Dynamic Stability of Structures: Proceedings of an International Conference Held at Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, October 18-20, 1965
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Dynamic Stability of Structures - George Herrmann
University
SESSION I
Outline
Chapter 1: WELCOMING ADDRESS
Chapter 2: OPENING REMARKS
Chapter 3: DYNAMIC STABILITY OF STRUCTURES
WELCOMING ADDRESS
J. Roscoe Miller, President, Northwestern University
I WANT to bid the conferees and guests a warm welcome to the campus of Northwestern University. This academic community is honored by the presence of so many distinguished colleagues from far-distant as well as neighboring institutions. All doors are open to you.
Northwestern feels privileged to join with the Air Force Office of Scientific Research in sponsoring this three-day meeting on a subject of undisguised interest to all of the more advanced technological societies. The dynamic stability of structures is not a topic that laymen can discuss or vote upon. It will never be the theme of a daytime television serial. But upon the success of your work rest many of the fondest hopes and dreams of our civilization.
My personal role at this conference is purely introductory. I am unable to contribute any engineering insights. But, like many who appreciate the practical importance of your investigations, without fully understanding their technical implications, I have been intrigued by the analogy presented in the social sciences.
You, as I understand it, are interested in the way that components of a system function when subjected to extraordinary outside pressures. Sociologists and psychologists and behavioral scientists in general seem to be concerned with similar questions.
They are seeking means to preserve the stability of the so-called psychic components of the human system … the items that we identify with the total personality.
It is apparent, in this day and age, that the social pressures upon every individual are steadily mounting. We have only to read our daily newspapers to find examples of human personalities that have burst under those pressures. They have not done so as a test-rocket in mid-flight, harmlessly, at the touch of a destruct button. They have burst outward with such force as to tear the fabric of society.
Our problem as individuals in this complex and demanding world is to achieve a personal dynamic stability. Our problem as citizens is to build a sturdier community life, a community of such quality and rationality that its human components will have more to attach themselves to, will be better able to bear up under the stress and strain.
Fortunately for you, those problems do not occupy the agenda of the present conference.
I am here, not to place the burden of society upon your shoulders, for I am certain that the difficulties inherent in your work are challenging enough. I am here only to remind you of the imaginative stimulation which laymen find in your work, and to wish you every success in your endeavors.
OPENING REMARKS
William J. Price, Executive Director, Air Force Office of Scientific Research
DURING the course of the past ten years, there has been a significant surge of interest in the problem of stability of structures subject to time-dependent loads. It is indeed fortunate that it is possible to bring together the leading investigators in the field of stability in general and dynamic stability of structures in particular. The purpose of this meeting is to clarify some of the fundamentals and to define problem areas, and thus make future work in this area even more effective and meaningful.
It is particularly appropriate for the Air Force Office of Scientific Research to join with Northwestern University to sponsor this meeting because AFOSR keys its support of research largely to pioneering or stimulating new sciences or new aspects of science and to stimulating and encouraging the growth of promising research areas. Furthermore, AFOSR is making increasing efforts to spur the transfer of fundamental research results both to users of research and to other researchers.
One of the most effective ways of stimulating such an area of research, as well as of disseminating research results of common interest on a timely basis, is through specialized symposia, seminars and other meetings, of which this conference is an outstanding example. During the past year AFOSR has sponsored or co-sponsored more than 75 such events.
The group of specialists assembled here today comprise an excellent example of what has come to be called the invisible colleges
, that is, groups of scientists working on the frontiers of a given specialized area of interest. You are not grouped in the geographical sense, but rather widely scattered. But your effectiveness is in your communication with each other. There is a direct correlation between how well you communicate as members of these invisible colleges, and how rapidly research progresses worldwide.
It is a great pleasure for me to participate in these sessions with you and I wish to thank the organizing committee for this opportunity to extend a most cordial welcome on behalf of AFOSR to all the participants, and especially to our distinguished visitors from abroad.
In conclusion, I want to commend Professor Herrmann for both the excellence of the scientific program and the excellence of the accommodations for this symposium.
Best wishes to all of you for a very pleasant and instructive stay.
DYNAMIC STABILITY OF STRUCTURES†
Nicholas J. Hoff, Stanford University, Stanford, California
Abstract
Dynamic stability is defined and classified, and examples are given for the various classes of problems. Criteria are developed for practical stability and it is shown that in a practical elastic column tested in a conventional testing machine stress reversal always precedes the attainment of the maximum load. The two coincide, however, in the limit when the initial deviations of the column axis from straightness and the loading speed tend to zero.
INTRODUCTION
THIRTY-FIVE years ago, when he was working in the airplane industry, the author became aware of the importance of dynamic stability. As a beginning engineer, he had to carry out the complete dynamic, aerodynamic, and structural analysis of a new training plane which was then being designed by four of his equally inexperienced colleagues. It may be of interest to add that in one year’s time the design and analysis were completed and the prototype manufactured and successfully test flown; the story of the difficulties encountered is not part of the present paper.
In accordance with governmental airworthiness requirements, the static stability of the straight-line flight of the plane had to be checked under climbing, horizontal flying and gliding conditions. This was done by plotting first against the angle of attack the aerodynamic wing moments with respect to an axis through the center of gravity of the airplane perpendicular to the plane of symmetry of the airplane. The curve obtained always indicates instability for the conventional airplane: If the angle of attack α of the wing is increased, the aerodynamic wing moment M also increases (see Fig. 1)‡
FIG. 1 Change in moment equilibrium of airplane in consequence of change in angle of attack.‡
The airplane is stabilized with the aid of the horizontal tail surfaces. The change in the moment of the tail surface with respect to its own centroidal axis is insignificant compared to the change in the moment of the vertical upward force acting on the tail surface with respect to the center of gravity of the airplane. An increase in the angle of attack α of the wing causes an increase in the angle of attack of the tail surface which increases the lifting force PH of the horizontal tail surface. This increment ΔPH multiplied with the distance h between the center of gravity of the airplane and the line of action of the tail force is a negative moment capable of counterbalancing the positive increment ΔM in the wing moment if h and the area of the tail surface are sufficiently large. The job of the designer–analyst was therefore to insure, under all normal flight conditions, that h(dPH/dα) dα had a greater absolute value than (dM/dα) dα.
It was quite a revelation for the author to find out from the literature [1] that the condition mentioned was only a necessary but not a sufficient condition of an automatically stable flight of the airplane. If the dynamic equations of the motion of a rigid airplane in its own plane of symmetry are written for small oscillations about the steady-state conditions, and if the aerodynamic coefficients are inserted with their steady-state values, assumption of an exponential solution results in a quartic. Solution of the quartic can lead to any of the four different behavior patterns shown in Fig. 2. Curve a indicatesan asymptotic return to the initial state after a disturbance, which obviously means stability of the initial state. A second stable pattern is shown in curve b where the disturbance is followed by damped oscillations and eventually a return to the initial state. Curve c corresponds to static and dynamic instability. Finally, the airplane characterized by curve d is statically stable but dynamically unstable; the static restoring force or moment acts in the sense necessary for stability but the ensuing oscillations increase in amplitude rather than damp out.
FIG. 2 Response of airplane to disturbance.
In the literature of structural stability one can also find systems that appear to be fully stable when investigated by static methods and whose displacements from the state of initial equilibrium nevertheless increase with time following a disturbance, just as it is indicated in Fig. 2d. Such systems evidently must be analyzed with the aid of the dynamic, or kinetic, method in which the motion of the system following a disturbance is studied. The dynamic equations of motion are also needed when the loads applied to the structure vary significantly with time.
In a recent paper Herrmann and Bungay [2] followed usage established in the theory of aeroelasticity when they proposed that structural instability of type (c) be designated as divergence, and that of type (d) as flutter.
DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF PROBLEMS OF DYNAMIC STABILITY
Definition
In the introduction to the first English edition of their monumental textbook entitled Engineering Dynamics, Biezeno and Grammel [3] explain that, following Kirchhoff’s definition, dynamics is the science of motion and forces, and thus includes statics, which is the study of equilibrium, and kinetics, which treats of the relationship between forces and motion. According to this interpretation of the meaning of the words, the dynamic test of equilibrium mentioned in the Introduction of this paper should be called a kinetic test, and this is indeed the terminology adopted by Ziegler [4] in his studies of the stability of non-conservative systems. But dynamics is generally accepted as the antonym of statics in everyday usage, and this is the sense in which it is used in the title of the International Conference on Dynamic Stability of Structures.
A number of significantly different concepts can be included in the meaning of the term dynamic stability of structures. One of them is the stability of motion of an elastic system subjected to forces that are functions of time. Another is the study of the stability of a system subjected to constant forces as long as the study is carried out with the aid of the dynamic equations of motion; such an investigation is designated by Ziegler as a stability analysis with the aid of the kinetic criterion.
In this paper any stability problem analyzed with the aid of Newton’s equations of motion, or by any equivalent method, will be considered a dynamic stability problem.
The classification of the problems that follow is not fundamental in any sense of the word. Its purpose is simply to group together problems that are usually treated by similar mathematical methods, or analyzed by the same group of research men. A more fundamental classification could be based on the principles proposed by Ziegler [5] in his article in Advances in Applied Mechanics.
Parametric resonance
Among the problems of the dynamic stability of structures probably the best known subclass is constituted by the problems of parametric excitation, or parametric resonance. A typical example is the initially straight prismatic column whose two ends are simply supported and upon which a periodic axial compressive load is acting (Fig. 3). Such a column is known to develop lateral oscillations if its straight-line equilibrium is disturbed. Depending upon the magnitude and the frequency of the pulsating axial load, the linear Hill or Mathieu equation defining the lateral displacements of the column may yield bounded or unbounded values for these displacements. The structural analyst can be useful to the design engineer if he points out the regions in the frequency-amplitude plane that must be avoided if the column should never deviate noticeably from its initial straight-line equilibrium configuration.
FIG. 3 Parametric resonance.
According to Bolotin [6], the first solution of this problem was given by Beliaev [7] in 1924; this was followed by an analysis by Krylov and Bogoliubov [8] in 1935. In the United States, Lubkin [9], a student of Stoker, solved the problem in a doctoral dissertation submitted to New York University in 1939; the results are more easily available in an article by Lubkin and Stoker [10] printed in 1943. The results of a theoretical and experimental investigation of the subject were published by Utida and Sezawa [11] in 1940. Another early solution of the parametric excitation problem of the column is due to Mettler [12] (1940); as a matter of fact, this problem is called Mettler’s problem in Ziegler’s comprehensive work on elastic stability. The parametric excitation of thin flat plates was first discussed by Einaudi [13] (1936). A rather complete treatment of known solutions of the parametric resonance problem can be found in a book by Bolotin [6] in which the effects of friction and nonlinearities are also discussed.
It is perhaps unfortunate that the phenomena described have become known as parametric excitation, or parametric resonance. This terminology refers to the mathematical structure of the equations defining the phenomena, and fails to define or allude to the physical nature of the phenomena. Perhaps the terms sympathetic excitation or sympathetic resonance would be more descriptive and acceptable.
It is worth noting that in his book already mentioned, Bolotin [6] defines dynamic buckling much more restrictively than was done in this paper. He includes only the phenomena of parametric excitation and resonance in his definition.
Two papers to be presented at this conference deal, at least in part, with parametric resonance, namely those by E. Mettler, and by D. A. Evensen and R. E. Fulton. Possibly the presentations by V. V. Bolotin and by S. T. Ariaratnam, which treat of stability under random loading, will also make use of the techniques employed in parametric resonance studies.
Impulsive loading
In the second subclass of the dynamic stability of structures, buckling under step loading and impulsive loading are studied. Because of the difficulties of tracing the origins of these studies, only a few random examples of solutions will be given here. Two early papers dealing with the danger of failure of a column subjected suddenly to a constant axial compressive load which is suddenly removed after a finite time interval of action were published by Koning and Taub [14], and by Taub [15], respectively, in 1933. Their results showed that a suddenly applied load can cause collapse even if it is smaller than the Euler load. At the same time, the column need not be damaged by a suddenly applied load greater than the Euler load if the load is removed after a sufficiently short time.
The author of the present article, together with Victor Bruce [16], prepared a paper for the Eighth International Congress of Applied Mechanics held in Istanbul in 1952 in which the snap-through buckling of a laterally loaded perfectly elastic flat arch (see Fig. 4) was studied under step loading and impulsive loading. A diagram showing some of the results obtained for a particular case is reproduced in Fig. 5.
FIG. 4 Laterally loaded flat arch (from Journal of Mathematics and Physics).
FIG. 5 Snap-through of laterally loaded flat arch (from Journal of Mathematics and Physics).
The figure contains the equipotential lines of a system consisting of a flat arch and a suddenly applied lateral load Q that is distributed according to a half sine wave along the arch. The initial rise y0max = eρ of the arch of the example is such that e = 8; and ρ is the radius of gyration of the cross section of the arch. The magnitude of the lateral load was so selected as to be critical, that is just sufficient to cause snap-through buckling, if the load is suddenly applied and then maintained constant for all time, t. Along each. equipotential line the strain energy stored in the arch less the work done by the applied load is constant.
The equipotential lines can be regarded as the contour lines of a topographic map of the potential energy surface. The abscissa r1 = y1 max/ρ is the non-dimensional amplitude of the displacements according to the first symmetric mode (one half-sine wave), and r2 = y2 max/ρ is the corresponding quantity according to the first antisymmetric mode (two half-sine waves).
The undisplaced position corresponds to r2 = 0 and r1 = e = 8. To the left of this position is a shallow hollow; at its bottom the potential energy surface has a minimum which corresponds to stable equilibrium near the unloaded position of the arch. Farther left, at r1 = 1, r2 = 0 there is a hilltop where the equilibrium is unstable, and at about r1 = −9, r2 = 0 there is a much deeper hollow; this point of the map corresponds to stable equilibrium in a position beyond the straight line connecting the end points of the arch. If the load is large enough, the arch can, snap through into this position.
The surface has no maxima or minima except along the axis of abscissae. This implies that no stable equilibrium is possible in the presence of displacements according to the antisymmetric mode. One unstable equilibrium position exists, however, near r1 = 5, r2 = 3 where the surface has a saddle point. The critical nature of the diagram is manifested by the fact that the initial position characterized by r1 = 8, r2 = 0 is connected with the saddle point by a contour line. For a slightly lower value of Q than Qcr the saddle point would correspond to an energy level higher than that of the initial point; hence the arch would be unable to reach the saddle point without a finite disturbance.
With Q = Qchange rapidly in absolute value. The arch cannot stop therefore in the snapped-through state but must continue to move as its kinetic energy is now quite high. In a real system this energy will be transformed gradually into heat in consequence of friction and eventually the arch will come to rest in the snapped-through position.
It is of interest to note that in the case treated snap-through can take place only with the aid of the antisymmetric mode even though the initial and final states are entirely symmetric; in an experiment the presence of the antisymmetric mode might not even be noticed because of the speed of the motion. In the absence of the antisymmetric mode, however, the energy of the arch would have to climb over the high barrier of the symmetric unstable equilibrium state which could be avoided when the arch passed through the antisymmetric