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Low Cycle Fatigue and Elasto-Plastic Behaviour of Materials
Summary
The 4th International Conference on Low Cycle Fatigue and Elasto-Plastic Behaviour of Materials was held from 7-11 September 1998 in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany.
In response to a call for papers, nearly 200 extended abstracts from 32 countries were submitted to the organizing committee. These papers were presented at the conference as invited lectures or short contributions and as oral or poster presentation. All the papers were presented in poster form in extended poster sessions–a peculiarity of the LCF Conferences which allows an intense, thorough discussion of all contributions.
Each chapter provides a comprehensive overview of a materials class or a given subject. Many contributions could have been included in two or even three chapters and so, in order to give a better overview of the content, the reader will find a subject index, a material index and an author index in the back of the book.
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Low Cycle Fatigue and Elasto-Plastic Behaviour of Materials
Low Cycle Fatigue and Elasto-Plastic Behaviour of Materials
K.-T. RIE
P.D. PORTELLA
Table of Contents
Cover image
Title page
Copyright
International Advisory Board
Local Organizing Committee
Preface
CHAPTER 1: ISOTHERMAL LOW CYCLE FATIGUE; GENERAL ASPECTS
ROOM AND HIGH-TEMPERATURE LOW CYCLE FATIGUE OF LAMELLAR STRUCTURED TiA1
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIAL, SPECIMEN AND TEST CONDITIONS
TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
THE EFFECT OF CREEP PRE-DEFORMATION ON HIGH-TEMPERATURE FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF THE TITANIUM ALLOY IMI 834
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
THE EFFECTS OF OXIDATION AND CREEP ON THE ELEVATED TEMPERATURE FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF A NEAR-α TITANIUM ALLOY
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIAL
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
CYCLIC PLASTICITY OF COLD-WORKED NICKEL AT HIGH MEAN STRESSES
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIAL AND EXPERIMENTS
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ISOTHERMAL HIGH TEMPERATURE FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF NiCr22Co12Mo9 UNDER SUPERIMPOSED LCF AND HCF LOADING
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIAL
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
LOW CYCLE FATIGUE OF SUPERALLOY SINGLE CRYSTALS CMSX-4
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
FRACTURE MECHANISM OF FERRITIC DUCTILE CAST IRON IN EXTREMELY LOW CYCLE FATIGUE
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CONCLUSION
LOW CYCLE FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF RECYCABLE HIGH STRENGTH PM-STEELS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND TESTING EQUIPEMENT
PORE MORPHOLOGY AND MONOTONIC PROPERTIES
LOW CYCLE FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
LOW CYCLE FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF A POROUS PM 316L AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEEL
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTALS
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
HIGH TEMPERATURE FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF X20CrMoV121 AND X10CrMoVNb91
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
CONCLUSIONS
ANOMALOUS CYCLIC BEHAVIOUR OF FERRITIC STAINLESS STEELS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
LOW CYCLE FATIGUE OF STAINLESS STEELS; A COMPARATIVE STUDY
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
TEST RESULTS
DISCUSSIONS
CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
CYCLIC STRESS-STRAIN RESPONSE TO DIFFERENT STRAIN HISTORIES IN AUSTENITIC, FERRITIC AND AUSTENITIC-FERRITIC SS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
THE EVALUATION OF INTERNAL AND EFFECTIVE STRESSES DURING LOW CYCLE FATIGUE IN STAINLESS STEELS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
VARIATION OCCURRED IN THE SECOND REGION OF DA/DN-Δ K CURVE
ABSTRACT
INTRODUTION
TEST MATERIAL
TEST METHOD
CHANGE POINTS OF M VALUE IN THE SECOND REGION OF DA/DN- ΔK CURVE
CONCLUSION
DETERMINATION OF COLD WORK ENERGY IN LCF/HCF REGION
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
THE DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENT
RESULTS
CONCLUSIONS
CONTRIBUTION TO THE PHYSICAL UNDERSTANDING OF THE MANSON-COFFIN LAW
ABSTRACT
PRELIMINARIES, OBJECTIVES
MATHEMATICAL STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
THERMODYNAMICAL ANALYSIS
SUMMARY
EFFECT OF SOME MEASURING TECHNIQUE FACTORS INFLUENCING THE LCF TEST RESULTS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
THE EFFECT OF THE ACCURACY AND REPRODUCIBILITY OF SETTING THE CONTROLLED PARAMETER AND THE TYPE OF THE EXTENSOMETER
THE EFFECT OF THE SHAPE OF SPECIMEN
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
TESTING AND STUDY ON LOW CYCLE IMPACT FATIGUE
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD AND PRINCIPLE
SOME PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATION RESULTS ON LCIF FOR METALLIC MATERIALS
SUMMARY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
CHAPTER 2: THERMAL AND THERMO-MECHANICAL LOADING
THERMAL AND THERMAL-MECHANICAL FATIGUE OF SUPERALLOYS, A CHALLENGING GOAL FOR MECHANICAL TESTS AND MODELS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
THERMAL AND THERMAL-MECHANICAL FATIGUE TESTING
CONSTITUTIVE MODELLING
DAMAGE MODELLING
CONCLUSION
THERMO-MECHANICAL FATIGUE (TMF) IN TURBINE AIRFOILS: TYPICAL LOADING, 3D EFFECTS AND ADJUSTED TESTING
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
LOADING ANALYSIS
TESTING REQUIREMENTS
TMF TEST PROCEDURE
LOW CYCLE FATIGUE AND THERMOMECHANICAL FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF COATED AND UNCOATED IN738 SUPERALLOY
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIAL AND EXPERIMENTAL
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
HIGH TEMPERATURE FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF COATED IN738 LC
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
THERMOMECHANICAL FATIGUE OF A COATED DIRECTIONALLY SOLIDIFIED NICKEL-BASE SUPERALLOY
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
VISCOPLASTIC MODEL FOR THERMOMECHANICAL FATIGUE
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
VISCOPLASTIC MODEL
MODEL SIMPLIFICATION
APPLICATION OF THE MODEL TO TMF
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
FEATURES ON THERMAL FATIGUE OF FERRITE MATRIX DUCTILE CAST IRON
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISSCUSSION
SUMMARY
THE INFLUENCE OF SDAS ON TMF RESPONSE OF AL 319 ALLOYS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
CONSTITUTIVE MODEL
RESULTS
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
THERMOMECHANICAL FATIGUE OF SURFACED AND SPRAYED ELEMENTS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
TESTING MATERIALS
THERMOMECHANICAL FATIGUE AND METALLOGRAPHIC TESTS
ANALYSIS OF TEST RESULTS
CONCLUSIONS
ASPECTS OF THERMAL FATIGUE DEFORMATION PROCESS OF WROUGHT NI-BASE SUPERALLOY
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIAL AND PROCEDURE
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
DEFORMATION BEHAVIOUR OF WROUGHT NICKEL BASE SUPERALLOY SUBJECTED TO ISOTHERMAL CYCLIC CREEP AND THERMOMECHANICAL FATIGUE
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
CHAPTER 3: MULTIAXIAL LOADING
MICROMECHANICAL SIMULATIONS OF STAGE I FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH UNDER MULTIAXIAL LOADING
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
PHILOSOPHY OF THE SIMULATIONS
IMPLEMENTATION OF THE SIMULATIONS
RESULTS
CONCLUSIONS
INFLUENCE OF STRESS CONCENTRATION AND MULTIAXIAL STRESS STATE ON LOW CYCLE FATIGUE
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIAL AND EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
NUMERICAL ANALYSES
CONCLUSIONS
AN EVALUATION OF METHODS FOR ESTIMATING FATIGUE LIVES UNDER MULTIAXIAL NONPROPORTIONAL VARIABLE AMPLITUDE LOADING
ABSTRACT
CYCLIC PLASTICITY MODEL
CYCLE COUNTING
DAMAGE MODEL
DAMAGE ACCUMULATION MODEL
SUMMARY
INFLUENCE OF LOAD- AND DEFORMATION-CONTROLLED MULTIAXIAL TESTS ON FATIGUE LIFE TO CRACK INITIATION
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIAL DATA SPECIMEN FORM AND TEST PROCEDURE
RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS
EVALUATION OF THE TEST RESULTS
CONCLUSIONS
Influence of Multi-Axial Loading on the Lifetime in LCF Strength
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ON THE UTILITY OF COMPLEX MULTIAXIAL CYCLIC LOADINGS IN TENSION-TORSION-INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL PRESSURES, TO IMPROVE THE FORMULATION OF THE CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
THE TWO OR THREE DIMENSIONAL CYCLIC TESTS
THE MULTIAXIAL RATCHETTING TESTS
CONCLUSIONS
DESIGN CRITERIA FOR MULTIAXIAL CREEP-FATIGUE SUPPORTED BY ADVANCED MULTIAXIAL EXPERIMENTS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
BIAXIAL TENSION CREEP RUPTURE CRITERIA
TRIAXIAL TENSION CREEP RUPTURE CRITERIA
MULTIAXIAL CREEP-FATIGUE CRITERIA
COMPARATIVE TECHNIQUES FOR MULTIAXIAL TESTING
ABSTRACT
SYMBOLS
INTRODUCTION
BEAM AND PLATE BENDING
CRUCIFORM SYSTEMS
THIN WALL TUBES
LCF FAILURE CRITERIA
CONCLUSIONS
AN ALGORITHM FOR SOLVING NON-LINEAR PROBLEMS IN MECHANICS OF STRUCTURES UNDER COMPLEX LOADING HISTORIES
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
PROBLEM TO BE SOLVED
MATERIAL MODEL
THE ALGORITHM
EXAMPLE
FATIGUE IN BIAXIAL STRESS STATE OF PRESTRAINED ALUMINIUM
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENT
TEST RESULTS
CONCLUSIONS
A NEW NONLINEAR DAMAGE CUMULATIVE MODEL FOR MULTIAXIAL FATIGUE
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
UNIAXIAL NONLINEAR FATIGUE DAMAGE CUMULATIVE MODEL
MULTIAXIAL FATIGUE DAMAGE CUMULATIVE MODEL
EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATIONS
CONCLUSIONS
EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF SIMILARITY OF CREEP VELOCITY CURVES
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
PROGRAM OF INVESTIGATIONS
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
CONCLUSIONS
CHAPTER 4: MICROSTRUCTURAL ASPECTS
MICROSTRUCTURAL ASPECTS OF LOW CYCLE FATIGUE
ABSTRACT
LOW-CYCLE-FATIGUE CYCLIC PLASTICITY
STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOUR OF SINGLE CRYSTALS AND POLYCRYSTALS
CYCLIC STRAIN LOCALISATION
CONCLUSIONS
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CYCLIC STRESS-STRAIN RESPONSE AND SUBSTRUCTURE
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTATION
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
CHARACTERIZATION OF PLASTICITY-INDUCED MARTENSITE FORMATION DURING FATIGUE OF AUSTENITIC STEEL
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIAL AND EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
SUMMARY
INFLUENCE OF 160 000 SERVICE HOURS ON THE HIGH TEMPERATURE LCF BEHAVIOUR OF 2.25Cr-1Mo STEEL
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
CONCLUSION
CYCLIC DEFORMATION BEHAVIOUR OF A SUPERAUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEEL AND THE ROLE OF EMBRITTLING PRECIPITATES FORMED DURING WELDING
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
THE EFFECT OF δ -FERRITE ON LOW CYCLE FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR AT HIGH TEMPERATURE IN TYPE 304L STAINLESS STEEL
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
RESULTS
SUMMARY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF A 316LN STAINLESS STEEL AT 77 K AND ASSOCIATED STRUCTURAL TRANSFORMATION
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
INFLUENCE OF THE BAINITIC MICROSTRUCTURE ON SHORT FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH IN HSS STEEL BUTT-WELDED JOINTS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS
INFLUENCE OF THE MICROSTRUCTURE ON CRACKING PROCESS
MODELLING OF THE CRACK PROPAGATION
FATIGUE-INDUCED MARTENSITIC TRANSFORMATION IN METASTABLE STAINLESS STEELS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
SUMMARY
CORRELATION BETWEEN GRAIN BOUNDARY STRUCTURE AND CYCLIC PLASTIC STRAIN BELOW YIELD STRESS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
SIGNIFICANCE OF MICROSTRUCTURE AND PORE MORPHOLOGY ON THE INITIATION AND GROWTH OF FATIGUE CRACKS IN SINTERED STEEL
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS AND PROCEDURES
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
EFFECTS OF MATRIX-STRUCTURES ON LOW CYCLE FATIGUE PROPERTIES IN DUCTILE CAST IRONS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
CONCLUSION
EFFECT OF PREDEFORMATION ON THE HIGH-TEMPERATURE LOW CYCLE FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF POLYCRYSTALLINE NI-BASE SUPERALLOYS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
ESTIMATION OF THE CRITICAL STRESS FOR γ’ SHEARING IN A SINGLE CRYSTAL SUPERALLOY FROM LCF DATA
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
PHASE INSTABILITY IN TITANIUM ALLOY GTM -900 DURING LOWCYCLE FATIGUE AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURE
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CONCLUSION
STRUCTURAL ASPECTS OF SURFACED ELEMENTS FATIGUE LIFE
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MODELS OF SURFACED WELD METALS STRUCTURE
SPECIMENS PREPARATION AND MATERIALS USED FOR INVESTIGATIONS
INFLUENCE OF SURFACED WELD METAL STRUCTURE ON ELEMENTS FATIGUE LIFE
FINAL REMARKS AND CONCLUSIONS
INVESTIGATION OF STRUCTURAL CHANGES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL (IN THIN FOIL) AT LOW CYCLE DEFORMATIONS
ABSTRACT
ELASTO-PLASTIC TRANSITION IN TEMPCORE REINFORCING STEEL
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
TEST DETAILS AND THE ELASTO-PLASTIC DEFORMATION
MODELING
DISCUSSIONS
CONCLUSIONS
MICROSTRUCTURAL ASPECTS OF STRAIN LOCALIZATION DURING LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE IN MODEL AL-LI ALLOYS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
CHAPTER 5: INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AND SURFACE TREATMENTS
HYDROGEN EFFECTS ON THE SATURATION STRESS AND THE ABILITY TO FRACTURE OF NICKEL SINGLE CRYSTALS FATIGUED UNDER CATHODIC CHARGING
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
RESULTS
DISCUSSION OF THE SOFTENING EFFECT
CONCLUSION
EVALUATION OF STRESS CORROSION RESISTANCE AND CORROSION FATIGUE FRACTURE BEHAVIOR OF ULTRA-HIGH-STRENGTH P/M AL-ZN-MG ALLOY
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
CONCLUSIONS
FATIGUE OF CEMENTED CARBIDES WITH DIFFERENT SURFACE MODIFICATIONS UNDER CYCLIC LOADS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
METHODS OF INVESTIGATION AND EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
RESULTS
CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
DAMAGE ACCUMULATION AND CRACK GROWTH IN METALS UNDER HYDROGEN EMBRITTLEMENT
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
1 CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS
2 DETERMINATION OF HE - PARAMETERS
3 MULTIAXIAL FAILURE CONDITIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ENVIRONMENTALLY ASSISTED LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE CRACK INITIATION AND GROWTH
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
GENERAL THEORY
THIN PLASTIC ZONE MODEL FOR CORROSION FATIGUE
NUMERICAL EXPERIMENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
ELASTO-PLASTIC TRANSITION OF CARBON TOOL STEELS SURFACE TREATED BY LASER
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
METHODS
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
CONCLUSIONS
EFFECT OF THE NEAR-SURFACE LAYERS AND SURFACE MODIFICATION ON BEHAVIOUR OF BCC METALS UNDER FATIGUE
ABSTRACT
PHENOMENOLOGICAL BACKGROUND
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
CHAPTER 6: ADVANCED MATERIALS
CYCLIC STRESS-STRAIN AND FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF PARTICULATE-REINFORCED AL-MATRIX COMPOSITES
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIAL AND EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
INFLUENCE OF LOCAL DAMAGE ON THE CREEP BEHAVIOUR OF PARTICLE REINFORCED METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
NUMERICAL MODEL
NUMERICAL STUDIES
CONCLUSIONS
THERMAL AND THERMAL-MECHANICAL FATIGUE OF DISPERSION STRENGTHENED Al-ALLOYS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
IN-CYCLE STRAIN EVOLUTION IN A SHORT-FIBER REINFORCED ALUMINUM-ALLOY DURING THERMAL CYCLING CREEP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
INFLUENCE OF A12O3 FIBER REINFORCEMENT ON THE THERMAL-MECHANICAL FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF THE CAST ALUMINIUM ALLOY AlSi10Mg
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIAL AND TESTING SPECIMENS
EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ISOTHERMAL LOW CYCLE FATIGUE OF TITANIUM MATRIX COMPOSITES
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIAL DETAILS
EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
MECHANICS AND MECHANISMS OF THERMAL FATIGUE DAMAGE IN SCS-6/Ti-24Al-11Nb COMPOSITE
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
INVESTIGATIONS ON THE THERMOMECHANICAL FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF PARTICLE REINFORCED ALUMINIUM ALLOYS APPLYING A GLEEBLE 1500
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS
RESULTS
SUMMARY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
OFF-AXIS SHEAR BEHAVIOR OF SELECTED MMC’s
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND TESTING PROCEDURES
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
SOME EXPERIMENTAL DATA OF LOW-CYCLE IMPACT FATIGUE FOR SEVERAL METALLIC MATERIALS
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL DATA
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
CHAPTER 7: BEHAVIOUR OF SHORT AND LARGE CRACKS
CYCLIC STRAIN LOCALISATION, CRACK NUCLEATION AND SHORT CRACK GROWTH
ABSTRACT
1 INTRODUCTION
2 DAMAGE EVOLUTION IN FATIGUE
3 CYCLIC STRAIN LOCALISATION
4 FATIGUE CRACK NUCLEATION
5 SHORT CRACK GROWTH
AN ANALYSIS OF THE GERBER PARABOLIC RELATIONSHIP BASED UPON SMALL FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH BEHAVIOR
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
ANALYSIS
RESULTS OF ANALYSIS
CONCLUDING REMARKS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
A CONSIDERATION OF SCATTER IN SMALL FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
PROPAGATION OF SHORT FATIGUE CRACKS IN AUSTEMPERED DUCTILE IRON UNDER CYCLIC BLOCK LOADING
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
RESULTS
SUMMARY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
SMALL CRACK PROPAGATION DURING LOW CYCLE FATIGUE TESTS AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURE
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
DESCRIPTION OF METHOD AND RESULTS
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER WORK
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
FATIGUE LIFE CURVES OF MATERIALS AND THE GROWTH OF SHORT CRACKS
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL
RESULTS
ANALYSIS
STEREOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF FATIGUE SHORT CRACK PROPAGATION IN ZIRCALOY-4
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
STEREOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF SHORT CRACK GROWTH IN THE BULK
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
CONCLUSION
A STOCHASTIC MODEL FOR PLURAL FRACTURE
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENT
MODELING OF SIZE NON-HOMOGENEITY
FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH AND FATIGUE LIFE ESTIMATION OF NOTCHED MEMBERS IN A SHORT CRACK RANGE
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD
EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION
SUMMARY
Acknowledgements
INITIATION AND PROPAGATION OF CRACKS AT SHARP NOTCHES UNDER CYCLIC LOADING
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS
SPECIMEN
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
CRACK LENGTH MEASUREMENT
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Acknowledgement
TOPOGRAPHY OF THE CRACK NUCLEI AT THE EMERGING PERSISTENT SLIP BAND IN AUSTENITIC 316L STEEL
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
CHAPTER 8: CRACK INITIATION AND COALESCING; DAMAGE EVOLUTION
INTERACTION BETWEEN LOW CYCLE FATIGUE AND HIGH CYCLE FATIGUE IN 316L STAINLESS STEEL
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENT
RESULTS
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
EFFECT OF LOADING WAVE FORM ON THE RESULTS OF LOW CYCLE FATIGUE AND FATIGUE CRACK PROPAGATION TESTS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
TESTS AND THEIR RESULTS
EVALUATION OF TEST RESULTS
SUMMARY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
RELATION BETWEEN CYCLIC J-INTEGRAL AND CRACK TIP OPENING DISPLACEMENT AT LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
EFFECT OF STRESS RATIO ON LOCAL FATIGUE DAMAGE ACCUMULATION AROUND NOTCH
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
MODELLING OF THE CREEP FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH BASED ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CAVITY CONFIGURATION IN FRONT OF THE CRACK AND ITS EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
CAVITY CONFIGURATION IN FRONT OF THE CRACK
CONCEPT OF THE SIMULATION MODEL
COMPARISON OF THE MODEL AND THE EXPERIMENT
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
CRACK PROPAGATION BEHAVIOUR OF THE TITANIUM ALLOY IMI 834 UNDER HIGH TEMPERATURE CREEP-FATIGUE CONDITIONS AND FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
CRACK PROPAGATION EXPERIMENTS
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
FINITE ELEMENTE ANALYSIS
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF VISCOPLASTIC CRACK CLOSURE
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
GEOMETRY AND LOADING
CRACK OPENING STRESS
SUMMARY
CONCLUSIONS / FURTHER WORK
INVESTIGATIONS ON INFLUENCE OF THE PLASTIC ZONE AFTER SINGLE-PEAK OVERLOAD ON FATIGUE LIFE OF STRUCTURAL STEEL UNDER TENSION
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
THE MODEL TESTS
THE EXPERIMENTS
THE TEST RESULTS
CONCLUSIONS
FATIGUE CRACK PROPAGATION IN PONDER HETEROGENEOUS METALLIC MATERIALS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTS
MACROSCALE MODEL
MICROSCALE MODEL
EXPERIMENTAL RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Acknowledgements
STABLE DAMAGE ACCUMULATION AND ELASTO-PLASTIC DEFORMATION OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
LOADING SYSTEM AND STABILITY OF INELASTIC DEFORMATION
INELASTIC DEFORMATION AND WORK-SOFTENING BEHAVIOUR
MULTI-SCALE DAMAGE EVOLUTION AND LOCALIZATION
EFFECT OF LOCAL UNLOADING
SELF-SUPPORTED DAMAGE ACCUMULATION AND LOCAL INSTABILTY
CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 9: CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS; MODELLING
A MICROSTRUCTURALLY BASED EXPLANATION FOR THE HIGH TEMPERATURE LCF BEHAVIOUR OF THE ODS NICKEL-BASE ALLOY PM 1000
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL
LCF BEHAVIOUR
MICROSTRUCTURE
MICROSTRUCTURAL MODEL
COMPARISON OF THE MONOTONIC AND CYCLIC STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
A Numerical Calculation on Cyclic Stress-Strain Response in the Vicinity of Crack Tip in Annealed Copper
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
ANALYSIS
CALCULATION
CONCLUSIONS
NUMERICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS OF TEMPERATURE-RATE TERMS IN MODELLING THE INELASTIC MATERIAL BEHAVIOUR
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
TEMPERATURE-RATE TERMS IN THE EVOLUTION EQUATION FOR KINEMATIC HARDENING
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
EXPERIMENTAL AND NUMERICAL RESULTS
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
RATCHETING OF AN AUSTENITIC STEEL UNDER MUTLIAXIAL AND THERMOMECHANICAL LAODING: EXPERIMENTS AND MODELING
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MODIFICATIONS OF THE ARMSTRONG-FREDERICK (AF) MODEL
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
MODELING
DISCUSSION
CONCLUSION
MATERIAL PARAMETER IDENTIFICATION CONSIDERING SCATTERING AND VERIFICATION BY FULL FIELD EXPERIMENTAL DATA
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
UNIAXIAL TESTS
CONSTITUTIVE MODEL
TREND MODEL AT ROOM TEMPERATURE
SCATTERING MODELS
VERIFICATION OF THE MODELS
OPTICAL FULL FIELD MEASUREMENTS
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
MULTIMODEL ANALYSIS OF THE ELASTO-PLASTIC AND ELASTO-VISCOPLASTIC DEFORMATION PROCESSES IN MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES
ABSTRACT
1 INTRODUCTION
2 LIBRARY OF PLASTIC AND VISCOPLASTC MODELS
2.1 Plastic models
2.2 Viscoplastic models
2.3 Regulation criteria of viscoplastic models
2.4 Internal state variables approach
3 SELECTION CRITERIA SYSTEM
4 RESULTS OF MULTIMODEL COMPUTATIONAL ANALYSIS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATION OF HEAT GENERATION RULES OF METALLIC MATERIALS UNDER MONOTONIC AND CYCLIC LOADING
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE AND TEST RESULTS
EXPERIMENTAL RESULT ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSSION
ACKNOWELDGEMENT
COMPUTATIONAL SIMULATION OF SELF-HEATING GENERATION IN CYCLIC LOADING PROCESS
ABSTRACT
1 INTRODUCTION
2 THE GOVERNING EQUATION OF SLEF-HEATING GENERATION OF MATERIALS
3 NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF TEMPERATURE FIELD AS SELF-HEATING GENERATION IN CYCLIC LOADING PROCESS
4 DISSCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWELDGEMENT
BP PROGRAM - INTERACTIVE EVALUATION OF BODNER-PARTOM MODEL MATERIAL CONSTANTS
ABSTRACT
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE MATERIAL CONSTANTS EVALUATIONS AND RELATED EQUATIONS
EXAMPLES
CONCLUDING REMARKS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
IMPLEMENTATION OF VISCOPLASTIC CONSTITUTIVE MODEL IN MARC COMPUTER CODE
ABSTRACT
BODNER-PARTOM MODEL
IMPLEMENTATION IN MARC
CALCULATIONS AND RESULTS COMPARISON
MAIN RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
CHAPTER 10: DESIGN METHODS; LIFE PREDICTION
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON THE CYCLIC BEHAVIOUR OF TRANSFORMED STEEL SHEET
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
SUMMARY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
LOW CYCLE FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF TWO FERRITE-PEARLITE MICROALLOYED STEELS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
PROPOSAL OF A HIGH-TEMPERATURE LOW CYCLE FATIGUE LIFE PREDICTION MODEL
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CREEP-FATIGUE LIFE PREDICTION MODEL
CONCLUSION
FATIGUE PROPAGATION OF SURFACE CRACKS UNDER CYCLIC LOADING
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
CRACK PROPAGATION TESTS
RESULT ANALYSIS
DISCUSSION
CONCLUSION
METHODS OF SERVICE DURABILITY ASSESSMENT
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION OF SERVICE DURABILTY
EFFECTS ON COMPONENT STRENGTH, FATIGUE LIFE AND DIMENSIONS
METHODS FOR SERVICE DURABILITY PROOF-OUT
CONCLUSIONS
LIFETIME PREDICTION - COMPARISON BETWEEN CALCULATION AND EXPERIMENT ON A LARGE DATA BASE
ABSTRACT
DATA COLLECTION - A NEW EVALUATION OF EXTENSIVE TEST DATA
RESULTS FOR THE NOMINAL STRESS CONCEPT
RESULTS FOR THE LOCAL STRAIN CONCEPT
SUMMARY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
STANDARDIZED LOAD-TIME HISTORIES - STATUS AND TRENDS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
CHARACTERISATION AND ANALYSIS OF LOADING ENVIRONMENTS
BASIS OF GENERATION OF STANDARDIZED LOAD-TIME HISTORIES
EXISTING STANDARDIZED LOAD-TIME HISTORIES
DISCUSSION
IN-SERVICE INTEGRITY IN THE GERMAN AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY TODAY AND TOMORROW
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
IN-SERVICE INTEGRITY IN THE AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY
METHODS FOR SUITABLE DIMENSIONING OF AUTOMOBILES
CO-OPERATION WITH SYSTEM SUPPLIERS
PRODUCTION RELEASE
OUTLOOK
SIMULATION OF LONG TERM CREEP FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR BY MULTI-STAGE SERVICE TYPE STRAIN CYCLING
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
SINGLE STAGE SERVICE TYPE STRAIN CYCLING
CREEP FATIGUE LIFE ANALYSIS
THREE STAGE SERVICE TYPE STRAIN CYCLING
CONCLUSIONS
EFFECT OF SEQUENCE OF LOADING ON CUMULATIVE FATIGUE DAMAGE IN TITANIUM ALLOY
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
A UNIFIED THEORY OF FATIGUE FAILURE
COMPARISON WITH EXPERIMENTAL DATA
UNIVERSAL J-INTEGRAL FOR ASSESSING MULTIAXIAL LOW CYCLE FATIGUE LIVES OF VARIOUS MATERIALS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
J-INTEGRAL BASED DAMAGE FUNCTION
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
CUMULATIVE DAMAGE MODELLING IN A LIFE PREDICTION UNDER RANDOM LOADING CONDITIONS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
CUMULATIVE DAMAGE EVALUATION
OPERATIONAL STRESS-STRAIN RESPONSE DIAGRAM UNDER RANDOM LOADING
EQUIVALENT AMPLITUDE SPECIFICATION
RAINFLOW DECOMPOSITION OF A RANDOM LOADING SIGNAL
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
EFFECT OF THE DIFFERENT COUNTING METHODS OF CYCLIC LOADING SERVICE SPECTRUM ON CUMULATIVE FATIGUE DAMAGE
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
DATA ANALYSIS
DAMAGE CALCULATION
COMPARISON OF RESULTS
CONCLUSIONS
LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE OF AROUND NOTCHED SPECIMENS OF ANISOTROPIC STEELS
ABSTRACT
PREDICTION OF CONSTANT-AMPLITUDE FATIGUE LIFE TO FAILURE UNDER PULSATING-TENSION (R≥0) BY USE OF THE LOCAL-STRAIN-APROACH
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
RESULTS FROM PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS
INVESTIGATED MATERIALS
RESULTS OF THE LSA CALCULATIONS OF S-N DATA IN PULSATING-TENSION
CONCLUSIONS
CHAPTER 11: CASE STUDIES; PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE
VALIDATION OF CREEP-FATIGUE ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES USING THE RESULTS OF COMPONENT-TARGETED FEATURE-SPECIMEN TESTS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
STATE OF STRESS-STRAIN
CALCULATION OF DAMAGE
DAMAGE SUMMATION
PREDICTION VALIDATION
CONCLUDING REMARKS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
SIGNIFICANCE OF DWELL CRACKING FOR IN718 TURBINE DISCS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
INVESTIGATION OF DWELL CRACKING
CONCLUDING REMARKS
UNDERSTANDING OF CREEP, FATIGUE AND OXIDATION EFFECTS FOR AERO-ENGINE DISC APPLICATIONS
ABSTRACT
PROJECT METHODOLOGY
RESULTS
A) ELASTO-PLASTIC BEHAVIOUR
B) CREEP
C) CRACK PROPAGATION
OXIDATION
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ON A FAILURE CRITERION FOR THERMOMECHANICAL MULTIAXIAL LOW CYCLE FATIGUE AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTS AND COMPUTATIONS
LIFE TIME PREDICTION
CONCLUSION
THE LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE OF FIBRE-METAL-HYBRID STRUCTURES
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
FATIGUE QUESTIONS OF HYBRID VESSELS
FATIGUE OF METALS
FATIGUE OF FIBRES AND UNIDIRECTIONAL LAMINATES
INADEQUATE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS LEADING TO FATIGUE FAILURE IN TANK CONTAINER SHELLS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN SERVICE
SOLUTION OF THE FRACTURE PROBLEM
CONCLUSION
SIMPLIFIED LIFE PREDICTION FOR NOTCHED COMPONENTS WITH HIGH LOCAL STRESSES
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MODIFIED NEUBER RULE
UNIFIED MODEL
RESULTS
THE ASSESSMENT OF REMAINING FATIGUE LIFE OF AIRFRAME DURING OPERATIONS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
CONCLUSIONS
LOW CYCLE FATIGUE CRACKING OF TITANIUM COMPRESSOR DISKS OF AIRCRAFT ENGINE D-30
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL DETAILES
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CONCLUSION
LOWER BOUND COLLAPSE LOAD AND FATIGUE OF MATERIALS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
LIMITS OF STRESES
STRES AND STRAIN ANALYSIS
ASSESSMENT OF LIMITS
CONSLUSION
SUBJECT INDEX
MATERIALS INDEX
AUTHOR INDEX
Copyright
ELSEVIER SCIENCE Ltd.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Low cycle fatigue and elasto-plastic behaviour of materials / editors, K.–T. Rie and P.D. Portella.
p. cm.
Fourth International Conference on Low Cycle Fatigue and Elasto -Plastic Behaviour of Materials was held from 7-11 September 1998 in Gramisch-Partenkirchen, Germany
--
ISBN 0-08-043326-X
1. Metals--Fatigue--Congresses. 2. Elastoplasticity--Congresses.
I. Rie, K.-T. (Kyong-Tschong), 1936- II. Portella, P. D. (Pedro D.) III. International Conference on Low Cycle Fatigue and Elasto-Plastic Behaviour of Materials (4th : 1998 : Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany)
TA460.L679 1998
620.1′ 66--dc21
98-34273
CIP
First Edition 1998
ISBN: 0 08 043326 X
© 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without permission in writeng from the publishers.
No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein.
The paper used in this publication meets the requirements of ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992
(Permanence of Paper).
Printed in The Netherlands.
International Advisory Board
Organizing Committee
Editorial Committee
Local Organizing Committee
Federation of European Materials Societies
The conference is co-sponsored by:
Arbeitsgemeinschaft Wärmebehandlung und Werkstofftechnik (Germany)
ASM International (USA)
European Structural Integrity Society
Engineering Integrity Society (UK)
The Chinese Society of Metals
The Japan Institute of Metals
The Korean Institute of Metals
The society of Materials Science (Japan)
VDI-Gesellschaft Werkstofftechnik (Germany)
Preface
The Fourth International Conference on Low Cycle Fatigue and Elasto-Plastic Behaviour of Materials was held from 7 to 11 September 1998 in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany, following successful conferences in Stuttgart (1979), Munich (1987) and Berlin (1992). The conference was organized by the Deutscher Verband für Materialforschung und –prüning (DVM – German Association for Materials Research and Testing).
Following the tradition of the previous conferences, it was the intention of the organizers to provide a discussion forum for all those interested in both the fundamental aspects and the practical applications of this exciting subject.
In response to our call for papers, nearly 200 extended abstracts from 32 countries were submitted to the organizing committee. The present conference proceedings reflect the most interesting and challenging innovations in this field. These papers were presented in the conference as invited lectures or short contributions - as oral or poster presentation. All the papers were presented in poster form in extended poster sessions, a peculiarity of the LCF Conferences which allow an intense, thorough discussion of all contributions.
The papers in these proceedings were distributed in chapters according to the following main topics of the conference:
1. Isothermal low cycle fatigue; general aspects
2. Thermal and thermo-mechanical loading
3. Multiaxial loading
4. Microstructural aspects
5. Influence of environmental conditions and surface treatments
6. Advanced materials
7. Behaviour of short and large cracks
8. Crack initiation and coalescing; damage evolution
9. Constitutive equations; modelling
10. Design methods; life prediction
11. Case studies; practical experience
Each chapter provides a comprehensive overview of a materials class or a given subject. It is obvious that many contributions might be included in two or even three chapters. In order to give a better overview of the content, the reader will find a subject index, a material index and an author index in the back of the book.
On behalf of the Organizing Committee we wish to thank all the authors, invited lecturers, session chairmen, members of the International Advisory Committee and numerous others who gave an important contribution to this conference. The excellent work of the Local Organizing Committee was of fundamental importance for this event. Finally we should like to thank Mrs. Ingrid Maslinski, DVM, whose administrative and organizational capability supported once more our work from the beginning.
Kyong-Tschong Rie, Braunschweig, Germany
Pedro Dolabella Portella, Berlin, Germany
Chapter 1
ISOTHERMAL LOW CYCLE FATIGUE; GENERAL ASPECTS
ROOM AND HIGH-TEMPERATURE LOW CYCLE FATIGUE OF LAMELLAR STRUCTURED TiA1
R. OHTANI, T. KITAMURA and M. TSUTSUMI, Department of Engineering Physics and Mechanics, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
ABSTRACT
Experimental investigation was done to characterize the low cycle fatigue (LCF) in an as-cast Ti-34wt.%Al with near 0°-oriented lamellar structure by using the smooth bar specimens subjected to push-pull loading. Effects of test temperatures, strain waveforms and lamellar and/or grain boundaries on the crack initiation, propagation and the failure life are shown in this paper. It is pointed out that the TiA1 tested is inferior to other heat resistant alloys in the LCF resistance over 0.5% total strain range at room temperature, whereas it has a satisfactory grade at high temperatures or under creep-fatigue conditions.
KEYWORDS
Intermetallic compound
TiAl
lamellar structure
low cycle fatigue
creep-fatigue
crack initiation
crack growth
high temperature
INTRODUCTION
Because of its high relative strength and heat resistance, TiA1 intermetallic compound is one of the most promising materials for high-temperature use. Energies are concentrated to the development of the tougher materials and their practical usage in Japan [1]. To date, the mechanical properties of TiA1 alloys with various microstructures, obtained by changing the chemical composition and heat treatment, have been intensively investigated. Among these, alloys with the (α 2 + γ) lamellar structure have attracted researchers due to their excellent mechanical performance, although the properties depend on the loading direction to the lamellae. Much research work has been carried out on the monotonic tensile and compressive properties not only at room temperature but also at high temperatures. However, studies on fatigue are still limited [2,3,4].
The objective of this study is to investigate the fundamental behavior of fatigue in a cast Ti-34wt.%A1 (48at.%A1) at high as well as room temperatures. Uniaxial fatigue load is applied to the specimen in the direction nearly parallel to the lamellar boundaries. Stress is put on the effects of test temperatures, strain waveforms and lamellar boundaries for transverse cracking under relatively high stress and strain conditions in order to understand its low cycle fatigue (LCF) characteristics and to verify the applicability to the practical components subjected to thermal fatigue. Test results on the failure life are compared with those of some other heat resistant alloys.
MATERIAL, SPECIMEN AND TEST CONDITIONS
The material tested is manufactured by casting into a columnar ingot in argon gas in the plasma-skull melting process. The chemical composition (wt.%) is as follows; Al: 33.5, C: <0.01, N: 0.005, O: 0.084, H: 0.0016, Ti: bal. The grains grow from the circumference to the center in the ingot during the solidification so that the elongated grains of 3mm in the growth direction and 0.35mm in the transverse direction are formed. The lamellae composed of γ -phase (TiA1) and a small amount of α ²-phase (Ti3A1) are aligned nearly perpendicularly to the grain growth direction.
Cylindrical specimens are cut from the circumference near the ingot surface so that their axes are nearly parallel to the lamellar boundaries as shown in Fig. 1. Miniature specimens with 4mm-diameter are used for fatigue failure tests and standard specimens with 10mm-diameter for crack observation.
Fig. 1 Direction of specimen axis. (0°-oriented lamellar structure)
The material is neither heat treated nor HIP treated but is used as cast. It is found through the defect inspection that the specimens contain 2.5 defects per surface area of 1 mm² in average and 99% of the distribution of defect size is smaller than 30μm in diameter. The surface of the specimens is polished by the diamond paste before the tests to remove machine cuts and after the interrupted tests to remove oxide film and observe surface cracks.
In the strain-controlled failure tests, a fast–fast triangular strain-waveform is adopted at room temperature (RT) and high temperatures (600, 800 and 900°C, mainly 800°C), and fast-slow and slow–fast ones at 800°C in air. The fast strain rate is 1 %/s and the slow strain rate is 10–3 or 10–4 %/s. The details of the test procedure have been described elsewhere [5].
TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Fig. 2 shows the test results on the fatigue life (the number of cycles to failure, Nf) at different strain ranges for different strain waveforms. Tables 1(a) and (b) represent dominant characteristics of the fatigue cracking.
Table 1(a)
Characterization of cracking behavior in LCF at room and high temperatures
Fig. 2 Number of cycles to failure in LCF for a fast–fast waveform at RT and HTs (600, 800 and 900°C) and for fast–slow and slow–fast waveforms at 800°C.
Fast-Fast Fatigue at Room and High Temperatures
The tensile rupture elongation at RT is 1% or less, being quite small as compared with that of 10% or more at 800°C, so that the fatigue life under the total strain range of 1.0% at RT is the lower bound in LCF regime as shown in Fig. 2. The fatigue life at 800°C is longer than that of RT especially at high total strain ranges. Even in the LCF regime, the total strain is composed of a large amount of the elastic strain.
As shown in Table 1(a), the lamellar boundary cracking (Photo 1) is most frequent in the RT-fatigue, the surface defect cracking (Photo 2) is dominating below the test temperature of 800°C, and the oxide-film cracking is characteristic of the 900°C-fatigue (Photo 3). Among these fatigue cracks, the lamellar delamination grows in the direction nearly parallel to the stress axis and stops growing when it reaches the grain boundary. This is, therefore, an arrested crack for the near 0°-oriented lamellar structure [5].
On the other hand, surface defect and oxide-film cracks grow perpendicularly to the stress axis and transversely to the lamellae. Especially the surface defect crack in RT-fatigue displays a zigzag propagation accompanied with the branching due to the partial delamination along lamellar boundaries (Photo 4). Such zigzag propagation is characteristic of the fatigue, although the cracks grow rather straight at high temperatures (Photo 5).
When the strain range–fatigue life curves of the TiA1 are compared with those of a Type 304 stainless steel and a Mar-M247DS nickel base superalloy, 304 SS exhibits a longer fatigue life than the TiA1 at the total strain range over 0.5%. On the other hand, the fatigue life of Mar-M247DS at 900°C [6] is nearly equal to that of TiA1 at 800°C.
Fast–Slow Fatigue at High Temperature
The fast–slow strain waveforms at 800°C tend to reduce the failure life as shown in Fig. 2. One of the factors in decreasing the fatigue life is the increase in the maximum (peak) stress which is brought about by the unbalanced hysteresis loops.
In Table 1(b) shown are the cracks for the fast-slow strain waveform (Photo 6), indicating that they initiate at the surface oxide-film because longer test duration than the fast-fast fatigue promotes the development of oxidation. The morphology of the crack is similar to that of the crack for the fast-fast 900°C-fatigue (see Photo 3). Therefore, the fast-slow fatigue does not interact with creep but with environment (fatigue-environment interaction). Here, attention should be paid that this oxide-film crack does not always grow inward (see Photo 7) but spreads widely on the surface.
Table 1(b)
Characterization of cracking behavior in fast-slow and slow-fast fatigue at 800°C
The TiAl is inferior to Mar-M247DS in the fatigue life, although the difference is not always distinguished. As thermal fatigue behavior in out-of-phase conditions (thermomechanical cycles combined with tension at low temperature and compression at high temperature) has a strong resemblance to the fast-slow fatigue behavior, it is necessary to consider the oxidation-induced reduction of surface resistance when the TiAl is applied to practical components such as gas turbine blades.
Slow–Fast Fatigue at High Temperature
The slow–fast strain waveforms also yield the reduction of the fatigue life. The lower bound of fatigue life of this type at a very low strain rate in tension of 10–4 %/s is nearly equal to the fast-fast fatigue life at RT as shown in Fig. 2. Comparison of the failure lives with the aforementioned materials indicates that the TiA1 exhibits good properties for the creep-dominating fatigue.
In this case, the crack tends to initiate on the grain boundaries at the surface and to grow inside along them. An typical example is shown in Photo 8 in Table 1(b). When the slow strain rate in tension is much smaller, 10–4 %/s, a number of cavities and microcracks tend to originate on the grain boundaries perpendicular to the stress axis inside the material (Photo 9). It has been clear that some austenitic and low alloy steels show a similar fracture behavior when they are subjected to slow–fast or tension-hold strain cycles [7,8]. Therefore, this slow–fast fatigue is typical of creep-fatigue, wherein the creep strain accumulated irreversibly in the tensile direction changes its fracture mechanism from fatigue transgranular cracking to grain boundary cracking or cavitation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported in part by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research of the Ministry of Education. The authors acknowledge R & D Division of Daido Steel Co., Ltd., for providing the material tested.
REFERENCES
1. Izumi S., et al, eds. Intermetallic Compounds—Capabilities as Advanced High-Temperature Structural Materials (in Japanese). Joint Committee on Intermetallic Compounds, Japan Society of Metals and other seven Societies, 1996.
2. Yamaguchi, K., Shimadaira, M., Nishijima, S. Iron and Steel (in Japanese). ISJS 78-1. 1992; 134–140.
3. Davidson, D. L., Cambell, J. B. Metallurgical Transaction A. 1993; 24A:1555–1562.
4. Umakoshi, Y., Yasuda, H., Nakano, T. Proc. 3rd Japan International SAMPE. 1993:1329.
5. Tsutsumi, M., Ohtani, R., Kitamura, T., Takano, S., Ohshima, T. Journal of the Soc. of Materials Science (in Japanese). 1995; 44(501):769–775.
6. Nitta, A. Study on Thermal Fatigue in Heat Resistant Metallic Materials for Electric Power Plants (Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industries). Ph. D thesis (in Japanese). 1993.
7. . Ohtani, R., Kitamura, T. Carpinteri, A., eds. Handbook of Fatigue Crack Propagation in Metallic Structures; Vol. 2. Elsevier, 1994:1347–1383.
8. . Ohtani, R., Kitamura, T., Tada, N., Zhou, W. Bressers J., Remy L., eds. Proceedings of Symp. on Fatigue under Thermal and Mechanical Loading. Kluwer Academic Publishers: the Netherlands, 1995; 199–208.
THE EFFECT OF CREEP PRE-DEFORMATION ON HIGH-TEMPERATURE FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF THE TITANIUM ALLOY IMI 834
S. Hardt, H.J. Maier and H.-J. Christ, Institut für Werkstofftechnik, Universität-GH Siegen, D-57068 Siegen, F. R. Germany
ABSTRACT
The creep-induced degradation of the high-temperature fatigue properties of the titanium alloy IMI 834 was studied on samples with bimodal and equiaxed microstructure, respectively. Significant reduction of fatigue life was observed for samples pre-crept at 600°C. Moreover, in the case of a bimodal microstructure, creep pre-deformation was found to lower the cyclic yield stress leading to a level similar to that of the equiaxed condition. The reduction in cyclic life could partially be attributed to environmental effects. The higher resistance of the bimodal microstructure against fatigue crack propagation explains why the damaging effect of pre-deformation is less pronounced in this case.
KEYWORDS
creep pre-deformation
environmental degradation
low-cycle fatigue
microstructure
high-temperature titanium alloys
INTRODUCTION
The most recent commercially available near-α titanium alloy IMI 834 was designed for high-temperature applications such as turbine blades in the compressor part of jet engines. In order to replace the heavier nickel-base superalloys an upper service temperature of 600°C was envisaged [1, 2]. As service conditions involve both monotonic and cyclic loads, excellent creep and fatigue properties are required. For optimum performance a bimodal microstructure consisting of a small volume fraction of primary α phase in a lamellar matrix of transformed β is recommended for IMI 834 [3]. Excellent mechanical properties have been obtained on IMI 834 in short-term laboratory tests, see e.g. [4]. Service conditions, however, involve long-term high-temperature exposure under combined creep and fatigue loading. Significant microstructural changes have been reported to occur in IMI 834 in creep tests run at 600°C [5]. Similar effects were expected to occur under creep-fatigue conditions, and the objective of the present paper was to study creep-induced degradation of the fatigue properties of IMI 834.
EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
The near-α titanium alloy IMI 834 (nominal composition Ti-5.8Al-4.0Si-3.5Zr-0.7Nb-0.5Mo-0.35Si-0.06C, in wt-%) supplied by IMI Titanium Ltd. in the form of hot-rolled bars was studied with equiaxed and bimodal microstructure, respectively. The equiaxed microstructure resulted from recrystallization during solution heat treatment at 1000°C and slow air cooling. The bimodal microstructure was obtained by a solution heat treatment at 1020°C for 2h, followed by an oil quench. Finally, an additional ageing treatment (2h at 700°C/AC) was applied. Unnotched cylindrical samples with a gauge diameter of 8 mm were used for mechanical testing. To minimize surface effects, all specimens were electrolytically polished in the gauge section prior to testing. Creep behaviour was studied both in compression and tension, respectively. All creep test were performed under constant stress conditions.
The low cycle fatigue tests were run under closed-loop plastic strain control using a symmetrical triangular wave form. Plastic strain amplitudes used were in the range from 0.1 to 0.5%. In all fatigue tests the plastic strain rate was kept constant at 8×10−4s−1
The effect of creep pre-deformation on fatigue behaviour was studied using specimens pre-strained under constant stress conditions to different levels of monotonic plastic strain at 600°C. These tests were run in a servo-hydraulic test system, thus following creep pre-deformation of the samples the fatigue tests could be started instantaneously. In order to separate the effects of surface oxidation and pure creep damage on fatigue life, additional fatigue tests were performed on samples that had been annealed prior to fatigue testing for extended time periods in high vacuum and air, respectively.
Fracture surfaces and metallographic cross sections were studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to identify the relevant damage mechanisms. The microstructural changes occurring during creep and fatigue loading, respectively, were studied by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Thin slices were sectioned from the fractured test pieces perpendicular to the external stress axis. The final TEM samples were prepared by mechanical grinding down to 150 μm followed by conventional twin-jet polishing.
RESULTS
Creep Behaviour
As expected, creep behaviour of equiaxed and bimodal microstructures, respectively, was found to be drastically different. In essence, the bimodal microstructure displayed much higher initial strength and significantly lower minimum creep rates were observed as compared to samples with equiaxed microstructures. However, pronounced steady-state creep behaviour was observed in long-term tests performed on equiaxed microstructures, whereas a distinct minimum creep rate was monitored in samples with bimodal microstructures. The softening that set in after the minimum creep rate could be observed in both tension and compression creep tests. Thus, it was concluded that the increase in creep rate is due to microstructural changes and not caused by void formation. Indeed, creep damage as a result of void formation was observed only in samples that were deformed into the tertiary creep regime.
Fatigue behaviour without creep pre-deformation
0,2%).
Comparison of Figs. 1 and 2 reveals that the bimodal microstructure has a significantly higher cyclic yield stress than the equiaxed microstructure. Moreover, as soon as macro crack growth set in, the stress amplitudes dropped quite rapidly in the equiaxed microstructures, c.f. Fig. 2. In the bimodal structure, however, a rather smooth decrease in stress amplitude was observed prior to failure, c.f. Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 Cyclic softening curves as recorded from samples with bimodal microstructure. All samples were fatigued at T = 600°C and Δεpl/2 = 0.2%.
Fig. 2 Effect of creep pre-deformation and thermal exposure on cyclic stress response and fatigue life of samples with equiaxed microstructure at T = 600°C and Δεpl/2 = 0.2%.
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed distinctly different fracture surfaces for the two microstructures tested. As seen in Fig. 3 striations formed in samples with an equiaxed microstructure are essentially parallel to each other in all grains. In contrast, striations observed on the fracture surface of samples with a bimodal microstructure have different orientations with respect to the macroscopic crack growth direction, c.f. Fig. 4.
Fig. 3 SEM micrograph of the fracture surface formed during cyclic deformation at T = 600°C and Δεpl/2 = 0.1%. Note that in this equiaxed microstructure striations are almost parallel in all grains. The arrow indicates the macroscopic crack growth direction.
Fig. 4 Appearance of fracture surface in a sample with bimodal microstructure fatigued at T = 600°C and Δεpl/2 = 0.1%. Note the strongly diverging striations fields.
Fatigue behaviour after a monotonic creep pre-deformation
As seen in Fig. 1, samples with a bimodal microstructure display a significant reduction in cyclic yield stress after a creep pre-deformation as compared to the virgin material. Note that both creep pre-deformation in tension and compression, respectively, cause approximately the same reduction in cyclic saturation stress amplitude and fatigue life. The effect of creep pre-deformation on fatigue life is, however, rather small.
In contrast, the effect of creep pre-deformation on cyclic stress-strain response was rather small for the equiaxed microstructure despite the high prestrains used, c.f. Fig. 2. However, fatigue life of the creep pre-deformed samples is reduced significantly as compared to the virgin material.
It has to be noted, that the creep pre-deformed samples were exposed to air for a much longer time period than the samples fatigued only. Hence, environmental degradation might have contributed to the loss in fatigue properties seen after creep pre-deformation. To separate the effects of surface oxidation and pure creep damage on fatigue life, fatigue tests were performed on samples that have been stress-free annealed in high vacuum and air. Results from such an experiment run on a specimen aged stress-free for 150h at 600°C have been included in Fig. 2. In this case, an ageing time of 150 h was chosen as this approximately equals the time elapsed during creep pre-deformation. Fatigue life of the sample that has been aged at zero stress is reduced as compared to the virgin material. However, environmental degradation alone does not fully account for the effect of creep pre-deformation on fatigue life seen in Fig. 2. A similar experiment was performed on a sample with a bimodal microstructure. In this case, however, the sample was aged at zero stress for 100h at 700°C in high vacuum. As seen in Fig. 1, this ageing treatment causes a significant reduction in cyclic stress amplitude and fatigue life is reduced only slightly.
Microstructural observations
SEM observations revealed that conventional creep damage in the form of microvoid formation was negligible in all samples that have been creep pre-deformed. Hence, the pronounced effect of creep pre-deformation on cyclic stress amplitude observed in samples with a bimodal microstructure is not a result of conventional creep damage. TEM studies indicated substantial microstructural changes after creep pre-deformation in samples with a bimodal microstructure. Figure 5 demonstrates that lamella boundaries are deteriorated after creep pre-deformation. In contrast, Fig. 6 demonstrates that the lamella boundaries in samples that have been fatigued only are significantly less affected.
Fig. 5 TEM bright-field micrograph showing disintegration of lamella boundaries in creep tests run at T = 600°C and 300 MPa. Creep tests was interrupted at εpl = 2.5%.
Fig. 6 Appearance of a lamella boundary in a sample that had been fatigued at T = 600°C and Δεpl/2 = 0.2% until failure.
DISCUSSION
Fatigue behaviour without creep pre-deformation
Initial cyclic softening in age hardened titanium alloys is generally attributed to the formation of slip bands that result from shearing of Ti3Al precipitates [6, 7]. In related work [8] slip bands in the a-phase have indeed been observed in fatigued samples tested at 600°C. The slight cyclic softening observed until macro crack growth sets in, is attributed to a loss of silicon in solid solution. It has been reported that the strength of near-α titanium alloys at test temperatures above about 500°C is governed by the amount of silicon in solid solution [9, 10]. Coarsening of silicides will reduce the amount of silicon retained in the matrix. In samples with equiaxed microstructure large silicides were present prior to testing. Hence, the lower cyclic yield stress and the higher minimum creep rate of the equiaxed microstructures results partly from the lower amount of silicon in solid solution as compared to the bimodal microstructure. TEM studies have shown that the increase in creep rate seen in long-term creep tests on samples with bimodal microstructure can be attributed both to the loss of silicon in solid solution and to the disintegration the lamella boundaries [5, 10]. The silicides seen in fatigued samples with bimodal microstructure, c.f. Fig. 6, either result from heterogeneous nucleation on dislocations or from a transformation of retained β into α plus silicides [11]. However, in samples that have been fatigued only, coarsening of silicides and disintegration of the lamella boundaries is not very pronounced, and the overall effect on cyclic stress amplitude was thus rather small.
Despite the higher stress amplitude sustained by the bimodal microstructure, fatigue life of samples with bimodal and equiaxed microstructures, respectively, was rather similar. As a result of the large plastic strain amplitude and high stresses, crack initiation occurs quite rapidly under low-cycle fatigue conditions. Hence, the superiority of the bimodal microstructure was attributed to lower crack propagation rates in this microstructure. It is well documented [12] that cracks propagate easily in equiaxed microstructure if texture is present. X-ray diffraction has indicated that a strong texture component was indeed present in the equiaxed microstructure. Hence, grain boundaries do not hinder crack propagation effectively, i.e. the crack can propagate on the same preferred plane in neighbouring grains, c.f. Fig. 3. In contrast, the bimodal microstructure provides a higher density of microstructural barriers. As seen in Fig. 4 these barriers effectively deflect the cracks, which results in lower crack growth rates. The lowest crack propagation rates have indeed been measured in tests performed on samples with bimodal microstructures, and the highest crack growth rates were obtained for equiaxed microstructures [13].
Fatigue behaviour after a monotonic creep pre-deformation
Comparison of Figs. 1 and 2 reveals that independent of initial microstructure the cyclic stress amplitude of all pre-crept samples is approximately identical. It should be emphasised that metallographic studies indicated that conventional creep damage, i.e. the formation of voids, was negligible in the pre-crept samples. Furthermore, samples pre-crept in compression, i.e. under conditions were voids should not form, showed an almost identical loss in cyclic yield strength than those pre-crept in tension. Hence, the effects of creep pre-deformation on cyclic saturation stress amplitude are attributed to one or more of the following factors: (i) a change in dislocation density, (ii) an additional precipitation of Ti3Al, (iii) the creep-induced deterioration of the lamella boundaries, and (iv) the loss of silicon in solid solution caused by coarsening of silicides. Chu et al. [14] have observed that creep pre-deformation at room temperature is beneficial for fatigue life of titanium alloys as the increase in dislocation density promotes a more homogeneous type of slip. In contrast, the rapid initial cyclic softening observed in the present study after high temperature deformation seems to indicated that the dislocation substructure present after creep pre-deformation has no significant effect on the shearing of the Ti3Al precipitates. As seen in Fig. 1 the sample that has been pre-exposed at 700°C in vacuum for 100h is significantly softer than the virgin material. TEM has revealed coarsened silicides in this samples and more Ti3Al to be present than in the virgin material. Obviously any additional hardening caused be the precipitation of Ti3Al during ageing is compensated for by the loss in silicon in solid solution. Hence, it is concluded that the main effects of creep pre-deformation on cyclic yield stress are the loss in silicon in solid solution and the almost complete disintegration of the lamella boundaries observed after 2.5% creep strain, c.f. Fig. 5. The observation that the cyclic yield stress of creep pre-deformed samples with bimodal microstructure is almost identical to those with an equiaxed one, seems to indicate that the amount of silicon retained in the matrix is the dominant factor. Similar conclusions have been drawn from the mechanical behaviour observed in creep tests [10, 15].
The effect of creep pre-deformation on fatigue life can be rationalised as follows. Non-protective oxides form on near-α titanium alloys during exposure at 600°C. An oxygen-rich subsurface layer is built up as a result of inward diffusion of oxygen. As oxygen hardens and embrittles the α-phase, crack nucleation and earlier crack growth are promoted. It has been demonstrated that the thickness of the oxygen-enriched layer depends on the actual microstructure [16], and a somewhat thicker embrittled layer should be present in the samples with equiaxed microstructure. However, in samples pre-strained up to 2.5%, cracks that have propagated through the oxygen-rich layer were present. Thus, the different effect of creep pre-deformation on fatigue life of samples with bimodal and equiaxed microstructure, respectively, has to be attributed to differences in fatigue crack growth behaviour in the unembrittled part of the samples. Despite the deterioration of the lamella boundaries observed after creep pre-deformation, diverging striation fields were still present in pre-crept and fatigued samples with bimodal microstructure. Hence, the boundaries between primary α and lamellar transformed β still deflect the fatigue cracks and thus reduce fatigue crack growth rate.
With respect to actual components, it has been reported that microstructure in IMI 834 is not stable under long-term high-temperature service conditions [9, 17]. Hence, cyclic stress-strain behaviour of components with bimodal microstructure will indeed approach that of lower-strength equiaxed ones. It should be noted, however, that the positive effect of the bimodal microstructure on fatigue crack growth is retained even under the quite severe test conditions used in the present study. In cases were crack nucleation dominates fatigue life, the formation of the brittle oxygen-rich subsurface layer seems to be the main effect of high-temperature creep pre-deformation. Earlier work [18] has demonstrated, that under such conditions, fatigue life is reduced by approximately an order of magnitude.
CONCLUSIONS
The effect of high-temperature creep pre-deformation on cyclic stress-strain response and fatigue life of the near-α titanium alloy IMI 834 was studied. The results may be summarized as follows:
- Prior creep deformation significantly reduces the cyclic yield stress of samples with a bimodal microstructure. As a result of both the creep-induced deterioration of the lamella boundaries and the loss in silicon in solid solution, the cyclic stress-strain response of pre-crept samples with a bimodal microstructure approaches that of the equiaxed ones.
- Creep pre-deformation leads to a significant reduction of cyclic life. This reduction can partially be attributed to environmental degradation giving rise to the formation of an embrittled oxygen-rich subsurface layer.
- The damaging effect of creep pre-deformation with respect to cyclic life is less pronounced in the case of a bimodal microstructure. This due to the higher resistance of this microstructure against fatigue crack propagation.
References
[1] . Blenkinsop, P. A. Blenkinsop P. A., Evans W. J., Flower H. M., eds. Titanium ′95 Science and Techn. The Institute of Materials: London, 1996; 1–10.
[2] Boyer, R. R. Mater. Sci. Eng. 1996; A213:103–114.
[3] . Neal, D. F. Lütjering G., Zwicker U., Bunk W., eds. Titanium Science and Techn. Deutsche Ges. für Metallkunde: Oberursel, 1985; 2419–2424.
[4] Polmear, I. J. 2nd ed. Light Alloys. Edward Arnold, London. 1989:211–273.
[5] . Kestler, H., Mughrabi, H., Renner, H. Blenkinsop P. A., Evans W. J., Flower H. M., eds. Titanium ’95 Science and Techn. The Institute of Materials: London, 1996; 1171–1178.
[6] . Williams, J. C., Lütjering, G. Kimura H., Izumi O., eds. Titanium ’80 Science and Techn. TMS-AIME: Warrendale, PA, 1980; 671–681.
[7] Beranger, A. S., Feaugas, X., Clavel, M. Mater. Sci. Eng. 1993; A172:31–41.
[8] submitted to Pototzky, P., Maier, H. J., Christ, H. -J. Met. Mater. Trans. A. 1998;
[9] . Neal, D. F., Fox, S. P. Froes F. H., Chaplan I., eds. Titanium ’92 Science and Techn. TMS: Warrendale, PA, 1992; 287–294.
[10] in print Kestler, H., v. Großmann, B., Höppel, H. W., Mughrabi, H. Mikrostruktur und mechanische Eigenschaften metall. Hochtemperaturwerkstoffe. Weinheim: VCH Verlag, 1998.
[11] . Allison, J. E., Cho, W., Jones, J. W., Donlon, W. T., Lasecki, J. V. Lacombe P., Tricot R., Béranger G., eds. Proc. Sixth World Conf. on Titanium. Les éditions de physiques: Les Ulis Cedex, 1988; 293–298.
[12] . Gregory, J. K. Carpinteri, A., eds. Handbook of Fatigue Crack Propagation in Metallic Structures; Vol. 1. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, 1994:281–322.
[13] . Lütjering, G., Gysle, AA., Wagner, L. Lacombe P., Tricot R., Béranger G., eds. Proc. Sixth World Conf. on Titanium. Les éditions de physiques: Les Ulis Cedex, 1988; 71–80.
[14] . Chu, H. P., MacDonald, B. A., Arora, O. P. Lütjering G., Zwicker U., Bunk W., eds. Titanium Science and Techn. Deutsche Ges. für Metallkunde: Oberursel, 1985; 2395–2402.
[15] Paton, N. E., Mahoney, M. W. Met. Trans. A. 1976; 7A:1685–1694.
[16] Leyens, C., Peters, M., Weinem, D., Kaysser, W. A. Met. Mater. Trans. A. 1996; 27A:1709–1717.
[17] . Lütjering, G., Gysler, A., Wagner, L. Lacombe P., Tricot R., Béranger G., eds. Proc. Sixth World Conf. on Titanium. Les éditions de physiques: Les Ulis Cedex, 1988; 71–80.
[18] . Specht, J. U. Rie, K. T., eds. Low Cycle Fatigue and Elasto-Plastic Behaviour of Materials; 3. Elsevier Applied Science, London, 1992:19–24.
THE EFFECTS OF OXIDATION AND CREEP ON THE ELEVATED TEMPERATURE FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF A NEAR-α TITANIUM ALLOY
M.C. HARDY, DERA, Griffith Building, Farnborough, Hampshire, GU14 0LX, United Kingdom
ABSTRACT
The low cycle fatigue behaviour of near-α titanium alloy, TIMETAL 834, has been examined at 500 and 630°C. Under strain cycling, it was found that crack nucleation is controlled by inelastic strain range and mean stress, and not directly by creep effects resulting from reduced strain rates or long dwell times at maximum strain. Oxidation, however, influences fatigue life at temperatures where a relatively small (1 μm deep) oxygen rich layer forms quickly. On exposure to large inelastic strains, this layer is shown to crack and to initiate crack propagation. The implications of these observations for the use of near-α titanium alloys above 550°C and for life prediction of components with stress concentration features are discussed.
KEYWORDS
Elevated temperature
titanium alloy
oxidation
creep-fatigue
INTRODUCTION
Near-α titanium alloys are used for rotating components in the hotter compressor stages of gas turbine engines at temperatures up to 600°C. As the life of highly stressed compressor discs is limited by low cycle fatigue, an understanding of crack nucleation and growth is vital to ensure that service failures are extremely remote. At the highest operating temperatures, the component fatigue performance may be compromised by oxidation and time dependent deformation. These processes are most likely to affect stress concentration features at the rim, the hottest region of the disc, particularly during cruise or when experiencing high mean stress fluctuations that result from vibration or from changes of thrust setting.
This paper reports the results of an experimental programme aimed at investigating the effects of strain rate and dwell time on the low cycle fatigue behaviour of near-α titanium alloy, TIMETAL 834, in air at 500 and 630°C. These variations in fatigue cycle and test temperature were designed to impose different levels of time dependent deformation and oxidation. Oxidation is particularly relevant to titanium alloys at these temperatures due to the high solid solubility of oxygen and the ease of interstitial diffusion. Extensive research [1–3] has shown that exposure of near-α titanium alloys in air, at temperatures above 500°C, results in the formation of a hard surface, oxygen rich layer which reduces room temperature ductility.
MATERIAL
TIMETAL 834 (Ti-5.8Al-4Sn-3.5Zr-0.7Nb-0.5Mo-0.35Si-0.06C) is a near-α titanium alloy used in the compressor stages of aero-engines at temperatures up to 600°C.
Material for the experimental programme was cut from an isothermal forging in a tangential direction. This forging was solution treated in the α plus β phase field (α content of 12-15 %) at 1028°C for two hours and then oil quenched. Subsequently, it was aged at 700°C for two hours and finally, air cooled. This heat treatment produces a bimodal microstructure consisting of primary α grains less than 50 μm in size, surrounded by larger (50-100 μm) transformed β grains showing the basket-weave α morphology.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Constant amplitude, strain controlled fatigue tests were conducted on 38 mm², circular section test pieces in laboratory air at 500 and 630°C using a closed loop servohydraulic machine. Test control was achieved via strain measurements from an axial extensometer that was located along the parallel section of the test piece. Zero to maximum strain cycles were applied until complete test piece failure. The influence of dwell period at maximum strain (εmax) was investigated by using dwell times of 1 and 120 seconds. In all these cases, fatigue cycles were based on a constant strain rate of 10−3 s−1 and included a period of 1 second at the minimum, zero strain limit. Two further cyclic strain rates, of 10−2 and 6×10−4 s−1, were explored. Fatigue cycles constructed from the faster strain rate contained 1 second dwell periods at both strain limits, while triangular waveforms were applied using 6×10−4 s−1. Maximum strain values were chosen to achieve fatigue lives of between 10² to 10⁵ cycles.
RESULTS
Strain amplitude versus endurance data, are shown in Fig. 1 for TIMETAL 834 at 500°C. The data, presented in terms of the half life elastic and inelastic components of strain amplitude, suggest that strain rate or dwell period at maximum strain have little effect on crack nucleation.
Fig. 1 Strain amplitude versus endurance data for TIMETAL 834 at 500°C. Endurance is defined by the detection of a macrocrack.
Endurance data from 630°C, however, show two log-linear regions that coincide between 2000-3000 cycles (Fig. 2). This behaviour is apparent also at 600°C, from data published by Kordisch and Nowack [4], using a strain ratio (Rε) of −1. To investigate these differences in behaviour with temperature, the stress histories of the test pieces exposed to 630°C were examined.
Fig. 2 Strain amplitude versus endurance data for TIMETAL 834 at 630°C. Endurance is defined by the detection of a macrocrack.
The stress response in Fig. 3 is typical of all the tests with a 120 second dwell and those others where the εmax exceeded 1 %. The abscissa (cycles) axis is logarithmic enabling a linear description for the stress relaxation of post dwell stress, measured at εmax. Since the material neither cyclically softens nor hardens under these conditions, the post dwell stress at minimum strain (εmin) should fall away at a similar rate. This occurred until approximately 1000 cycles. After this point, there is an obvious reduction in the rate of relaxation that suggests that the test piece cracked much earlier than the detection of a macrocrack. Material ageing, i.e. α ordering or silicide precipitation [5,6], was not considered to be responsible for this deflection, as it is strain, and thus cycle specific, rather than time dependent.
Fig. 3 Development of maximum
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