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3 Asphalt
Asphalt is one of the two principal constituents of HMA. Asphalt functions as an inexpensive (typically, $0.05/lb.), waterproof, thermoplastic, viscoelastic adhesive. In other words, it acts as the glue that holds the road together (Anderson, Youtcheff and Zupanick, 2000). But just what is asphalt and how is it characterized? Like many engineering substances, a vernacular definition of "asphalt" is rather imprecise. For engineering purposes, the definition needs to be more unequivocal. ASTM D 8 provides the following definitions: asphalt A dark brown to black cementitious material in which the predominating constituents are bitumens, which occur in nature or are obtained in petroleum processing. asphalt cement A fluxed or unfluxed asphalt specially prepared as to quality and consistency for direct use in the manufacture of bituminous pavements, and having a penetration at 25 C (77 F) of between 5 and 300, under a load of 100 grams applied for 5 seconds. bitumen A class of black or dark-colored (solid, semi-solid or viscous) cementitious substances, natural or manufactured, composed principally of high molecular weight hydrocarbons, of which asphalts, tars, pitches, and asphaltenes are typical. flux A bituminous material, generally liquid, used for softening other bituminous materials. Major Topics on this Page 3.1 Background 3.2 Refining 3.3 Chemical Properties 3.4 Physical Properties 3.5 Grading Systems 3.6 Asphalt Binder Modifiers 3.7 Other Forms of Asphalt Used in Paving 3.8 Summary
This section uses the generic term, "asphalt binder", to represent the principal binding agent in HMA. "Asphalt binder" includes asphalt cement as well as any material added to modify the original asphalt cement properties. The term "asphalt cement" is used to represent unmodified asphalt cement only.
3.1 Background
The first recorded use of asphalt by humans was by the Sumerians around 3,000 B.C. Statues from that time period used asphalt as a binding substance for inlaying various shells, precious stones or pearls. Other common ancient asphalt uses were preservation (for mummies), waterproofing (pitch on ship hulls), and cementing (used to join together bricks in Babylonia). Around 1500 A.D., the Incas of Peru were using a composition similar to modern bituminous macadam to pave parts of their highway system. In more modern times, asphalt paving use first began with foot paths in the 1830s and then progressed to actual asphalt roadways in the 1850s. The first asphalt roadways in the U.S. appeared in the early 1870s (Abraham, 1929). In the U.S., Trinidad (near the coast of Venezuela) was the earliest source of asphalt binder. Trinidad supplied about 90 percent of all asphalt (worldwide) from 1875 to 1900 (Baker, 1903). The asphalt was produced from a "lake" (see Figure 3.18) with a surface area of 465,000 m2 (46.5 hectares or 115 acres) and a depth of about 24 meters (75 feet). In 1900, Tillson estimated that this "lake" contained about 8,000,000 tonnes of "asphalt" (compare this against 1990 consumption in Europe and the U.S. of approximately 40,000,000 tonnes (tons)). This asphalt, once free of water, was too "hard" to use in paving (Krchma and
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Gagle, 1974). In fact, Trinidad Lake asphalt, when loaded into a ships holds for transport, would fuse to the point that removal required chopping.
Figure 3.18: Trinidad Lake Asphalt Typically, producers added flux, created from petroleum distillation, to Trinidad Lake asphalt to soften it for use in early pavements. It appears that the earliest use of asphalt binder in the U.S. was about 1874 for a project built in Washington, D.C. This binder was a combination of Trinidad Lake asphalt and a flux distilled from crude oil. Without question, these early asphalt binders were quite variable, making pavement mix and structural design somewhat challenging. By the 1880s, asphalt binders were regularly produced from crude oil in California and by 1902 in Texas as well. In 1907, crude oil-based asphalt production surpassed "natural" asphalt production (Krchma and Gagle, 1974). Today, asphalt binder for HMA pavements is produced almost entirely from petroleum refining. This section covers the following topics:
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Asphalt cement refining The chemical properties of asphalt binder The physical properties of asphalt binder Asphalt binder grading systems Asphalt binder modifiers Other types of asphalt used in paving
3.2 Refining
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In the simplest terms, asphalt binder is simply the residue left over from petroleum refining. Thus, asphalt binders are produced mainly by petroleum refiners and, to a lesser extent, by formulators who purchase blending stock from refiners. The composition of base crude oil from which asphalt is refined can vary widely and thus the asphalt yield from different crude oil sources can also vary widely. The American Petroleum Institute (API) classifies crude oils by their API gravity. API gravity is an arbitrary expression of a materials density at 15.5 C (60 F) and is obtained in the following equation: API gravity can be used as a rough estimate of asphalt yield with lower API gravity crude oils producing more asphalt (see Table 3.5). Figure 3.19 shows the composition of three very different crude oils and their associated API gravities. Table 3.5: API Gravities of Some Typical Substances Substance Water Asphalts Gasoline Low API gravity crude oil High API gravity crude oil Typical API Gravity 10 5 10 55 < 25 (yields high percentages of asphalt) > 25 (yields low percentages of asphalt)
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The result of the above chemistry is a material that behaves (1) elastically through the effects of the polar molecule networks, and (2) viscously because the various parts of the polar molecule network can move relative to one another due to their dispersion in the fluid non-polar molecules.
Aging. Some aging is reversible, some is not. Irreversible aging is generally associated with oxidation at the molecular level. This oxidation increases an asphalts viscosity with age up until a point when the asphalt is able to quench (or halt) oxidation through immobilization of the most chemically reactive elements. Reversible aging is generally associated with the effects of molecular organization. Over time, the molecules within asphalt will slowly reorient themselves into a better packed, more bound system. This results in a stiffer, more rigid material. This thixotropic aging can be reversed by heating and agitation.
Rutting and permanent deformation. If the molecular network is relatively simple and not interconnected, asphalt will tend to deform inelastically under load (e.g., not all the deformation is recoverable). Additionally, asphalts with higher percentages of non-polar dispersing molecules are better able to flow and plastically deform because the various polar molecule network pieces can more easily move relative to one another due to the greater percentage of fluid non-polar molecules.
Fatigue cracking. If the molecular network becomes too organized and rigid, asphalt will fracture rather than deform elastically under stress. Therefore, asphalts with higher percentages of polar, network-forming molecules may be more susceptible to fatigue cracking.
Thermal cracking. At lower temperatures even the normally fluid non-polar molecules begin to organize into a structured form. Combined with the already-structured polar molecules, this makes asphalt more rigid and likely to fracture rather than deform elastically under stress.
Stripping. Asphalt adheres to aggregate because the polar molecules within the asphalt are attracted to the polar molecules on the aggregate surface. Certain polar attractions are known to be disrupted by water (itself a polar molecule). Additionally, the polar molecules within asphalt will vary in their ability to adhere to any one particular type of aggregate.
Moisture damage. Since it is a polar molecule, water is readily accepted by the polar asphalt molecules. Water can cause stripping and/or can decrease asphalt viscosity. It typically acts like a solvent in asphalt and results in reduced strength and increased rutting. When taken to the extreme, this same property can be used to produce asphalt emulsions. Interestingly, from a chemical point-of-view water should have a greater effect on older asphalt. Oxidation causes aged (or older) asphalts to contain more polar molecules. The more polar molecules an asphalt contains, the more readily it will accept water. However, the oxidation aging effects probably counteract any moisture-related aging effects.
In summary, asphalt is a complex chemical substance. Although basic chemical composition is important, it is an asphalts chemical microstructure that is most influential in its physical behavior. Although most basic asphalt binder failure mechanisms can be described chemically, currently there is not enough asphalt chemical knowledge to adequately predict performance. Therefore, physical properties and tests are used.
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3.4.1 Durability
Durability is a measure of how asphalt binder physical properties change with age (sometimes called age hardening). In general, as an asphalt binder ages, its viscosity increases and it becomes more stiff and brittle. Age hardening is a result of a number of factors, the principal ones being (Vallerga, Monismith and Grahthem, 1957 and Finn, 1967 as referenced by Roberts et al., 1996):
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Oxidation. The reaction of oxygen with the asphalt binder. Volatilization. The evaporation of the lighter constituents of asphalt binder. It is primarily a function of temperature and occurs principally during HMA production.
Polymerization. The combining of like molecules to form larger molecules. These larger molecules are thought to cause a progressive hardening. Thixotropy. The property of asphalt binder whereby it "sets" when unagitated. Thixotropy is thought to result from hydrophilic suspended particles that form a lattice structure throughout the asphalt binder. This causes an increase in viscosity and thus, hardening (Exxon, 1997). Thixotropic effects can be somewhat reversed by heat and agitation. HMA pavements with little or no traffic are generally associated with thixotropic hardening.
Syneresis. The separation of less viscous liquids from the more viscous asphalt binder molecular network. The liquid loss hardens the asphalt and is caused by shrinkage or rearrangement of the asphalt binder structure due to either physical or chemical changes. Syneresis is a form of bleeding (Exxon, 1997).
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Separation. The removal of the oily constituents, resins or asphaltenes from the asphalt binder by selective absorption of some porous aggregates.
There is no direct measure for asphalt binder aging. Rather, aging effects are accounted for by subjecting asphalt binder samples to simulated aging then conducting other standard physical tests (such as viscosity, dynamic shear rheometer (DSR), bending beam rheometer (BBR) and the direct tension test (DTT)). Simulating the effects of aging is important because an asphalt binder that possesses a certain set of properties in its as-supplied state, may possess a different set of properties after aging. Asphalt binder aging is usually split up into two categories:
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Short-term aging. This occurs when asphalt binder is mixed with hot aggregates in an HMA mixing facility. Long-term aging. This occurs after HMA pavement construction and is generally due to environmental exposure and loading.
Thin-film oven (TFO) test Rolling thin-film oven (RTFO) test Pressure aging vessel (PAV)
AASHTO T 179 and ASTM D 1754: Effects of Heat and Air on Asphalt Materials (Thin-Film Oven Test)
It achieves the same degree of hardening (aging) in less time (85 minutes vs. 5 hours) It uses a rolling action that:
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Allows continuous exposure of fresh asphalt binder to heat and air flow Allows asphalt binder modifiers, if used, to remain dispersed in the sample Prevents the formation of a surface skin on the sample, which may inhibit aging
Although it has been in common use by some western states for some time, Superpave adopted the RTFO test to simulate short-term asphalt binder aging.
Figure 3.21: RTFO Samples Figure 3.20: Rolling Thin-Film Oven Test (left - after aging in the RTFO, center - before aging in the RTFO, right - empty sample jar) The standard RTFO test is:
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AASHTO T 240 and ASTM D 2872: Effects of Heat and Air on a Moving Film of Asphalt ( Rolling Thin-Film Oven Test)
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There is a limited loss of volatiles The oxidation process can be accelerated without resorting to extremely high temperatures
AASHTO PP1: Practice for Accelerated Aging of Asphalt Binder Using a Pressurized Aging Vessel
Figure 3.22 (left): Pressure Aging Vessel Figure 3.23 (above): PAV Sample
3.4.2 Rheology
Rheology is the study of deformation and flow of matter. Deformation and flow of the asphalt binder in HMA is important in determining HMA pavement performance. HMA pavements that deform and flow too much may be susceptible to rutting and bleeding, while those that are too stiff may be susceptible to fatigue or thermal cracking. HMA pavement deformation is closely related to asphalt binder rheology. Since the rheological properties of asphalt binder vary with temperature, rheological characterization involves two key considerations:
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To compare different asphalt binders, their rheological properties must be measured at some common reference temperature.
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To fully characterize an asphalt binder, its rheological properties must be examined over the range of temperatures that it may encounter during its life.
3.4.2.1 Chewing
Originally, the degree of asphalt binder softening was determined by chewing (Halstead and Welborn, 1974). A sample of asphalt binder was literally chewed to subjectively determine its softness. This method is no longer in use today for obvious reasons.
Melt and cool the asphalt binder sample under controlled conditions.
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Measure the penetration of a standard needle into the asphalt binder sample under the following conditions:
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The depth of penetration is measured in units of 0.1 mm and reported in penetration units (e.g., if the needle penetrates 8 mm, the asphalt penetration number is 80). Penetration grading is based on the penetration test. The standard penetration test is:
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Asphalt binder viscosity is typically measured at 60 C (140 F) because it approximates the maximum HMA pavement surface temperature during summer in the U.S. The basic absolute viscosity test measures the time it takes for a fixed volume of asphalt binder to be drawn up through a capillary tube by means of vacuum, under closely controlled conditions of vacuum and temperature (ASTM, 2001). Although absolute viscosity is an improvement over the penetration test, it still only measures viscosity at one temperature and thus does not fully characterize an asphalt binders consistency over the expected range of construction and service conditions. The standard absolute viscosity test is:
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AASHTO T 202 and ASTM D 2171: Viscosity of Asphalts by Vacuum Capillary Viscometer
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The RV high-temperature viscosity measurements are meant to simulate binder workability at mixing and laydown temperatures. Since the goal is to ensure the asphalt binder is sufficiently fluid for pumping and mixing, Superpave specifies a maximum RV viscosity. The RV is more suitable than the capillary viscometer (used for kinematic viscosity) for testing modified asphalt binders because some modified asphalt binders (such as those containing crumb rubber particles) can clog the capillary viscometer and cause faulty readings. The standard rotational (or Brookfield) viscometer test is:
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AASHTO TP 48 and ASTM D 4402: Viscosity Determination of Asphalt Binder Using Rotational Viscometer
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Figure 3.33: Dynamic Shear Rheometer Schematic The basic DSR test uses a thin asphalt binder sample (see Figure 3.32) sandwiched between two plates. The lower plate is fixed while the upper plate oscillates back and forth across the sample at 1.59 Hz to create a shearing action (see Figure 3.33). These oscillations at 1.59 Hz (10 radians/sec) are meant to simulate the shearing action corresponding to a traffic speed of about 90 km/hr (55 mph) (Roberts et al., 1996). The following equations are then used to determine a
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where:
max
= = = = = = = =
maximum applied shear stress maximum applied torque radius of binder specimen (either 12.5 or 4 mm) maximum resulting shear strain deflection (rotation) angle specimen height (either 1 or 2 mm) complex shear modulus phase angle. This is the time lag (expressed in radians) between the maximum applied shear stress and the maximum resulting shear strain. For a typical neat asphalt (no modifiers) the phase angle is about 88 - 89, while some modified binders can have phase angles as low as 60.
T r
max
h G*
Asphalt binders in the medium to high temperature range behave partly like an elastic solid (deformation due to loading is recoverable it is able to return to its original shape after a load is removed) and a viscous liquid (deformation due to loading is non-recoverable it cannot return to its original shape after a load is removed). By measuring G* and , the DSR is able to determine the total complex shear modulus as well as its elastic and viscous components (see Figure 3.34).
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Figure 3.34: Complex Shear Modulus Components G* and are used as predictors of the following two HMA parameters: 1. Rutting. In order to resist rutting, an asphalt binder should be stiff (not deform too much) and it should be elastic (it should be able to return to its original shape after load deformation). Therefore, the complex shear modulus elastic portion, G*cos (see Figure 3.34), should be large. Therefore, when rutting is of greatest concern (during an HMA pavements early and mid life), Superpave specifies a minimum value for the elastic component of the complex shear modulus. Intuitively, the higher the G* value, the stiffer the asphalt binder is (able to resist deformation), and the lower the value, the greater the elastic portion of G* is (able to recover its original shape after being deformed by a load). 2. Fatigue. In order to resist fatigue cracking, an asphalt binder should be elastic (able to dissipate energy by rebounding and not cracking) but not too stiff (excessively stiff substances will crack rather than deform-then-rebound). Therefore, the complex shear modulus viscous portion, G*sin (see Figure 3.34), should be small. Therefore, when fatigue cracking is of greatest concern (late in an HMA pavements life), Superpave specifies a maximum value for the viscous component of the complex shear modulus. This relationship between G*sin and fatigue cracking is more tenuous than the rutting relationship discussed in #1. Note that although they appear similar, specifying a large G*cos and a small G*sin are not the same. They both involve small phase angles ( ) but the key is getting an asphalt binder whose complex shear modulus (G*) is neither too large nor too small. The standard dynamic shear rheometer test is:
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AASHTO TP 5: Determining the Rheological Properties of Asphalt Binder Using a Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR)
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beam theory, the BBR calculates beam stiffness (S(t)) and the rate of change of that stiffness (m-value) as the load was applied. where: S(t) P = = creep stiffness at time, t = 60 seconds applied constant load (980 20 mN), obtained using a 100 g load. Note that 100 g multiplied by the force of gravity (9.8 m/s2) = 0.98 N, or 980 mN L b h (t) = = = = distance between beam supports, 102 mm beam width, 12.5 mm beam thickness, 6.25 mm deflection at time, t = 60 seconds
The m-value is simply the rate of change of the stiffness at time, t = 60 seconds and is used to describe how the asphalt binder relaxes under load.
Figure 3.35: Bending Beam Rheometer Figure 3.36: Bending Beam Rheometer Schematic The BBR test is meant to simulate asphalt binder stiffness after two hours of loading at the minimum HMA pavement design temperature. Creep stiffness (S(t)) is related to thermal stresses in an HMA pavement due to shrinking while the m-value is related to the ability of an HMA pavement to relieve these stresses. Thus, Superpave binder specifications require a maximum limit on creep stiffness (thermal stress not too great) and a minimum limit on m-value (must have some minimum ability to relieve thermal stresses without cracking). The standard bending beam rheometer test is:
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AASHTO TP1: Method for Determining the Flexural Creep Stiffness of Asphalt Binder Using the Bending Beam Rheometer
where:
= = =
failure strain change in length corresponding to the specimens maximum loading effective length
L Le
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Figure 3.38: Direct Tension Tester Schematic If a particular asphalt binder has a high BBR creep stiffness (indicating high thermal stress), it must have a minimum failure strain (indicating it will stretch rather than crack) to meet Superpave binder specifications. The standard direct tension tester procedure is:
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AASHTO TP 3: Method for Determining the Fracture Properties of Asphalt Binder in Direct Tension (DT)
AASHTO T 48 and ASTM D 92: Flash and Fire Points by Cleveland Open Cup (more common for asphalt cement used in HMA) AASHTO T 73 and ASTM D 93: Flash-Point by Pensky-Martens Closed Cup Tester
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3.4.4 Purity
Asphalt cement, as used for HMA paving, should consist of almost pure bitumen. Impurities are not active cementing constituents and may be detrimental to asphalt cement performance. Mineral impurities can be quantified by dissolving a sample of asphalt cement in trichloroethylene or 1,1,1 trichloroethane through a filter mat. Anything remaining on the mat is considered an impurity. Water impurities are quantified through distillation. Standard purity tests are:
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AASHTO T 44 and ASTM D 2042: Solubility of Bituminous Materials AASHTO T 55 and ASTM D 95: Water in Petroleum Products and Bituminous Materials by Distillation AASHTO T 110 and ASTM D 1461: Moisture or Volatile Distillates in Bituminous Paving Mixtures
AASHTO T 228 and ASTM D 70: Specific Gravity and Density of Semi-Solid Bituminous Materials
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Penetration depth of a 100 g needle 25 C (77 F) Flash point temperature Ductility at 25 C (77 F) Solubility in trichloroethylene Thin-film oven test (accounts for the effects of short-term aging)
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Penetration gradings basic assumption is that the less viscous the asphalt, the deeper the needle will penetrate. This penetration depth is empirically (albeit only roughly) correlated with asphalt binder performance. Therefore, asphalt binders with high penetration numbers (called "soft") are used for cold climates while
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asphalt binders with low penetration numbers (called "hard") are used for warm climates. Penetration grading key advantages and disadvantages are listed in Table 3.6. Table 3.6: Advantages and Disadvantages of the Penetration Grading (from Roberts et al., 1996) Advantages The test is done at 25 C (77 F), which is reasonably close to a typical pavement average temperature. May also provide a better correlation with lowtemperature asphalt binder properties than the viscosity test, which is performed at 60 C (140 F). Temperature susceptibility (the change in asphalt binder rheology with temperature) can be determined by conducting the test at temperatures other than 25 C (77 F). The test is quick and inexpensive. Therefore, it can easily be used in the field. Disadvantages The test is empirical and does not measure any fundamental engineering parameter such as viscosity.
Shear rate is variable and high during the test. Since asphalt binders typically behave as a non-Newtonian fluid at 25 C (77 F), this will affect test results. Temperature susceptibility (the change in asphalt binder rheology with temperature) cannot be determined by a single test at 25 C (77 F). The test does not provide information with which to establish mixing and compaction temperatures.
Penetration grades are listed as a range of penetration units (one penetration unit = 0.1 mm) such as 120 150. Penetration grades specified in AASHTO M 20 and ASTM D 946 are listed in Table 3.7. Table 3.7: AASHTO M 20 and ASTM D 946 Penetration Grades Penetration Grade 40 50 60 - 70 85 - 100
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120 150 200 300 Softest grade. Used for cold climates such as northern Canada (Roberts et al., 1996)
A few states still have provisions for the penetration grading system. These will most likely disappear as the Superpave PG system becomes more prevalent.
Viscosity at 60 C (140 F) Viscosity at 135 C (275 F) Penetration depth of a 100 g needle applied for 5 seconds at 25 C (77 F) Flash point temperature Ductility at 25 C (77 F) Solubility in trichloroethylene Thin film oven test (accounts for the effects of short-term aging):
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Viscosity grading can be done on original (as-supplied) asphalt binder samples (called AC grading) or aged residue samples (called AR grading). The AR viscosity test is based on the viscosity of aged residue from the rolling thin film oven test. With AC grading, the asphalt binder is characterized by the properties it possesses before it undergoes the HMA manufacturing process. The AR grading system is an attempt to simulate asphalt binder properties after it undergoes a typical HMA manufacturing process and thus, it should be more representative of how asphalt binder behaves in HMA pavements. Table 3.8 lists key advantages and disadvantages of the viscosity grading system. Table 3.8: Advantages and Disadvantages of Viscosity Grading (from Roberts et al., 1996) Advantages
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Disadvantages
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Unlike penetration depth, viscosity is a fundamental engineering parameter. Test temperatures correlate well with:
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The principal grading (done at 25 C (77 F)) may not accurately reflect low-temperature asphalt binder rheology.
25 C (77 F) average pavement temp. 60 C (140 F) high pavement temp. 135 C (275 F) HMA mixing temp.
When using the AC grading system, thin film oven test residue viscosities can vary greatly with the same AC grade. Therefore, although asphalt binders are of the same AC grade they may behave differently after construction.
Temperature susceptibility (the change in asphalt binder rheology with temperature) can be somewhat determined because viscosity is measured at three different temperatures (penetration only is measured at 25 C (77 F)). Testing equipment and standards are widely available. The testing is more expensive and takes longer than the penetration test.
Viscosity is measured in poise (cm-g-s = dyne-second/cm2, named after Jean Louis Marie Poiseuille). The lower the number of poises, the lower the viscosity and thus the more easily a substance flows. Thus, AC-5 (viscosity is 500 100 poise at 60 C (140 F)) is less viscous than AC-40 (viscosity is 4000 800 poise at 60 C (140 F)). Table 3.9 shows standard viscosity grades for the AC and AR grading systems from AASHTO M 226 and ASTM D 3381. Typical grades used for HMA paving in the U.S. are AC-10, AC-20, AC-30, AR-4000 and AR 8000. Table 3.9: AASHTO M 226 and ASTM D 3381 Viscosity Grades
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Superpave Binder Testing and Specification Features that Address Prior Limitations The physical properties measured are directly related to field performance by engineering principles. Test criteria remain constant, however, the
Penetration and ductility tests are empirical and not directly related to HMA pavement performance.
Tests are conducted at one standard temperature without regard to the climate in which the asphalt binder will be used.
temperature at which the criteria must be met changes in consideration of the binder grade selected for the prevalent climatic conditions.
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The range of pavement temperatures at any one site is not adequately covered. For example, there is no test method for asphalt binder stiffness at low temperatures to control thermal cracking. Three critical binder ages are simulated and Test methods only consider short-term asphalt binder aging (thin film oven test) although long-term aging is a significant factor in fatigue cracking and low temperature cracking. tested: 1. Original asphalt binder prior to mixing with aggregate. 2. Aged asphalt binder after HMA production and construction. 3. Long-term aged binder. Asphalt binders can have significantly different characteristics within the same grading category. The entire range of pavement temperatures experienced at a particular site is covered.
Modified asphalt binders are not suited for these grading systems.
Tests and specifications are intended for asphalt "binders" to include both modified and unmodified asphalt cements.
Rolling thin film oven (RTFO) Pressure aging vessel (PAV) Rotational viscometer (RV) Dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) Bending beam rheometer (BBR) Direct tension tester (DTT)
Superpave performance grading is reported using two numbers the first being the average seven-day maximum pavement temperature (C) and the second being the minimum pavement design temperature likely to be experienced (C). Thus, a PG 58-22 is intended for use where the average seven-day maximum
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pavement temperature is 58C and the expected minimum pavement temperature is -22C. Notice that these numbers are pavement temperatures and not air temperatures (these pavement temperatures are estimated from air temperatures using an algorithm contained in the LTPP Bind program). As a general rule-ofthumb, PG binders that differ in the high and low temperature specification by 90C or more generally require some sort of modification (see Table 3.11). Table 3.11: Prediction of PG Grades for Different Crude Oil Blends
WSDOT Asphalt Binder Specifications WSDOT uses the Superpave asphalt binder performance grading system and specifications. Therefore, asphalt binder must meet the requirements of AASHTO MP 1. WSDOT uses three baseline asphalt binder performance grades based on geography. These baseline grades are typically used and then adjusted as necessary. Previously, WSDOT had used the aged residue (AR) viscosity grading. The commonly used grade in this old system was AR4000W.
AASHTO PP6: Practice for Grading or Verifying the Performance Grade of an Asphalt Binder
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Increased demand on HMA pavements. Traffic volume, loads and tire pressures have increased substantially in recent years, which can cause increased rutting and cracking. Many modifiers can improve the asphalt binder's stiffness at normal service temperatures to increase rut resistance, while decreasing its stiffness at low temperatures to improve its resistance to thermal cracking.
Superpave asphalt binder specifications. Superpave asphalt binder specifications developed in the 1990s require asphalt binders to meet stiffness requirements at both high and low temperatures. In regions with extreme climatic conditions this is not possible without asphalt binder modification.
Environmental and economic issues. It is both environmentally and economically sound to recycle waste and industrial byproducts (such as tires, roofing shingles, glass and ash) in order to gain added benefit. Thus, when they can benefit the final product without creating an environmental liability they are often used as additives in HMA.
Public agency willingness to fund higher-cost asphalt additives. Modified asphalt cement is usually higher in initial cost than unmodified asphalt cement, but it should provide a longer service life with less maintenance.
There are numerous binder additives available on the market today. The benefits of modified asphalt cement can only be realized by a judicious selection of the modifier(s); not all modifiers are appropriate for all applications. In general, asphalt cement should be modified to achieve the following types of improvements (Roberts et al., 1996):
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Lower stiffness (or viscosity) at the high temperatures associated with construction. This facilitates pumping of the liquid asphalt binder as well as mixing and compaction of HMA.
Higher stiffness at high service temperatures. This will reduce rutting and shoving. Lower stiffness and faster relaxation properties at low service temperatures. This will reduce thermal cracking. Increased adhesion between the asphalt binder and the aggregate in the presence of moisture. This will reduce the likelihood of stripping. Figure 3.39 shows two aggregate samples from the same source after they have been coated with asphalt binder. The asphalt binder used with the sample on the left contain no anti-stripping modifier, which resulted in almost no aggregate-asphalt binder adhesion. The asphalt binder used with the sample on the right contains 0.5% (by weight of asphalt binder) of an anti-stripping modifier, which results in good aggregate-asphalt binder adhesion.
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Figure 3.40 (upper left): Freshly Placed Emulsion Tack Coat. The brown color indicates that it has not yet broken. Figure 3.41 (upper right): The Same Tack Coat After 23 Minutes. The brown color now appears in splotches indicating it is beginning to break. Figure 3.42 (left): Tack Coat Using an Asphalt Emulsion. The black color indicates it has broken.
Environmental regulations. Cutback asphalts contain volatile chemicals that evaporate into the atmosphere. Emulsified asphalts evaporate water into
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the atmosphere.
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Loss of high energy products. The petroleum solvents used require higher amounts of energy to manufacture and are expensive compared to the water and emulsifying agents used in emulsified asphalts.
In many places, cutback asphalt use is restricted to patching materials for use in cold weather. WSDOT Cutback Asphalt Use WSDOT does not specify cutback asphalts because of their potential effect on the environment.
3.8 Summary
Humans have used asphalt for thousands of years. In the HMA paving industry, asphalt functions as an adhesive that holds aggregate together. Currently, HMA use exceeds 500,000,000 tonnes (tons) per year at a cost of almost $3 billion per year (Anderson, Youtcheff and Zupanick, 2000). alter its behavior. Modern asphalt binder produced using the PG system is often modified. Asphalt binders can be characterized by chemical and physical properties. Chemically, asphalt is a mixture of polar and non-polar complex organic molecules. The microstructure of these molecules tends to govern asphalts physical behavior. Since chemical knowledge and testing is limited, asphalt is most commonly described by its physical attributes. Over the years many tests have been developed to fully characterize asphalts physical attributes. To date, these tests have reached an apogee with the Superpave binder tests. Superpave tests measure specific asphalt binder physical properties that are directly related to field performance by engineering principles. Thus, theoretically they offer the best and most complete asphalt binder characterization. They are also the most complex and the most expensive. Using the tests discussed in this section, asphalt binders are classified for use (graded) based on their physical properties as measured through testing. The most common asphalt binder classifications are: penetration grade, viscosity grade and performance grade (from Superpave). These asphalt grades are what is
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exist, todays asphalt is almost entirely produced from petroleum refining. Asphalt cement can also be modified using certain chemical and organic products to
#penetration_test
generally specified in HMA mix design. Although this section has concentrated on asphalt binder characterizations and tests associated with HMA, asphalt binder is also used in other road-related products: emulsions, cutbacks and foamed asphalt. These products are often used in an HMA pavement's supporting layers as well as by themselves for lowvolume roads. Of all the HMA pavement constituents, we have the most control over the asphalt binder. Generally, roads will be built where they can or need to be regardless of the subgrade, and aggregate is usually taken from the closest source as long as it meets minimum standards. However, we generally specify asphalt binder characteristics for each and every HMA pavement. This is reflected in the substantial level of effort put forth to accurately characterize asphalt binder.