Chapter 5

Multiple Access Networks

1
Main reference: Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc.
 PART 1:

5.1: RANDOM ACCESS

5.2 CONTROLLED ACCESS

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Introduction

Local Area Network [LAN]

- used to interconnect distributed communities of computer-
based DTEs located within a single building or localized
group of buildings
- also referred to as private data networks
Advantage:
i. Inexpensive and fast interconnections of minicomputers,
PCs, workstations, etc., in business, education and
research environments
ii. Allow users to share expensive resources, such as
- repository data [e.g., file servers]
- repository knowledge [e.g., database servers]
- service provider [e.g., printer, plotter]

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Characteristics:
i. Moderate-size geographic area [diameter of no more than a few
km]
ii. Located within a single building or localized group of buildings
[warehouse, campus, hostel]
iii. Total data rate of at least several Mbps
iv. Complete ownership by a single organization
The link layer is divided into 2 sub layers:
Application
i. Logical link control (LLC)
Presentation
ii. Medium access control (MAC) Session
Transport
Network
LLC Link
MAC layer
Physical

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Medium Access Control [MAC]
- regulates the access to the shared link
Logical Link Control [LLC]
- implements reliable packet transmission [flow and error
control]
LLC sublayer was originally designed to be the same for all LAN for
interoperability
Standards
- MAC: IEEE 802.3-12
- LLC: IEEE 802.2
Most common protocols
- ALOHA, Ethernet, Token Ring, WIFI
Two main classes of LANs:
i. Wired LANs
ii. Wireless LANs

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Main performance parameters of interest
- Throughput: maximum bit transmission rate when the
LAN is heavily loaded
- Efficiency: fraction of throughput to channel rate
- Delay: typical time taken to transmit a packet
between two nodes

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IEEE 802

LAN protocols are concerned principally with lower layers of the OSI
Model.

Thus, higher-layer protocols are independent of network architecture
and are applicable to LANs, MANs and WANs.

IEEE 802 LAN/MAN Standards Committee (www.ieee802.org) has
developed the IEEE 802 reference model for LAN specifications.

OSI reference model IEEE 802 reference

Application model
LLC service
Presentation access point
Session Upper layer [LSAP]

Transport protocol
Network () () ()
Logical link control
Data link layer Medium access
control Scope of
IEEE 802
Physical Physical standards

Medium Medium

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The lowest layer of the IEEE 802 reference model corresponds to
the physical layer of the OSI model and includes functions:
- Encoding/decoding signal
- Preamble generation/removal [for synchronization]
- Bit transmission/reception

In addition, the physical layer of 802 model also includes
specification of transmission medium and topology, as the choice of
transmission medium and topology is critical in LAN.

The data link layer in OSI model is implemented as 2 sublayers in

IEEE 802 model:
- logical link control [LLC]
- medium access control [MAC]

Logical link control layer provides interface to higher layers and
perform flow and error control.
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Medium access control layer provides functions such as:
- assemble data into frame with address and error-detection
fields on transmission
- dissemble frame and perform address recognition and error
detection on reception
- Govern access to the LAN transmission medium

The separation is required because:
- The logic required to manage access to a shared-access
medium is not found in traditional layer 2 data link control
- For the same LLC, several MAC options may be provided

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The architecture of IEEE 802 LAN standards

NL IEEE 802.1 Higher Layer Interfaces

etc. Bridging , Management , etc.

1. Unacked CL
LLC IEEE 802 .2 2. Acked CL
3. CO
Token Token 100(Base)
MAC CSMA/CD Token Bus
Ring Ring
DQDB Wireless
VG-AnyLAN
Unshielded twisted pair

Unshielded twisted pair

Shielded twisted pair

Shielded twisted pair

IEEE 802.11

IEEE 802.12
Broadband coaxial

Broadband coaxial
IEEE 802.3

IEEE 802.4

IEEE 802.5

IEEE 802.6
Optical Fiber

Optical Fiber
Optical fiber

Optical fiber

Optical fiber
FDDI

Infrared
Radio
PHY

CL – connectionless
CO – connection oriented

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Taxonomy of multiple-access protocols

.
.

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5.1 RANDOM ACCESS

In random access or contention methods, no

station is superior to another station and none is
assigned the control over another.

No station permits, or does not permit, another

station to send. At each instance, a station that
has data to send uses a procedure defined by the
protocol to make a decision on whether or not to
send.

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ALOHA

First Multiple Access Protocol using contention scheme

Precursor to CSMA/CD

Applicable to any shared transmission medium: radio
transmitters, coaxial cable, twisted pair or optical fiber

Two versions:

Pure ALOHA

Slotted ALOHA

Pure ALOHA is the original ALOHA

Each station starts transmitting whenever it has data to
send

After transmitting a data frame, the sender expects the
receiver to send an acknowledgment.

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PURE ALOHA

If the acknowledgement does not arrive after a timeout

period, the sender assumes that the data frame has been
destroyed and resends the frame.

If all stations experience collision try to resend their data
frames after the timeout period, the data frames will
collide again.

To overcome this, each station waits a random amount of
time before resending its data frame.

This random waiting time is called the backoff time (TB)
and it helps avoid more collisions.

To avoid congesting the channel with retransmitted
frames, a station must give up after a maximum number of
retransmission attempts
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Frames in a pure ALOHA network

As there is only one channel to share, there is a possibility of

collision if more stations are sending at about the same time.

Due to its simplicity, the number of collisions rises rapidly with
increased load.

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Procedure for pure ALOHA protocol

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Example 1

The stations on a wireless ALOHA network are a maximum

of 600 km apart. If we assume that signals propagate at 3 ×
108 m/s, we find
Tp = (600 × 105 ) / (3 × 108 ) = 2 ms.
Now we can find the value of TB for different values of
K.

a. For K = 1, the range is {0, 1}. The station needs to|

generate a random number with a value of 0 or 1.
This means that TB is either 0 ms (0 × 2) or 2 ms (1 × 2),
based on the outcome of the random variable.

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 Example 1(continued)

b. For K = 2, the range is {0, 1, 2, 3}. This means that TB

can be 0, 2, 4, or 6 ms, based on the outcome of the
random variable.

c. For K = 3, the range is {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}. This

means that TB can be 0, 2, 4, . . . , 14 ms, based on the
outcome of the random variable.

d. We need to mention that if K > 10, it is normally set to

10.

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Vulnerable time for pure ALOHA protocol

Vulnerable time is the duration with a possibility of collision

Consider 3 stations (A, B & C) with each station sending a fixed
length data frame taking transmission time Tfr

Pure ALOHA vulnerable time= 2 x Tfr

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Example 2

A pure ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a

shared channel of 200 kbps. What is the requirement to
make this frame collision-free?

Solution
Average frame transmission time Tfr is 200 bits/200 kbps or 1
ms. The vulnerable time is 2 × 1 ms = 2 ms. This means no
station should send later than 1 ms before this station starts
transmission and no station should start sending during the
one 1-ms period that this station is sending.

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Note

The throughput for pure ALOHA is

S = G × e −2G .
The maximum throughput
Smax = 0.184 when G= (1/2).

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Example 3

A pure ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a

shared channel of 200 kbps. What is the throughput if the
system (all stations together) produces
a. 1000 frames per second b. 500 frames per second
c. 250 frames per second.

Solution
The frame transmission time is 200/200 kbps or 1 ms.
a. If the system creates 1000 frames per second, this is 1
frame per millisecond. The load is 1. In this case
S = G× e−2 G or S = 0.135 (13.5 percent). This means
that the throughput is 1000 × 0.135 = 135 frames. Only
135 frames out of 1000 will probably survive.
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Example 3 (continued)

b. If the system creates 500 frames per second, this is

(1/2) frame per millisecond. The load is (1/2). In this
case S = G × e −2G or S = 0.184 (18.4 percent). This
means that the throughput is 500 × 0.184 = 92 and that
only 92 frames out of 500 will probably survive. Note
that this is the maximum throughput case,
percentagewise.

c. If the system creates 250 frames per second, this is (1/4)

frame per millisecond. The load is (1/4). In this case
S = G × e −2G or S = 0.152 (15.2 percent). This means
that the throughput is 250 × 0.152 = 38. Only 38
frames out of 250 will probably survive.
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Frames in a slotted ALOHA network

Pure ALOHA has a vulnerable time of 2Tfr as there is no rule that

defines when a station can send (stations may send at arbitrary
time)

Slotted ALOHA was invented to improve the efficiency

In slotted ALOHA, time is divided into slots of Tfr each

Each station can only transmit at the beginning of the time slot

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Note

The throughput for slotted ALOHA is

S = G × e−G .
The maximum throughput
Smax = 0.368 when G = 1.

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Vulnerable time for slotted ALOHA protocol

There is still possibility of collision as two or more stations may

send in the same time slot

Nonetheless, the vulnerable time is reduced to only Tfrc

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Efficiency ratio (ratio of throughput achieved to channel rate)
o Pure ALOHA = 0.184
o Slotted ALOHA=0.368

Both versions exhibit poor utilization as they fail to take advantage of
short propagation delay (w.r.t frame transmission time) in LANs

For short propagation delay, when a station launches a frame, a;; other
station will know it almost immediately ⇒CSMA

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Example 4

A slotted ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a

shared channel of 200 kbps. What is the throughput if the
system (all stations together) produces
a. 1000 frames per second b. 500 frames per second
c. 250 frames per second.

Solution
The frame transmission time is 200/200 kbps or 1 ms.
a. If the system creates 1000 frames per second, this is 1
frame per millisecond. The load is 1. In this case
S = G× e−G or S = 0.368 (36.8 percent). This means
that the throughput is 1000 × 0.0368 = 368 frames.
Only 386 frames out of 1000 will probably survive.
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Example 4 (continued)

b. If the system creates 500 frames per second, this is

(1/2) frame per millisecond. The load is (1/2). In this
case S = G × e−G or S = 0.303 (30.3 percent). This
means that the throughput is 500 × 0.0303 = 151.
Only 151 frames out of 500 will probably survive.

c. If the system creates 250 frames per second, this is (1/4)

frame per millisecond. The load is (1/4). In this case
S = G × e −G or S = 0.195 (19.5 percent). This means
that the throughput is 250 × 0.195 = 49. Only 49
frames out of 250 will probably survive.

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Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)

CSMA is a polite version of ALOHA

With CSMA, a station wishing to transmit first listens to the medium
(carrier sense) and obeys the following rules:
1) If the medium is idle, transmit; otherwise, go to step 2
2) If the medium is busy, continue to listen for idle medium; when
medium becomes idle, transmit whole frame immediately

CSMA reduces the possibility of collision, but cannot eliminate it

Even though each station listens to the medium before transmitting,
collision still exists due to propagation delay

When a frame is sent, it takes a while(though very short) for every
station to sense it

A station may sense the medium and find it idle, only because the
frame has not yet reach the station

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Space/time model of the collision in CSMA

CSMA reduces the possibility of collision, but cannot eliminate it

Collision still exists because of propagation delay

At time t1, B senses that the

medium is idle and send a
frame.

At time t2(t2 > t1), C senses

that the medium is idle(as
the frame from B has not
arrived at C yet) and sends
a frame

Both frames collide and are

destroyed

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Vulnerable time in CSMA

The vulnerable time for CSMA is the propagation time, Tp (the time
time for a signal to propagate from one end to another end of the
medium)

If the first bit of the frame reaches the end of the medium, every
station will already have heard the bit and will refrain from sending

Consider the worst case where A at one end is sending a frame

This frame is susceptible for collision until its first bit arrives at the
other end.

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Behavior of three persistence methods

Persistence Strategy defines the procedure for a station that senses a

busy medium.

Two strategies:
1) Non-persistent
o A station with frame to send senses the medium
o If the medium is idle, it sends immediately
o If the medium is busy, it waits a random time before sensing the
medium again
o Reduce the chance of collision as stations are unlikely to wait the same
amount of time
o Lower efficiency as the medium may be idle while the stations are
waiting

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2) Persistent
o A station with frame to send senses the medium
o If the medium is idle, it sends immediately
o If the medium is busy,
a) 1-persistent
- The station sends a frame immediately ( with a probability of 1) if
the medium is sensed idle
-Increase the chance of collision as 2 or more stations may send their
frames simultaneously after finding the medium idle.

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b) p-persistent
- The station send with probability p (i.e. may or may not send) if the
medium is sensed idle
- Reduce chance of collision and improve efficiency

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Flow diagram for three persistence methods

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Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)

With CSMA, the medium remains unusable for the duration of frame
transmission when two frames collide

For long frames, the amount of wasted capacity can be significant
[wasted time equal to frame transmission time]

This waste can be reduced if a station continues to listen to the
medium while transmitting [collision detection]

How to detect:
i. The station sends frame and senses the medium
ii. Collision detected if
- Coax:station senses power exceeding transmitted signal
strength [maximum length must be restricted to limit
signal attenuation]
- UTP: there is signal on more than one port [sensed by
hub and collision presence signal is generated and sent
to all stations]

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In CSMA/CD, a station wishing to transmit obey these rules:
i. If the station senses that the channel is idle (for 96 bit times), it
start to transmit the data frame and go to step (iii), otherwise go
to step (ii).
ii. If the channel is busy, the station waits (1-persistent) until it
senses that the channel is idle for 96 bit times and start to
transmit the frame and go to step (iii).
iii. While transmitting, it monitors the channel for possible
collision; if it transmits the entire frame without collision, the
transmission is considered as successful.
iv. If collision is detected, the station stops transmitting its frame,
transmit a 48-bit jam signal and go to step (v)
v. After aborting, the station enters an exponential backoff phase
and waits a random time before returns to step (i)

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Binary Exponential Backoff

When transmitting a given frame, after experiencing the nth collision

in a row for this frame, the station chooses a value K at random from
{0, 1, 2, …2m-1}, where m = min(n, 10).

The station then waits K slot times before it attempts to transmit
1st collision waits 0 or 1 slot time
2nd collision waits 0, 1, 2 or 3 slot times
3rd collision waits 0, 1, 2 … 7 slot times
mth collision waits 0 … 2m-1 slot times

After 10th collision, m fixed at 10

After 16th collision, frame is discarded and report
failure to upper layer

Note: Slot time = worst-case round-trip propagation time 39


In the presence of collisions, the mean value of the random delay is
doubled after each collision

As congestion increases, stations back off by larger and larger
amount to reduce the probability of collision

After 16 unsuccessful attempts, the station gives up and report an
error to the upper layer

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CSMA/CD with exponential backoff

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Collision Detection & Frame Transmission time

In CSMA/CD, the transmitting station senses the voltage levels before

and during transmissions

A collision results in a change of voltage level, and it takes time to
propagate back to the station

A station will only sense collision while transmitting; if a very short

frame is transmitted, the station might stop transmitting/sensing before
the collision signal arrives.
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Consider the worst case scenario :
A B C D

t=0

t = tp

t = 2tp

i. At t = 0, A transmits a frame onto the medium.

ii. At t = Tp − ε, frame from A almost arrives at D.
iii. At t = Tp, D just starts to transmit frame onto medium. It
immediately detects collision and transmit a jamming signal
iv. At t = 2Tp, A detects the collision.
Note: Tp is the end-to-end propagation time.
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The amount of time required to detect a collision is no greater than
twice the end-to-end propagation delay

A frame must take at least 2Tp to send to prevent the sender from
incorrectly concludes that the transmission was successfully

A starts to transmit frame

A has been completely

transmitted the frame
B starts to transmit frame prior
detecting frame from A

Collision occurs

Collision propagates throught

the network

A does not detect the collision

44
as it has finished transmission
1. A starts to 2. A continue to
transmit frame sense medium 3. B starts to transmit frame
while transmitting just before frame from A arrives

A B

7. A transmit 48- 4. Collision

bit jam signal 5. Collision propagates
occurs
through the network
6. A detects collision
and stop transmitting 45
Example 5
A network using CSMA/CD has a bandwidth of 10 Mbps. If
the maximum propagation time (including the delays in the
devices and ignoring the time needed to send a jamming
signal, as we see later) is 25.6 µs, what is the minimum size
of the frame?

Solution
The frame transmission time is Tfr = 2 × Tp = 51.2 µs. This
means, in the worst case, a station needs to transmit for a
period of 51.2 µs to detect the collision. The minimum size
of the frame is 10 Mbps × 51.2 µs = 512 bits or 64 bytes.
This is actually the minimum size of the frame for Standard
Ethernet.
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Major difference between ALOHA and CSMA/CD
- ALOHA: transmit as soon as there is a frame to be sent
- CSMA/CD:wait first for the channel to be idle before a frame is
transmitted

Efficiency of CSMA/CD (empirical):
1
U=
1 + 5a
end − to − end propagationdelay
where a=
frame transmissi on time

CSMA/CD will be more efficient than
- pure ALOHA for a < 0.89
- slotted ALOHA for a < 0.34

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Example of a > 1 and a < 1

48
5.2 CONTROLLED ACCESS

In controlled access, the stations consult one

another to find which station has the right to send.

A station cannot send unless it has been authorized

by other stations.

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Reservation access method

A station needs to make a reservation before sending

data.

Time is divided into intervals.

In each interval, a reservation frame frame precedes
the data frames sent in that interval.

50
Select and poll functions in polling access method

All data exchanges must be made through the primary device

even when the ultimate destination is a secondary device.

The primary device controls the link; the secondary devices
follow its instruction

51
Logical ring and physical topology in token-passing access method

The stations in a network are organized in a logical ring.

Each processor has a predecessor and a successor.

A special packet called a token circulates through the ring
52