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Science Transitions – Finals Cumulative Notes

Finding Out
• What is a Problem? -A situation in which something appears to be missing.
• Example: Why Doesn’t my CD Player Work?
• How to solve problems
o Find patterns
o Plan a strategy
o Use what you know about the problem to predict a solution and try it.
o Look for patterns that will help you make predictions about the
problem.
o Develop a model.
o Model – an idea, system, or structure that represents whatever you’re
trying to explain
o Break the problem down into simpler smaller steps.

Scientific Method
• Observation
• Hypothesis
o A testable prediction.
o An explanation.
• Experiment
o Collect data
o Analyze results
• Conclusion
o Yes – your hypothesis was supported
o No – your hypothesis was unsupported
o This would lead to a new hypothesis
• It is never possible to prove a hypothesis right.
• Theory - An explanation based on many observations supported by
experimental results.
o Used to explain scientific laws…
• Scientific Law - A rule of nature that sums up related observations and
experimental results to describe a pattern in nature.
• Matter cannot be created or destroyed - Law of Conservation of Mass
• Laws can be used to predict what will happen
Experiments
• Experiment - Organized procedure for testing a hypothesis
• Control - A standard for comparison
• Constant - Controlled variable
o Factor that does not vary
• Independent variable - Adjusted by the experimenter.
• Dependent variable - Depends on the independent variable.
o The results or outcome of the experiment.

Exploring Science
 Scientific Method
 What are the steps?
1. Observation
2. Hypothesis
3. Experiment
4. Results
5. Conclusion
 Experiments
 What is a control - A standard for comparison
 What are constants - Factor that does not change
 What is an independent variable - Adjusted by the experimenter
 What is a dependent variable?
1. Depends on the independent variable
2. Experiments’ results
 Lab Safety
1. Read directions – pay attention to caution statements
2. Pay attention to demonstrations
3. Dress appropriately
 No floppy sleeves
 No dangling jewelry or hair
 Wear safety glasses when required
4. Work safely
 Handle glass/hot things carefully
 No clutter / arrange equipment efficiently

Wild About Life Video 1 – Notes


 Terms
1. biodiversity
2. ecosystem
3. endangered
4. threatened
5. environmental containment
6. DDT
7. recovery
 biodiversity
 or biological diversity; the variety of life, including plant and animal
species and the ecosystems of which they are a part, as well as the
genetic variations within each species. People are also considered part
of the biodiversity of our planet.
 ecosystem
 an interacting network of plant and animal communities and the
environment in which they live; for example, coral reef, desert, prairie,
wetland, rain forest.
 endangered
 a species that is in danger of becoming extinct throughout all or a
significant part of its range; for example, Florida panther, whooping
crane, manatee, black-footed ferret.

 threatened
 a species that is likely to become endangered in the near future if
actions are not taken to protect it. Once endangered, the bald eagle is
now considered a threatened species, because its numbers have been
increasing. Other threatened species include the African elephant and
green sea turtle.
 environmental contamination
 any of a variety of substances which, when they are introduced into
the environment, cause harm.
 DDT
 the acronym for dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, an insecticide that
has been widely used to eradicate mosquitoes. When it was
discovered that DDT contaminated many other animals, including the
bald eagle, its use was banned in the United States in 1972.
 recovery
 the process by which the decline of an endangered species is stopped
and then reversed. Bald eagles, which used to be endangered, are
now on their way to recovery, largely because of the ban on use of
DDT and increased protection of their habitat.

1. What are some examples of biodiversity, or the diversity of life?
• The variety of plant and animal species that exist and the genetic
varieties that exist within those species.
• The variety of ecosystems that exist in the natural world, including coral
reefs, deserts, prairies, wetlands, rain forests, etc.
• The variety of human cultures that exist on our planet.
2. Describe the way in which a pesticide like DDT can affect biodiversity.
• Once DDT or any other environmental contaminants enters the food chain,
it can have devastating effects far beyond the original target.
• Many pesticides wash into lakes and streams when it rains. Fish that ate
plants and insects contaminated by DDT were eaten by eagles, which then
laid eggs within extremely thin shells. The shells broke before the young
were capable of surviving.
3. What steps have been taken to help restore biodiversity?
• Place plant or animal-like the eagle, the manatee, or the black-footed
ferret on the Endangered Species List.
• Ban on harmful chemicals like DDT, captive breeding programs, public
education, recovery of natural nesting areas.
• Find alternatives to harmful harvesting, like using the Pacific Yew needles
or twigs instead of the bark.
4. What ways have students helped restore biodiversity?
• A group of teenagers in Florida called the Monday Group established a
special park for protecting manatees.
5. Name ways in which biodiversity benefits people.
• By preserving biodiversity, we are ensuring the survival of plants, animals,
and ecosystems on which we depend.
• Plants are the base of all food chains and, through the process of
photosynthesis, they produce oxygen that we breathe.
• Plants and animals are important sources of food and clothing, also
building materials and medicines.
5. Name ways in which biodiversity benefits people.
• Willow tree bark is a source of aspirin, the Pacific yew tree contains a
substance to fight certain types of cancer, the rosy periwinkle is the
source of medicine used in treating leukemia.
• Enriches our quality of life.
• The belief that we should be good stewards to the environment for future
generations.

Wild About Life Video 2 - Notes


 Terms
1. migratory
2. habitat
3. wetland
4. captive breeding
5. neotropical migrant
6. temperate climate zone
7. tropical climate zone
8. habitat loss
• migratory
o in the habit of moving from one place to another generally for the
purpose of breeding, avoiding severe weather, or finding food.
• habitat
o that are where a plant or animal lives.
o Habitat provides the food, water, shelter, and space the organism
needs to survive.
• wetland
o an area that is almost saturated with water such as a marsh, a bog,
a swamp, or a tidal flat.
o Wetlands are valuable ecosystems that provide habitat for many
species.
• captive breeding
o a program in which animals are bred in captivity with the goal of
increasing their numbers substantially enough to release some of
them back into the wild.
o Populations of black-footed ferrets, bald eagles, and whooping
cranes have benefited from captive breeding programs.
• neotropical migrant
o one of approximately 350 species of birds that breed in North
America but migrate to the Caribbean or Latin America during the
colder months of the northern winter.
o Loss of habitat in both wintering and breeding grounds poses a
particular threat to neotropical migrants.
• temperate climate zone
o regions of the earth characterized by generally moderate
temperatures and average year-round precipitation.
o The areas between the Artic Circle and the Tropic of Cancer as well
as the Antarctic Circle and the Tropic of Capricorn are usually
considered to be in the temperate climate zone.
• tropical climate zone
o the region of the earth between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn
where average annual temperatures are above 20oC.
• habitat loss
o a serious threat to species that occurs when a habitat is destroyed
or changed so that food, water, shelter, or space are no longer
available to the organisms that live there.
o Habitat loss is one of the main reasons why biodiversity is
threatened.
1. What are some of the many obstacles faced by migrating birds?
• Loss of habitat is the greatest threat to the survival of migrating birds.
• Other obstacles including violent storms, predators, and man-made
structures such as power lines.
2. Discuss some of the ways in which both people and wildlife benefit from the
preservation of healthy migratory bird ecosystems such as wetlands.
• Wetlands provide a good example of the human benefits of preserving
migratory bird ecosystems.
• Acting as natural filters, wetlands benefit people by removing pollutants,
helping to provide dependable water supply, and serving as natural
means of flood and erosion control.
• Wetlands also provide important habitat for many species of plants and
animals.
• Many animals spend at least part of their lives in wetlands, where they
find the food, water, and shelter they need to survive.
• For instance, whooping cranes find insects, frogs, and berries to eat in the
marshes where they nest.
• The wide-open spaces of the marsh also make it easier to see approaching
predators.

• Wisconsin Wetlands
o International Crane Foundation
 near Baraboo
 15 species of cranes including whooping cranes
o Necedah National Wildlife Refuge (NWR)
 near Necedah
 Operation Migration whooping cranes
• summer here and winter in Florida
o Buffalo River / Rieck’s Lake
 near Alma
 1000’s of migrating Tuntra swans while migrating from Artic to East
Coast
 Other waterfowl on Mississippi flyway
o Crex Meadows
 near Grantsburg
 Trumpeter swans reintroduced
 1000’s of Sandhill cranes staging for migration.

3. How has the attitude toward wetlands changed in recent years?


• In the past, people considered wetlands to be wastelands. These areas
were frequently drained to help get rid of mosquitoes and to provide more
land for agriculture and development.
• Today, scientists estimate that the U.S. is still losing more than 800 acres
of wetlands per day. Although wetlands are still disappearing in many
areas, much more effort is now being devoted to protecting these
ecosystems.
4. What are some ways in which people are helping migratory birds?
• One way is through biological research. Captive breeding programs in
which scientists raise whooping crane chicks in captivity are helping to
increase the numbers of whooping cranes.
• Another plan being tested is to teach safe migration paths to the
whooping cranes by training them to follow ultralight aircraft.
• A second way is through creation of National Wildlife Refuges. In 1903,
President Theodore Roosevelt established the National Wildlife Refuge
system for the purpose of protecting habitat for migratory birds.
• At that time commercial hunters were slaughtering huge number of
herons and egrets to provide feathers for women’s hats.
• Today, more than 500 refuges covering about 100 million acres provide a
network of land and water preserves where whooping cranes and other
birds can stop during migrations.
• In addition, national programs like Partners in Flight work to conserve
habitat and educate the public. And many individuals and local groups
are involved in building bluebird boxes, establishing bird-feeding stations,
and monitoring bird populations.
5. Why are neotropical migrants particularly vulnerable to loss of habitat?
• Depending on the species, neotropical migrants face loss of habitat all
along their migration routes.
• While hummingbirds have large areas of the United States and Canada in
which to feed, breed, and raise their young, many other species have
suffered from habitat loss and fragmentation in their northern breeding
areas.
• And virtually all neotropical migrants funnel into a small area of the tropics
during the winter. Loss of even a few acres of rainforest can destroy a
whole wintering area.

Wild About Life 3 Video – Notes

 Terms
1. attractants
2. habitat fragmentation
3. exterminated
4. aerial tracking
5. reintroduction
• attractants
o a term biologists use to describe items that lure animals to a
particular place.
o Attractants such as garbage, pet food, and livestock carcasses
sometimes lure grizzly bears close to people.
• habitat fragmentation
o The breakup and loss of parts of a habitat, which can threaten
animals that require larger and more diverse territory to survive.
o Due to settlement, agriculture, logging, or mining.
• exterminated
o Wiped out. The term usually applies to a purposeful elimination of
animals from a particular area.
o For example wolves and prairie dogs.

• aerial tracking
o A method used by scientists to monitor animal populations that
involves attaching radio collars to individual animals and follow the
signals with the help of specially equipped airplanes.
o For example used to track wolf populations.
• reintroduction
o The process by which animals that formerly lived in an area are
brought back to that same area in an effort to reestablish all parts
of the original ecosystem.
o In Wisconsin - Trumpeter Swans, elk, and fisher
1. What are the role of predators in a healthy ecosystem?
• Predators help ecosystems by maintaining the proper balance in prey
populations.
• By killing off weak or older members of prey species, predators help to
ensure that the strongest members of the species survive and pass their
genes on to future generations.
• They also prevent prey animals from overpopulating an area, keeping
their numbers in balance with the available food supply.
2. What are some of the ways in which predators come into conflict with people?
• When settlers moved westward across North America, they killed large
numbers of the wolves’ food sources—bison, elk, deer, and moose. The
wolves began to prey upon sheep and cattle. As a result, wolves were
hunted to the point that they were exterminated from almost all their
original range in the United States.
• Predators like the grizzly bear occasionally come into direct conflict with
humans and are killed.
• Human development if a much more serious threat to grizzly bears and
other predators. Roads, houses, agriculture, and logging or mining
operations result in habitat fragmentation, which prevents the bears from
acquiring the food, water, shelter, and space they need to survive.
3. What is being done to restore predator populations and resolve people /
predator conflicts?
• Careful monitoring of predator populations is an important first step.
• Specially designed recovery zones have been set aside for the grizzly bear
and biologists are using radio collars and aerial tracking to monitor wolves
and learn more about their physiology and behavior.
• Wolves have been reintroduced into parts of their former territory such as
Yellowstone National Park.
• Public education programs are helping people become aware of the
importance of predators to healthy ecosystems.
• Where predators may prey upon livestock, environmental groups and the
government have established programs to reimburse farmers and
ranchers for their livestock.
4. What are some of the human benefits of healthy predator populations?
• Healthy predator populations depend on healthy ecosystems, which
enhance biodiversity. Biodiversity benefits all living things, including
humans.
• It can also be argued that the quality of human life is enhanced by open
spaces, restricted development, and fewer roads—the same factors that
help predators to survive
Wild About Life 4 Video – Notes
 Terms
1. spawning grounds
2. overfishing
3. pollution block
4. moratorium
• spawning grounds
o areas where fish breed and give birth to their young.
o Many fish, like the striped bass, spend most of their lives in the open
ocean, but their spawning grounds are in tidal estuaries and rivers.
• overfishing
o to fish a particular species or area to the point that the number of fish is
depleted.
• pollution block
o an area of water that is polluted to such an extent that oxygen is depleted
and fish cannot swim through it.
o Striped bass faced a pollution block in the Delaware River.
• moratorium
o derived from the Latin “mora”, meaning delay; a temporary ban on a
particular activity.
o In the Chesapeake Bay, from 1985 to 1990, there was a moratorium on
fishing for striped bass in order to give the species a chance to recover.
1. What are some of the partnerships cited in the video that are working to
protect biodiversity?
• Striped bass: Fifteen states, industries, and private citizens, including
commercial and sport fishermen formed a partnership to protect
migratory striped bass along the east coast of the United States.
• Wetlands: Jason Spanel enlisted the help of local businesses and
government groups to help him create the wetland area near his home in
Illinois.
• Blanding’s turtle: The wildlife refuge manager and the teens worked
together to protect the threatened Blanding’s turtle nests.
• Manatee: The Monday Group worked with local government officials to
protect the manatee.
• Neotropical migrants: Partners in Flight includes state and federal wildlife
agencies as well as conservation and industry groups that are working
together to help neotropical migrants.
2. What does Rick mean when he says, “When we protect wildlife, we’re
protecting ourselves”?
• Conditions that make it possible for wildlife to flourish are also conductive
to a healthy human population:
o clean air, clean water, no pollution
• Humans depend on plants and animals for food clothing, shelter so it
makes sense for us to protect and preserve biodiversity.
• Many other species of plants and animals may provide benefits to humans
that have yet to be discovered.
3. In what ways are biologists working to restore biodiversity?
• Biologists have a better chance of preserving biodiversity by learning as
much as they can about living things.
• They study an animal’s habitat and where and when offspring are born
and how many are born at a time. They can make sure that conditions are
suitable for the survival of as many young as possible.
4. What are some ways students can protect biodiversity in their own
community?
• Examine your local environment and form partnerships with area groups
or agencies to restore habitat.
• Provide good stopover places for migratory birds by planting trees, setting
up bird feeders and watering stations.
• Work to clean up habitats-pick up trash, monitor for pollution, etc.

Silent Spring
• By Rachel Carson
o Timeline
 Late 1800’s – chemical needed to eliminate pests
 1939 – Swiss scientists invent DDT
 1942 – military use of DDT
 1945 – magazines warn against DDT
 1950 – congressional hearings
 1954 – FDA given power to regulate levels of pesticide in food
• Pesticides
• Insect resistance
o Stronger chemicals
o More chemicals
• Resurgence
o No natural enemies
 June 1962 – excerpts published in The New Yorker
 JFK: panel to investigate claims
 September 1962 – Silent Spring published
 April 1963: “CBS Reports: The Silent Spring of Rachel Carson”
 RC debates chemical industry reps
 1964 – Rachel Carson dies of cancer
 EPA rules DDT to be phased out by 1972
• “It was a spring without voices.”
 no birds singing
 no bees buzzing
• Pesticides
o For insects, weeds, rodents…
o “synthetic creations…having no counterparts in nature”
o Ex: DDT
o Sprayed on crops, forests, gardens, homes
o Soil -> plants -> animals -> people
o Exposure to air & sunlight converts them to new chemicals
• Radiation
o “the unnatural creation of man’s tampering with the atom”
o Ex: strontium 90
o Released through nuclear explosions
o Rain/fallout -> soil > plants -> animals -> people
• Evolution
o “Given time – time not in years, but in millennia – life adjusts [to low
level radiation, UV radiation…] and a balance has been reached. For
time is the essential ingredient; but in the modern world there is no
time.”
o “To adjust to these chemicals [500 annually] would require time on a
scale that is nature’s; it would require not merely years of a man’s life
but the life of generations.”
o We adapt slowly - today’s pace of change is too fast
• Genetic mutations
o “…look toward a time when it will be possible to alter the human germ
plasm by design. [It is now – genetic engineering] But we may be
doing so now by inadvertence, for many chemicals bring about gene
mutations.”
o We’re randomly changing our genes – not good!

• Man did not weave the web of life, he is merely a strand in it. Whatever he
does to the web, he does to himself.
o -often attributed (without verification) to a speech by Chief Seattle
• Web of Life:
Exploring biodiversity
• Three main causes for the loss of biodiversity
o Habitat loss
o Urban development
o Pollution: pesticides, radiation, etc.
o Agriculture, mining, logging, etc
o Introduction of exotic species
o Ex: salt cedar, palm trees, grasses, sea otter
o Overexploitation
o Ex: whales, tropical fish, striped sea bass
o Endangered Species (Examples Below)
 African elephant, American alligator, American bison, American
marten, Bald prairie dog, Brown pelican,
 Piping dragonfly, Sturgeon, Trumpeter swan, West Indian
manatee, Whooping crane

Cause of Seasons
• Cause of Seasons
o Assumption A
 Earth is closer to the sun during the summer.
 Like when you stick your hand closer to a fire it gets warmer.
 But what about the southern hemisphere?
 Our winter is their summer so they would be further away from
the sun.
o Distance from sun does NOT cause seasons
A. Elliptical orbit
1. Earth closer to sun in January than July
2. Explains Southern hemisphere seasons, but not Northern
hemisphere seasons
B. Tilting towards and away from sun
1. Changes distance to sun by about 1000 miles
2. 1000 miles out of 92,000,000 miles is an insignificant change
A. Day length
1. Axis tilted towards the sun makes day longer
a. Longest day in Northern hemisphere on summer solstice (June
21/22)
b. 24 hours of sun inside Arctic Circle on summer solstice
c. Longer days allow for more warming
2. Axis tilted away from the sun makes day shorter
a. Shortest day in Northern hemisphere on winter solstice (December
21/22)
b. 24 hours of dark inside Arctic Circle on winter solstice
c. Shorter days allow for less warming, more cooling
3. Axis is perpendicular to the sun twice/year: day length = night length
a. Autumnal equinox - days getting shorter/colder (September 22
/23)
b. Vernal equinox – days getting longer/warmer (March 21/22)
• Tilt of the earth’s axis causes seasons
B. Light intensity
1. Concentration
a. Light more concentrated when sun is more directly overhead
i. Sun is directly over Tropic of Cancer (N. hem.) on June 21
(Summer Solstice)
ii. Sun is closest to overhead in northern areas on June 21
iii. More concentrated light does more warming
b. Light is more spread out when sun is at an angle
i. Sun is directly over Tropic of Capricorn (Southern hemisphere)
on December 21 (winter solstice)
ii. Sun is at lowest angle in northern areas on December 21
iii. More spread out light does less warming
2. Filtering
a. Light less filtered when distance through atmosphere is shortest
i. Shortest distance through atmosphere in Northern areas on June21
ii. Less filtered light does more warming
b. Light more filtered when distance through atmosphere is longest
i. Longest distance through atmosphere in Northern areas on Dec 21
ii. More filtered light does less warming
• Northern hemisphere
o sun over Northern hemisphere
o long days
o light concentrated
o short distance through atmosphere
o high light intensity
o warmer
• sun over Southern hemisphere
o short days
o light spread out
o long distance through atmosphere
o low light intensity
o cooler
Deciduous vs. Coniferous
• Conifers
– evergreen needle
• Northern climate
– long cold dry winter
– poor soils
• less surface area to lose water
• fewer pores to lose water
• tough leaves with thick waxy coat
– saves water
– resists frost
• less surface area to catch snow and weigh down tree
• don’t need to regenerate needles
– short growing season
– limited nutrients
• deciduous
– broadleaf
• Southern climate
– longer growing season
– rich soils
• more surface area to capture light for photosynthesis
• more pores to exchange gasses for photosynthesis
• tender leaves gone in cold temperatures
• wide leaves gone when snowy
• able to regenerate leaves
– longer growing season
– nutrients available from previous year’s decomposed leaves

Comet
o Ice + dust
o As it approaches sun, ice vaporizes & forms tail
o Elliptical orbit
Meteor
o Dust particles burning up in earth’s atmosphere
o Meteor shower – when earth passes through orbital path of a comet
o Leonid meteor showers in November
o Meteorite – strikes the earth

Migration of the Monarch – Experiments

• Migration experiments
o #1 – Buntings and the stars
 Independent
• View of night sky
 Dependent
• Navigation using stars
 Conclusion
• Night migrators imprint on star patterns and use these
when migrating
o #2 – Starlings and the sun
 Independent
• stationary light
 Dependent
• bearing for migration
 Control
• moving light in lab
• light intensity
• Environmental factors (temp, wind, precipitation)
 Conclusion
• Birds have an internal clock that they use to migrate with
the sun
o #3 – Starlings relocated
 Independent
• Release site
 Dependent
• Migration rate
 Control
• Usual bird migration route
 Conclusion
• Immature birds know direction and distance
• Adults also use landmarks (mountains, water ways,
scents, magnetic fields)
o #4 – Junco flocks
 Independent
• Stocking food
 Dependent
• Amount of flocking
 Conclusion
• Feeding
o More eyes to spot food
o Better able to compete for food
• Safety
o More eyes to watch for predators
o “Safety in numbers” – bunch-up to discourage an
attack
• Cardinals
o Moved north gradually over last century
 1800’s – New York
 1900’s – Eastern North America and southern Canada
• Factors for Northern movement
o winter feeding
o climate warming
o altering habitat
 increase agricultural lands à more forest edge
 home lawns and shrubs
 corn and grain available
• Dark and White Meat
o Dark meat
 sustained energy - endurance
 lots of blood
 lots of hemoglobin à binds O2
o White meat
 quick bursts of energy - sprinter
 lots of Actin and myosin fibers à power and speed

Whooping Cranes
 Wisconsin’s most famous migrants: Whooping Cranes
Grus americana
Height: ~150 cm, 5 ft.
Weight: ~6 kg, 14-17 lbs.
Wingspan: ~7-8 ft, 210-240 cm.
Population: ~503
Trend: Increasing
• Once on the brink of extinction, now in the process of recovery
• population:
~15-20,000
 1870: ~500
 1937: 15
 2007
Natural flock: 236
Western flock: 0
Eastern migratory
flock: 78
Florida stationary
flock: 41
• Operation Migration:
Class of 2007
• Dec. 5, 2007 Russell County, KY
• The First Family
• June 22, 2006 was a day to celebrate! The first wild Whooping crane
chicks of the eastern migratory flock were discovered. They hatched to
parents #211 and #217.
• Adult migration fall 2007
• W601 arrived in Florida Dec. 2
• First adults arrived in Florida Dec. 2
• Other adults in IL, IN, TN, SC, & GA
• DARs in IL, IN, & TN

Cell Towers
• Threats
o Predators (cats = #1, others)
• (also trapping & hunting)
o Cars
o Pesticides
o Shiny office buildings
o Habitat loss
 (wetlands drained, trapping, lead shot…)
• Cell towers/power lines (4-50 million birds/year)
• Recommendations
• Place equipment on existing towers or other structures
o Water towers, buildings, etc.

The Rut
• Pre-rut
– 2nd full moon
– A few estrus does – bucks chasing
– Increase in buck daytime movement
• Rut
– Last quarter moon
– Majority of does in estrus
– Bucks chasing / tending does
• Post-rut
– New moon
– Bucks compete for few receptive does
• Second rut
– 25-28 days later
– About 25% of does do not conceive
• 2nd estrus
– First estrus for fawns

The Race for the Double Helix


Cambridge University
• James Watson
• Francis Crick
James Watson
• American
• money / fame / glory / Nobel Prize
• DNA: “Where the action is”
• “the boy wonder” – 23 years old with a PhD
Francis Crick
• English
• “What’s the point of science if it isn’t fun?”
• ‘the bright hope’ – 35 years old without a PhD
Rosalind Franklin
• English
• Vittorio: “We are the monks (and nuns) of science”
• independent
• focused on the work
Maurice Wilkins
• British
• “many irons in the fire”
• worked on the Manhattan Project
• went from the science of death to the science of life
• believes in the “brotherhood of science”

Known components of DNA


Phosphates: PO4 groups OH
I
-
O-P-OH
II
O
Bases (4 kinds):
Adenine
} purines
Guanine
Cytosine
} pyrimidines
Thymine
1958 – 5 years after the discovery of DNA’s double helix structure,
Rosalind Franklin died of cancer (at age 37)
1962 – Nobel Prize awarded to Watson, Crick, and Wilkins
(Nobel rules prohibit posthumous awards)
The Model
“It has not escaped our notice that the specific base pairing we have postulated
immediately suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material.”

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