Food Processing for Increased Quality and Consumption

Food Processing for Increased Quality and Consumption

Handbook of Food Bioengineering, Volume 18

Edited by

Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu

Alina Maria Holban

Table of Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright

List of Contributors

Foreword

Series Preface

Preface for Volume 18: Food Processing for Increased Quality and Consumption

Chapter 1: Food Processing for Increasing Consumption: The Case of Legumes

Abstract

1. Food Legumes: A Boon to Human Nutrition

2. Antinutrients in Legumes and Their Removal

3. Processing Techniques to Reduce Antinutritional Factors

4. Food Safety and Quality Issues

5. Significance of Paradigm Shift

6. Pesticides: Types, Application, Environmental Impacts, and Human Health Effects

7. Conclusions

Chapter 2: Emerging Food Processing Technologies

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Food Consumption

3. Principle of Food Processing

4. Historical Development of Food Preservation

5. The Need for and Benefits of Industrial Food Preservation

6. Principles of Food Preservations

7. Technologies Applied to Food Processing and Preservation

8. Food Waste Management

9. A Few Statistics of Food Consumption in India (MOFPI, 2005)

10. Processed Food Versus Obesity

11. Conclusions

Chapter 3: Food Technology Approaches for Improvement of Organoleptic Properties Through Preservation and Enrichment of Bioactive Compounds

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Freeze Concentration as an Innovative Food Technology for Preservation of Bioactive Compounds and Flavor

3. Encapsulation

4. Osmotic Dehydration

5. Conclusions and Future Prospects

Acknowledgments

Chapter 4: Cutting Automation in Food Processing

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Modeling of Biomaterial Cutting

3. Simulation With Changing Parameters

4. Results From Finite Element Modeling

5. Experimental Results and Discussion

6. Design of a New Cutting Device for Chicken Deboning

7. Conclusions

Acknowledgment

Chapter 5: The Perception of Consumers Vis-à-Vis Tracked Fish Measured via Electronic Instrument

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Fish Consumption: Health Benefits

3. Fish: Production Chain Quality

4. Traceability: Concept/Definition

5. Quality and Traceability Systems in the Fish Production Chain

6. Assessment of Fish Consumption Regarding Tracked Fish

7. Conclusions

Chapter 6: High-Pressure Technologies in Dairy Processing: Quality Maintenance and Increase in Consumption

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. High Isostatic Pressure

3. Dynamic High Pressure

4. Effect HIP and DHP on Milk Constituents

5. Industrial Applications

6. Prospects and Acceptance of Processed Products Through High Pressure Processing Technologies

7. Conclusion

Chapter 7: Advances in Nonthermal Processing Technologies for Enhanced Microbiological Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruit and Juice Products

Abstract

1. Fresh Fruit and Juice Consumption Trends

2. Microbial Contamination of Fresh Fruit and Juices and Related Foodborne Illness Outbreaks

3. Challenges of the Fresh Produce– and Juice-Processing Industries

4. Potential of Nonthermal Processing Technologies for Safety and Shelf Life Enhancement of Fresh Fruit and Juice Products

5. Conclusions and Future Directions

Acknowledgments

Chapter 8: Agroindustrial Coproducts as Sources of Novel Functional Ingredients

Abstract

1. Agroindustrial Coproducts

2. Dietary Fiber From Agroindustrial Coproducts

3. Phenolic Compounds in Agroindustrial Coproducts

4. Prebiotics

5. Future Perspectives for Coproducts Agroindustrials

6. Conclusions

Chapter 9: The Contribution of Bioactive Peptides of Whey to Quality of Food Products

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Bioactivity of Whey Protein and Peptide

3. Production of Bioactive Peptide From Whey

4. Functional Properties

5. Bioactive Peptide in Food Industry

6. Conclusions

Chapter 10: Amino Acids: Carriers of Nutritional and Biological Value Foods

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. General Information

3. Chemistry and Classification of Amino Acids

4. Amino Acids and Proteins Biological Value

5. Amino Acid Analysis of Food Proteins

6. Conclusions

Chapter 11: Strategy for the Prediction, Control, and Optimization of the Functional Properties of Food Proteins: Using Statistical and Chemometric Tools

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Materials and Methods

3. Results and Discussion

4. Conclusions

Acknowledgments

Chapter 12: Production of Low-Alcohol Beverages: Current Status and Perspectives

Abstract

1. Overview of Alcohol Consumption

2. Dealcoholization of Beverages

3. Techniques for Alcohol Reduction in Wine

4. Techniques for Reducing the Alcohol Level in Beer

5. Sensory Properties and Low-alcohol Beverage Improvements

6. Conclusions and Future Trends

Chapter 13: Dielectric Defrosting of Frozen Foods

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Frozen Foods and Defrosting

3. The Mechanism of Dielectric Heating

4. DPs of Frozen Foods and Defrosting Applications

5. Mathematical Modeling of Dielectric Defrosting of Frozen Foods

6. Approaches to Uniform Heating

7. Conclusions

Chapter 14: Role for Value Addition in Processing Foods of Traditional Varieties of Grains

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Key Limitations in Developing Value Added Products of Traditional Grains

3. Strategies for Value Addition in Traditional Grains

4. Value Addition in Traditional Cereal Grains

5. Value-Added Products in Traditional Wheat Grains

6. Value Addition in Traditional Millet Grains

7. Value Addition in Traditional Pulses

8. Conclusions

Chapter 15: Role of Food Product Development in Increased Food Consumption and Value Addition

Abstract

1. Food Product Development

2. Value Addition

3. Reasons for Increased Food Consumption and Value Addition

4. Conclusions

Index

Copyright

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List of Contributors

Donatella Albanese,     University of Salerno, Fisciano, Salerno, Italy

Jing Bai,     University of Minnesota, Duluth, MN, United States

Sonia E. Barberis

Laboratorio de Bromatología, Facultad de Química, Bioquímica y Farmacia, Universidad Nacional de San Luis, Chacabuco y Pedernera

Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CCT—San Luis—CONICET), Instituto de Física Aplicada (INFAP), San Luis, Argentina

Maja Bulatovic,     University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia

Fabiola Cerda,     Universidad del Bio-Bio, Chillán, Chile

Shivani Chaturvedi,     Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, Delhi, India

Marcelo Cristianini,     University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil

Erika da Silva Maciel,     Federal University of Tocantins, Miracema do Tocantins, Tocantins, Brazil

Wayne Daley,     Georgia Tech Research Institute (GTRI), Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, United States

Bruna R. de Castro Leite, Jr.,     University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil

Miguel M. de Oliveira

University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, São Paulo

Federal Center of Technological Education Celso Suckow da Fonseca (CEFET-RJ), Valença, Brazil

Marisa Di Matteo,     University of Salerno, Fisciano, Salerno, Italy

Laura Folguera,     Comisión Nacional de Energía Atómica, Centro Atómico Constituyentes, San Martín, Provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina

Juliana A. Galvão,     University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

Gargi Ghoshal,     Dr. S.S. Bhatnagar University Institute of Chemical Engineering & Technology, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India

María P. Gianelli,     Universidad del Bio-Bio, Chillán, Chile

Annel M. Hernández-Alcántara,     Autonomous Metropolitan University, Iztapalapa, Mexico City, Mexico

Hellen A. Kato,     Embrapa Fishing and Aquaculture, Palmas, Tocantins, Brazil

Geetanjali Kaushik,     Mahatma Gandhi Mission’s Jawaharlal Nehru Engineering College, Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India

Jeong Un Kim,     Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea

Sun-Hyoung Kim,     Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea

Tanja Krunic,     University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia

Loredana Liguori,     University of Salerno, Fisciano, Salerno, Italy

Yvan Llave,     Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Tokyo, Japan

Jorge F. Magallanes,     Comisión Nacional de Energía Atómica, Centro Atómico Constituyentes, San Martín, Provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina

Gary McMurray,     Georgia Tech Research Institute (GTRI), Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, United States

Karla Mella,     Universidad del Bio-Bio, Chillán, Chile

Jorge Moreno,     Universidad del Bio-Bio, Chillán, Chile

Marília Oetterer,     University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

Patricio Orellana-Palma,     Universidad del Bio-Bio, Chillán, Chile

Jiyong Park,     Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea

Maria Lourdes Pérez-Chabela,     Autonomous Metropolitan University, Iztapalapa, Mexico City, Mexico

Guillermo Petzold,     Universidad del Bio-Bio, Chillán, Chile

Fernando R.P. Quaresma

Federal University of Tocantins, Palmas

Lutheran University Center of Palmas, Palmas, Tocantins, Brazil

Marica Rakin,     University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia

Fanny Ribarova,     Medical College Yordanka Filaretova, Medical University Sofia, Sofia, Bulgaria

Paola Russo,     Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy

Noboru Sakai,     Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Tokyo, Japan

A Sathya,     School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA University, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India

Luciana K. Savay-da-Silva,     Federal University of Mato Grosso, Cuiabá, Mato Grosso, Brazil

Faiz-ul-Hassan Shah,     National Institute of Food Science & Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

Hafiz Muhammad Shahbaz

Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea

University of Veterinary & Animal Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan

Mian K. Sharif,     National Institute of Food Science & Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

Poonam Singhal,     Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, Delhi, India

Jaqueline G. Sonati,     University of Taubaté, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

Héctor L. Sturniolo,     Laboratorio de Bromatología, Facultad de Química, Bioquímica y Farmacia, Universidad Nacional de San Luis, Chacabuco y Pedernera, San Luis, Argentina

Shufang Wang,     Institute of Mechatronics, Beijing Union University, Beijing, China

Asna Zahid,     National Institute of Food Science & Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

Danica Zaric,     IHIS Techno-experts D.o.o., Research Development Center, Belgrade, Serbia

Debao Zhou,     University of Minnesota, Duluth, MN, United States

Pamela Zúñiga,     Universidad del Bio-Bio, Chillán, Chile

Foreword

In the last 50 years an increasing number of modified and alternative foods have been developed using various tools of science, engineering, and biotechnology. The result is that today most of the available commercial food is somehow modified and improved, and made to look better, taste different, and be commercially attractive. These food products have entered in the domestic first and then the international markets, currently representing a great industry in most countries. Sometimes these products are considered as life-supporting alternatives, neither good nor bad, and sometimes they are just seen as luxury foods. In the context of a permanently growing population, changing climate, and strong anthropological influence, food resources became limited in large parts of the Earth. Obtaining a better and more resistant crop quickly and with improved nutritional value would represent the Holy Grail for the food industry. However, such a crop could pose negative effects on the environment and consumer health, as most of the current approaches involve the use of powerful and broad-spectrum pesticides, genetic engineered plants and animals, or bioelements with unknown and difficult-to-predict effects. Numerous questions have emerged with the introduction of engineered foods, many of them pertaining to their safe use for human consumption and ecosystems, long-term expectations, benefits, challenges associated with their use, and most important, their economic impact.

The progress made in the food industry by the development of applicative engineering and biotechnologies is impressive and many of the advances are oriented to solve the world food crisis in a constantly increasing population: from genetic engineering to improved preservatives and advanced materials for innovative food quality control and packaging. In the present era, innovative technologies and state-of-the-art research progress has allowed the development of a new and rapidly changing food industry, able to bottom-up all known and accepted facts in the traditional food management. The huge amount of available information, many times is difficult to validate, and the variety of approaches, which could seem overwhelming and lead to misunderstandings, is yet a valuable resource of manipulation for the population as a whole.

The series entitled Handbook of Food Bioengineering brings together a comprehensive collection of volumes to reveal the most current progress and perspectives in the field of food engineering. The editors have selected the most interesting and intriguing topics, and have dissected them in 20 thematic volumes, allowing readers to find the description of basic processes and also the up-to-date innovations in the field. Although the series is mainly dedicated to the engineering, research, and biotechnological sectors, a wide audience could benefit from this impressive and updated information on the food industry. This is because of the overall style of the book, outstanding authors of the chapters, numerous illustrations, images, and well-structured chapters, which are easy to understand. Nonetheless, the most novel approaches and technologies could be of a great relevance for researchers and engineers working in the field of bioengineering.

Current approaches, regulations, safety issues, and the perspective of innovative applications are highlighted and thoroughly dissected in this series. This work comes as a useful tool to understand where we are and where we are heading to in the food industry, while being amazed by the great variety of approaches and innovations, which constantly changes the idea of the food of the future.

Anton Ficai, PhD (Eng)

Department Science and Engineering of Oxide Materials and Nanomaterials,

Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, Politehnica University of Bucharest,

Bucharest, Romania

Series Preface

The food sector represents one of the most important industries in terms of extent, investment, and diversity. In a permanently changing society, dietary needs and preferences are widely variable. Along with offering a great technological support for innovative and appreciated products, the current food industry should also cover the basic needs of an ever-increasing population. In this context, engineering, research, and technology have been combined to offer sustainable solutions in the food industry for a healthy and satisfied population.

Massive progress is constantly being made in this dynamic field, but most of the recent information remains poorly revealed to the large population. This series emerged out of our need, and that of many others, to bring together the most relevant and innovative available approaches in the intriguing field of food bioengineering. In this work we present relevant aspects in a pertinent and easy-to-understand sequence, beginning with the basic aspects of food production and concluding with the most novel technologies and approaches for processing, preservation, and packaging. Hot topics, such as genetically modified foods, food additives, and foodborne diseases, are thoroughly dissected in dedicated volumes, which reveal the newest trends, current products, and applicable regulations.

While health and well-being are key drivers of the food industry, market forces strive for innovation throughout the complete food chain, including raw material/ingredient sourcing, food processing, quality control of finished products, and packaging. Scientists and industry stakeholders have already identified potential uses of new and highly investigated concepts, such as nanotechnology, in virtually every segment of the food industry, from agriculture (i.e., pesticide production and processing, fertilizer or vaccine delivery, animal and plant pathogen detection, and targeted genetic engineering) to food production and processing (i.e., encapsulation of flavor or odor enhancers, food textural or quality improvement, and new gelation- or viscosity-enhancing agents), food packaging (i.e., pathogen, physicochemical, and mechanical agents sensors; anticounterfeiting devices; UV protection; and the design of stronger, more impermeable polymer films), and nutrient supplements (i.e., nutraceuticals, higher stability and bioavailability of food bioactives, etc.).

The series entitled Handbook of Food Bioengineering comprises 20 thematic volumes; each volume presenting focused information on a particular topic discussed in 15 chapters each. The volumes and approached topics of this multivolume series are:

Volume 1: Food Biosynthesis

Volume 2: Food Bioconversion

Volume 3: Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation

Volume 4: Ingredients Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food

Volume 5: Microbial Production of Food Ingredients and Additives

Volume 6: Genetically Engineered Foods

Volume 7: Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes

Volume 8: Therapeutic Foods

Volume 9: Food Packaging and Preservation

Volume 10: Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation

Volume 11: Diet, Microbiome and Health

Volume 12: Impact of Nanoscience in the Food Industry

Volume 13: Food Quality: Balancing Health and Disease

Volume 14: Advances in Biotechnology for Food Industry

Volume 15: Foodborne Diseases

Volume 16: Food Control and Biosecurity

Volume 17: Alternative and Replacement Foods

Volume 18: Food Processing for Increased Quality and Consumption

Volume 19: Role of Materials Science in Food Bioengineering

Volume 20: Biopolymers for Food Design

The series begins with a volume on Food Biosynthesis, which reveals the concept of food production through biological processes and also the main bioelements that could be involved in food production and processing. The second volume, Food Bioconversion, highlights aspects related to food modification in a biological manner. A key aspect of this volume is represented by waste bioconversion as a supportive approach in the current waste crisis and massive pollution of the planet Earth. In the third volume, Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation, we aim to discuss several aspects regarding not only to the varieties and impacts of fermentative processes, but also the range of chemical processes that mimic some biological processes in the context of the current and future biofood industry. Volume 4, Ingredients Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food, brings the readers into the world of ingredients and the methods that can be applied for their extraction and purification. Both traditional and most of the modern techniques can be found in dedicated chapters of this volume. On the other hand, in volume 5, Microbial Production of Food Ingredients and Additives, biological methods of ingredient production, emphasizing microbial processes, are revealed and discussed. In volume 6, Genetically Engineered Foods, the delicate subject of genetically engineered plants and animals to develop modified foods is thoroughly dissected. Further, in volume 7, Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes, another hot topic in food industry—flavoring and dyes—is scientifically commented and valuable examples of natural and artificial compounds are generously offered. Volume 8, Therapeutic Foods, reveals the most utilized and investigated foods with therapeutic values. Moreover, basic and future approaches for traditional and alternative medicine, utilizing medicinal foods, are presented here. In volume 9, Food Packaging and Preservation, the most recent, innovative, and interesting technologies and advances in food packaging, novel preservatives, and preservation methods are presented. On the other hand, important aspects in the field of Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation are shown in volume 10. Highly debated topics in modern society: Diet, Microbiome and Health are significantly discussed in volume 11. Volume 12 highlights the Impact of Nanoscience in the Food Industry, presenting the most recent advances in the field of applicative nanotechnology with great impacts on the food industry. Additionally, volume 13 entitled Food Quality: Balancing Health and Disease reveals the current knowledge and concerns regarding the influence of food quality on the overall health of population and potential food-related diseases. In volume 14, Advances in Biotechnology for Food Industry, up-to-date information regarding the progress of biotechnology in the construction of the future food industry is revealed. Improved technologies, new concepts, and perspectives are highlighted in this work. The topic of Foodborne Diseases is also well documented within this series in volume 15. Moreover, Food Control and Biosecurity aspects, as well as current regulations and food safety concerns are discussed in the volume 16. In volume 17, Alternative and Replacement Foods, another broad-interest concept is reviewed. The use and research of traditional food alternatives currently gain increasing terrain and this quick emerging trend has a significant impact on the food industry. Another related hot topic, Food Processing for Increased Quality and Consumption, is considered in volume 18. The final two volumes rely on the massive progress made in material science and the great applicative impacts of this progress on the food industry. Volume 19, Role of Materials Science in Food Bioengineering, offers a perspective and a scientific introduction in the science of engineered materials, with important applications in food research and technology. Finally, in volume 20, Biopolymers for Food Design, we discuss the advantages and challenges related to the development of improved and smart biopolymers for the food industry.

All 20 volumes of this comprehensive collection were carefully composed not only to offer basic knowledge for facilitating understanding of nonspecialist readers, but also to offer valuable information regarding the newest trends and advances in food engineering, which is useful for researchers and specialized readers. Each volume could be treated individually as a useful source of knowledge for a particular topic in the extensive field of food engineering or as a dedicated and explicit part of the whole series.

This series is primarily dedicated to scientists, academicians, engineers, industrial representatives, innovative technology representatives, medical doctors, and also to any nonspecialist reader willing to learn about the recent innovations and future perspectives in the dynamic field of food bioengineering.

Alexandru M. Grumezescu

Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

Alina M. Holban

University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

Preface for Volume 18: Food Processing for Increased Quality and Consumption

Food is the basic necessity of life. However, over the last few decades, food quality and safety issues have caused a serious concern among the consumers on account of their direct association with the human health. As to increase production, resistance, quality, and consumption, food industries are processing foods by various means to provide products able to fulfill the requirements of a varied population. For improving the aspect, size, and resistance to contamination or degradation, food processing sometimes involve the use of some physical, chemical, or biological treatments, which may become harmful for consumers. The presence of harmful antinutrients and the pesticide residues in food products limits the bioavailability of the essential nutrients. Current approaches refer to various procedures, such as organic farming to effectively deal with chemical, physical, and biological contaminants and ensure food safety. Even if important progress was seen in the last few years, it is estimated that this approach would take significant time in being adopted worldwide. Meanwhile, processing procedures are growing diverse to ensure the production of foods with particular quality standards to support consumption.

The aim of this book was to bring together the most recent progress and technologies in the field of food processing for increased quality and consumption, empathizing on current concerns regarding processing approaches and also on successful new tools.

The volume contains 15 chapters prepared by outstanding authors from China, Serbia, Italy, India, USA, Chile, Korea, Brazil, Bulgaria, Mexico, Japan, and Argentina.

The selected manuscripts are clearly illustrated and contain accessible information for a wide audience, especially food scientists, engineers, biotechnologists, biochemists, industrial companies; and also for any reader interested in learning about the most interesting and recent advances in the field of food processing for increased quality and consumption.

Chapter 1, Food Processing for Increasing Consumption: The Case of Legumes, prepared by Kaushik et al., introduces the readers in the field of processed foods and current technologies to increase consumption in the case of legumes. In this study, it is concluded that a combination of processing techniques renders food grains safe for human consumption.

In Chapter 2, Emerging Food Processing Technologies, Ghoshal discusses the necessity and perspectives of food processing and preservation, history of food preservation, food spoilage, conventional and modern methods of food processing and preservation, characterization, critical evaluation, and also industrialization to address food safety issues, food waste management, food security, and response to consumers changing demand.

Chapter 3, Food Technology Approaches for Improvement of Organoleptic Properties Through Preservation and Enrichment of Bioactive Compounds, written by Petzold et al., describes fresh foods of different origins, which are valuable products that nature provides and human through diverse technologies and processes transform for their convenience and overall comfort required by modern life.

In Chapter 4, Cutting Automation in Food Processing, written by Zhou et al., the impact of robot manipulators is dissected in food processing. Authors have developed a mathematical model of blade slicing-compression cutting and studied the influences from the material properties, deformation, and blade properties on the cutting force. These results can be directly used in chicken wing-shoulder cutting operations in a poultry-processing factory, which is a task that directly affects the yield of the breast meat.

Chapter 5, The Perception of Consumers Vis-à-Vis Tracked Fish Measured via Electronic Instrument, prepared by da Silva Maciel et al., discusses the impact of implementing the tracking technology into fish-production chain and its impact on consumers’ attitude using data collection through the Internet. Such results provide subsidy for the adoption of policies to implement a traceability system for fish to boost consumption.

In Chapter 6, Effects of Dynamic High Pressure on Biopolymers: Polysaccharides and Proteins, Porto et al. discuss the impact of dynamic high pressure (DHP) processing in proteins and polysaccharides, as well as the benefits of the modifications induced by the process in the final application of these biopolymers as ingredients for various food products.

Chapter 7, Advances in Nonthermal Processing Technologies for Enhanced Microbiological Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruit and Juice Products, prepared by Shahbaz et al., provides an overview of recent research investigations, state of the art microbial inactivation strategies, advances in process and equipment design, and hurdle approaches for processing of fresh fruit and juice products using high hydrostatic pressure (HHP), pulsed electric fields (PEF), ultraviolet (UV) light, and UV-assisted TiO2 photocatalysis (TUV) nonthermal technologies. Future directions to enhance the effectiveness and commercial adoption of these nonthermal food-processing technologies are discussed here.

Chapter 8, Agroindustrial Coproducts as Sources of Novel Functional Ingredients, was written by Pérez-Chabela and Hernández-Alcántara. The manuscript reveals the useful role of fruit and vegetal peels, which contain important bioactive ingredients, such as fiber and antioxidants. The peel fiber can be employed as a prebiotic ingredient, to stimulate the growth of probiotic lactic acid bacteria, and to produce an important amount of short-chain fatty acids, mainly butyric. These fruit peels are low cost potential food functional ingredients to develop novel functional foods improving nutritional quality.

In Chapter 9, The Contribution of Bioactive Peptides of Whey to Quality of Food Products, Krunic et al. describe the biological activity of whey peptides and practical application in the food products. Whey peptides have wide range of bioactivity (ACE-inhibitory activity, antioxidant activity, antiinflammatory, antimicrobial) so these peptides are more suitable as ingredient in functional food than molecules with only one substantial characteristic.

In Chapter 10, Amino Acids: Carriers of Nutritional and Biological Value Foods, Ribarova reveals current tools in the development of amino acids, emphasizing on the methods for assessing their content in foods, and methods to establish the biological value of food proteins. The current status of analytical methodology, concerning particularly amino acid analysis and their participation in biological methods for evaluation of food proteins is characterized. An option for more correct calculation approach to amino acid content versus total protein in foods is proposed. The analysis of the current scientific information outlines the need to standardize the analytical methods and calculation approaches implemented in the assessment of amino acid content in food products.

Chapter 11, Strategy for the Prediction, Control, and Optimization of the Functional Properties of Food Proteins: Using Statistical and Chemometric Tools, written by Barberis et al., describes the design of a new strategy to predict, control, and optimize the functional parameters of food proteins hydrolyzed or not, using chemometrics tools. The starting material consists of proteins whose functional properties are desired to modify. Functional properties (e.g., emulsifying and foaming properties) can be simultaneously evaluated by an experimental statistical design, response surface graphics, and multiple linear regressions.

In Chapter 12, Production of Low-Alcohol Beverages: Current Status and Perspectives, Liguori et al. describe various techniques for low alcohol beverage production from wine and beer. Authors also discuss the main obstacles for the development of this type of beverages, such as taste and quality.

Chapter 13, Dielectric Defrosting of Frozen Foods, prepared by Llave and Sakai, recently published data on microwave (MW) and radiofrequency (RF) defrosting, including the dielectric properties (DPs) of frozen foods and frozen-food models in the MW and RF bands, the recent mathematical models developed in this field, and the approaches to uniform heating. The data described herein are valuable as a tool for research on the heating patterns during defrosting of frozen foods assisted by dielectric heating.

In Chapter 14, Role for Value Addition in Processing Foods of Traditional Varieties of Grains, A Sathya discusses the role of value addition in processing foods of traditional grain varieties into therapeutic products, ethnic and functional foods using appropriate technologies into novel products. The art of fortification and designing options available to develop functional foods with careful cost economics gives us the choice to decide about whether to proceed with value addition in traditional grains.

Chapter 15, Role of Food Product Development in Increased Food Consumption and Value Addition, prepared by Sharif et al., concludes the impact of novel technologies to obtain new, innovative, and value-added products with improved features, such as quality, functionality, packaging, form, and ease of possession. Such products are made to increase revenue and satisfy changing consumers’ demands driven by parameters, such as population growth, lifestyle changes and economic changes, ageing population, and increased awareness about healthy foods.

Alexandru M. Grumezescu

Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

Alina M. Holban

University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

Chapter 1

Food Processing for Increasing Consumption: The Case of Legumes

Geetanjali Kaushik*

Poonam Singhal**

Shivani Chaturvedi**

*    Mahatma Gandhi Mission’s Jawaharlal Nehru Engineering College, Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India

**    Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, Delhi, India

Abstract

Food is a basic necessity of life. However, over the past few decades food quality and safety issues have caused serious concern among consumers on account of their direct association with human health. Unsafe food poses serious risk to the health of consumers, particularly in the developing countries where food contamination is high on account of indiscriminate use of food contaminants and food protectants. The presence of harmful antinutrients and pesticide residues in legumes limits the bioavailability of the essential nutrients. Organic farming and other approaches are effective in dealing with pesticide contamination, but it would take significant time for them to be adopted worldwide. Therefore, a simple, as well as effective solution in the transitional phase is offered by domestic processing techniques. Domestic food processing methods, such as washing, cooking, milling, parboiling, and storage, may provide a simple and effective solution in this context. The nature of the processing operation (viz., physical, chemical, or thermal) plays an important role in this; usually, the processes that utilize the higher temperatures have greater effects on dissipation of antinutrients and pesticide residues. It is concluded that a combination of processing techniques renders food grains safe for human consumption.

Keywords

food safety

antinutrients

pesticides

human health

processing techniques

1. Food Legumes: A Boon to Human Nutrition

Legumes are important sources of protein for the human diet (Kaushik et  al.,  2010; Tharanathan and Mahadevamma, 2003). There are more than 13,000 species of legumes, but only 20 are eaten by mankind. The major legumes used as foods include peas, beans, lentils, peanuts, and soybeans. The structure of peas and beans consists of a seed coat (hull), hypocotyl–radicle axis, plummule, and two cotyledons. The seed coat works as a protective barrier during storage and handling. The most consumed varieties of legumes include chickpeas (Cicer arietinum), peas (field or smooth pea and wrinkled pea), broad beans (Vicia faba or field bean), lentils (Lens esculenta), and beans (Phaseolus vulgaris, Phaseolus lunatus, Phaseolus aureus, and Phaseolus mungo) (Fabbri and Crosby, 2016). The nutritional composition of legumes can provide a high proportion of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, dietary fibers, B-group vitamins (thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin), and minerals (Prodanov et al., 2004). This composition can vary according to cultivar, location of growth, climate, environmental factors, and soil type in which legumes are grown (Satya et al., 2010). Starch is the major constituent of available carbohydrates of peas and beans. Lipids consist primarily of triacylglycerol plus di- and monoacyglycerol, free fatty acids, sterols, sterol esters, phospholipids, and glycolipids. Peas and beans are very poor sources of fat-soluble vitamins and rich sources of water-soluble vitamins, as well as excellent sources of minerals, such as calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, manganese, iron, magnesium, copper, cobalt, sulfur, zinc, and fluorine (Karmas and Harris, 1988). In some countries, various terms are often substituted for legume. The term pulse is commonly used for legumes having a low-fat content, such as beans, broad beans, peas, and lentils. Soybeans and peanuts are sometimes referred to as leguminous oil seeds (Kaushik et al., 2010).

Legumes form the main sources of human and animal nutrition, especially in developing countries because of their high nutritive value (Tharanathan and Mahadevamma, 2003). They are increasingly being used in therapeutic formulations in the treatment and prevention of diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer of the colon (Singhal et al., 2014).

Nevertheless, apart from having high nutritional value, plant foods are often associated with a series of compounds known as antinutrients, which generally interfere with the assimilation of some nutrients. The effects of these substances may be regarded as positive, negative, or both. In some cases, these can cause undesirable physiological effects, such as flatulence and hence can prove to be toxic (Kaushik et al., 2010). However, recent epidemiological studies have demonstrated that many antinutrients may be beneficial in the prevention of diseases, such as cancer and coronary diseases (Messina, 2014). For this reason they are now termed nonnutritive or bioactive compounds, as they are not always harmful even if they may lack nutritive value (Muzquiz et al., 2000). Several antinutritional factors (ANFs), such as α-galactosides, trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors, phytates, lectins, and polyphenols (Satya et  al.,  2010; Srivastava and Srivastava, 2003), impede the availability of nutrients (Fereidoon, 2014).

2. Antinutrients in Legumes and Their Removal

ANFs are chemical compounds present naturally in food and/or feedstuffs of plant origin and can interfere with the optimum utilization or metabolism of nutrients (Gemede and Ratta,  2014; Soetan and Oyewole,  2009). These are also known as secondary metabolites in plants and are highly biologically active. One major factor that restricts the wider utilization of many tropical plants as food is the presence of these ANFs, which are capable of producing deleterious health consequences in man and animals (Shanthakumari et  al.,  2008; Singh et  al.,  2015; Ugwu and Oranye,  2006). These are the compounds evolved by plants for their own defense through metabolism and other biological functions. Hence they reduce the maximum utilization of nutrients, especially proteins, vitamins, and minerals, thus preventing optimal exploitation of the nutrients present in a food and decreasing the nutritive value. These ANFs can be divided into protein and nonprotein types. Nonprotein ANFs include alkaloids, tannins, phytic acid, saponins, and phenolics, while protein ANFs include trypsin inhibitors, chymotrypsin inhibitors, lectins, and antifungal peptides (Fereidoon, 2014).

2.1. Enzyme Inhibitors

Enzyme inhibitors are proteinaceous compounds present in pulses and inhibit the hydrolases of enzymes, such as proteases, amylases, lipases, glycosidases, and phosphatases. These can easily be denatured and inactivated by heat treatment.

2.1.1. α-Amylases

They occur in starch and related compounds, and are endoamylases that catalyze the hydrolysis of α-d-(1,4)-glycosidic linkages playing a major role in the carbohydrate metabolism. Amylase inhibitors reduce amylase activity and digestion of starch in the gut. This kind of activity is beneficial in lowering postprandial glucose and thus may also prove to be useful in the treatments of obesity or diabetes mellitus (Singh et al., 2015).

2.1.2. Trypsin inhibitors

They cause pancreatic enlargement and growth depression, inhibiting the metabolism of the trypsin enzyme. Trypsin/chymotrypsin inhibitors from red kidney bean, Brazilian pink bean, lima bean, and soybean are closely related with high homology (Satya et al., 2010).

2.1.3. Protease inhibitors

They are of two types: (1) Kunitz type, single-chain polypeptides that inhibit the enzyme activity of only trypsin but not chymotrypsin, and (2) Bowman–Birk inhibitors, which are also single-chain polypeptides but of different molecular weight, and that inhibit the enzyme activity of both trypsin and chymotrypsin. They interfere with the digestion of trypsin and chymotrypsin in the human digestive tract by irreversible binding. They are resistant to the digestive enzyme pepsin and the stomach’s acidic pH (Kaushik et al., 2010).

2.2. Cyanogenic Glucosides

The cyanogenic glycosides are products of secondary metabolism present in the natural products of plants. These compounds are found in various legumes, and C. arietinum is one of them (Champ, 2002). Cyanogenic glucosides (α-hydroxynitrile glucosides) are derived from five protein amino acids (Val, Ile, Leu, Phe, and Tyr) and from the nonproteinogenic amino acid cyclopentenyl glycine. A number of plant species produce hydrogen cyanide (HCN) from cyanogenic glycosides when they are consumed. These cyanogens are glycosides of a sugar, often glucose, which are combined with a cyanide containing aglycone. Cyanogenic glucosides are classified as phytoanticipins because they defend the plant from herbivore and pathogen attack, as on hydrolysis they yield toxic hydrocyanic acid (aqueous solution of HCN) (Golden, 2009). When the plant product is consumed without proper processing, the cyanide ions inhibit several enzyme systems; they depress growth through interference with certain essential amino acids and utilization of associated nutrients. They also cause acute toxicity, neuropathy, and death in extreme cases.

2.3. Lectins

Lectins are glycoproteins widely distributed in legumes and some oil seeds (including soybeans), which possess an affinity for binding with specific sugar molecules and are characterized by their ability to combine with carbohydrate membrane receptors (Fereidoon, 2014). Lectins have the capability to directly bind to the intestinal muscosa, interacting with the enterocytes and interfering with the absorption and transportation of 0.01% free gossypol within some low-gossypol cotton nutrients (particularly carbohydrates) during digestion and causing epithelial lesions within the intestine. Although lectins are heat labile, their stability varies between different plant species. Many lectins, being resistant to inactivation by dry heat, require moist heat for complete destruction (Boehm and Huck, 2009). They function both as allergens and as hemagglutinins (agglutinate red blood cells) and are present in small amounts in whole-grain food. Lectins have also shown in vivo effects when consumed in excess by sensitive individuals, causing severe intestinal damage, disrupted digestion, and nutrient deficiencies. They can provoke IgG and IgM antibodies, causing food allergies and other immune responses (Boehm and Huck, 2009), and they can bind to erythrocytes, simultaneously with immune factors, causing hemagglutination and anemia. Of the 119 known dietary lectins, about half are panhemagglutinins, clumping all blood types.

2.4. Tannins

Tannins are polyphenolic compounds of intermediate-to-high molecular weight that are astringent and bitter in taste that either bind or precipitate proteins and various other organic compounds, including amino acids and alkaloids (Redden et al., 2005). They are divided into two groups based on their ability to fractionate hydrolytically (with acid, alkali, hot water, or enzymatic action): (1) hydrolyzable tannins (including gallotannins and ellagitannins) more responsible for the color of legume seed coats as in chickpeas or (2) condensed tannins. Tannins are heat stable, and they decrease protein digestibility in animals and humans, probably by either making partially unavailable or inhibiting digestive enzymes and increasing fecal nitrogen. Tannins are known to be present in food products; inhibit the activities of trypsin, chymotrypsin, amylase, and lipase; decrease the protein quality of foods; and interfere with dietary iron absorption (Felix and Mello, 2000). The condensed tannins (proanthocyanidins) are known to bind enzymes and other proteins and to form insoluble tannin–protein complexes that are not readily digestible. Due to this, tannin becomes astringent (in tea and some vegetables and fruits) and thus decreases the palatability. Tannins are known to be responsible for decreased feed intake, growth rate, feed efficiency, and protein digestibility in experimental animals. If tannin concentration in the diet becomes too high, microbial enzyme activities, including cellulose and intestinal digestion, may be depressed. Tannins also form insoluble complexes with proteins, and the tannin–protein complexes may be responsible for the antinutritional effects of tannin-containing foods (Kyriazakis and Whittenmore, 2006).

2.5. Oxalates

Oxalates bind minerals, such as calcium and magnesium, and interfere with their metabolism. The insoluble calcium oxalate has the tendency to precipitate (or solidify) in the urinary tract and form calcium oxalate crystals with sharp edges, leading to the formation of kidney stones when the levels are high enough (Nachbar et al., 2000). Oxalate is an antinutrient that under normal conditions is confined to separate compartments, but when it is processed and/or digested it comes into contact with the nutrients in the gastrointestinal tract (Noonan and Savage, 1999). When released, it binds with nutrients, rendering them unavailable to the body. If food with excessive amounts of oxalic acid is consumed regularly, nutritional deficiencies, as well as severe irritation to the lining of the gut, are likely to occur (Liebman and Al-Wahsh, 2011).

2.6. Phytates

Phytates, also known as inositol hexakisphosphates (InsP6), are the salt form of phytic acid, and are found in plants, animals, and soil. Phytic acid is a major phosphorus storage form in plants, and it regulates various cellular functions, such as DNA repair, chromatin remodeling, endocytosis, nuclear messenger RNA export, and potentially hormone signaling that is important for plant and seed development. The most abundant InsP6 accounts for 77% in chickpeas (Campos-Vega et al., 2009). It has a high ability to chelate multivalent metal ions, especially Zn, Ca, and Fe, forming insoluble complexes and making them unavailable for absorption and utilization in the small intestine (Gemede,  2014; Jukanti et  al., 2012).

Phytic acid also makes complexes with proteins, decreasing protein solubility and therefore its presence in food; this has a negative impact on enzyme activity, such as lipase, α-amylase, pepsin, trypsin, and chymotrypsin. It also binds with starch through phosphate linkages. However, it also exhibits a beneficial role in anticancer (preventive, as well as therapeutic) properties. It reduces cell proliferation and increases differentiation of malignant cells. It also delays postprandial glucose absorption (Campos-Vega et al., 2009).

2.7. Saponins

Saponins are secondary compounds that are generally nonvolatile and surface active; they are widely distributed in nature, occurring primarily in the plant origin. The name saponin is derived from the Latin word sapo, which means soap, because saponin molecules form soap-like foams when shaken with water. They are structurally diverse molecules that are chemically referred to as triterpene and steroid glycosides. They consist of nonpolar aglycones coupled with one or more monosaccharide moieties. This combination of polar and nonpolar structural elements in their molecules explains their soap-like behavior in aqueous solutions.

Due to the presence of one or more lipid-soluble aglycone and water-soluble sugar chains in their structure (amphiphilic nature), saponins are surface-active compounds with detergent, wetting, emulsifying, and foaming properties and have found wide applications in beverages and confectionery, as well as in cosmetics and pharmaceutical products (Shanthakumari et al., 2008). Saponins were treated as toxic compounds to fish and cold-blooded animals possessing strong hemolytic activity. In high concentrations, saponins impart a bitter taste and astringency in dietary plants. The bitter taste of saponin is the major factor that limits its use. In the past, saponins were recognized as antinutrient constituents, due to their adverse effects, such as growth impairment and throat-irritating activity due to their bitterness. In addition, they also reduce the bioavailability of nutrients by inhibiting various digestive enzymes, such as trypsin and chymotrypsin (Liener, 2003). Recent studies suggest that legume saponins may possess anticancer activity and be beneficial for hyperlipidemia. They are also known to reduce the risk of heart diseases in humans (Campos-Vega, 2009).

2.8. Alkaloids

Alkaloids are diverse compounds that consist of a heterocycle with a nitrogen atom within the cycle. They are mainly present in lupins (Champ, 2002). Alkaloids cause gastrointestinal and neurological disorders. They are also reported to cause fetal malformation, and some plant alkaloids are reported to cause infertility (Soetan and Oyewole, 2009).

Alkaloids are one of the largest groups of chemical compounds synthesized by plants and generally are found as salts of plant acids, such as oxalic, malic, tartaric, or citric acid. They are synthesized by plants from amino acids (Felix and Mello, 2000).

Alkaloids are considered to be antinutrients because they cause gastrointestinal and neurological disorders. For instance, consumption of high tropane alkaloids will cause rapid heartbeat and paralysis, and, in fatal cases, lead to death (Fernando et al., 2012).

3. Processing Techniques to Reduce Antinutritional Factors

Processing techniques bring about changes in the biochemical, nutritional, and sensory characteristics in legumes that enhance their nutritional value by increasing essential amino acids, protein digestibility, amino acid availability, and certain B vitamins. The nutritional profile of legumes is generally improved from approximately 40% up to 98% (El-Adawy, 2002). It also proves beneficial in reducing some antinutritional compounds that otherwise would cause interference in the metabolism of certain essential nutrients. Most ANFs can be easily destroyed with heat, such as α-galactosides, protease inhibitors, and lectins, so cooking would eliminate the ill effects of these nonnutrient compounds before consumption. Tannins, saponins, and phytic acids are more heat stable, but can be reduced by dehulling, soaking, or germination (Schoeninger et al., 2014). Various processing techniques used as a tool for reducing the ANFs are listed in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1

EDTA, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid; TIA, trypsin inhibitor activity.

Legumes were usually processed by two ways: nonheat or heat processing.

3.1. Nonheat Processing

3.1.1. Soaking

This is the first step, followed by a number of subsequent treatments, such as cooking, germination, and fermentation. It consists of hydrating the seeds in water, usually until they reach maximum weight. The medium in which they are hydrated can be discarded or retained, depending on the subsequent procedure. Several studies indicate that soaking can reduce the levels of total sugars, α-galactosides, minerals, phytic acid, and proteolytic enzyme inhibitors due to metabolic processes taking place that usually affect the soluble carbohydrate metabolic processes and riboflavin contents (Satya et al., 2010).

3.1.2. Germination/sprouting

Germinated legumes are consumed in many parts of the world owing to their enhanced nutritional value. Germination causes important changes in the biochemical, nutritional, and sensory characteristics of legumes. It is generally carried out by soaking the legume seeds in water. The water is drained out, and the soaked seeds are then tied in a muslin cloth and hung for 1–2 days, depending upon the ambient temperature. The legume seeds are left as such to respire and synthesize new cell constituents of the developing embryo during germination (Schoeninger et al., 2014; Vidal-Valverde et al., 2002). Germination/sprouting has been reported to increase certain vitamins and minerals and the availability of proteins and to decrease certain antinutrients, such as phytic acid and trypsin inhibitor.

3.1.3. Fermentation

It improves the flavor, color, and texture of legumes. The process increases the digestibility of plant proteins and reduces the ANFs, such as phytate. Fermented legumes are consumed as condiments, such as fermented locust bean (Subuola et al., 2012).

3.2. Heat Processes

3.2.1. Cooking

Cooking is probably the oldest treatment for making legumes edible. Usually it includes a prior soaking of the seeds and subsequent cooking in boiling water until they become tender. Addition of mineral salts to the soaking and/or cooking medium can produce a reduction in the cooking time. In general, cooking brings about denaturation of proteins, inactivation of heat-sensitive factors, such as trypsin inhibitors, and decreases of phytic acid and α-galactoside contents. Generally the legumes are cooked in tap water on a hot plate or cooking stove for 15–120 min or more until they become tender. This is the most common practice in rural habitats. Food legumes are often cooked in a pressure cooker involving both high temperature and high pressure to save time in urban settings. This enhances the digestibility and palatability of legumes considerably (Lemos et  al.,  2015; Satya et  al.,  2010).

3.2.2. Roasting

Roasting of legumes is done in an open frying pan in the presence or absence of salts or ash. Roasting improves the taste and flavor of legumes and thus increases their sensory appeal. It also helps in reducing and eliminating ANFs (Subuola et al., 2012).

3.3. Modern Methods, Including Radiation-Based Technology

3.3.1. Microwave cooking

It is a popular means of cooking in urban areas for saving both energy and time. This form of cooking is even faster than pressure cooking, but in developing countries it is limited to the higher strata of society due to the high cost of the microwave oven and the requirement of electricity for it to work. Presoaked legumes are immersed in water and then cooked in a microwave oven for 4–10 min until tender. As a result of cooking, there is an overall a significant decrease in fat, total ash, carbohydrate fractions (decrease in reducing sugars, sucrose, raffinose, and stachyose, while verbascose is completely eliminated after cooking treatments), and ANFs (trypsin inhibitor, tannins, saponins, and phytic acid) (Bongoni et  al.,  2014; Satya et  al.,  2010).

3.3.2. Irradiation

This process involves exposing food to ionizing radiations, such as gamma rays emitted from radioisotopes 60 Co and 137 Cs, or high-energy electrons and X-rays produced by machine sources. Gamma irradiation has been recognized as a reliable and safe method for improving the inactivation of certain ANFs in foods (Taghinejad et al., 2009).

It is clear from the Table 1.1 that heat, as well as nonheat treatments, such as soaking, boiling, and microwave cooking, help in reduction of the ANF of legumes. Losses in antinutrients are directly proportional to the duration of treatment and their structure. For example, lentils with a soft seed coat require a smaller cooking time than those with a hard seed coat.

Soaking results in a decrease in phytic acid due to leaching (El-Tinay et al., 1989). In a recent study it also resulted in decreases in α-galactosides (Frias et al., 2000). Thermal treatment, such as cooking is effective in reducing the trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA) content, phytic acid, and tannins. Cooking treatment has been accompanied by soaking seeds for a specific duration and then subjecting them to boiling for different periods of duration by different researchers. Pressure cooking also resulted in the decrease of the TIA content, phytic acid, and tannins and was performed on presoaked seeds for different durations. Microwave cooking resulted in a faster degradation of antinutrients as compared to simple cooking and pressure cooking. The losses are mainly due to leaching and destruction of the bigger molecules. Germination also leads to reduction of the ANFs. Increase in phytase activity during germination is responsible for decrease in phytic acid content. Decrease in TIA could be due to their utilization as source of energy during early stages of germination. Loss of tannins is caused by leaching into soak water and is a result of enzymatic hydrolysis by polyphenolase during germination. Irradiation also brought a reduction in the tannins, TIA, and phytic acid when seeds were exposed to different levels of a radiation dose. Roasting seeds on a sand bath at 180°C for 20 min also reduced the polyphenol content (Daur et al., 2008).

4. Food Safety and Quality Issues

In the past few decades safety and quality issues associated with food have received considerable attention from consumers owing to their serious impacts on human health. Recently the incidences of food contamination with harmful pesticide residues, preservatives, synthetic colors, toxins, and the like have increased and have caused significant mortality and morbidity in populations, especially in the developing countries. Therefore, against this background it is important to discuss the concept of food safety (Anzene et al., 2014).

Food safety refers to a complete absence of or acceptable, as well as safe levels of contaminants or adulterants, which are either naturally prevalent toxins or other synthetic substances that might make the food harmful for health in an acute or chronic manner. Food safety hence is associated with the presence of microbiological elements and different chemicals in food. Within the microbiological elements are included foodborne pathogens, such as Salmonella, Escherichia coli O157, Campylobacter, protozoa, Cryptosporidium, rotavirus, and the fungal mycotoxins that result in instances of food poisoning. Chemical food contaminants include the heavy metals (such as Hg and Pb), residues of pesticides, and the different food preservatives, as well as synthetic colors. In addition, food may contain other contaminants, such as genetically modified organisms and veterinary residues (Sharma, 2006). Widespread food contamination with harmful chemicals and toxins has highlighted the importance of safe food products that have high nutritional value (Peri, 2006; Satya et  al.,  2010). Unintended food contamination may occur as a result of direct exposure (e.g., pesticide application for pest control at various stages in crop production) or indirect exposure (e.g., utilization of pesticides or chemicals while in storage or during food processing) to toxic chemical compounds (Bai et al., 2006). Therefore, a sustainable alternative to this current situation of unsafe, as well as inferior-quality, food is presented by a paradigm shift within our mind-set (Malinowska et  al.,  2015; Satya et  al.,  2007).

5. Significance of Paradigm Shift

From the various dietary surveys it is evident that cereal and legume grains form a major proportion of the diet of a majority of the population of developing nations. Cereals usually lack an essential amino acid, lysine; however, they are rich in sulfur-containing amino acids, whereas legumes are a rich source of lysine but are poor in sulfur-containing amino acids. Clearly the cereals and legumes exhibit nutritionally complementary behavior toward each other. Hence, the combination diet comprising around 65% cereals and 35% legumes would be ideal with regard to nutrition. This kind of supplementation enhances the overall nutritive status and also helps in dealing with protein–energy malnutrition (PEM), which is widely prevalent in these countries. Legumes having high dietary fiber have the benefits of lowering the glycemic index in diabetics, offering prevention from cancer, and providing protection against cardiovascular diseases (Kaushik et  al.,  2010; Satya et  al.,  2010). Indiscriminate and rampant use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides—the two inseparable yet key components of the modern system of agriculture (termed the green revolution)—are mainly responsible for the contamination of the soil–water–food matrix. It is evident that modern agriculture clearly has proven to be unsustainable across all fronts (such as, environment, energy, health, socioeconomic aspects, etc).

In the case of India, agriculture is a way to sustain life and not just business to earn income; therefore, it solicits a holistic perspective in the search for a pragmatic but sustainable solution. The alternatives should be able to clearly explain the intrinsic interrelationships between man and nature. In view of these concerns, several alternative agriculture systems that are more sustainable, such as permaculture, organic farming, and so on (Arya, 1995), have been promoted worldwide. Pesticide residues contaminating food grains are a grave threat to food safety. Since pesticide contamination has serious consequences for both the environment and human health, it is pertinent to understand the pattern of pesticide consumption, various pathways of intake, and the adverse environmental impacts.

6. Pesticides: Types, Application, Environmental Impacts, and Human Health Effects

6.1. Pesticides: Types and Application

Chemical pesticides have increased agricultural yields by controlling pests and diseases in plants and have contributed toward better human health and longevity by checking various insectborne, diseases, such as malaria, encephalitis, filariasis, and dengue, among others (Rekha et al., 2006). It is necessary to increase food production because of the rapidly growing world population (Agoramoorthy, 2008). One key strategy to increase crop productivity is through effective pest management, as almost 25%–30% of produce is attacked by pests (Kaushik et al., 2009). In tropical countries, various pesticides are inevitably applied on crop plants for combating pests and vectorborne diseases, as severe crop losses occur due to the high temperature and humidity providing a favorable environment for rapid pest propagation (Abhilash and Singh, 2009; Kannan et  al., 1992; Malinowska et  al.,  2015).

The major classes of pesticides that are commonly used in crop production include organophosphates (such as malathion and chlorpyrifos), organochlorines (lindane, endosulfan, aldrin, and dieldrin), the synthetic pyrethroids (cypermethrin, deltamethrin, and bifenthrin), and finally the carbamates (bendiocarb and carbaryl) (Raghvani and Poshiya, 2006). For the storage of grains, mainly pyrethroids (cypermethrin, deltamethrin, and bioresmethrin) and organophosphates (malathion and chlorpyrifos) are used (Athanassiou et  al.,