Quaternary of the Trent

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Hardcover Edition: ISBN 978-1-84217-461-6

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Quaternary of the Trent / edited by David Bridgland, Andy Howard, Mark White and Tom White.

        1 online resource.

  Summary: "This volume is an integrated overview and synthesis of available data relating to the Quaternary evolution of the

River Trent. It provides detailed descriptions of the Pleistocene sedimentary records from the Trent, its tributaries and related

drainage systems--a sedimentary record that spans a period of approximately half a million years--and the biostratigraphical

and archaeological material preserved therein. The fragmentary Trent terrace sequence is an important element of wider

reconstructions of Pleistocene palaeodrainage in Britain, providing a link between the records preserved in the English Midlands

and those in East Anglia"--Provided by publisher.

  Includes bibliographical references and index.

  Description based on print version record and CIP data provided by publisher; resource not viewed.

  ISBN 978-1-78297-024-8 (epub) -- ISBN 978-1-78297-025-5 (mobi) -- ISBN 978-1-78297-026-2 ( pdf) -- ISBN 978-1-

84217-461-6 1. Geology, Stratigraphic--Quaternary. 2. Geology, Stratigraphic--Pleistocene. 3. Paleontology--Quaternary.

4. Paleontology--Pleistocene. 5. Geology--England--England--Trent Valley (Staffordshire-North Lincolnshire) 6. Geology-

-England--Midlands. 7. Paleontology--England--Trent Valley (Staffordshire-North Lincolnshire) 8. Paleontology--England--

Midlands. I. Bridgland, D. R. II. Howard, Andrew J. III. White, Mark, 1966- IV. White, T. S.

  QE696

  551.7'909425--dc23

2014019865

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Front cover: Top left, main – Colour DEM of the Middle–Lower Trent, showing the Trent Trench and the Jurassic escarpment,

with the Lincoln and Ancaster gaps. Top right – Quarrying operations in 2005 at the Lafarge workings, Whisby, Lower Trent.

Bottom left – Section at Girton Quarry, Lower Trent, 2005. Bottom right – The modern River Trent: Carlton-on-Trent windmill,

viewed from the opposite bank of the river, near Besthorpe quarry. Top left inset – a selection of flint and quartzite artefacts from

the Trent, all illustrated in the monograph colour plates. Bottom left inset – a mammoth tooth from Norton Bottoms Quarry, Lower

Trent.

Contents

List of figures, tables and plates

Acknowledgements

Preface

Summary

Résumé

Zusammenfassung

1  Introduction: the Trent and its Pleistocene record

1.1  Introduction

1.2  The Trent catchment: relief and drainage

1.2.1  The Lincoln Edge and its Gaps

1.2.2  Tributaries and related drainage

1.2.2.1  Tributaries of the Upper Trent

1.2.2.2  Tributaries of the Middle Trent

1.2.2.3  Tributaries and former courses of the Lower Trent

1.3  Early research on the Trent sequence

1.4  The stratigraphical framework: Quaternary chronostratigraphy and correlation

1.4.1  The formation of river terraces

1.4.2  The archaeological record

1.5  The Quaternary record of the River Trent

1.5.1  Classification of Trent terraces and deposits

1.5.1.1  Geomorphological classification

1.5.1.2  Lithostratigraphical classification

1.5.2  Trent terrace deposits from different reaches

1.5.2.1  The Middle Trent sequence

1.5.2.2  The Trent Trench

1.5.2.3  The Lower Trent sequence

1.5.2.4  Sequences in key tributaries

1.5.3  The record of glaciation in the Trent catchment

1.5.3.1  Anglian glaciation

1.5.3.2  Post-Anglian–pre-Devensian glaciation

1.5.3.3  Late Devensian glaciation

1.5.3.4  Glacial Lake Humber and the final diversion of the Trent

1.5.4  The North Sea basin

1.5.5  The Baginton–Bytham–Ingham River

1.6  The Lower and Middle Palaeolithic record in the Trent Valley

1.6.1  The Trent Valley Palaeolithic Project

1.7  TVPP Methodology

1.7.1  Clast analysis

1.7.1.1  Gravel-forming rocks local to the Trent catchment

1.7.1.2  Lithologies exotic to the Trent catchment

1.7.1.3  Characteristic clast suite of Trent gravels

1.7.1.4  Angularity–roundness analysis of flint clasts

1.7.2  Geochronology

1.7.2.1  Optically stimulated luminescence dating

1.7.2.2  Amino acid racemization dating

2  The geological record: sedimentological and geomorphological data from the TVPP

2.1  Introduction

2.1.1  Geological data collection

2.2  Evidence for pre-Anglian and Anglian Trent drainage

2.2.1  Pre-Anglian drainage from the West Midlands (Baginton–Bytham system)

2.2.1.1  Waverley Wood Farm Pit (SP 372718)

2.2.1.2  Brandon, Pools Farm Pit (SP 384763)

2.2.1.3  Huncote, Acresford Quarry (SP 5024 9754)

2.2.1.4  Brooksby (SK 670160)

2.2.1.5  The Hathern Gravel

2.2.1.6  Castle Bytham

2.2.2  Evidence for pre-Anglian and Anglian drainage in the Upper and Middle Trent

2.2.2.1  Wilford Hill (SK 582352; Fig. 2.4)

2.2.2.2  Possible equivalent gravels in the Rugeley–Uttoxeter area

2.2.3  The Trent via Ancaster

2.2.3.1  Sentinel Wood, west of North Rauceby

2.2.3.2  Ermine Street

2.2.3.3  Sudbrook

2.2.3.4  Between Gelston and Hough on the Hill

2.2.3.5  Harlaxton Reservoir, Little Ponton (SK 905334)

2.3  The Anglian glaciation

2.3.1  The Elvaston and Swarkestone Channels

2.4  The late Middle–Upper Pleistocene Trent (the ‘Lincoln Trent’)

2.4.1  The Upper Trent and the major tributaries

2.4.1.1  Main Trent

2.4.1.2  River Tame

2.4.1.3  River Blithe

2.4.1.4  River Dove

2.4.1.5  River Derwent

2.4.1.6  River Soar

2.4.2  The Middle Trent

2.4.2.1  Alder Moor, Somersal Herbert (SK 145355)

2.4.2.2  Mill Hill, Breaston (SK 4623 3455): Sandiacre Gravel

2.4.2.3  The Etwall Sand and Gravel: Hilton Gravel Pit SSSI (Hilton East Pit; SK 252317

2.4.2.4  Broomhill Farm, Foston (SK 182326)

2.4.2.5  Atkin’s Farm, Stenson (SK 328302)

2.4.2.6  Willington Quarry (SK 278273)

2.4.2.7  Barrow upon Trent, Lafarge (formerly Redland) quarry (SK 3450 2850)

2.4.2.8  Shardlow Quarry (SK 445295)

2.4.2.9  Holme Pierrepont (SK 625384)

2.4.2.10  Lower Derwent: the Allenton Terrace

2.4.2.11  Rivers Smite and Devon (Vale of Belvoir)

2.4.3  The Lower Trent

2.4.3.1  Newark to Lincoln

2.4.3.2  Lincoln to the Wash

2.4.3.3  Lincoln to the Humber

2.4.4  Evidence from between the modern Trent and Witham courses

2.4.4.1  Kirmington (TA 103117)

2.4.4.2  Welton-le-Wold (TF 284882)

2.5  Evidence for a post-Anglian–pre-Devensian glaciation in Lincolnshire

2.5.1  Disposition of the glacial deposits in relation to the Lower Trent terraces

2.5.1.1  Glacial gravels in the Horncastle area

2.5.1.2  Roughton Moor: Wellsyke Farm (TF 232638) and Fox Hill Sand Pit (TF 228627)

2.5.2  Post-Anglian–pre-Devensian glaciation in the Upper and Middle Trent

2.5.3  Tracing the Wragby Till glaciation into adjacent catchments to the south

2.5.3.1  Blossom Hill, Uffington (TF 064089)

3  The palaeontological record: data from fossils for biostratigraphy and palaeoenvironments

3.1  Introduction

3.2  Palaeontological studies as part of the TVPP

3.2.1  Vertebrates

3.2.2  Molluscs

3.2.3  Palynology

3.2.4  Plant macrofossils

3.2.5  Insects

3.3  Gazetteer of palaeontological sites

3.3.1  Pre-Anglian Trent drainage

3.3.1.1  Waverley Wood Farm Pit (SP 365715)

3.3.1.2  Brandon, Pools Farm Pit (SP 384763)

3.3.1.3  Brooksby (SK 670160)

3.3.2  Upper Trent

3.3.2.1  Whitemoor Haye Quarry, Staffordshire (SK173127)

3.3.3  Middle Trent

3.3.3.1  Etwall and Egginton Common Formations (formerly Upper and Lower Hilton Terraces)

3.3.3.2  Beeston-Allenton Terrace

3.3.3.3  Holme Pierrepont Sand and Gravel

3.3.4  Lower Trent: Newark–Lincoln

3.3.4.1  Eagle Moor Sand and Gravel

3.3.4.2  Balderton Sand and Gravel

3.3.4.3  Norton Bottoms Quarry

3.3.4.4  Field House, Norton Disney (SK 851953)

3.3.4.5  Holly Farm, Brough (SK 841585)

3.3.4.6  Fulbeck Sand and Gravel

3.3.4.7  Scarle Sand and Gravel

3.3.4.8  Bassingham Fen deposits

3.3.5  Lower Trent: Lincoln to the Wash (Witham valley)

3.3.5.1  BGS borehole(s) at Coronation Farm, Southrey, and the Hermitage, Stainfield

3.3.5.2  Bain valley and Bain–Witham confluence area

3.3.6  TVPP sites unrelated to modern drainage

3.3.6.1  Kirmington

3.3.6.2  Welton-le-Wold

4  Gravel extraction: history of the aggregates industry in the Trent valley

4.1  Introduction

4.2  Early sand and gravel working

4.3  The emergence of an aggregates industry

4.4  Aggregates and the construction of modern Britain

4.5  The economics of aggregates extraction

4.6  Aggregates and archaeology

4.7  Conclusions

5  Archaeology: the Lower and Middle Palaeolithic record from the Trent catchment

5.1  Introduction

5.2  Palaeolithic research in the English East Midlands

5.3  Trent valley collectors and collections

5.3.1  Fred.W.G. Davey

5.3.2  A. Leslie Armstrong

5.3.3  George F. Turton

5.3.4  K.G. Smith

5.3.5  Other collections

5.3.6  Previous research on the Trent collections

5.4  Gazetteer of Trent valley Palaeolithic sites

5.4.1  The pre-Anglian Baginton–Bytham River

5.4.1.1  Warwickshire

5.4.1.2  Leicestershire

5.4.2  The Upper and Middle Trent

5.4.2.1  Derbyshire general

5.4.2.2  Hilton and Willington (Derbyshire)

5.4.2.3  Nottinghamshire

5.4.3  The Lower Trent and Lincolnshire

5.4.3.1  Newark to Lincoln

5.4.3.2  Witham-Trent, Lincoln to Tattershall

5.4.3.3  Lincolnshire Wolds and other outliers

5.5  Discussion and interpretation

5.5.1  Geographical distribution

5.5.2  Dating and settlement history

5.5.3  Raw materials and taphonomy

5.5.4  Technology and typology

5.6  Concluding remarks: value and potential

6  Synthesis: the Pleistocene evolution and human occupation of the Trent catchment

6.1  Origins of the Trent: evidence for pre-Anglian drainage

6.1.1  Evidence for Trent drainage via Ancaster

6.1.2  Pre-Anglian drainage from the Midlands into East Anglia

6.1.3  Routeways for early humans into the Trent prior to the Anglian

6.2  The Anglian glaciation

6.2.1  The Wilford Hill Gravel: a snapshot of the Anglian Trent

6.3  The first diversion of the Trent: abandonment of west–east flow through the Ancaster Gap

6.3.1  A missing interval (MIS 11–9) in the Trent

6.3.2  Human occupation during MIS 11–9

6.4  A hitherto poorly documented late Middle Pleistocene glaciation

6.4.1  Evidence for glaciation in MIS 8 outwith the English Midlands

6.4.2  Evolution of the fluvial system following MIS 8 deglaciation

6.5  MIS 7: the Norton Bottoms interglacial

6.5.1  The evidence from Norton Bottoms

6.5.2  The Coronation Farm and Stainfield boreholes

6.5.3  The Bain–Trent confluence area (Tattershall Thorpe terrace)

6.5.4  Evidence for human activity in MIS 7

6.6  MIS 6: the Balderton Formation and its correlatives upstream and downstream

6.7  MIS 5e: The Ipswichian interglacial

6.7.1  Human absence: of necessity, negative evidence

6.8  MIS 5d-4/3: The Early and Middle Devensian (Last) Glacial

6.8.1  Mid-Devensian climatic fluctuation

6.8.2  Incision to the Holme Pierrepont terrace level

6.8.3  Neanderthal visitors

6.9  The Late Devensian (MIS 2) glaciation

6.9.1  The final diversion of the Trent

6.10  From Devensian deglaciation to the modern river system

6.11  Dating control

6.11.1  Biostratigraphy

6.11.2  Geochronology

6.11.3  Comparative evidence from the Peak District karst

6.11.3.1  The ‘Pocket Deposits’

6.11.3.2  Karstic evidence in the Dove catchment

6.11.3.3  Karstic evidence in the Derwent catchment

6.11.3.4  Synthesis of Peak District karstic evidence

6.11.4  Mathematical modelling of fluvial incision and vertical crustal motion in the Trent catchment

6.11.4.1  The Middle Trent and its tributaries

6.11.4.2  The Lower Trent and Witham-Trent

6.11.4.3  The Ancaster Trent

6.11.4.4  The ‘Bytham River’

6.11.4.5  Lateral variations in crustal properties

6.12 Concluding remarks

REFERENCES

COLOUR PLATES

APPENDICES

List of figures, tables and plates

Figures

Fig. 1.1 The Trent catchment and adjacent drainage systems, also showing the Lincoln and Ancaster gaps through the Jurassic escarpment.

Fig. 1.2 The relief of the Trent Valley and the wider Midlands region.

Fig. 1.3 Bedrock geology of the Trent catchment.

Fig. 1.4 Trent palaeodrainage. Former routes of the Trent suggested by earlier workers, also showing the gaps in the Jurassic escarpment and in other watersheds through which they are supposed to have passed.

Fig. 1.5 Ice limits of the major British glaciations in relation to the Trent valley, showing details of the inter-related till types (facies) of the Middle Pleistocene glaciation(s).

Fig. 1.6 The Marine Oxygen Isotope Curve, from deep-water marine sediments, for the last 1.8 Ma. Based on the LR04 benthic δ¹⁸O stack constructed by Lisiecki and Raymo (2005) by the graphic correlation of 57 globally distributed benthic records. Note the change from shorter cycles, of c. 40 ka, to the longer 100 ka cycles (the ‘Mid-Pleistocene Revolution’) at around the transition from the Early to the Middle Pleistocene (this boundary, which coincides with the Matuyama–Bruhnes magnetic reversal, lies within MIS 19).

Fig. 1.7 Idealized transverse profile of the Lower Thames, showing the mammalian assemblage zones (MAZ) that characterize the interglacial components of the sequence and the distribution of Palaeolithic artefacts (after Bridgland & Schreve, 2004 and Bridgland, 2006). Marine oxygen Isotope Stages (MIS) are indicated.

Fig. 1.8 Idealized transverse profile of the Severn–Avon, showing the incidence of interglacial sediments (modified from Bridgland et al., 2004a); note the potential double terrace within MIS 7. Marine oxygen Isotope Stages (MIS) are indicated.

Fig. 1.9 Explanation of an empirical model that explains river terrace formation in response to climatic forcing: A. original model from Bridgland (2000a), with downcutting at warming transitions; B. revised model, with downcutting at both warming and cooling transitions (after Bridgland, 2001, 2006); C. third possible scenario, with downcutting at cooling transitions to match records that are commonplace on the European continent, in rivers such as the Somme (after Bridgland & Westaway, 2007a).

Fig. 1.10 Idealized transverse profile of the erstwhile River Solent terrace sequence (modified from Westaway et al., 2006); south-coast raised beaches are shown for comparison. OSL dating from the work of Briant et al. (2006) is also shown.

Fig. 1.11 Idealized transverse profile of the River Somme, showing summaries of dating evidence (modified from Antoine et al., 2007). ESR = electron spin resonance.

Fig. 1.12 Idealized transverse profile of the ‘classic’ Trent terrace sequence in the area of the Dove confluence (modified from White et al., 2007a). Some elements of the stratigraphical sequence are projected into this reach from upstream and/or downstream.

Fig. 1.13 Doggerland, as reconstructed by Coles (1998), with modifications, including the positions of modern coastlines.

Fig. 1.14 The Baginton–Bytham–Ingham river system and neighbouring drainage alignments, according to Lee et al. (2006).

Fig. 1.15 Varieties of characteristic clasts (scales in mm): A. vein quartz, hand specimen; B. metaquartzite (metamorphic quartz), thin section under polarizing microscope, crossed polars; C. schorl-rock, clast surface and broken surface; D. Carboniferous chert, broken surface of clast, showing sponge-spicular debris etched out; E. Rhaxella chert, surface view and thin section under polarizing microscope, crossed polars, showing radiating chalcedonic infill of reniform spicules.

Fig. 2.1 Divisions of Chapter 2, showing the Trent drainage system, the locations of the main TVPP sites and the outlines of more detailed figures.

Fig. 2.2 The Baginton–Bytham River, as identified from the distribution of its gravels and from bedrock-surface morphology. The important Derby River and Hinckley River tributaries are shown, recognized in part from their input of Carboniferous chert into the system. Note the detailed resolution of the palaeo-valley floor in the area south-west of Coventry (from Shotton, 1953), the detailed resolution in the Soar–Wreake confluence area (from Rice, 1991), the recognition of a well-marked palaeo-channel beneath the deposits in the area of Melton Mowbray (from BGS DiGMap) and the significant constriction of the valley as it passes through the Jurassic escarpment in the Castle Bytham area (from Rose, 1989b).

Fig. 2.3 The sequence at Waverley Wood (Wood Farm Pit) in the summer of 2004 (modified from Keen et al., 2006).

Fig. 2.4 The oldest evidence in the Middle Trent. A. High-level gravels in the Nottingham area; B. The Wilford Hill outlier, showing the locations of the TVPP test pits depicted in C.

Fig. 2.5 Evidence from the vicinity of the Ancaster Gap. A. The Pleistocene deposits in and around the Ancaster Gap (after Berridge et al., 1999); TVPP sample locations are shown. B. Longitudinal profiles of the deposits associated with the Ancaster Gap (modified from Berridge et al., 1999).

Fig. 2.6 Sections in high-level gravels associated with the Ancaster Gap, at (A) Sentinel Wood, North Rauceby, (B) Ermine Street, (C) Gelston and (D) Little Ponton.

Fig. 2.7 Palaeochannels in the Derby area, in relation to superficial deposits in the area (from BGS DiGMap).

Fig. 2.8 Palaeochannels in the East Leake-Rempstone area. Modified from figure 13 of Carney (2007); note that the quarry footprint in the original extends too far to the south (© British Geological Survey, reproduced with permission).

Fig. 2.9 Glacial deposits as mapped by the BGS to the south of Nottingham (Geological Map Data © NERC 2007).

Fig. 2.10 The Upper Trent catchment, showing the distribution of TVPP sites and other localities of Pleistocene interest mentioned in the text. The limit of the Late Devensian Irish Sea glaciation and the location of associated outwash streams are indicated. For the distribution of terrace deposits see Plate 3.

Fig. 2.11 Longitudinal profiles of the Upper Trent terrace system, showing inputs from Late Devensian outwash streams in the various headwater valleys. Includes data from figure 11 of Stevenson and Mitchell (1955), which is revised using a projection oriented NW–SE, from SJ 750450 to SK 068132. This is extended downstream using a projection oriented S70°W–N70°E, from SK 026187 to SK 355307 (see text). The apparent downstream variations in the gradient of the river are mainly the result of foreshortening of some reaches relative to the orientation of the profile.

Fig. 2.12 Exposures at Barton-under-Needwood and Whitemoor Haye, August 2005. A. Quarry section at Barton-under-Needwood (August 2005), showing fluvial bedding and periglacial deformation structures; B. Section at Barton-under-Needwood (September 2005), showing sampling for OSL dating (HUN 1: Table 2.2); C. This and the remaining images show the TVPP exposures at Whitemoor Haye, which were located c. 500 m due east of woolly rhinoceros find spot (cf. Schreve et al., 2013; see Chapter 3.3.2.1). The sediments here, which are around 3m thick, show a large, reactivated sand lens between massive sheets of sandy gravels; D. Possible intraformational ice wedge pseudomorph; E. Digging into a small scour hollow filled with 0.35 m of organic material; F. Detail of sampled organic scour fill.

Fig. 2.13 Quaternary deposits and rock-cut terraces in the Derwent tributary valley. Combines data from Waters and Johnson (1958), Straw (1968) and later BGS mapping. A. Inset showing mapping of a part of the Middle Derwent by Straw (1968) using the Waters and Johnson scheme but with an additional Pilsley Terrace, which follows a putative earlier course. B. Inset showing detail of the Derby area.

Fig. 2.14 Derwent terrace long profiles, showing the TVPP revision of the Waters & Johnson scheme.

Fig. 2.15 Quaternary deposits in the Soar valley.

Fig. 2.16 Terraces of the Soar: A. terrace long profiles (after Rice, 1968, with modifications to include the Knighton Terrace and the Thurmaston, Hathern and East Leake gravels); B. Barkby Thorpe section; C. Barkby village section.

Fig. 2.17 Location of the gravel quarry at East Leake.

Fig. 2.18 Sections at East Leake, showing the locations of OSL samples. A. N-S face recorded in July 2005, showing the location of OSL samples ELQ 05/01 & 05/02; B. photograph showing the dose readings for OSL sample ELQ 05/02 in progress; C.Section showing the stratigraphical location of OSL sample ELQ 05/03; See also Plate 5.

Fig. 2.19 Middle Trent terrace long profiles (after White et al., 2007a, with modifications). See also Plate 4 for a version with tributary valleys also shown.

Fig. 2.20 The distribution of Middle Trent gravels, showing sites described in the text. For the distinction of individual terraces see Plate 3.

Fig. 2.21 TVPP hand-dug sections in the Middle Trent: A. Somersal Herbert; B. Mill Hill, Breaston; C. Hilton Gravel Pits SSSI; D. Broom Hill Farm, Foston.

Fig. 2.22 Terrace deposits in the Etwall-Willington area; the location of Fig. 2.24A is indicated (from White et al., 2007e, with modifications).

Fig. 2.23 Section in the machine-excavated trial pit at Atkin’s Farm, Stenson.

Fig. 2.24 Willington Quarry: A. Location of the TVPP sections within this large complex of quarries; B. Diagrammatical section showing the two terraces represented in the TVPP exposures; C. Section in the upper terrace at Willington (August 2005), showing gravel sample location; D. Section in the upper terrace at Willington (November 2005), showing sampling for OSL dating. For earlier (Mid 20th century) records from Willington, see Plate 7.

Fig. 2.25 Section at Barrow upon Trent, sampled for OSL dating. A. drawing; B. photograph.

Fig. 2.26 Section beside haul-road at Shardlow Quarry showing peat with wood remains falling from the upper part of the section. Movement of heavy plant past these exposures prevented closer inspection.

Fig. 2.27 Sections at Holme Pierrepont (after Howard et al., 2011).

Fig. 2.28 Terrace deposits and localities in the Derwent-Trent confluence area. The built-up area of Derby is shaded.

Fig. 2.29 Well-record sequence at the Crown Inn, Allenton, Derby (after Arnold-Bemrose & Deeley, 1896).

Fig. 2.30 Section at Boulton Moor (after Jones & Stanley, 1974).

Fig. 2.31 Gravels of the Smite-Devon tributary system. A. Mapped outcrops the Whatton Sand and Gravel and other deposits (from BGS DiGMap); B. Ditch section at Scarrington; C. Hand-dug pit at Hill Farm, Aslockton.

Fig. 2.32 Lower Trent longitudinal profiles (after Brandon & Sumbler, 1988, 1991, with modifications), showing the much steeper gradient of the Fulbeck Sand and Gravel (Witham tributary)

Fig. 2.33 The gravel terraces of the Lower Trent, showing sites described in the text (after White et al., 2010, with modifications). The sections indicated appear in Fig. 2.65.

Fig. 2.34 Eagle Moor and Balderton terrace remnants between Newark and Lincoln, showing their relation to lower and younger terrace deposits in the Trent and Witham valleys. The bluff between the higher and lower facets of the Eagle Moor Terrace is indicated.

Fig. 2.35 Location of Birch Holt Farm (inset shows the Eagle Moor and Balderton gravel outcrops between Newark and Lincoln).

Fig. 2.36 TVPP hand-dug sections in the Lower Trent: A. Birch Holt Farm; B. Photograph showing OSL dosimetry being undertaken at Birch Holt Farm; C. Ditch section at Eagle Moor; D. Monson’s farm, Skellingthorpe.

Fig. 2.37 Location of the Norton Bottoms Quarry and nearby sites in the Balderton Formation.

Fig. 2.38 A. Section at Norton Bottoms, 2005–6, showing fossiliferous beds. B. Photo-montage showing the area of Norton Bottoms Quarry in which the fossiliferous samples were obtained. C. Intraformational ice-wedge cast. D. Section in MIS 6 gravels. E. Post-TVPP section, 2008 (for location, see Fig. 2.37). For other views of sections at Norton Bottoms, see Plate 9A & B.

Fig. 2.39 A. The Field House irrigation pond, Norton Disney, looking south; B. core into organic channel-fill deposits from below water level at southern end of the Field House pond; C. The irrigation pond at Holly Farm, Brough, during sampling operations, showing high water level; D. close-up view of organic channel-fill sediments extending below water level at the Holly Farm pond.

Fig. 2.40 Cemex Quarry, Norton Wood. A. Section 1, in the lower-level part of the quarry, showing interbedded gravel sheets and sand-filled channels, with intraformational ice-wedge casts. The position of OSL sample NOD05-01 is shown. B. Section 2, also in the lower-level part of the quarry, showing horizontally bedded gravel cut by a channel filled with cross-bedded sand. Much of the lower part of the section was obscured by talus, although part of a lower gravel was seen, with various sand bodies, one of which was sampled for OSL NOD05-02. C. Section 3, in the higher part of the quarry, above the haul road, showing trough-cross-bedded sands between lower and upper gravels. The position of OSL sample NOD05-03 is shown. D. Photograph showing Section 1, with the OSL sampling underway.

Fig. 2.41 Location of the Lafarge quarry at Whisby and of earlier documented workings.

Fig. 2.42 Records of exposures of the Balderton Sand and Gravel at Whisby. A. Section recorded during the TVPP (July 2005) and sampled for gravel analysis and OSL dating; B. OSL dosimetry recording from the upper (?Whisby Sand) deposit; C. Photograph of Whisby Quarry in July 2005; D. Exposure at Whisby Quarry, 1990–1991, when the face (c. 4 m high) was dominated by a large, epigenetic ice-wedge pseudomorph, most probably of Dimlington Stadial age; E. closer view of the exposure in 1990–1991, showing sub-bedded gravels, a variety of suprabar-top sandy sediments and slough channels. D & E are reproduced from Howard (1992).

Fig. 2.43 Location of key sections in the Scarle Sands and Gravels, with inset showing location within the regional terrace pattern (see also Fig. 2.34). A. Irrigation pond from which reindeer bones and antlers, now in the Brandon collection (see Chapter 3.3.4.7) were recovered; sections are no longer accessible. B. Irrigation pond and TVPP locality at Chennels’ Farm (sampled for OSL dating and clast lithological analysis).

Fig. 2.44 Section excavated during the TVPP at Chennels’ Farm, South Scarle. A. section log, showing location of OSL samples; B. Photograph taken during OSL dose recording.

Fig. 2.45 Location of the quarry workings at Besthorpe.

Fig. 2.46 Sections at Besthorpe.

Fig. 2.47 Location of the Girton Quarry. The inset shows the distribution of Quaternary deposits in the wider vicinity.

Fig. 2.48 Sections at Girton Quarry. A. Photomontage of the section exposed in September 2005; B. Drawing of the TVPP section ; C. Photograph of the OSL sample location GIR05-02, with enlargement in D; E. Location of OSL sample GIR05-01.

Fig. 2.49 Location of the Langford Quarry. The inset shows the distribution of Quaternary deposits in the wider vicinity.

Fig. 2.50 Section at Langford Quarry. A. The full sequence, recorded during TVPP field work. B. Photograph showing detail of the lower part of the sequence during OSL sampling.

Fig. 2.51 Location of the Bassingham Fen sample site and BGS boreholes in the vicinity, with inset showing the sampled sequence (after Howard et al., 1999a, 2007a). For details of boreholes see Fig. 2.52A.

Fig. 2.52 Cross sections through the sediments at and to the west of Bassingham Fen (modified from Howard et al., 1999a, 2007a). A. Borehole transects (for location see Fig. 2.51); B. stratigraphical relations according to Howard et al. (1999a, 2007a); C. Alternative interpretation of stratigraphical relations now favoured.

Fig. 2.53 Location of sites in the Witham valley downstream of Lincoln. The inset provides detail of the Witham-Bain confluence area, showing the location of the various quarries described by Holyoak and Preece (1985) and the modern quarries studied during the TVPP.

Fig. 2.54 TVPP hand-dug sections in the Witham and Bain valleys: A. Potterhanworth, ditch section; B. Armstrong’s Farm, Bardney; C. Stonehill Farm, Horncastle.

Fig. 2.55 Sections at the Cemex quarry, Tattershall. A. Drawing, Section 1; B. Drawing, Section 2; C. Photograph showing section excavation, August 2005; D. Detail of OSL sampling, September 2005.

Fig. 2.56 Section(s) at Bardon Quarry, Kirkby on Bain. A. Drawing of sampled section, July 2005; B. Photomontage of the sections existing in 2005; C. Section after migration of the quarry eastwards, December 2011, showing ice-wedge casts (photo David H. Roberts).

Fig. 2.57 Location of the Kirmington SSSI, showing the separate brick and gravel pits and the positions of British Association and TVPP borehole, as well as gravel sample localities. The inset shows the subsurface valley (from BGS mapping: Williamson, 1983; Berridge et al., 1994).

Fig. 2.58 The sequence at Kirmington, updated in the light of the TVPP work.

Fig. 2.59 Recent work at Kirmington, reported here: A. Drilling into the Kirmington estuarine deposits (Bed 12) with a hand-held mechanical corer. This provided the pollen record reported by Thomas (2001, 2002); B. TVPP borehole, July 2006, using a percussion rig; C. Core from A, showing the thin peat near the base of Bed 12.

Fig. 2.60 Graphic representation of flint angularity–roundness data from Kirmington (see Table 2.4). In the left-hand graphs all angularity–roundness classes are plotted. In the right-hand pair the very angular category, largely the product of in situ frost damage, is omitted, demonstrating the similarity of the two samples.

Fig. 2.61 Location of the Welton-le-Wold SSSI.

Fig. 2.62 Sections at Welton-le-Wold. A & B. Sections recorded by Alabaster and Straw (1976) and redrawn for the TVPP. C. The new ALSF sections, when newly excavated (Aram et al., 2004), showing the location of the TVPP gravel sample. Photo Helen Gamble.

Fig. 2.63 Extent of the Wragby Till and lateral equivalents (modified from Straw, 1983).

Fig. 2.64 Transverse section through the Trent-Witham valley both upstream and downstream of Lincoln, showing the stratigraphical relations between the fluvial terrace sequence and glacial sediments associated with the Wragby Till glaciation (after White et al., 2010, with modifications).

Fig. 2.65 Sections through the terrace deposits in the areas upstream and downstream of Lincoln (modified from White et al., 2010; original sources: Jackson, 1977, 1982; Crofts, 1982). For location of sections, see Fig. 2.55. A. Section through the eastern flank of the Trent valley and through the tributary Witham-Brant system. Note that the Balderton Formation of the Trent is hereabouts isolated from its parent river in a cut-off meander loop that is now drained by the Witham (see Fig. 2.33). B. Section across the Eagle Moor type-outlier and the Balderton Trent, immediately upstream of Lincoln, showing the dual levels of the former (see also Fig. 2.34). C. Tranverse section across the Witham (palaeo-Trent) valley, passing through the vicinities of Potterhanworth and Southrey; note the dual levels of the Martin Terrace.

Fig. 2.66 Location of Wellsyke Farm and Fox Hill Sand Pit. Inset shows the Quaternary outcrops in the vicinity.

Fig. 2.67 Section in the test pit at Wellsyke Farm, showing the location of the OSL sample.

Fig. 2.68 Section in Fox Hill Sand Pit, Roughton Moor, showing the stratigraphical positions of the OSL samples. A. section drawing; B. photograph.

Fig. 2.69 Evidence for post-Anglian–pre-Devensian glaciation in the Nene and Welland catchments. A. Distribution of evidence (modified from White et al., 2010; based in part on Langford, 2004). B. Section in cross-bedded glacial outwash gravels, described originally by Langford (2004), at Blossom Hill, Uffington.

Fig. 3.1 Location of sites in the gazetteer of palaeontological localities.

Fig. 3.2 Mammalian remains from Waverley Wood Farm Pit, now in Warwick Museum. A. Metapodial of horse; B. Atlas vertebra of P. antiquus (straight-tusked elephant); C. Molar fragment of P. antiquus. Few such specimens have been illustrated previously. Photographed as part of the TVPP.

Fig. 3.3 Woolly rhinoceros remains recovered from probable MIS 3 sand and gravel deposits at Whitemoor Haye Quarry, Staffordshire (copyright: Birmingham Archaeology).

Fig. 3.4 Summary pollen diagram from an organic channel-fill deposit, Section 2 (easternmost section), Holme Pierrepont (after Howard et al., 2011).

Fig. 3.5 Section showing fossiliferous channel-fills in the Balderton Formation (after Brandon & Sumbler, 1991).

Fig. 3.6 Organic channel-fill sediments exposed in Norton Bottoms Quarry, summer 2007. A. Channel A, the lowest and most fossiliferous within the 2007 sequence (see Fig. 2.37). The cleaned section, prior to sampling, reveals a well-preserved specimen of Unio sp. Large freshwater bivalves of this genus are rarely preserved intact. Note the preservation of periostracum, the coloured outer layer. Scale graduated in 2 × mm. B. Difficult conditions at Norton Bottoms during the sampling of Channel A: ground water gushes from the base of the organic channel-fill deposits during the excavation of stratified bulk samples (1 – 4). These sediments yielded molluscs and insects in a remarkably good state of preservation. C. Channel B, c. 2 m higher within the Norton Bottoms stratigraphy. D. Close up view of Channel B during sampling. This location produced the best palynological record from the site, as depicted in Table 3.19.

Fig. 3.7 Pollen diagram from organic channel-fill deposits, Field House Irrigation pond, Norton Disney.

Fig. 3.8 Mammalian remains from the Scarle Sand and Gravel, now in the Brandon Collection in the National Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh. A. Antler of reindeer (Rangifer tarandus); B. Distal right femur of bison (Bison priscus); C. Right tibia of B. priscus; D. Distal right tibia of B. priscus; E. Right tibia of B. priscus.

Fig. 3.9 The Stainfield, Coronation Farm and Kirkstead Bridge boreholes, based on BGS Mineral Assessment Unit data (Jackson, 1982). The locations of samples for pollen and other fossils are shown. Note that at Coronation Farm a second borehole was sunk nearby, presumably with the intention of undertaking more detailed analyses, although details are sketchy. Analysis of this second borehole, by Anne Bonny, yielded the pollen diagram illustrated here as Fig. 3.10. Palynological data from the Borehole at Stainfield are illustrated in Fig. 3.11.

Fig. 3.10 Pollen diagram from the Coronation Farm borehole, based on counts undertaken in 1980–81 by Anne Bonny.

Fig. 3.11 Pollen diagram from the Mineral Assessment Unit borehole at ‘The Hermitage’, Stainfield (TF 1063 7191; see Jackson, 1982); analyses were by Anne Bonny, who produced a draft pollen diagram. Her data have been used to construct the diagram published here for the first time.

Fig. 3.12 Basal organic channel deposit at Kirkby on Bain.

Fig. 3.13 Pollen diagram from the upper sequence at Kirmington (after Thomas, 2002).

Fig. 4.1 The main gravel working areas in the Trent, past and present. The inset shows quarrying in the Upper Trent valley (data from BGS DiGMap).

Fig. 4.2 A Priestman crane-grab mounted on a pontoon, in use at Attenborough Quarry in the early 1930s (photo courtesy of Cemex UK).

Fig. 4.3 An early concrete-mixer lorry belonging to Trent Gravels Ltd, c. 1940 (photo courtesy of Cemex UK).

Fig. 4.4 Concrete runway at Alconbury (Cambridgeshire.) c. 1943, with USAAF personnel and B17 ‘Flying Fortress’ bomber in the background. Contracts such as involved in building this runway helped to establish Hoveringham Gravel Co., formed in 1939, reproduced from Cooper (2008).

Fig. 4.5 A Hoveringham Gravels lorry makes a delivery to Staythorpe Power Station construction site in the 1950s (photo courtesy of QMJ Publishing Ltd).

Fig. 4.6 ‘Wet’ working at Hoveringham in 1957: a dragline excavator loads material into a field hopper, which in turn is feeding trucks drawn by a diesel locomotive to the processing plant. Reproduced from Cooper (2008).

Fig. 4.7 A gravel barge on its way from Besthorpe Quarry to Wakefield passes the site of the original Girton Quarry (cf. Chapter 2.4.3.1), 2007. In the background are the towers of the former High Marnham Power Station, which contain large quantities of Trent Valley gravel. When the original quarries at Besthorpe and Girton were exhausted in the 1960s, they were filled with so-called ‘Marnham Ash’ pumped across the Trent in a pipeline. Photo: T. Cooper.

Fig. 4.8 ‘Mammoth’ by Kim James, originally from Hoveringham Gravels’ HQ, now at Nottingham Trent University (Photo by Tom Dodsley). The occurrence of Mammuthus primigenius in the Holme Pierrepont Sand and Gravel at Hoveringham is recorded in Chapter 3.3.3.3.

Fig. 5.1 The Saltley Handaxe (after Evans, 1897).

Fig. 5.2 Location of Upper and Middle Trent Palaeolithic Localities.

Fig. 5.3 The ‘Dawkins Line’ (after Dawkins, 1910, p. 255). This is the final iteration of the Severn-Wash Line, as reconstructed by Dawkins, having accommodated the discoveries of Palaeolithic material within fluvial deposits to the north of the original. The shading represents the area occupied by Dawkins’ ‘River-Drift Man’ and the white area by his ‘Cave Man’. The shaded patch in North Wales represents the preservation of pre-Devensian artefacts in Pontnewydd Cave (Green, 1984).

Fig. 5.4 Photographs of the early collectors of palaeoliths: A. A. Leslie Armstrong (second from the left) photographed with his excavation team at Ash Tree Cave, Derbyshire, in 1950; from left to right, Dr Arthur Court, A.L. Armstrong, Riddle Man ‘Knowall’, J.B. Himsworth and W.H. Hanbury (photograph reproduced by kind permission of the Hunter Archaeological Society; see also White et al., 2009). B. George F. Turton at his home in Nuthall, Nottinghamshire (courtesy of his son, John Turton). No photograph could be located of Fred D.W. Davey, the third major collector in the Trent, although he is remembered by Prof. Merrick Posnansky (pers. comm.), Posnansky met Davey while researching the Palaeolithic of the Midlands for his doctoral thesis in the 1950s.

Fig. 5.5 The Hopton twisted ovate handaxe (after Cockerton, 1954).

Fig. 5.6 Handaxe from Church Broughton, Derbyshire. Illustration reproduced from Posnansky (1963, fig. 1.1, courtesy of the Prehistoric Society). Artefact recorded as TPP 314 in the TVPP database.

Fig. 5.7 Handaxe from Scropton, Derbyshire. Illustration reproduced from Posnansky (1963, fig. 1.4, courtesy of the Prehistoric Society). Artefact recorded as TPP 315 in the TVPP database.

Fig. 5.8 Handaxes from Mickleover, Derbyshire. Artefacts recorded as TPP 223 and 224 in the TVPP database.

Fig. 5.9 Gravel pits at Hilton, Derbyshire, including the SSSI.

Fig. 5.10 Armstrong’s Section drawing from the West Pit, Hilton (surface at c. 68 m, maximum depth of gravel c. 5 m, minimum depth of gravel c. 4 m). From his notebook, archived at Derby Museum and Art Gallery (with permission).

Fig. 5.11 Artefacts from the Hilton Gravel pits, Derbyshire. Illustrations reproduced from Posnansky (1963), courtesy of the Prehistoric Society. All are handaxes except a single core (No. 27) and several flakes (Nos 28, 30, 31 & 35–37) and a possible scraper made on a flake (no. 33). See also Plate 12A.

Fig. 5.12 Possible Levallois core from Hilton (Camp Pit). Illustration from Posnansky (1963), courtesy of the Prehistoric Society. Photograph TVPP.

Fig. 5.13 Handaxes from the Willington gravel pits, Derbyshire. Illustrations reproduced from Posnansky (1963), courtesy of the Prehistoric Society. Nos 14 & 18 are made from quartzite, the remainder being flint. See also Plate 12B & C.

Fig. 5.14 Artefacts from Stoney Street Pit, Beeston, Nottinghamshire, collected by Mr F.W.G. Davey and now in the British Museum. Illustrations reproduced from Smith (1928). Artefacts TPP 164–170 in the TVPP database.

Fig. 5.15 Artefacts from Tottle Brook Pit, Beeston, Nottinghamshire, collected by Mr F.W.G. Davey. Illustrations reproduced from Posnansky (1963, figs 11 & 12), courtesy of the Prehistoric Society. Most are flakes (nos 1, 2, 4 & 6–16), along with a core (5), a scraper (3) and several handaxes (17–23). No. 21 is a quartzite handaxe, the remainder being flint.

Fig. 5.16 Artefacts from East Leake, Nottinghamshire. 1 & 2. Multiple-platform core showing the dominant episode of alternate flaking, in which an initial large flake removal has formed the knapping platform for a series of further parallel removals. 3. reverse view of the same core, showing the smooth surface of the orthoquartzite cobble used, with additional minor removals. 4. flake, showing heavily pronounced cone and bulb of percussion. A similar heavily struck flake with two very clear cones of percussion, demonstrating repeated striking, exists in the F.W.G. Davey collection at Nottingham City Museum (NCM.1991-527/98). Drawings by Yvonne Beadnell, published previously by White et al. (2008). See also Plate 13.

Fig. 5.17 Handaxe from Cropwell Bishop, Nottinghamshire. Illustration reproduced from Posnansky (1963, Plate 1.2), courtesy of the Prehistoric Society. Artefact photographed and recorded as TPP 295 in TVPP database.

Fig. 5.18 Palaeolithic findspots in the Lower Trent and Lincolnshire.

Fig. 5.19 Handaxes from Welton-le-Wold (after Straw & Wymer, 1977, courtesy of the Prehistoric Society).

Fig. 5.20 Possible artefacts and natural material from Kirmington, Lincolnshire. A. Three putative palaeoliths illustrated by Burchell (1931a), all from the supposed glacial (he called it Cannon-shot gravel) on the eastern side of the site (see Chapter 2.4.4.1); B. some of the randomly-selected natural flakes collected by Peacock (1991).

Fig. 5.21 Flat-butted cordate (bout coupé) handaxe from Risby Warren, Lincolnshire. Illustration reproduced from Lacaille (1946).

Fig. 5.22 Plot of artefact density in the Middle Thames per km² (based on quarried areas) per 100,000 years. This shows that numbers diminish through time, with a marked collapse by MIS 7. Modified from Ashton and Lewis (2002) to show only post-Anglian terraces formed by climatic forcing (see Chapter 1.4.1). Using these data as a proxy for population density, Ashton and Lewis suggested that hominin populations all but disappeared during MIS 7, possibly due to the first true breach of the Dover Strait or changes in habitat preference towards the cooler more continental conditions of Eastern Europe.

Fig. 5.23 Tripartite diagrams for handaxes from the Trent system. A. Roe’s (1968b) key to his tripartite diagram system; B. tripartite diagram for all unbroken hand axes from the Trent terraces; C. tripartite diagram for unbroken hand axes from the Hilton gravel pits.

Fig. 6.1 Pre-Anglian palaeodrainage in the Trent region.

Fig. 6.2 The Trent Trench: cause and key to problems of correlation within the Trent system: A. DEM; B. detailed map.

Fig. 6.3 The drainage that emerged following retreat of the Anglian glaciation.

Fig. 6.4 Trent palaeodrainage at the time of emplacement of the Eagle Moor–Martin Formation and upstream equivalents (including various divisions of the ‘Hilton terrace complex’).

Fig. 6.5 Reconstruction of the MIS 8 glaciation of the Trent and neighbouring regions.

Fig. 6.6 Idealized transverse section through the terraces of the River Nar, north Norfolk (after Boreham et al., 2010).

Fig. 6.7 Trent palaeodrainage at the time of emplacement of the Balderton–Southrey Formation and upstream equivalents.

Fig. 6.8 Trent palaeodrainage during the Ipswichian Interglacial, showing the sites at which Ipswichian deposits occur.

Fig. 6.9 Trent palaeodrainage during the Devensian (Beeston–Scarle–Tattershall Castle terraces and tributary equivalents); the early LGM Irish Sea glaciation, which fed into the Beeston Terrace via the Upper Trent catchment, is also depicted.

Fig. 6.10 Palaeodrainage during the latest Devensian, at the time of emplacement of the Holme Pierrepont Sand and Gravel; also showing the LGM glaciation of eastern England and associated pro-glacial lakes.

Fig. 6.11 Possible sequence of events in the diversion of the Trent from the Lincoln Gap to the Humber. A. Early phase of the Late Devensian glaciation (c. 28 ka), with the Trent flowing at the level of the Beeston Terrace, via the Lincoln Gap. B. Later in the Late Devensian glaciation (c. 23 ka), when the Wroot ice lobe was perhaps emplaced; the Trent continues to flow at the level of the Beeston Terrace. C. Late in the Late Devensian glaciation (c. 19 ka) east coast ice surges southwards to the Wash, blocking the Humber Gap and leading to the formation of pro-glacial Lake Humber and another pro-glacial lake in the Fen Basin; southward overflow of Lake Humber breaches the watershed between the Trent and Ouse systems. D. Following deglaciation the Trent flows to the Humber and is now separate from the Witham system, which drains the former lower Trent valley into the Fen Basin.

Fig. 6.12 Map of the White Peak Carboniferous limestone inlier (after Waltham et al. (1997), with additional hydrological information from Warwick (1964) and on hot springs from Brassington (2007)). Within the limestone area are numerous tributary dry valleys (in some cases they are hanging tributaries), maps of which have been published elsewhere (e.g., Warwick, 1964; Rowe et al., 1989); only high-level dry valleys are discussed in the text.

Fig. 6.13 West–east cross-section, with vertical exaggeration of c. 5.5, across the northern part of the White Peak uplands, between Bollington (SJ 930775) and Hathersage (SK 230814). After Brassington (2007), with modifications. Note the domed structure of the Carboniferous Limestone inlier, overlain by younger rocks to both the west and east.

Fig. 6.14 Composite transverse profile (after Rowe et al., 1989) illustrating the heights of landforms that bear upon the incision history of the Manifold valley in the Wetton Mill area (see Fig. 6.12 for location). The cross-section is located in the vicinity of Elder Bush Cave, where the modern river is c. 175 m O.D. Sites further upstream have been projected to this locality based on their disposition relative to the river.

Fig. 6.15 Long profile through the dry valleys and cave levels of Bradwell Dale (after Ford et al., 1983), also showing schematically the location of Batham Gate Cave (from Waltham et al., 1997). The horizontal extent of the area depicted is c. 2 km, Netherwater Swallet being located at c. SK 171790 and Bradwell Resurgence at c. SK 174812. Also shown for comparison are heights of the terraces of the adjacent River Noe (see Figs 2.13 & 2.14); age interpretations both for the karstic levels and the fluvial terraces are provided (see also section 6.11.4.1). A swallet is an opening through which a stream descends underground; a rake is a mineral vein, dating from the time of the post-Carboniferous metalliferous mineralization, that has since become karstified and may thus carry significant subsurface drainage. For further details of the cave system here, including illustrations of its plan-form in relation to the overlying network of dry valleys, see Ford et al. (1975, 1983) and Waltham et al. (1997).

Fig. 6.16 West–east profile through the cave levels adjoining Stoney Middleton Dale (after Waltham et al., 1997), showing the chronology (MIS) suggested in this volume. Correlation with the Derwent terraces has been achieved by taking their heights relative to the local river level (121 m O.D.; see Fig. 2.14) and projecting them relative to a height of 164 m O.D., just below the lowest of the karstic levels.

Fig. 6.17 West-east profile through some of the principal caves in Lathkill Dale. After Ford et al. (1983), with additional information from the Peak District Caving Lathkill Dale Area Index (available online: http://www.peakdistrictcaving.info/caveguides/cave_index_lathkill_dale.pdf). Correlation with the Wye-Derwent terraces has been achieved by taking their heights relative to the local river level (107 m O.D.; see Fig. 2.14) and projecting them relative to a height of 204 m O.D., adjoining the lowest of the karstic levels. Suggested MIS correlations are shown.

Fig. 6.18 Model predictions for Pleistocene uplift history at Willington. The present level of the Trent here is 40 m O.D. Gravel terrace heights (cf. Fig. 2.19 & Plate 4) are 43 m (Holme Pierrepont), 50 m (Beeston), 56 m (Egginton Common), 63 m (Etwall), 80 m (Sandiacre) and 92 m (Chellaston). Uplift has been measured relative to a reference level of 47 m O.D. The height of the Beeston Terrace has been corrected downward by 2 m to account for the longer downstream course at the time of its deposition (Fig. 6.9) compared with the Egginton Common and Etwall terraces. This prediction uses Wi = 6 km, u = 16°C km-1, κ = 1.2 mm s-1, to = 0.87 Ma and ∆Te = –3.4°C. Solid symbols indicate preferred age assignments for terrace deposits; open symbols indicate possible alternatives. Fainter ornament is used to denote observational evidence associated with glacio-isostastatic and/or downstream channel-lengthening effects of the Wragby glaciation (in this case, for the Sandiacre and Chellaston terraces), which is thus unrepresentative of regional uplift. Large numbers indicate MIS when the youngest deposits forming a given terrace are inferred to have been emplaced, 8(G) denoting terraces at heights that have been glacially (or glacio-isostatically) influenced. A. observed and predicted uplift histories. B. predicted histories of uplift rate variation.

Fig. 6.19 Model predictions for Pleistocene uplift history at Nottingham (Wilford Hill). The present level of the Trent is 22 m O.D. hereabouts; gravel terrace heights (O.D.) are 25 m (Holme Pierrepont), 30 m (Beeston), 37 m (Egginton Common), 46 m (Etwall), 55 m (Sandiacre) and 67 m (Chellaston), with the top of the East Leake and Wilford Hill gravels at 75 and 91 m O.D., respectively. Furthermore, the top of the Hathern Gravel has been projected downstream from its type locality to a height hereabouts of 47 m O.D. (see section 6.11.4.1). Uplift has been measured relative to a reference level of 26 m O.D. The height of the Beeston terrace has been corrected downward by 2 m (for explanation, see caption to Fig. 6.18). The prediction uses the same model parameter values and display format as Fig. 6.18 except ∆Te = –4.0 °C. The Hathern and Wilford Hill gravels have been labelled using different ornament to signify that they were emplaced by the post-Anglian–pre-Wragby glaciation river system (see Fig. 6.3); the preferred age of the Hathern Gravel is thus labelled 8+ to signify that it was emplaced during MIS 8 but before the Wragby glaciation. Mismatches between the model prediction and the heights of the Sandiacre and Chellaston terraces are attributed to Wragby glacio-isostasy and/or downstream channel-lengthening effects. The agreement between the model prediction and the height of the Hathern Gravel is fortuitous, given the catchment and downstream gradient changes that occurred following the Wragby glaciation. The c. 24 m mismatch between the model prediction and the height of the Wilford Hill Gravel is explained in the text. A. observed and predicted uplift histories. B. predicted histories of uplift rate variation.

Fig. 6.20 Model predictions for Pleistocene uplift history at Leicester. The modern level of the River Soar is 54 m O.D. hereabouts; its gravel terraces are at heights (O.D.) of 55 m (Syston), 59 m (Wanlip), 62 m (Lower Birstall), 65 m (Middle Birstall), 70 m (Upper Birstall), and 85–91 m (Knighton), whereas the top of the Thurmaston Sand and Gravel of the Bytham River is at 74 m O.D. (see Fig. 2.16A). Uplift has been measured relative to a reference level of 56 m O.D.; the height of the Wanlip (= Beeston) Terrace has been corrected downward by 2 m (for explanation, see caption to Fig. 6.18). The prediction uses the same model parameter values and display format as Fig. 6.18 except ∆Te = –1.7 °C and u = 14 °C km-1. Mismatches between the model prediction and terrace heights of the Upper Birstall and Knighton terraces are attributed to glacio-isostasy and/or downstream channel-lengthening effects related to the Wragby glaciation. The c. 3 m mismatch between the model prediction and the height of the Thurmaston Sand and Gravel is a consequence of deposition by the Baginton–Bytham River, not the modern Soar; distinct ornament is therefore used, while the number 12+ signifies that it was emplaced before the Anglian (MIS 12) glaciation. A. observed and predicted uplift histories. B. predicted histories of uplift rate variation.

Figure 6.21 Model predictions for Pleistocene uplift history at Derby. The present level of the River Derwent is 46 m O.D. hereabouts; its gravel terraces are at heights (O.D.) of 48 m (Belper), 54 m (Ambergate–Allenton), 60 m (Borrowash), 66 m (Ockbrook), 75 m (Little Eaton), 91 m (Matlock), and 119 m (High Tor), the last-mentioned being based on downstream projection from the type locality (see Chapter 2.4.1.5). The top of the Hathern Gravel (emplaced prior to the Wragby glaciation) has been projected upstream from its type locality to a height of 79 m O.D. (see text). Uplift has been measured relative to a reference level of 51 m O.D. The height of the Ambergate–Allenton (= Beeston) Terrace has been corrected downward by 2 m (for explanation, see caption to Fig. 6.18). The prediction uses the same model parameter values and display format as Fig. 6.18 except ∆Te = –3.2 °C. Mismatches between the model prediction and the heights of the Little Eaton and Matlock terraces are attributed to glacio-isostasy and/or downstream channel-lengthening effects related to the Wragby glaciation. The c. 12 m mismatch between the model prediction and the height of the Hathern Gravel can be attributed to catchment and gradient changes that followed the Wragby glaciation. The c. 36 m mismatch between the model prediction and the height of the High Tor Terrace is explained in the text. A. observed and predicted uplift histories. B. predicted histories of uplift rate variation.

Figure 6.22 Model predictions for the uplift history at Matlock. Uplift is measured relative to 87 m O.D., the present Derwent valley-floor level hereabouts. For reasons discussed in the text, to convert incision to uplift a 36 m correction is subtracted from the height of the Masson Hill karst. As described in section 6.11.3.3, this karstic level, c. 140 m above the modern River Derwent, preserves magnetostratigraphic evidence of the Matuyama-Brunhes transition. Projected heights of the Hathern Gravel are with (lower) and without (upper) the effect of post-MIS 8 rejuvenation removed. The better agreement with the upper prediction is consistent with there being no effect of this rejuvenation in the Matlock area. The prediction uses the same model parameter values and display format as for Fig. 6.18, except for W = 7.0 km and ∆Te = –4.2 °C. A. observed and predicted uplift histories. B. predicted histories of uplift rate variation.

Figure 6.23 Model predictions for the uplift history indicated by the karstic data from Lathkill Dale, in comparison with the terraces in the adjacent reach of the River Wye. Uplift is measured relative to the modern resurgence at 203 m O.D. for the karstic features (except the uplift estimate for the Brassington Formation deposits, the basis of which is explained in the text); the fluvial terraces are projected to a common reference level, as indicated in Fig. 2.14. Model prediction uses Wi = 7.5 km, u = 16°C km-1, κ = 1.2 mm s-1, to1 = 6 Ma, ∆Tel = +2.0°C, to2 = 3.1 Ma, ∆Te2 = –3.9°C, to3 = 2.0 Ma, ∆Te3 = –4.1°C, to4 = 0.9 Ma and ∆Te4 = –5.7°C. Notation and display format are the same as for Fig. 6.18. (A) Observed and predicted uplift history. (B) Enlargement of (A) covering the most recent part of the record. (C) Predicted history of uplift rate variation. Predicted uplift is 180 m since MIS 25 (950 ka), 315 m since 2.0 Ma and 410 m since 3.1 Ma. Predicted maximum uplift rates are 0.283 mm a-1 at 625 ka, 0.198 mm a-1 at 1750 ka and 0.147 mm a-1 at 2850 ka.

Figure 6.24 Model predictions for the uplift history indicated by the karstic data from the Castleton area, in comparison with fluvial terraces from the adjacent River Noe. Uplift is measured relative to the modern resurgence at 187 m O.D. for the karstic features; for the fluvial terraces it is measured relative to the level of the River Noe at Hope (161 m O.D.; 4 m below the level of the Belper Terrace), the pattern of relative heights being as in Fig. 2.14. Model prediction uses Wi = 7.5 km, u = 16°C km-1, κ = 1.2 mm s-1, to1 = 18 Ma, ∆Te1 = +1.5°C, to2 = 3.1 Ma, ∆Te2 = –3.9°C, to3 = 2.0 Ma, ∆Te3 = –4.1°C, to4 = 0.9 Ma, and ∆Te4 = –5.3°C. Notation and display format are the same as for Fig. 6.18. (A) Observed and predicted uplift history. (B) Enlargement of (A) covering the most recent part of the record. (C) Predicted history of uplift rate variation. Predicted uplift is by 97 m since MIS 13c (530 ka), 173 m since MIS 25 (950 ka), 312 m since 2.0 Ma and 413 m since 3.1 Ma. Predicted maximum uplift rates are 0.270 mm a-1 at 625 ka, 0.202 mm a-1 at 1750 ka and 0.153 mm a-1 at 2850 ka.

Figure 6.25 Model predictions for the uplift history indicated by the karstic data from the Wetton Mill area of the Manifold Valley. Uplift is measured relative to modern valley floor level, subject to the corrections discussed in the main text. These corrections result in the 34 m height of the Darfur Ridge Cave indicating 26 m of uplift and the c. 100 m height of Elder Bush Cave indicating c. 232 m of uplift. For interpretation A, the c. 50 ± 5 m rock flats indicate c. 112±5 m of uplift, whereas for interpretation B they indicate 42 ± 5 m of uplift. Model prediction uses Wi = 6 km, u = 16°C km-1, κ = 1.2 mm s-1, to1 = 6 Ma, ∆Tel = +2.0 °C, to2 = 3.1 Ma, ∆Te2 = –3.0 °C, to3 = 2.0 Ma, ∆Te3 = –3.3 °C, to4 = 0.9 Ma, and ∆Te4 = –2.7 °C. Notation and display format are the same as for Fig. 6.18. A. Observed and predicted uplift history. B. Predicted history of uplift rate variation. Predicted uplift is by 113 m since MIS 25 (950 ka), 238 m since 2.0 Ma and 330 m since 3.1 Ma. Predicted maximum uplift rates are 0.208 mm a-1 at 725 ka, 0.229 mm a-1 at 1850 ka and 0.178 mm a-1 at 2950 ka.

Figure 6.26 Model prediction for Pleistocene uplift history at Tattershall. The present level of the River Witham is close to ordnance datum hereabouts; the terraces of the Lincoln Trent are at heights (O.D.) of –1 m (‘Buried Terrace’ = Holme Pierrepont), 5 m (Tattershall Castle), 10 m (Southrey), 15 m (Martin: lower facet) and 20 m (Martin: upper facet, labelled Potterhanworth). Higher-level outwash gravels of the Wragby glaciation are also shown, at Tower Farm, Thornton, Scrivelsby and Langton Hill (See Chapter 2.5.1). Uplift has been measured relative to a reference level at 4 m O.D., no height correction having been applied to the Tattershall Castle Terrace because the course lengthening during its formation occurred upstream of this location. The model prediction uses the same model parameter values and display format as Fig. 6.18 except ∆Te = –2.4 °C. Plotted levels attributable to glacial effects (including glacio-isostasy) are in grey. A. observed and predicted uplift histories. B. predicted histories of uplift rate variation.

Figure 6.27 Palaeogeography of the Trent during the marine highstand of MIS 9, showing the estuary extending upstream of the Jurassic escarpment. Reconstruction in the Fen Basin based on Langford and Briant (2004).

Tables

Table 1.1 The classification of Triassic rocks in the English Midlands (after Warrington et al., 1980).

Table 1.2 Key publications in the history of Trent research and the BGS New Series map sheets and memoirs.

Table 1.3 Quaternary stages in Britain and Europe, also showing archaeological divisions.

Table 1.4 Pre-TVPP lithostratigraphical divisions within the Quaternary sequence in the Trent, divided into the key reaches. The numbered marine oxygen isotope stages are also shown. For the lithostratigraphical scheme advocated following the TVPP research, see Plate 2.

Table 1.5 Rudaceous facies in the bedrock of the Midlands and the Welsh Borderlands, showing their typical clast contents.

Table 1.6 Angularity–roundness categories for flint clasts (16–32 mm). These are based on verbal descriptions by Schneiderhöhn (1954; in Pryor, 1971) of the categories devised by Powers (1953). Simplified from Fisher and Bridgland (1986).

Table 2.1 Clast lithological data obtained from TVPP analyses. Note that in categorizing flint, clasts retaining beach pebble surfaces and nodular surfaces are counted in these categories, even when other broken and weathered surfaces occur. Clasts are only counted as broken if all faces clearly arise from breakages.

Table 2.2 OSL dating results.

Table 2.3 Summary of geochronology from the Tattershall sites.

Table 2.4 Angularity–roundness of 16–32mm flint clasts. For methodology, see Chapter 1.7.1.4; for explanation of categories and abbreviations, see Table 1.6; for explanation of source deposits see Bridgland (1983, 1986c, 1999a, b; Bridgland & D’Olier, 1995; Bridgland et al., 1995).

Table 3.1 Summary of mammalian remains from Waverley Wood (after Shotton et al., 1993; Keen et al., 2006).

Table 3.2 Molluscs from Waverley Wood (after Shotton et al., 1993; analyses by D. H. Keen).

Table 3.3 Coleoptera from Waverley Wood (after Shotton et al., 1993; analyses by G. R. Coope).

Table 3.4 Coleoptera from Brandon (after Maddy et al., 1994; analyses by G. R. Coope).

Table 3.5 Palaeobotany of the deposits at Brooksby (after Rice, 1991).

Table 3.6 Coleoptera from Brooksby (after Coope, 2006).

Table 3.7 Plant macrofossils from Whitemoor Haye, Area 1 (analyses by C. O’Brien).

Table 3.8 Mammalian taxa from the Allenton Terrace deposits in the vicinity of Derby.

Table 3.9 Plant macrofossils from the Allenton Terrace deposits at the Crown Inn, Allenton (after Arnold-Bemrose & Deeley, 1896).

Table 3.10 Molluscs from Holme Pierrepont, Section 1, Sample M3 (after Howard et al., 2011; analyses by D.H. Keen).

Table 3.11 Plant macrofossils from Holme Pierrepont, Section 2 (after Howard et al., 2011; analyses by C. O’Brien).

Table 3.12 Coleoptera from Holme Pierrepont, Sections 1 and 2 (after Howard et al., 2011; analyses by E. Tetlow).

Table 3.13 Molluscs from Whisby (R.C. Preece-A. Brandon archive). The analysed samples, each of 0.5 kg dry weight, were from interglacial sediment, as is indicated by the occurrence of C. fluminalis.

Table 3.14 ESR age estimates from elephant teeth from the Balderton Formation: analytical results (after Grün, 1991).

Table 3.15 Coleoptera from the Balderton Formation (after Coope & Taylor, 1991).

Table 3.16 Pollen and spores (total numbers) from the Balderton Formation (after Bonny et al., 1991). Five samples were analysed, a–c being from silt lenses within the Balderton Sand and Gravel and indicative of conditions during their deposition. Samples d1 and d2 were from sediments, interpreted as probable slope deposits, between the Balderton Sand and Gravel and the overlying Whisby Sand (cf. Brandon & Sumbler, 1991; see Chapter 2.4.3.1).

Table 3.17 Molluscs from the Balderton Formation, from organic sandy silts filling a channel at SK 8663 5895. Numbers of shells in a sample of dry weight 0.5 kg plus additional species (marked *) seen in a 5 kg bulk sample; for bivalves individual valves were counted (after Preece, 1991).

Table 3.18 Ostracods from the Balderton Formation (after Robinson, 1991).

Table 3.19 Pollen analyses from Norton Bottoms Quarry, Monolith B (for sample location, see Fig. 2.38). None of the sediments were deemed sufficiently rich in pollen to be worthy of full analysis (analyses by E. Hopla, B. Gearey & J.B. Innes).

Table 3.20 Molluscs from Norton Bottoms Quarry, basal sediments (analyses by R.C. Preece).

Table 3.21 Plant macrofossils from Norton Bottoms Quarry, basal sediments (analyses by C. O’Brien).

Table 3.22 Insects from Norton Bottoms (analysis by G.R. Coope). The nomenclature and taxonomic order follows that of Die Käfer Mitteleuropas : Katalog (Lucht, 1987). * = No longer living in the British Isles.

Table 3.23 Pollen from Field House, Norton Disney, and Holly Farm, Brough (analyses by E. Hopla & B. Gearey).

Table 3.24 Insects from Field House, Norton Disney, and Holly Farm, Brough (analyses by E. Tetlow).

Table 3.25 Vertebrate fossils in the Brandon Collection derived from the various irrigation-pond exposures in the type-outcrop of the Scarle Sand and Gravel (analyses by D.C. Schreve).

Table 3.26 Molluscs from