SOURCES OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY

HOW FAR DO YOU THINK THE LITERARY AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES HELP US TO RECONSTRUCT INDIAN HISTORY?

In order to study the life of Indian people in the past, we have to rely on different sources of Indian history. The numerous sources available are generally classified into Literary, Archaeological and Foreign Accounts. A study of these reveal much of the past; but much more remains yet to be unveiled.

LITERARY SOURCES
Literary sources include the sacred and secular literature. Sacred literature is not precisely historical in content. It provides glimpse of religious, intellectual, cultural and social spheres of activity of people.

The Vedic literature includes all the four Vedas, Brahmanas, Aryankas and Upanishads. The four Vedas are - Rigveda, which is a collection of 1,028 hymns. It is the only indigenous source for reconstructing the history of Rig Vedic Aryans. Secondly, Yajurveda, which deals with the details of the performance of rituals. Thirdly, Samaveda, which consists of 1,810 verses. It prescribes the tune for the recitation of the hymns of Rig Veda. Fourthly, Atharvaveda, which is the latest Veda and consists of hymns. It also spells and charms which reflect aspects of popular beliefs and practices. However, it does not have any trace of political history.

The Ramayana and Mahabharata, the two great epics of the Vedic period, gives an idea of the times and culture of the later Vedic period. The epics are magnificent texts with powerful stories and excellent examples of Indian literature in verse. Valmiki wrote the Ramayana between 5th/4th century BCE and the 3rd century CE in Sanskrit language. The epic has 24,000 slokas. In addition, the epic is significant for its fluidisation of social ideas of ancient Indian society. The Mahabharata was written between c. 400 BCE - c. 400

CE by Ved Vyas. Political thought of ancient India can be understood based on this epic. The epic has 1,00,000 slokas. It consists of 18 Parvahs (books).

The Puranas, eighteen in number, are mainly historical accounts. It is a collection of legends with religious teachings, which are written in Sanskrit. It throws ample light on the history of Mauryas. List of the Mauryan kings are included in it.

The Dharmasutras and the Smritis are rules and regulations for the public and the rulers. The Dharamshastras or the law-books prescribe the duties for different social groups. They set out punishments for persons guilty of theft, murder, adultery, etc. The earliest law book is Manu Smriti. It was the first book translated by the British and formed the basis of Hindu code of law. They are the main source of knowledge regarding Brahmanical institutions. These shastras reveal the working of the caste system in a rigid form. These were compiled between 600 B.C. and 200 B.C. The four Varnas included in Dharamshastras are Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. Manusmriti is prominent among them.

The contribution of Buddhist Literature to the source of ancient Indian history is of immense importance. Tripitakas helps in drawing a picture of social, economic, and political life in the age of Buddha. These works are written in Pali language. It consists of three - Sutta Pitaka is a source of immense value to know about sermons and religious ideas of Buddha; Vinaya Pitaka describes the code of conduct followed by the followers of Buddhism; and Abhidhamma Pitaka throws light on philosophical ideas of Buddhism. The most important non-religious Buddhist literature is the Jatakas. They contain the stories of the previous birth of the Buddha. These stories throw invaluable light on the social and economic conditions of the period between the fifth and second centuries B.C.

Jain literature is of immense value for the reconstruction of ancient history of India. The Jaina texts were written in Prakrit and were eventually compiled in sixth century AD at Vallabhi in Gujarat. They are called Angas and contain the philosophical concepts of the Jainas. The most priceless work in Jain literature is `Parisistha Parvana`, written by Hema Chandra. The important Jain works are - twelve-Angas, Kalpasutra, Bhagavati Sutra, Marutunga, Parisistaparvan, Uttaradhayayana, Andhara-Magadhi, Sthaviravali, etc. bear important historical data on Jain religion and culture and on important monarchs like Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Mahapadma Nanda, Chandragupta Maurya, etc.

Kautilyas Arthasastra reveals most authentic information on all basic aspects of the structure of the Mauryan empire such as economy, administration including an elaborate system of espionage, art of diplomacy and military strategy and tactics under Chandragupta Maurya.

The Sangam literature, the earliest South Indian literature, of the Tamils in far South, written in Kavya (poem) style are the most representative of the secular literature of the South during the early Christian era. It describes many kings and dynasties of South India. It consists of long and short poems which were composed by a large number of poets in praise of their kings. Sangam literature is our major source for the study of south Indian society, economy and polity during 300 B.C. 300 A.D.

ACCOUNTS BY FOREIGN TRAVELLERS

Indigenous literature can be supplemented by foreign accounts. The accounts left by foreigners Greek, Roman, Arab and Chinese supply valuable details about the early history of India. These accounts comprise writings by foreign authors and travellers on the region under historical study.

Greek and Roman accounts of the first and second centuries mention many Indian ports and commodities of trade between India and the Roman Empire. Two Buddhists, Fa-hsien and Hsuan Tsang came to India to visit the Buddhist shrines and to study Buddhism. Fa-hsien who came to India in the 5th century AD describes the conditions in India in the age of Guptas whereas Hsuan Tsang presents a similar account of India in the 7th century during the time of king Harshavardhan

Indica by Megasthenes was written in 4th century BCE in Greek language. It describes geography, politics, various kingdoms and Caste System during the Mauryan period. Herodotus in his Histories contributes valuable information concerning the relation between India and the Persian Empire.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES
Archaeology the study of human past through material remains is closely connected with history. Material remains range from vestiges of grand palaces and temples to the small, discarded products of everyday human activity such as pieces of broken pottery. The dates of remains found in excavations are fixed by various methods. The most important of them is the Radiocarbon or Carbon 14 (C14) dating method. It decays, like all radioactive substances, at a uniform rate when the object is

dead. The finds of prehistoric artifacts has shown that human activities have started here about 2 mya. Excavations have brought to light the tools of early humans in India going as back as seven lakh years

The civilization represented by Harappa in West Punjab and Mohenjodaro in Sindh are known as the Indus valley civilization. The excavated sites belonging to the Harappan period show the layout of the settlements and the form of the houses in which people lived, the type of pottery, tools and implements they used and the kind of food they consumed. The Great Bath, in Mohenjodaro, is the most important public place and must have served as a ritual-bathing site in 2500 B.C

The period between 1500 and 600 B.C. was known as the dark period of Indian history because not much was known about this period. The archaeological discoveries of such cultures as Black-and-Red Ware, Painted Grey Ware, Malwa and Jorwe cultures since 1950s have not only filled the chronological gaps but also the geographical extent. Stupas built on mounds, where the holy relics of Buddha or objects used by him are buried, have become important pilgrimage sites. Archaeological excavations also brought to light the townships of Taxila, Kausambi, Kasi (Rajghat), Ayodhya, Vaisali, Bodhgaya, etc. belonging to Buddha's time.

EPIGRAPHICAL SOURCES
Inscriptions are permanent writings engraved on hard surface such as stone, metal or terracotta. Inscriptions are the most important source for the reconstruction of the political, social, and economic history of ancient India.

Inscriptions have been used as a major source of information on political structures and administrative and revenue system. They often reflect what people are actually doing. They reflect the history of languages and literature. Their script enables us to determine the approximate age of the inscription. They throw light on the history of settlement patterns, agrarian relations, forms of labour, and class and caste structures. They provide dateable information on the history of religious sects, institutions, and practices. They are also a rich source of information on historical geography. They, thus throw light on the history of iconography, art and architecture.

The earliest records have been found from Harappa, but the script has not been deciphered. James Princep deciphered Ashokan inscription in 1837, which was written in Pali and Prakrit language. Ashokan inscriptions form the most important source of the Mauryan period. They are important for providing the knowledge about the extension of his empire, his religious policy, administration and his character.

However, there are some limitations of inscriptional evidence. Sometimes, letters are very faintly engraved, and thus reconstructions are uncertain. In addition, inscriptions may be damaged or letters missing. Besides, it is not always easy to be sure about the exact meaning of the words used in inscriptions, some of which may be specific to a particular place or time.

COINS
The earliest coins found in India contained certain symbols, which were known as punch-marked coins and were made of silver and copper (c. 6th century BC onwards). The first coins to bear the names and images of rulers were issued by the Indo-Greeks, who established control over the north-western part of the subcontinent (c. 2nd century BC). The first gold coins called Dinaras were issued by the Kushanas in c. first century AD and their wide distribution indicates the flourishing trade of the period. Some of the most spectacular gold coins were issued by the Gupta rulers. Their earliest issues are remarkable for their purity of gold content. Kaniskas coins depicts Buddhas figure.

Coins provide useful information regarding economic history as they were used as a medium of exchange. Some coins were issued by guilds or associations of the merchants and artisans with the permission of the rulers which shows the influence of craft and commerce. Coins also portray kings and gods, and contain religious symbols, all to which throw light on the art and religion of the time. Roman coins found in various parts of India provide information on the Indo-Roman trade. Coins offer information on ancient political system and on the Parthians, Shakas, Kushanas, and Satvahanas.

However, with the downfall of the Gupta Empire, coins play a much lesser role as a source of ancient Indian history. The coins of Harshavardhana, the Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas, the Pratiharas and the Palas are rarely available and contain meagre historical information.

CONCLUSION
The information derived from literary and archaeological sources helps us to form a complete picture of our ancient times. The information provided by literary texts if corroborated by archaeological remains helps the historian to improve the scale of historical authenticity and reliability of fact. The only lesson they could draw from the study of history was that everything is subject to decay and decline.