Effects of Underemployment On Job Satisfaction

EFFECTS OF UNDEREMPLOYMENT ON JOB SATISFACTION
Abstract
The shortage of people with adequate skills to fill jobs has been a subject of debate recently. However, less attention has been paid to the reverse of the problem: the consequences of over education for the jobs available Underemployment. Specialists in different industries leave the country to work in other parts of the world because they can't support their family on the pay they get for their work in Pakistan. Women simply quit work and become housewives because the salary doesn't pay even for commute. This article puts an emphasis on factors that are leading to UNDEREMPLOYMENT. The data used in this article is based on both qualitative and quantitative data through different research, scholarly articles and findings by Experts. The research is based on case study on clerical workers of SNGPL. By comparing their educational backgrounds with their nature of job, this paper examines the impact of underemployment on job satisfaction. Our results show that underemployment/over education is correlated with higher level of job dissatisfaction, reduced job involvement, impaired co-worker relationship, and more emphasis on future aspirations. It is hoped that this article will serve as a useful tool for providing useful information to the readers which will make them think over the factors that has neglected big time although it has and has been hurting our economy, squandering our youth.
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION: Underemployment refers to an employment situation that is insufficient in some important way for the worker, relative to a standard. Examples include holding a part-time job despite desiring full-time work, and over qualification, where the employee has education, experience, or skills beyond the requirements of the job. Underemployment has been studied in recent decades from a variety of perspectives, including economics, management, psychology, and sociology. In economics, for example, the term underemployment has three different distinct meanings and applications. All meanings involve a situation in which a person is working, unlike unemployment, where a person who is searching for work cannot find a job. All meanings involve under-utilization of labor which is missed by most official (governmental agency) definitions and measurements of unemployment
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The unemployment rate is one of the most important and widely used indicators of economic progress of any country. However, the unemployment rate does not account for employed human resource working below the desired capacity, whether in terms of numbers of working hours, compensation, level of skill, experience, etc. Such employed workers if willing and also looking for higher capacity jobs are termed as underemployed. While it is important to look at various dimensions of underemployment to supplement the analysis of trend is unemployment, only if the work-hour-based concept of underemployment is being discussed here due to data constraints. The problem in the labor market of Pakistan is not that of unemployment, but there is also a significant underemployment. Underemployment was first considered by the second international conference of Labor Statisticians (ICLS) in 1925. The eleventh ICLS adopted the first international statistical definition of underemployment in 1957. Time-related underemployment according to international labor Organization refers to insufficient hours of work in relation to an alternative employment situation that a person is willing and available to engage in (ILO 1988). Labor force survey of Pakistan (2006) show that a significant number of those who were employed during the survey period were classified as having been underemployed. Underemployment was defined in the survey as persons who worked for less than35 hours a week for an economic reason and they were available for additional work while underemployment rate is estimated as a ratio of the employed who worked less than 35 hours a week to the total labor force. In Pakistan, around 5.8 million or 14.0% of the total employed were working less than 35 hours a week (GoP, 2004). Based on available information the proportion of underemployment has been increasing from 13.4 to 15.53% during 2002-05 (GoP, 2005). Agricultural sector and rural area are reservoirs of disguised and underemployed labor force. Underemployment in rural area was greater than urban area.
In Pakistan a large proportion of the employed labor force works less than 35 hours and may, therefore, be considered as being underemployed; without knowing how many were doing it voluntarily or involuntarily basis. This distinction is essential to compute the exact level of underemployment in the country. As defined in the Pakistan Labor Force Survey ( LFS ), employed persons working less than 35 hours are considered to be underemployed, but only if they are willing and available for additional work. However, data constraint in the LFS does not allow a clear computation of the underemployment rates directly, but some supporting LFS data does provide some insights. Based available information, it appears that the underemployment has increased from 13.4 percent to 14.0 percent during FY02-04.
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OBJECTIVES : The primary objective of measuring underemployment and inadequate employment situations is to improve the analysis of employment problems and contribute towards formulating and evaluating short-term and long-term policies and measures designed to promote full, productive and freely chosen employment as specified in the Employment Policy Convention (No. 122) and Recommendations (Nos. 122 and 169) adopted by the International Labor Conference in 1964 and 1984. In this context, statistics on underemployment and indicators of inadequate employment situations should be used to complement statistics on employment, unemployment and inactivity and the circumstances of the economically active population in a country. The measurement of underemployment is an integral part of the framework for measuring the labor force established in current international guidelines regarding statistics of the economically active population; and the indicators of inadequate employment situations should as far as possible be consistent with this framework.
Research Question (s) The major argument of my study is that, underemployment in conjunction with lower economic class, higher exposure to a harmful work environment, lack of control over work, and a lower social capital, contributes to increased work-related stress and diminishes employees quality of life. More specifically I argue that increased stress caused by the overall conditions that underemployed workers experience. It is to be expected that different forms of underemployment contribute to increased work-related stress due to overall working conditions, including the constant re-adjustment to lower level
tasks than a person is able or expects to do, and the adverse working and living conditions that result from being underemployed. Further I assume that underemployment contribute to a more hazardous and uncomfortable work environment than is experience by those who are not underemployed, yet who possess the same skill levels, knowledge, and educational attainment. In light of its major argument my study addresses the following research questions: 1) To what extent are socio-demographic characteristic associated with underemployment, and how do these associations affect underemployment? 2) Is Under-employment is Temporary or Permanent Phenomenon? 3) What are the predictors and consequences of underemployment?
LITERATURE REVIEW
The purpose of this paper is to offer a systematic review of the literature that explores underemployment and underemployment factors in Pakistan. Literature from a range of disciplines is reviewed in an attempt to further a theoretical understanding. In Pakistan, public sector employment is the preferred intention of the majority of universityeducated workers. Education has expanded rapidly during the last two decades. Secondary enrollment level almost increased thirteen times form 1980 to 2005 and it led to a large increase in the demand for the tertiary-level education. The education level of the Pakistan labor force also increase over time but still it is relatively low as compared with some other South Asian countries like India; China etc. There is high social demand for university education despite the fact that the monetary rewards associated with education, especially at the higher level, is very low in traditional subjects. The conceptual problems in the literature are much significant. The exact meaning of the term underemployment has often depended on the assumptions made by the researcher about the workings of the labor market. Actually why underemployment exists at all, is an interesting question. According to Human Capital theory, it is assumed that labor market is fully efficient, and every worker is paid the value of their marginal products. Productivity and wages are fixes in relation to perspective job; therefore underemployed workers have same productivity and receive the same wage levels as those workers who are in jobs with required level of education. According to some social scientists, any increase in supply of educated labor should trim down the relative wage of such educated labor. In turn employer would now substitute the cheaper educated labor with less educated labor and capital. The low return may encourage worket to invest less on education. This adjustment in labor market implies that underemployment will be at most short run phenomena. Human Capital theory fails to explain the concept that some individuals are emporatily or permanently are in jobs where their skills are underutilized. Second one is occupational mobility theory ( Rosen 1972; Sicherman and Galor 199), underemployment
represents a temporary phenomenon because underemployed workers are more readily promote or more able to move to higher level jobs. Third one is job competition model (Thurow 195), marginal products and consequently earnings are associated with jobs, not individuals. Individuals are 1st allocated on jobs on the bases of personal characteristics, including education that guides the employers to measure the cost of training them to perform healthy on their jobs. Since this allocation is based on available supplies of both workers and jobs, workers may possess more education and skills than their jobs necessitate. Spences (1973) developed signaling model or job screening model. According to this theory, there is imperfect information in the labor market and education is used as a signal to identify the more able, motivated, or productive worker. The basic signaling model therefore requires that the costs of education must be lower for higher ability workers. The fourth one is assignment model ( Tinbergen 1956; Haratog 1981,1985; Sattinger 1993) captures a more encompassing outlook. According to model; workers salaries are determined in part by the job they are doing., particularly whether they are underemployed and in part by their human capital. An allocation problem exists in which worker differing in attributes are allocated jobs with differing levels of complexity. In a dynamic economy with heterogeneity of workers and jobs these frequency distributions are unlikely to match and mismatch will be a permanent feature of labor market. Underemployed workers are defined as those whose educational attainments exceed to the requirements of education in particular occupation. It can be seen as the decline in economic position of educated individuals relative to historically higher levels and underutilization of workers educational skills (TSANG 1987). One may speak of underemployment when a person holds a job for which degree is not required, when a persons educational attainment less than required education, and misallocation when the education or training fails to correspond to the job held. Underemployment is a relative phenomenon. A person is defined as overeducated in one job may not be so defined in another job. The accuracy of the match between a workers education and his or her job has attracted the attention of economists over the last two decades. The main reasons for this over the last two decades. The main reasons for this interest is that education interest is that education-job mismatches has relevant effects on the the efficiency of the public and private investment in education by influencing wages as well as on other labor market outcomes such as job dissatisfaction and labor turnover (Hersch 1991). Berg (1970) used 1950 and 1960 increasing percentage of workers are employed in jobs that utilize less education than they possesses; that in many jobs experience is a better indicator of earnings than is education. Freeman (1976) found that the proportion of male college graduates entering no managerial and nonprofessional jobs increased from 14% to 31% in 1958 to 1971. Rumberger (1981), comparing 1960 and 1976 data, found thatthe distribution of educational attainments..shifted dramatically during this period:by 1976 less than 25 percentof the U.S. population had lowlevel education, but nearly half had jobs requiring low-level skills.
Berg et al. (1978) found that 51 percent of all college graduates and 24.8 percent of the entire U.S. labor force were underemployed in their present occupations. Norwood (1979), using Bureau of Labor Statistics data found that college graduates were increasingly entering the labor market as low-level workers, especially in clerical and sales positions. Sullivan (1978) and Clogg (1979) found that some workers are overeducated, suggesting that the skills of this highly educated group are being underutilized. More subjective measures of underemployment also find the similar results that in U.S. workers felt that they were not utilizing their skills, they are overeducated for their jobs and that they lacked training opportunities etc (Bisconti and Solmon (1976), Duncan and Hoffman (1978, Staines and Quinn (1979)). Some negative effects of underemployment also begun to explored. Advance education, by raising workers expectations for interesting and challenging work, is claimed to result in increased frustration and dissatisfaction when those expectations are not fulfilled. There is evidence that underemployment is correlated with higher level of job dissatisfaction (Berg, 1970; Bisconti and Solmon, 1977) lower level of job involvement (Kalleberg and Sorensen, 1973), high job turnover rates and low level of productivity (Berg, 1970). Burris(1983) examined the effects of underemployment on 32 low-level clerical workers, comparing their educational backgrounds with their attitude and behaviors, and concluded that higher education produces increased job dissatisfaction, high turn over rates, reduced job involvement, impaired co-worker relations, and more emphasis on future aspirations. Using the data set of 12 manufacturing and warehouses firms. Hersch (1991), discuss the issues of surplus education, satisfaction, and turnover rates. The results supported the previous studies that overeducated workers were less satisfied to their jobs and have higher turn over rates. Battu et al (1997) also find similar results by using a survey of graduates from two cohort years (1985 and 1990) in United Kingdom.
REASEARCH AND METHODOLOGIES

As there is not enough research done on the topic of underemployment therefore, this article mainly comprises of data from secondary resources. However, this report includes wide array of different methodologies i.e qualitative, quantitive, objective approach, subjective approach etc. The prevalence of underemployment is usually measured by comparing individuals years of schooling with some indicator of the requirement of education in a particular occupation. To determine the required level of education for a job and the degree of underemployment, three methods for measuring Mismatch are implicit in the literature. They are as follow;
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1) Subjective approach: The subjective measure refers to cases where workers report that they have acquired more schooling than their job allows them to utilize. To measure underemployment and misallocation, the subjective reports include questions such as how much formal education is required to get a job like yours? (Rumbarg 1987; Duncan and Hoffman 1981) The estimates provide the basis for computing the total costs of educating a labor force with the desired level of skills. It may reflect the exact schooling required because it is based on an assessment of the actual job held by the incumbent. The method does not go un criticized either. This approach could be biased if job incumbents are more likely to report required schooling levels that more closely correspond to their actual level of education. In this case, the level of underemployment will be underestimated, which affects the validity. Further more respondents may not always have a good insight in the level of education required for a job (Cohn and Khan 1995, Halaby 1994)
2) Objective approach : This method pertains to job analysts determining the level of education required for a job. In literature, this approach is based on the General Education Development (GED) scores available from the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT) in U.S. The (GED) scores are designed to reflect skill requirements typically required for satisfactory job performance (Eckaus, 1964; Berg, 1970; Rumberger 1981). It derived independently of the job incumbent. Trained job analyst grades the jobs. It is unreliable as there may be no basis in reality for what certain workers believe to be the case (Clogg and Shockey 1984). Moreover new technologies or a form of workplace organization leads to changes in educational requirements, DOT requirements from an earlier period may not reflect the requirement at a later period. 3) Mean plus Standard Deviation Approach: Another approach tried to find the mismatch by two variables; years of schooling and occupation (Clog, 1979; Clog.C. C., Shackey W. J., 1984; Verdugo and Verdugo, 1989). The distribution of education is calculated for each occupation; employees who depart from the mean by more than some ad hoc value (generally one standard deviation) are classified as underemployment. Completed years of schooling are used as the proxy for educational attainment. This method ignores the variation in educational requirements within an occupation, while the limit of one standard deviation would also seem rather arbitrary (Halaby, 1994). This method is very sensitive to changes in labor market conditions. In case of excess supply of labor, employers will hire higher educated workers than is in fact required. Therefore it concludes that the method based on the realized matches is the least adequate one for determining underemployment.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
In 2007, Interviewed 82 clerical/subordinate male workers from the SNGPL Islamabad. It was excluded from the sample those employed part time, or unemployed. The workers all held similar clerical jobs but had different educational backgrounds with age 20 to 50 years. Clerical work is especially suitable for such investigation for three reasons. underemployment is high in the clerical sector due to traditional humanistic educational programs in Pakistan. underemployment in the lower white-collar sector are especially prone to job satisfaction. the paper analyze the utilization of skills in the public sector. Questionnaire covers a wide range of topics including academic information, family background, job satisfaction, job involvement, co-worker relationship, quit intentions, on the job trainings, promotions and future aspirations. Respondents were also asked to evaluate their satisfaction with their degree and job. To obtain the data on the incidence of underemployment, the respondents were asked : considering your education.skills, do you feel that you are underemployed? To obtain the required education for the job respondents were asked to state the minimum level of education which was required for the position they hold. Satisfaction is measured on a linear scale from zero to 10, where zero mean not at all satisfied. Skill utilization is measured by offering a choice between the following response categories : less tha 25%.25%,50%,75% and more than 75%. Quit intention is a dummy variable equal to one if the worker responded that he is very or somewhat likely to make a genuine effort to find a new job within the next six months. On The Job Training is the response to the question. Did the company provide any on the job training?if yes then hw many weeks? additionally, the survey has time specific information as respondents were asked to tell their previos employment situation. Finally a series of question were asked about workers general productiveness, and economic participation-month unemployed, amount of training and contractual status. Table 1 provides a detailed overview of the variable definitions and sample characteristics for clerical workers Table 1: Description of Variables variables Operational Definition Mean Variables Wage Operational definitions = monthly wage Mean 13665
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Education attainment Required education
= years of schooling complete =years of schooling required to perform a job well =attained education minus required education =%of surplus education of total sample %of Adequate education of total sample =%of underemployed of total sample =years of full time work experience sing age 18 =weeks of company provided on-the job training =ranking a job satisfaction on a scale 0-10 from not at all satisfied =if a worker s somewhat or very likely to make a genuine effort to change employment in the next 6 months, 0 otherwise =years of tenure with present employer =1 if married; 0 other wise =1 if worker has permanent job; 0 other wise 82
15,25 12.3
Surplus education
2.95
Percent Surplus Education
0.70
Percent Adequate Education
0.26
Percent underemployed
0.04
Experience
13.52
On the Job Training (OJT)
9.12
Satisfaction
4.25
Quit intention
0.52
Tenure
8.32
Married Nature of job
0.64 0.62
No. of observations
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RESULTS
To find out how much education constitutes underemployment for clerical work, we asked all respondents whether they felt overqualified for their jobs. Out of the sample 70% respondents reveal underemployment. Among post graduates, these feelings of underemployment grew from the sense that they had fine educational background but poor utilization of skills. They wanted to "try something different and more according to their education/skills." According our results, young workers feel more underemployed as compare to old workers. Thus, even though most of the graduate workers felt that the skills and knowledge they had acquired at school were not being used. They felt overqualified because their potential was not being fully used and their opportunities to learn and to grow on the job were limited. In the words of a 32 year old computer operator: I would like to do innovative. I know education is very important but I dont think here people are utilizing their skills, and I feel that I don't necessarily have to have a degree for this job. I notice that there are lots of people sitting on top that don't have professional degrees. Post graduate workers expressed similar feelings: they wanted to learn and grow on the job. They complained of a lack of training opportunities and an inability to learn about the overall operation of company. They complained that the specific content of what they had learned in education was not relevant to their job. There's a lot of frustration because there isn't the usage of the skills that were developed. Their work is more boring, more routine, less creative, and less autonomous. Importance of Promotion and Aspiration for the Future: Feeling of entitlement, combined with a sense of greater occupational options, made the higher educated workers more edgy. Since workers who change jobs often do so in response to higher outside wage offers, and attained education is most important determinant of outside wage offers than the required education in current job. The post graduate workers were more likely to say No when asked, would you be content tostay in your present job for the foreseeable future? 66% of this group, compared with 35% of those with four year college education, said No the lesser educated felt they had fewer occupational options. A senior supervisor said, he deserves and like the promotion, but added I dont know when it will happen; another said its hard to get a promotion in this company without approach. A third respondent asked whether he would be content to stay in her present job. Said I may no other choice,
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CONCLUSIONS AND REMEDIES

Underemployment is obviously a critical problem because it represents the wasteful investment of scarce resources. The underemployment is costly for the society and for the individuals. Existing approaches to underemployment are generally characterized by a technocratic orientation: the view that underemployment represents an imbalancing of the social machinery (Squires 1979), a superficial dislocation of the social system which must be managed to make the system function more smoothly. The hidden agenda of technocratic administrators is efficiency and productivity: underemployment represents an inefficient usage of human resources and I lost output for the society (Glyde 1977) Our key conclusion is that :
1) There is significant and genuine incidence of underemployment in clerical occupation (70% out of the sample). 2) Underemployed workers are young as compared to old and posses more qualification as compare to old. 3) There is little substantiation of widespread qualification inflation, i.e. employer systematically upgrading the educational requirements of jobs in response to the increase in the supply of more educated labor, without changing the job content. 4) There has also been a substantial increase in the supply of more educated labor. 5) The results confirm our hypothesis that individuals in jobs that underutilize their education and skills are dissatisfied because they earn almost no return on surplus education. Since the excess education that is not required and hence may be underutilized, have zero or lower impact on earning. 6) Further more there is evidence that individuals who studied certain types of traditional humanistic subjects are more likely to be underemployed. We did not focus on the determinants of over-education. The results here add support further empirical evidence supporting he view that the effect of education on satisfaction. Additional research and analysis is, of course, defensible, especially on such topics as how to measure underemployment determinants and impact of underemployment on earning, job satisfaction, turn over, and on the job training. Research which undertakes such analysis in great detail than we have done here may be particularly fruitful.
QUESTIONNAIRE
Employment / Underemployment Questionnaire Your honest answers to these questions will help us understand what is happening with our jobs in Country, and to work towards improving our livelihood Security. Your answers represent whole Country residents. So please take the time to answer carefully all questions that apply to you.. Remember that all your answers are strictly confidential and are not linked with your name in any way. Thank you very much for the generous and valuable contribution of your time and energy. Note: Ignore the small numbers next to the check boxes. They are just for data entry purposes. Labor Market Activity Terms and Definitions: Employed: People, 15 years & over, who are working for pay. Unemployed: People 15 years & over who are currently not working for pay, yet have been actively looking for paid work in the past 4 weeks. Not in the labor force: Not employed and not actively looking for work. (Includes retirees, students, full-time home-makers, and discouraged workers who have given up looking for work). Full-time: Worked 30 or more hours per week in your main paying job Part -time: Worked less than 30 hours per week in your main paying job Note: if you are unsure about the meaning of any terms or definitions, please see the end of this questionnaire where all the definitions are described in detail Please SKIP any questions that do not apply to you -- (for example, some Questions only apply to employed people, some only to people who are Unemployed.)
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Q1) Through 4 all apply to Monday through Sunday of LAST WEEK. (Note: If you have a job but were on vacation last week, you are still "employed.") 1. during last week, were you? 1 Employed 2 Unemployed _ go to question 4 3 Not in the labor force _ Go to question 8 2. If you were employed last week, was your main job.....? (Check all that apply) 1 Full-time (30 or more hours) 2 Part-time (less than 30 hours) 3 Casual, on-call or short-term contract 4 Seasonal 5 Working for others 6 Self-employed 7 Other (please specify) _______________________ 3. If you were employed part time in your main job last week (less than 30 hours) was it because you: 1 Could not find full-time work? 2 Did not want full-time work? 3 Other (please specify) _______________________ 4. If you were unemployed last week and actively looking for work in the last 4 weeks, were you unemployed because of: (check only one answer) 1 Own illness or disability 2 Maternity/paternity leave 3 Personal or family responsibilities 4 Returned/returning to school 5 Layoff, expecting to return to work 6 Waiting for new job to start 7 Had no transportation 8 No suitable work available 9 Other (please specify) _______________________ 5. If you are unemployed, are you mainly looking for:
1 Full-time work 2 Part-time work 3 Either 6. If you have been unemployed in the last 12 months, how many weeks, in total, during the last 12 months, have you been unemployed? 1 0-4 weeks 2 5-12 weeks 3 13-24 weeks 4 25-51 weeks 5 52 weeks or more 7. Would you like to have a paying job? 1 Yes 2 No 8. For what reason do you not have a paying job? (Enter a maximum of 3 reasons) 1 Suitable work is unavailable or hard to find 2 Lack necessary skills or qualifications 3 Own illness or disability 4 Lack transportation to or from work 5 Unable to find good childcare 6 Caring for elderly relative(s) 7 Attending school 8 Prefer to stay at home with children 9 Spouse wants you to stay at home 10 Personal or family responsibilities 11 Retired 12 Gave up looking for work 13 Other? (please specify) _______________________ 9. If you do want a job, what do you think the chances are that you will find one in the next 6 months? 1 Very likely 2 Somewhat likely 3 Somewhat unlikely 4 Very unlikely
5 Don't know 10. Have you been with the same employer for the past 12 months? 1 Yes 2 No
Your answers to the questions will help us assess future prospects for finding employment patterns.
Job Characteristics . Terms and Definitions: Full-time: Worked 30 or more hours per week in your main paying job Part -time: Worked less than 30 hours per week in your main paying job Casual/On-Call: Hours vary substantially from one week to the next. Workers may be asked to work as the need arises, not on a prearranged schedule. (i.e. substitute teacher) Contract: Job has a predetermined end date, or will end as soon as a specified project is completed. Includes temporary or term jobs, including work done through a temporary help agency. Self-employed: Working owners of their own business (incorporated/not-incorporated), farm, or professional practice; or self-employed people who do not own their own business (example: babysitters, newspaper carriers, etc.) 11. Is your main job permanent (meaning there is no pre-specified date of termination)? 1 Yes _ 2 No 12. Why is your job not permanent? (Please check only the one answer that best describes your job.) 1 Seasonal job 2 Casual / on-call job 3 Self-employed (temporary situation) (non-seasonal) 4 Other long term temporary or term job (6 months or longer) 5 Other short term temporary or term job (less than 6 months)
6 Other non-seasonal contract work 7 Other (please specify) _______________________ 13. How would you classify your work? 1 Paid worker _ Go to question 29 2 Self-employed without employees 3 Self-employed with employees 4 Unpaid work for family business 5 Other (please specify) _______________________ 14. If you are self-employed, what is the main reason? (Check one only) 1 No suitable work available 2 Want to make more money 3 Enjoy independence 4 Flexible schedule 5 Can work from home 6 Family business 7 Other (please specify) _______________________ 15. What is your occupation? (If you are not sure where your job fits, please see detailed job breakdowns at the very end of this questionnaire.) 1 Management Occupations 2 Business, Finance and Administrative Occupations (Examples: accountants, finance advisors, secretaries, receptionists, etc.) 3 Natural and Applied Sciences and Related Occupations (Examples: computer programmers, engineers, etc) 4 Health Occupations (Examples: doctors, nurses, etc.) 5 Occupations in Social Science, Education, Government Service and Religion (Examples: teachers/professors, counsellors, lawyers, social workers, etc.) 6 Occupations in Art, Culture, Recreation and Sport (Examples: artists, actors, graphic designers, coaches, journalists, etc.) 7 Sales and Service Occupations (Examples: insurance and real estate sales, buyers, salespersons, cashiers, supervisors, cooks, food & beverage service, childcare and home support workers, etc.) 8 Trades, Transport and Equipment Operators and Related Occupations (Examples: contractors and supervisors, construction trades, transport and equipment operators, trades helpers, construction and transportation labourers, etc.)
9 Occupations Unique to Primary Industry (Examples: occupations unique to fishing, farming and mining, etc.) 10 Occupations Unique to Processing, Manufacturing and Utilities (Examples: machine operators, assemblers, supervisors, processing labourers, etc.) 11 Other (please specify) _______________________ 16. What is the job title of your main job? ___________________________________ 17. At your main job, are you... (check all that apply) 1 A union member? 2 Covered by union contract or collective agreement? 3 None of the above?
18. Which of the following benefits do you have that are paid either in full or part by your employer? (check all that apply) 1 Pension plan or group RRSP (other than mandatory Canada Pension Plan) 2 Health Plan (other than provincial Medicare) 3 Dental Plan 4 Paid Sick Leave 5 Paid Vacation Leave 6 Paid Educational Leave 7 Other Paid Personal Leave 19. If you are entitled to Paid Vacation leave, how many weeks of paid vacation are you entitled to on an annual basis? 1 Not entitled to paid vacation leave 2 Less than 1 week 3 1 week 4 2 weeks 5 3 weeks 6 4 weeks 7 5 or more weeks 20. Please estimate how many people work for your employer at all locations: 1 1-10 2 11-20 3 21-50
4 51-100 5 101-500 6 Over 500 21. Some people do all or some of their paid work at home. Excluding occasional overtime work that you may take home with you from time to time, do you usually work any of your scheduled hours at home? 1 All 2 Some 3 None _ Go to question 41
22. What are the main reasons you do some or all of your paid work at home? (Check maximum of three answers). 1 To care for children 2 To care for other family members 3 Other personal/family responsibilities 4 Requirements of the job 5 Self-employed/home office 6 Better working conditions 7 To save money 8 To save time 9 Other (please specify) _______________________ 23. If your employer provides any equipment or supplies for this work done at home, please check all that apply. 1 A computer 2 A modem 3 A fax 4 Other equipment or supplies (please specify) ______________________ 5 Reimbursement of costs 6 No equipment or supplies required 7 Nothing supplied 24. If you do some or all of your paid work from home, do the terms of your employment (contract or otherwise) require you to have access to any of the following? (Check all that apply) 1 A computer
2 A modem 3 A fax 4 Other equipment or supplies (please specify) ______________________ 5 No equipment or supplies required. 25. Last week, how many hours did you actually work at home? (If on vacation last week, how many hours did you actually work at home in your last full week of work before vacation?) 1 ____ hours 2 None 26. On average, how many hours do you usually work at home per week? 1 ____ hours 2 None
Work Schedule and Income Terms and Definitions: Usual Schedule: Usually means more than half of the time. Usual hours: Normal paid or contract hours, not counting any overtime. For selfemployed and unpaid family workers, usual hours refer to the number of hours usually worked in a typical week, regardless of whether you were paid. Actual hours: The number of hours you actually worked last week, including overtime. Regular daytime shift: Work begins in the morning and ends in the afternoon; the standard 9 to 5 schedule is included in this category. Regular evening shift: Work starts about 3 or 4 p.m. and is over by midnight. Regular night or graveyard shift: Work starts around midnight and finishes around 8 am. Rotating shift: A combination of the above shifts provided the shifts rotate on a regular basis and one shift does not predominate over the other(s). Split shift: Two or more distinct periods of work with a period of free time that is not solely a lunch break, between work periods. Irregular schedule: Is usually prearranged one week or more in advance (for example, pilots) On-call/casual: Hours vary substantially from one week to the next. Workers may be
asked to work as the need arises, not on a prearranged schedule. (for example, substitute teacher) PLEASE SEE THE END OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE FOR MORE DETAILED DEFINITIONS..
27. Last week, did you have more than one job? 1 Yes 2 No _ Go to question 44 28. How many jobs did you have last week? 1 Two 2 Three 3 Four 4 Five or more Part II: The Community GPI Survey 98 29. What is the main reason you worked at more than one job last week? (check one only): 1 To meet regular household expenses 2 To pay off debts 3 To buy something special 4 To save for the future 5 To gain experience 6 To build up a business 7 You enjoy the work of a second job 8 Other (please specify) _______________________ 30. How many hours per week do you usually work at: 1 Your main job? ________ hours (please enter number) 2 All other jobs? ________ hours (please enter number) 31. Last week, how many hours did you actually work at: (If you were on vacation last week, how many hours did you actually work in your last week of work before vacation) 1 Your main job? ________ hours (please enter number) 2 All other jobs? ________ hours (please enter number) 32. If you usually work part-time (less than 30 hours per week), is this because you split your job with someone else (a job-sharing arrangement)?
1 Yes 2 No _ Go to question 48 33. Is your job-sharing arrangement voluntary? 1 Yes 2 No 34. How many hours per day do you usually work at your main job? ______hours 35. At what time do you usually begin work at your main job? (Circle am or pm) 1 ________a.m. / p.m. 2 It varies 36. At what time do you usually end work at your main job? (Circle am or pm) 1 ________a.m. / p.m. 2 It varies Part II: The Community GPI Survey 99 37. Are you on a flexible schedule that allows you to choose the time to begin and end your work day? 1 Yes 2 No 38. Which of the following best describes your work schedule at your main job? (Check one answer only). Is your schedule 1 A regular daytime schedule? 2 A regular evening shift? 3 A regular night or graveyard shift? 4 A rotating shift (that changes from days to evenings)? 5 A split shift (consisting of two distinct periods of work each day)? 6 On-call / Casual 7 An irregular schedule 8 Other (please specify) _______________________ 39. What is the main reason you work this schedule? (Choose main reason - check only one answer)
1 Earn more money 2 Allow time to care for children 3 Allow time to care for other family members 4 Allow time for school 5 Requirements of the job/no choice 6 Preferred schedule 7 Other (please specify) _______________________ 40. How long have you had this schedule at your main job? 1 Less than one month 2 1 month to less than 6 months 3 6 months to less than 1 year 4 1 year to less than 2 years 5 2 years to less than 5 years 6 5 years or more 41. In addition to your scheduled hours, do you usually work over-time for which you receive compensation? 1 Yes 2 No 42. Last week, in addition to your scheduled hours, did you work any hours of overtime for which you will receive compensation? 1 Yes 2 No 43. How will you be compensated for the overtime you worked last week? 1 With money 2 With time off 3 Other? (please specify) _______________________ 44. At what rate of pay is your overtime work compensated? 1 Not paid for overtime 2 Straight time 3 Time and a half 4 Double time
5 Other (please specify) _______________________ 45. In addition to your contractual schedule, do you usually work extra overtime hours in your main job, for which you do not receive compensation? 1 Yes 2 No 46. Last week, did you work any overtime hours for which you won't receive compensation? 1 Yes 2 No 47. Aside from wage or salary, do you have other sources of income in your main job? (tips, commission, etc.) 1 Yes 2 No 48. At your main job, what are your gross annual earnings, including tips and commissions (before taxes). 1 Less than 5,000 2 5,000 to 9,999 3 10,000 to 14,999 4 15,000 to 19,999 5 20,000 to 24,999 6 25,000 to 29,999 7 30,000 to 34,999 8 35,000 to 39,999 9 40,000 to 44,999 1045,000 to 49,999 11 50,000 to 54,999 12 55,000 to 59,999 13 60,000 or more
EVERY ONE PLEASE CONTINUE WITH THE NEXT QUESTION, WHETHER YOU ARE CURRENTLY WORKING OR NOT: 49. What are your gross annual earnings, including tips and commissions, from all the paid jobs you have had in the last 12 months combined (before taxes)?
(Answer this question even if you presently don't have a paid job -- just add up your earnings from any jobs that you have had in the past year.) 1 Have not had any paid work in the last 12 months 2 Less than 5,000 3 5,000 to 9,999 4 10,000 to 14,999 5 15,000 to 19,999 6 20,000 to 24,999 7 25,000 to 29,999 8 30,000 to 34,999 9 35,000 to 39,999 10 40,000 to 44,999 11 45,000 to 49,999 12 50,000 to54,999 13 55,000 to 9,999 14 60,000 or more 50. What is your best estimate of the total income (before taxes) of all household members from all sources in the last 12 months? (Include wages, EI, social assistance and other transfer payments, interest, dividends, and all other sources of income). 1 Less than 5,000 2 5,000 to 9,999 3 10,000 to 14,999 4 15,000 to 19,999 5 20,000 to 24,999 6 25,000 to 29,999 7 30,000 to 34,999 8 35,000 to 39,999 9 40,000 to 44,999 10 45,000 to 49,999 11 50,000 to 54,999 12 55,000 to 59,999 13 60,000 to 69,999 14 70,000 to 79,999 15 80,000 or more 51. Did you receive income in the form of interest or dividends last year?
1 Yes 2 No _ 52. How much income in the form of dividends or interest did you receive last year? 1 100 or less 2 101 - 500 3 501 - 1,000 4 1,001 - 2000 5 2,001 - 5,000 6 5,001 - 10,000 7 10,001 - 20,000 8 20,001 - 40,000 9 More than 40,000 53. If you are not currently employed, what is your gross monthly income from all government sources, such as employment insurance, social assistance, family benefits, etc? Pkr________________ 54. If you are currently unemployed, are you receiving employment insurance benefits? 1 Yes 2 No _ 55. Thinking about the past 12 months, did your household ever run out of money to buy food? 1 Yes 2 No 56. Which of the following best describes the food situation in your household? 1 Always enough to eat 2 Sometimes not enough food to eat 3 Often not enough food to eat
Job Security 57. Have you had paid work in the past 12 months?
1 Yes 2 No _ 58. Have any of the following situations in your work environment caused you excess worry or stress in the past 12 months? (Check all that apply). 1 Too many demands 2 Too many hours 3 Too few hours 4 Lack of autonomy or control over work 5 Risk of accident or injury 6 Poor interpersonal relations 7 Threat of lay-off or job loss 8 Other (please specify) _______________________
59. Do you think it is likely you will lose your job or be laid off in the next year? Would you say it is... 1 Very likely? 2 Somewhat likely? 3 Somewhat unlikely? 4 Very unlikely? 5 Don't know 60. If you think it is likely you will lose your job or be laid off in the next year, do you think this will be because of the introduction of computers and/or automated technology? 1 Yes 2 No 3 Not Sure 61. Are you currently a full-time student? (If you are a full-time student currently holding a summer job, still answer YES here). 1 Yes 2 No 62. During the last 5 years, how many times have you switched jobs from one employer to another?
1 Have not switched jobs during the last 5 years 2 1 3 2 4 3 5 4 6 5 7 6 or more 63. During the last 5 years (60 months), in how many of those months did you hold paid employment or have self employment income? (Please take the time to work this out as accurately as you can). 1 All 60 months 2 _______ months 64. During the last 5 years, did you leave your job, or were you ever away from work without pay, for a period of three or more months? 1 Yes 2 No _ Go to question 89 65. Was this because the work was seasonal? 1 Yes 2 No 66. During those 5 years, how many times have you been away from work without pay for a period of three or more months? 1 0 2 1 3 2 4 3 5 4 6 5 7 6 or more Underemployment 67. What is the NORMAL or AVERAGE EDUCATION requirement for your position at your main job?
1 No Minimum 2 Some High School 3 High School Diploma 4 Community College 5 Trade Qualification 6 Private Training Institutions (for example Information Technology Institute -ITI) 7 University Degree 68. What is the NORMAL or AVERAGE WORK EXPERIENCE requirement for your position at your main job? 1 No Minimum 2 Less than 1 year 3 1-2 years 4 3-4 years 5 5 years or more 69. How long do you estimate that it would take to TRAIN someone, who has the normal education requirement for your position, to do your job? 1 No training required 2 1 week or less 3 2-4 weeks 4 1-3 months 5 3-6 months 6 more than 6 months 70. How closely is your current job related to your education? Is it... 1 Closely related 2 Somewhat related 3 Not at all related 71. Would you rather have a job more closely related to your education, training and experience? 1 Yes 2 No 3 Not relevant 72. Considering your education, training and experience, do you feel that you are
overqualified for your current job? 1 Yes 2 No 3 Not relevant 73. Considering your education, training and experience, do you feel that you have been overqualified for most of your jobs? 1 Yes 2 No 74. Do you feel that you are under-qualified for your current job(s)? 1 Yes 2 No This concludes the Employment section of the Questionnaire Thank you for your time. Do you have any additional comments on employment-related issues not covered in these questions: (Please continue on on the back of the page if you need more space).
Detailed Definitions : Employed: Employed persons are those who, during the reference week: (a) did any work at all; (b) had a job but were not at work due to: - own illness or disability - personal or family responsibilities - bad weather - labour dispute - vacation - other reason not specified above (excluding persons on layoff and persons whose job attachment was to a job starting at a definite date in the future). Unemployed: Unemployed persons are those who, during the reference week: (a) Were without work, had actively looked for work in the past four weeks (ending with Reference week), and were available for work ; (b) Had not actively looked for work in the past four weeks but had been on layoff and were Available for work;
(c) Had not actively looked for work in the past four weeks but had a new job to start in four Weeks or less from the reference week, and were available for work. Not in the Labor Force: Those persons in the civilian non-institutional population 15 years of Age and over who, during the reference week, were neither employed nor unemployed. Some Examples include retirees, students, full-time home makers, and discouraged workers who are Not employed but are not actively seeking work. Full-time: Full-time employment consists of persons who usually work 30 hours or more per week at their main job or sole job. (This definition has changed since 1991, at which time the "full-time" designation applied to all persons who usually worked 30 hours or more a week at all jobs, and also to those who considered themselves to be full-time workers even though their total hours were usually less than 30 per week.) Part-time: Part-time employment consists of all other persons who usually work less than 30 hours per week at their main or sole job. Work Schedules Usual Schedule: Usually means more than half of the time. Usual hours refers to normal paid or contract hours, not counting any overtime. For self-employed and unpaid family workers, usual hours refer to the number of hours usually worked in a typical week, regardless of whether you were paid. Actual hours refers to the number of hours you actually worked last week, including overtime. Regular daytime: Work begins in the morning and ends in the afternoon; the standard 9 to 5 schedule is included in this category. Part II: The Community GPI Survey 113 Regular evening shift: Work starts about 3 or 4 p.m. and is over by midnight. Regular night or graveyard shift: Work starts around midnight and finishes around 8 am. Rotating shifts: A combination of the above shifts provided the shifts rotate on a regular basis and one shift does not predominate over the other(s). Split shift: Two or more distinct periods of work with a period of free time that is not solely a lunch break, between work periods. On call: Hours vary substantially from one week to the next. Workers are asked to work as the need arises, not on a prearranged schedule. Irregular schedules: No regular schedule but a schedule usually arranged one week or more in advance.
Flexible Schedule: A flexible schedule allows workers to choose their starting and stopping times within limits established by the management. Job Sharing Arrangement: Job sharing implies a voluntary arrangement whereby two or more employees agree to share the job hours of one job. Job sharing should not be confused with work sharing in which all workers work fewer hours to avoid layoffs. Hours Worked: Respondents should include breaks but exclude lunch. Occupations Management Occupations Senior Management Occupations Other Management Occupations Business, Finance and Administrative Occupations Professional Occupations in Business and Finance Financial, Secretarial and Administrative Occupations Clerical Occupations, Including Supervisors Natural and Applied Sciences and Related Occupations Health Occupations Professional Occupations in Health, Nurse Supervisors and Registered Nurses Technical, Assisting and Related Occupations in Health Occupations in Social Science, Education, Government Service and Religion Occupations in Social Science, Government Service and ReligionTeachers and Professors
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REFERENCES
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15. Halaby C. N. (1994). Overeducation and Skill Mismatch, Sociology of Education, 67(1), 4759. 16. Hartog Joop. (1985). Earnings Functions: Testing for the Demand Side. Economics Letters,19, 281- 85. 17. Hersch J. (1991). Education Match and Job Match. University of Wyoming. 18 Kalleberg, A. and Sorensen A. (1973). The Measurement of the Effects of Overtraining on Job Attitudes. Sociological Methods and Research, 2(2),215-238. 19. Norwood J. L. (1979). The Job Outlook for College Graduates Through 1990. Occupational Outlook Quarterly, Winter, 2-7. 20. Rosen S. (1972). Learning and Experience in the Labour Market. The Journal of Human Resources, 7 (3), 326 42. 21. Rumberger R. W. (1981). The Changing Skill Requirements of Jobs in the U.S. Economy. Industrial and Labor Relations Review 34 (4), 578-590. 22. Sattinger M. (1993). Assignment Models of the Distribution of Earnings. Journal of Economic Literature, XXXI, 831-880. 23. Sicherman, N. and Galor O. (1990). A Theory of Career Mobility, Journal of Political Economy, 98 (1), 169 92. 24. Spence M. (1973). Job Market Signalling, Quarterly Journal of conomics, 87, 353 74. 25. Squires, G. (1979). Education and Jobs: The Imbalancing of the Social Machinery. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books. 26. Staines, Q. R. (1979). American Workers Evaluate the Quality of their Jobs. Monthly Labor Review, 102(1), 3-12. 27. Sullivan, T. M. (1978). Marginal Workers, Marginal Jobs: The Underutilization of American Workers. Austin: University of Texas Press. 28. Thurow, L. C. (1975). Generating Inequality. NewYork: Basic Books. 29. Tinbergen, J. (1956). On the Theory of Income Distribution. Weltwirtschaftliches rchiv, 77, 155 73. 30. Tsang, M. C. (1984). The Impact of Overeducation on Productivity: A Case Study of Skill Underutilization of the U.S. Bell Companies. IFG Program Report No. 84-B10. Stanford: Institute for Research on Educational Finance and Governance, Stanford University.
31. Verdugo, R. R. and Verdugo, N. T. (1989). The Impact of Surplus Schooling on Earnings: Some Additional Findings. Journal of Human Resources, 24(4), 629-643.
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Effects of Underemployment On Job Satisfaction

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Effects of Underemployment On Job Satisfaction

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EFFECTS OF UNDEREMPLOYMENT ON JOB SATISFACTION

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REASEARCH AND METHODOLOGIES

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Education attainment Required education

Percent Surplus Education

Percent Adequate Education

On the Job Training (OJT)

Married Nature of job

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CONCLUSIONS AND REMEDIES

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