Cellular Division

Cell Division
All cells are derived from preexisting cells New cells are produced for growth and to replace damaged or old cells Differs in prokaryotes (bacteria) and eukaryotes (protists, fungi, plants, & animals)
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Keeping Cells Identical

The instructions for making cell parts are encoded in the DNA, so each new cell must get a complete set of the DNA molecules

DNA must be Original DNA copied or strand replicated before cell division Two new, identical DNA Each new cell strands will then have an identical copy of the DNA

DNA Replication

Identical Daughter Cells

Two identical daughter cells Parent Cell

Chromosomes

Prokaryotic Chromosome
The DNA of prokaryotes (bacteria) is one, circular chromosome attached to the inside of the cell membrane

All eukaryotic cells store genetic information in chromosomes

Eukaryotic Chromosomes

Most eukaryotes have between 10 and 50 chromosomes in their body cells Human body cells have 46 chromosomes or 23 identical pairs

Each chromosome is composed of a single, tightly coiled DNA molecule Chromosomes cant be seen when cells arent dividing and are called chromatin

Eukaryotic Chromosomes

Compacting DNA into Chromosomes

DNA is tightly coiled around proteins called histones
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Chromosomes in Dividing Cells

Duplicated chromosomes are called chromatids & are held together by the centromere
Called Sister Chromatids

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Karyotype
A picture of the chromosomes from a human cell arranged in pairs by size First 22 pairs are called autosomes Last pair are the sex chromosomes XX female or XY male
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Boy or Girl? The Y Chromosome Decides

Y - Chromosome

X - Chromosome
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Cell Reproduction

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Asexual reproduction involves a single cell dividing to make 2 new, identical daughter cells Mitosis & binary fission are examples of asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction involves two cells (egg & sperm) joining to make a new cell (zygote) that is NOT identical to the original cells Meiosis is an example
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Types of Cell Reproduction

Cell Division in Prokaryotes

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Cell Division in Prokaryotes

Prokaryotes such as bacteria divide into 2 Parent cell identical cells by the process of binary fission Chromosome Single chromosome relicates makes a copy of itself Cell wall forms Cell splits between the chromosomes dividing the cell
2 identical daughter cells
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Prokaryotic Cell Undergoing Binary Fission

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Animation of Binary Fission

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The Cell Cycle

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Five Phases of the Cell Cycle

G1 - primary growth phase S synthesis; DNA replicated G2 - secondary growth phase M - mitosis C - cytokinesis

collectively these 3 stages are called interphase

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Cell Cycle

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Interphase - G1 Stage
1st growth stage after cell division Cells mature by making more cytoplasm & organelles Cell carries on its normal metabolic activities

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Synthesis stage DNA is copied or replicated

Interphase S Stage

Two identical copies of DNA

Original DNA
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Interphase G2 Stage
2nd Growth Stage Occurs after DNA has been copied All cell structures needed for division are made (e.g. centrioles) Both organelles & proteins are synthesized

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Whats Happening in Interphase?

What the cell looks like

Animal Cell

Whats occurring
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Sketch the Cell Cycle

DNA Copied Cells Mature Cells prepare for Division

Daughter Cells

Cell Divides into Identical cells

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Mitosis
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Division of the nucleus Also called karyokinesis Only occurs in eukaryotes Has four stages Doesnt occur in some cells such as brain cells

Mitosis

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Four Mitotic Stages

Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase

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Chromatin in nucleus condenses to form visible chromosomes Mitotic spindle forms from fibers in cytoskeleton or centrioles (animal)
Nucleolus

Early Prophase

Cytoplasm

Nuclear Membrane
Chromosomes

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Late Prophase
Nuclear membrane & nucleolus are broken down Chromosomes continue condensing & are clearly visible Spindle fibers called kinetochores attach to the centromere of each chromosome Spindle finishes forming between the poles of the cell
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Late Prophase
Chromosomes

Nucleus & Nucleolus have disintegrated

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Spindle Fiber attached to Chromosome

Kinetochore Fiber

Chromosome
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Review of Prophase
What the cell looks like

Whats happening

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The mitotic spindle form from the microtubules in plants and centrioles in animal cells Polar fibers extend from one pole of the cell to the opposite pole Kinetochore fibers extend from the pole to the centromere of the chromosome to which they attach Asters are short fibers radiating from centrioles
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Spindle Fibers

Sketch The Spindle

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Metaphase
Chromosomes, attached to the kinetochore fibers, move to the center of the cell Chromosomes are now lined up at the equator Equator of Cell
Pole of the Cell

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Metaphase
Asters at the poles

Spindle Fibers

Chromosomes lined at the Equator

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Metaphase

Aster

Chromosomes at Equator
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Review of Metaphase
What the cell looks like

Whats occurring
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Anaphase
Occurs rapidly Sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell by kinetochore fibers
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Anaphase

Sister Chromatids being separated

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Anaphase Review
What the cell looks like

Whats occurring
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Sister chromatids at opposite poles Spindle disassembles Nuclear envelope forms around each set of sister chromatids Nucleolus reappears CYTOKINESIS occurs Chromosomes reappear as chromatin
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Telophase

Comparison of Anaphase & Telophase

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Means division of the cytoplasm Division of cell into two, identical halves called daughter cells In plant cells, cell plate forms at the equator to divide cell In animal cells, cleavage furrow forms to split cell
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Cytokinesis

Cytokinesis
Cleavage furrow in animal cell Cell plate in plant cell

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Mitotic Stages

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Daughter Cells of Mitosis

Have the same number of chromosomes as each other and as the parent cell from which they were formed Identical to each other, but smaller than parent cell Must grow in size to become mature cells (G1 of Interphase)
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Identical Daughter Cells

What is the 2n or diploid number?

Chromosome number the same, but cells smaller than parent cell
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Review of Mitosis
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Name the Mitotic Stages:

Interphase

Name this?
Telophase Name this? Prophase

Metaphase Anaphase
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Eukaryotic Cell Division

Used for growth and repair Produce two new cells identical to the original cell Cells are diploid (2n)

Chromosomes during Metaphase of mitosis

Prophase

Metaphase

Anaphase Telophase Cytokinesis

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Mitosis Animation
Name each stage as you see it occur?

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Mitosis in Onion Root Tips

Do you see any stages of mitosis?

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Draw & Learn these Stages

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Draw & Learn these Stages

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Test Yourself over Mitosis

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Mitosis Quiz

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Mitosis Quiz

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Name the Stages of Mitosis:

Early Anaphase Early prophase Metaphase Early Telophase, Begin cytokinesis

Interphase

Late Prophase

Late telophase, Mid-Prophase Advanced cytokinesis

Late Anaphase
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Identify the Stages

?
Early, Middle, & Late Prophase

?
Late Prophase Metaphase

?
?
Telophase

?
Anaphase

?
Late Anaphase

?
Telophase & Cytokinesis
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Locate the Four Mitotic Stages in Plants

Anaphase

Telophase
Metaphase

Prophase
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Uncontrolled Mitosis
If mitosis is not controlled, unlimited cell division occurs causing cancerous tumors Oncogenes are special proteins that increase the chance that a normal cell develops into a tumor cell

Cancer cells
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Formation of Gametes
(Eggs & Sperm)

Meiosis

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Facts About Meiosis

Preceded by interphase which includes chromosome replication Two meiotic divisions --- Meiosis I and Meiosis II Called Reduction- division Original cell is diploid (2n) Four daughter cells produced that are monoploid (1n)
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Facts About Meiosis

Daughter cells contain half the number of chromosomes as the original cell Produces gametes (eggs & sperm) Occurs in the testes in males (Spermatogenesis) Occurs in the ovaries in females (Oogenesis)
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More Meiosis Facts

Start

with 46 double stranded chromosomes (2n) After 1 division - 23 double stranded chromosomes (n) After 2nd division - 23 single stranded chromosomes (n) Occurs in our germ cells that produce gametes
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Why Do we Need Meiosis?

It is the fundamental basis of sexual reproduction Two haploid (1n) gametes are brought together through fertilization to form a diploid (2n) zygote

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Fertilization Putting it all together

2n = 6
1n =3

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Replication of Chromosomes
Replication is the process of duplicating a chromosome Occurs prior to division Replicated copies are called sister chromatids Held together at centromere
Occurs in Interphase

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A Replicated Chromosome
Gene X

(same genes, different alleles)

Homologs

Sister Chromatids
(same genes, same alleles)

Homologs separate in meiosis I and therefore different alleles separate.

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Meiosis Forms Haploid Gametes

Meiosis must reduce the chromosome number by half Fertilization then restores the 2n number
from mom from dad child

too much!
meiosis reduces genetic content The right number!
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Meiosis: Two Part Cell Division

Homologs separate Meiosis I Sister chromatids separate

Meiosis II

Diploid Diploid Haploid

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Meiosis I: Reduction Division

Nucleus
Early Prophase I (Chromosome number doubled) Late Prophase I

Spindle fibers

Nuclear envelope

Metaphase Anaphase Telophase I I I (diploid)

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Prophase I

Early prophase
Homologs pair. Crossing over occurs.

Late prophase

Chromosomes condense. Spindle forms. Nuclear envelope fragments.

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Tetrads Form in Prophase I

Homologous chromosomes (each with sister chromatids)

Join to form a TETRAD

Called Synapsis
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Crossing-Over
Homologous chromosomes in a tetrad cross over each other Pieces of chromosomes or genes are exchanged Produces Genetic recombination in the offspring
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Homologous Chromosomes During Crossing-Over

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Crossing-Over

Crossing-over multiplies the already huge number of different gamete types produced by independent assortment 81

Metaphase I
Homologous pairs of chromosomes align along the equator of the cell

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Anaphase I

Homologs separate and move to opposite poles.

Sister chromatids remain attached at their centromeres.
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Telophase I
Nuclear envelopes reassemble. Spindle disappears.
Cytokinesis divides cell into two.

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Meiosis II
Gene X

Only one homolog of each chromosome is present in the cell. Sister chromatids carry identical genetic information.

Meiosis II produces gametes with one copy of each chromosome and thus one copy of each gene.
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Meiosis II: Reducing Chromosome Number

Prophase II

Metaphase Telophase II Anaphase 4 Identical II II haploid cells

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Prophase II
Nuclear envelope fragments.
Spindle forms.

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Metaphase II

Chromosomes align along equator of cell.

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Anaphase II
Equator

Pole

Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles.

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Telophase II
Nuclear envelope assembles. Chromosomes decondense. Spindle disappears. Cytokinesis divides cell into two.
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Results of Meiosis
Gametes (egg & sperm) form Four haploid cells with one copy of each chromosome One allele of each gene Different combinations of alleles for different genes along the chromosome
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Gametogenesis
Oogenesis or Spermatogenesis
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Spermatogenesis
Occurs in the testes Two divisions produce 4 spermatids Spermatids mature into sperm Men produce about 250,000,000 sperm per day
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Spermatogenesis in the Testes

Spermatid

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Spermatogenesis

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Oogenesis
Occurs in the ovaries Two divisions produce 3 polar bodies that die and 1 egg Polar bodies die because of unequal division of cytoplasm Immature egg called oocyte Starting at puberty, one oocyte matures into an ovum (egg) every 28 days
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Oogenesis in the Ovaries

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Oogenesis
First polar body may divide (haploid)
a X a X a X

Polar bodies die

Mitosis Oogonium (diploid)

a A

X
X

Primary oocyte (diploid)

Meiosis I Meiosis II (if fertilization A occurs)

X A X

Secondary oocyte (haploid)

Ovum (egg) Mature egg A Second polar body (haploid)

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Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis

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Comparison of Divisions
Mitosis
1 2 Yes Same as parent Somatic cells Throughout life Growth and repair Number of divisions 2 4 No

Meiosis

Number of daughter cells

Genetically identical? Chromosome # Where When

Half of parent Germ cells At sexual maturity

Role

Sexual reproduction
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