WATER

Carbon Dioxide

2 +

. Water is considered a polar molecule because a) the molecule has a net positive charge b) the molecule has a net negative charge c) the molecule has a net zero charge d) the ends of the molecule have partial negative and positive charges 2. Soap is formed from: a) two hydrophobic compounds b) a physical change when fats are heated c) two hydrophilic compounds d) oils or fats by reacting them with an alkali 3. Which statement is correct about hydrophobic and hydrophilic compounds a) hydrophilic are water-hating and hydrophobic water-loving b) hydrophilic are water-loving and hydrophobic water-hating c) both hydrophobic and hydrophilic compounds are polar molecules d) both hydrophobic and hydrophilic compounds are non-polar molecules 4. Soap acts by a) digesting the fat molecules b) forming micelles and trapping the fat within the micelles c) releasing sodium and potassium into water d) a chemical change 5. Which of the following statements is not correct a) the soap molecules work as a bridge between polar water molecules and non-polar oil molecules b) soap forms micelles c) soap is an emulsifier d) soap is made of just carbon and hydrogen atoms
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To find the smallest possible ice crystal was a matter of brute force. The team measured water cluster sizes that ranged from 85 to 475 molecules and found that crystallization consistently occurred only after there were at least 275 molecules involved. Read more at: http://phys.org/news/2012-09-chemists-smallestmolecules-ice-crystal.html#jCp

Science, 21 September 2012: Vol. 337 no. 6101 pp. 1529-1532

H2 O NH3 CH4

MW (g/mol) 18 17 16

Melting Boiling point (oC) point (oC) 0 100 - 77 -182 -33 -164

van der Waals Interactions

All intermolecular/van der Waals forces are anisotropic. London dispersion forces, are weak intermolecular forces that arise from the interactive forces between instantaneous dipole in molecules without permanent dipole moments. At the point of maximum attraction, the nuclei are in van der Waals radius.

Ionization of Water, Acids and Bases

nA + mB

xC + yD

Ionization of Water

H2O

H+ + OH-

[H+][OH-] K= [H2O]

Weak Acids and Bases

HA
Acid

H+ + AConjugate base

Ka =

[H+][A-] [HA]

Weak Acids and Bases and pKa

pKa = log

1 = - log Ka Ka

The stronger the tendency to dissociate a proton, the stronger is the acid and the lower its pKa.

Ion Product of Water and pH

Keq = [H+][OH-] [H2O]

[H2O] Keq = [H+][OH-] = Kw

Kw = (55.5M) (1.8 10-16 M)= 1 10-14 M2

pH = log

1 [H+]

= - log [H+]

Determining pKa
Titration curve

At the midpoint of the titration, the concentrations of the proton donor and proton acceptor are equal, and the pH is numerically equal to the pKa.

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Buffers
Buffers are aqueous systems that tend to resist changes in pH when small amounts of acid (H+) or base (OH-) are added. A buffer system consists of a weak acid (the proton donor) and its conjugate base (the proton acceptor). At the midpoint of the buffering region, where the concentration of the proton donor (acetic acid) exactly equals that of the proton acceptor (acetate), the buffering power of the system is maximal; that is, its pH changes least on addition of H+ or OH-.

Henderson-Hasselbalch equation
pH = pKa + log [A-] [HA]

For example, it shows why the pKa of a weak acid is equal to the pH of the solution at the midpoint of its titration.

pH = pKa + log 1 = pKa + 0 = pKa

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Amino Acids

Stereoisomerism in -amino acids

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