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Objectives

PART 1: To show that a tensile test within the elastic limits leaves no residual elongation in the material and to show tensile test within the plastic limits leaves residual elongation in the materials. PART 2: To derive the modulus of elasticity, E for steel, aluminium, brass and copper. PART 3: To complete a tensile test on steel, aluminium, brass and copper.

Procedure
Equipment: TENSILE TEST MACHINE MT 3017

Figure 5.1Tensile Test Machine Mt 3017

Figure 5.2 Test piece (before and after)

PROCEDURE: Part 1 1. The dial gauge is loosened and it is being lowered on the column to allow the test piece to be screwed into the jaws. 2. The pressure cylinder is wind back to zero by turning anti- clockwise. 3. The measurement Lo and do is checked as shown in Diagram (1b) of mild steel test piece and then it is being screw in to the test piece. 4. The max pointer of the gauge is set to zero. 5. The dial gauge is set to 6 and the outer ring of the meter is turned on so that the outer scales 0 lines up with the large pointer. Each revolution is equal to 0.1mm. 6. The pressure is crank up, carefully; to 1KN and the dial gauge reading is recorded. 7. The pressure is increased by turning clockwise, carefully to 2KN, 3KN, 4KN, and 5 KN and 0KN. All the dial gauge reading in table (a) part 1 is recorded. 8. The pressure is reduced by carefully winding anti- clockwise to 4KN, 3KN, 4KN, and 5 KN and 0KN. All the dial gauge reading in table (a) part 1 is recorded. 9. Procedure 1 to 5 is repeated. 10. The pressure is crank up, carefully to 2KN and the dial gauge reading in table (b), part 1 is recorded. 11. The pressure is increased by turning clockwise, carefully to 4KN, 6KN and 8KN, and the dial gauge reading in table (b) part 1 is recorded. 12. The pressure is increased by turning clockwise, carefully to 6KN, 4KN, 2KN and 0KN, and the dial gauge reading in table (b) part 1 is recorded. 13. The pressure is increased by turning clockwise, carefully to 4KN, 6KN and 8KN, and the dial gauge reading in table (b) part 1 is recorded.

Part 2 1. The dial gauge is loosened and the column is lowered to allow the test piece to be screwed into jaws. 2. The pressure cylinder is wind back to zero by turning anti- clockwise. 3. The measurement L0 and d0 as shown in Diagram (1b) of mild steel test piece and the table (a) part 2 is recorded. Then the test jaws are screw into it. 4. The max pointer of the pressure gauge is set to zero. 5. The dial gauge is set to 6 and the outer ring on the meter is turn so that the outer scales likes up with the larger pointer, each revolution is equal to 0.1mm. 6. The pressure is crank up, carefully to 1KN and the dial gauge reading is recorded. 7. The pressure is increased, by turning clockwise, carefully to 2KN, 3KN, 4KN, and 5KN, and all the dial gauge reading in table (a) part 2 is recorded. 8. The pressure load is removed to zero. 9. The mild steel test piece is changed to brass test piece. 10. Procedure 1 to 8 is repeated. 11. The brass test piece is changed to copper test piece. 12. The copper test piece is changed to aluminum test piece. 13. The procedure 1 to 8 is repeated.

Part 3 1. The dial gauge is loosened and the column is lowered to allow the test piece to be screwed into jaws. 2. The pressure cylinder is wind back to zero by turning anti- clockwise. 3. The measurement L0 and d0 as shown in Diagram (1b) of mild steel test piece and the table (a) part 3 is recorded. Then the test jaws are screw into it. 4. The max pointer of the pressure gauge is set to zero. 5. The dial gauge is set to 6 and the outer ring on the meter is turned so that the outer scales0 lines up with the larger pointer. 6. The pressure is cranked, carefully until the force elongation is equal to 0.2mm and the pressure force is recorded. 7. The pressure is increased by turning clockwise, carefully following force elongation as shown in table (a) part 3 until the test piece breaks. All the pressure forces are recorded. The ultimate length, Lu and ultimate diameter, du of the test piece is measured as shown in Diagram (1b). 8. The pressure load is removed to zero. 9. The mild steel test piece is changed to brass test piece. 10. The procedure 1 to 8 is repeated. 11. The brass test piece is changed to copper test piece. 12. The procedure 1 to 8 is repeated. 13. The copper test piece is changed to aluminum test piece. 14. The procedure 1 to 8 is repeated.
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Notations Tensile stress, Cross sectional, Tensile strain, = F/ A (N / mm2) A = d2 / 4 (mm2) = L / L

Robert Hookes law, = E. (N/mm2) a =


( )

(%)
)

1 = Metal , alloy Iron , Nickel Copper Brass Aluminum

(%)
Typical modulus of elasticity, E(N/mm2) 200-220 125 80-100 72

E = Modulus of Elasticity (N/mm2) = Axial Stress (N/mm2) F = Force (N) d0 = original Diameter of Test piece (mm) Du = Ultimate Diameter of Test Piece (mm) L= Extension of the test piece (mm) L0 = Original Length of Test piece (mm) Lu = Ultimate Length of Test Piece (mm) a = Axial Strain of Test Piece when its breaking (%) 1 = Lateral strain of test piece when its contracting (%) = Elongation (mm)

Theory
Strength refers to the ability of a structure to resist loads without failure because of excessive stress or deformation. Typical points of interest when testing a material include: ultimate tensile strength (UTS) or peak stress; offset yield strength (OYS) which represents a point just beyond the onset of permanent deformation; and the rupture (R) or fracture point where the specimen separates into pieces.

Figure 5.1 Stress-strain Curve A graphical description of the amount of deflection under load for a given material is the stress-strain curve. Engineering stress (S) is obtained by dividing the load (P) at any given time by the original cross sectional area (Ao) of the specimen. S = P/Ao (1) Engineering strain (e) is obtained by dividing the elongation of the gage length of the specimen (l) by the original gauge length (lo). e = l/lo = (l - lo)/lo (2) Figure (5.1) depicts a typical stress-strain curve. The shape and magnitude of the curve is dependent on the type of metal being tested. Point A represents the proportional limit of a material. A material loaded in tension beyond point A when unloaded will exhibit permanent deformation. The proportional limit is often difficult to calculate, therefore, two practical
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measurements, offset yield strength (OYS) and yield by extension under load (EUL) were developed to approximate the proportional limit. The initial portion of the curve below point A represents the elastic region and is approximated by a straight line. The slope (E) of the curve in the elastic region is defined as Youngs Modulus of Elasticity and is a measure of material stiffness. E = S /e = (S2-S1)/(e2-e1) (3) Point B represents the offset yield strength and is found by constructing a line X-B parallel to the curve in the elastic region. Line X-B is offset a strain amount O-X that is typically 0.2% of the gage length. Point C represents the yield strength by extension under load (EUL) and is found by constructing a vertical line Y-C. Line Y-C is offset a strain amount O-Y that is typically 0.5% of gage length. The ultimate tensile strength, or peak stress, is represented by point D. Total elongation, which includes both elastic and plastic deformation, is the amount of uniaxial strain at fracture and is depicted as strain at point Z. Percent elongation at break is determined by removing the fractured specimen from the grips; fitting the broken ends together and measuring the distance between gage marks. Percent elongation at break reports the amount of plastic deformation only. The gage length used for measurement is reported with the result. elongation at break(%) = ez = 100*(lz-lo)/lo (4) Reduction of area, like elongation at break, is a measure of ductility and is expressed in percent. Reduction of area is calculated by measuring the cross sectional area at the fracture point (Az). reduction of area(%) = (Ao-Az)/Ao (5)

Results
Part 1: a) The Elastic Range F (kN) Dial Gauge Reading (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5 4 3 2 1 0 0.000 0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 0.019 0.017 0.015 0.012 0.008 0.003 0.000 0.051 0.102 0.153 0.204 0.255 0.204 0.153 0.102 0.051 0.000 Table 5.1 Calculated 0.000 0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 0.019 0.017 0.015 0.012 0.008 0.003 Calculated ( ) 0.00000 0.00011 0.00022 0.00032 0.00043 0.00051 0.00046 0.00041 0.00032 0.00022 0.00008 Calculated

b) Residual Elongation F (kN) Dial Gauge Reading (mm) 0 2 4 6 8 6 4 2 0.000 0.006 0.014 0.020 0.026 0.023 0.017 0.011 0.000 0.102 0.204 0.306 0.408 0.306 0.204 0.102 Calculated 0.000 0.006 0.014 0.020 0.026 0.023 0.017 0.011 Calculated ( ) 0.00000 0.00016 0.00038 0.00054 0.00070 0.00062 0.00046 0.00030 Calculated

0 2 4 6 8

0.001 0.007 0.014 0.010 0.027

0.000 0.102 0.204 0.306 0.408 Table 5.2

0.001 0.007 0.014 0.010 0.027

0.00027 0.00019 0.00038 0.00027 0.00073

Part 2: a) To Derive the Modulus Elasticity, E for Mild Steel, Brass, Copper, and Aluminum.

Mild Steel

F (kN)

Dial Gauge Reading (mm)

Calculated 0.000 0.051 0.102 0.153 0.204 0.255

Calculated ( 0.000 0.003 0.006 0.010 0.014 0.016 )

Calculated 0.00000 0.00008 0.00016 0.00027 0.00038 0.00043

0 1 2 3 4 5

0.000 0.003 0.006 0.010 0.014 0.016

Axial stress vs Tensile strain (Mild Steel)


0.0005 0.00045 0.0004 0.00035 0.0003 0.00025 0.0002 0.00015 0.0001 0.00005 0 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3

Brass

F (kN)

Dial Gauge Reading (mm)

Calculated 0.051 0.102 0.153 0.204 0.255 0.0 51

Calculated ( 0.000 0.001 0.004 0.007 0.013 0.018 )

Calculated 0.00000 0.00003 0.00011 0.00019 0.00035 0.00049

0 1 2 3 4 5

0.000 0.001 0.004 0.007 0.013 0.018

Axial stress vs Tensile strain (Brass)


0.0006 0.0005 0.0004 0.0003 0.0002 0.0001 0 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3

Copper

F (kN)

Dial Gauge Reading (mm)

Calculated 0.051 0.102 0.153 0.204 0.255 0.051

Calculated ( 0.000 0.002 0.004 0.007 0.012 0.016 )

Calculated 0.00000 0.00005 0.00011 0.00019 0.00032 0.00043

0 1 2 3 4 5

0.000 0.002 0.004 0.007 0.012 0.016

Axial stress vs Tensile strain (Brass)


0.0006 0.0005 0.0004 0.0003 0.0002 0.0001 0 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3

Aluminum

F (kN)

Dial Gauge Reading (mm)

Calculated 0.051 0.102 0.153 0.204 0.255 0.051

Calculated ( 0.000 0.007 0.013 0.021 0.026 0.034 )

Calculated 0.00000 0.00019 0.00035 0.00057 0.00070 0.00092

0 1 2 3 4 5

0.000 0.007 0.013 0.021 0.026 0.034

b) Modulus of Elasticity Material Modulus Elasticity


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Mild Steel of 210

Brass 80 100

Copper 125

Aluminum 72

E(

Part 3: a) To Complete a Tensile Test on Mil Steel, Brass, Copper, and Aluminum. Force Elongation, ( 0.2 0.4 ) 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 Steel F(kN) Aluminum F(kN) Brass F(kN) Copper F(kN)

Material

Original Diameter, (mm)

Original d0 Length, (mm) 37 37 37 37

Ultimate L0 Diameter, (mm) 3.1 4.8 3.9 4.2

Ultimate du Length, (mm) 37.8 37.6 38.7 39.1 Lu

Mild Steel Brass Copper Aluminum

5 5 5 5

Sample of calculations and formulas used in the results: F: Force (kN) ( )

Dial Gauge Reading

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Where:

( )

Then, ( )

( )

So we apply the same formulas and the same procedure in calculating these values on the rest of the results obtained.

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Discussion
Part 1 From the graph plotted of axial stress versus tensile strain, it is seen that axial stress increases as the tensile strain increases. The tensile strain can be attributed to loading by the force applied. The graph also depicts the residual elongation. From the results of the residual elongation test, the data was analyzed and the curves compared. It was found that slight residual elongation occurred. Part 2 From the results of part 2, it was found that the modulus of elasticity for aluminum was the lowest, followed by brass, copper, and steel. These findings are in accordance with the theoretical values for the given materials. Part 3 Tensile test (part 3) yielded incomplete data because 3 of the specimens broke before the required force was applied. Copper, however, broke at 4kN and had the force elongation of 0.2mm. The premature breakage of the specimens could have been caused by faulty equipment and gauges. Even multiple runs yielded the same results. However, the broken specimens were analyzed and their final diameters and lengths were obtained. a) A0, , L and in table 5.1 and 5.2 were calculated. The meter reading was at 6 at the start and the value decreased.

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b)

Axial stress vs Tensile strain (loading)


0.0006 0.0005 0.0004 0.0003 0.0002 0.0001 0 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3

The Stress-Strain graph shows that the Copper sample experienced more plastic deformation that the Steel sample and this is reflected by the higher percentage elongation (fig.3). After it had fractured, the surface of the Copper was rough and irregular. The 2 halfs of the fractured sample showed a cup and a cone shape with an inclination of approximately 45 on their fracture surfaces. In a uniaxial tensile test, this orientation represents the angle of principle shear stress and the surface demonstrates this principle Shear Stress caused the crystalline boundaries to slip over each other before failure (3).

Both of these observations are characteristics of ductile materials, which is a commonly stated property of Copper. The Copper sample also displayed a higher Toughness than the sample, which is represented by the larger area beneath the stress strain graph. Despite being smaller than the Copper sample, the plastic region of the Steel sample is significantly large enough to be considered to have some ductile properties. The surface of the fracture also possessed a cup and cone geometry at a lesser extent than the copper sample. The steel sample had a larger necking region than the Copper sample, which explains the greater reduction in cross sectional area at the point of fracture, but as shown in fig.5, the Steel sample showed a very rapid transition between the decreased area and the rest of its length, whereas the Copper showed a gradual transition. Necking is a
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property of a ductile material. Referring to Engineering Materials the Yield Stresss for Copper is 60MPa, compared to the 200MPa value that was obtained experimentally.

The differences between these results suggest that; a) The yield stress for copper that was predicted using a proof stress may of given an inaccurate answer that is higher than the real value b) The stress-stain results that were read from the machine were inaccurate. One inaccuracy is that the experiment used the nominal stress of the sample rather than the true stress.

However, the difference between the two is very small, particularly in the elastic region of the test, and could not cause such a large difference between the experimental and theoretical value of yield stress. This would mean the difference is more likely to be caused by (a) and that very little confidence can be placed on determining the yield stress with one run of an experiment and by determining the yield stress using the graph. The experimental value for the Yield Stress of Steel is within the theoretical range of value which is between 260MPa and 1300MPa (b). Because this value was more clearly defined on the graph than it was for copper and it was not derived using a proof stress, it would be expected to be more accurate and could have a high confidence placed on it. The values for the Modulus of Elasticity obtained experimentally are around one order of magnitude smaller than values stated in Engineering Materials which quotes it to be 200GPa for mild Steel and 124GPa for Copper. Determining the Modulus of a material using a uni-axial tensile Stress experiment is generally regarded as being inaccurate and is instead commonly determined by measuring the natural frequency of a sample using an oscillation test (1). The reasons for this are; Recording small displacements of the sample is imprecise due to the measuring equipment (2). Factors such as creep can contribute to the strain (3). When exerting large forces the equipment can begin to flex, and the displacement of the machine is mistakenly read as a displacement of the sample The ultimate tensile stresses recorded are very close to the theoretical values, which are 400Mpa and 5001880MPa for copper and Carbon Steel Alloy.
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(4)The difference between the experimental and theoretical values for the Modulus suggests that in this case, very little confidence could be made with the results. In conclusion, copper can be regarded as a more Ductile material than steel with a higher Toughness, and Steel can be considered to have a higher Yield and Tensile Strength with an equal elastic Modulus.

Conclusion
A tensile test was conducted within the elastic limits to show that it left no residual elongation in the material. The graph of the results agreed with the theory about residual elongation. Also, a second tensile test was conducted within the plastic limits. This test showed that residual elongation formed. The modulus of elasticity, E, was derived for steel, aluminum, brass, and copper using Hookes Law. It was found that mild steel had the highest modulus of elasticity among the materials tested. A tensile test was conducted on steel, aluminum, brass and copper. Copper was found to be the most tensile by withstanding a 4kN force. However certain aspects of the experiment could not be carried out due to faulty apparatus.

Reference
1. http://www.admet.com/assets/Tensile_Testing_Basics_Quality_Magazine.pdf

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