E

. ,
.

B /
T B'

E

E E ITE EIXHMY

ATPA 2002




HPOOPIKH

BAIKA ZHTHMATA IKTYN H/Y
B'
E

IPO OYKA
E E ITE EIXHMY

MAPIO MAYPONIKOA
E K T
K

AYO YPAKH
K T M H/Y &


IANNH KOYTONIKO

PANH KATH

TYPORAMA
,
TYPORAMA

/ 2002
ISBN: 9605384183
K : H 22/2
Copyright 2000

& , 26222 : (0610) 314094, 314206 : (0610) 317244
. 2121/1993,
.


K 1

E E

, , ,
E .................................................................................................................................... 13
1.1

I ...................................................................................................................................... 16

1.2

1.3

...........................................................................................................................

18

1.2.1 M

................................................

19

1.2.2 M

................................................

19

...........................................................................................................................
.............................................................

22

...................................................................

25

....................................................................................................................

26

1.3.1 K A
1.3.2 K A
1.3.3

22

1.3.4 ...................................................................................... 28
1.4

...........................................................................................................................

28

1.4.1 A ........................................................................ 29
1.4.2 X ...................................................................... 30
1.4.3 T

...............................................................................................

31

......................................................................................................................................................... 35
B ..................................................................................................................................................................... 36
K 2

, , ,
E .................................................................................................................................... 37

2.1

...........................................................................................................................
................................................

39

......................................................................................

40

2.1.1
2.1.2 A

.............................................................................

40

.........................................................................................................................

41

...........................................................................................................................

43

2.1.3
2.1.4 H
2.2

39

2.2.1 T ................................................................................ 44
2.2.2 Fourier .................................................................................................................................... 46
2.2.3 O Fourier

.................................................................................................

48

..............................................................................................................

49

...........................................................................................................................

52

................................................................................................................................

53

2.2.4 M
2.3

2.3.1 I

....................................................................................................................

55

...........................................................................................................................

57

...................................................................................................................................

58

2.3.2
2.4

2.4.1 E

2.4.2 ....................................................................... 59
............................................................................................................................

60

.......................................................................................................................................................

64

2.4.3

B ..................................................................................................................................................................... 66
K 3

, , ,
E .................................................................................................................................... 69
3.1

...........................................................................................................................

3.1.1 O

...........................................................

72
72

EPEXOMENA

3.2

...........................................................................................................................

74

3.2.1 (DSB) ...................................................... 75

3.2.2 (AM) ............................................................................................... 80
3.2.3 (SSB)
3.3

........................................................

89

...........................................................................................................................

94

3.3.1

....................................................................................

3.3.2 T

........................................

95
97

3.3.3 ..................................................................................................................... 98
3.3.4 O .................................. 100
3.4

........................................................................................................................

101

....................................................................................................................................................

104

B .................................................................................................................................................................. 106
K 4

M A

, , ,
E ................................................................................................................................ 107
4.1

........................................................................................................................

4.1.1

.................................................................................................

109
109

4.1.2 ......................................................................................................... 113

4.2

4.2.1 K

........................................................................................................................

116

..........................................................................................................................................

116

4.2.2 O

.........................................................................................................

121

4.2.3 A .................................................................................................... 122

4.2.4 K

.............................................................................................................................

125

4.3

........................................................................................................................

130

4.3.1 O .......................................... 130

4.3.2 Y ............................................................................................................ 132
4.3.3 H

..................................................................

132

................................................................................................................................................................................ 134
B .................................................................................................................................................................. 135
K 5

, , ,
E ................................................................................................................................ 137
5.1

........................................................................................................................

5.1.1 T

............................................................................................................

5.1.2 E

140

..........................................

145

........................................................................................

148

........................................................................................................................

151

5.1.3
5.2

140

5.2.1 ................................................................................................. 151

5.2.2 ........ 154
5.2.3

..........................................................................

5.2.4
5.3

155

.........

157

........................................................................................................................

159

5.3.1 ........................................... 160

5.3.2
5.3.3
5.4

..................................

162

...............................................

163

EPEXOMENA

........................................................................................................................

166

................................................................................................................................................................................ 170
B .................................................................................................................................................................. 172
A A A ............................................................................................... 173
.............................................................................................. 209
............................................................................................................................................................. 213

, ,
, , .
(2 ) /, ... ,

.

1 ,

. ( , , ) .
2
,
. , ,
. ,
, , .
3 , ,

12

. ,
, , . , .
4
. . ,
, , .
, 5
. . ,
, ,
.
, ,
.

,
, .
, ..

, . ,
.., . , ,
.
.
2001

E E

,
.

, :
,
,

,
,
.

(modem)

(ADC)

(DAC)

() . [< . ] = , .
() . [< - + ] = , ( , - , 1993).

14

KEAAIO 1: E E

. , , ,
.
,
, . , .
,
(.. , ,
, , ..).
,
.
,
, , . , , , . , , .
. ,
, .
, , 0 1. ,
, .

,
. ,

.

.

15

,
.
:
,
,
, ,
, , ,
, , , , , , .
,
.
, , , . ,
21 .
1.1
;
()
()
() (fax)
()
()
()
()
()
: .

KEAAIO 1: E E

16

1.1 I

:
,
.

1200 ..
, ( ).
( , , 1997).

.
1844

Samuel Morse , ,
Baltimore Washington, DC.
,
: , ,
.

1876

Alexander Graham Bell.

.

1901

Guglielmo Marconi
.

1905

, , Reginald Fessendan.

1920

Pittsburgh .

1931

1937

Alex Reeves PCM, .

1939

BBC.

1940 45
, -

1.1 I

(radars), , .
1950

,
.

1953

,
36 .

1962

TELSTAR I, , .

1966

Kao Hockman
.

1969

ARPANET,
, .

1981

NHK
(High Definition TV, HDTV).
.

1985

(Integrated Services Digital
Network, ISDN).

1986

SDH/SONET,
.

1991

GSM (Global
System for Mobile communications), .

, :
, .

17

KEAAIO 1: E E

18

1.2

, :
,

,

.
, .
,
. ,

.
ADC

DAC

1.1

(ADC)
(DAC)
ADC,
, .
DAC, ,
.

1.2

ADC (Analog to Digital Converter ),
DAC (Digital to Analog Converter
). 1.1.
1.2.1

ADC , .
.
,

,
.
(quantiser)
, .
(encoder)
(), , . .

(Pulse Code Modulation PCM), .
1.2.2

DAC .
(decoder)
. ,
.

19

KEAAIO 1: E E

20

, .
1.1
x(t) 1.2.
.
ADC .
, .
, S0, S1, , S6 (
1.2.).
(0 000, 1 001, 2 010, , 6 110).

. , 1 001,
2 010,, 5 101 ...
,
. ~
x (t) ( 1.2.).
1.2

, 1.1;
() ,
, , .
()
, , .
() bits .
: 1.2.

1.2

21

1.2

x(t)

() T

()

6 110
5 101
4 100
3 011
2 010
1 001
0 000

S6
S5
S4
S3
S2
S1
S0

() K
001 010 011 101 101 100 011 011 010 010 100 100 101 110 110

() T

~x (t)

() T

KEAAIO 1: E E

22

1.1

DAC 1.1
;

1.3 T

, :
,

,
,
,
,
.
, . 1.3. ,
,
, .
, , , .
1.3.1

1 . 3 T

23

bits (binary
digits). ,
bits .
.

modem

modem

1.3

.
, ,
, .
, ,
, ,
.

, .

KEAAIO 1: E E

24

,
. , .
, bits (..
az 7 bits, AZ 8 bits, 09 4 bits).

.
1.2
(.. )
(.. , ,
). ,
10.000 .
( 1.1),
,
;
1.1

1.2

0,3

00

10

0,5

01

0,15

10

110

0,05

11

111

1 . 3 T

25

1.3
,
.
0,5, 0,4 0,1, ,
. ,
100.000,
, bits.
x
y, P[x | y] (
1.2).
1.2

x y,
P[x | y], 1.3.

0,9

0,3

0,9

0,4

0,1

0,1

0,3

1.2 bits;
: .

1.3.2

. : (authorization) (authentication).
,

(.. ,
) .

KEAAIO 1: E E

26

, , . , , , ,
.
,
.
,
.
1.3.3

,
, bits
, . ,
bits , ,
, .
;
bits ( 0 1 1
0) bits bits.
, .., ,
, , ..,
.
bits , bits
, bits . .
. bits
, ,
:
()
( ,

1 . 3 T

27

bits, bits),
() bits
() .
: bits ,
, .
, .
, ,
, , .
1.3

. ;

bits

.

1.4

bits .
.

KEAAIO 1: E E

28

1.3.4

, modem
(MOdulator DEModulator)
,
,
. , modem
,
.
, , .
:
(.., ,

, ),

(.., 56.000 bps bits ),
(.., 300 3400 Hz), ..
ITU T
, .

1.4 T

, :
,
,
,
.

1 . 4 T

. .., . .
. (,
.., ),
, .
1.4.1

, bits
. bits.
(noise), .
, (, ..,
). , bits.
,
. .
1.2
bits 11010. ,
() 1.4.

29

KEAAIO 1: E E

30

11010

modem

modem

10010

()

()

1.4

modem bits ( ()).
, , ( ()).
, ,
bit (0 1).

[ () 1.4]. , 10010. ,
.
1.4.2

:
bits,
,
bit,
.

1 . 4 T

.
(throughput) , ,
.
. , , , ..,
,
.
.
. ,
.
(.. , , ,
..).
1.4.3

: , (fiber
optic) .
: (twisted pair wires) (coaxial
cables). 1.5 .

1.5
,
. .

bits .

31

KEAAIO 1: E E

32

1.5

0 350 MHz

0,1 7 km

100 kHz 1 GHz

1 km 60 km

100 THz (1014 Hz)

2 km 300 km

. , , ,
. ,
.

( ) . 1.6 .
O K

1.5

K Z

1 . 4 T

,
. .
, (
), .
, .
,
.

33

KEAAIO 1: E E

34

1.6

VLF (Very Low Frequency)

LF (Low Frequency)
MF (Medium Frequency)
HF (High Frequency)
VHF (Very High Frequency)
UHF (Ultra High Frequency)
SHF (Super High Frequency)

3 30 kHz
30 300 kHz
300 3000 kHz
3 30 MHz
30 300 MHz
0,3 3 GHz
3 30 GHz

1000s km
100s km
100s km

. , ,
,
, . , .

, .

. , , ,
, , .

YNOH

.
, .
(ADC)

.
, ,
. .
,
, .
( ) .

35

KEAAIO 1: E E

36

1 Glover Grant (1998) Couch

(1997)
. , Shanmugam, . (1979).
7 Walrand
(1998). ,
. . (1997).
[1] Ian Glover and Peter Grant. Digital Communications. Prentice Hall, Inc.
ISBN 0135653916. (1998).
[2] Leon W. Couch II. Digital and Analog Communication Systems. Fifth Edition.
Prentice Hall, Inc. ISBN 0135990289. (1997).
[3] K. Sam Shanmugam. .
: . . . . (1979).
[4] Jean Walrand. Communications Networks: A First Course. Second Edition.
McGraw Hill. ISBN 0256174040. (1998).
[5] .
. . ISBN 9602200863. (1997).

, .

, :

,
,
,

,
,

,

.

Fourier

Fourier

K E A A I O 2 : B

38

: ;
,
, .., .
t. , t . x(t).
, ,
- . , : .
. ,
, ,
. , ,
.
.
. , ,

.

. ,
. , .

2 . 1 E

39

2.1 E

, :
,
,
,
.
2.1.1

x(t) t .
t , x(t)
, x(t) .
, 2.1. ,
2.1. ,
.
x(t)

x(t)
2
1

0
()

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

()
2.1

()
() , ()
.
()

, .
,
.
,
.

K E A A I O 2 : B

40

2.1.2

x(t)
( , ), .
, x(t)
, .
, :
(0) (1).
, 2.1. , 2.1. .
. . (.., )
. , (Compact Disc CD).
2.1.3

2.2. , ,
. .
2.2

()

() .

x(t) = x(t + T),

< t <

(2.1)

T, T > 0, (2.1)
.

x(t)

x(t)

()

()

2 . 1 E

41

2.2.. , .
, .
2.1.4

, ,
. ,

(carrier).

x(t) = Acos(2ft + ),

(2.2)

A, f , ,
cos . 2.3 .

: A,
f .

, , .
, f . , T
, f = 1/T .
Hz (Herz), 1 Hz .
x(t)
T

A
A cos
0

t
2.3

K E A A I O 2 : B

42

,
0 (, x(0) = A).
, .
2.1

x1(t) = cos(2t 90)
x2 (t ) =

1
sin( 20pt )
4

.
2.4. x1(t) = cos(2t
90) = sin(2t), A1 = 1, f1 = 1Hz 1 = 90.
, 2.4. x2 (t ) =

pt ) .

4 sin( 20

, x2(t) x1(t),
10 1 4
x1(t).

(.., ), ( ), ( 50 Hz 20000 Hz).
2.1
x1(t) x2(t), T1 T2
. x(t) = x1(t) + x2(t) ;
, x(t) , ;

2 . 2 T

43

1,5
T = 1 sec
1

0,5
0
0

0,5

1,5

t (sec)
2,5

0,5
1
()

1,5

2.4

1,5

() x1(t) = sin(2t),

0,5

()
x2 ( t ) =

t (sec)

0
0

0,5

1,5

2,5

1
4

sin( 20pt )

0,5
1
()

1,5

2.2
, . , .
() x (t ) = sin

2
t,
3

() x (t ) = cos

t + sin t ,
3
4

() x (t ) = cos t + sin 2t

2.2 T

, :
,

K E A A I O 2 : B

44

,
,

,

.
, ( ..,
2.4). , , ,
.
, , .., Fourier Fourier.
.
2.2.1

2.1.4, ,
. ,
,
.
.
. .
(2.2.2 2.2.3),
,
.
2.2

x1(t) = sin(2t)
x2 ( t ) =

1
sin( 20pt )
4

2 . 2 T

45

2.5

x(t) = x1(t) + x2(t).

,
.
, (), (): x1(t) =
, sin(2t), (), ():
(
2.5. 2.5. x1(t) x2(t) ).

sin(20pt ) ,

(), (): x(t) =

x1(t) + x2(t).

1,5
T = 1 sec

1
0,5
0

0,5

1,5

x1

0
0,5

x 2 (t ) =

t (sec)
2,5

f (Hz)

1,5

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
()

()

1,5
1
0,5
0
0,5

0,5

1,5

t (sec)
2,5
x2

1/4

1
f (Hz)

1,5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
()

()

1,5
1

0
0,5

x1

0,5
0

0,5

1,5

t (sec)
2,5
x2

1/4

1
f (Hz)

1,5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
()

()

K E A A I O 2 : B

46

x(t) , , , ( 2.5.).
2.2.2 Fourier

x(t) , T, , Fourier.
Fourier :
x (t ) = A0 +

( A cos(2 nft ) + B sin(2 nft ))

n

(2.3)

n =1

f = 1

,
A0 =
An =

2
T

Bn =

2
T

1
T

x (t )dt

x (t )cos( 2 nft )dt

x (t )sin( 2 nft )dt

Fourier :
x ( t ) = C0 +

n cos

n =1

(2 nft - q )
n

(2.4)

C0, Cn n A0, An Bn
C0 = A0
Cn =

An2 + Bn2

q n = tan -1

Bn
An

, (2.4), 2.6.. ,
,
. , ,
.

2 . 2 T

47

Cn

()

2f

3f

2.6

nf

4f

()


.

Vn

()

nf

4f

3f

2f

2f

3f

4f

nf

Fourier
Fourier x(t),
T, :

Ve

x (t ) =

j 2 nft

(2.5)

n = -

f = 1

. Vn
T
Fourier
Vn =

1
T

x (t )e - j 2 nft dt

(2.6)

Vn
Vn = Vn e jj n
Vn Vn,
, Vn = V- n .
Vn ,
(2.5).
2.6.. , n
.

()


.

K E A A I O 2 : B

48

Vn (2.5)
Cn (2.4) :
V0 = C0
Vn =

Cn
2

x(t),
(2.5), ( 2.6.)
2.6., ,
0 ( V0 = C0 ), f
2.6. ,
f f. 2.6. , 2.6. . ,
.
2.3
x(t)
2.7.
x(t)
2.7

x(t)

2.3.

0T
4

2.2.3 Fourier

Fourier Fourier .
x(t). , Fourier x(t), F,

2 . 2 T

49

[ ] x(t )e

X ( f ) = F x (t ) =

- j 2 ft

dt

(2.7)

Fourier X(f), F1,

] X ( f )e

x (t ) = F -1 X ( f ) =

j 2 ft

df

(2.8)

, Fourier,
x(t) X ( f )
f. 2.8
x(t).
fx.
.
2.8

X(f)
X(0)

fx

fx

fx.

2.4
x(t)

1
x (t ) =
0

t <a
t >a

2.2.4

,

. ,
[f1, f2].

K E A A I O 2 : B

50

, [f 1, f 2]. ,

.
2.1
.

.
, x(t) fc,
v (t ) = x (t )cos 2 f ct =

1
1
x (t )e j 2 pf c t + x (t )e - j 2 pf c t
2
2

(2.9)

O Fourier
X( f ) =

x (t )e - j 2 ft dt ,

2.9..
Fourier v(t).
V( f ) =

v (t )e - j 2 pft dt =

V( f ) =

1
2

1
j 2 pf c t
+ x (t )e - j 2 pf c t e - j 2 pft dt
x (t )e
- 2
2

x (t )e - j 2 p ( f - f c )t dt +

V( f ) =

1
2

x (t )e - j 2 p ( f + f c )t dt

1
1
X f - fc + X f + fc
2
2

(2.10)

(2.10) .
fc

2 . 2 T

51

. ,
( 2.9.).
X(f)

()

X(0)
2.9

fx

fx

()

()
V(f)

x(t),
1
2 X(0)

1
2 X(0)

()
x(t)

fc fx

fc

fc +fx

fc fx

fc

fc +fx

fc.

.
(carrier). ,

(baseband). ,
.
2.5
x(t) = Axcos 2 fxt.
x(t) Accos 2 fct.

fc;

K E A A I O 2 : B

52

fc. cos2 q =

( x(t )cos 2pf t ) cos 2pf t = x(t )cos

c

1
1 + cos 2q ,
2
c

1 1

2pf ct = x (t ) + cos 4pf ct =

2 2

x (t ) x (t )
+
cos 4 f ct
2
2

x(t) .
. , :
, ,
,
2fc fx 2fc + fx.
, fc >> fx.
. fc + f,
x(t) cos2 ft. , f
fx,
. , fc >> fx, fc f fx.
, .
, ,
.
,
.
2.3

, :
,

2 . 3

53

,
.
.
( ) ( ). x(t)
y(t) ,
x(t) y(t).

. ,
.
, H(f).
2.3.1

, . , , , , , .
.

(lowpass filter LPF) . ,

1
H( f ) =
0

f < fc
f > fc

2.10..

K E A A I O 2 : B

54

2.10

.
()
.
()
.
()
.
() .

H(f)

()

H(f)

()

1
fc

1
fc

H(f)

()

fc

H(f)

()
1

1
f2 f1

fc

f1

f2

f2 f1

f1

f2

(highpass filter HPF)
0
H( f ) =
1

f < fc
f > fc

2.10..

(bandpass filter BPF)
1
H( f ) =
0

f1 < f < f 2

2.10..

(bandstop filter BSF)

0
H( f ) =
1

f1 < f < f 2

2.10..

2 . 3

55

2.3.2

,
. ,
.
, . ,
2.11.
H(f)
1

2.11

f1
0
Z M

f2
Z

2.3
2.12..
, , , RC.
y(t)
x(t). Kirchhoff RC
2.12.
x(t) = Ri(t) + y(t)

(2.11)

, i(t) y(t)
i( t ) = C

dy( t )
dt

(2.12) (2.11)

(2.12)

K E A A I O 2 : B

56

RC

dy (t )
+ y (t ) = x (t )
dt

(2.13)

H(f)
1

R
+
x(t)

+
i(t)

2.12

1/2

y(t)

f0

() RC
() .

()

f0

()

[1] H(f), Fourier ( )

Y(f) = H(f) X(f)
Fourier (2.13)
H(f) RC:
H( f ) =

Y(f )
1
1
=
=
X ( f ) 1 + j 2 fRC 1 + j f f 0

(2.14)

f0 = 1/(2RC). , |H( f )|
H( f ) =

1
1
=
1
1 + j f f0
2 2
1 + f f0

(2.15)

2.12.,

[1] T x(t) y(t),

y(t) = T x(t), :

y1(t) = T x1(t) y2(t) = T x2(t). ,

T{1x1(t) + 2x2(t)} = 1y1(t) + 2y2(t), x1(t) x2(t)
1 2.

, T{x(t )} = y(t ),
.

2.4

RC . f0, 1 2 = 0.707 , 3 dB
f = 0. f0 RC 3 dB .
2.4

, :
,
,
.

, , . ,
. , (), .
,
, .

. , ,
,

. ,
.

57

K E A A I O 2 : B

58

2.4.1

, .
, : .
,
.., , , ,
, telex, .. .
, .

:
.

( ),

( ).
,
.
, . ,
. ,
, , .
.
. ,
. , , .., 300 kHz,
, , .., 300
MHz. ,

2.4

59

, ,
.
, , ,
.
, . , ,
.

.
,
.
2.4.2

( , ) .
, .

x(t) R = 1 Ohm,
, p(t),
p(t ) =

x 2 (t )
= x 2 (t )
R

pdfx(x) x(t),
, Px,

Px = E x 2 (t ) =

x 2 pdf x ( x )dx

(2.16)

[]

E .
, 1 Ohm.

K E A A I O 2 : B

60

, S, , N. , dB,
S
SNR = 10 log10
N

(2.17)

. , .

, Rxx (), x(t), :

Rxx (t ) = E x (t ) x (t + t )

(2.18)

(power spectral density) x(t)

Fourier Rxx (),
S xx ( f ) =

Rxx (t )e - j 2 pft dt

(2.19)

, ,

S xx ( f )df = Rxx (0 ) = E x 2 (t )

(2.20)

2.4.3

x(t) , ,
Sxx (f), ( 2.13.)

S xx ( f ) =

h
2

"f

(2.21)

2.4

61

2
.
Rxx()

Sxx(f)

2.13

()
2

()

()

Fourier (2.21),
, Rxx (),
2.13.
h

Rxx (t ) =

d (t )
(2.22)
2
() , -

[2].
(2.22)
, , .
, Gauss[3]
.
. . ,
[2] (t)
:

d (t) =

t0

t = 0

d ( t ) dt =

d ( t ) dt = 1

[3] , X, Gauss, , fX(x), f X ( x) =

- ( x - m)

(2s )
2

, 2

()

()

.

K E A A I O 2 : B

62

. ,
, (2.21).

fc
f.
/2, , y(t), Gaussian
2.14.
f fc, y(t) (narrowband noise)
( Shanmugam (1979), . 114)

y(t) = yc(t) cos2fct ys(t) sin2fct

(2.23)

yc(t) ys(t) Gaussian , ,

2
2
E y c (t ) = E y s (t ) = E y 2 (t )

(2.24)

Sy

yc

h,
(f)=
0,

f Df 2

(2.25)

(2.25) yc(t) - Df , Df . S y c y c ( f )
2 2

ys(t).

2.4

63

Syy(f)
2.14

2
f

fc

fc

2.6
, .
.
1. [ | ] . [
| ] .
2. [ | | | | ]

.
3. [ | ]
, .
4 [ | ]
.
5 [ | ]
.
6 [ | ]
[ Gauss | | ] [ | |
] [ | | ] .

K E A A I O 2 : B

64

,
. , .
,
.
, .
, , .
, ,
.
. .
Fourier ( )
Fourier ( ).

.
.

, .
, . ,
.
: , ,
.
, , .
, (, ,
), ( ).

YNOH

.

.

. , , , .

65

K E A A I O 2 : B

66

.
, 1, 2 3 ,
(1995) 2 Shanmugam,
. (1979).
, , , Hsu (1995) Karu (1995). Lathi (1998),
.
,
, 2 Couch (1997). , Papoulis (1997),
.
Carlson (1986), 2001.
Mischa Schwartz (1990). , ,
, Vaseghi (2000).
[1] . , . , . . .
. (1995).
[2] K. Sam Shanmugam. .
: . . . . (1979).
[3] Hwei P. Hsu. Schaums outline of theory and problems of signals and systems.
McGraw Hill. ISBN 0070306419. (1995).
[4] Zoher Z. Karu. Signals and Systems Made Ridiculously Simple. ZiZi Press.
ISBN 0964375214. (1995).
[5] B. P. Lathi. Signal Processing and Linear Systems. Berkeley Cambridge Press.
ISBN 0941413357. (1998).
[6] Leon W. Couch II. Digital and Analog Communication Systems. Fifth Edition.
Prentice Hall, Inc. ISBN 0135990289. (1997).

B I B I O PA I A

[7] Athanasios Papoulis. Signal Analysis. McGraw Hill. (1977).

[8] A. Bruce Carlson. Communication Systems: An Introduction to Signals and
Noise in Electrical Communication. 3rd edition. McGraw Hill. ISBN
007009960. (1986).
[9] Mischa Schwartz. Information Transmission, Modulation and Noise. 4th
edition. McGraw Hill. ISBN 0070559090. (1990).
[10] Saeed Vaseghi. Advanced Signal Processing and Noise Reduction. 2nd
edition. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0471626929. (2000).

67

,
, .

, :
,

,
, ,
,

,

.

(VSB)

(FM)

(PM)

(DSB)

(SSB)

(FDM)

(AM)

KEAAIO 3: A

70

x(t), " ".
.

,
,
. (baseband communication).
, (.., , )
,
(bandpass communication). ,
. . ,
(modulation)
. .

,

:
. .

0 20 kHz. , ,
. ,
,
.
, , ..
.
,

. , 1 kHz
300 km 100 MHz,
.
. ,
. ,
,
.
.
.

.
. ,
,
,
.
,
.

.
,

.
, ,

.

71

KEAAIO 3: A

72

3.1

, :
,
,

.
, . 3.1
. , , .

n(t)

x(t)
Sx

LPF

yi(t)
Si, Ni

LPF

yo(t)
So, No

3.1

3.1.1

, .

.
x(t),
Sx, ( 3.1).
x(t) fx
. , ,
. , .

3 . 1

73

, , ,
,
. fx.
, , yo(t),

yo(t) = xo(t) + no(t) = x(t td) + no(t)

(3.1)

xo(t) no(t) td .
, So,

2
S o = E x o (t ) = E x 2 (t - t d ) =

fx

- fx

S xx ( f )df = S x = Si

(3.2)

Sxx Si
.
, , No,
2
N o = E no (t ) =

fx

- fx

S nn ( f )df

(3.3)

Snn =
/2,
No =

fx

- fx

df =

(f

- ( - f x ) = hf x

(3.4)

,
S
So
S
S
= x = i
=
N o N o hf x hf x

(3.5)

3.1
,
. , , , ,

KEAAIO 3: A

74

.
,
3.1, RC ( E 2.3.2)
3 dB f0 = 8 kHz. /2 =
109 watt hertz (W/Hz).
RC .
, H(f) x(t) y(t) ,
2

S yy ( f ) = H ( f ) S xx ( f )

(3.6)

Syy (f) Sxx (f) .

, No,
2
N o = E no (t ) =

no no

( f )df

(3.7)

(3.6) (3.7),
(2.15),

No =

H( f )

S nn ( f )df =

H( f )

x

No =

f 0 = 10 -9

df =

2 1+ ( f / f )
1

f

f0

, :
,

(3.8)

1
dx = , 2
- 1 + x

W
8 10 3 Hz = 25.13 W.
Hz

3.2

df

3 . 2

75

,
,
,

,
, .
,
Accos2fct. , , .
,
xc(t) = A(t) cos2fct

(3.9)

A(t) x(t).
, A(t) x(t) :
(doublesideband DSB),
(amplitude modulation AM)
(singlesideband SSB).
3.2.1 (DSB)

,
A(t), x(t),
xDSB(t) = x(t) cos2fct

(3.10)

, ,
1.
DSB
(3.10) DSB cos2fct x(t).

KEAAIO 3: A

76

cos 2 fct

()

x(t)

()

3.2

() ,
()
,
()
.

x(t) cos 2 fct

()

3.2 DSB . , 3.2. , 3.2.

3.2. .
DSB,
, 2.2.4. ,

X DSB ( f ) =

1
1
X f - fc + X f + fc
2
2

(3.11)

X(f fc) X(f + fc) , fc fc .

3 . 2

77

3.3 . fc ,
fc .
X(f)
3.3

()
fx

fx

XDSB(f)

()

fc

fc

, , fc,
, fx,
fc >> fx

(3.12)

DSB
, xDSB(t) xDSB(t) cos2fct ( 2.2.4).
, ,

.

.
.

()


()

KEAAIO 3: A

78

. 3.4.

xDSB(t)

d(t)

y(t)
LPF

3.4

cos 2 fct

3.1
, DSB ,
. () ()
.

3.5
.
( 3.1).
(BPF) .
BPF 2fx, fc, .
BPF xDSB(t)
2fx,
fc. , BPF
yi(t) = xDSB(t) + ni(t)

(3.13)

ni(t) ,

3 . 2

79

Ac cos 2 fct

n(t)

x(t)
Sx

xDSB(t)

xDSB(t) + n(t)

yi(t)
BPF
Si, Ni

yo(t)
LPF
So, No

2cos 2 fct

3.5

( 2.4.3)
ni(t) = nc(t) cos2fct ns(t) sin2fct

(3.14)

(3.13) (3.14),
yi(t) = [Acx(t) + nc(t)] cos2fct ns(t) sin2fct

(3.15)

yo(t)
y(t) = Acx(t) + nc(t) = xo(t) + no(t)

(3.16)

xo(t) = Acx(t) no(t) = nc(t) ( (3.16) ).

, xo(t)
no(t).

KEAAIO 3: A

80

2
2
2
2
S o = E x o (t ) = E Ac x 2 (t ) = Ac E x 2 (t ) = Ac S x

(3.17)

, (2.24),
2
2
2
N o = E no (t ) = E nc (t ) = E ni (t ) = 2hf x

(3.18)

( (3.18) ). ,
S
So
A S
= c x
=
2hf x
N o No
2

(3.19)

, Si,
1 2
2
Si = E xDSB (t ) = Ac S x
2

(3.20)

, (3.19) (3.20)
S
Si
=
N o hf x

(3.21)

S
DSB
N o
( (3.5)), .
3.2
(3.16) (3.18).

3.2.2 (AM)

xAM(t) = Ac[1 + x(t)] cos2fct = A(t) cos2fct

(3.22)

x(t) Ac ,fc
. A(t)
.

3 . 2

81

Ac cos 2 fct

Ac
()

x(t)

()

Ac [1 + x(t)]cos 2 fct

3.6

Ac
()

AM
AM DSB.
3.6 AM .
A(t)
x(t). DSB ( 3.2) ,
.

() ,
()

() .

KEAAIO 3: A

82

Fourier z(t) = 1
Z( f ) =

e - j 2 ft dt = d ( f )

() ,
AM
X AM ( f ) =

[ (

)]

[(

) (

1
1
Ac X f - f c + X f + f c + Ac d f - f c + d f + f c
2
2

)]

(3.23)

X(f)

()
3.7

()


()

fx

1
A (f + fc)
2 c

fx

XAM(f)

1
A (f fc)
2 c

()
fc

fc

3.7 . AM DSB, .
3.3
0 15
kHz AM. 1 MHz, 1 MHz,
.

3 . 2

83

AM
. A(t) , |x(t)| < 1. A(t) ,
, , .
xAM(t)
<1

()

xAM(t)
>1
3.8

()

() ,


() ,

.

{ }
{ }
max{ A(t )} + min{ A(t )}
max A(t ) - min A(t )

(3.24)

> 1,
. , 3.8
( < 1)
( > 1).

KEAAIO 3: A

84

AM
DSB, AM,
,
.
,
3.9., .
D

()

3.9

AM
()

()

,


.

()

,
. (
3.9.). , AM. AM
C, AM.
AM , R,
. AM , -

3 . 2

85

, .
.

, . R, C.
, , z(t),
z(t) = Ac + Acx(t)

(3.25)

(3.25),
DC,
, .
.
AM ,
.., .
AM
AM
DSB 3.5 : () () DC.

AM DSB
3.2.1
.
3.4
AM DSB.
AM
AM,
. ,

KEAAIO 3: A

86

xAM(t)
xAM(t) = Ac[1 + x(t)]cos2fct

(3.26)

. |x(t)| 1
( < 1).
,
yi (t ) = x AM (t ) + ni (t ) =

( A [1 + x(t )] + n (t )) cos 2 f t
c

n s (t ) sin 2 f ct (3.27)

, , (
phasors)[1].
y(t) = Ac[1 + x(t)] + nc(t) + jns(t)

(3.28)

3.10.

yi (t ) = Re y (t )e j 2 f c t

(3.29)

Re[z] z. 3.10 yi(t)

yi(t) = v(t) cos[2fct + f(t)]

(3.30)

v (t ) =

( A [1 + x(t )] + n (t ))

+ n s (t )

(3.31)

f (t ) = tan -1

n s (t )
Ac 1 + x (t ) + nc (t )

(3.32)

,
v(t). (3.31)
, .
[1] Aej A
,
. = 2fc , fc.

3 . 2

87

Im y

3.10

,




.

y(t)
f(t)

ns(t)
Re y
Ac [1 + x(t)]

nc(t)

:

, Ac[1 + x(t)] >> ni(t)
, , Ac [1 + x(t)] >> nc(t) ns(t). , v(t)
v(t) Ac[1 + x(t)] + nc(t)

(3.33)

DC v(t), Ac,
DC. , ,
yo(t) = Ac x(t) + nc(t) = xo(t) + no(t)
AM
( 3.4),

S
So
Ac 2 S x Si - Pc
=
=
=

2hf x
hf x
N o No
2

(3.34)

Si Pc .
(3.34) (3.59) , (S/N)i >> 1, AM
AM .

KEAAIO 3: A

88

:

, ( 3.11).
, 3.11,
v(t) vn(t) + Ac[1 + x(t)] cosfn(t)

(3.35)

vn(t) fn(t) ni(t) .

Im y

Ac [1 + x(t)]cosfn(t)
fn(t)

3.11

,




.

Ac [1 + x(t)]

vn(t)
ns(t)

v(t)
fn(t)

nc(t)

Re y

(3.35)
x(t). ,
(3.35) , cosfn(t), .
, .
,
, .
, AM
. , , . 10 dB .

3 . 2

89

3.5
x(t), fx = 4 kHz

1 - x ,
pdf x ( x ) =
0,

x <1

AM
= 1.

/2 = 109 W/Hz, ,
Ac, (S/N) 30 dB.
3.2.3 (SSB)

(DSB) (AM) ,

.
, , . DSB AM
. ,

,
.
(SSB).
SSB
SSB : () DSB ()
.
3.12 , , SSB. BPF
, .

KEAAIO 3: A

90

X(f)

()
fx

fx

XDSB(f)

()
fc

3.12

SSB
()
, ()

DSB, ()


()
SSB
.

fc

fc

fc

HBPF(f)
1
()
fc

XSSB(f)

()
fc

SSB
DSB, SSB, .

.
3.13 SSB
.

3 . 2

91

XSSB(f)
()

fc

fc

3.13

XSSB(f)cos2 fct
LPF

()
2fc

fc

fc

2fc

Yo(f)
()

SSB

() SSB,
() SSB

()
.

3.6
3.14 SSB . () () :
n(t),
xDSB(t),

xSSB(t),

cos2(2fc)t,

xAM(t),

xAM(t) + n(t),

xDSB(t) + n(t),

LPF,

HPF,

BPF,
sin2fct,

cos2fct,

BSF,

xSSB(t) + n(t)

KEAAIO 3: A

92

()?

()?

x(t)

()?

()?
()?

()?

yi(t)
()?

yo(t)
()?

3.14

3.6.

()?

DSB SSB,
S
Si
=
N o hf x

(3.36)

(3.36) , ,
SSB DSB . ,
SSB , DSB.

SSB -

3 . 2

93

.
.

,
, . (vestigialsideband VSB), .
VSB , , .
VSB , ..,
(facsimile).
3.7
, 10 kHz,
, 40 dB. , /2
= 109 W/Hz.
: () DSB, ()
AM () SSB.
, : ()
()
;

KEAAIO 3: A

94

3.3

, :
,
,

,
.
,
xc(t) = Ac cos[2fct + f(t)]

(3.37)

Accos2fct f(t) x(t).

3.2, .
,
.
.
,

. .
,
f(t) x(t):
(phase modulation PM)
(frequency modulation FM).

3 . 3

95

3.3.1

(3.37)
xc(t) = Ac cos(t)

(3.38)

(t) = ct + f(t) c = 2fc

xc(t), , i(t),
w i (t ) =

dq ( t )
df ( t )
= wc +
dt
dt

(3.39)

f(t) df(t) / dt
xc(t) .

,
,

f(t) = kpx(t)

(3.40)

kp .
, , ,

x PM (t ) = Ac cos w ct + k p x (t )

(3.41)

, ,
df (t )
= k f x (t ) f (t ) = k f
dt

x ( ) d

(3.42)

kf t =
f( ) .
, , ,

xFM (t ) = Ac cos w ct + k f

x ( )d
-

(3.43)

KEAAIO 3: A

96

3.15 AM, FM PM
. FM PM . ,
FM PM.

x(t)

xAM(t)

xFM(t)

3.15

AM,
FM PM

xPM(t)

3 . 3

97

3.8
x1(t) x2(t), xc (t) xc (t) 1

x1(t) x2(t) .
DSB, x1(t) + x2(t)
xc (t) + xc (t).
1

PM.

3.3.2

(3.38)

j w t +f ( t ))
= Re Ace jw c t e jf ( t )
x c (t ) = Re Ace ( c

x
e =

k! x
1

=1 + x +

k =0

jf ( t )

(3.44)

1 2 1 3
x + x + L ,
2!
3!

, (3.44)

f 2 (t )
f n (t )
x c (t ) = Re Ace jw c t 1 + jf (t ) +L+ jn
+ L =
2!
n!

f 2 (t )
f 3 (t )
= Ac cos w ct - f (t )sin w ct cos w ct +
sin w ct + L
2!
3!

(3.45)

(3.45)
, f(t)sinct, f2(t)cosct, f3(t)sinct, .
,
f(t), f2(t),

f3(t), c.
,
.

KEAAIO 3: A

98

3.3.3

3.3.2, .
.

( ). ,
.

x(t) , x(t) = Ax cosxt,
k p Ax cos w x t

f (t ) = k f Ax
w sin w x t
x

PM
FM

(3.46)

FM

cos axdx = a sin ax .

1

FM,
xFM(t) = Ac cos[ct + sinxt]
=

k f Ax
wx

(3.47)

.
, PM, = kpAx.

=

Dw
wx

max w i - w c
wx

(3.48)

3 . 3

99

3.3.2 .


, ( , Shanmugam (1979), 6). , 98%
W 2( + 1)x

(3.49)

, 98%
.

fx
, D,
D=

Df
fx

(3.50)

f = max{|fi fc|} .
D
( (3.48)). D (3.49)

WFM 2(D + 1) fx = 2(f + fx)

(3.51)

(3.51), , Carson
.
, ,
.
D << 1, FM -

KEAAIO 3: A

100

2fx, DSB
AM. D >> 1, FM
2f.
3.9
FM fx = 1 kHz.
FM
xFM(t) = 10cos[ct + 3sin xt],
, W. W
fx () () ;

3.3.4

3.3.1 .
, 1 Ac2 ,
2
Ac .
PM FM,
,

PM:

S 2 Si
= k p Sx

No
hf x

(3.52)

FM:

Si
Df
S
= 3 S x

N o fx
hf x

(3.53)

fx Sx , Si , kp f
.
(3.52) (3.53),
Shanmugam (1979), 7.

3 . 4

101

(3.52) (3.53)
( kp PM f FM),
.
. , .
3.10
x(t) fx = 15 kHz,
Sx = 1/2 W |x(t)| 1,
/2 = 1010 W/Hz.
50 dB.
40 dB, , W , ST, :
() DSB,
() AM = 1,
() PM kp = 3
() FM D = 5.

3.4

, :
,
,

.
(multiplexing) -

KEAAIO 3: A

102

.
:
(frequency division multiplexing FDM) (time
division multiplexing TDM). FDM, , TDM,
. TDM 5.
FDM 3.16.
(x1(t), x2(t), x3(t)), . ,
fc , fc , fc , . fc , fc , fc
1
2
3
1
2
3
, . 3.16 DSB
. , .
, SSB ( ;).
x1(t)

X1(f)

BPF

fc1

BPF

f
3.16

(FDM).

x2(t)

fc 2

x3(t)

X3(f)

LPF

fc2

x1(t)

fc 1

x2(t)

X2(f)

LPF

BPF

LPF

fc3

x3(t)

fc 3

fc1

fc2

fc3

.
xc (t), xc (t), xc (t)
1
2
3
.

3 . 4

103

, .
,
.
FDM ,
(crosstalk). , , . ,
, , .
FDM ,
. , 600 (200 Hz 3,2 kHz)

2,5 MHz, SSB 4 kHz .
3.11
.

AM.

FDM
.

KEAAIO 3: A

104

,
,
.
.
, .
(DSB), (AM) (SSB).
DSB,
.
AM DSB.
, .
SSB,
DSB AM.
, AM
DSB SSB.
, .
.
(PM)
(FM).

.
.

YNOH

.


.
,
.

105

KEAAIO 3: A

106

6 Shanmugam, . (1979), 3 4
Taub Schilling, .. (1995).
6 8 Carlson
(1986), 5 Couch (1997) 4
Schwartz (1990).

Shanmugam (1979) ( 7) Hsu (1993) ( ).

. , Shanmugam (1979).
[1] K. Sam Shanmugam. .
: . . . . (1979).
[2] H. Taub, D. Schilling. . : . ,
. . . . (1995).
[3] A. Bruce Carlson. Communication Systems: An Introduction to Signals and
Noise in Electrical Communication. 3rd edition. McGraw Hill. ISBN 0 07
009960. (1986).
[4] Leon W. Couch II. Digital and Analog Communication Systems. Fifth Edition.
Prentice Hall, Inc. ISBN 0 13 599028 9. (1997).
[5] Mischa Schwartz. Information Transmission, Modulation and Noise. 4th
edition. McGraw Hill. ISBN 0 07 055909 0. (1990).
[6] Hwei P. Hsu. Schaums outline of theory and problems of analog and digital
communications. McGraw Hill. ISBN 0 07 030636 2. (1993).

M A

,
.

, :
,
,
,
,
.

(PWM)

(PAM)

(PPM)
Nyquist
(DPCM)

(PCM)

(ADM)

(COMPressorexpANDER,
compander)

108

K E A A I O 4 : M A

1 ,
, , , , .
, , .., , , .
,
.
.
. 4.1.
A/D
(Analog to Digital conversion) .
:
(Pulse Code Modulation PCM) . PCM
4.2,
, , 4.3.

4 . 1 M

4.1 M a

, :
,

,
,
.

. ,
.
, , .
, .
. .
4.1.1

,
.
,
x(t). , , , fx.
T (.. ),
x(nT), n = 1, 2, 3,

109

K E A A I O 4 : M A

110

4.1
x(t), fx, x(nT), n = 1, 2, 3, , T

1
.
2 fx

Ts = 1/(2fx) Nyquist.
,
, 4.1 , ,
.
fs = 2fx Nyquist.
4.1
50 Hz
20.000 Hz.
(..
, Compact Disks CDs) 44.100 . ,

, .

4.1 .
x(t)
4.1. (t) 4.1..
dt Ts . , .
xs(t) = x(nT), n = 1, 2, , , 4.1..

4 . 1 M

111

x(t)

()

(t)
Ts

()

Ts

2Ts

3Ts

4Ts

5Ts

6Ts

7Ts

t
4.1

: ()
xs(t)

x(t),
() (t),
Ts -

()

, () xs(t) =

x(nTs), n = 1, 2, ,

.

4.2 .

K E A A I O 4 : M A

112

X(f)

()
fx

fx

4.2

Xs(f)

()

() X ( f )
2fs

x(t),

fs

fs

2fs

4fs

Xs(f) fs > 2fx

() Xs ( f )
xs(t),

Xs(f)

()

fs > 2 fx,
() Xs ( f ),

4fs

3fs

2fs

fs < 2fx

fs

fs

2fs

3fs

Xs(f) fs < 2fx

X( f ) 4.2.. fx.
2fx ,
xs(t), ,
X( f ) ( 4.2.). Xs ( f )
xs(t). Xs ( f ), X( f ) ,
, x(t), xs(t) , [ fx , fx].
, ,
. , fx, .
, (fx, fs fx), .

4 . 1 M

113

2fx, X( f ) ( 4.2.).
, , .
4.1
fx = 3,3 kHz. fs = 8 kHz,
; ;

4.1.2

4.1
. ,
. 4.3.
x(t) 4.3..
s(t) ,
Ts ( 4.3.).
xs(t), , 4.3.. , . . ,
( xs(t) 4.3.).

K E A A I O 4 : M A

114

x(t)

()

s(t)
Ts

()

Ts

2Ts

3Ts

4Ts

5Ts

6Ts

7Ts

xs(t)

4.3

()

() x(t),
() s(t)
x's(t)

,
() xs(t)



() xs(t)

()

4 . 1 M

115

4.2
4.4
. , , s(t). ,
1 2. 2 .
(), (), () () 4.4. () ()
2 1 ,
() () ,
.

s(t)

()?
1

()?
2

()?

()?
4.4

4.1
,

. ,
, .

.
.

K E A A I O 4 : M A

116

4.2

, :
,
,

,
.
(Pulse Code Modulation PCM)
.
4.6.

PCM

4.6

PCM

4.1,
. ,
, ,
. ,

, .
.
4.2.1

x(t).
, xs(t) = x(nT), n =
1, 2, , Ts .
xs(nTs) Q m1, m2, , mQ, xq (nTs). ,

4.2

xq(t) = xq(nTs),

117

nTs t < (n + 1)Ts,

n=1, 2,

4.7. ,
: ( , x1], (x1, x2], ,
(x5, x6], (x6, +) ,
m1, m2, , m7, . , m1, m2, , m7,
. .., 6 (xs(6Ts)) (x5, x6]. , xq(6Ts) = m6, xs(6Ts) m6.
,
m6. ,
.

4.3
, :
() .
() , .
() .
() .
;

K E A A I O 4 : M A

118

m7

xq(t)

x6

m6

K

x(t)

x5
m5

xq(6Ts)

xs(6Ts)

x4
m4
x3

Ts

2Ts

3Ts

4Ts

5Ts

6Ts

7Ts

m3
x2
m2
x1
m1
4.7

: x(t) xq(t). m1, m2,

( xs(nTs) xq(nTs), ).

,
, , .
.

4.2

119

, ;
; , . 4.2 4.8.

m5
m4
m3
m2
m1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
()

()

M
m5

m5

m4

m4

m3

m3

m2

m2

m1

m1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
()

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
()

4.8

: () , () , () ,
, () ,
.

K E A A I O 4 : M A

120

4.2
4.8.. , ,
4.8..
. (.., , ..),
4.8..
,
. ,
,
.
,
(.., 4.8. 4.8.
3).
4.4
;

,
,
.

4.2

121

4.2.2

. , :
.
,
, .
,
.

x(t)

4.9

m4

b
x0

m1

x1

x2

m2

m3

x3

x4

4.3
4.9
x(t). a
b, . Q ,

D=

b-a
Q

, xq(t) :
xq(t) = mi xi 1 < x(t) xi

xi = a + i

mi =

xi -1 + xi
,
2

i = 1, 2,K, Q

K E A A I O 4 : M A

122

. ,

2
D2
E x (t ) - x q (t ) =

12

Taub Schilling (1995), . 223.
4.5
x(t) [1, 1]
f (x) = 1 |x|,

1 x 1

,
0,5 Volt. .
4.2.3

.
,
.

( ; ;). , ,
, . ,
,
.
,
, .
4.10 Gaussian.
. (i).
(xi) (mi)
.

4.2

123

4.10
,
.

x(t)

m1

x1

m2

x2

m3

x3

m4 x4 m5 x5

m6

Gaussian.

( , + )

8 .

x6

m7

x7 m8 x

4.6
x(t) [ 1,1]
1 x 1

f (x) = 1 |x|

,
[1, 0] [0, 1]. m1 m2 P(1 x m1) = P(m1 x 0) P(0 x m2 ) = P(m2 x 1),
.

( 4.5).

,
.

y(t) = g(x(t))
x(t) y(t), -

K E A A I O 4 : M A

124

. , y(t)
.
(compressor), (expander). (g1) x(t). compander (COMPressor expANDER).

4.11. .
y
ymax

y4

y3
xmin

x1
1

x2
2

x3

5
x4

6
x5

xmax

y2

4.11

y1

ymin

,
,
x(t). , :
, , ,
. , :

x
log 1 +
x max

y=
log(1 + )

4.2

x
A

x
1
x
max

,
0

1 + log A
x max
A

y =

x
1 + log A

x max
1
x

1
,

1 + log A
A x max

, .
=255 =87,6 .
4.2.4

, ,
, , .
.
, ,
.
,
. 1 .
4.4
4.12 .
x(t) [4, 4].
Ts xs(t) = x(nTs), n = 1, 2, .
, 16 . 0,5 Volts. ,
4, 3,5, 3, , 3, 3,5, 4 Volts 3,75, 3,25, 2,75, , 2,75, 3,25, 3,75 Volts. xq(t).

125

K E A A I O 4 : M A

126

4
15
14
x(t)

3
13
12
2
11
10
1
9
8
0
7

10

11

12

t/Ts

6
1
5
4
4.12

2
3
2
3
1
0
4

K
T

0, 1, 2, , 15. 4.1
4.12 .
.

4.2

127

4.1

4.12

xs(t)

xq(t)

1,3

1,25

10

1010

2,3

2,25

12

1100

2,7

2,75

13

1101

3,2

3,25

14

1110

1,45

1,25

10

1010

0,9

0,75

0110

1,7

1,75

0100

0,3

0,25

1000

0,7

0,75

1001

0,7

0,75

1001

10

1,6

1,75

11

1011

11

2,8

2,75

13

1101

12

1,7

1,75

11

1011

, ,
. , , 4

1
bits/sec.
Ts

, PCM
.
, L ,
log2 L . , fs ,
fs log2 L bits/sec.
2

K E A A I O 4 : M A

128

bits/sec/Hz, , BPCM, PCM

BPCM

1
f s log 2 L
2

4.5

fx = 3,3 kHz, .
, fs = 8 kHz 256 . PCM
1
8 log 2 256
KHz BPCM 32 kHz
2
PCM 3,3 kHz .
BPCM

4.7
x(t) [V, V] . 15 kHz, 50 kHz, PCM.
()
40 dB;

SNR =

2
E x (t )

2
E x (t ) - x q (t )

xq(t) .
() ;

4.2

129

4.8
PCM.
.
x(t)
,

__________________

__________________.
__________________. __________________
__________________,

__________________, PCM.
__________________ .
PCM , __________________
. __________________. __________________
, __________________ .
PCM, __________________,
__________________ .

__________________,
, . x(t)
__________________ x(t). __________________ __________________.
, , , , , , , , , ,
, PAM, , , , , , , , , , , , , PWM, , , , , ,

K E A A I O 4 : M A

130

4.3

, :
bits
, ,
,
,
.

bits .
(Differential PCM
DPCM),
. , 8 bits, PCM, PCM 4
bits . , , ..,
, ,
. , , PCM
.
, bit .
4.3.1

: , , ,
. , bit . ,

4 . 3

131

,
.
4.13 .
x(t),

x (t) y(t).

4.13, x (t)
x(t). , y(t)

, x (t) .

x (t) x(t), .
, x(t) ,

x (t) ,
.

x(t)

x(t)

y(t)

Ts

t
4.13

-
. , -
, - .
, .
,
. , -

K E A A I O 4 : M A

132

. . , .
4.3.2

, ,
. (slope overload).

, .
4.14. .
(), .
() , ,
.

4.14

x2(t)

x1(t)

x1(t)

()

x2(t)

()

.
4.3.3

,
,
(Adaptive Delta Modulation ADM).
ADM ,
.
, ADM

4 . 3

133

bit 0 1,
. ,
, 0 1,
. ADM
,
. , ,
.
4.15 ADM

. , x (t),
ADM,

x(t) , x (t), .

x(t)
x(t)

x'(t)
4.15

K E A A I O 4 : M A

134

.
,
.
,
.
.
(PCM) . : , .

, . .
, , .

.
: . .
,
.
bits
.

.

: ,
.
, ,
.

B I N I O PA I A

Taub Schilling, .. (1995),
Shanmugam, .
(1979) , (1995).
, , ,
Glover Grant (1998) Lathi (1998).
. Daugherty (1994), Hoeschele (1994) Demler (1991).
, , , . . (1997).
[1] H. Taub, D. Schilling. . : . ,
. . . . (1995).
[2] K. Sam Shanmugam. .
: . . . . (1979).
[3] . , . , . . .
. (1995).
[4] Ian Glover and Peter Grant. Digital Communications. Prentice Hall, Inc.
ISBN 0 13 565391 6. (1998).
[5] B. P. Lathi. Modern Digital and Analog Communications Systems. Oxford
University Press. ISBN 0195110099. (1998).
[6] Kevin M. Daugherty. Analog to Digital Conversion: A Practical Approach.
McGraw Hill. ISBN 0070156751. (1994).
[7] David F. Hoeschele. Analog to Digital and Digital to Analog Conversion
Techniques. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0471571474. (1994).
[8] Michael Demler. High Speed Analog to Digital Conversion. Academic
Press. ISBN 0122090489. (1991).
[9] .
. . ISBN 960 220 086 3. (1997).

135

,
, .

, :

,

,


,
,

,

.

(ASK)

(FSK)

(PSK)

K E A A I O 5 : M

138

(TDM)

(baud rate)

(bit rate)

; ,
( ),
0 1 , . , .
.
, .
.
,
, , .
, , . ,
,
. ,
, .

,
.
ASK, FSK PSK, , ,

PSK, .
, , ,
.

139

K E A A I O 5 : M

140

5.1

, :

,
,
,
,
.

.
0 1 , " ".

, .
.
5.1.1

,
, ,
. , :
() (unipolar) , ,
, . , (.., 0)
, (.., 1) ( 5.1.).
() (bipolar) , (.., 1) g1(t) (.., 0) g0(t) = g1(t) ( 5.1.). , , , .

5 . 1

141

+V

5.1

V
()

()

5.2
. , , , T0 .
0
1. 5.2
, .
Unipolar Non Return to Zero (NRZ)
unipolar NRZ, 1 , 0 ( 5.2.).
NRZ
.
Unipolar Return to Zero (RZ)
unipolar RZ, 1
, 0
( 5.2.).
Bipolar Non Return to Zero (NRZ)
bipolar NRZ,
,

()

()

K E A A I O 5 : M

142

+V
() unipolar NRZ

B3dB = 0,44
To

0
V

To

To
2
To

+V
() unipolar RZ

V2To
4

1
To

B3dB = 0,88
To

1
To

2
To

V2To
16

V
0
V2To
+V
() bipolar NRZ

B3dB = 0,44
To

V
0

+V
() bipolar RZ

B3dB = 0,88
To

V2To
4

V
0
2

V To
4

+V
0
V

B3dB = 0,71
To

() AMIRZ
2 1
To
To

+V
() Manchester

B3dB = 1,16
To

V2To

1
To

2
To

0,525 V2To

0
V

5.2

. () , ()
, () , () , ()
() Manchester.

5 . 1

. 1 ,
0 ( 5.2.).
Bipolar Return to Zero (RZ)
bipolar RZ, 1 0 , ,
(
5.2.).
Alternate
Mark Inversion Return to Zero (AMIRZ)
AMI RZ, 0
. 1 ,
.
1 , ,
( 5.2.).
Manchester
Manchester,
. 1,
,
, .
0, ( 5.2.).
5.1
10110001.
5.3 ,
5.1.2.

143

K E A A I O 5 : M

144

() unipolar NRZ

() unipolar RZ

() bipolar NRZ

() bipolar RZ

5.3

10110001,

5.2.

() AMIRZ

() Manchester

5 . 1

145

5.1
11100101.
:
()Unipolar NRZ
() Bipolar RZ
() AMI RZ
() Manchester
, .

5.2
10011010, bipolar RZ. ,
( ). ;
AMI RZ;
.

5.1.2

,
. , , .
5.1,
(RZ)
NRZ. RZ ,
NRZ. , RZ
, NRZ (
5.2).

K E A A I O 5 : M

146

(NRZ RZ)
, DC
.
(
5.2. 5.2.).
, .., , , . , .., , ,
. , ( 5.4).
5.4,
unipolar NRZ ,
,
. unipolar NRZ, , RS 232
,
.
5.4

, ..,
, ,
.

()

()

AMI RZ Manchester ( 5.2.

5.2.) 0 Hz.
AMI RZ Manchester
, -

5 . 1

147

. Manchester Ethernet,

.
, 5.2, AMI
RZ , , .
, , . AMI RZ (B8ZS HDB3)
T1 E1,
.
,
0 1 :
1. ,
2. (DC),
3. ,
4. ,
5.
6. .

5.3
.

AMI RZ .

Manchester
, unipolar NRZ.

unipolar NRZ bipolar NRZ

RZ.

K E A A I O 5 : M

148

NRZ
,

Manchester.

,
.
AMI RZ.

,

.

unipolar NRZ.

5.1.3

, , .
, ,
, .
;
, ,
. ,
( ),
(00 " 1 , 01 " 2 , 10 " 3 11 " 4 ). , , , . ,
1024 , log2 1024
= 10 . , 1.048.576 , 20
!.

5 . 1

, ,
,
. ,
( , , modems),
, 1024 , , .
(
),

.
(information transmit rate)
.
bits/second (bps) (kbps, Mbps, Gbps).
,
. .., , ,
. (symbol rate baud rate)
. baud, .
5.2
ISDN (BRI 160 kbps), 2B1Q, ,
. .
2B1Q .

. , 5.1 -

149

K E A A I O 5 : M

150

, 5.5
2B1Q 11010011.
5.1

2B1Q

+1 +3

00
01
10
11

+1
+3
1
3

1 3

00
01
10
11

1
3
+1
+3

()

+3

+1

()
5.5

2B1Q

11010011.

5.2 E

151

, 2 , BRI ISDN 80 kbaud.

5.4
1024

4000 baud. ()
. () ,
;

5.2 E

, :

,
,

,

.
, ,
. , ,
.
5.2.1

Fourier , ,

K E A A I O 5 : M

152

.
, (Bateman, 1999)
|sinc (x)|, sinc (x) sin( x )

( 5.6. 5.6.).

f = 1/

,





.

5.6

f = 2/

()

()

t
()

f
()

, ,
,
. ,

( 5.6. 5.6.). ,
,
.


, (intersymbol interference

5.2 E

153

ISI) .
5.7.. , Ts ,
.

( ). ,
. , Ts.
5.7., 1011. 0,
. .

E

1

5.7

()
0

Ts

()
0

t
Ts

t
Ts

( )

K E A A I O 5 : M

154

5.5
5.7,
, ;

5.2.2

, .
5.8.
h(t ) =

1 sin t Ts
1
= sinc t Ts
Ts t Ts
Ts

( )

(5.1)

Ts . sinc.
sinc
, 5.8..
h(t),
Ts,
0. , (5.1),
, Ts.
5.8.., bipolar NRZ
1101
sinc. ,
, .
sinc,
. 5.8..
Nyquist.

5.2 E

155

h(t)

H(f)

1
Ts
1

2Ts

Ts 0 Ts

2Ts

()

1
2Ts

1
2Ts

()
1

5.8

Ts

Ts

Ts
()

() sinc



(). ()

sinc, ,
,
.

5.6

Nyquist.

5.2.3

(raised cosine filter). 0 Hz , . , Ts

K E A A I O 5 : M

156

T
1-a

H ( f ) = cos2 s f
2Ts
2a

1-a
2Ts
1-a
1+a
f

2Ts
2Ts
1+a
f
2Ts
0 f

(5.2)

H( f ) [0,1].
Fourier H( f ),
h(t ) =

(
(

1 sin t Ts cos a t Ts

Ts t Ts 1 - 2at T 2
s

(5.3)

H(f)

h(t)

1,0

1
Ts

1
2Ts

= 1/2

= 1/2
=1

0,5

=0

1
Ts

=0

1
2Ts

1 f
Ts

()

=1

2Ts

Ts 0

Ts

2Ts

()

5.9

()

,
, ()
.

5.9 H( f ) h(t) . = 0,
.
, . W,
h(t) ,

5.2 E

157

W=

1+a
Hz
Ts

(5.4)

W 1
2

Ts

Ts

, -

, h(t)
nTs , n = 1, 2, , , . , ,
. ,
. , 5.9. = 1 , = 1/2.
5.7
115 kbps,
. 0.75,
.
, , 20% ;

5.2.4

5.10. ,
. ,
HC( f ), .
, ,
. ,

K E A A I O 5 : M

158

.
,
.

HT(f)

HC(f)

HR(f)

M A/D

B

K

H A B

5.10

,

. ,
,
.
. , ,
.
,
, -

5.3

,
. HT( f ) HC( f ) HR( f )
(5.2).

, , (equalizer), , .

, .
, ,
, .
5.3

, :
,
,
,
,
,
.
3,

. .
, 0 1. (, ),
:

159

K E A A I O 5 : M

160

(Amplitude Shift Keying ASK)

(Frequency Shift Keying FSK)
(Phase Shift Keying PSK).
AM, FM
PM ( 3.2 3.3).
5.3.1

Accos2fct. (Amplitude Shift

Keying ASK), xc(t)
A cos 2 f ct
x c (t ) = c
0

1
0

(5.5)

()
t

()

5.11

(ASK)
()


() .

, 1 ,
0 ( 5.11). ASK OOK (On Off
Keying), .
ASK
ASK
,

( 5.12).

5.3

161

1
ASK
0
5.12

ASK.

ASK
ASK AM ( 3.2). ,
, ,
,
.
Ts
t = nTs
BPF

ASK

5.13

ASK 5.13.
BPF .
, . Ts ,

( 1 0 ).
Ts.
,

. , ASK , FSK PSK . -

ASK,


.

K E A A I O 5 : M

162

, ASK
, .
5.14

(FSK)

()
() .
1

5.3.2

(Frequency Shift Keying

FSK), xc(t)
A cos 2 f1t
x c (t ) = c
Ac cos 2 f 0t

1
0

(5.6)

, 1 f1,
0 f0 ( 5.14).
0

()
t

()

FSK
FSK
, f1 f0, , (
5.15).

f0

0
FSK
1

5.15

FSK.

f1

5.3

163

FSK
FSK , , .
BPF0

ENV0

FSK
BPF1

ENV1
5.16

FSK 5.16. FSK BPF0 BPF1,

f0 f1 . BPFi , i = 0, 1, ENVi , i = 0, 1
,
. ENV0 ENV1,
0, 1.
0. ,
f0 BPF0, BPF1. ,
ENV0
0. 1.
5.3.3

(Phase Shift Keying PSK), xc(t)

FSK.

K E A A I O 5 : M

164

Ac cos 2 f ct

x c (t ) =
o
Ac cos 2 f ct + 180 = - Ac cos 2 f ct

0
1

(5.7)

()
t

()

5.17

(PSK)

()

() .

, 1 , 0 ( 5.17).
PSK
PSK
. 0 1 V 1 +1 V,
PSK
. :
fc .
PSK.
PSK
PSK , ,
.


fc.
. ,
1. ,
0.

1. -

5.3

165

Ac cos 2 f c t cos 2 f c t = Ac cos2 2 f c t =

A
1 + cos 2 2 f t ) =
(
2
2

Ac

Ac
2

cos 2 2 f c t (5.8)

(5.8)
.

Ac
2

Volts,

, 2fc, . ,

1. , 0.
PSK
,
(bit rate),
(baud rate), PSK .
PSK , PSK
(Quadrature PSK QPSK),
.
. , xc(t)

Ac cos

Ac cos
x c (t ) =
Ac cos

Ac cos

00

(2 f t + 45 )
(2 f t + 135 )
(2 f t + 225 )
(2 f t + 315 )

11

01

00
01
10

(5.9)

11
10

00

11

5.18

QPSK

t
45

315

135

225

45

315

QPSK
()


()

K E A A I O 5 : M

166

QPSK
001101100011 5.18.
PSK
(8PSK),
45 , PSK.
5.8
.
() ___________

________.
() _______ ________, _________.
() __________, 1 , 0.
() _____________ PSK

_______ .

5.4

, :
,
,

.
3.4 , -

5.4

167

, . ,
(FDM),
.
(time division multiplexing
TDM),
. TDM , .
TDM 5.19,
24 .
, - 5.19
.
.

(TDM).

bit

2
1

24

24

24

1
2

24

168

K E A A I O 5 : M

. . TDM . , .

, . TDM, .
, .
, 1200 bps , 4800
bps .
TDM :
. TDM.
. (buffers) ( ,
, ), .
. ,
,
( ).
, TDM :
. ,
.
. ,

5.4

,
. TDM

, ,
.

169

K E A A I O 5 : M

170

0 1.
,
.
, , , , .

: () unipolar NRZ, ()
unipolar RZ, ()
bipolar NRZ, () bipolar RZ, ()
AMI RZ ()
Manchester.
: ()
, () DC, () , () , () () .
,
, .
, .
, .
,
,
.
,
0 1.

YNOH

(,
) : () ASK, () FSK () PSK.
, , , , .., PSK.
(TDM)
.
, .
TDM , .
.

171

K E A A I O 5 : M

172

6 Glover Grant (1998). , 3

Couch (1997). , . . (1997).
, Proakis (1995). , , Bateman
(1999). ,
Shanmugam Taub Schilling,
. (1979) ..
(1995) .
,
,
Ifeachor Jervis (1993).
[1] Ian Glover and Peter Grant. Digital Communications. Prentice Hall, Inc.
ISBN 0 13 565391 6. (1998).
[2] Leon W. Couch II. Digital and Analog Communication Systems. Fifth Edition.
Prentice Hall, Inc. ISBN 0 13 599028 9. (1997).
[3] .
. . . ISBN 960 220 086
3. (1997).
[4] John Proakis. Digital Communications. 3th edition. McGraw Hill. ISBN 0
07 051726 6. (1995).
[5] Andy Bateman. Digital Communications. Design for the Real World. Addison
Wesley. ISBN 0 201 34301 0. (1999).
[6] K. Sam Shanmugam. .
: . . . . (1979).
[7] H. Taub, D. Schilling. . : . ,
. . . . (1995).
[8] E.C. Ifeachor and B.W. Jervis. Digital Signal Processing. A Practical
Approach. Addison Wesley. ISBN 0 201 54413 X. (1993).

1.1
1.1
(.. +5 Volt), (.. 1).
DAC , :
1. ( 000
0, 001 1, 010 2, , 110 6).
2. (.., 0
S0, 1 S1 ...).
3. , .
, ! ,
1.2 1.1 .
1.2
.
bits 1.7.
.., 5.000.
A, bits ,
bits 10.000.
,
bits , 5.000.
1.7

bits 1.2

bits

bits

3.000

6.000

6.000

5.000

10.000

5.000

174

1.500

3.000

4.500

500

1.000

1.500

20.000

17.000

bits

, 1.7 20.000 bits, 17.000 bits, 15% .

,
, 200.000 , . , .
1.7, ! ,
, . , .
, .
,
.
.., , bits,
. 0, .
1, 0,
, .
. , ..,
- . , 010111110. ,
, bit (. 0 " 1), 110111110. ,
. , .

175

1.3

.
bits
.

.

bits ,

.

.
bits
bits
bits
. bits
bits
. , bits


bits .
, bits

.
bits

.
1.3, bits
bits
.
,
.

176

2.1
x1(t) x2(t) , T1 T2
, :
x1(t) = x1(t + T1) = x1(t + mT1)
x2(t) = x2(t + T2) = x2(t + kT2)
m, k .
,
x(t) = x1(t + mT1) + x2(t + kT2)
x(t) , T,
x(t + T) = x1(t + T) + x2(t + T) = x1(t + mT1) + x2(t + kT2)
,
mT1 = kT2 = T

T1 k
= =
T2 m

,
.
, x(t)
T1 T2.
T1 , x1(t) x2(t)
T2
x(t) .
( 2.1.3). ,
2.1 .
2.2
()

x (t ) = sin

2
1
t = cos( 2 t - 90o )
3
3

, x(t) , f = 1 . ,
3
, x(t) , T = 1 = 3
f

x (t ) = cos

()
x1 (t ) = cos
x2 (t ) = sin

177

t + sin t = x1 (t ) + x2 (t )
3
4

1
t = cos 2 t , , T1 = 6,
3
6

1
t = sin 2 t , , T2 = 8.
4
8

T1 6
= , ,
T2 8

2.1, x1(t) + x2(t) T1 T2,

T = 24.
x (t ) = cos t + sin 2t = x1 (t ) + x2 (t )

()

x1 (t ) = cos t = cos 2

1
t , , T1 = 2,
2
1

x2 (t ) = sin 2t = sin 2

t , ,

T2 = 2 .
T1 = 2 , x(t)
T2
.
2.3
(2.6)
Vn =

1
T

x (t )e - j 2 nft dt =

A
T

e - j 2 nft dt

n = 0, V0 = A . n 0.
4
T

4 A 1
A 1
Vn =
e - j 2 pnft =
T - j 2 nf
T j 2 nf
0
f = 1 ,
T

- j 2 pnf T

4
1 - e

178

Vn =

Vn =

A
T

1T

- j2 n
A
T 4 =
e
1
1 - e - j 2 pn 4

1
j
n

j 2 n
T

A - j 2 pn 8 j 2 pn 8
A - jpn 4 1 jpn 4
e
e
- e - j 2 pn 8 =
e
e
- e - jpn 4
n
2j
j 2 n

sin q =
Vn =

1 jq
e - e - jq ,
2j

A - jpn 4
A sin n 4 - j pn 4
e
sin n 4 Vn =
e
n 0.
4 n 4
n

Vn =

A sin n 4
n 0.
4 n 4

Vn = 0 n = 4m, m = 1, 2,K
, , x(t) 2.15.

Vn

A
4

2.15

x(t)
2.3.

4f

4f

(2.6),
(,
).
.
2.4
x(t) 2.16..
, Fourier .
(2.7)

X( f ) =

x(t )e

- j 2 ft

dt =

- j 2 pft

-a

dt =

179

sin 2 fa
1
e j 2 fa - e - j 2 fa = 2

j 2 f
2 f

sin 2 fa

X ( f ) = 2a

2 fa

2.16

X ( f ) = 2a

sin 2 fa
2 fa

, x(t) 2.16..
x(t)

()
x(t)
()


2.4

X(f)

()

1
2

1
2

()

2.5
, x(t). -

1 jq
e + e - jq ,
2
,
cos q =

Fourier ( (2.5)). , :
x (t ) = Ax cos 2 f x t =

Ax j 2 f xt
e
+ e - j 2 f xt
2

Fourier,
V1 = V-1 = Ax . ,
2

3
2

180

x(t) 2.17..

cos a cos =

1
1
cos(a - ) + cos(a + ) , :
2
2

v (t ) = x (t ) Ac cos 2 f ct =
v (t ) =

Ax Ac
cos 2 ( f c - f x )t + cos 2 ( f c + f x )t
2

Ax Ac j 2 ( f c - f x )t
- j 2 ( f c - f x )t
- j 2 ( f c + f x )t
j2 f + f t
e
+e
+e ( c x) +e

(2.26)

(2.26)

2.17.. , fc,
,

X(f)
2.17

Ax
2

()

fx

()

fx

x(t)
()

V(f)
Ax Ac
4

()

x(t)
.

fc fx

fc

fc +fx

fc fx

fc

fc +fx

2.6
1. [ | ]
. [ | ] .
,

,

. , , ,
. , .
2. [ | | | | ]

.
, . , , .
3. [ | ] ,
.
2.4.1, ,

. , , ,
.
4. [ | ] .

,
.
5. [ | ]
.
(.., ,
) .
6. [ | ]
[ Gauss | | ] [ | |

181

182

] [ | | ] .
.
Gauss ,
, ,

.
, ! , . 2.4 .
.
3.1
() , 3.4.

d (t ) = x DSB (t )cos 2 f ct = x (t )cos 2 f ct cos 2 f ct = x (t )cos2 2 f ct

d (t ) =

1
1
x (t ) + x (t )cos 4 f ct
2
2

cos2 q =

1
1 + cos 2q .
2

d(t)
,
y (t ) =

1
x (t )
2

( 2)
. , xDSB(t) 2cos2fct.
() DSB
3.17.
XDSB(f) D(f) (3.11).
D( f ) =

1
1
1
X ( f - 2 fc) + X ( f ) + X ( f + 2 fc)
4
2
4

183

, f0, ,
,
fx < f0 < 2fc fx. 3.17
,
.

X(f)

()
fx

fx
XDSB(f)

()
fc

fc

0
D(f)

()
2fc

fc

fc

2fc

HLPF(f)
1
()
f

Y(f) =

1
X(f)
2

()
0

3.17

DSB
.

184

, ,
2.2.4 3.2.1
. .
3.2
() 2cos2fct
yi(t)2cos2fct = 2[Ac x(t) + nc(t)] cos2 2fct ns(t) sin2fct cos2fct =
= Ac x(t) + nc(t) + [Ac x(t) + nc(t)]cos2(2fc)t ns(t) sin2(2fc)t

(3.54)

,
fx. (3.54)
, Acx(t)
. , (2.25) nc(t) [ fx, fx],
nc(t) .
, yo(t) (3.16).
() ( (2.20))
2
E ni (t ) =

S ni ni ( f )df = 2

fc + fx

fc - fx

df = 2

(f

+ f x - f c + f x = 2hf x

(3.55)

ni(t) ( 2.14).
(3.55) (2.24), (3.18)
.
3.3
3.7 2fx [fc fx ,
fc + fx], fx
fc .
,
1 MHz [985 kHz, 1015 kHz] .
,

185

970 kHz 1030 kHz,

[955 kHz, 985 kHz] [1015 kHz, 1045 kHz] .
, 3
, 2.2.4, .
.
3.4
3.5
.
, , ,
, xAM(t)
ni(t). , DBF
yi(t) = xAM(t) + ni(t) = (Ac[1 + x(t)] + nc(t)) cos2fct ns(t)sin2fct

(3.56)

yi(t) LPF,
[ fx, fx], DC, Ac.

yo(t) = Acx(t) + nc(t) = xo(t) + no(t)
So , Sx, No
DSB
( (3.17), (3.18) (3.19) ).
, Si,

2
1 2
2
Si = E x AM (t ) = Ac E 1 + x (t )
2

(3.57)

, x(t) ,
Si =
,

1 2
Ac 1 + S x
2

(3.58)

186

S
So
=
=
2hf x
N o No

2
Ac S x

A
Si - c
2 = Si - Pc
=
hf x
hf x

(3.59)

Pc = Ac

.
2

(3.59) (3.21), AM
DSB . , , DSB ,
AM .
3.5
, Sx ,

] x

S x = E x (t ) =
2

pdf x ( x )dx = 2 x 2 (1 - x )dx = 2

1 1
=
12 6

(3.34)
2 1
2
2
Ac
S
Ac 2 S x
Ac
6
=
=
=
2hf x
N o
4 10 -9 4 10 3
96 10 -6

( )( )

( )

Ac
10 log10
96 10 -6

( )

Ac
2
10 3 Ac 96 10 -3 Ac 31 mV
30
6

96 10

( )

( )

Ac, . . , (3.34),
. , .
3.2.2

187

1 2 1
1 2
Ac 1 +
+
A
S
1
c
x
2
S
6
Si
2
= 10
= 10
= 10
=
9
2hf x
N i Ni
4 10 4 10 3

( ) 67 A = 16, 56 mV

Ac = 32 10 -5
2

( )( )

16,56 mV . ,
31 mV, (3.34) .
, !!! , .
.
3.6
SSB 3.18.

cos 2 fct

n(t)

x(t)

xSSB(t)

xDSB(t)
BPF

xSSB(t) + n(t)

yi(t)
BPF

3.18

yo(t)
LPF

cos 2 fct

188

SSB, 3.2,
.
3.7

3.2, .
3.1

,
.

Si

(S/N)o

DSB

AM

AM

Si

2fx

1 2
Ac S x
2

hf x

2fx

1 2
Ac 1 + S x
2

Si - Ac 2
hf x

2fx

1 2
Ac 1 + 2 S x
2

fx

1 2
Ac S x
2

Si - Ac 2
hf x

(S/N)i >> 1

SSB

Si
hf x

x(t) , fx Sx, Accos2fct

/2
.

189

() 3.1,
DSB AM 2 10kHz = 20 kHz,
SSB 10 kHz.
, , SSB.
() ,
. , Si.
DSB
Si
Si
= 40 dB = 10 4
= 10 4 Si = 0, 2 W
hf x
2 10 9 10 4

( )( )

SSB. AM,
2

Ac
2
2 = 10 4 S = 0, 2 + Ac W
i
hf x
2

Si -

(3.60)

(3.60) ,
AM DSB SSB. ,
, DSB SSB.

3.1.
, .
, ,
3.2.
3.8
DSB
x1 (t )
x2 (t )
x1 (t ) + x2 (t )

x c1 (t ) = x1 (t )cos w ct
x c2 (t ) = x2 (t )cos w ct
x c (t ) = x1 (t ) + x2 (t ) cos w ct

= x1 (t )cos w ct + x2 (t )cos w ct = x c1 (t ) + x c2 (t )

190

DSB
.
PM

[
[

]
]

x1 (t )

x c1 (t ) = Ac cos w ct + k p x1 (t )

x c2 (t ) = Ac cos w ct + k p x2 (t )

x2 (t )

x1 (t ) + x2 (t )

)]

x c (t ) = Ac cos w ct + k p x1 (t ) + x2 (t ) x c1 (t ) + x c2 (t )

, , .
.
3.9
(3.47) 3. ,
(3.49), FM

W 2( + 1)fx = 2(3 + 1)1 = 8 kHz
() fx. ,

FM, .
fx. b =

k f Ax

, =

3
=
2 2

wx

k f Ax
.
2 f x

3
W 2 +1 f x = 2 + 1 2 = 10 kHz
2

() , fx ,
= 6
W 2( + 1) fx = 2(6+1)(0,5) = 7 kHz

191

3.10

. , .
() DSB,
W = 2fx = 30 kHz

( )

S
Si
Si
=
40 dB = 10 4 Si 3 10 -2 W
=
10
3
h
N
f
o
2 10 15 10
x

) ( )

50 dB,
, ST, , Si,
ST = Si (105) 3kW
() AM,
W = 2fx = 30 kHz

S
=
No

Si -

Ac

hf x

Ac

2 = 2

Ac

Sx

hf x

2 10 -10

( )

A
2
40 dB = 104 c 6 10 -2 W
3
2
15 10

) ( )

( )

ST = Si 105 =

1 2
1 23
Ac 1 + 2 S x = Ac 9 kW
2
2
2

() PM, W 2( + 1)fx, = kpAx Ax

. |x(t)| 1, = kp
W 2(kp + 1)fx = 2(3 + 1) 15 kHz = 120 kHz
,

192

Si
S
Si
2
2 1
=
=
3
k
S

p
x
-10
No
hf x
2 2 10 15 103

( )

( )

) ( )

2
4
-2
40 dB = 10 Si 10 W
3

( )

,
ST = Si(105) 667 W
() , FM,
W 2(D + 1)fx = 2(5 + 1)15 kHz = 180 kHz

Si
S
Si
2
2 1
=
3
=
3
5
D
S

x
-10
No
hf x
2 2 10 15 103

( )

) ( )

2
4
10 -2 W
40 dB = 10 Si
25

( )

,
ST = Si (105) 80 W
3.11

.
,
.
,
SSB,
.

AM.

.

.
.

193

.
(3.52) (3.53).

FDM

.
,
SSB .

, , !!!.
4.1
,
, . , fs = 8 > 2 fx =
6,6 kHz,
.
, , , fs 2 fx = 1,4 kHz.
. , 4.1.1.
4.2
x(t)
xs(t), .
,
. 1,
, .
: -

194

Ts.
, 1 , 2
, Ts .
4.16
. , !
. , ,
4.1.

Ts
2

x(t)

xs(t)

4.16

4.3
, .
, , , .
, (). (),
(), .
(), .
(), . , 4.7 ,

(, 3Ts
5Ts).

195

. , , PCM
Nyquist.
4.4

.
,
.
, ,
,

.

.

,
4.2.1.
,
, , ,
/2.
,
.

.
,

, ,
.

, ,

196

.

,
.

4.5
,

E ( x - x q )2 =

-1

( x - x q )2 f ( x )dx

:
I1 =

-1

( x - x q )2 f ( x )dx =

-1

1
( x + )2 (1 + x )dx
2

( xq = 1/2 |x| = x 1 x 0),

I2 =

( x - x q )2 f ( x )dx =

( x - 2 ) (1 - x )dx
1

( xq =1/2 x| = x 0 x 1).
I1 I2, :
I1 =

1
( x 2 + x + )(1 + x )dx =
-1
4
0

-1

( x 3 + 2 x2 +

5
1
x + )dx =
4
4

x4
x3
5 x2
1 0
= + 2 + + x =
-1
4 -1
3 -1 4 2 -1 4

-1 5
1 1
2 5 1
1
= 0 - + 2 0 - + 0 - + 0 - ( -1) = - =
2 4
3 8 24
4
3 4

[]

I2 =

1
( x 2 - x + )(1 - x )dx =
0
4
1

(- x

+ 2 x2 -

5
1
x + )dx =
4
4

x4
x 3 5 x2 1 1
= - + 2 - + x =
0
4 0
3 0 4 2 0 4
1 5 1
1
1

2 5 1
= - - 0 + 2 - 0 - - 0 + 1 - 0 = - =
3 8 24
3 42 4
4

[]

197

E ( x - x q )2 = I1 + I 2 =

1
12

,
1. ,
, , . ,
1

x2
x2
1
1
f ( x )dx = (1 + x )dx + (1 - x )dx = x + + x - = 1 - + 1 - = 1
-1
-1
0
2 -1
2 0
2
2

,
4.2.2.
.
. , .
4.6
m1 m2.
P ( -1 x m1 ) = P (m1 x 0 )

m1

-1

f ( x )dx =

m1

f ( x )dx

m1

x2
x2

(1 + x )dx = (1 + x )dx x + = x +
-1
m1
2 -1
2 m

m1

m1 +

m1
1
m
1
2
- ( -1 + ) = -m1 - 1 m1 + 2m1 + = 0
2
2
2
2

, m1 = 0.295. (m1 = 1.705) .

, m2 = 0.295.
4.6 4.17.

198

x(t)

4.17

4.6

m1

m2

E ( x - x q )2 =

-1

( x - x q )2 f ( x ) dx =

-1

( x - m1 )2 (1 + x ) dx +

( x - m ) (1 - x )dx = ... = 0.057025

1

1
= 0.08333),
12
4.5 (0.057025 <

.
4.7
() x(t) [ V,
V], f ( x ) =

[ ]

1
. :
2V

E x2 =
V

1
1 x3
1 V 3 ( -V ) 3
1 2V 3 V 2
x f ( x )dx =
x
dx =
=
=
=

-V
-V
2V
2V 3 -V 2V 3
3 2V 3
3

, 4.2.2,
2
D2
E x - xq =

12

. L
,

199

LD = 2V D =

2V
L

,

V2
SNR =

4V

= L2

12 L2

decibel
SNRdB = 10log10 L2 = 20log10 L

SNRdB 40 20log10 L 40 log10 L 2 L 102 = 100

,
100. , , 2,
128 7 bits.
() PCM
1
50000 log 2 128 BPCM 175 kHz
2
, ! ,
4.2
.
BPCM

4.8
x(t) , , . . ,
, PCM.
.
PCM ,
. . -

200

,
.
PCM, , .
PAM, , . x(t) x(t). .
PCM 4.18.
, . ,
, 4.2
.

x(t)

A/D

x'(t)
K

D/A
4.18

(PCM)

5.1
5.20
11100101, Unipolar NRZ, Bipolar RZ, AMI RZ

201

Manchester.
5.1.2, . , , , .

. , ,
;
1

Unipolar NRZ

Bipolar RZ

AMIRZ

Manchester

5.20

11100101, unipolar NRZ,

bipolar RZ, AMI RZ Manchester.

202

Unipolar NRZ , 1 0. ,
(
).

bipolar RZ, , , .

Manchester,
.
,
AMI RZ,
0 .
0
(high density bipolar
substitution HDBn).
HDBn, 0 n, . n = 3, HDB3, ITU T (G.703) PCM. HDB3,
000V, 100V, V 1,

1. ,

0000. , V (000V 100V).
5.2
5.21
. ,
,
10011010.

203

bipolar RZ,
0.
10010010 .
1

Bipolar RZ

AMIRZ

5.21

10011010 bipolar RZ AMI RZ

, , .

AMI RZ . , ( 1, 1 ),
( 0). ,
.
,
, 5.1.1 5.1.2
.

204

5.3

AMIRZ .
AMI RZ, 1
,
, .
0 ,
.
, ,
.

Manchester
, unipolar NRZ.
Manchester,
,

,
.

unipolar NRZ.

unipolar NRZ bipolar NRZ

RZ.
5.2,
.

NRZ
,

Manchester.
, 5.2,
Manchester
0 Hz,
NRZ.

,

205

.
AMIRZ.
AMI RZ


1 .

,

.

0 Hz.
,

.

unipolar NRZ.
,
.

, ! ,
, 5.1, .
5.4
() log2 1024 = 10 . , 4000 10 bps = 40 kbps.
() ,
, 80 kbps. , ,
4000 ,
20 . , 220 = 1.048.576 !!!.

206

5.5
+V 1 unipolar NRZ
5.7. ,
.
+V

, 0,
2
1. , 0 1 .
unipolar NRZ , , +V

, +V +3V ,
4
2
4
. , , ,
,
,
+V

+V . , ,
2
4
,
.
, , . ..,
,
+2V +V

, +V

+3V

, +V .
2
2
.
5.6
,
( 2.3).
. -

207

,
, .
,
! ,
.
5.7
Ts
Ts =

( )

115 10 3

= 8, 7 10 -6 sec

(5.10)

(5.4),
W=

1 + 0, 75

( )

8, 7 10 -6

= 200 KHz

(5.11)

, 100 kHz. , (5.11)

, 0 Hz. ,
200 kHz.
, , W = 160kHz, (5.4),
= WTs 1 = 160(103)8,7(106) 1 = 0,392

(5.12)

.
, ,
5.2.3,
.
5.8
() FSK

FM.
() -

208

ASK FSK, PSK.

() PSK, 1
, 0.
() PSK 22,5
.

1.3
, .
, (. ) 0.
10 11, . 100.000
, 150.000 bits,
1.3.
1.3

bits
, 1.3.

bits

0,5

50.000

50.000

0,4

10

40.000

80.000

0,1

11

10.000

20.000

bits

150.000

,
( 1.4). , y P[y] x
y, P[x | y],
yx
P[yx] = P[x | y] P[y]
1.4 . .., 0,05 110. 0,05 50.000 = 2.500,
bits 7.500.

210

1.4

bits
, 1.3.

0,45

bits

22.500

22.500

0,05

110

2.500

7.500

0,36

10

18.000

36.000

0,04

1110

2.000

8.000

0,03

111110

1.500

9.000

0,04

11110

2.000

10.000

0,03

111111

1.500

9.000

bits

102.000

1.4, 102.000 bits, 32%!!!

, ! , .

.
1.4
bit, bits
bits, bits .
bit ,
.
bit ( 0 1 1 0).
bits
bits, .

bits bits, ( ).
2.1
. , :
. ,
. , . ,
. ,
. , .
. ,
. ,
.
,

,
.
. , . , 1 kHz
300 km. ,
.
4.1
:

211

212

(, , ),
(, , ),
.
x(t)

()

Ts

PAM
4.5

: () x(t),
()

(PAM),
()
(PWM)
()
(PPM)

()

PWM
()

PPM
()

4.5 .
.
,
. ,

,
. , .
(Pulse
Amplitude Modulation PAM), (Pulse
Width Modulation PWM) (Pulse
Position Modulation PPM).

.
, .


.

( ).

, .

, .

AM
,
.

.
(baseband)
.

.

214

.

.
,
. , .
(throughput)
.
.

, ,
,
. ,
, .
(DSB)

.
(PWM)
,

.
(PPM)
,
, , .

(PAM)
,

.
(ASK)
, 1
, 0
.
(FSK)
, , .
(PSK)
1 ,
0.
(SSB)
DSB
.
()

.
(VSB)
SSB, ,
, .

215

216

(F)
.
(P)
.

.
(modem)
,
.
.
Nyquist

1
, fx .
2 fx

,

. .
(DPCM)
(PCM),
.
.

, ,
.


(0 1).

,
(0) (1).


, ,
.
.

.
,
.

,
.

217

218

.
, .

, .
.


.


.

x(t) = Acos(2ft + ), A, f , .

,
.
,
.

, ,
.

, ,

. (, , ),
( ).

, .

,
.

,
, .

.


.

. ( ), .
Fourier

.

,

219

220

.

.

(Analog to Digital Converter ADC)
ADC, ,
.

(Digital to Analog Converter DAC)
DAC, , .

, ,
, . , , .

, .
, .
(PCM)
.
, .

.

(FDM)
, , .
(TDM)
, ,

. TDM
,
, .

, .
(ADM)

. ADM, ,
.

Fourier
.
.
(bit rate)

. bits/second (bps)
(kbps, Mbps, Gbps).

221

222

(baud rate)
, .
Fourier

.

.

x(t) ,
t, .

. , dB.


, . ,
,
.
(compander)
.
: ,
, ,
,
.

, ,
. ,
.

.

. :
() ,
() ,
.

, .
0 Hz ,
.

.

,

. ,
0 1.

223

224

.

. .


. ,
, ,
.
,
, ,
, .


0 1.