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Optically Amplified WDM Networks
Optically Amplified WDM Networks
Optically Amplified WDM Networks
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Optically Amplified WDM Networks

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With the advent of wavelength routing and dynamic, reconfigurable optical networks, new demands are being made in the design and operation of optical amplifiers. This book provides, for the first time, a comprehensive review of optical amplifier technology in the context of these recent advances in the field. It demonstrates how to manage the trade-offs between amplifier design, network architecture and system management and operation.

The book provides an overview of optical amplifiers and reconfigurable networks before examining in greater detail the issues of importance to network operators and equipment manufacturers, including 40G and 100G transmission. Optical amplifier design is fully considered, focusing on fundamentals, design solutions and amplifier performance limitations. Finally, the book discusses other emerging applications for optical amplifiers such as optical networks for high data rate systems, free space systems, long single span links and optical digital networks.

This book will be of great value to R&D engineers, network and systems engineers, telecommunications service providers, component suppliers, industry analysts, network operators, postgraduate students, academics and anyone seeking to understand emerging trends in optical networks and the consequent changes in optical amplifier design, features and applications.

  • Provides an in depth and focused review of the new reconfigurable network architecture and its impact on optical amplifiers
  • Addresses 40G and 100G transmission and networking
  • Written by experts in the field with deep technical knowledge and practical experience of commercial practice and concerns
LanguageEnglish
Release dateJan 26, 2011
ISBN9780080960982
Optically Amplified WDM Networks

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    Optically Amplified WDM Networks - John Zyskind

    Table of Contents

    Cover Image

    Front Matter

    Copyright

    Dedication

    Foreword

    Author Biographies

    Chapter 1. Optical Amplifiers for Next Generation WDM Networks: A Perspective and Overview

    1.1. Introduction

    1.2. Optical amplifiers: recent developments

    1.3. Optical amplifiers: present status

    1.4. Chapter overviews

    Chapter 2. ROADM-Based Networks

    2.1. Introduction

    2.2. Evolution of the ROADM component and network

    2.3. Impact on optical amplifiers requirements

    2.4. Increased density and functional integration of ROADM technology

    2.5. Emerging applications and uses of ROADM networks

    2.6. Summary

    Chapter 3. Challenges and Opportunities in Future High-Capacity Optical Transmission Systems

    3.1. Introduction

    3.2. Recent developments in high-capacity transmission systems

    3.3. Technical challenges in future high-capacity transmission

    3.4. Estimating a Shannon limit for fiber optical systems

    3.5. Emerging technologies for increasing system capacity and reach

    3.6. Conclusion

    Chapter 4. EDFAs, Raman Amplifiers and Hybrid Raman/EDFAs

    4.1. Introduction

    4.2. An overview of EDFAs, DRAs and hybrid Raman/DRA

    4.3. Gain spectra and DWDM applications

    4.4. EDFA dynamics

    4.5. Conclusions

    Chapter 5. Dynamic and Static Gain Changes of Optical Amplifiers at ROADM Nodes

    5.1. EDFAs in ROADM-BASED systems

    5.2. Optical power surge in Edfa and its suppression

    5.3. Spectral hole burning phenomena in silica-based edf

    5.4. Principles of gain spectral hole burning in erbium-doped fiber amplifiers

    5.5. Positive gain change of gain spectral hole burning observed at room temperature

    5.6. Numerical model of GSHB in EDFA

    5.7. Summary

    Chapter 6. Mastering Power Transients—A Prerequisite for Future Optical Networks

    6.1. Introduction to power transients in optical networks

    6.2. Overview of transient suppression concepts

    6.3. Compensation of power transients introduced by SRS

    6.4. Compensation of transients from all sources

    6.5. Summary and conclusions

    Chapter 7. Spectral Power Fluctuations in DWDM Networks Caused by Spectral-Hole Burning and Stimulated Raman Scattering

    7.1. Introduction

    7.2. Description of physical effects

    7.3. Experimental investigation of SHB and SRS impact

    7.4. Black-box modeling of the amplifier spectral gain, SHB and SRS impact

    7.5. Parameterization of wavelength dependent power excursions

    7.6. Mitigation of spectral power excursions

    7.7. Summary and conclusion

    Chapter 8. Amplifier Issues for Physical Layer Network Control

    8.1. Introduction

    8.2. Amplifiers in networks: dynamic considerations

    8.3. Power stability in amplified networks

    8.4. Physical layer network control

    8.5. Conclusions

    Chapter 9. Advanced Amplifier Schemes in Long-Haul Undersea Systems

    9.1. Introduction

    9.2. Raman-assisted systems and experiments

    9.3. Comparison of Raman- and ROPA-assisted systems

    9.4. Advanced modulation formats and high capacity in hybrid ROPA-EDFA systems

    9.5. Conclusion

    Chapter 10. Challenges for Long-haul and Ultra-long-haul Dynamic Networks

    10.1. Photonic network evolution

    10.2. Requirements for amplifiers in today's photonic mesh networks

    10.3. The future: requirements for a fully dynamic photonic mesh

    10.4. Summary

    Chapter 11. Transport Solutions for Optically Amplified Networks

    11.1. Introduction

    11.2. Optical transport networks

    11.3. Signal degradation and temporal fluctuations

    11.4. Raman amplification in WDM networks

    11.5. Summary

    Chapter 12. Optical Amplifier for Maintenance Friendly Fiber Networks

    12.1. Fiber maintenance today

    12.2. Next generation optical transport network

    12.3. The maintenance friendly fiber network

    12.4. Fiber switch technologies

    12.5. Optical amplifier designs for MFFN

    12.6. MFFN trial with hybrid switch design

    12.7. Summary

    Chapter 13. Low Cost Optical Amplifiers

    13.1. Introduction

    13.2. Erbium-doped fiber amplifiers

    13.3. Waveguide based amplifiers

    13.4. Cost summary

    13.5. Access applications of low cost amplifiers

    13.6. Future directions

    Chapter 14. Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers for Metro and Access Networks

    14.1. Introduction

    14.2. The passive optical network

    14.3. SOAs in PONs

    14.4. Basic properties of semiconductor optical amplifiers

    14.5. Features of the SOA in optical communication applications

    14.6. SOAs applied in PON amplification

    14.7. Other applications of SOAs in optical communication networks

    Chapter 15. Market Trends for Optical Amplifiers

    15.1. Ovum view: more of the same

    15.2. Strong demand for optical amplifiers

    15.3. Optical amplifier component supplier review

    15.4. System vendor challenges optical amplifier suppliers

    15.5. Optical amplifier supplier analysis

    15.6. Outlook: more of the same

    Index

    Front Matter

    Optically Amplified WDM Networks

    John Zyskind

    Atul Srivastava

    AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD PARIS • SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO

    Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier

    Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc.. All rights reserved.

    Copyright

    Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier

    30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA

    525 B Street, Suite 1900, San Diego, CA 92101-4495, USA

    84 Theobald's Road, London WC1X 8RR, UK

    First edition 2011

    Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved

    No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher

    Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier's Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone (+44) (0) 1865 843830; fax (+44) (0) 1865 853333; email: permissions@elsevier.com . Alternatively you can submit your request online by visiting the Elsevier web site at http://elsevier.com/locate/permissions and selecting Obtaining permission to use Elsevier material

    Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

    A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

    British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

    A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

    ISBN: 978-0-12-374965-9

    For information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at books.elsevier.com

    Printed and bound in USA

    11 12 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

    Dedication

    For the loving memory of my mother Maya, and to my wife Sonali, daughter Srishti and sister Sushma, with love

    Atul Srivastava

    Dedicated with love to the memory of my father Professor Harold Zyskind

    Johu Zyskind

    Foreword

    Rod Alferness

    Bell Labs, Alcatel-Lucent

    The power of light, harnessed with an array of components to generate, modulate, manipulate, and detect it, and supported by low-loss optical fiber for transmission that ushered in a new era of information transmission systems in the 1970s, is an incredible gift to mankind. One could have hardly expected more, but—almost on queue—the invention and development of the optical amplifier in the late ’80s and early ’90s completed the technology suite, unleashing the full potential and power of optics for communication networks. The resulting cost-effective, robust, high-capacity optical networks, together with packet-based data networks that ride over them, enabled the world-wide web that has dramatically revolutionized our daily lives.

    The global growth of WDM (wavelength division multiplexing) optical networks over the last 10 years has been remarkable. While most optical networks are generally not directly visible to the typical consumer, the very visible internet would be impossible without them. Spanning continents, crossing oceans, reaching across metropolitan areas and now also providing direct fiber to home connections, commercially deployed optical transmission systems with per fiber capacity as high as several Terabit/sec provide the enabling high-capacity connectivity that underpins the world-wide web. No longer simple point-to-point links, today's optical networks are flexible, switchable wavelength routed networks, both ring and mesh, that provide wavelength granular networked pipes inside the physical fiber with all-optical on and off ramps in much the way time slots are used in time-division-based transport networks.

    None of this would be possible without the optical fiber amplifier. The optical amplifier is truly a gift of nature that is as close to ideal as one could expect. It is spectrally matched to fiber's low-loss window and provides highly efficient, broadband, low noise gain. Critical for its enabling of WDM, it has a temporal response that allows essentially unlimited signal data rates while allowing multiple wavelengths to be amplified without cross-talk between independent communication signals carried by neighboring wavelengths.

    The potential of WDM to tap the bandwidth of fiber, without requiring super-high bit rates and the necessary enabling high-speed electronics, had been well known for some time. But, WDM was not a cost-effective solution for high-capacity systems as long as each wavelength channel had to be separated and regenerated individually by a discrete electronic regenerator. However, the optical amplifier, with its ability to amplify multiple wavelengths simultaneously, first and foremost, made DWDM (dense wavelength division multiplexing) the cost-effective approach to building very-high-capacity optical transmission systems. That capability alone—first demonstrated in commercial products in the mid-1990s—was revolutionary.

    What at the time was far less obvious to most, even if a few could foresee it, was that in enabling DWDM transmission, the optical amplifier was also preparing the way to a fundamentally new network architecture using wavelengths as the networked parameter—the common unit of currency for enabling and managing a network. These WDM networks, while they also depended on an array of other new technologies, including, most importantly, optical switching elements to build the wavelength add/drop multiplexers and wavelength cross-connect networking elements, depended on optical amplifiers not only to enable WDM transmission but also to compensate for the losses in these switching elements. WDM networks offered the potential to provision, manage, and protect capacity based on wavelength chunks via fully flexible, switched wavelength networks. It is these WDM networks that are the focus of this book.

    While to many this vision appeared far-out, it was actually a very natural consequence of adopting WDM for transmission systems. Nevertheless, a tremendous world-wide research effort was required to provide the knowledge base needed to answer key questions, invent and develop new technologies, and refine and demonstrate the value proposition of WDM networks to convince service providers around the globe to deploy these networks for both long-haul and metro networks. The editors of Optically Amplified WDM Networks , John Zyskind and Atul Srivastava, who played key roles in taking optical networks from a vision to reality, have assembled a group of world-known researchers and engineers to address the critical areas of the field. This comprehensive book covers the broad areas important to WDM networks. From the dynamics of optical amplifiers critical to the inherent power transients in reconfigured networks, to basic (and not basic) amplifier design, to the considerations and design of wavelength add/drop multiplexers, to a perspective of future market trends—all are well covered. Not limited to fiber amplifiers—erbium-doped and Raman—they also address the potential role of semiconductor amplifiers with its somewhat less ideal temporal characteristics but possible cost advantages, especially when integrated on a single photonic integrated circuit with other optical functions. That role seems particularly interesting for future metro and access applications.

    This book provides a wealth of information, insight, and reference information presented in many cases by the people who did the original work in the field. As such the book should prove very helpful to researchers and practicing engineers in or entering the field, including students. It is also a useful resource for researchers addressing the next frontier for optical networking—high-speed optical packet switched networks—which is expected to benefit from many of the same technologies and is at a stage today that WDM networks were about 15 years ago.

    Author Biographies

    Chapter 1 . ( Atul Srivastava and John Zyskind )

    Atul Srivastava has over 30-years of research and development experience, and is credited with many advances in the field of optics, semiconductor opto-electronics, and high-capacity optical fiber networks. At Bell Laboratories he was responsible for several key inventions in optical amplifiers including the ultra-wideband EDFA, fast gain control in amplifiers and the first demonstration of the 100-channel long distance terabit capacity WDM transmission He facilitated founding of a start-up company, Onetta in 2000 and as the Vice President of Technology at Onetta, led research and development of optical amplifiers and WDM sub-systems. He is currently president of a new technology consulting startup OneTerabit.

    He is credited with over 100 publications and15 patents and is a recipient of the Bell Laboratories President's Gold Award, the Trophee du Telephone. He is also a Fellow of Optical Society of America.

    atul.srivastava@oneterabit.com

    John Zyskind received his bachelors degree from the University of Chicago and his Ph.D. from the California Institute of Technology where he was a Fannie and John Hertz Fellow. In 1982 he joined Bell Laboratories where he did pioneering research on optical amplifiers for DWDM optical networks, led optical amplifier research for the MONET optical networking program, was named Distinguished Member of Technical Staff and received the Bell Labs President’s Gold Award. Dr. Zyskind has directed the development of commercial Terabit/sec, ultralong haul optical network products at Sycamore Networks and of optically amplified systems for hut skipping applications at Optovia Corporation and JDSU. He is currently Director of System Engineering at Oclaro’s Transport Systems Solutions Division.

    Dr. Zyskind has published over 200 refereed papers and conference presentations, has delivered 35 invited talks, holds 26 patents and has published two book chapters.. He has taught 18 short courses at OFC and CLEO. Dr. Zyskind is a Fellow of the Optical Society of America.

    jzyskind@gmail.com

    Chapter 2 . ROADM based Networks ( Brandon Collings and Peter Roorda )

    Brandon Collings has over 15 years of optical networking research, design and development experience at Bell Laboratories, Internet Photonics, Ciena and JDSU. He is currently the Chief Technology Officer for JDSU where he assists in the development of optical architectures and enabling components and sub-systems for next generation agile optical networks.

    Brandon.collings@jdsu.com.

    Peter Roorda has over 15 years experience in the design and development of agile optical networks and their key subsystems. In various technical roles at Nortel Networks and Innovance Networks, Peter has developed product concepts and architectures for emerging WDM, ROADM, optical amplifier and high speed transmission technologies. Currently at JDSU, Peter is product line manager for ROADM products.

    peter.roorda@jdsu.com

    Chapter 3 . Challenges and Opportunities in Future High-Capacity Optical Transmission Systems ( Xiang Liu )

    Xiang Liu received his Ph.D. degree in applied physics from Cornell University in 2000. He joined Bell Labs as a member of technical staff in 2000, and has been working on high-speed optical communication technologies since then. Dr. Liu has authored/coauthored over 190 journal and conference papers, and holds over 35 US patents. He is a senior member of the IEEE and the OSA.

    xliu20@alcatel-lucent.com

    Chapter 4 . Optical Amplifiers: Challenges and Opportunities ( John Zyskind and Maxim Bolshtyansky )

    Maxim Bolshtyansky received the M.S. in physics from Chelyabinsk Technical University, Russia in 1993, and the second M.S. and Ph.D. in optical physics from CREOL at University of Central Florida, Orlando, US in 1999. Since that time, he was working in various engineering and research roles at Lucent Technology, Onetta Inc, and is presently employed by JDSU. His research interests include detailed investigation and modeling of the gain media such as Raman and EDF and control algorithms for telecom applications.

    maxim@jdsu.com

    Chapter 5 . Dynamic and static gain changes of optical amplifiers at ROADM nodes ( Etsuko Ishikawa, Setsuhisa Tanabe, Masato Nishihara, and Youichi Akasaka )

    Etsuko Ishikawa Is currently director of Research at Fujitsu Ltd. Her achievements include development of S-band optical amplifier using silica-based erbium doped fiber; research in spectral hole burning mechanism in erbium doped fiber amplifier.

    Ishikawa.etsuko@jp.fujitsu.com

    Setsuhisa Tanabe received the BS, MS, and PhD degrees in material chemistry from Kyoto University, Japan, in 1986, 1988, and 1993. He became an Assistant Professor of Kyoto University, where he was promoted to a Full Professor in 2008 at Graduate School of Human and Environmental Studies. He is the author of more than 100 original papers, 22 books, and 23 invited review papers. He is also the holder of 24 patents on rare-earth doped optical amplifiers and glass ceramic phosphors for solid-state lighting.

    stanabe@gls.mbox.media.kyoto-u.ac.jp

    Masato Nishihara received the B.E. degree in Electrical Engineering in 1998 and the M.E. degree in Electronics Engineering in 2000 from the University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan. He joined Fujitsu Laboratories Ltd., Kawasaki, Japan in 2000 and engaged in the research and development of the optical and electrical devices for the long-haul optical fiber transmission system.

    mnishi@jp.fujitsu.com

    Youichi Akasaka of Fujitsu Laboratories of America has been working in the telecommunications industry since 1993, focusing on photonics innovation. He covers diverse areas of optical communications from components to system/network. He received the B.S. degree from Kyoto University and M.S. and Ph.D. degrees from University of Tokyo. He received the IEICE Young Engineer Award for his pioneering work on optical fiber design in 1995.

    youichi.akasaka@us.fujitsu.com

    Chapter 6 . Mastering power transients - a prerequisite for future optical networks ( Peter Krummrich )

    P. M. Krummrich received his Dr.-Ing. degree in Electrical Engineering from Technische Universitaet Braunschweig, Germany, in 1995, where he worked on Praseodymium-doped fiber amplifiers. In 1995 he joined Siemens AG where his research interest focused on distributed Erbium-doped fiber amplifiers, Raman amplification, power transients, advanced modulation formats, adaptive equalizers, and PMD compensation. Since 2007 he is holding the chair for high frequency technology as full professor at Technische Universitaet Dortmund.

    krummrich@hft.e-technik.uni-dortmund.de

    Chapter 7 . Spectral power fluctuations in DWDM networks caused by spectral-hole burning and stimulated Raman scattering ( Joerg-Peter Elbers and Cornelius Fuerst )

    Dr. Jörg-Peter Elbers received the diploma and the Dr.-Ing. degree in electrical engineering from Dortmund University, Germany, in 1996 and 2000, respectively. From 1999-2001 he was with Siemens AG – Optical Networks, last as Director of Network Architecture in the Advanced Technology Department. In 2001 he joined Marconi Communications (now Ericsson) as Director of Technology in the Optical Product Unit. Since September 2007 he is with ADVA AG Optical Networking, where he is currently Vice President Advanced Technology in the CTO office.

    Dr. Elbers authored and co-authored more than 70 scientific publications and 15 patents. He is member of the IEEE LEOS (Laser and Electro-Optics Society) as well as the German VDI (Association of German Engineers) and VDE (German Association for Electrical, Electronic & Information Technologies). Dr. Elbers serves in technical programme committee of the European Conference on Optical Communication (ECOC). He is also member of the VDE expert committee for optical communications engineering.

    JElbers@advaoptical.com

    Cornelius Fuerst received the diploma and Ph.D. in physics from the Technical University of Munich, Germany, in 1995 and 1998, respectively, where he did research on femtosecond pulse lasers and ultrafast quantum effects of semiconductors. In 1998 he joined the fiber communication industry working for Siemens Optical Networks, Marconi Communications, Ericsson and ADVA Optical Networking (since 2009). Cornelius Fürst filed more than 40 publications and 10 patent applications in the field of optical networking.

    cornelius.fuerst@ericsson.com

    Chapter 8 . Amplifier Issues for Physical Layer Network Control ( Daniel C. Kilper and Christopher A. White )

    Dr. Daniel Kilper is currently a member of the Bell Laboratories Optical Transmission Systems and Networks Research Department at Alcatel-Lucent. He received BS degrees in Electrical Engineering and Physics from the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in 1990 and the PhD and MS degrees in physics from the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor in 1992 and 1996. He was a research scientist at the Optical Technology Center at Montana State University before serving as an assistant professor in physics at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte until 2000. He is a senior member of IEEE and an associate editor for the OSA/IEEE Journal of Optical Communications and Networking. He currently serves as interim chair of the GreenTouch Consortium technical committee. While at Bell Laboratories he has conducted research on optical performance monitoring, network energy trends, and on transmission, architectures and control systems for transparent and re-configurable optical networks. He has authored or co-authored more than 80 journal publications and conference presentations, three book chapters and six patents.

    dkilper@alcatel-lucent.com

    Christopher A. White is a distinguished member of technical staff in the Bell Labs’ Chief Scientist's Office. He holds a Ph.D. in theoretical quantum chemistry from the University of California, Berkeley. His research interests include the simulation and control of complex physical systems ranging from optical networks, to the next generation of smart power grid, and to the propagation of ideas in organizations.

    whitec@alcatel-lucent.com

    Chapter 9 . Advanced Amplifier Schemes in Long-Haul Undersea Systems ( Alan Lucero )

    Dr. Alan J. Lucero received his M.S. and Ph.D. in physics in 1989 and 1993 from the University of Connecticut. After completing a two-year postdoctoral fellowship at Bell Laboratories and two years at AT&T Advanced Technologies Systems, he assisted in the establishment of the Photonics Research and Test Center for Corning, Inc.. He joined Tyco Telecommunciations in 2000, where his current concentrations include 10, 40, and 100 Gb/s transport, advanced optical amplification schemes, coherent transmission, novel dispersion maps, and Q-fluctuation statistics.

    Dr. Lucero is a member of Phi Beta Kappa

    alucero@tycotelecom.com

    Chapter 10 . Challenges for long haul and ultra-long haul dynamic networks ( Martin Birk and Kathy Tse )

    Martin Birk received his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees from University of Ulm, Germany, in 1994 and 1999, respectively. Since 1999, he has been with AT&T Labs in New Jersey, working on high-speed fiber optic transmission at data rates of 40Gbit/s and above.

    mbirk@att.research.com

    Kathy Tse leads a team at AT&T working on Optical Systems performance and requirements. She has worked in the fiber optics are at AT&T since 1985. She received her MS and PhD from Brown University and BSc from Cornell.

    katse@att.com

    Chapter 11 . Transport Solutions for Optically Amplified Network ( Werner Weiershausen and Malte Schneiders )

    Werner Weiershausen received his Dipl.-Ing. degree in electrical and RF engineering from Technical University of Braunschweig in 1992, including AlGaAs based VCSEL research at University of Ulm. From 1992 to 1997 he has been with the Research Center of Deutsche Bundespost/T-Nova and 1997 with the University of Technology, Darmstadt, as a scientist in the fields of InP based semiconductor technology, integrated optics and fiber components. In 1998 he joined the Photonic Systems and Optical Networks Group at T-Systems, first working on theoretical and experimental research in the fields of high-speed optical WDM transmission and measurement methodology, later being project leader for different projects on R&D and technical consulting for optical networks. 2008 he changed to the Technical Engineering Center of Deutsche Telekom, working on the strategic evolution of the next-generation optical packet platform. Werner Weiershausen has been active in several national and European R&D projects (ACTS, IST, COST, BMBF) and different standardization bodies (ITU-T, IEC, DKE). Since 2003 he has been serving as SPIE Editor, Symposium Chair for Optics East Symposium and Conference Chair at Photonics West, USA. He is author or co-author of more than 80 publications, conference contributions and patents.

    Since August 2008 Werner Weiershausen is working for the management board (in the role of CSO) of the Finnish startup company Luxdyne Ltd, Helsinki, on sub systems for optical access (FTTH, PON).

    werner.weiershausen@telekom.de

    Malte Schneiders has more than nine years experience in the area of Optical Transport. He received his Diploma degree in electrical engineering from the Technical University of Dortmund, Germany in 2001. During his employment at Deutsche Telekom Group he has contributed already to several strategic projects, as well as to national and international research activities on the optimization of optical transport networks and high-speed transmission systems. Malte has authored or co-authored more than 40 publications in scientific journals and conference proceedings and five patents in this field of investigations.

    Malte.Schneiders@telekom.de

    Chapter 12 . Optical amplifier for maintenance friendly fiber networks ( Glenn A. Wellbrock and Tiejun J. Xia )

    Glenn Wellbrock is the Director of Optical Transport Network Architecture and Design at Verizon, where he is responsible for the development of new technologies for both the metro and long haul transport infrastructure. In addition to his 20+ years at Verizon (1984-2001 & 2004-present), Glenn worked at Marconi and Qplus Networks.

    glenn.wellbrock@verizonbusiness.com

    Dr. Tiejun J. Xia is a Distinguished Member of Technical Staff at Verizon. He was a faculty member at the University of Michigan. He holds his Ph.D. degree from the University of Central Florida, M.S. degree from Zhejiang University, and B.S. degree from University of Science and Technology of China. He has published more than 100 technical papers and holds more than 40 granted or pending U.S. patents.

    tj.xia@verizonbusiness.com

    Chapter 13 . Low Cost Optical Amplifiers ( Bruce Nyman and Greg Cowle )

    Bruce Nyman is currently with Tyco Electronics SubCom where he works on next generation undersea systems. From 2005 to 2009 he was with Princeton Lightwave as Vice President of system solutions. Previously, he developed optical amplifiers and measurement equipment at JDS Uniphase and optically amplified undersea systems at AT&T Bell Laboratories. He received his doctorate from Columbia University and is an IEEE fellow.

    bnyman@subcom.com

    Chapter 14 . Semiconductor optical amplifiers for Metro and Access Networks ( Leo Spiekman and David Piehler )

    Leo Spiekman is the Director of Amplifier Products at Alphion Corporation, Princeton Junction, NJ, where he is responsible for the development of semiconductor devices for photonic amplification and switching, for applications in optical telecommunications and beyond.

    He has served in technical and leadership roles for several technical conferences, among which OFC and ECOC. He has (co-)authored over 60 contributed and invited papers, four chapters in books, and has three patents.

    lspiekman@alphion.com

    David Piehler is an innovator and leader in the deployment and development of FTTH and HFC broadband access networks and in their underlying technologies. At Fields and Waves, he advises clients on technology and markets for next-generation broadband access at physical, network and services layers. He presently plays a leading role in the definition of next-generation networks, including OFDM-PON, 10G-PON and RFoG. Dr. Piehler received a Ph.D. in physics from the University of California at Berkeley for experimental work in nonlinear optics.

    piehler@fields-and-waves.com

    Chapter 15 . Market trends for optical amplifiers ( Daryl Innis )

    Dr. Inniss is the Component Practice Leader of Ovum's Telecom research. Ovum is an ICT market research firm and Dr. Inniss’ research includes optical components for telecommunication and enterprise networks. Prior to joining Ovum Dr. Inniss was a Technical Manager at JDS Uniphase, and at Lucent Technologies, Bell Laboratories. Dr. Inniss holds a PhD in Chemistry from UCLA and an AB from Princeton University.

    daryl.inniss@ovum.com

    Chapter 1. Optical Amplifiers for Next Generation WDM Networks: A Perspective and Overview

    Atul Srivastava ∗ and John Zyskind ∗∗

    ∗ OneTerabit, Morganville, NJ, USA

    ∗∗ Oclaro, Inc., Acton, MA, USA

    Chapter Outline Head

    1.1. Introduction 2

    1.2. Optical amplifiers: recent developments 3

    1.2.1. Wideband amplifiers 3

    1.2.2. Agile amplifiers 3

    1.2.3. Cost reduction and commoditization of amplifiers 8

    1.2.4. Standardization of amplifiers 9

    1.3. Optical amplifiers: present status 11

    1.4. Chapter overviews 11

    1.4.1. Chapter 2 . ROADM-based networks (Brandon Collings and Peter Roorda) 11

    1.4.2. Chapter 3 . Challenges and opportunities in future high-capacity optical transmission systems (Xiang Liu) 12

    1.4.3. Chapter 4 . EDFAs, Raman Amplifiers and Hybrid Raman/EDFAs (John Zyskind and Maxim Bolshtyansky) 13

    1.4.4. Chapter 5 . Dynamic and static gain changes of optical amplifiers at ROADM nodes (Etsuko Ishikawa, Setsuhisa Tanabe, Masato Nishihara, and Youichi Akasaka) 13

    1.4.5. Chapter 6 . Mastering power transients: a prerequisite for future optical networks (Peter Krummrich) 14

    1.4.6. Chapter 7 . Spectral power fluctuations in DWDM networks caused by spectral-hole burning and stimulated Raman scattering (Joerg-Peter Elbers and Cornelius Fuerst) 15

    1.4.7. Chapter 8 . Amplifier issues for physical layer network control (Daniel C. Kilper and Christopher A. White) 15

    1.4.8. Chapter 9 . Advanced amplifier schemes in long-haul undersea systems (Alan Lucero) 16

    1.4.9. Chapter 10 . Challenges for long-haul and ultra-long-haul dynamic networks (Martin Birk and Kathy Tse) 16

    1.4.10. Chapter 11 . Transport solutions for optically amplified networks (Werner Weiershausen and Malte Schneiders) 17

    1.4.11. Chapter 12 . Optical amplifier for maintenance-friendly fiber networks (Glenn A. Wellbrock and Tiejun J. Xia) 17

    1.4.12. Chapter 13 . Low-cost optical amplifiers (Bruce Nyman and Greg Cowle) 18

    1.4.13. Chapter 14 . Semiconductor optical amplifiers for metro and access networks (Leo Spiekman and David Piehler) 19

    1.4.14. Chapter 15 . Market trends for optical amplifiers (Daryl Inniss) 19

    Acronyms 20

    Acknowledgements 21

    References 21

    1.1. Introduction

    Since its invention in 1987, the erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA) [1] and [2] has revolutionized the telecommunications industry. Today the EDFA is widely viewed as mature technology, while new network applications drive new requirements for further enhancement of optical fiber amplifiers. One such emerging application is dynamic optical networking using remotely reconfigurable optical add/drop multiplexers (ROADMs). With the ability to express optical channels through these ROADM nodes, service providers can reduce per wavelength cost in the network. On the other hand, longer reach between regeneration is needed to derive benefits from this network architecture, making the optical amplifier a key component in these reconfigurable dynamic networks.

    Amplifier designs will also be influenced by the renewed need for increased capacity on a fiber. Deployment of wavelength division multiplexed (WDM) systems transmitting 40 Gb/s per WDM channel is already under way, and a great deal of current work is directed at 100 Gb/s transmission. Meeting the demands for higher capacity within the constraints of current fiber plant and filtering limitations of wavelength switches will require advanced modulation and detection formats that encode multiple bits per symbol and, in many cases, involve differential or coherent detection. In general, these modulation schemes increase robustness against chromatic dispersion (CD), polarization mode dispersion (PMD), and filtering impairments, but place additional demands on the noise performance of the optical amplifiers due to their increased susceptibility to nonlinear impairments and, frequently, increased optical signal-to-noise ratio (OSNR) requirements.

    On the other hand, the amplifier characteristics, such as the gain spectrum, its dependence on channel loading, the cross saturation and dynamic response of the amplifier gain, and the optical noise added by the amplifiers, must all impose constraints on the design and operation of advanced networks. These important network design issues are addressed in a number of chapters in this book as well as the chapter summaries that follow.

    This book is intended to address recent developments in amplifiers driven by emerging trends in network applications as well as the interrelationship between the amplifiers and these emerging trends. Experts on the amplifiers, on the network equipment in which they are used, and on the service provider networks in which the equipment is deployed were asked to examine how the emerging network trends drive amplifier requirements, how amplifier characteristics guide or constrain the design and operation of networks with more complex optical connectivity and higher capacities, and how, as a result, the engineering of solutions to various network design and operation challenges increasingly require network-wide analysis and network-wide solutions. Application spaces ranging from low-cost, short-reach access networks to terrestrial networks to ultra-long-haul transcontinental undersea systems are considered.

    In the remainder of this chapter, the recent trends in optical amplifiers that are driven in large part by emerging trends in network applications are discussed, then summaries of the remaining chapters are provided.

    1.2. Optical amplifiers: recent developments

    Four major trends characterize developments in the amplifiers over the past decade. These include the increase in amplifier bandwidth to support larger numbers of channels for higher network capacity, integration of optics and fast electronics to provide performance agility for dynamic networks, significant cost reduction, and standardization of amplifier modules. These trends are summarized below.

    1.2.1. Wideband amplifiers

    In response to the exponential growth in data traffic, optical networks were designed with a growing number of dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) channels. State-of-the-art commercial DWDM systems include EDFAs able to support up to 160 channels with 50 GHz channel spacing spanning both C- and L-bands. However, the deployed networks predominantly consist of channels in the C-band. Some geographical areas such as Japan have deployed amplifiers to support transmission systems in the L-band over the dispersion shifted fiber spans. Moreover, the use of a hybrid design of EDFAs in conjunction with Raman amplifiers is prevalent in special networks with ultra-long spans.

    1.2.2. Agile amplifiers

    There is a large market for optical amplifiers that until recently was driven by static point-to-point WDM system applications. However, the increasing unpredictability of traffic demand and the emergence of bandwidth-hungry applications such as video on demand have recently turned the industry's focus to dynamic, reconfigurable optical networks based on ROADMs to route different wavelength channels. Sales of ROADMs are increasing with a compound annual growth rate exceeding 40%; by the end of 2010 the number of field deployed wavelength selective switches (WSS), a key component of modern ROADMS, is expected to exceed 100,000. Essentially all new metro, regional, and long-haul WDM system products developed by equipment manufacturers offer ROADM-based wavelength agility as a key feature. Similarly, all network deployments planned by Tier-1 carriers in the major industrial nations and many in emerging nations require reconfigurable wavelength agility to reduce operational expenses and increase service velocity. A recent report from Ovum-RHK (see Fig. 1.1 below) concluded that ROADMs and agile EDFAs lead the transition to a dynamic optical network. The report forecast that the growth of these two components will track each other closely with over 80% of 2010 module sales in both categories expected for agile components.

    This has created new challenges for the design of amplifiers including, for example, those related to dynamics and control of transients, spectral hole burning, and polarization-related impairments. Introduction of channels at higher data rates employing a coherent receiver, followed by high-speed digitization and signal processing, can pose additional constraints on the system tolerance due to their sensitivity to channel power fluctuation caused by transients. Increasingly the optical amplifier technical literature and commercial practice have dealt with such design challenges posed by dynamic, reconfigurable optical networks. Today specifications for new optical amplifier designs are almost always framed to support the requirements of reconfigurable optical networks.

    These developments have led to the realization that the optical amplifiers constituting the transmission path need to provide performance agility in order to provide high-quality service for the channel traffic propagating through the amplifier. In the network architecture, two types of events have to be considered: intentional reconfiguration or re-provisioning and unintended failures or faults leading to protection path switching. In both types of events the optical amplifiers in the transmission path need to have fast gain control, which is usually implemented via electronic control of the amplifier's pump lasers.

    In order to effectively control the power transients in DWDM systems, it is important to understand the factors that influence the speed or the rate at which the surviving channel powers change during transients. This speed depends on both the EDFA characteristics and the number of EDFAs constituting the system [3] . In a single EDFA, the time constant of the power transients decreases with increases in saturated power output. In a system with long chains of EDFAs, the amplifiers strive to maintain the saturated output power levels. The time varying output of the first EDFA (after a fiber span loss) appears as an input to the second EDFA, which has time-dependent gain, and therefore the output power of the second EDFA changes at a faster rate. Consequently, with increasing numbers of amplifiers in the chain, the speed of transients becomes faster and faster, thereby requiring control on shorter and shorter time scales to limit the power excursion of surviving channels [4] . Proper transient control design needs to take into account the fastest single event in the network as well as the acceleration of this event due to the cascading of amplifiers.

    Another important characteristic for the control of the transients is the slew rate associated with the event causing a change in the channel loading of amplifiers which determines the rate of the surviving channels’ power change during transients. Events such as failure of a transmitter laser can happen over sub micro second time scales and connector pulls, which can happen by mistake, typically occur over hundreds of μs, whereas fiber breaks often happen over hundreds of milliseconds (ms) or even seconds, although in a rare worst case they can be much faster. Likewise, provisioning of channels can be implemented in a controlled fashion, one at a time, to minimize sudden changes in the power of the transmitting channels. The state-of the art switching technologies currently being implemented in ROADMs also have transition times of hundreds of milliseconds.

    Today's predominantly data-centric transport network has evolved from the synchronous optical network (SONET)-based voice-centric one in the past. The availability of high-bandwidth OC-768 and higher rate port cards for the asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) switches and IP routers has led to the development of an intelligent optical layer network, where light wave paths provide connectivity between SONET terminal, ATM, and IP router devices. The function of the optical layer is to provide high-bandwidth wavelength service to the client layer. A DWDM system supports multiple wavelengths over the optical bandwidth of the optical amplifier, unlike the single-wavelength SONET systems of the past. The DWDM system is designed to support channels over the bandwidth of the in-line optical amplifiers. Though the restriction on the channel powers for acceptable quality of service is determined by the details of the system architecture such as OSNR and non-linear effects in the fiber, typically the transmission system is designed with about 10 dB power margin at the receiver to accommodate these variations. At high channel powers and channel counts, optical non-linear effects, four photon mixing (FPM), cross-phase modulation (CPM), and Raman effect can impair the service quality of the system and thereby further limit acceptable channel power excursion. In the event of a fiber cut or inadvertent disconnection of one of the tributaries carrying one or more wavelengths entering the optical line system, the SONET protection switching could be triggered for the express channels, and they could be routed through the protection path. This protection switching would occur if the express channel powers experienced either an upward or downward power surge due to transients in the EDFAs. The following sequence of events could occur in a SONET system. First, if the optical power of the channel either exceeds or dips below the set limits, the system would generate an alarm to the network control and management (NC&M) system. Second, if the power excursion exceeds the dynamic range of the receiver, either due to poor signal or failure in the receiver thresholding circuit, a LOS (loss of signal) defect will be detected when an all-zero pattern on the incoming SONET signal lasts 100 μs or longer [5] . Finally, the signal has to be switched to the protection path within 50 to 100 ms via SONET/SDH (synchronous digital hierarchy) or Optical 1:1 protection [6] . For the surviving express channels, it is desirable that the power transients are mitigated within the physical layer to restrict the power transients to the minimum possible under both the intentional add/drop event during network reconfiguration or accidental events so that unnecessary SONET protection switching can be avoided.

    In order to implement the fast gain control to limit the power transients to an acceptable level, it became essential to integrate the optical gain block assembly with fast electronics to form a gain controlled module. Controlled amplifier modules with 50 to 100 microsecond control loop time constant were developed six to eight years ago. An example of the performance of an amplifier module with ultra-fast gain control is shown in Fig. 1.2 . When 99 out of 100 channels propagating through the amplifier are interrupted, the surviving channel would experience only about 2 dB of power overshoot. The fast gain control circuit returns the power of the surviving channel to within <0.3 dB of the original power in a few hundred microseconds. This level of performance was regarded as very valuable by the service providers and equipment manufacturers because it minimized the service interruption for the most common failure or reconfiguration events and it prevented unnecessary switching to the protection path.

    As discussed earlier, in the above example, an important factor is the rise or fall time of the event triggering the change in channel loading of the amplifiers in the transmission path. The transition time could range from microseconds to a few seconds; the amplifier control becomes easier with longer transition time. Reconfiguration and restoration times of modern ROADM networks will be governed by the switching speed of the wavelength selective switches at the nodes. Switching time in these devices, which is usually a combination of electronic signal transmission delay after receiving a command and optical device switching speed, is usually in the range of hundreds of milliseconds for WSS-based ROADMs. Currently, because switching in the optical layer is primarily used for provisioning and reconfiguration in the event of a large failure, higher switching speed is not a priority for the carriers, and transition time of several seconds is acceptable. For fast protection however, layer 3 will be used with a combination of Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) and fast-rerouting, which can occur in nearly 250 ms in some cases. As network traffic grows and network topologies become more complicated, electronic protection will become more complex and expensive and there will be value in optical switching technologies that can meet the timing requirements of protection switching.

    Rapid growth in data traffic, which already exceeds the voice traffic on public networks, is also having a profound impact on the network architecture and related requirements of the fault protection. This rapid change in the voice/data traffic balance has driven the evolution of networks toward IP-based architectures and a large and growing segment of data traffic may not require SONET/SDH ring restoration times, removing it as an absolute requirement for the whole network. The requirements of network provisioning and restoration are ultimately governed by the service level agreements. These can range from platinum level for the optical core, the leased lines and storage area networks for the financial industry, to the best effort IP voice and data services. Network designs supporting flexible restoration choices are best suited to serve the real needs of public networks. Moreover, use of Ethernet is growing in the metro and carrier grade networks because of its simplicity and scalability. Originally, Ethernet evolved primarily as a local area network (LAN) technology and did not possess the failure protection mechanism like SONET/SDH links. There are, however, new proposals to include protection mechanisms in Ethernet networks that can recover from node and link failures in under 50 milliseconds [8] .

    1.2.3. Cost reduction and commoditization of amplifiers

    Amplifier cost has decreased significantly in last 10 years. Cost of a typical two-stage amplifier module with mid-stage access, variable gain design, and integrated electronic controls has dropped from nearly $8,000 to $2,500 in the last five years, a nearly 20% year-to-year cost erosion. This is due to significant cost reduction in pump lasers, erbium fiber, and other components as well as reduced labor costs.

    The emergence of several suppliers of amplifiers from eastern Asia has led to commoditization of amplifiers, particularly at the low end. The vendors have tried to offer an integrated line card or rack mountable unit solution to increase the value of their product relative to an amplifier module.

    Despite significant cost reduction and commoditization of amplifier components leading to pseudo-standardization of amplifiers at the performance level, there are no real standards or multisource agreements for the performance of optical amplifiers. This is because the equipment manufacturers perceive that they derive value and differentiation by designing their own amplifiers, since the system performance is strongly dependent on the amplifiers. The network equipment manufacturers (NEMs) typically use a combination of two or three different EDFA designs for pre-amplification and booster amplification and for in-line amplification for spans of different lengths. Sometimes Raman amplification is used as well for the occasional very long span or to configure a long reach transmission system. Variations in the span losses in a long reach system are accommodated by variable gain amplifiers typically based on placing a variable optical attenuator (VOA) between the amplification stages of multistage amplifiers. Moreover, historically, the equipment vendors have designed their own circuit packs requiring amplifiers with custom mechanical and electrical characteristics. Two approaches to amplifier sourcing are prevalent in the industry today: Several NEMs use only gain blocks, which are assemblies of passive optical components and pump lasers procured from an outside vendor, while the control electronics and firmware are designed in -house and reside on their line card. This allows them to leverage the low cost supply of components from the industry while they have the ownership of the control electronics and related control algorithms. The second approach is the procurement of amplifier modules which have built-in electronic control and monitoring features. The line card communicates to the module over a serial or TL1 control interface with suitable commands. In the long run, the industry will benefit from the standardization of the performance level and optical design of amplifiers.

    1.2.4. Standardization of amplifiers

    Amplifier designs ranging from simple single stage to more complex multistage amplifiers with variable gain evolved as a differentiator for system performance by equipment manufacturers and were initially made in-house. More recently, the equipment vendors outsourced the design and manufacturing of amplifiers to the component vendors while requiring more than one source in order to control cost and delivery risk. This led to a pseudo-standardization of optical amplifiers with three or four vendors making amplifiers with compatible optical, mechanical, electrical hardware, and software specifications. Geographically, however, the component suppliers from Japan and North America were predominant suppliers to the equipment vendors of their respective regions. This led to evolution of two major streams of amplifier products, broadly having distinct specifications, one in North America and the other in Japan.

    The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) has recognized these trends and recently created standards for new characterization techniques such as transient measurement and optical amplifier module command sets. In an effort to standardize the various transient parameters across the industry, the transient measurement document also include definitions of the various parameters such as transient gain response time, gain overshoot, and gain offset. Similar standards are being developed for other measurements and physical interfaces of optical amplifier modules.

    There has been considerable progress in the standardization of measurement techniques of optical amplifier parameters, but relatively little has been achieved on the standardization of the performance parameters. As described above, this is primarily because the network equipment manufacturers believe they will gain significant advantage and differentiation in transmission system performance by having a custom design of optical amplifiers. However, because of the requirement of multiple sourcing for amplifiers, there has been industry-wide pseudo-standardization, and as a consequence it has been possible to standardize the command set of the amplifier modules. Moreover, it has been realized that there is value in acceptance of common definition of agile amplifiers such as the transient characteristics and common measurement techniques which can be acceptable to both the WDM equipment vendors and component suppliers. An example of the EDFA transient parameters in the channel drop event as defined in an IEC document [10] is shown in Fig. 1.4 , which defines the commonly used parameters like transient gain response, gain overshoot, and gain offset. Further progress is needed in this direction and will lead to overall cost reduction of manufacturing and testing of products. A brief snapshot of the recent activities and progress of the IEC SC86C Working Group on Optical Amplifiers is given below.

    1.3. Optical amplifiers: present status

    After nearly five years of focus on cost reduction and reduced progress in innovation, new directions in optical amplifier technology are becoming visible. These are in response to the major trends for the amplified optical networks of higher degree of connectivity and introduction of channels at higher data rates. Agility in amplifiers will be key to the successful deployment of ROADM networks requiring seamless provisioning and recovery in the event of failures. Features such as fast gain control at sub millisecond timescale and rapid spectral adjustments to counter the impairments due to higher order effects (spectral hole burning [SHB], Raman spectral tilt in fiber, and polarization dependent loss [PDL] of components) will be needed on an integrated basis across the whole system. Likewise, continuous demand to increase the OSNR of the signals to support ever increasing channel rates to 100 Gb/s and beyond over ultra-long-haul distances will require every dB to be made available, for example by deployment of hybrid Raman/EDFAs at every repeater site in the network. Another trend is the deployment of high-power cladding pumped amplifiers with watts of output power in the access network for distribution of video and other content. From the commercial standpoint, however, since the industry has become addicted to 15% to 20% price reduction year to year, these new features will have to be delivered at negligible incremental cost.

    1.4. Chapter overviews

    1.4.1. Chapter 2 . ROADM-based networks (Brandon Collings and Peter Roorda)

    Prior to the advent of optical amplifiers, optical communications systems were based on expensive optical-electronic-optical regeneration at the end of each span. Routing and switching traffic required conversion to the electronic domain. Optically amplified dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) systems immediately enabled longer system reach, a dramatic increase in capacity, and lower cost per bit transmitted. Optically amplified DWDM networks have also opened the possibility of optical networking based on the optical transparency of amplified systems and the possibility of optically manipulating different DWDM channels based on their different wavelengths. Reconfigurable optical add/drop multiplexers (ROADMs), now being widely deployed, enable network operators to take advantage of the transparency of optically amplified networks. Network nodes are equipped with ROADMs to dynamically route DWDM channels optically and to avoid the expense of optical-to-electronic-to-optical conversion for channels that are expressed through the network node.

    This chapter covers the enabling technologies, architectures, and properties of ROADMs and ROADM-based networks. It includes a discussion of the evolution of ROADM components including the major enabling technologies: wave blockers used for the first ROADMs, photonic light wave circuit (PLC) ROADMs, and ROADMs based on wavelength selective switches (WSSs), used most widely today because of their superior cascadeability for 50 GHz spaced DWDM channels and graceful support for higher degree nodes. Also discussed are the architectures and ROADM characteristics that apply in each case. Amplifiers are necessary elements of ROADM nodes primarily to compensate the loss of the ROADM components. In this chapter, the requirements for such amplifiers are discussed as well as the impact of ROADM-based architecture on the operation of amplified networks and on the amplifier requirements. Of particular note is the ability of ROADMs to provide power equalization of channels for compensation of amplifiers’ spectral gain ripple. Finally, the chapter addresses new and emerging applications such as photonic restoration, which might increase network availability at reduced cost, and colorless and directionless ROADM architectures, which can increase routing flexibility and provide simplified physical interfaces with reduced cost.

    1.4.2. Chapter 3 . Challenges and opportunities in future high-capacity optical transmission systems (Xiang Liu)

    The introduction of WDM channels at higher data rate has provided tremendous growth in the capacity of transmission systems. As the channel rates grow beyond 40 Gb/s to 100 Gb/s and higher, one key challenge is to enhance the spectral efficiency of the system. The transition in

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