The estimation of metabolic heat for use in the assessment of thermal comfort

Professor Ken Parsons Loughborough University, UK Abstract Human metabolic heat production influences environmental conditions and clothing that are required for thermal comfort. Methods for estimating metabolic heat production are described and discussed in the context of thermal comfort standards and assessment methods. ISO 8996 provides six methods in three levels. These include tables of metabolic rate values, the use of heart rate and measurement methods involving indirect calorimetry. Empirical methods, subjective measures, the use of diaries and task analysis are also discussed as well as the accuracy of methods. It is concluded that methods are of limited accuracy but that a simple system should be developed in the context of thermal comfort assessment (as opposed to a wide range of contexts including high levels of activity and heat and cold stress). Keywords: Metabolic rate, thermal comfort, standards Introduction Humans require energy to perform work and produce heat to maintain an internal body temperature of around 37 C. The higher their activity level, the more heat that is produced. If too much heat is produced then the body will sweat which will cause discomfort. If too little heat is produced blood will be withdrawn from the hands and feet, skin temperature will fall and the person will feel cold and uncomfortable. Environmental conditions and clothing required for comfort will therefore directly depend upon metabolic heat production. Metabolic heat production The body utilizes oxygen and food to produce energy; the rate at which this occurs is termed the metabolic rate (M). Most of the energy produced is measurable as heat but some will be used by the body in performing mechanical work (W). The metabolic heat production (H) is then
H = M W

W usually ranges from 0 to 20% of M and is difficult to measure in practice. For sedentary tasks and tasks with low activity, such as office work, W can be regarded as 0. The metabolic heat production is a rate of production of energy with time and hence has the units of power, that is, Watts. To reduce the individual variability in estimates of metabolic heat production for a specific activity, the value is usually related to surface area of the body or body mass. Thus, units of W m-2 or kcal/min/kg are used. Frequently, values of 1.8 m2 are assumed for the surface area and 70 kg for the mass of a man, and 60 kg and 1.6 m2 for a woman. The body surface area is included in the calculation as this is directly related to the heat exchange between the body and the environment. However body weight (mass) is used for many load moving activities (e.g. walking upstairs) which will contribute

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to the heat produced. In many tables which provide estimates of metabolic heat production for different activities, it is important to remember that the values assume an average man and may require correction for specific populations or individuals. A unit sometimes used is the MET where 1 MET is 50 kcal/m2/hr = 58.15 W m-2 and is said to be the metabolic rate of a seated person at rest. ISO 8996 Ergonomics: Determination of metabolic heat production This standard provides methods and data for estimating the metabolic heat production of humans. It provides fundamental support to ISO thermal comfort and other standards. Six methods of estimation are presented (Table 1) in three levels. Table 1: Six methods for estimating metabolic heat production (ISO 8996) Level I Method A Classification according to kind of activity B Classification according to occupation Accuracy Rough information where the risk of error is very great Inspection of the work place. Not necessary

Information on technical equipment, work organization High error risk: accuracy 15% Time study necessary

II

A Use of tables of group assessment B- Use of estimation tables for specific activities C- Use of heart rate under defined conditions

Not necessary

III

Measurement

Risk of errors within the limits of the accuracy of the measurement and of the time study: accuracy 15%

Time study necessary

The first is by use of tables, where estimates are provided based upon a description of activity. These range from general description (e.g. low, high etc.) to specific descriptions of occupations (e.g. bricklayer) and methods of summating components of tasks (e.g. basal metabolic rate plus posture component plus movement component etc.) Examples of the methods involving the use of tables are provided in Tables 2, 3 and 4 below.

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Table 2: Classification of metabolic rates by activity (ISO 8996, 1989) Class Mean metabolic rate Example -2 (W m ) Resting Low Moderate High Very high 65 100 165 230 290 Resting Sitting at ease/standing Sustained hand/arm work Intense work Very intense to maximum activity

Table 3: Classification by occupation (examples from ISO 8996, 1989) Occupation Metabolic rate (W m-2) Craftsmen: Bricklayer Carpenter Glazier Painter Agriculture: Gardener Tractor driver, etc. 115 to 190 85 to 110 110 to 160 110 to 175 90 to 125 100 to 130

Table 4: Metabolic rate by group assessment (ISO 8996, 1989) Metabolic rate = Basal + Posture + Work + Motion

Example: Raking leaves on a lawn = = = Basal 44 169 W m + +

-2

n/a 0

+ Light, two + Walking arm work + 65 + 60

The second type of method is by the use of heart rate. The total heart rate is regarded as a sum of several components and in general is linearly related to the metabolic heat production for heart rates above 120 beats per minute. This method is shown in Table 5.

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Table 5: Estimation of metabolic heat production using heart rate (ISO 8996, 1989) HR = HRo + RM(M BM) bpm = heart rate = metabolic rate = basal metabolic rate = Increase in heart rate per unit of metabolic rate. This can be determined experimentally for individual subjects or groups performing relevant tasks. HRo = Heart rate at rest (in prone position) under thermo-neutral conditions. Note: A rough estimate is given as M = 4.0 HR 255 The third type of method is to calculate the metabolic heat production from measures of oxygen consumption, and carbon dioxide production during activity and recovery. This method is complex and would not normally be used in work. For a full description the reader is referred to the standard. An outline description of indirect calorimetry is provided below. The methods and data provided in the standard are comprehensive so implementation of the standard into a computer system is beneficial (e.g. Parker and Parsons, 1990). Although one of the most extensive databases available on this topic, the inherent errors in use of the methods and derivation of the data should be taken into account; see Parsons and Hamley, 1989. The standard provides guidance on the level of accuracy one could expect with each method (see Table 1) and data refer to standard persons (Table 6). For conditions where the physical level of work varies, a time weighted average procedure is recommended; an example is shown in Table 7. Table 6: Standard persons used when estimating values of metabolic rate presented in ISO 8996(1986) Male Female Height (m) 1.7 1.6 Weight (kg) 70 60 1.8 1.6 Surface area (m2) Age (yrs) 35 35 Basal metabolic rate (W m-2) 44 41 where: HR M BM RM

Table 7: Example calculation of average metabolic rate over a period where a number of tasks and activities are carried out (ISO 8996, 1989) Duration (s) Metabolic rate (W m-2) Walk in factory 4 km h-1 Carry sack of 30 kg Standing 35 50 25 Time weighted average = 200 W m-2 165 250 70

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Method of indirect calorimetry Direct calorimetry is where a person performs an activity in an instrumented, insulated cabin and heat production is measured. This is not a practical option for thermal comfort assessment. For most purposes the rate of oxygen consumption can be used to estimate metabolic rate. This is indirect calorimetry. It requires collecting expired air over the period of interest using a Douglas bag or a portable spirometer (Durnin and Passmore, 1967). The principal problem is not to interfere with the task being measured and avoid problems with leaks, experimenter variability and calibration. The period when expired air is collected will depend upon the context. For light to medium work, collection will be during a representative period of the activity (the partial method). For very heavy work, collection is required during activity and recovery (integral method). From ISO 9886, the metabolic rate is calculated from M = EE VO2 1 AD

where EE the energy equivalent in watt hours per litre of oxygen is EE = ( 0.23 RQ + 0.77 ) 5.88 where RQ = the respiratory quotient ( = VCO2 VO2 ) VO2 = Oxygen consumption (litres/hour) VCO2 = Carbon dioxide production (litres/hour) AD = Dubois, body surface area ( m 2 ) where AD = 0.202 Wb
0.425

M = Metabolic rate (W m-2 ) Hb

0.725

Wb = body weight (kg) H b = body height (m) The values for oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production are for volumes at standard conditions of temperature and atmospheric pressure and are affected by the dietary balance of the subject. In practice the energy conversion assumed is 20.6 kJ/l O2 (McIntyre, 1980). A simple equation based upon oxygen utilized (fraction of oxygen in inspired air (0.209) - fraction of oxygen in expired air (Oe)) and ventilation rate (V l/sec) is M = 20600 V ( 0.209 Oe ) AD

(W m )
2

(McIntyre, 1980)

Empirical methods There have been a number of studies where metabolic rates have been measured by indirect calorimetry and regression techniques involving task components, walking 305

speed, etc. have been used to calibrate metabolic rate (see Towle et al., 1989); however, care must be taken as they are only valid under conditions for which they were calibrated. An example of a model is provided by Randle et al. (1989) where oxygen uptake VO2 (related to metabolic rate) for intermittent arm load carriage, can be predicted from VO2 = 36.3 (1.74 W ) (1.76 D ) (7.17 F )

+ (0.027 W 2 ) + ( 0.041 WD ) + (0.196 WF ) + ( 0.783 DF )

where VO2 = Oxygen uptake ( M l kg min 1 )

W = Weight of load ( range 10-30 kg )

D = Distance of load carriage ( range 9-15 metres ) F = Frequency of carriage ( range 2.5-3.5 min -1 )

Subjective measures The use of tables involves the observer (investigator) in making an expert subjective judgement about the nature of the work. This is the approach used in much work study and utilizes agreed generalizations of work-rate related to tasks, postures and actual masses moved (BSI 3138, 1978). An alternative is for the person performing the activity to provide a subjective estimate of the activity and hence indirectly of his or her metabolic rate. These are recorded on subjective rating scales involving, for example, work severity, range of movement, amount of activity, etc. However, it is debatable whether subjects can make valid and reliable judgements. A commonly used scale for subjective rating is the Borg scale (Stamford, 1976). This ranges from 6 to 20 with phrases appearing with each odd number from 7, very, very light to 19, very, very hard and provides a rating of perceived exertion. The effects of thermoregulation When the body is hot, rate of heat production will increase due to the greater rate of chemical reaction within the cells. When the body becomes cold, non-shivering thermogenesis and shivering can greatly increase the metabolic heat production. If oxygen consumption is used to estimate heat production then this may be included in the measurement. If estimates from tables are used then the effects of shivering for example may not. It is important to consider this in practical assessment for extreme environments but it is probably not important for thermal comfort. Task analysis and activity analysis methods For field studies where individuals are involved in many types of activity throughout the day, it will be useful to conduct an activity analysis. This is a standard technique in ergonomics job design and the data can also be used for assessing energy expenditure (Edholm, 1981). Identification of the metabolic rate for each activity and the time spent on that activity can provide an overall weighted average metabolic rate. Hierarchical task analysis can allow identification of the types of activity. Observers should be trained and consistent. The use of diaries may be possible if the subjects

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are sufficiently able. Questionnaires, the use of video recording, etc. can also provide useful information. The activity recording method may be useful in the overall design of jobs and quantification of requirements. However, it is debatable whether such methodology provides advantage in terms of estimation of metabolic heat production. Even if oxygen consumption for each activity is measured, there are still large potential errors in estimation. Accuracy of measurement Problems with the use of indirect calorimetry include the inconvenience and unacceptability to the subjects, the interference which equipment has on the activity of the person (e.g. hyperventilation), inter- and intra-subject variation for the same activity, inter- and intra-experimenter variation for the same activity, problems with calibration, leaks in equipment, etc. As in most practical assessments of thermal environments, it is unacceptable to measure oxygen consumption and contextual factors will preclude accurate estimate using tables. It can be concluded that it is not possible in practical application to obtain an accurate estimate of metabolic heat production. But how accurate do estimates have to be? Discussion It is possible that, for the majority of thermal comfort applications, methods for the assessment of metabolic heat production are too sophisticated and detailed. The range of tasks normally associated with the assessment of comfort is relatively small compared with the range of activity levels possible. The culture within which metabolic heat measurement methods have developed may not be appropriate for thermal comfort assessments. That is, one of heat and cold stress assessment, traditionally the domain of the thermal physiologist, especially when influenced by military and industrial researchers interested in extreme environments and survival. A second issue is that for high levels of activity the concept of thermal comfort may change. Fanger (1970) notes that skin temperatures and sweat rates that are required for comfort will depend upon activity level. In high activity, there may be profuse sweating, blood redistribution in the body to supply working muscles, hormonal secretions and maybe a sense of pleasure, productivity and achievement as well as physical and thermal strain. It is possible that in such conditions the meaning of comfort varies from that of the sedentary office worker typing into a computer. For the above reasons it may be necessary to consider the estimation of metabolic heat production specifically in the context of thermal comfort. The range of activities provided in ISO 8996 or ASHRAE (1997) is too wide for thermal comfort assessment. How do we interpret, Wrestling, competitive 410-505 W m-2 (ASHRAE, 1997)? Restricting the range below 2.0 MET (116 W m-2) is probably sensible. Thermal comfort for people with higher activities requires further consideration. It may be useful to identify activities (sleeping, seated at rest, walking, etc.) but this is mainly for the purposes of usability and it is suggested that a scale in the context of thermal comfort such as, resting, low, medium, high is as accurate as can be achieved. Those using thermal comfort indices must then accept that this is the best that can be done in the estimation of metabolic heat production and assessment methods should be considered accordingly.

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References ASHRAE (1997), 1997 ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals SI Edition. ASHRAE, Atlanta, USA. BS 3138 (1978), Glossary of terms used in work study and organization and methods. BSI, London, UK. Durnin, J V G A and Passmore, R (1967), Energy, Work and Leisure. Heinemann Educational Books Ltd, London, UK. Edholm, O G (1981), Habitual Activity and Daily Energy Expenditure. In: J S Weiner and J A Lourie (Eds) Practical Human Biology, Chapter 17, Academic Press, London, UK. Fanger, P O (1970), Thermal Comfort. Denmark. Danish Technical Press, Copenhagen,

ISO 8996 (1989), Ergonomics of Thermal Environments Determination of Metabolic Heat Production. ISO Geneva. McIntyre, D A (1980), Indoor Climate. Applied Science Publishers Ltd, London, UK. Parker, R D and Parsons, K C (1990), Computer based system for the estimation of clothing insulation and metabolic heat production. In: E J Lovesey (Ed), Contemporary Ergonomics 1990. Taylor & Francis, London, UK. Parsons, K C and Hamley, E J (1989), Practical methods for the estimation of human metabolic heat production. In: J B Mercer (Ed) Thermal Physiology 1989. Elsevier Science Publishers BV (Biomedical Division), Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Randle, I P M; Legge, S J and Stubbs, D A (1989), Task-based prediction models for intermittent load carriage. In: E D Megaw (Ed), Contemporary Ergonomics. Taylor & Francis, London, UK. Towle, J A; Parsons, K C and Haisman, M F (1989), Design, development and implementation of a biomechanics knowledge base. In: E D Megaw (Ed), Contemporary Ergonomics 1989. Taylor & Francis, London, UK. Stamford, B A (1976), Validity and reliability of subjective ratings of perceived exertion during work. Ergonomics, 1976, Vol 19, No 1, pp 53-60.

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