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Science in School
Issue 4 : Spring 2007
50
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T
hus wonders Banquo, who wit-nessed, together with Macbeth,the witches’ sabbath and the first fore-telling of their future at the beginningof Shakespeare’s play. The apparitionswere either true – or a hallucination.By giving these two options in 1606,at the height of the witch-hunt inEurope, Shakespeare not only pro-vides a reasonable interpretation of the state of bewitchment, i.e. of deliri-ous dreams, but also points to a possi- ble cause of this insanity. There arepoisonous plants that, upon contactor ingestion, cloud our mind andmake us experience unreal sensations.As the deplorable persecution of witches tells us, most Europeansunfortunately lacked such botanicalknowledge at that time.
Plants of the family Solanaceae
The “insane root” may well have been mandrake (
Mandragora offici-narum
), the most famous magic plantof the Mediterranean, sold at highprices in markets north of the Alps.Since the root can resemble a human body, mandrake was believed to con-tain a spirit that brings fortune andguards against evil those who own orcarry the root. However, it was a dan-gerous business to dig up the plant,as it would issue a deadly shriek when taken from the earth. For thispurpose, people were advised to fas-ten a dog to the half-exposed root andlet the animal draw the plant out, a
“W
ere such things here as we do speak about?Or have we eaten on the insane rootThat takes the reason prisoner?”
Shakespeare, Macbeth I.iii
Plant hallucinogensas magical medicines
P u b l i c d o m a i n i m a g e ; i m a g e s o u r c e : W i k i m e d i a C o m m o n s
Johannes Praetorius: Witches’ Sabbath (Blockes-Berges Verrichtung), Leipzig, 1668
ritual that is often depicted inmedieval books (left). Hundreds of years later, Goethe’s Mephistophelesmakes fun of this superstition: “Dastehen sie umher und staunen, ver-trauen nicht dem hohen Fund; dereine faselt von Alraunen, der andrevon dem Schwarzen Hund.” (‘Therethey stand and marvel, not believingin the precious find; one drivels of mandrake, the other of the Black Dog.’ Goethe,
Faust
II, Act I).Mandrake and other plants of thenightshade family (Solanaceae) con-tain alkaloids that block nerveimpulses, which may lead to halluci-nations. Although the cellular andmolecular mechanism of action wasonly explained at the end of the 20
th
century, the pharmacological effects of these plants were already described by the Greco-Roman physiciansDioscurides (1
st
century AD) andGalenus (circa 129-199) and, from the16
th
century onwards, by authors of herbal medicine books in local lan-guages. The plants deadly nightshade(
Atropa belladonna
) and henbane(
Hyoscyamus niger
; below) are indige-nous to middle and northern Europeand were therefore readily availablefor medicinal use or narcotic and poi-sonous abuse. The physician LeonhartFuchs explains in his
New Kreüterbuch
(printed in 1543) how to apply partsof these plants as sleeping agents andpainkillers. In addition, he warns of their narcotic and toxic effects (box onpage 52). He also groups the plantthorn-apple (
Datura stramonium
; below), which had recently been brought to Europe by travellers fromIndia or Mexico, botanically correctlywith the nightshades, but admits hisignorance of its medicinal usage.
Witch ointments
If ever there were women experi-menting with poisonous plants, and if ever they did anything other than usetheir knowledge to heal sick peoplewho could not afford to (or maybewisely chose not to) see a doctor, theymay have used black or deadly night-shade and henbane as powerful ingre-dients in their medicines.Unfortunately, there are no directsources for the recipes of witches’concoctions. As is known from the lit-erature condemning magic rituals, so-called ‘witch ointments’ were used toanoint a broomstick or a chair as aprerequisite for riding through the airand dancing at the witches’ sabbath(box on page 53; image left). Such anointment was reputedly given to theaccused directly by the Devil or by anolder woman who was already amember of the witches’ circle.The recipes that have survived werewritten down by physicians. Forexample, Johannes Hartlieb, explain-ing the seven magic arts to the duke Johann of Brandenburg-Kulmbach in1456, names six plants for the prepa-
Science in School
Issue 4 : Spring 2007
51
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Science topics
Did witches once soar through the night sky on broomsticks? Orwere they hallucinating after eating or touching certain plants?
Angelika Börsch-Haubold
explains how modern pharmacologyhelps us to understand the action of many toxic plants – some of which are still used in medicine.
Thorn-apple(
Datura stramonium
)Henbane(
Hyoscyamus niger
)Picture of a man collecting themandrake root with the help of a dog(
Tacuinum sanitatis
, manuscript, 1390)
P u b l i c d o m a i n i m a g e ; i m a g e s o u r c e : W i k i m e d i a C o m m o n s
Deadly nightshade(
Atropa belladonna
)Plants of the family Solanaceae
I m a g e s c o ur t e s y of K ur t S t u e b er , C h i l e pi n e , an d B d k ; s o ur c e of i m a g e s : Wi k i m e d i a C omm on s
ration of
unguentum pharelis
(box onpage 53). Although the plants were believed to possess magic powers,they are relatively harmless. Hartliebhad studied both theology and medi-cine, as was usual at the time, and thepurpose of his writing is to prove thatall witchcraft and magic is a lie. Hetherefore may have left out any nar-cotic ingredients on purpose.Other physicians, however, most of them writing centuries later, name theplants of the family of nightshadesalong with the highly toxic wolfs- bane (
Aconitum napellus
), hemlock (
Conium maculatum
), and the sleep-inducing opium poppy (
Papaversomniferum
) as ingredients for witch-es’ medicines. They seem to have puttogether everything that was poison-ous, and ethnologists of the 19
th
centu-ry, recreating witches’ ointments andapplying them to their skin, indeedexperienced disturbing hallucinationswith all the side effects on the nerv-ous system that a contemporary phar-macologist would expect.Witches probably did not read themedical literature of their time, butwe can safely assume that they knewof the hallucinogenic effects of theplants that grew in their neighbour-hood. Henbane was already used byGermanic tribes to increase the intoxi-cating action of their ale. It was banned as an ingredient of beer in1507/1516 in Bavaria, and after thatits use in narcotic drinks was, at leastin southern Germany, illegal. Deadlynightshade was also widely known.Its common name, ‘belladonna’,alludes to the practice of ItalianRenaissance women who dilated theirpupils with eye drops to make themlook sexually attractive. If thesewomen also ingested deadly night-shade, they would have experiencedeuphoria due to a stimulation of thecentral nervous system.
The pharmacology of nightshade plants
Today the action of deadly night-shade, henbane, and thorn-apple isunderstood in molecular detail. Theyall contain the alkaloids atropine andscopolamine, two closely related sub-stances which interfere with theparasympathetic nervous system.Under parasympathetic stimulation,the heart-beat slows, smooth muscles(the involuntary muscles of innerorgans) contract, digestion juices flow,and glands produce watery fluids(saliva, tears, bronchial mucous;Table 1). The neurotransmitter acetyl-choline couples these nerve signals tothe effector cells by activating mus-carinic receptors, which in turn trig-
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Science in School
Issue 4 : Spring 2007
Leonhart Fuchs’(new book of herbs),Basel 1543
About mandrake
...The apples as you sniff and taste them/ bring about the sleep. Suchpower has also their juice. But you shall not use too much/ becauseotherwise they kill.... Because the internal use of mandrake is very dan-gerous/ it is better to bring about the sleep/ if need be/ using the applesand fruits of it/ by just tasting them/ and not taking them into the body.
About nightshade
...The other one we named Maddening Herb [deadly nightshade].Others call it Swine Herb/ and think it is the woody nightshade/ but notwithout great error/ as this herb is a deadly plant/ and cannot be ingest-ed without harm/ as is possible with the woody nightshade. However,it might be the third sex of mandrake.... Without doubt the MaddeningHerb has the power of the fourth nightshade/ which makes mad andfoolish/ because it is a deadly herb for human/ as given by experience.I also know certainly of two children/ who have eaten the berries/ which taste quite sweet/ and they died soon thereafter/ although theyhad been lively and healthy before....
About henbane
Many call henbane also Swine Beans and Sleeping Herb.... Henbaneground freshly alone/ or mixed with malted barley and applied/ takesaway all sorts of pains. The juice pressed from the herb/ a handkerchief wetted therein/ and put onto the hot/ running and painful eyes/ quenches the heat/ stops the flow and their pain. The juice or the seedoil put into the ears/ quenches the stinging therein/ and the pain. Butuse these with great care.... A foot bath made from henbane/ bringssleep.... The roots of Henbane boiled in vinegar and held in the mouthfor some time/ takes away the great and bad aches of teeth. In summa-ry/ the green Henbane leaves/ the seeds/ and juice/ which not onlymake man mad and foolish/ but also the beasts/ must not be used inter-nally/ but only externally to stop the pain/ and to bring sleep/ and if used at all then only with good modesty.
Note:
The original German text is available in the online version of thisarticle
w1
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