 phn lp :3s, 3p, 3d. Lp N (n = 4) c 4 phn lp : 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f. Th t mc nng lng ca cc phn lp xp theo chiu tng dn nh sau : 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s S electron ti a ca cc phn lp nh sau: Phn lp : s p d f. S electron ti a: 2 6 10 14.

c) Obitan nguyn t: l khu vc khng gian xung quanh ht nhn m kh nng c mt electron l ln nht (khu vc c mt m my electron ln nht). S v dng obitan ph thuc c im mi phn lp electron. Phn lp s c 1 obitan dng hnh cu. Phn lp p c 3 obitan dng hnh s 8 ni. Phn lp d c 5 obitan, phn lp f c 7 obitan. Obitan d v f c dng phc tp hn. Mi obitan ch cha ti a 2 electron c spin ngc nhau. Mi obitan c k hiu bng 1 vung (cn gi l lng t), trong nu ch c 1 electron ta gi l electron c thn, nu 2 electron ta gi cc electron ghp i. Obitan khng c electron gi l obitan trng. 4. Cu hnh electron v s phn b electron theo obitan. a) Nguyn l vng bn: trong nguyn t, cc electron ln lt chim cc mc nng lng t thp n cao. V d: Vit cu hnh electron ca Fe (Z = 26). 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2 Nu vit theo th t cc mc nng lng th cu hnh trn c dng. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 Trn c s cu hnh electron ca nguyn t, ta d dng vit cu hnh electron ca cation hoc anion to ra t nguyn t ca nguyn t . V d: Cu hnh electron ca Fe2+ : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 Fe3+ : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5. i vi anion th thm vo lp ngoi cng s electron m nguyn t nhn. V d: S(Z = 16) : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4. S2- : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 Cn hiu rng : electron lp ngoi cng theo cu hnh electron ch khng theo mc nng lng. 5. Nng lng ion ho, i lc vi electron, m in. a) Nng lng ion ho (I). Nng lng ion ho l nng lng cn tiu th tch 1e ra khi nguyn t v bin nguyn t thnh ion dng. Nguyn t cng d nhng e (tnh kim loi cng mnh) th I c tr s cng nh. b) i lc vi electron (E). i lc vi electron l nng lng gii phng khi kt hp 1e vo nguyn t, bin nguyn t thnh ion m. Nguyn t c kh nng thu e cng mnh (tnh phi kim cng mnh) th E c tr s cng ln. c) m in (). m in l i lng c trng cho kh nng ht cp electron lin kt ca mt nguyn t trong phn t. m in c tnh t I v E theo cng thc: Nguyn t c cng ln th nguyn t ca n c kh nng ht cp e lin kt cng mnh. m in thng dng tin on mc phn cc ca lin kt v xt cc hiu ng dch chuyn electron trong phn t. Nu hai nguyn t c bng nhau s to thnh lin kt cng ho tr thun tu. Nu m in khc nhau nhiu ( > 1,7) s to thnh lin kt ion. Nu m in khc nhau khng nhiu (0 < < 1,7) s to thnh lin kt cng ho tr c cc. II. H thng tun hon cc nguyn t ho hc. 1. nh lut tun hon. Tnh cht ca cc nguyn t cng nh thnh phn, tnh cht ca cc n cht v hp cht ca chng bin thin tun hon theo chiu tng in tch ht nhn. 2. Bng h thng tun hon. Ngi ta sp xp 109 nguyn t ho hc ( tm c) theo chiu tng dn ca in tch ht nhn Z thnh mt bng gi l bng h thng tun hon. C 2 dng bng thng gp.

a. Dng bng di: C 7 chu k (mi chu k l 1 hng), 16 nhm. Cc nhm c chia thnh 2 loi: Nhm A (gm cc nguyn t s v p) v nhm B (gm nhng nguyn t d v f). Nhng nguyn t nhm B u l kim loi. b. Dng bng ngn: C 7 chu k (chu k 1, 2, 3 c 1 hng, chu k 4, 5, 6 c 2 hng, chu k 7 ang xy dng mi c 1 hng); 8 nhm. Mi nhm c 2 phn nhm: Phn nhm chnh (gm cc nguyn t s v p - ng vi nhm A trong bng di) v phn nhm ph (gm cc nguyn t d v f - ng vi nhm B trong bng di). Hai h nguyn t f (h lantan v h actini) c xp thnh 2 hng ring. Trong chng trnh PTTH v trong cun sch ny s dng dng bng ngn. 3. Chu k. Chu k gm nhng nguyn t m nguyn t ca chng c cng s lp electron. Mi chu k u m u bng kim loi kim, kt thc bng kh him. Trong mt chu k, i t tri sang phi theo chiu in tch ht nhn tng dn. - S electron lp ngoi cng tng dn. - Lc ht gia ht nhn v electron ho tr lp ngoi cng tng dn, lm bn knh nguyn t gim dn. Do : + m in ca cc nguyn t tng dn. + Tnh kim loi gim dn, tnh phi kim tng dn. + Tnh baz ca cc oxit, hiroxit gim dn, tnh axit ca chng tng dn. - Ho tr cao nht i vi oxi tng t I n VII. Ho tr i vi hiro gim t IV (nhm IV) n I (nhm VII). 4. Nhm v phn nhm. Trong mt phn nhm chnh (nhm A) khi i t trn xung di theo chiu tng in tch ht nhn. - Bn knh nguyn t tng (do s lp e tng) nn lc ht gia ht nhn v cc electron lp ngoi cng yu dn, tc l kh nng nhng electron ca nguyn t tng dn. Do : + Tnh kim loi tng dn, tnh phi kim gim dn. + Tnh baz ca cc oxit, hiroxit tng dn, tnh axit ca chng gim dn. - Ho tr cao nht vi oxi (ho tr dng) ca cc nguyn t bng s th t ca nhm cha nguyn t . 5. Xt on tnh cht ca cc nguyn t theo v tr trong bng HTTH. Khi bit s th t ca mt nguyn t trong bng HTTH (hay in tch ht nhn Z), ta c th suy ra v tr v nhng tnh cht c bn ca n. C 2 cch xt on.: Cch 1: Da vo s nguyn t c trong cc chu k. Chu k 1 c 2 nguyn t v Z c s tr t 1 n 2. Chu k 2 c 8 nguyn t v Z c s tr t 3 10. Chu k 3 c 8 nguyn t v Z c s tr t 11 18. Chu k 4 c 18 nguyn t v Z c s tr t 19 36. Chu k 5 c 18 nguyn t v Z c s tr t 37 54. Chu k 6 c 32 nguyn t v Z c s tr t 55 86. Ch : - Cc chu k 1, 2, 3 c 1 hng, cc nguyn t u thuc phn nhm chnh (nhm A). - Chu k ln (4 v 5) c 18 nguyn t, dng bng ngn c xp thnh 2 hng. Hng trn c 10 nguyn t, trong 2 nguyn t u thuc phn nhm chnh (nhm A), 8 nguyn t cn li phn nhm ph (phn nhm ph nhm VIII c 3 nguyn t). Hng di c 8 nguyn t, trong 2 nguyn t u phn nhm ph, 6 nguyn t sau thuc phn nhm chnh. iu th hin s sau:

Du * : nguyn t phn nhm chnh. Du : nguyn t phn nhm ph. V d: Xt on v tr ca nguyn t c Z = 26. V chu k 4 cha cc nguyn t Z = 19 36, nn nguyn t Z = 26 thuc chu k 4, hng trn, phn nhm ph nhm VIII. l Fe. Cch 2: Da vo cu hnh electrong ca cc nguyn t theo nhng quy tc sau: - S lp e ca nguyn t bng s th t ca chu k.

- Cc nguyn t ang xy dng e, lp ngoi cng (phn lp s hoc p) cn cc lp trong bo ho th thuc phn nhm chnh. S th t ca nhm bng s e lp ngoi cng. - Cc nguyn t ang xy dng e lp st lp ngoi cng ( phn lp d) th thuc phn nhm ph. V d: Xt on v tr ca nguyn t c Z = 25. Cu hnh e: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s2. - C 4 lp e chu k 4. ang xy dng e phn lp 3d thuc phn nhm ph. Nguyn t ny l kim loi, khi tham gia phn ng n c th cho i 2e 4s v 5e 3d, c ho tr cao nht 7+. Do , n phn nhm ph nhm VII. l M

CHNG II. LIN KT HOA HOC 1. Lin kt ion. Lin kt ion c hnh thnh gia cc nguyn t c m in khc nhau nhiu ( 1,7). Khi nguyn t c m in ln (cc phi kim in hnh) thu e ca nguyn t c m in nh (cc kim loi in hnh) to thnh cc ion ngc du. Cc ion ny ht nhau bng lc ht tnh in to thnh phn t. V d : Lin kt ion c c im: Khng bo ho, khng nh hng, do hp cht ion to thnh nhng mng li ion. Lin kt ion cn to thnh trong phn ng trao i ion. V d, khi trn dd CaCl2 vi dd Na2CO3 to ra kt ta CaCO3:

3. Lin kt cng ho tr: 3. 1. c im. Lin kt cng ho tr c to thnh do cc nguyn t c m in bng nhau hoc khc nhau khng nhiu gp chung vi nhau cc e ho tr to thnh cc cp e lin kt chuyn ng trong cng 1 obitan (xung quanh c 2 ht nhn) gi l obitan phn t. Da vo v tr ca cc cp e lin kt trong phn t, ngi ta chia thnh : 3.2. Lin kt cng ho tr khng cc. To thnh t 2 nguyn t ca cng mt nguyn t. V d : H : H, Cl : Cl. Cp e lin kt khng b lch v pha nguyn t no. Ho tr ca cc nguyn t c tnh bng s cp e dng chung. 3. 3. Lin kt cng ho tr c cc. To thnh t cc nguyn t c m in khc nhau khng nhiu. V d : H : Cl. Cp e lin kt b lch v pha nguyn t c m in ln hn. Ho tr ca cc nguyn t trong lin kt cng ho tr c cc c tnh bng s cp e dng chung. Nguyn t c m in ln c ho tr m, nguyn t kia ho tr dng. V d, trong HCl, clo ho tr 1 , hiro ho tr 1+. 3.4. Lin kt cho - nhn (cn gi l lin kt phi tr). l loi lin kt cng ho tr m cp e dng chung ch do 1 nguyn t cung cp v c gi l nguyn t cho e. Nguyn t kia c obitan trng (obitan khng c e) c gi l nguyn t nhn e. Lin kt cho - nhn c k hiu bng mi tn () c chiu t cht cho sang cht nhn. V d qu trnh hnh thnh ion NH4+ (t NH3 v H+) c bn cht lin kt cho - nhn.

Sau khi lin kt cho - nhn hnh thnh th 4 lin kt N - H hon ton nh nhau. Do , ta c th vit CTCT v CTE ca NH+4 nh sau:

CTCT v CTE ca HNO3:

iu kin to thnh lin kt cho - nhn gia 2 nguyn t A B l: nguyn t A c 8e lp ngoi, trong c cp e t do(cha tham gia lin kt) v nguyn t B phi c obitan trng. 3.5. Lin kt v lin kt . V bn cht chng l nhng lin kt cng ho tr. a) Lin kt . c hnh thnh do s xen ph 2 obitan (ca 2e tham gia lin kt)dc theo trc lin kt. Tu theo loi obitan tham gia lin kt l obitan s hay p ta c cc loi lin kt kiu s-s, s-p, p-p: Obitan lin kt c tnh i xng trc, vi trc i xng l trc ni hai ht nhn nguyn t. Nu gia 2 nguyn t ch hnh thnh mt mi lin kt n th l lin kt . Khi , do tnh i xng ca obitan lin kt , hai nguyn t c th quay quanh trc lin kt. b) Lin kt . c hnh thnh do s xen ph gia cc obitan p hai bn trc lin kt. Khi gia 2 nguyn t hnh thnh lin kt bi th c 1 lin kt , cn li l lin kt . V d trong lin kt (bn nht) v 2 lin kt (km bn hn). Lin kt khng c tnh i xng trc nn 2 nguyn t tham gia lin kt khng c kh nng quay t do quanh trc lin kt. l nguyn nhn gy ra hin tng ng phn cis-trans ca cc hp cht hu c c ni i. 3.6. S lai ho cc obitan. Khi gii thch kh nng hnh thnh nhiu loi ho tr ca mt nguyn t (nh ca Fe, Cl, C) ta khng th cn c vo s e c thn hoc s e lp ngoi cng m phi dng khi nim mi gi l "s lai ho obitan". Ly nguyn t C lm v d: Cu hnh e ca C (Z = 6).

Nu da vo s e c thn: C c ho tr II. Trong thc t, C c ho tr IV trong cc hp cht hu c. iu ny c gii thch l do s "lai ho" obitan 2s vi 3 obitan 2p to thnh 4 obitan q mi (obitan lai ho) c nng lng ng nht. Khi 4e (2e ca obitan 2s v 2e ca obitan 2p)chuyn ng trn 4 obitan lai ho q v tham gia lin kt lm cho cacbon c ho tr IV. Sau khi lai ho, cu hnh e ca C c dng:

Cc kiu lai ho thng gp. a) Lai ho sp3. l kiu lai ho gia 1 obitan s vi 3 obitan p to thnh 4 obitan lai ho q nh hng t tm n 4 nh ca t din u, cc trc i xng ca chng to vi nhau nhng gc bng 109o28'. Kiu lai ho sp3 c gp trong cc nguyn t O, N, C nm trong phn t H2O, NH3, NH+4, CH4, b) Lai ho sp2. l kiu lai ho gia 1 obitan s v 2obitan p to thnh 3 obitan lai ho q nh hng t tm n 3 nh ca tam gic u. Lai ho sp2 c gp trong cc phn t BCl3, C2H4, c) Lai ho sp. l kiu lai ho gia 1 obitan s v 1 obitan p to ra 2 obitan lai ho q nh hng thng hng vi nhau. Lai ho sp c gp trong cc phn t BCl2, C2H2, 4. Lin kt hiro Lin kt hiro l mi lin kt ph (hay mi lin kt th 2) ca nguyn t H vi nguyn t c m in ln (nh F, O, N). Tc l nguyn t hiro linh ng b ht bi cp e cha lin kt ca nguyn t c m in ln hn. Lin kt hiro c k hiu bng 3 du chm ( ) v khng tnh ho tr cng nh s oxi ho. Lin kt hiro c hnh thnh gia cc phn t cng loi. V d: Gia cc phn t H2O, HF, ru, axit

hoc gia cc phn t khc loi. V d: Gia cc phn t ru hay axit vi H2O:

hoc trong mt phn t (lin kt hiro ni phn t). V d :

Do c lin kt hiro to thnh trong dd nn: + Tnh axit ca HF gim i nhiu (so vi HBr, HCl). + Nhit si v tan trong nc ca ru v axit hu c tng ln r rt so vi cc hp cht c KLPT tng ng.

CHNG III. DUNG DICH - IN LI pH I. DUNG DICH 1. nh ngha. Dd l h ng th gm hai hay nhiu cht m t l thnh phn ca chng c th thay i trong mt gii hn kh rng. Dd gm: cc cht tan v dung mi. Dung mi l mi trng phn b cc phn t hoc ion cht tan. Thng gp dung mi lng v quan trng nht l H2O. 2. Qu trnh ho tan. Khi ho tan mt cht thng xy ra 2 qu trnh. Ph hu cu trc ca cc cht tan. Tng tc ca dung mi vi cc tiu phn cht tan. Ngoi ra cn xy ra hin tng ion ho hoc lin hp phn t cht tan (lin kt hiro). Ngc vi qu trnh ho tan l qu trnh kt tinh. Trong dd, khi tc ho tan bng tc kt tinh, ta c dd bo ho. Lc cht tan khng tan thm c na. 3. tan ca cc cht. tan c xc nh bng lng cht tan bo ho trong mt lng dung mi xc nh. Nu trong 100 g H2O ho tan c: >10 g cht tan: cht d tan hay tan nhiu. <1 g cht tan: cht tan t. < 0,01 g cht tan: cht thc t khng tan. 4. Tinh th ngm nc. Qu trnh lin kt cc phn t (hoc ion) cht tan vi cc phn t dung mi gi l qu trnh sonvat ho. Nu dung mi l H2O th l qu trnh hirat ho. Hp cht to thnh gi l sonvat (hay hirat). V d: CuSO4.5H2O ; Na2SO4.1OH2O. Cc sonvat (hirat) kh bn vng. Khi lm bay hi dd thu c chng dng tinh th, gi l nhng tinh th ngm H2O. Nc trong tinh th gi l nc kt tinh. Mt s tinh th ngm nc thng gp: FeSO4.7H2O, Na2SO4.1OH2O, CaSO4.2H2O. 5. Nng dd Nng dd l i lng biu th lng cht tan c trong mt lng nht nh dd hoc dung mi. a) Nng phn trm (C%). Nng phn trm c biu th bng s gam cht tan c trong 100 g dd.

Trong : mt, mdd l khi lng ca cht tan v ca dd. V l th tch dd (ml), D l khi lng ring ca dd (g.ml) b) Nng mol (CM). Nng mol c biu th bng s mol cht tan trong 1 lt dd. K hiu l M.

c) Quan h gia C% v CM.

V d : Tnh nng mol ca dd axit H2SO4 20%, c D = 1,143 g.ml Gii : Theo cng thc trn ta c :

II. S IN LI 1. nh ngha. S in li l qu trnh phn li cht tan thnh cc ion di tc dng ca cc phn t dung mi (thng l nc) hoc khi nng chy. Ion dng gi l cation, ion m gi l anion. Cht in ly l nhng cht tan trong nc to thnh dd dn in nh phn ly thnh cc ion. V d: Cc cht mui axit, baz. Cht khng in li l cht khi tan trong nc to thnh dd khng dn in. V d: Dd ng, dd ru, Nu cht tan cu to t cc tinh th ion (nh NaCl, KOH,) th qu trnh in ly l qu trnh in li l qu trnh tch cc ion khi mng li tinh th ri sau ion kt hp vi cc phn t nc to thnh ion hirat. Nu cht tan gm cc phn t phn cc (nh HCl, HBr, HNO3,) th u tin xy ra s ion ho phn t v sau l s hirat ho cc ion. Phn t dung mi phn cc cng mnh th kh nng gy ra hin tng in li i vi cht tan cng mnh. Trong mt s trng hp qu trnh in li lin quan vi kh nng to lin kt hiro ca phn t dung mi (nh s in li ca axit). 2. S in li ca axit, baz, mui trong dd nc. a) S in li ca axit Axit in li ra cation H+ (ng hn l H3O+) v anion gc axit. n gin, ngi ta ch vit Nu axit nhiu ln axit th s in li xy ra theo nhiu nc, nc sau yu hn nc trc.

b) S in li ca baz. Baz in li ra anion OH v cation kim loi hoc amoni.

Nu baz nhiu ln baz th s in li xy ra theo nhiu nc, nc sau yu hn nc trc.

c) S in li ca mui. Mui in li ra cation kim loi hay amoni v anion gc axit, cc mui trung ho thng ch in li 1 nc. Mui axit, mui baz in li nhiu nc :

Mui baz :

d) S in li ca hiroxit lng tnh. Hiroxit lng tnh c th in li theo 2 chiu ra c ion H+ v OH .

3. Cht in li mnh v cht in li yu. a) Cht in li mnh. Cht in li mnh l nhng cht trong dd nc in li hon ton thnh ion. Qu trnh in li l qu trnh mt chiu, trong phng trnh in li dng du =. V d: Nhng cht in li mnh l nhng cht m tinh th ion hoc phn t c lin kt phn cc mnh. l: Hu ht cc mui tan. Cc axit mnh: HCl, HNO3, H2SO4, Cc baz mnh: NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2, b) Cht in li yu Cht in li yu l nhng cht trong dd nc ch c mt phn nh s phn t in li thnh ion cn phn ln tn ti di dng phn t, trong phng trnh in li dng du thun nghch V d:

Nhng cht in li yu thng gp l: Cc axit yu: CH3COOH, H2CO3, H2S, Cc baz yu: NH4OH, Mi cht in li yu c c trng bng hng s in li (Kl) - l hng s cn bng ca qu trnh in li. V d:

Trong : [CH3COO ], [H+] v [CH3COOH] l nng cc ion v phn t trong dd lc cn bng. Kl l hng s, khng ph thuc nng . Cht in li cng yu th Kl cng nh. Vi cht in li nhiu nc, mi nc c Kl ring. H2CO3 c 2 hng s in li:

4. in li . in li ca cht in li l t s gia s phn t in li tan vo nc Nt. V d: C 100 phn t cht tan trong nc c 25 phn t

phn li thnh ion Np v tng s phn t cht in li th in li bng:

T s ny cng chnh l t s nng mol cht tan phn li (Cp) v nng mol cht tan vo trong dd (Ct). Gi tr ca bin i trong khong 0 n 1

0 1 Khi = 1: cht tan phn li hon ton thnh ion. Khi = 0: cht tan hon ton khng phn li (cht khng in li). in li ph thuc cc yu t : bn cht ca cht tan, dung mi, nhit v nng dd. 5. Quan h gia in li v hng s in li. Gi s c cht in li yu MA vi nng ban u Co, in li ca n l , ta c:

Hng s in li:

Da vo biu thc ny, nu bit ng vi nng dd Co, ta tnh c Kl v ngc li. V d: Trong dd axit HA 0,1M c = 0,01. Tnh hng s in li ca axit (k hiu l Ka). Gii: Trong dd, axit HA phn li:

6. Axit - baz. a) nh ngha Axit l nhng cht khi tan trong nc in li ra ion H+ (chnh xc l H3O+). Baz l nhng cht khi tan trong nc in li ra ion OH . i vi axit, v d HCl, s in li thng c biu din bng phng trnh. Nhng thc ra axit khng t phn li m nhng proton cho nc theo phng trnh. V H2O trong H3O+ khng tham gia phn ng nn thng ch ghi l H+ i vi baz, ngoi nhng cht trong phn t c sn nhm OH (nh NaOH, Ba(OH)2) Cn c nhng baz trong phn t khng c nhm OH (nh NH3) nhng nhn proton ca nc to ra OH Do nu ln bn cht ca axit v baz, vai tr ca nc (dung mi) cn nh ngha axit - baz nh sau: Axit l nhng cht c kh nng cho proton. Baz l nhng cht c kh nng nhn proton. y l nh ngha ca Bronstet v axit - baz. b) Phn ng axit - baz. Tc dng ca dd axit v dd baz. Cho dd H2SO4 tc dng vi dd NaOH, phn ng ho hc xy ra to nhit lm dd nng ln. Phng trnh phn t: Phng trnh ion:

Hoc l: H2SO4 cho proton (chuyn qua ion H3O+) v NaOH nhn proton (trc tip l ion OH ).

Phn ng ca axit vi baz gi l phn ng trung ho v lun to nhit. Tc dng ca dd axit v baz khng tan. dd HNO3 vo Al(OH)3 , cht ny tan dn. Phn ng ho hc xy ra. Phng trnh phn t: Phng trnh ion

Hoc l: HNO3 cho proton, Al(OH)3 nhn proton. Tc dng ca dd axit v oxit baz khng tan. dd axit HCl vo CuO, un nng, phn ng ho hc xy ra, CuO tan dn: Phng trnh phn t: Phng trnh ion

Hoc l

HCl cho proton, CuO nhn proton, n ng vai tr nh mt baz. Kt lun: Trong cc phn ng trn u c s cho, nhn proton - l bn cht ca phn ng axit - baz. c) Hiroxit lng tnh. C mt s hiroxit khng tan (nh Zn(OH)2, Al(OH)3) tc dng c c vi dd axit v c vi dd baz c gi l hiroxit lng tnh. V d: Zn(OH)2 tc ng c vi H2SO4 v NaOH.

Hoc l: Km hiroxit nhn proton, n l mt baz.

Km hiroxit cho proton, n l mt axit. Vy: Hiroxit lng tnh l hiroxit c hai kh nng cho v nhn proton, ngha l va l axit, va l baz. 7. S in li ca nc a) Nc l cht in li yu.

Tch s nng ion H+ v OH trong nc nguyn cht v trong dd nc mi nhit l mt hng s . Mi trng trung tnh : [H+] = [OH ] = 10 7 mol/l Mi trng axit: [H+] > [OH ] [H+] > 10 7 mol/l. Mi trng baz: [H+] < [OH ] [H+] < 10 7 mol/l b) Ch s hiro ca dd - pH Khi biu din nng ion H+ (hay H3O+) ca dd di dng h thc sau: th h s a c gi l pH ca dd V d: [H+] = 10 5 mol/l th pH = 5, V mt ton hc th pH = lg[H+] Nh vy: Mi trng trung tnh: pH = 7 Mi trng axit: pH < 7 Mi trng baz: pH > 7 pH cng nh th dd c axit cng ln, (axit cng mnh); pH cng ln th dd c baz cng ln (baz cng mnh). Cch xc nh pH: V d 1: Dd HCl 0,02M, c [H+] = 0,02M. Do pH = lg2.10 2 = 1,7. V d 2: Dd NaOH 0,01M, c [OH ] = 0,01 = 10 2 mol/l. Do :

c) Cht ch th mu axit - baz. Cht ch th mu axit - baz l cht c mu thay i theo nng ion H + ca dd. Mi cht ch th chuyn mu trong mt khong xc nh. Mt s cht ch th mu axit - baz thng dng:

8. S thu phn ca mui. Chng ta bit, khng phi dd ca tt c cc mui trung ho u l nhng mi trng trung tnh (pH = 7). Nguyn nhn l do: nhng mui ca axit yu - baz mnh (nh CH 3COOHNa), ca axit mnh - baz yu (nh NH4Cl) khi ho tan trong nc tc dng vi nc to ra axit yu, baz yu, v vy nhng mui ny khng tn ti trong nc. N b thu phn, gy ra s thay i tnh cht ca mi trng. a) S thu phn ca mui to thnh t axit yu -baz mnh. V d: CH3COONa, Na2CO3, K2S, Trong dd d ion OH , do vy pH > 7 (tnh baz). Vy: mui ca axit yu - baz mnh khi thu phn cho mi trng baz. b) S thu phn ca mui to thnh t axit mnh - baz yu. V d: NH4Cl, ZnCl2, Al2(SO4)3.

Trong dd d ion H3O+ hay (H+), do vy pH < 7 (tnh axit). Vy mui ca axit mnh - baz yu khi thu phn cho mi trng axit. c) S thu phn ca mui to thnh t axit yu - baz yu. V d: Al2S3, Fe2(CO3)3.

9. Phn ng trao i ion trong dd in li. Phn ng trao i ion trong dd in li ch xy ra khi c s to thnh hoc cht kt ta, hoc cht bay hi, hoc cht t in li (in li yu). a) Phn ng to thnh cht kt ta. Trn dd BaCl2 vi dd Na2SO4 thy c kt ta trng to thnh. xy ra phn ng. Phng trnh phn t: Phng trnh ion: b) Phn ng to thnh cht bay hi. Cho axit HCl tc dng vi Na2CO3 thy c kh bay ra. xy ra phn ng. Phng trnh phn t: Phng trnh ion

c) Phn ng to thnh cht t in li. Cho axit H2SO4 vo mui axetat. Phn ng xy ra to thnh axit CH3COOH t in li Phng trnh phn t: Phng trnh ion

Hoc cho axit HNO3 tc dng vi Ba(OH)2. Phn ng trung ho xy ra to thnh cht t in li l nc. Phng trnh phn t: Phng trnh ion

Ch : Khi biu din phn ng trao i trong dd in li ngi ta thng vit phng trnh phn t v phng trnh ion. phng trnh ion, nhng cht kt ta, bay hi, in li yu vit di dng phn t, cc cht in li mnh vit di dng ion (do chng in li ra). Cui cng thu gn phng trnh ion bng cch lc b nhng ion nh nhau 2 v ca phng trnh

CHNG IV. PHAN NG HOA HOC PHAN NG OXI HOA KH IN PHN TC PHAN NG VA CN BNG HOA HOC I. PHAN NG HOA HOC Qu trnh bin i cc cht ny thnh cc cht khc c gi l phn ng ho hc. Trong phn ng ho hc tng khi lng cc cht tham gia phn ng bng tng khi lng cc cht to thnh sau phn ng. Cc dng phn ng ho hc c bn: a) Phn ng phn tch l phn ng trong mt cht b phn tch thnh nhiu cht mi. V d: CaCO3 = CaO + CO2 b) Phn ng kt hp l phn ng trong hai hay nhiu cht kt hp vi nhau to thnh mt cht mi. V d. BaO + H2O = Ba(OH)2. c) Phn ng th l phn ng trong nguyn t ca ngyn t ny dng n cht thay th nguyn t ca nguyn t khc trong hp cht. V d. Zn + H2SO4 long = ZnSO4 + H2 d) Phn ng trao i l phn ng trong cc hp cht trao i nguyn t hay nhm nguyn t vi nhau. V d. BaCl2 + NaSO4 = BaSO4 + 2NaCl. e) Phn ng oxi ho - kh II. PHAN NG OXI HOA KH 1. S oxi ho. thun tin khi xem xt phn ng oxi ho - kh v tnh cht ca cc nguyn t, ngi ta a ra khi nim s oxi ho (cn gi l mc oxi ho hay in tch ho tr). S oxi ho l in tch quy c m nguyn t c c nu gi thuyt rng cp e lin kt (do 2 nguyn t gp chung) chuyn hon ton v pha nguyn t c m in ln hn. S oxi ho c tnh theo quy tc sau : Tng i s s oxi ho ca cc nguyn t trong phn t trung ho in bng 0. Tng i s s oxi ho ca cc nguyn t trong mt ion phc tp bng in tch ca ion. V d trong ion , s oxi ho ca H l +1, ca O l ca S l +6. 2 + 1 + 6 + ( 4) = 1. 2. Trong n cht, s oxi ho ca cc nguyn t bng 0. V d: Trong Cl2, s oxi ho ca Cl bng 0. Khi tham gia hp cht, s oxi ho ca mt s nguyn t c tr s khng i nh sau. + Kim loi kim lun bng +1. + Kim loi kim th lun bng +2. + Oxi (tr trong peoxit bng 1) lun bng 2. + Hiro (tr trong hirua kim loi bng 1) lun bng 2. + Al thng bng +3. Ch : Du ca s oxi ho t trc gi tr, cn du ca ion t sau gi tr. V d: 2. nh ngha phan ng oxi hoa kh Phn ng oxi ho - kh l phn ng trong c s trao i e gia cc nguyn t hoc ion ca cc cht tham gia phn ng, do lm thay i s oxi ho ca chng. V d: Cht nhng e gi l cht kh (hay cht b oxi ho). Cht thu e gi l cht oxi ho (hay cht b kh).

 Qu trnh kt hp e vo cht oxi ho c gi l s kh cht oxi ho Qu trnh tch e khi cht kh c gi l s oxi ho cht kh: 3. Cn bng phng trnh phn ng oxi ho - kh. Nguyn tc khi cn bng : Tng s e m cht kh cho phi bng tng s e m cht oxi ho nhn v s nguyn t ca mi nguyn t c bo ton. Qu trnh cn bng tin hnh theo cc bc: 1) Vit phng trnh phn ng, nu cha bit sn phm th phi da vo iu kin cho bi suy lun. 2) Xc nh s oxi ho ca cc nguyn t c s oxi ho thay i. i vi nhng nguyn t c s oxi ho khng thay i th khng cn quan tm. 3) Vit cc phng trnh e (cho - nhn e). 4) Cn bng s e cho v nhn. 5) a h s tm c t phng trnh e vo phng trnh phn ng. 6) Cn bng phn khng tham gia qu trnh oxi ho - kh. V d: Cho ming Al vo dd axit HNO3 long thy bay ra cht kh khng mu, khng mi, khng chy, nh hn khng kh, vit phng trnh phn ng v cn bng. Gii: Theo u bi, kh bay ra l N2. Phng trnh phn ng (bc 1):

Bc 5: Bc 6: Ngoi 6 HNO3 tham gia qu trnh oxi ho - kh cn 3.10 = 3OHNO3 to thnh mui nitrat (10Al(NO3)3). Vy tng s phn t HNO3 l 36 v to thnh 18H2O. Phng trnh cui cng: Dng ion: Ch : i vi nhng phn ng to nhiu sn phm trong nguyn t nhiu s oxi ho khc nhau, ta c th vit gp hoc vit ring tng phn ng i vi tng sn phm, sau nhn cc phn ng ring vi h s t l theo iu kin u bi. Cui cng cng gp cc phn ng li. V d: Cn bng phn ng:

Gii Cc phn ng ring ( cn bng theo nguyn tc trn):

c t l mol trn, ta nhn phng trnh (1) vi 9 ri cng 2 phng trnh li: 4. Mt s dng phn ng oxi ho - kh c bit 1. Phn ng oxi ho kh ni phn t.

Cht oxi ho v cht kh l nhng nguyn t khc nhau nm trong cng mt phn t. V d.

2. Phn ng t oxi ho - t kh Cht oxi ho v cht kh cng l mt loi nguyn t trong hp cht. V d: Trong phn ng.

c) Phn ng c 3 nguyn t thay i s oxi ho. V d: Cn bng phn ng sau theo phng php cn bng e

d) Phn ng oxi ho - kh c mi trng tham gia. mi trng axit thng c ion H+ tham gia to thnh H2O. V d: mi trng kim thng c ion OH tham gia to thnh H2O. V d:

mi trng trung tnh c th c H2O tham gia. V d: III. S IN PHN 1. nh ngha. in phn l s thc hin cc qu trnh oxi ho - kh trn b mt in cc nh dng in mt chiu bn ngoi Qu trnh in phn c biu din bng s in phn. V d: S in phn NaCl nng chy.

catt: xy ra qu trnh kh. ant: xy ra qu trnh oxi ho. Phng trnh in phn NaCl nng chy:

2. in phn hp cht nng chy.

 trng thi nng chy, cc tinh th cht in phn b ph v thnh cc ion chuyn ng hn lon. Khi c dng in mt chiu chy qua, ion dng chy v catt v b kh , ion m chy v ant v b oxi ho . V d: in phn KOH nng chy.

Phng trnh in phn

in phn nng chy xy ra nhit cao nn c th xy ra phn ng ph gia sn phm in phn (O 2, Cl2 ... ) v in cc (ant) thng lm bng than ch. V d: in phn Al2O3 nng chy (c pha thm criolit 3NaF.AlF3) 1000oC

Phng trnh in phn

Phn ng ph: (Than ch lm ant b mt dn, nn sau mt thi gian phi b sung vo in cc). ng dng: Phng php in phn hp cht nng chy c dng iu ch cc kim loi hot ng mnh: iu ch kim loi kim: in phn mui clorua hoc hiroxit nng chy. iu ch kim loi kim th: in phn mui clorua nng chy. iu ch Al: in phn Al2O3 nng chy. 3. in phn dd nc a) Nguyn tc: Khi in phn dd, tham gia cc qu trnh oxi ho - kh in cc ngoi cc ion ca cht in phn cn c th c cc ion H+ v OH ca nc v bn thn kim loi lm in cc. Khi qu trnh oxi ho - kh thc t xy ra ph thuc vo so snh tnh oxi ho - kh mnh hay yu ca cc cht trong bnh in phn. b) Th t kh catt Kim loi cng yu th cation ca n c tnh oxi ho cng mnh v cng d b kh catt (tr trng hp ion H+). C th p dng quy tc sau: D kh nht l cc cation kim loi ng sau Al trong dy th in ho (tr ion H+), trong ion kim loi cng ci dy cng d b kh. Tip n l ion H+ ca dd Kh kh nht l cc ion kim loi mnh, k t Al, v pha u dy th in ho. (Al3+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Na+, ). Nhng ion ny thc t khng bao gi b kh khi in phn trong dd. c) Th t oxi ho cant Ni chung ion hoc phn t no c tnh kh mnh th cng d b oxi ho. C th p dng kinh nghim sau: D b oxi ho nht l bn thn cc kim loi dng lm ant. Tr trng hp ant tr (khng b n mn) lm bng Pt, hay than ch (C).

 Sau n cc ion gc axit khng c oxi: I , Br , Cl , Ri n ion OH ca nc hoc ca kim tan trong dd. Kh b oxi ho nht l cc anion gc axit c oxi nh ho khi in phn dd. d) Mt s v d p dng quy tc trn. V d 1: in phn dd CuCl2 vi in cc than ch: , , Thc t cc anion ny khng b oxi

Phng trnh in phn:

V d 2: in phn dd NiCl2 vi in cc bng niken

Thc cht qu trnh in phn l s vn chuyn Ni t ant sang catt nh dng in. Phng php c ng dng tinh ch kim loi. V d 3: in phn dd Na2SO4 vi in cc Pt:

Phng trnh in phn:

V d 4: in phn dd NaCl vi ant bng than ch:

Phng trnh in phn: Trong qu trnh in phn, dd khu vc xung quanh catt, ion H+ b mt dn., H2O tip tc in li, do khu vc ny giu ion OH to thnh (cng vi Na+) dd NaOH.

 ant, ion Cl b oxi ho thnh Cl2. Mt phn ho tan vo dd v mt phn khuch tn sang catt, tc dng vi NaOH to thnh nc Javen: V vy mun thu c NaOH phi trnh phn ng to nc Javen bng cch dng mng ngn bao bc ly khu vc ant ngn kh Cl2 khuch tn vo dd. V d 5: in phn dd KNO3 vi ant bng Cu.

Khi in phn, khu vc catt, ion H+ mt dn, nng OH tng dn, dd c tnh kim tng dn. ant ion Cu2+ tan vo dd. Trong dd xy ra phn ng. Phng trnh in phn:

Bn thn KNO3 khng b bin i nhng nng tng dn. ng dng ca in phn dd: iu ch kim loi ng sau Al trong dy th in ho. Tinh ch kim loi. M v c kim loi bng in. iu ch mt s ho cht thng dng: H2, Cl2, O2,, hiroxit kim loi kim Tch ring mt s kim loi khi hn hp dd. 4. Cng thc Faray

Trong : m l khi lng cht c gii phng khi in phn (gam) A l khi lng mol ca cht . n l s e trao i khi to thnh mt nguyn t hay phn t cht . Q l in lng phng qua bnh in phn (Culng). F l s Faray (F = 96500 Culng.mol-1) l l cng dng in (Ampe) t l thi gian in phn (giy) V d: Tnh khi lng oxi c gii phng ant khi cho dng in 5 ampe qua bnh in phn ng dd Na2SO4 trong 1 gi 20 pht 25 giy. Gii: p dng cng thc Faray: A = 16, n = 2, t = 4825 giy, I = 5;

IV. HIU NG NHIT CUA PHAN NG a) Nng lng lin kt. Nng lng lin kt l nng lng c gii phng khi hnh thnh lin kt ho hc t cc nguyn t c lp. Nng lng lin kt c tnh bng kJ.mol v k hiu l E1k. V d nng lng lin kt ca mt s mi lin kt nh sau. H-H Cl - Cl H - Cl

E1k = 436 242 432 b) Hiu ng nhit ca phn ng l nhit to ra hay hp th trong mt phn ng ho hc. Hiu ng nhit c tnh bng kJ.mol v k hiu l Q. Khi Q >0: phn ng to nhit. Khi Q<0: phn ng thu nhit. V d: CaCO3 = CaO + CO2 - 186,19kJ.mol. Phn ng t chy, phn ng trung ho thuc loi phn ng to nhit. Phn ng nhit phn thng l phn ng thu nhit. - Mun tnh hiu ng nhit ca cc phn ng to thnh cc hp cht t n cht hoc phn hu mt hp cht thnh cc n cht ta da vo nng lng lin kt. V d: Tnh nng lng to ra trong phn ng. H2 + Cl2 = 2HCl. Da vo nng lng lin kt (cho trn) ta tnh c. Q = 2E1k (HCl) - [E1k(H2) + E1k(Cl2)] = 2 . 432 - (436 + 242) = 186kJ.mol. - i vi phn ng phc tp, mun tnh hiu ng nhit ca phn ng ta da vo nhit to thnh ca cc cht (t n cht), do n cht trong phn ng khng tnh n ( phn ng trn, nhit to thnh HCl l 186.2 = 93 kJ.mol V d: Tnh khi lng hn hp gm Al v Fe3O4 cn phi ly khi phn ng theo phng trnh. to ra 665,25kJ, bit nhit to thnh ca Fe3O4 l 1117 kJ.mol, ca Al2O3 l 1670 kJ.mol. Gii: Tnh Q ca phn ng: 3Fe3O4 + 8Al = 4Al2O3 + 9Fe (1) Theo (1), khi lng hn hp hai cht phn ng vi nhit lng Q l : 3 . 232 + 8 . 27 = 912g ta ra lng nhit 665,25 kJ th khi lng hn hp cn ly :

V. TC PHAN NG VA CN BNG HOA HOC a) nh ngha: Tc phn ng l i lng biu th mc nhanh chm ca phn ng. K hiu l Vp.. Trong : C1 l nng u ca cht tham gia phn ng (mol/l). C2 l nng ca cht sau t giy phn ng (mol/l). b) Cc yu t nh hng n tc phn ng: Ph thuc bn cht ca cc cht phn ng. Tc phn ng t l thun vi nng cc cht tham gia phn ng. V d, c phn ng. A + B = AB. Vp. = k . CA . CB. Trong , k l hng s tc c trng cho mi phn ng. Nhit cng cao th tc phn ng cng ln. Cht xc tc lm tng tc phn ng nhng bn thn n khng b thay i v s lng v bn cht ho hc sau phn ng. c) Phn ng thun nghch v trng thi cn bng ho hc. Phn ng mt chiu (khng thun nghch) l phn ng ch xy ra mt chiu v c th xy ra n mc hon ton. V d: Phn ng thun nghch l phn ng ng thi xy ra theo hai chiu ngc nhau. V d: CH3COOH + CH3OH CH3COOCH3 + H2O

 Trong h thun nghch, khi tc phn ng thun (vt) bng tc phn ng nghch (vn) th h t ti trng thi cn bng. Ngha l trong h, phn ng thun v phn ng nghch vn xy ra nhng nng cc cht trong h thng khng thay i. Ta ni h trng thi cn bng ng. Trng thi cn bng ho hc ny s b ph v khi thay i cc iu kin bn ngoi nh nng , nhit , p sut (i vi phn ng ca cht kh). VI. HIU SUT PHAN NG C phn ng: A + B = C + D Tnh hiu sut phn ng theo sn phm C hoc D: Trong : qt l lng thc t to thnh C hoc D. qlt l lng tnh theo l thuyt, ngha l lng C hoc D tnh c vi gi thit hiu sut 100%. Ch : Khi tnh hiu sut phn ng phi tnh theo cht sn phm no to thnh t cht u thiu, v khi kt thc phn ng cht u phn ng ht. C th tnh hiu sut phn ng theo cht phn ng A hoc B tu thuc vo cht no thiu. Cn phn bit gia % cht tham gia phn ng v hiu sut phn ng. V d: Cho 0,5 mol H2 tc dng vi 0,45 mol Cl2, sau phn ng thu c 0.6 mol HCl. Tnh hiu sut phn ng v % cc cht tham gia phn ng. Gii: Phng trnh phn ng: H2 + Cl2 = 2HCl Theo phng trnh phn ng v theo u bi, Cl2 l cht thiu, nn tnh hiu sut phn ng theo Cl2: Cn % Cl2 tham gia phn ng =

% H2 tham gia phn ng = Nh vy % cht thiu tham gia phn ng bng hiu sut phn ng. i vi trng hp c nhiu phn ng xy ra song song, v d phn ng crackinh butan:

Cn ch phn bit: + Nu ni "hiu sut phn ng crackinh", tc ch ni phn ng (1) v (2) v phn ng (3) khng phi phn ng crackinh. + Nu ni "% butan tham gia phn ng", tc l ni n c 3 phn ng. + Nu ni "% butan b crackinh thnh etilen" tc l ch ni phn ng (2).

PHN II. HOA HOC V C CHNG V. HALOGEN Nhm halogen gm flo, clo, brom v iot, thng c k hiu chung l X I. Cu to nguyn t. Cu hnh electron lp ngoi cng ca X l ns2 np6. D dng thc hin qu trnh : Th hin tnh oxi ho mnh. S oxi ho: Flo ch c s oxi ho cc X khc c cc s oxi ho +1, +3, +4, +5 v +7. 1, 1, Tnh phi kim gim t F2 I2. II. Tnh cht vt l. F2, Cl2 l cht kh, Br2 l cht lng, I2 l cht rn. Kh flo mu lc nht, kh clo mu vng lc, cht lng brom mu nu, tinh th iot mu tm en. Cc halogen u rt c. III. Tnh cht ho hc: 1. Phn ng vi H2O: Kh cho halogen tan vo nc th. Flo phn hu nc: Clo to thnh hn hp 2 axit: Brom cho phn ng tng t nhng tan km clo. Iot tan rt t. 2. Phn ng vi hiro: Xy ra vi mc khc nhau:

3. Phn ng mnh vi kim loi Phn ng to thnh hp cht kim loi c s oxi ho cao (nu kim loi c nhiu s oxi ho nh Fe, Sn) 4. Phn ng vi phi kim

Cl2, Br2, I2 khng phn ng trc tip vi oxi. 5. Phn ng vi dd kim. Clo tc dng vi dd kim long v ngui to thnh nc Javen: Clo tc dng vi dd kim c v nng to thnh mui clorat: Clo tc dng vi vi ti to thnh clorua vi: Nc Javen, clorua vi l nhng cht oxi ho mnh do Cl+ trong phn t gy ra. Chng c dng lm cht ty mu, st trng. 6. Halogen mnh y halogen yu khi mui. IV. Hp cht 1. Hiro halogenua (HX)

 u l cht kh, tan nhiu trong H2O thnh nhng axit mnh (tr HF l axit yu v gia cc phn t c to lin kt hiro), in li hon ton trong dd: Phn ln cc mui clorua tan nhiu trong H2O, tr mt s t tan nh AgCl, PbCl2, Hg2Cl2, Cu2Cl2, Tnh tan ca cc mui bromua v ioua tng t mui clorua. Cch nhn bit ion Cl (Br , I ): Bng phn ng to mui clorua (bromua) kt ta trng. 2. Axit hipoclor (HClO) L axit yu, km bn, ch tn ti trong dd. Axit HClO v mui ca n l hipoclorit (nh NaClO) u c tnh oxi ho mnh v c cha Cl+ : 3. Axit cloric (HClO3) L axit kh mnh, tan nhiu trong H2O. Axit HClO3 v mui clorat (KClO3) c tnh oxi ho mnh. 4. Axit pecloric (HClO4) L axit mnh, tan nhiu trong H2O, HClO4 c tnh oxi ho mnh. V. ng dng v iu ch clo Clo c dng : + Dit trng trong nc sinh hot cc thnh ph. + Ty trng vi si, giy. + Sn xut nc Javen, clorua vi, axit HCl + Sn xut cc ho cht trong cng nghip dc phm, cng nghip dt Trong phng th nghim, clo c iu ch t axit HCl:

Trong cng nghip: clo c iu ch bng cch in phn dd mui clorua kim loi kim. Khi clo thot ra ant theo phng trnh.

CHNG VI. OXI LU HUYNH I. Oxi 1. Cu to nguyn t. Oxi (Z = 8) c cu hnh electron:

C 6 e lp ngoi cng, d dng thu 2e bo ho lp ngoi cng. L cht oxi ho mnh: iu kin bnh thng, oxi tn ti dng phn t 2 nguyn t : O = O Dng th hnh khc ca oxi l ozon: O3 Oxi c 3 ng v tn ti trong t nhin: 2. Tnh cht vt l Oxi l cht kh khng mu, khng mi, hi nng hn khng kh, ho lng oC, ho rn oC. 183 219 Ozon l cht kh mi xc, mu xanh da tri. 3. Tnh cht ho hc Tc dng vi kim loi: Oxi oxi ho hu ht cc kim loi (tr Au v Pt) to thnh oxit i vi phi kim (tr halogen) oxi tc dng trc tip khi t nng (ring P trng tc dng vi O2 to thng)

Ozon c tnh oxi ho mnh hn O2, do n khng bn, b phn hu thnh oxi t do. iu ny th hin phn ng O3 y c iot khi dd KI (O2 khng c phn ng ny). 4. iu ch Trong phng th nghim: nhit phn cc mui giu oxi. V d: hay Trong cng nghip: ho lng khng kh nhit rt thp ( oC), sau chng phn on ly O2 ( 200 o 183 C) II. Lu hunh 1. Cu to nguyn t. Lu hunh (S) cng phn nhm chnh nhm VI vi oxi, c cu hnh e : 1s 2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4. Lp e ngoi cng cng c 6e, d dng thc hin qu trnh. th hin tnh oxi ho nhng yu hn oxi. trng thi rn, mi phn t lu hunh gm 8 nguyn t (S8) khp kn thnh vng:

2. Tnh cht vt l Lu hunh l cht rn mu vng nht, khng tan trong H2O, tan trong mt s dung mi hu c nh: CCl4, C6H6, rudn nhit, dn in rt km. Lu hunh nng chy 112,8oC n tr nn sm v c li, gi l S do. 3. Tnh cht ho hc to thng, S hot ng km so vi oxi. to cao, S phn ng c vi nhiu phi kim v kim loi. Ho tan trong axit oxi ho: 4. Hp cht a) Hiro sunfua (H2S 2) L cht kh, mi trng thi, c, t tan trong H2O. Dd H2S l axit sunfuhiric. C tnh kh mnh, chy trong O2:

Khi gp cht oxi ho mnh nh Cl2, S-2 c th b oxi ho n S+6: H2S l axit yu. Mui sunfua trung tnh (v d ZnS) hu ht t tan trong H2O. Ch c sunfua kim loi kim, kim th tan nhiu. nhn bit H2S hoc mui sunfua (S2 ) dng mui ch, kt ta PbS mu en s xut hin. b) SO2 v axit sunfur SO2 l cht kh khng mu, tc dng vi H2O:

Phn ng vi oxi H2SO3 l axit yu, mui l sunfit (v d Na2SO3) Mc oxi ho +4 l mc trung gian, nn H2SO3 v mui sunfit va c tnh oxi ho va c tnh kh.

c) SO3 v axit sunfuric (H2SO4) iu kin thng, SO3 l cht lng khng mu, d bay hi, nhit nng chy l 170C, nhit si l 460C. SO3 rt ho nc, tc dng mnh vi H2O to thnh axit H2SO4 v to nhiu nhit. SO3 khng c ng dng thc t, n l sn phm trung gian trong qu trnh sn xut axit H2SO4. H2SO4 l cht lng snh, tan v hn trong nc, H2SO4 c ht m rt mnh v to nhiu nhit. Dd H2SO4 long l axit thng, ch phn ng c vi cc kim loi ng trc H trong dy th in ho (c mui sunfat tan) v gii phng H2.

 Dd H2SO4 m c l axit oxi ho, c tnh oxi ho mnh, ho tan c hu ht cc kim loi khi un nng (tr Au v Pt). Kim loi cng mnh kh S+6 ca H2SO4 c v hp cht c s oxi ho cng thp (SO2, S, H2S). V d:

Ch : Fe v Al b th ng ho trong H2SO4 c ngui, ngha l trn b mt chng to thnh lp mng oxit bn vng bo v cho kim loi khi tc dng ca mi axit Phn ln cc mui sunfat tan nhiu trong nc. Ch c 1 s mui khng tan l : BaSO4, PbSO4, Ag2SO4 v CaSO4 t tan. Cch nhn bit ion . Bng phn ng to thnh mui sunfat kt ta:

(trng) iu ch axit H2SO4. Axit sunfuric ch yu c iu ch t lu hunh v t qung pirit FeS2 theo cc phn ng:

d) Cc mui sunfat: Cc mui sunfat quan trng c gi tr trong thc t l: CaSO4 (thch cao) c dng trong cng nghip sn xut xi mng, c tng, lm bt b ch xng gy.MgSO4 dng lm thuc nhun trng.Na2SO4 dng trong cng nghip thu tinh.CuSO4 dng m in, thuc tr nm Na2S2O3 (natri thiosunfat) dng nh phn iot (cht ch th l h tinh bt). Thiosunfat cn dng trong k thut in nh

CHNG VII. NIT PHOSPHO Nit, photpho thuc phn nhm chnh nhmV. Nguyn t ca chng c 5e lp ngoi cng (trong c 3e c thn phn lp np). Chng l nhng phi kim I. Nit 1. Cu to nguyn t Nit c cu hnh electron

Do c 3 e c thn nn nit c kh nng to ra ba lin kt cng ho tr vi nguyn t khc. m in ca N l 3, ch nh hn ca F v O, do N c s oxi ho dng trong hp cht vi 2 nguyn t ny. Cn trong cc hp cht khc, nit c s oxi ho m. S oxi ho ca N : 0, +1, +2, +3, +4 v +5. 3, Nit tn ti bn dng phn t N2 (N N). Nguyn t nit t nhin l hn hp ca hai ng v v vi t l 272 : 1. Nit chim 0,01% khi lng v Tri t. Dng tn ti t do l nhng phn t hai nguyn t. 2. Tnh cht vt l Nit l cht kh, khng mu, khng mi, khng chy, ho lng 195,8oC v ho rn 209,9oC. Nit nh hn khng kh (d = 1,2506g.lt ktc), ho tan rt t trong nc. 3. Tnh cht ho hc V c lin kt ba nn phn t N2 rt bn, ch nhit rt cao mi phn li thnh nguyn t. Do vy nhit thng nit rt tr, khng phn ng vi cc nguyn t khc. nhit cao, c bit l c cht xc tc, nit phn ng vi nhiu nguyn t kim loi v phi kim. a) Tc dng vi hiro 400oC, c bt Fe xc tc, p sut cao, N2 tc dng vi H2. Phn ng pht nhit: b) Tc dng vi oxi 3000oC hoc c tia la in, N2 tc dng vi O2. Phn ng thu nhit: nhit thng, NO ho hp ngay vi O2 ca khng kh to ra NO2 mu nu: c) Tc dng vi kim loi: Nit khng phn ng trc tip vi halogen, lu hunh. 4. iu ch v ng dng a) Trong cng nghip : Ho lng khng kh, sau chng ct phn on v thu N2 -196oC. b) Trong phng th nghim: Nhit phn 1 s mui amoni. V d:

Nit ch yu c dng sn xut amoniac, axit nitric, phn m, to mi trng lnh. 5. Cc hp cht quan trng ca nit. a) Amoniac

Phn t NH3 tn ti trong khng gian di dng t din, gc lin kt l 109o28' (ba lin kt to thnh bi 3 obitan lai ho sp3 ca N) Lin kt gia N v 3H l lin kt cng ho tr c cc, cp e dng chung lch v pha N. Phn t NH 3 l phn t phn cc, N cn 1 cp electron t do lm cho NH3 to c lin kt hiro. Tnh cht vt l: NH3 l cht kh khng mu, mi khai v xc, nh hn khng kh, tan nhiu trong H 2O ( 20oC, mt th tch nc c th ho tan 700 th tch NH3 kh). NH3 ho lng 33,6oC, ho rn 77,8oC. Tnh cht ho hc + Tnh baz: NH3 l mt baz v c kh nng nhn proton. Kbaz = 1,8.10 3 * NH3 tc dng vi axit to thnh mui amoni: Dng ion: Nu thc hin phn ng gia NH3 (kh) v HCl (kh) th to thnh m khi trng - l nhng tinh th rt nh NH4Cl. * Dd NH3 lm xanh qu tm, lm hng phenolphtalein * Dd NH3 tc dng vi dd AlCl3, ZnCl2 to kt ta hiroxit khng tan trong NH3 d: + im c bit ca NH3 l to phc vi mt s ion kim loi nh Ag+, Cu2+, Ni2+, Hg2+, Cd2+, V vy, khi cho dd NH3 tc dng t t vi dd mui ca cc kim loi trn thy kt ta (hiroxit hoc mui baz) sau kt ta tan v to phc:

+ Tnh kh: NH3 chy trong oxi cho ngn la mu vng:

NH3 chy trong Cl2 to khi trng NH4Cl v NH3 + HCl = NH4Cl NH3 kh c mt s oxit kim loi:

+ Bn thn NH3 c th b nhit phn thnh N2, H2 : + Cc mui amoni d b nhit phn:

NH4HCO3 l bt n, 60oC phn hu, c dng trong cng ngh thc phm. + Mui amoni nitrat b nhit phn theo 2 cch:

iu ch: iu ch NH3 da trn phn ng. Mun phn ng t hiu sut cao cn tin hnh p sut cao (300 1000 atm), nhit va phi (400oC) v c bt st lm xc tc. Kh N2 ly t khng kh. Kh H2 ly t kh t nhin hoc t sn phm ca phn ng gia cacbon v H2O. ng dng: NH3 dng iu ch axit HNO3, cc mui amoni (NH4Cl, NH4NO3), iu ch xa b) Cc oxit ca nit. Nit to vi oxi 5 loi oxit: N2O, NO, N2O3, NO2 v N2O5. S oxi ho: +1, +2, +3, +4, v +5. Ch c NO v NO2 iu ch trc tip c. NO2 : kh khng mu, mi d chu, hi c v ngt. N2O khng tc dng vi oxi. 500oC b phn hu thnh N2 v O2.

NO: kh khng mu, trong khng kh phn ng vi oxi to thnh NO2 mu nu. NO2: kh mu nu, rt c, b ime ho theo cn bng. iu kin thng, tn ti hn hp NO2 v N2O4. T l s mol NO2 : N2O4 ph thuc nhit . Trn 100oC ch c NO2 NO2 l oxit axit hn hp. Khi tc dng vi H2O cho hn hp hai axit: v Khi tc dng vi kim c hn hp gm mui nitrat v mui nitrit. Cc oxit NO v NO2 th hin tnh oxi ho khi tc dng vi cht kh mnh:

V th hin tnh kh khi gp cht oxi ho mnh nh Cl2, Br2, O3, KMNO4

c) Axit nitr HNO2 L axit yu, km bn, ch tn ti trong dd long. Khi c hoc nng d b phn hu. HNO2 v mui nitrit va c tnh oxi ho va c tnh kh:

d) Axit nitric HNO3

Trong phn t HNO3 c mt lin kt cho - nhn v ho tr ca N l IV (4 cp e dng chung), cn s oxi ho ca N l +5 (v hnh thc N c ho tr V). Tnh cht vt l: Axit nitric nguyn cht l cht lng khng mu, si 86oC, ho rn oC. 41 HNO3 d b phn hu ngoi nh sng thnh NO2, O2 v H2O nn dd HNO3 c c mu vng (v c ln NO2) HNO3 c gy bng, lm vng da, ph hng vi, giy. Tnh cht ho hc: * Tnh axit: L axit mnh, phn li hon ton. * Tnh oxi ho: L cht oxi ho manh, tc dng vi hu ht cc kim loi (tr vng v platin), lc N+5 c th b kh thnh N+4, N+2, N+1, No v N-3 tu thuc vo nng axit, nhit v hot ng ca kim loi. i vi axit HNO3 c, nng: Oxi ho hu ht cc kim loi (tr Au, Pt), sn phm kh l NO2 mu nu.

HNO3 c, ngui lm th ng ho Fe v Al i vi axit HNO3 long: Oxi ho hu ht cc kim loi (tr Au, Pt), sn phm kh l NO, N 2O hoc NH4NO3. Khi axit cng long, cht kh cng mnh th N+5 (trong HNO3) b kh v s oxi ho cng thp. V d: Hn hp dd m c ca HNO3 v HCl c t l mol 1HNO3 + 3HCl gi l nc cng toan, ho tan c c Au v Pt. Axit HNO3 cng oxi ho c nhiu phi kim nh C, Si, P, S:

iu ch axit HNO3: * Trong phng th nghim thu HNO3, ngi ta chng ct dd trong chn khng. * Trong cng nghip, sn xut HNO3 t NH3 v O2:

 ng dng: HNO3 l nguyn liu c bn iu ch mui nitrat, phn bn, cht n, nhin liu tn la, cc hp cht nitro, amin. e) Mui nitrat Tnh tan: Tt c cc mui nitrat u d tan trong H2O, l nhng cht in li mnh. Phn hu nhit: Tt c cc mui nitrat u khng bn nhit cao. Tu thuc ion kim loi c trong mui, cc nitrat b phn hu to thnh nhng loi hp cht khc nhau (nhng u phi gii phng O2) * Nhit phn mui nitrat ca kim loi mnh (ng trc Mg trong dy Bktp)

* Nhit phn mui nitrat ca kim loi trung bnh (T Mg Cu)

* Nhit phn mui nitrat ca kim loi yu (sau Cu)

ng dng ca mui nitrat: dng lm phn bn, thuc n. Kali nitrat dng ch to thuc n en (thuc n c khi). Thnh phn thuc n en : 75% KNO3, 10% S, 15% C. Khi hn hp n, xy ra phn ng. Nhn bit ion nhn bit ion : (HNO3, mui nitrat) c th dng Cu trong mi trng axit (v d H2SO4)

Ta thy Cu tan, dd c mu xanh, c kh khng mu bay ra, ri ho nu trong khng kh. II. Pht pho 1. Cu to nguyn t Photpho c in tch ht nhn +15 Cu hnh e: Photpho phn nhm chnh nhm V, chu k 3. Nguyn t P c 3 electron phn lp 3p v phn lp 3d cn trng (cha c electron) nn 1e phn lp 3s c th nhy ln 3d lm cho P c 5e c thn v nh vy c th c ho tr V (khc N) 2. Tnh cht vt l v cc dng th hnh. n cht photpho c th tn ti di nhiu dng th hnh khc nhau. Hai dng th hnh quan trng l photpho trng v photpho .

 Photpho trng: l cht rn mu trng hoc hi vng, rt c. 280oC, photpho trng chuyn thnh photpho . Photpho trng t bc chy trong khng kh, pht sng trong bng ti (ln tinh). Ngi ta bo qun n bng cch ngm trong nc, trnh nh sng. Photpho : l cht rn c mu , khng c. nhit cao, P thng hoa. Gp lnh, hi P ngng t thnh P trng. P kh bn, kh nng chy, khng tan trong bt k dung mi no. 3. Tnh cht ho hc: Lp ngoi cng ca nguyn t P c 5e. Trong cc hp cht, P c s oxi ho l -3, +3 v +5. So vi nit, photpho hot ng hn, c bit l P trng. Tc dng vi oxi: Photpho chy trong khng kh to ra iphotpho pentaoxit P2O5. P trng b oxi ho chm trong khng kh thnh P2O3, khi phn ng khng pht nhit m pht quang. Tc dng vi axit nitric: Tc dng vi halogen: P bc chy trong clo v n trong flo. Tc dng vi mui : P c th gy n khi tc dng vi nhng mui c tnh oxi ho mnh nh KNO3, KClO3, Tc dng vi hiro v kim loi (P th hin tnh oxi ho). V d: PH3 (photphin) Ca3P2 (canxi photphua) PH3 l cht kh, rt c. Trn 150oC b bc chy trong khng kh: PH3 sinh ra do s thi ra xc ng thc vt, nu c ln iphotphin P 2H4 th t bc chy pht ra nh sng xanh ( l hin tng "ma tri") 4. iu ch v ng dng P kh hot ng, trong t nhin n tn ti dng hp cht nh cc qung photphorit Ca3(PO4)2, apatit 3Ca3(PO4)2.CaF2. P c dng ch to dim: Thuc gn u que dim gm mt cht oxi ho nh KClO3, KNO3.., mt cht d chy nh S v keo dnh. Thuc qut bn cnh hp dim l bt P v keo dnh. tng c st cn trn thm bt thu tinh mn vo c 2 loi thuc trn. P dng sn xut axit photphoric: Trong cng nghip, ngi ta iu ch P bng cch nung hn hp canxi photphat, SiO2 (ct) v than: 5. Hp cht ca photpho a) iphotpho pentaoxit P2O5. P2O5 l cht rn, mu trng, rt ho nc, tc dng mnh lit vi nc to thnh axit photphoric: Chnh v vy ngi ta dng P2O5 lm kh nhiu cht. b) Axit photphoric H3PO4. H3PO4 l cht rn, khng mu, nng chy 42,5oC, tan v hn trong nc. Trong P2O5 v H3PO4, photpho c s oxi ho +5. Khc vi nit, photpho c m in nh nn bn hn mc +5. Do vy H3PO4 v P2O5 kh b kh v khng c tnh oxi ho nh HNO3. H3PO4 l axit trung bnh, trong dd in li theo 3 nc: trung bnh nc th nht, yu v rt yu cc nc th hai, th ba.

Dd axit H3PO4 c nhng tnh cht chung ca axit: lm qu tm, tc dng vi baz, oxit baz to thnh mui axit hoc mui trung ho nh NaH2PO4, Na2HPO4, Na3PO4. H3PO4 c th tc dng vi nhng kim loi ng trc H trong dy Bktp cho H2 thot ra. V d: c) Mui photphat ng dng vi 3 mc in li ca axit H3PO4 c dy mui photphat: Mui photphat trung ho: Mui ihiro photphat Mui hiro photphat: Cc mui trung ho v mui axit ca kim loi Na, K v amoni u tan trong nc. Vi cc kim loi khc ch mui ihiro photphat l tan c, ngoi ra u khng tan hoc tan t trong H2O. d) iu ch v ng dng Trong cng nghip, iu ch H3PO4 t qung Ca3(PO4)2 v axit H2SO4: Trong phng th nghim, H3PO4 c iu ch t P2O5 (ho tan vo H2O) hay t P (ho tan bng HNO3 c). Axit photphoric ch yu c dng sn xut phn bn. 6. Phn bn ho hc Phn bn ho hc l nhng ho cht c cha nguyn t dinh dng, dng bn cho cy trng nhm nng cao nng sut. Nhng ho cht dng lm phn bn phi l nhng hp cht tan c trong dd thm trong t r cy hp th c. Ngoi ra, hp cht phi khng c hi gy nhim mi trng. C ba loi phn bn ho hc c bn: phn m, phn ln v phn kali. a) Phn m l phn cha nguyn t nit. Cy ch hp th m di dng ion v ion . Cc loi phn m quan trng: Mui amoni: NH4Cl (25% N), (NH4)2SO4 (21% N), NH4NO3 (35% N, thng c gi l "m hai l") Ure: CO(NH2)2 (46% N) giu nit nht. Trong t ure b bin i dn thnh amoni cacbonat. Cc mui amoni v ure b kim phn hu, do khng nn bo qun phn m gn vi, khng bn cho cc loi t kim. Mui nitrat: NaNO3, Ca(NO3)2,thng bn cho cc vng t chua mn. b) Phn ln l phn cha nguyn t photpho. Cy hp th ln di dng ion . Cc loi phn ln chnh. Phn ln t nhin: Qung photphat Ca3(PO4)2 thch hp vi t chua ; phn nung chy (nung qung photphat vi olomit). Supephotphat n: Hn hp canxi ihiro photphat v thch cao, c iu ch theo phn ng: Supe photphat kp: l mui canxi ihiro photphat, c iu ch theo phn ng:

 Amophot: cha c m v ln, c iu ch bng cch cho NH3 tc dng vi axit photphoric thu c hn hp trong mono v iamophot NH4H2PO4 v (NH4)2HPO4 c) Phn kali: cha nguyn t kali, cy hp th kali di dng ion K+. Phn kali ch yu l KCl ly t qung mui cacnalit (KCl.MgCl2.6H2O), sinvinit (KCl.NaCl). Ngoi ra ngi ta cng dng KNO3.K2SO4. d) Phn vi lng: l loi phn cha mt s lng rt nh cc nguyn t nh ng, km, molipen, mangan, coban, bo, iot Ch cn bn mt lng rt nh cc nguyn t ny cng lm cho cy pht trin tt. nc ta c mt s nh my ln sn xut supephotphat (Lm Thao - Ph Th), sn xut phn m (H Bc) v c mt s a phng sn xut phn ln nung chy

CHNG VIII. CACBON SILIC Cacbon, silic thuc phn nhm chnh nhm IV. Nguyn t ca nhng nguyn t ny c 4 electron lp ngoi cng, chng l nhng phi kim. I. Cacbon 1. Cu to nguyn t Cacbon thin nhin l hn hp hai ng v bn: Cu hnh e ng vi trng thi c bn: (98,982%) v (0,108%). NTK = 12,0115.

Do cacbon c th c ho tr II (lin kt cng ho tr) trng thi kch thch, c 1e phn lp 2s nhy ln phn lp 2p to thnh 4e c thn ng nht, v th cacbon c ho tr IV trong hu ht cc hp cht. trng thi rn, cc nguyn t cacbon lin kt vi nhau theo kiu kim cng hoc graphit. 2. Cc dng th hnh v tnh cht vt l. Cacbon c 3 dng th hnh: kim cng, than ch (graphit) v cacbon v nh hnh. a) Kim cng Kim cng c cu trc mng tinh th nguyn t, mi nguyn t C lin kt cng ho tr bn vng vi 4 nguyn t C xung quanh, to hnh t din u. S ng nht v bn vng ca lin kt ny khin kim cng c tnh rt cng, khng bay hi v tr vi nhiu cht ho hc. b) Than ch Tinh th than ch (graphit) c cu trc lp. Trn mi lp, mi nguyn t C lin kt vi 3 nguyn t C khc bng lin kt cng ho tr. Lin kt gia nhng nguyn t C trong 1 lp rt bn vng, lin kt gia cc lp rt yu, do vy cc lp trong tinh th c th trt ln nhau. Cu trc ny lm than ch mm, trn, dng lm bt ch, bi trn cc bi. c) Cacbon v nh hnh Cacbon v nh hnh (than cc, than g, b hng,) gm nhng tinh th rt nh, c cu trc khng trt t. Tnh cht ca cacbon v nh hnh tu thuc vo nguyn liu v phng php iu ch chng. Than g v than xng c cu to xp nn chng c kh nng hp th mnh cc cht kh v cht tan trong dd. 3. Tnh cht ho hc Cc dng th hnh ca cacbon tuy c tnh cht vt l rt khc nhau nhng tnh cht ho hc ca chng cn bn ging nhau: chy trong oxi, c kim cng v than ch u to thnh kh CO2. a) Phn ng vi oxi Khi chy trong oxi, phn ng to nhiu nhit:

V vy cacbon c dng ch y lm nhin liu trong i sng, trong cng nghip. b) Phn ng vi cc oxit kim loi. Cacbon kh c nhiu oxit kim loi. V d:

c) Phn ng vi oxit phi kim Cacbon phn ng vi oxit ca mt s phi kim to thnh cc cacbon c lin kt cng ho tr v rt rn. V d: t nng cacbon trong kh CO2, to ra CO d) Phn ng vi hi nc.

Cacbon tc dng vi hi nc nhit cao to ra kh thanh (mt hn hp gm CO v H2) Kh than l nhin liu quan trng trong cng nghip. e) Hp cht vi cc halogen. Cacbon to nhiu hp cht vi halogen: CF4, CCl4, CF2Cl2, Trong CCl4 c dng lm dung mi, CF2Cl2 (freon) l cht lm lnh trong cc my lnh v n l mt trong cc cht gy "thng" tng ozon. f) Trong cc hp cht vi hiro v kim loi, cacbon c s oxi ho m. V d:

4. Cc hp cht quan trng ca cacbon a) Cacbon monooxit CO Cng thc cu to: C O CO l kh khng mu, khng mi, rt c (gy cht ngi), CO ho lng -191,5oC v ho rn -205oC. to thng, CO rt tr. to cao, CO b chy thnh CO2 cho ngn la mu xanh: Vi clo to thnh photgen l mt cht c ho hc: CO c tnh kh mnh, n kh c cc oxit kim loi hot ng va v yu. V d: CO c dng lm cht kh trong cng nghip luyn kim. b) Cacbon ioxit CO2. Cng thc cu to: O = C = O. Phn t i xng, nguyn t C v hai nguyn t O nm trn mt ng thng, do phn t khng phn cc. CO2 l kh khng mu, khng mi, nng hn khng kh 1,5 ln. CO2 t tan trong nc ( 20oC, mt th tch nc ho tan c 0,88 th tch CO2). Di p sut thng, -78oC, kh CO2 ho rn, gi l nc kh. CO2 c tnh cht ca oxit axit v c tnh oxi ho yu. + Tc dng vi H2O: H2CO3 l axit yu, km bn, khi b un nng n phn hu cho CO2 bay ra. + Tc dng vi kim:

+ Tc dng vi kim loi: CO2 c th oxi ho mt s kim loi c tnh kh mnh nhit cao: + Tc dng vi NH3 : To thnh ure. iu ch CO2: + Nung vi:

+ Trong phng th nghim: - ng dng ca CO2: Cha chy. Trong cng nghip thc phm, sn xut xa, ure, c) Mui cacbonat. Tn ti 2 loi mui cacbonat. - Mui cacbonat trung ho : Na2CO3, CaCO3, - Mui hirocacbonat (mui axit): Mui cacbonat ca kim loi kim, amoni v hirocacbonat ca kim loi kim, kim th (tr NaHCO 3) tan c trong nc, cc mui cacbonat cn li khng tan. - to cao : mui cacbonat kim loi kim khng b phn hu, cacbonat ca cc kim loi khc phn hu, to ra oxit kim loi. - Mui hirocacbonat km bn, b phn hu > 100oC. Mt vi mui (v d Ca(HCO3)2) ch tn ti trong dd.

- Mui cacbonat tc dng vi nhiu axit, gii phng CO2 : II. Silic 1. Cu to nguyn t: Silic l nguyn t ph bin th hai trong t nhin sau oxi, gm ba loi ng v : Cu hnh e lp ngoi cng ca silic : 3s2, 3p2. 2. Tnh cht vt l Silic l cht rn, mu xm, dn in, dn nhit. Nng chy 1423oC. Silic dng n tinh th l cht bn dn nn dng trong k thut radio, pin mt tri. 3. Tnh cht ho hc Silic tinh th th tr, silic v nh hnh kh hot ng:

Silic ho hp c vi flo to thng : iu kin thng, silic khng tc dng vi axit, ch tc dng vi hn hp HNO3 + HF: Silic tc dng vi kim to ra mui silicat v gii phng H2: Tnh cht ho hc c bit ca silic l n c th to thnh cc silan kiu ankan vi hiro v halogen : Si nH2n+2 ; SinCl2n+2 4. ng dng v iu ch: Silic dng Ch to hp kim c bit c tnh cng v chu axit. Ch to cht bn dn trong k thut v tuyn in, pin mt tri. Trong phng th nghim, silic v nh hnh c iu ch bng phn ng:

Trong cng nghip: 5. Hp cht ca silic a) Silic ioxit SiO2. SiO2 l cht rn, khng mu, nng chy 1700oC. Thch anh, phal, ametit l SiO2 nguyn cht. SiO2 l oxit axit, to cao n tc dng c vi oxit baz, kim, cacbonat kim loi kim, to ra silicat :

SiO2 c tnh cht ho hc c trng l tan c trong dd axit HF: V vy ngi ta dng HF khc hnh trn thu tinh. SiO2 c dng rng ri trong xy dng, sn xut thu tinh, mi. b) Axit silicic v mui silicat. H2SiO3 l axit yu, t tan trong nc. iu ch H2SiO3: Mui ca axit silicic l silicat. Na2SiO3 v K2SiO3 trng ging thu tinh, tan c trong nc nn c gi l thu tinh tan. Thu tinh tan dng ch to xi mng, btng chu axit. Nguyn liu sn xut thu tinh l ct, thch anh, vi v xa:

Thnh phn ho hc ca thu tinh ny c biu din gn ng bng cng thc cc oxit: Na2O.CaO.6SiO2.

CHNG IX. AI CNG V KIM LOAI I. V tr v cu to ca kim loi. 1. V tr Trong bng tun hon cc nguyn t ho hc, kim loi nhng v tr: Phn nhm chnh nhm I, II, III (tr bo) Phn nhm ph nhm I n nhm VIII H lantan v h actini (nhng nguyn t xp ring di bng). Mt phn ca cc phn nhm chnh nhm IV, V, VI. Hin nay ngi ta bit khong 109 nguyn t ho hc, trong c trn 85 nguyn t l kim loi. Cc nguyn t cng nm bn tri, pha di ca bng, tnh kim loi cng mnh. 2. Cu to ca nguyn t kim loi Nguyn t kim loi c s electron lp ngoi cng nh ( 4 ), d dng cho i trong cc phn ng ho hc. Trong cng 1 chu k, nguyn t ca cc nguyn t kim loi c bn knh ln hn v c in tch ht nhn nh hn so vi cc nguyn t phi kim. Nhng nguyn t c bn knh ln l nhng nguyn t nm gc di, bn tri ca bng tun hon. 3. Cu to tinh th kim loi Cc nguyn t kim loi sp xp theo mt trt t xc nh lm thnh mng li tinh th kim loi. Nt ca mng li l cc ion dng hoc cc nguyn t trung ho. Khong khng gian gia cc nt li khng thuc nguyn t no, lm thnh "kh electron" m cc nguyn t kim loi nt li lin kt vi nhau to thnh mng li bn vng. Lin kt sinh ra trong mng li kim loi do cc e t do gn cc ion dng kim loi li vi nhau gi l lin kt kim loi. c im ca lin kt kim loi: Do tt c cc e t do trong kim loi tham gia. Lin kt kim loi do tng tc tnh in gia cc ion dng v cc e t do. II. Tnh cht vt l iu kin thng, cc kim loi u trng thi rn (tinh th), tr Hg l cht lng. Nhit nng chy rt khc nhau. Ngi ta phn bit : Cc kim loi en (gm Fe, Mn, Cr) v kim loi mu (cc kim loi cn li). Kim loi c tnh dn in, dn nhit tt, c tnh do, c nh kim. Do c tnh cu to ca mng li kim loi ta gii thch tnh cht vt l ca n a) Tnh dn in v dn nhit Khi ni 2 u thanh kim loi vi 2 cc ca ngun in. Di tc dng ca in trng, cc e t do chuyn ng theo 1 hng xc nh lm thnh dng in trong kim loi. Khi un nng kim loi ti 1 im no , cc nt li (nguyn t, ion) im nhn thm nng lng, dao ng mnh ln v truyn nng lng cho cc e t do. Cc e t do li truyn nng lng cho cc nt xa hn. V c nh th nng lng (dng nhit) c truyn ra khp thanh kim loi. l bn cht tnh dn nhit ca kim loi. b) Tnh do (d ko di, dt mng): Khi tc dng lc c hc ln thanh kim loi, mt s nt mng li kim loi c th b x dch, nhng mi lin kt gia cc lp nt trong mng nh cc e t do vn c bo ton, do mng li tinh th vn bn vng, mc d hnh dng thanh kim loi b thay i. III. Tnh cht ho hc. 1. Nhn xt chung Do c im cu to, cc nguyn t kim loi d dng cho e ho tr, th hin tnh kh: So snh tnh kh ca kim loi : i t u n cui "dy th in ha" ca cc kim loi th tnh kh gim dn. K, Ca, Na, Mg, Al, Zn, Fe, Ni, Sn, Pb, H, Cu, Ag, Hg, Au. 2. Cc phn ng c trng: a) Phn ng vi oxi :

 to thng, phn ln kim loi phn ng vi O2 ca khng kh to thnh lp bo v cho kim loi khng b oxi ho tip tc. Khi nung nng, phn ln kim loi chy trong oxi. V d: b) Phn ng vi halogen v cc phi kim khc Vi halogen: cc kim loi kim, kim th, Al phn ng ngay to thng. Cc kim loi khc phn ng yu hn, phi un nng. Hp cht to thnh kim loi c ho tr cao: Vi phi kim khc (yu hn) phi un nng : c) Phn ng vi hiro: Kim loi kim v kim th phn ng to hp cht hirua kim loi dng mui, s oxi ho ca H l -1 d) Phn ng vi nc: to thng, ch c cc kim loi kim, kim th phn ng c vi nc to thnh H2 v hiroxit kim loi. Mt s kim loi yu hn to thnh lp bo v hiroxit hoc to thnh axit. nhit nng , nhng kim loi ng trc hiro trong dy th in ho phn ng vi hi nc. V d: e) Vi axit thng (HCl, H2SO4 long) Phn ng xy ra d dng khi: Kim loi ng trc H2. Mui to thnh phi tan g) Vi axit oxi ho (HNO3, H2SO4 c nng) Tr Au v Pt, cn hu ht cc kim loi tc dng c vi HNO3 (c hoc long), H2SO4 (c, nng), Vi HNO3 c: (Kh duy nht bay ra l NO2 mu nu). Vi HNO3 long: Tu theo mnh ca kim loi v long ca axit, sn phm kh bay ra c th l N2, N2O, NO. i vi kim loi mnh v axit rt long, sn phm l NH4NO3. V d:

Vi axit H2SO4 c nng. Kim loi + H2SO4 .n mui + (H2S, S, SO2) + H2O. Tu theo mnh ca kim loi m sn phm ca s kh S+6 (trong H2SO4) l H2S, S hay SO2. Kim loi cng mnh th S+6 b kh v s oxi ho cng thp. V d:

Ch : Al v Fe b th ng ho trong H2SO4 c, ngui v HNO3 c, ngui. Nguyn nhn l do khi 2 kim loi ny tip xc vi cc axit c, ngui th trn b mt chng c to lp mng mng, c xt bo v kim loi khng b axit tc dng. Do , trong thc t ngi ta dng cc xitec bng st chuyn ch cc axit trn. h) Phn ng vi kim: Mt s kim loi ng trc H2 v hiroxit ca n c tnh lng tnh c th phn ng vi kim mnh. V d nh Be, Zn, Al: k) Phn ng kim loi mnh y kim loi yu khi hp cht: y kim loi yu khi dd mui. V d: Nhng kim loi tc dng mnh vi H2O nh kim loi kim, kim th, khi gp dd nc th trc ht phn ng vi H2O. y kim loi yu khi oxit (phn ng nhit kim loi). Xy ra to cao, to nhiu nhit lm nng chy kim loi: Phng php ny thng c dng iu ch cc kim loi kh nng chy nh Cr, Mn, Fe IV. Dy th in ho ca kim loi 1. Cp oxi ho - kh ca kim loi. Trong nhng iu kin nht nh, cn bng. c th xy ra theo 1 chiu xc nh. Trong : Me l dng kh, Men+ l dng oxi ho. Dng oxi ho v dng kh ca cng mt nguyn t to thnh cp oxi ho - kh (oxh.kh). V d: Cc cp oxi ho - kh : Fe2+.Fe, Cu2+.Cu, Al3+.Al. 2. in th oxi ho - kh. c trng cho kh nng oxi ho - kh ca mt cp oxi ho - kh, ngi ta dng i lng gi l in th oxi ho - kh v k hiu Eoxh.kh. Khi nng dng oxi ho v nng dng kh bng 1mol/l ([oxh] = [kh] = 1mol/l), ta c th oxi ho - kh chun oxh.kh. 3. ngha ca dy th in ho ca kim loi a) D on chiu phn ng gia 2 cp oxh - kh: Khi cho 2 cp oxh - kh gp nhau, dng oxh ca cp nm bn phi (c th oxh kh ln hn) oxh c dng kh ca cp nm bn tri. V d: C 2 cp oxh - kh : Zn2+.Zn v Fe2+.Fe phn ng: C 2 cp oxh - kh: Zn2+.Zn v Cu2+.Cu phn ng: b) Nhng kim loi ng trc H (pha tri) y c hiro ra khi dd axit. V d:

V. Hp kim 1. nh ngha Hp kim l cht rn thu c sau khi nung chy mt hn hp nhiu kim loi khc nhau hoc hn hp kim loi v phi kim. 2. Cu to ca hp kim Hp kim thng c cu to bng cc loi tinh th: a) Tinh th hn hp: Gm nhng tinh th ca cc n cht trong hn hp ban u, khi nng chy chng khng tan vo nhau. b) Tinh th dd rn: L nhng tinh th c to thnh sau khi nung nng chy cc n cht trong hn hp tan vo nhau c) Tinh th hp cht ho hc: L tinh th ca nhng hp cht ho hc c to ra sau khi nung nng chy cc n cht trong hn hp. 3. Lin kt ho hc trong hp kim: Lin kt trong hp kim ch yu l lin kt kim loi. Trong loi hp kim c tinh th l hp cht ho hc, kiu lin kt l lin kt cng ho tr. 4. Tnh cht ca hp kim: Hp kim c nhng tnh cht ho hc tng t tnh cht ca cc cht trong hn hp ban u, nhng tnh cht vt l v tnh cht c hc li khc nhiu. 5. ng dng: Hp kim c dng nhiu trong: Cng nghip ch to my: ch to t, my bay, cc loi my mc Cng nghip xy dng V. n mn kim loi v chng n mn 1. S n mn kim loi. S ph hu kim loi hoc hp kim do tc dng ho hc ca mi trng xung quanh gi l s n mn kim loi. n mn kim loi c chia thnh 2 loi chnh: n mn ho hc v n mn in ho. a) n mn ho hc: n mn ho hc l s ph hu kim loi do kim loi phn ng ho hc vi cht kh hoc hi nc nhit cao. c im ca n mn ho hc: Khng pht sinh dng in. Nhit cng cao th tc n mn cng nhanh. S n mn ho hc thng xy ra : Nhng thit b ca l t. Nhng chi tit ca ng c t trong. Nhng thit b tip xc vi hi nc nhit cao. V d:

Bn cht ca n mn ho hc l qu trnh oxi ho - kh, trong cc electron ca kim loi chuyn trc tip sang mi trng tc dng: b) n mn in ho: n mn in ho l s ph hu kim loi do kim loi tip xc vi dd cht in li to nn dng in. C ch n mn in ho: Nhng kim loi dng trong i sng v k thut thng t nhiu c ln tp cht (kim loi khc hoc phi kim), khi tip xc vi mi trng in li (nh hi nc c ho ln cc kh CO 2, NO2, SO2,hoc nc bin, ) s xy ra qu trnh n mn in ho.

Xt c ch n mn st c ln ng trong khng kh m c ho tan H+, O2, CO2, NO2,to thnh mi trng in li. St c ln ng tip xc vi mi trng in li to thnh 1 pin, trong Fe l kim loi hot ng hn l cc m, Cu l cc dng. cc m: Fe b oxi ho v b n mn. Ion Fe2+ tan vo mi trng in li, trn st d e. Cc e d ny chy sang Cu ( gim bt s chnh lch in tch m gia thanh st v ng). cc dng: Xy ra qu trnh kh ion H+ v O2. Ion H+ v O2 trong mi trng in li n ming Cu thu e:

Sau xy ra qu trnh to thnh g st:

Cc hiroxit st ny c th b mt H2O to thnh g st, c thnh phn xc nh: 2. Cch chng n mn kim loi: a) Cch li kim loi vi mi trng: Dng nhng cht bn vi mi trng ph ln b mt kim loi. l: Cc loi sn chng g, vecni, du m, trng men, ph hp cht polime. M mt s kim loi bn nh crom, niken, ng, km, thic ln b mt kim loi cn bo v. b) Dng hp kim chng g (hp kim inox): Ch to nhng hp kim khng g trong mi trng khng kh, mi trng ho cht. Nhng hp kim khng g thng t tin, v vy s dng chng cn hn ch. c) Dng cht chng n mn (cht km hm) Cht chng n mn lm b mt kim loi tr nn th ng (tr) i vi mi trng n mn. Ngy nay ngi ta ch to c hng trm cht chng n mn khc nhau, chng c dng rng ri trong cc ngnh cng nghip ho cht. d) Dng phng php in ha: Ni kim loi cn bo v vi 1 tm kim loi khc c tnh kh mnh hn. V d, bo v v tu bin bng thp, ngi ta gn vo v tu (phn chm trong nc bin) 1 tm km. Khi tu hot ng, tm km b n mn dn, v tu c bo v. Sau mt thi gian ngi ta thay tm km khc. VII. iu ch kim loi 1. Nguyn tc: Kh ion kim loi thnh kim loi. 2. Cc phng php iu ch. a) Phng php thy luyn: Dng kim loi t do c tnh kh mnh hn kh ion kim loi trong dd mui. V d: iu ch ng kim loi: iu ch bc kim loi: b) Phng php nhit luyn:

Dng cc cht kh nh CO, H2, C hoc kim loi kh ion kim loi trong oxit nhit cao. Phng php ny c s dng sn xut kim loi trong cng nghip:

c) Phng php in phn: Dng dng in 1 chiu trn catt (cc m) kh ion kim loi trong hp cht. Bng phng php ny, ngi ta c th iu ch c hu ht cc kim loi. iu ch kim loi c tnh kh mnh (t Na n Al). in phn hp cht nng chy (mui, kim, oxit). V d: iu ch Na bng cch in phn NaCl nng chy. iu ch kim loi c tnh kh trung bnh v yu: in phn dd mui ca chng trong nc. V d: iu ch Cu bng cch in phn dd CuSO4.

Bng phng php in phn c th iu ch c kim loi c tinh khit cao. VIII. Hp cht ca kim loi. 1. Oxit MexOy a) u l tinh th. b) Tc dng vi H2O. Ch c mt s oxit kim loi mnh (v d kim loi kim, kim th) v mt s anhirit axit c s oxi ho cao mi phn ng trc tip vi H2O.

c) Tc dng vi axit: Phn ln cc oxit baz phn ng vi axit. d) Tc dng vi oxit axit. Ch c oxit ca cc kim loi mnh phn ng c. e) Tc dng vi kim: Cc oxti axit v cc oxit lng tnh phn ng c.

2. Hiroxit Hiroxit l hp cht tng ng vi sn phm kt hp oxit v H2O. Hiroxit c th c tnh baz hoc axit. a) Hiroxit ca mt s kim loi (tr ca kim loi kim, kim th) b nhit phn khi nung nng to thnh oxit: b) Tnh tan trong H2O: Phn ln t tan, ch c hiroxit ca kim loi kim, Ba(OH)2 v mt s hiroxit trong kim loi c s oxi ho cao l tan c trong H2O. V d: H2CrO4, H2Cr2O7, H2MnO4, HMnO4. c) Tnh axit - baz: Phn ln c tnh baz, mt s c tnh lng tnh (nh Be(OH) 2, Zn(OH)2, Al(OH)3, Sn(OH)2,), mt s l axit (H2CrO4, H2Cr2O7, HMnO4). d) Tnh oxi ho - kh: Th hin r i vi mt s hiroxit ca kim loi c nhiu s oxi ho hoc hiroxit ca kim loi yu.

3. Mui a) Tnh tan ca mui: Mui nitrat ca cc kim loi: u d tan trong nc. Mui sunfat ca cc kim loi: phn ln d tan, tr CaSO4, BaSO4, PbSO4, Ag2SO4. Mui clorua ca cc kim loi: phn ln d tan, tr AgCl, PbCl2, CuCl, Hg2Cl2, Mui cacbonat ca cc kim loi: phn ln kh tan, tr cacbonat ca kim loi kim v amoni. Mui cacbonat axit: ni chung tan tt hn mui cacbonat trung tnh (tr cacbonat axit ca kim loi kim). b) Tnh oxi ho - kh ca mui: Mt s mui c s oxi ho thp ca kim loi km bn, c tnh kh. Mt s mui ca kim loi yu, hoc c s oxi ho cao ca kim loi th km bn, c tnh oxi ho hoc d b phn hu:

CHNG X. KIM LOI KIM, KIM TH, NHM A. KIM LOI KIM I. Cu to nguyn t C 1 e ho tr lp ngoi cng. Bn knh nguyn t ln, in tch ht nhn nh (so vi cc nguyn t cng chu k). V vy kim loi kim rt d nhng 1e ho tr - th hin tnh kh mnh. i t Li Fr tnh kh tng dn (Fr l nguyn t phng x t c nghin cu). II. Tnh cht vt l L nhng kim loi, mm, nh, trng nh bc. D to hp kim vi Hg gi l hn hng. Nhit nng chy v nhit si thp. i t Li Cs, nhit nng chy v nhit si gim dn. Dn nhit v dn in tt. n cht v hp cht khi chy cho ngn la c trng: Li : ta ; Na : vng; K : tm Rb : huyt. III. Tnh cht ho hc a) Phn ng vi oxi: to thng : Li, Na, K + O2 lp oxit trn mt ; Rb, Cs bc chy. Khi un nng : Li, Na, K bc chy mnh lit to thnh oxit (Li2O) hay peoxit Na2O2, K2O2. b) Vi cc phi kim khc: Phn ng mnh lit vi halogen to thng, hoc khi un nh: Khi t nng phn ng vi S, H2, P,

NaH l cht rn, khi gp nc, b thu phn: c) Phn ng vi nc: Phn ng mnh ngay nhit thng. d) Phn ng vi axit thng v axit oxi ho: phn ng xy ra mnh lit. IV. iu ch Kim loi kim c iu ch bng cch in phn mui clorua nng chy hoc hiroxit nng chy. V d: V. Hp cht 1. Oxit Me2O l cht rn, phn ng mnh vi nc, vi axit v oxit axit. V d:

2. Hiroxit MeOH L cht rn, ht m mnh, tan nhiu trong nc. L baz mnh, in li hon ton trong dd nc. Phn ng trung ho vi axit, oxit axit. V d Khi d CO2: Cacbonat axit ca kim loi kim kh bn, c th tch khi dd di dng tinh th khi un cn dd. Nhng khi nung nng tinh th b phn tch thnh cacbonat, v d NaHCO3 b phn tch 160oC. Mui cacbonat kim loi kim rt bn, nng chy khong 800oC, khng b phn tch. iu ch hiroxit kim loi kim: in phn dd mui clorua long, ngui c mng ngn (xem phn in phn). Bng phn ng trao i:

3. Mui Hu ht cc mui ca kim loi kim u tan nhiu trong nc (tr KClO4), mt s mui tn ti trong thin nhin : NaCl, Na2SO4.1OH2O, Na2AlF6, KCl, NaCl.KCl (xinvinit), KCl.MgCl2.H2O (cacnalit), KCl.MgSO4.3H2O. (cainit). Mt s mui kim loi quan trng: Natri clorua NaCl: NaCl l cht rn, khng mu, d tan trong nc, nng chy 800oC. NaCl c khai thc t nc bin, t mui m. N c dng nhiu trong cng nghip thc phm, sn xut clo, axit clohiric, nc Javen, Natri hirocacbonat: Mui natri hirocacbonat NaHCO3 l cht rn mu trng, t tan trong nc, bn nhit thng, b phn hu nhit cao.

NaHCO3 l mui ca axit yu, khng bn, tc dng c vi axit mnh: Mt khc, NaHCO3 l mui axit, tc dng c vi kim: Mui natri cacbonat Na2CO3: Na2CO3 l cht rn mu trng, d tan trong nc. nhit thng n tn ti dng mui ngm nc Na2CO3.1OH2O. nhit cao, mt nc to thnh mui khan Na2CO3 c nhit nng chy 850oC. Na2CO3 b thu phn trong dd cho mi trng kim mnh:

Na2CO3 l nguyn liu ho hc quan trng sn xut thu tinh, x phng v nhiu mui khc. 4. Nhn bit kim loi kim v hp cht ca chng. Da vo mu ngn la khi t hn hp ca cc kim loi ny: Hp cht ca Li+ : ngn la mu . Hp cht ca Na+: ngn la mu vng. Hp cht ca K+: ngn la mu tm. VI. Trng thi t nhin Natri thng gp di dng NaCl (mui n), Na2SO4.1OH2O, Na2CO3 (xa), NaNO3 (dim tiu). Kali thng gp dng : KCl.NaCl (xinvinit), KCl.MgCl2.6H2O (cacnanit) B. KIM LOAI NHOM II (KIM LOAI KIM TH) I. Cu to nguyn t C 2 electrong ho tr lp ngoi cng. Bn knh nguyn t kh ln, in tch ht nhn tng i nh (so vi cc nguyn t trong cng chu k). V vy cc nguyn t u c tnh kh mnh (nhng km kim loi kim), d nhng 2e. II. Tnh cht vt l L nhng cht rn, c nh bc, dn in, dn nhit tt. Nhit si v nhit nng chy tng i thp (cao hn kim loi kim) V d : ca Mg l 650oC, ca Ba l 710oC. Mu ngn la c trng ca n cht v hp cht: Ca: da cam ; Sr, Ra: son ; Ba: xanh lc. III. Tnh cht ho hc 1. Phn ng vi oxi nhit thng, cc kim loi phn nhm chnh nhm II b O2 khng kh oxi ho to thnh lp oxit trn b mt. Khi t nng bc chy mnh lit. V d:

2. Phn ng vi cc phi kim khc. Vi halogen: phn ng d dng ngay nhit thng Vi cc phi kim km hot ng: phi un nng

3. Phn ng vi H2O Be khng phn ng v c lp oxit bo v Mg khng tan trong nc lnh, khi un nng to tan chm do phn ng vi nc. Ca, Sr, Ba phn ng mnh vi nc nhit thng. 4. Phn ng vi axit (axit thng v axit oxi ho) Be, Mg phn ng d dng. Ca, Sr, Ba phn ng mnh lit

5. Phn ng vi dd kim v kim nng chy. Ch c Be phn ng:

6. Phn ng y kim loi yu hn khi oxit hoc mui khan khi un nng.

IV. iu ch Phng php ph bin nht v quan trng nht l in phn mui halogenua nng chy: V. Mt s hp cht quan trng 1. Oxit MeO. u l cht rn, mu trng, rt bn nhit, nng chy nhit rt cao (v d CaO nng chy 2585oC). MgO phn ng chm vi H2O ; CaCO ; SrO ; BaO phn ng mnh lit vi nc: Cc oxit u tan d dng trong axit. BeO tc dng vi dd kim Quan trng nht trong s cc oxit l CaO. CaO c gi l vi sng, tc dng vi nc cho Ca(OH) 2 gi l vi ti, dng lm vt liu xy dng. 2. Hiroxit Me(OH)2 Tnh tan v tnh baz tng dn:

Be(OH)2 c tnh lng tnh

 Mg(OH)2 kt ta trng, l baz yu, tan trong axit. Ca(OH)2 t tan trong nc, l baz kh mnh. Ba(OH)2 tan kh nhiu trong nc to thnh dd kim mnh. Khi un nng, Be(OH)2 v Mg(OH)2 b mt nc bin thnh oxit: Ch : Khi cho kh clo tc dng vi Ca(OH)2 hoc CaO ta thu c clorua vi CaOCl2 c cng thc cu to:

Clorua vi l cht oxi ho mnh, dng st trng v ty trng. Cc phn ng quan trng ca clorua vi l:

3. Mui a) Mui nitrat: tan nhiu trong nc. b) Mui clorua: tan nhiu trong nc c) Mui sunfat: t BeSO4 BaSO4 tan gim dn. BeSO4, MgSO4 tan nhiu, SrSO4, BaSO4 khng tan. d) Mui cacbonat: Mui cacbonat trung tnh MeCO3 : t tan trong nc, khi nung nng b phn tch. V d: Mui cacbonat axit Me(HCO3)2 tan nhiu trong nc, ch tn ti trong dd v c cn bng sau; Khi d CO2, cn bng chuyn dch sang phi. Khi un nng, cn bng chuyn dch sang tri. VI. Trng thi t nhin Mg thng gp dng MgCO3 (manhezit), CaCO3.MgCO3 (olomit), KCl.MgCl2.6H2O (cacnalit), KCl.MgSO4.6H2O (cainit). Ca thng gp dng CaCO3 ( vi, phn, hoa), CaCO3.MgCO3 (olomit), CaO4.2H2O (thch cao), Ca3(PO4)2 (photphorit), 3Ca3(PO4)2.CaF2 (apatit). VII. Nc cng 1. nh ngha Tu theo lng ion Ca2+ v Mg2+ c trong nc nhiu hay t m ngi ta chia nc thin nhin thnh 2 loi: + Nc mm: C t ion Ca2+, Mg2+ ho tan (tng nng 2 ion ny < 0,002 mol/l). + Nc cng: C ho tan nhiu ion Ca2+, Mg2+ (tng nng 2 ion ny > 0,002 mol/l). cng ca nc gm 2 loi: + cng tm thi: Do mui cacbonat axit ca canxi v magie gy ra, khi un si nc, cc mui ny b phn hu to ra mui, cacbonat kt ta:

+ cng vnh cu: gy ra do mui clorua, sunfat ca Ca2+ v Mg2+. Khi un si, vnh cu khng b mt. + cng ton phn: l tng ca hai cng trn.

2. Tc hi ca nc cng. ng cn vo thnh ni hi lm gim dn nhit nn lm tn nhin liu v c th gy ra n ni hi. Git x phng trong nc cng s kh sch, tn x phng v x phng bin thnh mui ca Ca 2+, Mg2+ t tan, vn cc trn vi. V d: 3. Cch lm mm nc. a) Kh cng tm thi : un si nc. Dng cc phng php vi, xt v xa. + Phng php vi:

+ Phng php xt:

+ Phng php xa:

b) Kh cng ton phn: Dng phn ng trao i (vi Na2CO3 hay Na3PO4) kt ta Ca2+ v Mg2+: Dng nha trao i ion (gi l cc ionit): cho nc chy qua ct cha nha trao i ion, cc ion Ca2+, Mg2+ s b gi li trn ct. C. NHM I. Cu to nguyn t Nguyn t Al c 3 electron ho tr lp ngoi cng (cu hnh e : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 31). Bn knh nguyn t tng i ln. in tch ht nhn Z tng i nh. V th Al c tnh kh mnh (km Mg), d nhng 3e ho tr: II. Tnh cht vt l Al l kim loi nh (d = 2,7 g.cm3), trng nh bc, nhit nng chy l 6000C. Al rt do, d ko di, dt mng. Al dn nhit, dn in rt tt. To hp kim vi nhiu kim loi khc. III. Tnh cht ho hc 1. Phn ng vi oxi nhit thng: do lp oxit mng bo v nn Al khng phn ng vi oxi. Nu lm cho lp Al2O3 to thnh ny khng bm vo b mt nhm th nhm s phn ng mnh vi oxi. V d, sau khi nhng Al vo thu ngn to thnh hn hng trn b mt Al, khi ra khng kh s xy ra hin tng "Al mc lng t". dng bt, khi un nng, Al chy mnh to nhiu nhit. 2. Phn ng vi cc phi kim Vi Cl2, Br2 : Al phn ng ngay nhit thng, to thnh AlCl3, AlBr3. Khi un nng, Al phn ng vi I2, S. nhit cao, Al phn ng c vi N2, C.

3. Phn ng vi H2O nhit thng, Al khng phn ng vi H2O v c lp oxit bn vng bo v. Nu nh b lp oxit i, Al phn ng vi H2O nhit thng. Phn ng trn nhanh chng dng li v Al(OH)3 bo v khng cho Al tip xc vi H2O. 4. Phn ng vi axit thng Vi dd HCl v H2SO4(l), phn ng d dng (Al ng trc H): 5. Phn ng vi axit oxi ho Vi HNO3 c, ngui v H2SO4 c, ngui : Al b th ng ho. Trong cc trng hp khc (axit long, axit c, nng) phn ng xy ra d dng: V d: 6. Phn ng vi dd kim. Phn ng mnh v Al(OH)3 lng tnh, tan c trong kim. 7. Phn ng y kim loi yu hn khi hp cht. Vi dd mui: Phn ng nhit nhm: y mnh kim loi yu khi oxit khi nung nng. Phn ng nhit nhm c dng iu ch Mn, Cr, V, W v cc hp kim ca st. IV. Hp cht ca Al 1. Nhm oxit Al2O3 Mu trng, rt bn vi nhit, kh nng chy (nhit nng chy > 2000oC) Khng tc dng vi nc, khng tan trong nc. Al2O3 l oxit lng tnh, tc dng vi dd axit mnh v dd kim. D phn ng vi kim nng chy. 2. Nhm hiroxit Al(OH)3 Al(OH)3 l cht kt ta dng keo, t tan trong nc. L hiroxit lng tnh, d tan trong axit v trong dd kim, c bit khng tan vo dd NH4OH long.

Al(OH)3 nung nng b mt nc. iu ch Al(OH)3 bng phn ng trao i vi dd NH4OH: 3. Mui nhm Cc mui nitrat, sunfat, halogenua ca nhm u tan nhiu trong nc. Mt loi mui Al ph bin l phn chua. l mui kp Al - K c cng thc: K 2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O, phn chua c dng lm trong nc, dng trong k ngh thuc da v giy. Mui aluminat: C ion Al(OH)3 kt ta. V d: , ch bn trong dd kim (v d NaAlO2). Trong mi trng axit yu to thnh

V. iu ch Al Trong cng nghip, sn xut nhm ch yu bng phng php in phn nng chy Al 2O3 c mt criolit Na3AlF6 lm gim nhit nng chy ca Al2O3.

Khi nng chy:

in phn 950oC, in th 4 - 5 von. Cc in cc lm bng than graphit, do ant b n mn bi phn ng. V vy, khi in phn phi thng xuyn b sung than ant. Al2O3 ly t qung boxit. VI. Nhn bit ion Al3+ Nhn bit ion Al3+ bng phn ng to kt ta keo Al(OH) 3 tan trong kim d nhng khng tan trong NH4OH. VII. Trng thi t nhin ca nhm Nhm thng gp di dng : boxit (Al2O3.nH2O), cao lanh (Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O),

CHNG XI. ST VA MT S NGUYN T PHN NHOM PHU KHAC A. ST I. Cu to nguyn t Cu hnh electron: Lp st ngoi cng c 14 electron, ang xy dng d dang nn km bn. V vy Fe c th nhng 2 electron lp ngoi cng v mt s electron lp st ngoi cng c s oxi ho +2, +3 v +6. St l kim loi hot ng trung bnh, s oxi ho thng gp l +2 v +3. II. Tnh cht vt l St nguyn cht c nh bc, do, dn in, dn nhit tt, nng chy 1539oC. Di 800oC st c tnh nhim t, b nam chm ht v tr thnh nam chm (tm thi). III. Tnh cht ho hc 1. Phn ng vi O2. nhit thng, trong khng kh kh, to thnh lp oxit b mt (Fe3O4). Trong khng kh m, st b g (do b n mn in ho). Khi nng , chy vi oxi: 2. Phn ng vi cc phi kim. Khi b t nng, Fe phn ng vi hu ht cc phi kim, v d:

3. Phn ng vi nc: nhit nng , Fe phn ng mnh vi hi nc:

4. Phn ng vi axi thng: 5. Phn ng vi axit oxi ho. Fe b th ng ho bi HNO3 c, ngui v H2SO4 c, ngui. Trong cc trng hp khc (H2SO4 c, nng; HNO3 long), Fe d dng phn ng.

6. Vi dd kim Fe khng tc dng vi dd kim 7. y kim loi ch yu khi hp cht.

IV. Hp cht. 1. Oxit. C 3 loi: FeO, Fe2O3, Fe3O4 (FeO.Fe2O3). C 3 u l cht rn, khng tc dng vi H2O v khng tan trong H2O Vi cht kh (nh CO, H2 nhit cao) : Oxit cha st c s oxi ho cao b kh thnh oxit c s oxi ho thp ri thnh kim loi: Vi cht oxi ho: Oxit cha st c s oxi ho thp bin thnh oxit c s oxi ho cao:

 C 3 u l oxit baz, ho tan trong axit, khng ho tan trong kim.

Nu ho tan trong axit oxi ho th to thnh mui Fe3+: 2. Hiroxit Fe(OH)2 c mu trng. Fe(OH)3 c mu nu. C 2 hiroxit ny u t tan trong nc. Khi nung nng, b mt nc:

Nu nung trong kh quyn c oxi th u to thnh Fe2O3, v: Fe(OH)2 d b oxi ho (ngay trong khng kh) thnh Fe(OH)3:

C 2 hiroxit u l baz yu, tan trong axit:

Fe(OH)3 khng tan trong kim d, nhng tan mt t trong kim c v c tnh axit v rt yu. 3. Mui a) Cc mui nitrat, halogenua, sunfat ca Fe u tan nhiu trong nc. b) Mui Fe2+ c tnh kh mnh.

c) Mui Fe3+ c tnh oxi ho

4. Cch nhn bit. a) Nhn bit hp cht ca Fe2+ Bng phn ng to kt ta Fe(OH)2 mu trng, ri b oxi ho dn thnh Fe(OH)3 mu nu. Bng phn ng th hin tnh kh ca Fe2+. V d lm mt mu KMnO4 (xem phn ng 3b.) b) Nhn bit hp cht ca Fe3+ Bng phn ng to thnh kt ta Fe(OH)3 mu nu. 5. Hp cht ca Fe trong t nhin Trong t nhin, st tn ti ch yu trong cc khong cht sau : Oxit st t (Fe3O4), hmatit (Fe2O3), hmatit nu (Fe2O3 . H2O), xeerit (FeCO3), pirit (FeS2) V. Hp kim ca Fe 1. St non: l hp kim ca st c cha di 0,01% cacbon. 2. Gang: l hp kim ca st cha 2 - 6% cacbon, ngoi ra cn c mt t Mn, Si, P, S. Ngi ta phn bit: Gang xm: Ch to nhit cao, c cha nhiu cacbon (3,5 - 6%) v t Si hn. Gang trng: Rt cng nhng rt dn, dng luyn st hoc thp. Gang c bit: C cha nhiu Mn, Si, Cr, W. Dng trn vo gang thng luyn thp qu. 3. Thp: l hp kim ca st c t 0,01 - 2% cacbon v mt s nguyn t khc. Ngi ta phn bit: a) Thp thng hay thp cacbon: c cha t C, Si, Mn v rt t P, S. cng ca thp ph thuc vo hm lng cacbon.

b) Thp c bit: c cha nhng lng ng k cc nguyn t khc nh Mn, Si, Cr, Ni, W. Thp c bit c nhng tnh cht c hc v vt l rt qu. V du: Thp Ni - Cr: Rt cng, t dn. Dng ch to vng bi, v xe bc thp. Thp W - Mo - Cr: Rt cng ngay nhit cao. Dng ch to dng c ct gt kim loi. Thp Si: Rt do, n hi tt. Dng ch l xo, dp t. Thp Mn: Rt bn, chu c va p mnh. Dng ch my nghin , thanh ng ray. VI. Luyn gang 1. Nguyn tc Dng CO kh st oxit (nu l qung FeCO3 th nung trc bin thnh st oxit). 2. Cc phn ng trong l cao: pha trn ni l: Kh CO bc ln gp st oxit:

ng thi xy ra tng tc gia Fe v C to thnh st cacbua Fe3C ho tan trong gang. Mt phn cacbon trong gang dng than ch (graphit). Gang trng cha nhiu Fe3C, gang xm cha nhiu than ch. VII. Luyn thp 1. Nguyn tc Tch bt khi gang mt phn ln C, Cr, Si, Mn v hu ht P, S. 2. Phn ng xy ra khi luyn thp. O2 ca khng kh oxi ho mt phn Fe trong Loi P, S: gang lng. FeO oxi ho cc tp cht nh Si, Mn, C: Ca3(PO4)2, CaO v CaS c loi cng vi x. Kh FeO cn st li trong thp SiO2 v MnO b loi cng x l, CO chy: FeSiO3, MnSiO3 c loi cng x. II. Crom 1. Tnh cht Crom (Cr = 52) l kim loi sng trng, kh nng chy, rt cng. Crom bn i vi nc v khng kh nhit thng. Khi nung nng, trng thi bt, crom d b oxi ho bi cc phi kim. V d:

Crom d dng tan trong axit thng. Crom b th ng ho trong HNO3 c, ngui v trong H2SO4 c, ngui Crom d dng tc dng vi cht oxi ho trong mi trng kim. 2. Hp cht: Trong cc hp cht, crom tn ti 2 s oxi ho in hnh : +3 v +6. a) Oxit Cr2O3 L cht rn, mu xanh l cy, khng tc dng vi nc, khng tc dng vi dd kim v axit. Cr2O3 tc dng vi kim nng chy to thnh mui cromit MeCrO2

b) Hiroxit Cr(OH)3 L cht khng tan trong nc, mu xanh l cy, lng tnh.

c) Mui Cr3+ Cr(NO3)3, CrCl3, Cr2(SO4)3 u tan nhiu trong nc to thnh dd mu xanh l cy. d) Hp cht Cr+6 H2CrO4: axit cromic H2Cr2O7: axit icromic.

Hp cht Cr6+ c tnh oxi ho: