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INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
MAIN COMPONENTS
The integumentary system consists of integument, called
skin
or
cutis
, and the structures developed from the skinare termed the
skin derivatives
. The study of the structure and functions of the skin and its derivatives is called
dermatology
.
SKIN
Meaning of Skin.
The skin is defined as a surface covering easily separable from the underlying muscle layer of the body wall.
Physical Features of Skin.
Skin is the largest organ of the body. A 1.8 m. tall man of average weight has a skinarea of about 9.7 square metres. The skin accounts for about 16% of total body weight. Thickness of the skin variesin different parts of the body. It is thickest on the palms and soles, where it may be about 1.5 mm. thick. On thepalms and fingers, the skin (epidermis) has numerous ridges, forming arches, whorls and loops in highlycharacteristic patterns. These patterns, called
finger marks
, are determined genetically and serve as a mark of personal identification. No two persons have identical patterns. The finger marks develop during the third and thefourth months of foetal life, and never change afterward.
 Finger marks were discovered by Henry Fauld 
,
 a Scottish medical missionary, in 1880. By greasy finger marks on a bottle, he identified the person who had been drinking the rectified spirit from the dispensary
.Impressions of the inked bulbs of the distal phalanges of the fingers are called finger prints. The skin iselastic and can cover a large surface when swelling occurs.
Histology of Skin.
Human skin consists of two distinct regions of different origins :
epidermis
and
dermis
or
corium
. The two regions are fitted together by ridges and depressions.
Epidermis.
Epidermis is the outer thin, nonvascular region of the skin. It is nourished by the tissue fluid from theinner region of the skin. It develops from the ectoderm of the embryo. It is a
keratinized, stratified squamousepithelium
. The nature of cells varies in different layers. The innermost layer consists of columnar cells arrangedperpendicular to the dermis. It is known as
Malpighian
layer, or stratum
germinativum
, or
stratum basale
. It lieson a basement membrane of epidermal origin. The cells of this layer have abundant desmosomes in their lateral andupper surfaces for binding to adjacent cells, and hemidesmosomes in their inner surfaces for binding to basementmembrane. The cells of the germinative layer are active and produce new cells by mitotic divisons, hence the namegerminative layer. The newly formed cells pass outward and become progressively flattened. The region of epidermis where flattening of cells takes place is called
transitional region
. In this region the cytoplasm of the cellsis slowly replaced by a hard, insoluble, fibrous, sulphur-containing protein, the
keratin
, or
horn
. The outer layersof epidermis are, thus, composed of very thin, keratinized cells which lose nuclei and die. These cells togetherconstitute the
horny layer
, or
stratum corneum
. This layer is water-proof and germproof. It provides epidermis itscharacteristics toughness. Its thickness increases over parts of the body which are subjected to considerable frictionsuch as ball of the foot and bases of the finger. The horny layer is cast off as small pieces at intervals. During ourlifetime, we shed about 23 kg. of skin in this manner. The rate at which the horny cells are cast off is almost thesame at which cells are formed from the Malpighian layer. This keeps the thickness of the epidermis constant. Thehuman epidermis is renewed about every 15 to 30 days. The outer surface epidermis bears numerous minute poresof sweat glands and hair follicles.
Finger prints. A and B – Loops, C –Arches, D–Whorls, F–Circles, F–Scar-line
The rate of cell division in the stratum germinativum is highest during sleep and lowest during muscularexercise and stress.
 
 
Thick Skin.
Over the parts of the body with thick skin, e.g., palms and soles, the transitional region of theepidermis further shows three region : the inner
stratum spinosum
, the middle
stratum granulosum
, and the outer
stratum lucidum
. The cells of the stratum spinosum are polygonal, slightly falttened and with prickly surface. Thecells of the stratum granulosum contain
keratohyalin granules
. The cells of the stratum lucidum are rathertransparent and contain a substance called
eleidin
. This substance is thought to be an intermediate product in thechange of keratohyalin granules to keratin of the outer stratum corneum.
Melanocytes
. The lower layer of the epidermis has pigment cells, the melanocytes
1
. The melanocytes sendlong proceses between or under the epidermal cells. They produce the dark pigment melanin as granules calledmelanosomes. The latter pass into the epidermal cells.
Melanin in the epidermal cells gives protection byabsorbing ultraviolet rays of the sun
. Tanning result from an increase in melanin production in response toprolonged exposure to sunlight. Amount of melanin varies greatly different races. In general, where the sun’s raysare more intense, have a heavier deposit of mealanin than the persons of colder climates. This is racial adaptation. Afew people do not develop melanin and they cannot remain in bright sunlight for more than a few minutes at a timewithout developing serious burns. Such persons are called albinos. The lack of melanin is termed
albinism
.
Dermis.
Dermis is the inner thick, vascular region of the skin. It develops from the mesoderm. It is about 2 – 3times as thick as the epidermis.
 
 
(a)
Structure.
The dermis is composed of dense connective (areolar) tissue containing bundles of wavy,unbranched white, or collagen, fibers; straight, branching yellow, or elastin, fibers and various types of cells,fibroblasts, histiocytes and mast cells. The white fibers attached the skin firmly to the underlying muscles.Their toughness limits stretching of the skin. Gradual starching of collagen fibers causes wrinkles in a later life.The yellow fibers are elastic. They bring about recovery of the skin after its stretching. The fibroblasts secretethe yellow and white fibers as well as the matrix in which fibers and cells lie. The histiocytes eat up the injuredcells and foreign germs entering the skin. The mast cells secrete heparin and histamine in man as alreadymentioned. The dermis also contains blood vessels, nerve fibers and lymph vessels. The blood vessels sendcapillaries to meet the epidermis. Motor nerve fibers innervate the muscles and glands in the dermis, whilesensory nerves fibers carry nerve impulses from sensory receptors present in the dermis. These receptor detectheat, cold, touch, pain, pressure, etc. Some smooth muscles fibers are also present in the dermis. A fewmacrophages are also present. Adipocytes may also occur.(b)
Arteriovenous Anastomoses.
In certain areas of the dermis, blood can pass directly from arteries to veinsthrough the arteriovenous anastomoses or shunts. The latter play an important role in temperature and bloodpressure regulation, since the skin can hold about 4.5 % of the blood volume.(c)
Regions.
The dermis has 2 regions : (i) outer thin papillary layer that consists of loose connective tissue andsends projections into the epidermis, forming,
dermoepidermal junctions
and (ii) inner thick reticular layerwhich consists of dense connective tissue and has some reticular fibers in addition to collagen and elastinfibers. The reticular layer has more fibers and fewer cells than the papillary layer.
Subcutaneous Tissue.
Beneath the dermis is a layer of loose connective tissue. This layer is called thesubcutaneous tissue. It loosely attaches the skin to the muscles inside so that the skin can slide over themuscles. The access of the body fat is deposited many regions in the subcutaneous tissue. The subcutaneous fatinsulates the body against cold and heat, and acts as a shock absorber. In palms and soles the fibers of thesubcutaneous tissue are tightly interwoven with those of the dermis. Therefore, the skin is more firmly attachedin these regions.
DERIVATIVES OF SKIN
Hair, glands and nails are formed from the skin in man.(1)
Hair.
Hair is a characteristic feature of humans. These grow in humans over most of the body, but vary in form,size, colour and density according to race, age, sex and region of the body.
Structure.
The hair is a fine, cylindrical filament. Each hair lies in a tubular pit called the hair follicle. The latter isformed by sinking in of the epidermis into the dermis. The base of the follicle is bulged out, forming an invertedcup. A mass of connective tissue with blood capillaries and nerve fibers fills this cup. This mass is called the hair-papilla. The blood capillaries provide nourishment to the hair and the nerve fibers make it sensitive to contact. Thewall of the hair follicle is bulged out to form one or more lobulated oil, or sebaceous, glands. The base of the hair isexpanded into a “bulb”. Stratum germinativum of this “bulb produces new cells that are gradually pushed out andget cornified. Addition of cornified cells results in the growth of the hair. The hair is, thus, living only at the base,and consist of dead, cornified cells over most of its length. An arrector pili muscle of smooth fibers connects eachhair follicle with the basement membrane of the epidermis. Its contraction squeezes the oil out of the oil gland andbrings about movement of the hair.The part of the hair that lies within the follicle is term the
root
and the part that projects out of the skin iscalled the
shaft
. Hair follicle is separated from the dermis by a non-cellular, hyaline membrane, the glassymembrane, which represents a thickening of the basement membrane. A hair shows 3 region in cross section: Acentral
pith
, or
medulla
, with large, vacuolated, moderately keratinized cells ; a middle cortex with heavilykeratinized, compactly, grouped, fusiforan cells and outer cuticle of thin, heavily keratinized, overlapping cellshaving their free ends directed upward. Melanocytes present in the hair bulb produce and transfer melanin to themedullar and cortical cells of the hair. With age, the air spaces between the cells of the medulla increases in numberand pigment formation decreases, turning the hair grey.The hair are normally slanting but they stand on end when one is frightened or experience excessive cold.This condition is commonly called “
gooseflesh
” or cutis anserina in humans. It is brought about by the harmoneadrenaline through the action of the erector pili muscle. The hair fall of from time to time and are replaced by newones.
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