Condition Assessment of Aged Ships

16th INTERNATIONAL SHIP AND OFFSHORE STRUCTURES CONGRESS 20-25 AUGUST 2006 SOUTHAMPTON, UK VOLUME 2
COMMITTEE V.6
CONDITION ASSESSMENT OF AGED SHIPS

COMMITTEE MANDATE Concern for the development of methods for assessing the serviceability and safety of aged steel ships. This shall include assessment of the structural condition (in view of corrosion, fatigue cracking and local denting), methods for repair, quantification of strength of deteriorated and repaired ships (as well as criteria for acceptable damage), with due account of the uncertainties involved. Consideration shall be given to cost-benefit and risk-based decision procedures for remedial actions.
COMMITTEE MEMBERS Chairman: J K Paik F Brennan C A Carlsen C Daley Y Garbatov L Ivanov C M Rizzo B C Simonsen N Yamamoto H Z Zhuang
KEYWORDS Condition assessment, aged ships, age related deterioration, corrosion wastage, fatigue cracking, local denting, cost-benefit remedial actions, risk assessment, risk-based inspection, risk-based maintenance and repair.
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ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships CONTENTS 1. 2.
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INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 269 CURRENT PRACTICES FOR CONDITION ASSESSMENT................................. 269 2.1 Condition Assessment Scheme............................................................................ 269 2.2 Enhanced Survey Programme.............................................................................. 270 2.3 Condition Assessment Programme...................................................................... 272 2.4 Guidelines for Surveys, Assessment and Repair ................................................. 272 2.5 Emergency Response Services ............................................................................ 272 2.6 Ship Inspection Report Programme..................................................................... 272 2.7 Insurance Inspection ............................................................................................ 273 MECHANISMS OF AGE RELATED DETERIORATION ...................................... 273 3.1 Corrosion Wastage............................................................................................... 273 3.2 Fatigue Cracking.................................................................................................. 275 3.3 Local Denting....................................................................................................... 276 DAMAGE DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT METHODS.............................. 277 4.1 Corrosion Detection and Measurements.............................................................. 279 4.1.1 Current Practice............................................................................... 279 4.1.2 Other Advanced Methods ............................................................... 280 4.2 Fatigue Crack Detection and Measurement......................................................... 281 4.3 Mechanical Damage Detection and Measurement.............................................. 282 4.4 Uncertainties and their Sources Associated with Damage Detection and Measurement ................................................................................ 282 MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF AGE RELATED DETERIORATION .............. 283 5.1 Corrosion Wastage Models ................................................................................. 284 5.2 Fatigue Cracking Damage Models ...................................................................... 287 5.3 Corrosion Fatigue Models ................................................................................... 288 5.4 Local Denting Damage Models........................................................................... 288 CORRECTIVE / PROTECTIVE MEASURES FOR AGE RELATED DETERIORATION ..................................................................................................... 288 6.1 Corrosion Correction / Protection Measures ....................................................... 288 6.2 Fatigue Crack Correction / Protection Measures................................................. 290 6.3 Mechanical Damage Correction / Protection Measures...................................... 292 RELIABILITY ANALYSIS OF AGED SHIPS ......................................................... 292 7.1 Status Assessment ................................................................................................ 292 7.2 Load Models ........................................................................................................ 293 7.3 Strength Models................................................................................................... 294 7.4 Limit State Criteria............................................................................................... 294 7.5 Hull Girder Strength Reliability Analysis............................................................ 295 7.6 Target Reliability Index ....................................................................................... 295
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ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships INSPECTION, MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR ..................................................... 296 8.1 Acceptance Criteria for Remedial Actions.......................................................... 296 8.2 Cost-Benefit and Risk-Based Inspection and Maintenance ................................ 297 8.2.1 Risk-Based Inspections ................................................................... 298 8.2.2 Risk-Based Maintenance and Repair .............................................. 300 8.3 Repair Methods.................................................................................................... 303 FUTURE TRENDS AND CONCLUDING REMARKS ........................................... 304
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REFERENCES...................................................................................................................... 305
ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships
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1.
INTRODUCTION
Ship structures while in service are likely to be subject to age related deterioration such as corrosion wastage, fatigue cracking or mechanical damage (e.g., local denting) which can give rise to significant issues in terms of safety, health, environment and financial expenditures. Indeed, it has reportedly been recognized that such age related deterioration is almost always involved in the catastrophic failures of ship structures including total losses. While such accidents typically cause a great concern to the public, maintenance and repair of aged structures is also very costly and complex. It is thus of great importance to develop advanced technologies which can allow for proper management and control of such age related deterioration. This report presents current practices, recent advances and future trends on condition assessment of aged ships involving inspection, maintenance and repair schemes. As related techniques for ships made of composite materials or aluminium alloys may differ to a lesser or greater, this report deals with only steel ships. 2. CURRENT PRACTICES FOR CONDITION ASSESSMENT
The safety network for ship structures is made up of the joint efforts of a number of stakeholders such as ship owners, class societies, shipyards, insurers, banks & investors, flag states, ports & terminals, cargo owners and charterers. Some of these stakeholders exercise their contribution by setting the requirements and some by conducting physical work such as inspection, maintenance, repairs and upgrades. IMO (International Maritime Organization) and class societies are in the process of developing rules and regulations utilizing risk-based methods. The Goal Based Standards (GBS) initiative and Formal Safety Assessment (FSA) are two examples of such developments. To date, this systematic risk-based approach has not been adopted directly for defining surveys or acceptance criteria for ships. Current practices for condition assessment of aging ships have to a large extent been based on experience gained over the years on deterioration processes, through painful lessons from accidents and cost of maintenance. In the following sections, current practices for condition assessment of aged ships are reviewed. 2.1 Condition Assessment Scheme
As a consequence of the Erika accident in 1999, and later the Prestige accident in 2002, the phasing out of single hull tankers was accelerated in amendments to IMO Regulation 13G of MARPOL Annex I. The amended Regulation 13G allows for a certain extent of continued trading provided that a Condition Assessment Scheme (CAS) is carried out with a satisfactory result. In short, the CAS is an enhanced scheme to the survey scope at the third renewal survey defined by the Enhanced Survey Programme (ESP) - IACS UR Z 10.1 and IMO Res A 744 (18). The main differences between CAS and ESP are related to survey
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planning, survey reporting, flag state involvement and the strict timeline needs to be followed. Certain flag states have regional requirements beyond the international requirements of IMO. These can be motivated by concern for national waters and may be considered to fall under the flag states function as a port state. Thus, the United States has implemented the OPA90 (Oil Pollution Act of 1990) to enforce special quality requirements to tankers and their operation to allow entrance to U.S. waters. Port states are coastal states with ships passing their territorial waters and entering their ports. These states have special concern for the safety of ships and people either on the ships or land as well as the protection of the environment. Often the flag and port state responsibilities are exercised by the same national maritime administration. Most port states have agreed on common procedures for port state controls and sharing of information on quality issues. Port state controls are spot checks to gain a general impression of a ships condition. 2.2 Enhanced Survey Programme
Flag states generally delegate the authority to inspect ships to classification societies. This is regulated in SOLAS Ch.1 Reg. 10. The class certificate, including the already defined ESP for tankers and bulk carriers, therefore, becomes the cornerstone of the quality system for aging ships (IACS 2002, 2004a, 2004b, 2005). The ESP programme was developed on the basis of a critical evaluation of ship structures together with an appreciation of current experience with corrosion and cracking as well as the need to make quite transparent and specific procedures to avoid loopholes that could lead to insufficient follow up and, consequently, substandard ships. During the subsequent years a number of improvements have been made to the programme to pursue these principles, in particular after the Erika and Prestige accidents. While class surveys were previously often the only thorough evaluation of the hull structure, a basic element of the safety network today is that owners have implemented a proper maintenance system where all damages and defects should be reported to class to identify critical areas. Furthermore, the owner is responsible for proper planning of class surveys including, for example, proper cleaning and de-scaling and safe access facilities for the surveys. The ESP programme survey schedules and extent of surveys are based on the understanding that, with the sheer size of the vessels, the real condition can only be revealed with detailed close-up inspections and extensive thickness measurements, and that the deterioration process happens slowly over time. It is therefore considered more effective to have fewer thorough surveys rather than more frequent superficial ones. The cornerstone of the inspection process has therefore become the Special Periodical Survey (SPS), conducted every 5 years, and requiring close-up access to critical structure
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and components. This survey can sometimes take weeks to complete. For older ships, it was considered that 5 years would be too long time between such detailed surveys. As a result, the Intermediate Survey (IS) was also tightened up with a similar, though less extensive, survey as the SPS. After the Erika and Prestige accidents, these IS surveys were tightened further and made identical to the SPS from 17.5 years age and onwards. Furthermore, ballast tanks will be subject to an Annual Survey (AS) when, during an SPS or IS, it is found with, for example, no protective coating from the time of construction, a protective coating in less than good condition or substantial corrosion. The rating of the coating (good, fair, poor) must be done according to the guidance given in IACS Recommendation 87 (IACS 2004b) for tankers and in the guidelines by the Tanker Structure Cooperative Forum (TSCF 1997). Substantial Corrosion is an extent of corrosion such that assessment of the corrosion pattern indicates wastage in excess of 75% of allowable margins. A record of substantial corrosion will be made even if the owner selects to coat the area and arrest further corrosion. This practice by the classification societies has a large influence on the actual repair and maintenance performed by the owners, because most oil majors do not charter ships with a record of substantial corrosion. TABLE 1 EXAMPLE OF REQUIRED FREQUENCY OF INSPECTIONS OF BALLAST TANKS DEPENDING ON THE COATING CONDITION, ACCORDING TO IACS (2004) Year 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Good S I S I S I S Fair or S A A I A S A A I A S A A I A S Poor Note: S = special survey; I = intermediate survey; A = annual survey. One driver behind the ESP was to ensure a consistent quality of hull surveys. This was addressed by making detailed and prescriptive requirements for the actual surveys as indicated in Table 1. The scope and scheduling was developed based on a generic risk assessment of critical structures, and detailed and comprehensive requirements for reporting what had been previously surveyed and found. As the close-up survey quality is very dependent on the trustworthiness of the thickness measurements, a special certification scheme was implemented as part of the ESP on thickness measurement companies. Guidelines for ultrasonic thickness measurements are given by IACS (2005) in general terms and by the individual classification societies at a detailed level, e.g., DNV (2004a,b).
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ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships Condition Assessment Programme
During the late 80s and 90s, a number of financial institutions started to question the value of aged tankers and some charterers started to restrict the use of aged vessels (beyond 15 to 20 years age) without special inspections beyond the minimum requirements of IACS. The classification societies met these demands by offering a special, voluntary Condition Assessment Programme (CAP) with extended inspection and thickness measurements. The programme results in a rating of the ships from excellent to poor. This programme is today requested by a number of oil companies as a basis for chartering older tankers, e.g., beyond 15 to 20 years of age. As an extra safety precaution they typically require these ships to be rated above the minimum requirement stipulated by the classification societies to maintain the class certificates. 2.4 Guidelines for Surveys, Assessment and Repair
The Tanker Structure Cooperative Forum (TSCF 1992, 1995, 1997, 2000) was established to implement industry guidelines for maintenance and inspection of tankers. The TSCF members, classification societies, ship owners and charterers have issued a guidance manual for tanker structures. These guidelines and the procedures for ESP have largely been harmonised and TSCF gives valuable guidance for maintenance and repair of ship structures. Such guidelines have been issued by IACS (1999, 2002, 2004a) for general cargo ships and bulk carriers. The guidelines follow the same format as the guidelines for tankers issued by TSCF (1997). 2.5 Emergency Response Services
Driven by the Exxon Valdez accident and OPA90, several classification societies and consultants have developed special schemes to assist ship owners handle emergencies like collision, grounding, fire, explosion, heavy weather damage, etc. to safeguard the ship, crew and the environment. An important part of this assistance is to apply sophisticated numerical models of the ships with respect to hull strength and stability in damaged condition as a basis for simulating the consequences for emergency ballasting requirements, temporary repairs and the rescue operation. In such cases, ultimate strength and fitness for purpose criteria may have to be evaluated rather than the allowable working stress based rule requirements for an intact vessel. 2.6 Ship Inspection Report Programme
Charterers of tanker tonnage implemented special vetting survey schemes with inspection of ships and requirements on ship owners. An overview of these is described by Intertanko (2003) in its Guide to Vetting process. The system was introduced by the Oil Companies International Marine Forum (OCIMF) which was established in 1970 as a response to the Torrey Canyon accident in 1970 to increase public awareness of marine pollution. A cornerstone of the vetting system is the Ship Inspection Report Programme (SIRE) launched in 1993 as a ship condition-vetting programme with a transparent database for the
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ship stakeholders. The aim of the system is to reveal the general condition related to all quality and safety systems onboard. For hull condition, it addresses general condition, the repair history and refers to the class (ESP) certificates and its status. 2.7 Insurance Inspection
Insurance companies normally base their assessment on a number of issues like past experience with the particular ship or ship owners and status of the class certificate. During the late 80s and early 90s, however, they also extended their involvement. They decided to follow up a certain number of the insured fleet, say 5%, annually with their own inspections, typically a one-day inspection, looking for special critical areas and the general appearance of the ships to identify ships suspected to be substandard.
3.
MECHANISMS OF AGE RELATED DETERIORATION
In ship structures, age related deterioration is primarily meant to be corrosion wastage, fatigue cracking and local dent damage. Repair or renewal of heavily damaged structure is in general complex and costly. Thus, it is important to better understand the mechanism of such deterioration. 3.1 Corrosion Wastage
Marine corrosion is the degradation of metals in the marine environment. Initiation and progression of marine corrosion may be related to corrosive effects such as electrochemical, galvanic, inter-granular, crevice and erosion actions. There are several different types of corrosion wastage in mild and low alloy steels in marine environments such as uniform (general) corrosion and pitting, groove and weld metal corrosion. For corrosion management and control, both localized and general corrosion must be considered. The former can cause oil or gas leaks, while the latter is more likely to lead to structural strength problems. Factors affecting marine immersion corrosion in a closed or open space include the type of structural material, the corrosion protection scheme (e.g., coating, cathodic protection), the type of cargo or stored material (e.g., oil, seawater), the cycle of loading / unloading of cargo or stored material, and humidity, temperature, oxygen and water velocity.
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(a) Upper Deck Plate

(b) Upper Deck Plate (c) Upper Deck Plate
Dew
2H2O+ O 2 - 4OH-
FeOOH
deposition of elemental S
SO2 + H2O H2SO3 S 2 H 2S+O 2 2S+2H 2O (FeOOH reaction) 2 H2S+SO 2 3S+2H 2O (e)
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Fe Fe 2++2e- F (OH) 3 FeOOH
the deposition of elemental S is independent of the corrosion reaction
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Upper Deck Plate Inert Gas H2O O 2 SO2 CO2 Crude Oil flaking off
H 2S H 2 O Inside the Tank H2S+O 2+H2O coexistance
elemental S
FeOOH flaking off of the FeOOH / S layer by vibration or deformation
new FeOOH forms on the outer surface by diffusion of Fe 2+ through S
Figure 1: Mechanisms of general corrosion to the back face of an oil tanker upper deck (SRAJ 2002) Figure 1 shows a schematic representation of the mechanisms that generate general corrosion at the back face of the upper deck of oil tankers (SRAJ 2002). In the cargo oil tank, H2O, O2, CO2, H2S and SO2 originated from the crude oil coexisting with the inert gas. The dew occurs on the back face of the upper deck plate due to day-night temperature fluctuations. Then, solid sulphur (S) is extracted on the plate surface by reaction (perhaps) on the surface of iron oxide (FeOOH). The stratified corrosion product consisting of a layer of elemental S and iron rust is then formed. The corrosion rate depends on the density of H2S, among other factors. The reaction of S precipitation on the FeOOH surface has no relationship with the reaction of steel corrosion as shown in Fig.1. Although flaking-off of the corrosion product occurs repeatedly from this layer of elemental S, chemical analysis confirms that the corrosion rate is not accelerated significantly by this phenomenon. Figure 2 shows pitting corrosion generation mechanisms to the top plate in a cargo oil tank (SRAJ 2002). Pitting initiates from a defect in the protective covering. The covering may be an oil coat, mill-scale or corrosion product. The initial damage may be caused by the flow of crude oil, local moisture, COW (crude oil washing) or seawater washing (etc). This type of damage resembles pits generated as defects to the paint coating. It is observed that corrosion in cargo hold areas is more likely to be general corrosion when coating protection is not provided. Pitting corrosion is more likely with paint coatings (Nakai et al. 2005). It is also observed that the shapes of pits in bulk carrier coating differ from those found in tanker coatings. This may be due to differences in the corrosion environments around these pits.

Generation of Pitting Corrosion
damage by COW oil coat
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Progress of Pitting Corrosion

sludge, heavy oil coat (cathode)
water
water
mill- scale defect
mill- scale
water
water
sulphurated iron film (cathode)
drop of dew, flow of water
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water
water
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Fe2++2e-
FeOOH (cathode)
S0+2eFe3++eS2Fe2+
Fe
Figure 2: Mechanisms of pitting corrosion to the top plate of a oil tanker cargo tank (SRAJ 2002) In recent years, based on extensive work based on marine corrosion science principles, Melchers (1997, 2002, 2003a, 2004a), has provided useful insights into corrosion loss including pitting depth. He also studied the effects of environmental parameters including the effects of water velocity, depth, dissolved oxygen, surface finish, and water pollution (Melchers 2003c, 2004b, 2005a, Melchers & Jeffrey 2004, 2005). 3.2 Fatigue Cracking
Under the action of repeated loading, fatigue cracks can initiate in areas of stress concentration in a structure. Initial defects can form during fabrication and can conceivably remain undetected for a long time. Cracks may initiate from such defects, and propagate. In addition to propagation under repeated cyclic loading, cracks may also grow in an unstable way under monotonically increasing extreme loads, which can conceivably lead to catastrophic structural failure. This possibility is tempered by material ductility, and by the presence of reduced stress intensity regions that may serve as crack arresters. In general, fatigue damage at a crack initiation site is affected by many factors such as material properties (e.g., elastic modulus, ultimate tensile stress), high local stresses (e.g., stress concentration, residual stresses), size of components, nature of stress variation (e.g., stress variation during the loading and unloading cycles, number of wave induced stress range cycles), and environmental and operational factors including corrosion and performance of coatings. Potential flaws (e.g., poor materials, porosity, slag inclusions, undercuts, lack of fusion, incomplete weld root penetration) and misalignments can also significantly increase stress concentrations at weld toes.
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To achieve greater fatigue durability in a structure, therefore, stress concentrations, flaws and structural degradation including corrosion and fatigue effects should be avoided or minimized. In an active marine environment, this is very challenging. Thus, practically the best that can be achieved is that their levels and effects must be anticipated in design, and must be monitored and effectively controlled during construction and service. At the design stage the effect of stress concentrations intentionally present is assessed in order to ensure that the fatigue life of the structure is longer than the design service life with an adequate factor of safety. Construction defects are in practice to be monitored and controlled by appropriate construction standards. However, to the extent that such standards are often generic to a type of vessel and based mainly on what can be economically achieved, they need to be selectively enhanced in many cases depending on individual structural characteristics. Structural fracture modes associated with cracks can often be classified into three groups: brittle, ductile and rupture. When the strain at fracture of a material is very small, it is called brittle fracture. In steel structures made of ductile material with adequately high fracture toughness, however, the fracture strain can be comparatively large. When the material is broken by necking associated with large plastic flow, it is called rupture. As a failure mode, ductile fracture is an intermediate phenomenon between brittle fracture and rupture. A more elaborate description of and literature surveys on fatigue cracking mechanisms may be found in ISSC reports on fatigue and fracture. 3.3 Local Denting
Mechanical damage to plate panels of ship structures depends on where the plates are used. To inner bottom plates of bulk carriers cargo holds, mechanical damage can take place by mishandled loading or unloading of cargoes. Inner bottom plates suffer mechanical damage during the loading of iron ore, from iron ore striking the plates. When unloading bulk cargoes such as iron ore or coal, excavators can strike and dent inner bottom plates. It is also of interest to note that deck plates of offshore platforms may be subjected to impacts due to objects dropped from a crane. Such mechanical damage can result in denting, cracking, or residual stresses or strains due to plastic deformation, and, as well, the coating may be damaged. Figure 3 shows some photographs of local denting that can occur during typical bulk cargo loading using a grab, see Figs.3 (a) and (b). Local denting also occurs during unloading of cargo because the grab collides with structural members during such work. In some cases the impacts result in a hole, see Fig.3(c). It is apparent that the extent of dents due to the claw of the grab is usually large, see Fig.3(d). Local denting causes damage of the paint coating on the back face which can initiate corrosion, see Fig.3(e).
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(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Figure 3: Local dent damage; (a) Grab loading; (b) Local dent due to impact by grab; (c) Continuous dent over tank top; (d) Local dent due to grab claw; (e) Damage to paint coating due to local denting
4.
DAMAGE DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT METHODS
Non Destructive Examination (NDE) techniques are typically applied in detection and measurements of age related deterioration in ship structures. While a number of documents to describe NDE are available in the literature, Halmshaw (1997), Porter (1992) and Bving (1989) provide comprehensive guides, covering specific topics related to marine structures. Several practical difficulties are associated with NDE inspection of marine structures. Demsetz et al. (1996) provides a detailed breakdown of the factors influencing ship structural inspection in terms of ship type and condition, surveyors experience and motivation, environment, etc.
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An overview of current practice is given, e.g., by Ma et al. (1998, 1999), Ayyub et al. (2002) and Bruce et al. (2003). ICSOC (1986), TSCF (1992, 1995, 1997) and IACS (1999, 2002, 2004a, 2005) provide related guidelines for detecting and measuring structural degradation in aged ships. Continuous monitoring devices have been recently introduced on ships. Slaughter et al. (1997) made a state-of-the-art review on hull response monitoring systems with particular attention to ice transit. Task TK-2.7 of MARSTRUCT (2005) analyzes class requirements, mainly based on working experiences. Table 2 indicates various methods useful for detecting and measuring age related ship structural damage. 4.1 4.1.1 Corrosion Detection and Measurements Current Practice
Visual inspections, mainly governed by skill and experience, are the first means to evaluate the corrosion of structures. It is recommended to apply light color paintings so that rust spots can be detected easily. It is much more difficult to quantify the extent of coating breakdown and to rank the condition of the coating according to, e.g., the IACS ranking system (IACS 2005; UR Z7). Information for quantitative analysis is considered commercial in service and is rarely carried out by means of computer aided imaging analysis, even though modern digital cameras are relatively inexpensive. Close-up visual inspections are accurately defined by IACS (IACS 2005; UR Z7): a survey where the details of structural components are within the close visual inspection range of the surveyor, i.e., normally within reach of hand. Rules require close-up surveys of critical areas, depending on the ships age and type, as not all structures can be inspected close-up due to access difficulties. This requires that critical hidden areas be inspected but the general corrosion wastage level of the whole structure is left to the judgment of the surveyor. Wide variations in the means of access result in differing conditions for close-up surveys and thus differing accuracies of inspections. IMO (2003) recently proposed minimum requirements for permanent and safe means of access to ships compartments. Corrosion in ships is nowadays generally measured by ultrasonic sensors. The time consumed to thoroughly test a large structure is the major disadvantage of this type of point-by-point examination. Furthermore, surface preparation and a coupling medium are required. When many corrosion pits are present it is difficult to remove any heavy rust and even if the rust is removed, correct thickness measurement is difficult due to the uneven surface. A key question concerns which parameters are appropriate for evaluating corrosion; average thickness, minimum thickness, pit intensity, etc. Class societies generally require average thickness, pit maximum depth and pit intensity (as a percentage of the plate surface). The trend is towards a more quantitative definition of corrosion intensity (e.g., JBP 2005, IACS 2005; UR Z7 and Z10). ABS (2000) reports very high localized
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corrosion rates with respect to the Rules and interaction between corrosion, cracking and buckling, and concludes that gauging, even if carried out according to the Rules, may not represent reality in the cases examined. Some class scantling software covers ship in-service assessment (e.g., BV Mars 2000, DNV Nauticus Hull, GL Poseidon, LR ShipRight, RINA Leonardo Hull). Corroded structures can be assessed according to the net scantling approach. Abd El-Ghany & Farag (2000) propose an expert system providing an intelligent interface between NDE and structural analysis by FEM (Finite Element Method). 4.1.2 Other Advanced Methods
Some corrosion measuring technologies are not commonly used in ship structures but are widely applied in the more developed offshore field. Saidarasamoot et al. (2003) review NDE wastage assessment technologies which do not assume coating breakdown. Agarwala & Ahmad (2000) and Bving (1989) also report several advanced corrosion measurement methods. A few promising ones are summarized in the following. Acoustic emission and natural frequency measurement are used on offshore structures as cheap and reliable methods of detecting changes in structural response, generally applicable to detect both general and pitting corrosion. Radiographic methods provide images of the variations in the thickness of metallic components, though specialized technicians following relevant safety standards are needed for these measurements. Thermal imaging has been developed for the detection of hidden corrosion. The weightloss coupon method involves periodically monitoring a coupon exposed to corrosion. Galvanic thin film micro sensors are used for in-situ monitoring of coating performance and hidden corrosion. Electrochemical techniques are complicated and hard to use on ships as they are influenced by temperature and pH, as well as by reduction and reoxidation behavior. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy has been developed to measure the early stage degradation of coating and substrate corrosion underneath a paint coating. Eddy current arrays give high resolution and easy reading outputs with fast response, but require further development for application to large and geometrically complex ship structures. Hydrogen measurement probes are sometimes used as corrosion often proceeds with the evolution of hydrogen. Chemical sensors of various types (fluorescent, color change) adopted in dye-penetrant testing have not proven very practical because of the spread of corrosion in marine structures. Neither have strain gauges, which need a calibration against a non-corroded element and are generally affected by the corrosive environment as they need to be bonded to the structure. In magnetic flux measurement a sensor is immerged to sense the current flow between anodic and cathodic areas, thus providing a measure of metal loss. By using computer control and processing, corrosion damage map can be produced.
ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships 4.2 Fatigue Crack Detection and Measurement
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Cracking is a localized problem, and therefore local detection is needed. As ship structural details are mainly typical, there may be repetition of cracking at geometrically similar locations. Ma et al. (1999) note that it is essential to know critical areas prone to cracks for performance of useful surveys. This is easier for standard details, but more difficult in novel designs. Cracks are most efficiently detected visually as too many locations would need to be monitored by individual sensors. A visual examination should determine the type of crack and assess whether it is likely to propagate. Dye penetrant and magnetic particle tests can also be used after visual inspection, providing approximate measure of surface crack length but not of crack depth. Photographic records of both may be kept. TABLE 3 METHODS FOR FATIGUE CRACK MEASUREMENTS (TIKU & PUSSEGODA 2003)
Assessment methods other than visual inspections are generally seldom used for ship structures because a single crack does not impair structural safety due to redundancy. Tiku & Pussegoda (2003) compare several NDE methods for fatigue and fracture of ship structures. Conventional techniques are ranked as per Table 3. Other, more advanced, techniques include: Acoustic Emission, Infrared Thermography, Laser Shearography, Potential Drop test (ACPD or DCPD), Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM), Crack Propagation Gauges, and Automated Ball Indentation. Other methods are commonly used in the offshore field for inspection as well as monitoring. Eddy current, ultrasonics, ACPD, and DCPD are generally able to characterize crack dimensions and location with different degrees of accuracy, and better than visual inspection (Ditchburn et al. 1996).
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Generally, crack detection needs off-service inspections. Ultrasonic surface guided waves are proposed by Vanlanduit et al. (2003) for in-service monitoring. One of the advantages of this method is that working stresses do not need to be released and therefore open cracks can be detected, making this method much more sensitive. TaleiFaz et al. (2004) introduced a novel digital photogrammetric method. The technique allows for real time three-dimensional measurements of local deformations. 4.3 Mechanical Damage Detection and Measurement
For the time being, no particular detection and measurement technique appears to be required by regulations. Consequently, only visual or close visual inspections are used, as necessary, to assess if deformations are within specified limits (extension and dent depth). However, it should be noted that mechanical damage, due, e.g., to an impact, locally modifies the material properties and even the stiffness of a stiffened panel because of the geometrical modifications. Measurement of dent geometry and stresses was studied by Babbar et al. (2005) using the Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL) inspection method. The method provides information on both geometry and stress effects but is quite difficult to interpret. Finite element analysis and experimental tests are proposed to simulate the effects of a dent in a plate. This is to be used to calibrate methods for mechanical damage detection and measurement. Development and application of guided wave techniques for damage testing of a ship hull is presented by Song et al. (2003). An approximate image of damage, utilizing a discontinuity locus map, is constructed using the guided waves reflected from the damage. 4.4 Uncertainties and their Sources Associated with Damage Detection and Measurement
Uncertainties in the methods for detecting and measuring structural deterioration originate from several sources; geometry, material properties, location of structural components, life of coating, type of cargo, operational condition and loading cycles, sea water and internal temperature, humidity and environment, measuring sensors and so on. Manuals, guidelines and standards for NDE methods provide indications of accuracies of methods and sensors (e.g., Halmshaw 1997, Porter 1992, Berens 1989, Bving 1989). However, scatter is largely due to operators and practical difficulties rather than to measurement equipment. Typically, gauges used to determine residual plate thickness have inherent errors mainly due to errors in sensor location (Ma et al. 1999). The latter uncertainties are more difficult to define and quantify. Current practice is to statistically analyze inspection data, as described, e.g., by Rudlin & Wolstenholme (1992), Rummel et al. (1989), HSE (2000), to obtain suitable statistical distributions of Probability of Detection (POD) and Probability of Sizing (POS).
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Demsetz et al. (1996) and Demsetz & Cabrera (1999) present a review of the factors which impact the likelihood that a person checking the structure of a ship for failures will find an existing failure. POD statistical distributions in tanks structures are compared with those in related engineering fields. An interesting benchmark on visual crack detection by different inspectors is reported; prior knowledge of likely defect locations has a key influence on POD. Fatigue crack inspection for is usually performed by visually. Non-destructive testing methods using ultrasonic or particle techniques are useful to assess defect size. They can also be employed to detect more highly stressed and fatigue prone areas. The probability of crack detection may depend on crack size, as shown in Fig.4. Upon inspection for fatigue cracks, consideration should be given to accessibility and surface condition, e.g., painted, corroded, oil covered or slime covered. Ivanov & Wang (2004) discuss the statistical analysis of corrosion measurements during surveys in respect of their effects on ship structural scantlings. Li et al. (2003) propose a Bayesian updating method for probability of detection of corrosion inspections. Moan et al. (2000) inferred from in-service observations the POD of cracks in offshore structures, useful for the assessment of the residual fatigue life. Goyet et al. (2004) report the lessons learned from the experience of a class society; the implementation of risk based inspection planning highlights that skill and experience are still necessary ingredients.
Figure 4: A schematic of probability of detection (POD) as a function of crack size (HSE 2000)
5.
MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF AGE RELATED DETERIORATION
The progress of age related deterioration in ship structures is time-variant in nature. For structural condition assessment and subsequently for the development of cost-beneficial schemes for inspection, maintenance and repair, it is highly desirable to accurately predict the initiation and progress of age related deterioration. This section reviews the mathematical models for predicting time-variant deterioration due to aging.
284 5.1
ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships Corrosion Wastage Models
Corrosion behaviour is represented schematically in Fig.5. Common causes of ship hull corrosion are galvanic corrosion, direct chemical attack and anaerobic corrosion. The progress of corrosion may be characterized by three phases, namely (a) durability or life of the coating, b) a transition period, and c) corrosion progression. Coating systems may be classified by their longevity; for example, IMO (1995) suggested three coating system types I, II and III corresponding to coating durability of 5, 10 and 15 years respectively. Another classification has been developed by TSCF (2000) where 10, 15 and 25 years coating systems for ballast tanks is applied. Coating breakdown is measured (often subjectively) by the percentage of surface that has blistered, cracked or corroded. While various factors may be involved in coating deterioration, including electrochemical (current, voltage) and/or mechanical (strain) reactions (Martin et al. 1996), it is widely observed in practice that coating breakdown occurs gradually and subsequently as a result corrosion increases progressively over the surface (Melchers & Jiang 2006). Figure 6 shows the trend of coating breakdown as a function of exposure time, after Melchers & Jiang (2006). Nevertheless, it is common practice to define a coating life as the time for a predefined degree of corrosion, say 1% on average over the surface, to occur. Typically, coatings are defined by the type of coating systems used, details of its application (e.g., surface preparation, stripe coats, film thickness, humidity and salt control during application) and relevant maintenance, among other factors. Coating life to a predefined state of breakdown has been assumed to follow either the normal or log-normal probability distribution (Yamamoto & Ikegami 1996). The convex curve of Type A in Fig.5(b) shows the corrosion rate (i.e., the curve gradient) decreasing as corrosion progresses. This type of behavior is common in many environments and is brought about by the gradual build-up of protective rust layers. It is observed, for example in the upper parts of cargo holds. The concave curve of Type B in Fig.5(b) is representative of corrosion accelerating with time. This is characteristic of situations where there is increasing structural surface strain from flexure of dynamically loaded structures together with excessive thinning of structural components. It is often seen in very advanced stages of corrosion with accelerated degradation (Herring & Titcomb 1981, Ohyagi 1987, Contraros 2003). The linear curve of Type C in Fig.5(b) is characteristic of situations where the rust layers are continually removed due to abrasion or wear or relatively minor surface strains. It is typical of the lower parts of cargo holds of vessel used for aggressive cargoes.
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(a)
Transition
Durability of coating
Progress of corrosion
Corrosion depth
Type A (Convex) Type B (Concave) Type C (Linear)
Tc
Tc+Tt
Exposure time (b) Figure 5: A schematic of corrosion progress for marine steels as a function of exposure time; (a) phenomenological representation (Melchers 1997); (b) mechanical representation (Paik & Thayamballi 2003, 2006)
50
40
Coating Breakdown (%)
30
20
Surfaces
10 Users/Clients Users/Clients Independent Expert Applicator/Supplier Applicator/Supplier 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Exposure Period (years)
Figure 6: Percentage of surface area coating breakdown as a function of exposure period (Melchers & Jiang 2006)
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Gardiner & Melchers (2001, 2002a, 2003) studied corrosion processes in enclosed coal and iron ore cargo spaces. Gudze et al. (2001, 2004) studied corrosion in naval vessel ballast tanks and the influence of environmental parameters. By the statistical analysis of corrosion measurement data, Paik and his colleagues developed time-variant corrosion models for 23 different member location / category groups of bulk carrier structures (Paik et al. 1998a, 2003d) and 34 different member location / category groups of tankers and FPSOs (Paik et al. 2003c). Corrosion models together with corrosion margin proposals for ballast water tank structures are given by Paik et al. (2004b) and Paik (2004). Guedes Soares & Garbatov (1999a), Garbatov et al. (2004, 2005) and Qin & Cui (2002, 2003) have also formulated time-variant corrosion wastage models. The above-mentioned corrosion models are essentially empirical. Melchers (1997, 2003d) proposed a more refined phenomenological model incorporating aspects of earlier models and achieving mathematical consistency. Figure 7 compares various corrosion wastage model functions in terms of corrosion depth versus time.
Transition Durability of coating Corrosion depth d (mm)
Progress of corrosion
d =c1(tc t )
0
c2
(a)
( dt)
(b)
c t
A
c c +t
Structure age t (years)
(c)
O O B
(d)
Figure 7: Various models for corrosion progress; (a) Melchers (1997); (b) Paik et al. (1998a); (c) Guedes Soares & Garbatov (1999a); (d) Qin & Cui (2002, 2003) It has been recognized that corrosion is a very complex phenomenon and influenced by many factors. Identifying key issues that can lead to corrosion cannot be achieved through
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statistical investigations of corroded aging ships alone. There is a need to develop models based on corrosion mechanisms and to combine them with the corrosion wastage databases to achieve a better understanding as well as improved prediction of corrosion in marine structures (Gardiner & Melchers 2003). Melchers and his colleague studied the effects of various influencing parameters in detail, e.g., temperature (Melchers 2002); carbon content (Melchers 2003e); water velocity (Melchers 2004b); compositional changes (Melchers 2004c); surface roughness (Melchers & Jeffrey 2004). Panayotova (2004a, 2004b) and Guedes Soares et al. (2005) also studied the effects of various influential factors, including salinity, temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH and flow velocity, and ship service life for different routes. Strictly speaking, the corrosion models described above have been developed for prediction of general (uniform) corrosion, but they may also be approximately applicable to pit corrosion prediction as long as the features of pits are taken into account. Daidola et al. (1997) give an empirical model based upon average values of pitting data using a number of the deepest pits. A 300mm 300mm sample square plate was used for their study. The model assumes pit depth and pit width to be random variables following lognormal distributions. TSCF (1997) proposed guidance for evaluating the minimum remaining plate thickness at pits for pitting densities smaller than 20% and TSCF (2000) reported that for some single hull tankers less than 5 years old, the average pit depth was found to be 2 to 3 mm, with a density of around 200 to 400 pits/in2: a maximum pit depth of 5 mm was found. Accelerated pitting corrosion rates experienced were as high as 5 times those normally anticipated, and these were thought to be due largely to microbial influenced corrosion (MIC) attack. 5.2 Fatigue Cracking Damage Models
Since cracks can conceivably lead to catastrophic failure of a structure, it is essential to properly consider and establish relevant crack tolerant design procedures for structures, in addition to implementation of close-up surveys and maintenance strategies. For reliability assessment of aging structures under extreme loads, it is often necessary to take into account a known (existing or assumed or anticipated) crack for the ultimate limit state analysis as a parameter of influence (Paik & Thayamballi 2003). To make this possible, it is necessary to develop a time-dependent fatigue crack model which can predict crack damage in location and size as the ship ages. Fatigue cracks propagate with time progressively in a ductile material. The time-variant cracking damage model is composed of the three separate models, namely: (a) crack initiation assessment or detection, (b) crack growth assessment, (c) failure assessment. Crack initiation at a critical structural detail is typically predicted using the S-N curve approach (S = stress range, N = number of cycle until crack occurrence). Cracks at critical joints and details can be detected during inspection when the crack size is large enough, usually about 15 to 30mm. In terms of integrity of aged ship structures, it is assumed that a crack with a certain length at a critical joint or detail initiated some time earlier.
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Crack growth is assessed by fracture mechanics. In this approach, a major task is to establish the relevant crack growth equations or laws as a function of time (years). The crack growth rate is expressed as a function of the stress intensity factor at the crack tip, based on the assumption that the yielded area around the crack tip is relatively small. The Paris-Erdogan law is often used for this purpose (Cui 2003, Paik et al. 2003f). The duration of these stages depends on the magnitude of the cyclic stresses or strains at the crack initiation site and along the crack propagation path, environmental effects, and the resistance of the material to the initiation and propagation of fatigue cracks. Fatigue damage modeling and its statistical description have been well defined and discussed in previous ISSC reports, and so will not be repeated here. 5.3 Corrosion Fatigue Models
Normally both fatigue and corrosion will be present and their combined effects need to be considered in that the decrease in net section due to corrosion will increase the stress levels, which in turn increases the rate of crack growth directly or through corrosion fatigue mechanisms (Crooker & Leis 1981). The effect of corrosion wastage on fatigue damage assessment was studied by Garbatov et al. (2002). As regards to fatigue life, the majority of codes and standards accept that unprotected joints exposed to sea water have their fatigue lives reduced by approximately a factor of two compared with those in air. Some more recent data has suggested that the factor of two is non-conservative, and also that cathodic protection may not always provide effective fatigue corrosion protection. In this regard, some larger reductions in life (factors 2.5-3) are recommended in the latest guidance for offshore structures by UK Health and Safety Executive (Def.) 5.4 Local Denting Damage Models
Local denting is also time-variant in nature, but its characteristics are often modelled as time-invariant (Paik et al. 2003f). This is because the causes of local denting, unlike corrosion and fatigue cracking, are not continuous. It may be more convenient to assume the extent and magnitude of local denting damage for the practical purpose of residual strength of aged ships.
6.
CORRECTIVE / PROTECTIVE MEASURES FOR AGE RELATED DETERIORATION Corrosion Correction / Protection Measures
6.1
TSCF (1992, 1997) has devoted significant effort to understanding and controlling corrosion of ballast tanks in tanker structures. Classification societies have developed nominal design corrosion values (NDCV) for the different parts of a ship structure and for various vessel types (e.g., JBP 2005, JTP 2005). Guidelines for coating systems for
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corrosion prevention of ship structures have also been developed (e.g., IMO 1995, IACS 2004b). The measures for corrosion protection include corrosion margin additions, coatings, cathodic protection, inhibitors and ballast water de-oxygenation, etc. The anti-corrosion methods may be classified into two types, namely, active and passive. Active methods protect a structural member from the exposure to the corrosion environment by a protective substance covering the surface of the member. Painting or electrolytic protection are active methods. On the other hand, passive methods are used to improve the effectiveness of active methods. Passive methods make the protective substance long-lived by avoiding, for example, structural discontinuities, stress concentrations, complex structural details, fabrication errors and unnecessary welding attachments. Moreover, the addition of corrosion margins is a kind of corrosion protection method from the viewpoint of preventing the loss of structural integrity from the corrosion. Painting is a simple and an effective anti-corrosion method. However, the efficiency of anticorrosion painting is influenced by surface preparation, the kind of paint, the application procedure and the environmental conditions during application (Parente et al. 1997). For ballast water tanks, cathodic protection is often employed together with coating. It is important to observe the condition of the paint coating and the sacrificial anode to maintain the effectiveness of an anti-corrosion system (Sugimoto & Ishizuka 2004).
(a)
(b) Figure 8: (a) Generation of pitting corrosion and (b) recoating within an early stage
In the cargo holds of bulk carriers, corrosion generated from defects in the paint coating due to contact with bulk cargo is frequent, see Fig.8(a). Since a supplementary anti-corrosion method cannot be adopted in the cargo hold area of bulk carriers, it is necessary to remove the rust and to recoat within the early stages, see Fig.8(b). Although IACS UR-Z10.2 classifies the coating condition of tankers and bulk carriers as Good, Fair and Poor to refer to maintenance work, it is important to maintain the paint coating even at early stages of deterioration. A more detailed classification of the condition of paint coating deterioration may be necessary (Emi et al. 1994). In ballast water tanks, oxygen is a critical factor that accelerates the corrosion rate. Therefore, an alternative to prevent or mitigate corrosion wastage is to remove oxygen from the ballast water. It is noticed that the corrosion rate is reduced by as much as 90% when
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oxygen levels are maintained below 0.5% (Tamburri et al. 2003). Various methods to deoxygenate ballast water are available, e.g., by vacuum, biological processes or the use of inert gas. It is today recognized that the introduction of inert gas into ballast water is one of the effective ways (Tamburri & Ruiz 2005). 6.2 Fatigue Crack Correction / Protection Measures
Methods to prevent fatigue failure may again be classified into two types, namely, active and passive. Active methods directly improve the fatigue performance of the material or the weld joint itself, while passive methods improve fatigue performance by reducing the applied stress. Resistance to crack initiation can be increased by hardening the surface of material. This is normally done with machine parts. Carburizing, case hardening and hardening/tempering are typical examples of this method. The degree of fatigue strength improvement depends on the hard layer thickness, the processing temperature of the surface layer and the heat treatment (Tokaji et al. 2004, Farfan et al. 2004, Sudhakar 2000). It is recognized that carburizing can also improve the corrosion resistance (Tokaji et al. 2004). Resistance to fatigue crack growth can be increased by controlling the microstructure of the material (Nakajima et al. 2004, Konda et al. 2003, 2004). Such innovative structural steels have already been put to practical use and applied to ship structures. In the first stage of cracking, including crack initiation, the effects of residual stress are significant. In the case of machinery elements, in order to improve fatigue strength, the method of creating a compressive residual stress field in the surface layer by shot peening is often used. In the case of welded joints, where fatigue strength is decreased due to the existence of large weld residual tensile stresses, fatigue strength can be improved by relaxing the weld residual stress (Cheng et al. 2003). In this case, the degree of improvement in fatigue strength depends on the relation between the mean stress including residual stress, the applied stress range and the yield stress of the material. The improvement in fatigue strength by relaxation of weld residual stress is greater in the low stress/high cycle region (Huo et al. 2005). Decreasing the stress concentration at a hot spot area contributes to the improvement of fatigue strength because the initiation and progress of fatigue cracks are influenced by the local stress condition. Especially in the case of welded joints, removing the under-cut or notch, which results in stress concentrations at the weld toe, is very effective. Grinding, dressing, and profile control, etc. are often employed for improving or avoiding the undercut or notch (Kirkhope et al. 1997). These fatigue strength improvement methods in welded joints are summarized in Fig.9.

Burr Grinding MACHINING METHODS Disk Grinding
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W aterjet Eroding W ELD GEOMETRY IMPROVEMENT METHOD REMELTING METHODS TIG Dressing Plasma Dressing W Profile eld Control (AW S) Special Electrodes Shot Peening PEENING METHODS MECHANICAL METHODS RESIDUAL STRESS METHOD THERMAL METHODS OVERLOADING METHODS Hammer Peening Needle Peening Ultrasonic Peening Initial Overloading Local Compression Thermal Stress Relief (PW HT) Spot Heeting Gunnert s Method
SPECIAL W ELDING TECHNIQUES
Figure 9: Classification of some weld improvement methods (Kirkhope et al. 1997) The above method refers to the notch stress. Fatigue strength can also be improved by decreasing the hot spot stress, which is caused by a structural discontinuity. In a hull structure, a nominal stress level is generally determined by the arrangements and the scantlings of the structural members. Therefore, improvement in fatigue strength can be achieved by decreasing the stress concentration due to a structural discontinuity, by altering the structural detail around the hot spot area. Since fabrication errors such as misalignment, angular misalignment and plate distortion cause secondary bending stresses, it is important to control fabrication errors to improve the fatigue performance (Kendrick et al. 2005).
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Figure 10: A new unloading system
6.3
Mechanical Damage Correction / Protection Measures
In order to prevent mechanical damage such as local dents, careful operation of the grub crane is necessary. However, impact of the grub with structural members is unavoidable during unloading of bulk cargoes. A new unloading system shown in Fig.10 might be appropriate instead of the conventional system. However, since such a new system would have considerable cost, it is not likely to gain wide adoption, at least not in the short term. Having adequate scantlings to withstand the grub load is one practical and fundamental solution. Plate thickness requirements considering the weight of grub are necessary (JBP 2005).
7.
RELIABILITY ANALYSIS OF AGED SHIPS
Complex systems containing large numbers of interdependent variables with associated uncertainties cannot be dealt with effectively in a wholly deterministic manner but are often entirely by probabilistic means. Ship structures are complex systems and the following sections describe the state-of-the-art with respect to elements of probabilistic and deterministic analyses appropriate for reliability analysis of aged ships. While a comprehensive review of studies regarding reliability assessment of aged ships up to the year of 2001 was made by Paik & Frieze (2001), this report surveys related studies since then. 7.1 Status Assessment
This report has already considered age related damage mechanisms in terms of their prediction and prevention. A status assessment of a vessel will include not only the effects of these damage mechanisms and their quantification but also needs to consider the manufactured quality and the likely susceptibilities to various damage mechanisms. Chapter 4 dealt with Non Destructive Testing (NDT) and Structural Integrity Monitoring. From a reliability perspective, the measure of quality of NDT information is of great importance. Dover et al. (2003) set out a framework for POD and POS of inspection systems applied to
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fixed and floating offshore structures. There is no reason why this approach should not be applied to ship structures. In the editorial in the Journal of Marine Structures special issue relating to bulk carriers, Grundy (2003) states, The international association of dry cargo ship-owners reported the loss of 134 ships and 740 lives in the decade 1991 2000. The losses are mostly attributed to structural failure. The average age of the ships lost exceeds 19 years, somewhat higher than the average age of the eet. There are few losses of ships less than 10 years old. For this reason the assessment of the reliability of materials properties requires an understanding of the evolution of ship steels over the past thirty years. Sumpter & Kent (2003) presented such an analysis focusing on the fracture toughness of ship steels. They provide an insight to the issue by pointing to casualty rates due to brittle fracture; probability of fracture (events per ship year) in terms of operating temperature relative to Charpy 27 Joule temperature (TT27J) oC is predicted. They state brittle fractures have decreased from once every 10 ship years at the time of the Liberty ships, to once every 100 ship years in the 1950s, and now stand at around once every 10,000 ship years, they continue that although brittle fracture in ships may no longer be common, fatigue cracking is still widespread. It is, however, also worth noting that brittle fracture still occurs (e.g., Bulk Carrier Lake Carling) and the risk associated with cleavage fracture is highly dependent upon temperature and strain rate (Drouin 2006). Ship surveys need to characterise geometrical aspects not only of local details but also perhaps more importantly for aging ship structures, general section and plate of thinning due to corrosion. Structural hull girder strength and dynamic response can be considerably affected by gross corrosion effects. Pitting, dents and other local effects are generally important in their role in fatigue crack initiation. Chapter 6 dealt with many aspects which are generally accounted for in risk and reliability assessments in terms of structural response models. 7.2 Load Models
Vassalos et al. (2003) reported a reliability based approach to green water hatch loading based primarily on observations made on model tests. Models for cargo loading/unloading are reasonably well developed but are very dependent on the cargo type and detailed design of the vessel. Still water ship girder collapse is still however a frequently occurring event. Kamenov-Toshkov et al. (2006) present an approximate method for the calculation of the design wave induced bending moment for any given ships operational life. The basic assumption of the method is that the type of probabilistic distribution of the wave-induced bending moment within different time periods does not change. Only the values of the distribution parameters change. The method was developed for strength assessment of ageing vessels, for which their remaining life is smaller than the originally assumed design operational life. It does, however, only estimate an extreme loading condition and does not consider damage under cumulative loading or extreme loading events such as green seas loading on hatch covers or loading during loading/unloading.
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The above load models are used to estimate extreme loading events in order to perform quasi-static failure analyses. Trading ship structures unlike offshore structures (e.g., FPSOs) and other engineering structures experience very different operational loading depending on their design, cargo, heading and other environmental effects. The offshore industry can define typical service loading spectra so that predictions can be made of cumulative fatigue damage (e.g., Etube 2001), but every trading ship will have associated with it a unique load history. New structural monitoring systems promise to fill the requirement to provide accurate loading histories for individual vessels and allow predictions to be made regarding future load spectra and with this more accurate fatigue crack growth predictions. Uncertainties relating to the monitoring systems themselves need to be addressed. 7.3 Strength Models
Strength models for reliability analysis need to be developed at the structural component level as well as the global system level. A strength model at the global system level in terms of hull girder section modulus is presented by Ivanov et al (2003); corrosion wastage as well as structural dimensions (plate thickness) of structural components is dealt with as parameters of influence in the strength model. Ultimate hull girder strength models are presented by Paik et al. (2003f), by considering four hull girder collapse modes, namely, primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary failure modes. Strength models at the structural component level have of course been developed taking account of age related deterioration; The effect of general corrosion on plate ultimate strength was studied by Guedes Soares & Garbatov (1999a). The effect of pit and general corrosion on the ultimate strength of plate elements was studied numerically and experimentally by Paik & Thayamballi (2002) and Paik et al. (2003a, 2004a). The reduction of plate ultimate strength due to pit corrosion under axial compressive loads is governed by the minimum cross sectional area at the location of maximum pit corrosion wastage (Paik et al. 2003a), while that under edge shear loads is likely governed by the pitted surface area (Paik et al. 2004a). Nakai et al. (2005) performed numerical and experimental studies on buckling and ultimate strength of corroded hold frame structures. Fatigue cracking can also reduce ultimate strength significantly. The effect of fatigue cracking on the buckling ultimate strength of plates and stiffened panels was studied by Paik & Thayamballi (2002, 2003), Satish Kumar & Paik (2004) and Paik et al. (2005). The effect of local denting on the ultimate strength of plate elements was studied by Paik et al. (2003b) on plates under axial compressive loads and also by Paik (2005) on plates under edge shear loads. 7.4 Limit State Criteria
As emphasized by Frieze & Paik (2004) and international rules and standards (ISO DIS 18072-1, ISO CD 18072-2, JBP 2005, JTP 2005), it is now well recognized that limit state approaches are much better basis than the allowable working stresses for design and strength assessment than traditional ship design methods. Limit states can be categorized into four types, namely, serviceability, ultimate, fatigue and accidental. The limit state
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criterion for reliability analysis in a particular situation for condition assessment of aged ships can then be given as a function of the associated demand (loads) and capacity (strength), taking into account the effects of time-variant, aged related deterioration. 7.5 Hull Girder Strength Reliability Analysis
Instantaneous reliability is a measure of the failure probability at a defined time whereas, in the presence of degradation mechanisms, ship hull ultimate strength is a decreasing function of time, therefore, probability of failure is also a function of time. This is a particularly useful analysis as reliability can be presented over a number of years and the effects of repairs can also be incorporated into the reliability assessment. The effect of corrosion on the ultimate strength reliability of ship hulls was studied by Paik et al. (1998b, 1998c) and Paik & Thayamballi (2002). The effect of fatigue damage on hull girder strength reliability was studied by Guedes Soares & Garbatov (1996a, 1996b, 1996c). The effect of combined corrosion and fatigue cracking on hull girder strength reliability of aged ships was studied by Guedes Soares & Garbatov (1998, 1999) and on ultimate hull girder strength reliability by Akpan et al. (2002). In Akpan et al. (2002), time-dependent random function models for corrosion, fatigue crack growth and corrosion-enhanced fatigue cracks that weaken the capacity of a ship hull are presented and the second-order reliability method used to calculate instantaneous reliability of the primary tanker hull structure. Paik et al. (2003f) and Paik & Thayamballi (2005) studied the effect of all types of aged related deterioration such as corrosion wastage, fatigue cracking and local denting on the ultimate hull girder strength reliability of aged ships and ship-shaped offshore units (FPSOs). 7.6 Target Reliability Index
Figure 11 shows the reliability indices of some types of ships, which have been previously obtained by different investigators and calculation methods, as a function of the year of publication (Paik & Frieze 2001). It is seen from Fig. 11 that the calculated reliability index decreases as the calculation is made in more recent years. This trend does not mean that vessels themselves are becoming less reliable as well, at least not to the extent implied by the trends shown. It certainly is true that ship structures have become more efficient over time. However, more importantly, some of the calculation results shown are perhaps more notional than others, and the failure modes considered have become more sophisticated as well. Also, most calculations tend to use the design wave environment as the notional basis although actual experience may be relatively more benign, and hard to pin down particularly for trading vessels.
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10.0 9.0 8.0 7.0 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0 1970
Tanker first yield (20 years) Tanker deck buckling (1 year) Tanker deck buckling (20 years) Tanker hull girder (1 year) Tanker hull girder (20 years) FPS deck buckling (1 year) FPS deck buckling (20 years) FPS hull girder (1 year) FPS hull girder (20 years)
Reliability index,
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
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Year of calculation, Y
Figure 11: Variation of calculated notional reliability indices over the passage of years for ships during 1974 to 2000 (FPS = floating, production and storage unit) (Paik & Frieze 2001)
8. 8.1
INSPECTION, MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR Acceptance Criteria for Remedial Actions
Structural damage and deterioration imply deficiency caused by excessive corrosion, design faults, material defects or bad workmanship, navigation in extreme weather conditions, loading and unloading procedures, wear and tear, contact (with quay side, ice, underwater objects, etc.), but not as a direct consequence of accidents such as collisions, groundings and fire / explosion. Deficiencies are normally recognized as material wastage, fractures and deformations. There are no officially published criteria for acceptable damage. What is available worldwide today is the renewal criteria of the class societies, IACS and IMO. They primarily control the geometric properties of the hull structure and its structural components. The maximum permissible reduction of the hull girder section modulus should not be greater than 10% from its as-built value. The control of the structural components such as longitudinals or transverse frames is reduced to control of their thickness. Replacement of the stiffeners is required when their thickness reduction is around 25-30%, depending on the ship's type and the location of the stiffeners. These are not the only requirements in classification society rules for the structure of aging ships. Besides the section modulus of the hull girder and the thickness of the structural components, one should also check the local buckling strength of the structure, although in very simplistic format (control of the ratio between the width
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and thickness of plates and the ratio between web height to its thickness or flange width to its thickness). TSCF (1992, 1995, 1997) provides guidance on the criteria of corrosion wastage causing strength reduction of the hull structure. For example, when the thickness reduction of the longitudinals is beyond 15%, further assessment of the structure is required. The further assessment involves strength analysis of corroded structural components that needs to consider all structural characteristics including plate thickness. It is evident that acceptance criteria based on the reduction of ultimate strength of local structural components due to structural damage are more relevant than those based on plate thickness, particularly when pitting corrosion, fatigue cracking and local denting as well as general corrosion are involved simultaneously (Paik et al. 2003f). It has now been recognized that the probabilistic or risk-based acceptance criteria are desirable (e.g., ABS 2003, 2004). Such methods can implement the acceptable of risk in the renewal criteria in a more rational manner. 8.2 Cost-Benefit and Risk-Based Inspection and Maintenance
Risk is defined as the probability of occurrence of a hazard times its consequence. In design and operation of ship structures, there are a number of hazards that must be dealt with. Wherever potential hazards are present, a risk exists. Engineering systems such as ships and offshore structures are designed to ensure economical operation throughout the anticipated service life in compliance with given requirements and acceptance criteria. In order to ensure that given acceptance criteria are fulfilled throughout the service life of the engineering system, the deterioration must be managed and controlled together with corrective / protective measures. It is highly desirable that all these be performed by cost-benefit and risk-based methods. Planning of inspections concerns the identification of what to inspect, how to inspect, where to inspect and how often to inspect. Even though inspections may be used as an effective means for controlling the degradation of the considered engineering system and thus imply a potential benefit, they may also have considerable impact on the operation of the system and other economic consequences themselves. For this reason it is necessary to plan inspections such that a balance is achieved between the expected benefit of the inspections and the corresponding economical consequences implied by the inspections themselves. Risk-based methods for inspection and maintenance can significantly reduce lifecycle cost by basing inspection and repair intervals on the risk of incurring damage rather than on arbitrary periods. Risk-based methods for inspection and maintenance can reduce inspection cost and downtime and may actually increase ship reliability and safety by defining explicit failure probabilities for all important components and functions. The cost justification for embedding inspection and monitoring devices into structures is reduction in total ownership
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cost. The components of total cost can be affected by the cost of periodic inspections, the frequency of inspections, the restoration cost saved by earlier detection, and the reduction in failure probability given constraints in the cost of frequency of inspections. In some cases, the structure may be out of service during the time of the inspection, in which case the cost of the inspection is also affected by the capability of the inspection methods and internal devices used in the structure.
RBI team setup
Component grouping and baselining
Risk-based prioritization
Inspection plan development
RBI program updating
Analysis of inspection results
Inspection execution
Figure 12: Main steps for developing risk-based inspection programmes (ABS 2003) 8.2.1 Risk-Based Inspections
During the last 10 to 15 years, reliability based and risk based approaches have been developed for the planning of inspections as reported by Skjong (1985), Madsen et al. (1986), Fujita et al. (1989). These approaches have by now developed into practical applicable procedures and are widely applied (Goyet et al. 1994, Sindel & Rackwitz 1996, Moan et al. 1997, Garbatov & Guedes Soares 1998). These approaches have a basis in decision theory to minimize overall service life costs including direct and implied costs of failures, repairs and inspections. Most recently, classification societies provide guidance notes for risk-based inspection and maintenance (e.g., ABS 2003, 2004). Figure 12 shows main steps for developing risk-based inspection program, followed by ABS (2003). Inspections in themselves may not affect the likelihood of structural failure, but any excessive deterioration can be found by relevant inspections and the subsequent actions such as repairs, replacements or adjustments can be taken. The aim of risk-based inspection (RBI) is to develop an inspection plan that can prevent the failures and their resulting safety, environmental or economic concerns. Application of risk assessment technologies are summarized, together with examples during design and operation, in Paik & Thayamballi (2006), among others. The consequence of component failure will depend on the component and its importance for the operation of the structure. The risk associated with the component is the product of the probability of component failure and the consequence of failure. Risk based inspection is based on a quantification of risk not only on a component basis but also for all components in the installation. Different inspection strategies with different inspection efforts, inspection quality and costs will have different effects on the risk. By comparing the risk associated with different inspection strategies the inspection strategy implying the smallest risk can be identified on that to achieve an acceptable risk level at minimum cost.
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Ku et al. (2004) outlined the essential reliability calculations of a risk-based inspection programme. Structural reliability analysis takes deterministic FEM stress / fatigue analysis results, coupled with uncertain degradation mechanisms and tracks the time-varying structural reliability of the components under consideration. By performing this exercise, when and how often the structural components should be inspected can be determined. Formulating an inspection and maintenance program such that overall service life costs are minimized using classical decision theory can be found in textbooks, e.g., Raiffa & Schalifer (1961) and Benjamin & Cornell (1970), providing a consistent and systematic framework for its solution. For offshore jacket structure and ship hull, deterioration must be controlled by inspection in order to avoid fatigue damage so significant that the overall structural strength becomes inadequate. The inspection planning problem for such structures has been addressed in numerous publications (Goyet et al. 1994, Lotsberg et al. 2000). Emi et al. (1993) studied the assessment of fatigue strength, inspection and maintenance management plans for ships, and formulated guidelines for inspections. The criteria for close-up inspections were based upon the results of fatigue strength analysis carrying out fracture simulations of cracks and risk assessment. Fujimoto (1994) presented a method for sequential cost minimization for the inspectionplanning problem of fatigue deteriorating structures. The method aims at finding an optimal inspection strategy so that the total cost expected in the period between the present inspection and the next is minimal. Matoba et al. (1994) suggested a methodology of preventive maintenance of ships, which includes three basic components: structural enhancement, structural inspection, and structural monitoring at sea. They offered a guideline for maintenance control of ships against fatigue. Optimal inspection procedures based on reliability models were also discussed by Cramer et al. (1992) and a method of inspection planning for ships was presented by Ostergaard et al. (1996). A general fatigue analysis procedure for ship structural details was developed and updated Bea et al. (1991) and Bea (1994). Various models and techniques were employed to study the fatigue of ship structures. Some technical developments in the fatigue research of the ship structural maintenance project were presented by Hu & Bea (1997). First, the fatigue assessment procedure was summarized and next the fatigue loading process was discussed with aspects related to wide banded loading and loading sequence. Fatigue reliability and updating models were then addressed followed by a discussion of effective fatigue damage control. Following the work of Rackwitz (2000), and in accordance with the principles of decision theory, the acceptable probability of failure for an engineering system or any other activity
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for that matter should be established on the basis of an optimization where the consequences of failure are assessed in terms of preferences expressed, e.g., in monetary terms. This approach is facilitated by the fundamental work by Nathwani et al. (1997) addressing the value of the individual to society by means of the Life Quality Index. However, the practical implementation of such approaches still lies ahead and approaches relying on (less optimal) judgmental power of the individual decision-maker must be pursued in the meanwhile. 8.2.2 Risk-Based Maintenance and Repair
A theoretical framework for risk-based optimal inspection and repair planning for ship structures subjected to corrosion deterioration has been proposed by Li et al. (2004). The planning problem was formulated as an optimization problem where the expected lifetime costs were minimized with a constraint on the minimum acceptable reliability index. In maintenance planning, optimization can be achieved by appropriate selection of inspection intervals, inspection methods, repair, quality, and so on. The interval between inspections in the case of floating structures depends on economical considerations, on expected losses due to maintenance downtime, and on the requirements of classification societies. In general, classification societies require fixed intervals between inspections but owners may decide on shorter intervals on economics considerations. The approach presented by Garbatov & Guedes Soares (2001) defined the optimal strategy for maintenance planning from a comparison of cost considerations. The approach demonstrated how repair cost can be used as a criterion in reliability based maintenance planning and in particular how to vary the inspection interval in order to obtain the minimum rate of repair cost. In some cases, to maintain the reliability level above a certain acceptable value means costs will not dominate and the reliability criterion will be the governing one. Several inspection strategies have been studied and discussions with respect to reliability and repair cost were presented. The simulated strategies for inspection planning pointed out that the application of repair cost optimization for floating structures involves many uncertainties related to the costs of the shipyard that would perform the repair, together with that of inspection procedures. Evaluation of alternative criteria for maintenance planning in terms of repair cost and availability of the platform is difficult. The minimum repair cost could be related to the requirements of classification societies. However, this does not mean that the maintenance effort is optimized. When maintenance is intensified the costs associated with inspection and repair increase. The search for a maintenance effort that will optimize the use of available resources should consider the lifetime cost of the solution. However, a balance between reliability and economic criteria could be the key to inspection strategy as has been defined by Garbatov & Guedes Soares (2001). Repair cost can be used as a criterion in reliability based maintenance planning and, in particular, how to vary the inspection interval in order to obtain the minimum repair cost.
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Many ships have experienced fatigue cracking of their critical structural details but rarely have traditional fatigue analyses been used to guide repair decisions. Instead, repair decisions are often based on previous experience. General strategies for critical crack repair suggested by Ma & Bea (1995), included re-welding the cracks; replacement of the cracked plate; modification of the detail or increase of the scantlings. The assessments of ship hull reliability have to allow for structural maintenance planning. The formulation has to account for fatigue, corrosion, and their interaction considering explicitly the possibility of fatigue cracks in all joints of the midship section as well as corrosion of each individual plate in the midship section. The decision to repair a ship is not based on the status of one specific crack or one specific corroded plate but instead on a generalized state of deterioration. This can be modelled by a global variable such as for example the midship section modulus, which changes with time with the growth of strength degradation phenomena. Therefore, the expected value of crack sizes and of the plate thickness as a function of time has to be described. Consequently, the midship section modulus should be modelled as a random variable whose mean and standard deviation change with time. The needs for such an approach has been discussed in Guedes Soares & Garbatov (1996c), where a method was developed to assess the reliability of the ship hull subjected to potential cracks initiated at the weldments between stiffeners and the plating. Crack propagation included the effect of the longitudinal stresses associated with the overall bending of the hull. The simultaneous effect of a random number of cracks was accounted for by considering the decrease in the net sectional area that is available to resist the vertical bending of the hull. However, inspection and repair work performed during a ships lifetime does not allow a dramatic spreading of cracks to be developed. This effect was incorporated in the time variant formulation of ship hull reliability by Guedes Soares & Garbatov (1996b). That formulation and the corresponding results yielded the required information to assess the effect of inspections and repairs at different points in time on the reliability of the hull girder, as shown for tankers and containers by Garbatov & Guedes Soares (1996). The other important strength degradation phenomenon is corrosion and the effect of repair. Plate replacement in a ship hull subjected to corrosion was modelled in a similar way as the fatigue problem, by equating the repaired state of the structure to the state of the structure at an earlier time in its life as shown by Guedes Soares & Garbatov (1996d). The formulation accounted for the contribution of individual plate elements, which were allowed to have different properties. However, elements that are subjected to similar conditions will exhibit similar corrosion rates. This was recognized in a further approach Guedes Soares & Garbatov (1997) that accounted explicitly for the correlation between the corrosion rates of neighboring elements showing that differences of the order of 20% can be achieved. Normally both fatigue and corrosion will be present and their combined effect needs to be considered in that the decreased net section due to corrosion increases the stress levels,
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which in turn increases the rate of crack growth. This effect has been considered in Guedes Soares & Garbatov (1998) showing that depending on the repair policy adopted one of the two phenomena (i.e., fatigue or corrosion) would be the dominating ones. Ships are subjected to periodic major inspections and repair action, which has been every four years but, recently, was increased to every five years (IACS 2005). Therefore, the assessment of the reliability as a function of time needs to consider this reality. Reliability prediction could be used to decide on the most useful interval between inspections but in this case it must be based on the need to inspect a large number of potential cracks and corroded plates. This requires a way to effectively average the results. A formulation for the assessment of the reliability of a ship hull with respect to failure of longitudinal members as result of fatigue and corrosion was presented by Guedes Soares & Garbatov (1999a,b). The model allows for the existence of multiple cracks and accounts for crack growth. The midship section modulus is described by a stochastic process. A new model is presented for the effect of corrosion, which is a time dependent process with two stages. In the first one, there is no corrosion due to a protective coating. Upon failure of the protection system, general corrosion decreases plate thickness and affects the midship section modulus. The inspection is modelled as a random process. One repair policy is considered in the example consisting of plate replacement when its thickness reaches 75% of the original thickness. The time dependent degrading effect of corrosion and crack growth are also modelled as random processes. The reliability is predicted by a time variant formulation and the effects of maintenance actions in increasing the reliability are shown. The sensitivity of the reliability estimates with respect to several parameters is also studied. The formulation has been applied to a tanker where four different inspection polices were created for comparative analyses. They reflect good, average, bad and zero maintenance actions. Garbatov & Guedes Soares (2002) adopted a Bayesian approach to update some of the parameters of the probability distributions governing the reliability assessment of maintained floating structures. The approach was based on a time dependent fatigue reliability formulation presented earlier but the description of the time to crack initiation, crack growth law and probability of crack detection are updated using the information from inspections. Paik et al. (2003f) studied the time-variant reliability and risk of hull girder collapse considering the effects of pit/general corrosion, fatigue cracking and local denting. They showed that the repair scheme for heavily deteriorated members needs to be based on the reduction of ultimate strength reliability of the system and its individual members rather than on plate thickness only. Ivanov et al. (2003) developed reliability-based renewal criteria for aging ship hull structures. Reliability based management of inspection, monitoring, maintenance and repair of various types of offshore structures was developed by Moan (2004) and Moan et al. (2004). The authors focused on management of hull damage due to crack growth and corrosion whilst operational experiences with respect to degradation of various types of
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offshore structures are summarized. Li et al. (2004) studied risk-based approaches for costbenefit inspection and repair of corroded hull structures. 8.3 Repair Methods
When scantlings have deteriorated to minimum levels permitted by the classification society involved, the wasted plating and stiffeners are to be cropped and renewed (DNV 2000). If the deformation is local and of a limited extent, it could generally be faired out. Deformed plating in association with a generalized reduction in thickness should be partly or completely renewed. Buckling can also occur in way of local structure. In such cases, the damaged area is to be cropped and partly renewed. If the deformations are extensive, replacement of the plating, partly or completely, may be necessary. If the deformation is not in association with a generalized reduction in thickness or is due to excessive loading, additional strengthening should be considered. The fatigue cracking that occurs at the boundary of weld connections as a result of latent defects should be veed-out, appropriately prepared and re-welded. For fatigue cracking at plating or stiffeners, the structure should be cropped and partly renewed. For fatigue cracking of some structures, re-welding and renewal may not be a permanent solution and an attempt should be made to improve the design and construction in order to obviate a recurrence. IACS (IACS 1999, 2002, 2004a) provides detailed guidelines for repair methods.
Figure 13: A schematic of the Sandwich Plate System (SPS 2005) An alternative repair method is the use of adhesive bonded patches which is applied to offshore structures. This method is beneficial because it may not interrupt production of the installation, while only the damaged area may need to be shut down. Another benefit of this repair method is that no fire hazard exists during repair because no hot work is undertaken. Composite (fibre reinforced plastic) patches can be bonded or laminated over the structure to bridge and reinforce corroded or cracked areas. The use of composite patch repair methods has proven to be successful in naval ships, bridge and some infrastructure (Oil & Gas 2001).
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Another new technology for repair is the so-called Sandwich Plate System (SPS), which consists of two metal plates bonded to a compact elastomer core, see Fig. 13. The elastomer provides continuous support to the plates and stops local plate buckling and eliminates the need for stiffeners. SPS replaces conventional stiffened metal plates in maritime, offshore and civil engineering structures. It is used for new construction and also, as SPS overlay, for repair and conversion. SPS overlay bonds a new top plate to the existing structure in a process that is quick and economical (SPS 2005). The SPS technology is certified by several classification societies and is beginning to be widely used, e.g., for new construction of barges and repair of damaged hull parts in the parallel mid-body, although some speculation still remain in terms of shear and fatigue strengths.
9.
FUTURE TRENDS AND CONCLUDING REMARKS
This report presents current practices, recent advances and future trends for condition assessment of aged steel ships. Related deterioration such as corrosion, fatigue cracking and local denting, their mechanism, methods for their detection and measurements, mathematical models for their prediction, and their correction / protection measures, are reviewed. Reliability analysis and risk-based decision procedures for cost-benefit inspection and remedial actions are surveyed. It has been appreciated that in recent years, proactive and close-up inspection, maintenance and repair techniques have been developed and used in practice. As a ship ages, various types of deterioration such as corrosion, fatigue cracks, impact damage, indications of inadequate design or fabrication and coating breakdown appear. Inspection is then required to detect such deterioration before a catastrophic, polluting or expensive failure results. Relevant inspections can find any excessive deterioration so as to take adequate remedial action such as repair, replacement or adjustment. The inspections themselves do not affect the likelihood of structural failure. Traditionally, inspection frequencies have been determined by prescriptive practices usually based on time-based or calendar-based intervals. When plenty of operational experience is available, such traditional practices are generally considered to be adequate. However, such practice does not take account of the likelihood of structural failure nor the failure consequences. In some cases, the activities of inspection or repair are not enough, while they are excessive in other cases. Furthermore, the current practices are difficult to ensure whether or not the activities performed are adequate in terms of the safety and reliability improvements and cost-benefits. In this regard, a systematic approach which can achieve a balance between risk and costbenefit is needed. Risk-based inspection can provide an excellent tool to evaluate the likelihood and consequences of structural failures and provide an optimum inspection
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process which effectively reduces the associated risk of failure keeping the costs of inspection and remedial actions minimal. The risk-based inspection approach can develop the cost-benefit inspection plan that can prevent the failures of the structure resulting in safety, environmental or economic concerns. The same is true for maintenance activities. A risk-based maintenance and repair scheme is a systematic process of applying risk management and control techniques for improving the reliability of structural components which govern the system reliability. It is apparent that a number of problems areas still remain to be resolved in terms of riskbased method applications for cost-benefit inspection, maintenance and repair of aging ship structures. This report has highlighted the need for better understanding of uncertainties in inspection and monitoring information in addition to damage models and material strength to assist the development of risk based condition assessment of aged ships.
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16th INTERNATIONAL SHIP AND OFFSHORE STRUCTURES CONGRESS 20-25 AUGUST 2006 SOUTHAMPTON, UK VOLUME 2

CONDITION ASSESSMENT OF AGED SHIPS

ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships CONTENTS 1. 2.

ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships

ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships

ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships

ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships

MECHANISMS OF AGE RELATED DETERIORATION

ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships

Fe Fe 2++2e- F (OH) 3 FeOOH

the deposition of elemental S is independent of the corrosion reaction

Upper Deck Plate

FeOOH flaking off of the FeOOH / S layer by vibration or deformation

new FeOOH forms on the outer surface by diffusion of Fe 2+ through S

ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships

Progress of Pitting Corrosion

mill- scale defect

sulphurated iron film (cathode)

drop of dew, flow of water

ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships

ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships

DAMAGE DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT METHODS

ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships

ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships

ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships

ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships

ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships

MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF AGE RELATED DETERIORATION

ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships

Type A (Convex) Type B (Concave) Type C (Linear)

Coating Breakdown (%)

Exposure Period (years)

ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships

Structure age t (years)

ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships

ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships

ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships

ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships

ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships

SPECIAL W ELDING TECHNIQUES

ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships

Figure 10: A new unloading system

Mechanical Damage Correction / Protection Measures

RELIABILITY ANALYSIS OF AGED SHIPS

ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships

ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships

ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships

ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships

INSPECTION, MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR Acceptance Criteria for Remedial Actions

ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships

ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships

RBI team setup

Component grouping and baselining

Inspection plan development

RBI program updating

Analysis of inspection results

ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships

ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships

ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships

ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships

ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships

ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships

FUTURE TRENDS AND CONCLUDING REMARKS