India

An overview

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Contents
Articles
Main article
India 1 1 26 26 32 32 51 60 60 67 74 74 94 106 136 165 177 194 221 234 251 265 279 301 329 344 368 388 402 414

Etymology
Names of India

History
History of India History of the Republic of India

Government
Government of India Administrative divisions of India

States of India
Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Assam Bihar Chhattisgarh Goa Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu and Kashmir Jharkhand Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland

Orissa Punjab, India Rajasthan Sikkim Tamil Nadu Tripura Uttar Pradesh Uttarakhand West Bengal

424 450 469 482 497 528 537 559 573 597 597 605 613 616 618 625 646 654 654 659 659 703 719 719 734 738 758 758 766 776 776 800 813

Union Territories of India

Andaman and Nicobar Islands Chandigarh Dadra and Nagar Haveli Daman and Diu Lakshadweep Delhi Puducherry

Politics
Politics of India

Foreign relations and military

Foreign relations of India Indian Armed Forces

Geography
Geography of India Geology of India Climate of India

Flora and fauna

Flora of India Fauna of India

Economy
Economy of India Economic history of India

Demographics

Demographics of India Religion in India Languages of India South Asian ethnic groups

813 822 840 847 856 856 871 871

Culture
Culture of India

Sports
Sport in India

References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 887 905

Article Licenses
License 925

Main article
India
Republic of India * Bhrat Gaarjya

Motto:"Satyameva Jayate" (Sanskrit) (Devangar) [3] "Truth Alone Triumphs" Anthem: Jana Gana Mana [4] Thou art the ruler of the minds of all people National Song Vande Mataram [6] I bow to thee, Mother
[5]

Area controlled by India in dark green; Claimed but uncontrolled territories in light green Capital Largest city Official language(s) New Delhi 2836.8N 7712.5E Mumbai

India

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Recognised regionallanguages National languages Demonym Government None defined by the Constitution Indian Federal parliamentary [2] constitutional republic Pratibha Patil Manmohan Singh (INC)
[7]

- - - -

President Prime Minister

Speaker of the House Meira Kumar (INC) Chief Justice Legislature S. H. Kapadia Sansad Rajya Sabha Lok Sabha from the United Kingdom 15 August 1947 26 January 1950 Area

- -

Upper House Lower House Independence

- -

Declared Republic

3,287,263km (7th) 1,269,219sqmi Water(%) 9.56 Population

- - -

2011estimate 2001census Density

1,210,193,422

[8]

(2nd)

1,028,610,328 363.9/km (31st) 942.4/sqmi 2010estimate

2

GDP(PPP) - - GDP (nominal) - - Gini(2004) HDI(2010) Currency Time zone - Summer(DST) Date formats Drives on the ISO3166code Total Per capita Total Per capita

$4.060 trillion $3,339

[9]

[9]

2010estimate $1.538 trillion $1,265 36.8

[9] [9]

[10]

(79th) (medium)(119th)

0.519

[11]

Indian rupee ( ) (INR) IST (UTC+5:30) not observed(UTC+5:30) dd/mm/yyyy (AD) left IN

India

3
Internet TLD Calling code .in 91

India ( /En-us-India.oggndi/), conventional long name Republic of India (Hindi: Bhrat Gaarjya; see also official names of India), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast, it shares land borders with Pakistan to the west; Bhutan, the People's Republic of China and Nepal to the northeast; and Bangladesh and Burma to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives; in addition, India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Thailand and Indonesia. Home to the ancient Indus Valley Civilization and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires, the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history.[12] Four of the world's major religionsHinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhismoriginated here, while Zoroastrianism, Christianity and Islam arrived in the first millennium CE and shaped the region's diverse culture.[13] Gradually annexed by the British East India Company from the early 18th century and colonised by the United Kingdom from the mid-19th century, India became an independent nation in 1947 after a struggle for independence which was marked by non-violent resistance and led by Mahatma Gandhi. The Indian economy is the world's tenth largest economy by nominal GDP and fourth largest economy by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India has become one of the fastest growing major economies, and is considered a newly industrialized country; however, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, illiteracy, corruption and inadequate public health. A nuclear weapons state and a regional power, it has the third-largest standing army in the world, and ranks tenth in military expenditure among nations. India is a federal constitutional republic with a parliamentary democracy consisting of 28 states and seven union territories. It is one of the four BRIC nations. India is a pluralistic, multilingual, and multiethnic society. It is also home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats.

Etymology
The name India is derived from Indus, which is derived from the Old Persian word Hindu, from Sanskrit Sindhu, the historic local appellation for the Indus River.[14] The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi (), the people of the Indus.[15] The Constitution of India and common usage in various Indian languages also recognise Bharat (pronounced Hindustani pronunciation:[bart] ( listen)) as an official name of equal status.[16] The name Bharat is derived from the name of the legendary king Bharata in Hindu scriptures. Hindustan (Hindustani pronunciation:[ndstan] ( listen)), originally a Persian word for Land of the Hindus referring to northern India and Pakistan before 1947, is also occasionally used as a synonym for all of India.[17]

History
Stone Age rock shelters with paintings at the Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh are the earliest known traces of human life in India. The first known permanent settlements appeared about 8,500 years ago and gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation,[18] dating back to 3400BCE in western India. It was followed by the Vedic period, which laid the foundations of Hinduism and other cultural aspects of early Indian society, and ended in the 500s BCE. From around 550BCE, many independent kingdoms and republics known as the Mahajanapadas were established across the country.[19]

India

4 In the third centuryBCE, Maurya Empire gradually united the Indian sub-continent under Chandragupta Maurya, his son Bindusara and grandson Ashoka the Great.[20] From the third century CE, the Gupta dynasty oversaw the period referred to as ancient "India's Golden Age".[21] [22] Empires in southern India included those of the Chalukyas, the Cholas and the Vijayanagara Empire. Science, technology, engineering, art, logic, language, literature, mathematics, astronomy, religion and philosophy flourished under the patronage of these kings.

Following invasions from Central Asia between the 10th and 12th centuries, much of northern India came under the rule of the Delhi Sultanate and later the Mughal Empire. Under the rule of Akbar the Paintings at the Ajanta Caves in Aurangabad, Great, India enjoyed much cultural and economic progress as well as Maharashtra, sixth century religious harmony.[23] [24] Mughal emperors gradually expanded their empires to cover large parts of the subcontinent. However, in northeastern India, the dominant power was the Ahom kingdom of Assam, among the few kingdoms to have resisted Mughal subjugation. Due to Mughal persecution, the Sikhs developed a martial tradition and established the Sikh Empire which stood until the Anglo-Sikh wars in the mid-19th century.[25] The first major threat to Mughal imperial power came from a Hindu Rajput king Maha Rana Pratap of Mewar in the 16th century and later from a Hindu state known as the Maratha confederacy, that ruled much of India in the mid-18th century.[26] From the 16th century, European powers such as Portugal, the Netherlands, France, and Great Britain established trading posts and later took advantage of internal conflicts to establish colonies. By 1856, most of India had come under the control of the British East India Company.[27] A year later, a nationwide insurrection of rebelling military units and kingdoms, known as India's First War of Independence or the Sepoy Mutiny, seriously challenged the Company's control but eventually failed. As a result of the instability, India was brought under the direct rule of the British Crown. In the 20th century, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress and other political organisations.[28] A large part of the movement for independence was led by Mahatma Gandhi and the Indian National Congress, which led millions of people in several national campaigns of non-violent civil disobedience.[29] On 15 August 1947, India gained independence from British rule, but at the same time the Muslim-majority areas were partitioned to form a separate state of Pakistan.[30] On 26 January 1950, India became a republic and a new constitution came into effect.[31]

Mahatma Gandhi (right) with Jawaharlal Nehru, 1937. Nehru would go on to become India's first prime minister in 1947.

Since independence, India has faced challenges from religious violence, casteism, naxalism, terrorism and regional separatist insurgencies, especially in Jammu and Kashmir and Northeast India. Since the 1990s terrorist attacks have affected many Indian cities. India has unresolved territorial disputes with the People's Republic of China, which, in 1962, escalated into the Sino-Indian War, and with Pakistan, which resulted in wars in 1947, 1965, 1971 and 1999. India is a founding member of the United Nations (as British India) and the Non-Aligned Movement. India is a state armed with nuclear weapons; having conducted its first nuclear test in 1974,[32] followed by another five tests in 1998.[32] Beginning 1991, significant economic reforms[33] have transformed India into one of the fastest-growing economies in the world, increasing its global clout.[34]

India

Geography
India, the major portion of the Indian subcontinent, lies atop the Indian tectonic plate, a minor plate within the Indo-Australian Plate.[35] India's defining geological processes commenced seventy-five million years ago, when the Indian subcontinent, then part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, began a northeastwards driftlasting fifty million yearsacross the then unformed Indian Ocean.[35] The subcontinent's subsequent collision with the Eurasian Plate and subduction under it, gave rise to the Himalayas, the planet's highest mountains, which now abut India in the north and the north-east.[35] In the former seabed immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast trough, which, having gradually been filled with river-borne sediment,[36] now forms the Indo-Gangetic Plain.[37] To the west of this plain, and cut off from it by the Aravalli Range, lies the Thar Desert.[38]

Topographic map of India.

The original Indian plate now survives as peninsular India, the oldest and geologically most stable part of India, and extends as far north as the Satpura and Vindhya ranges in central India. These parallel ranges run from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the coal-rich Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand in the east.[39] To their south, the remaining peninsular landmass, the Deccan Plateau, is flanked on the left and right by the coastal ranges, Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats respectively;[40] the plateau contains the oldest rock formations in India, some over one billion years old. Constituted in such fashion, India lies to the north of the equator between 644' and 3530' north latitude[41] and 687' and 9725' east longitude.[42] India's coast is 7517kilometres (4700mi) long; of this distance, 5423kilometres (3400mi) belong to peninsular India, and 2094kilometres (1300mi) to the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep Islands.[43] According to the Indian naval hydrographic charts, the mainland coast consists of the following: 43% sandy beaches, 11% rocky coast including cliffs, and 46% mudflats or marshy coast.[43] Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the Ganges (Ganga) and the Brahmaputra, both of which drain into the Bay of Bengal.[44] Important tributaries of the Ganges include the Yamuna and the Kosi; the latter's extremely low gradient causes disastrous floods every year. Major peninsular rivers, whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding, include the Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Kaveri, and the Krishna, which also drain into the Bay of Bengal;[45] and the Narmada and the Tapti, which drain into the Arabian Sea.[46] Among notable coastal features of India are the marshy Rann of Kutch in western India, and the alluvial Sundarbans delta, which India shares with Bangladesh.[47] India has two archipelagos: the Lakshadweep, coral atolls off India's south-western coast; and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a volcanic chain in the Andaman Sea.[48]
The Himalayas form the mountainous landscape of northern India. Seen here is Ladakh in Jammu and Kashmir.

India

Climate
India's climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive the monsoons.[49] The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes.[50] [51] The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting the moisture-laden southwest summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the majority of India's rainfall.[49] Four major climatic groupings predominate in India: tropical wet, tropical dry, subtropical humid, and montane.[52]

Biodiversity
Lying within the Indomalaya ecozone, with three hotspots located within its area, India displays significant biodiversity.[53] As one of the seventeen megadiverse countries, it is home to 7.6% of all mammalian, 12.6% of all avian, 6.2% of all reptilian, 4.4% of all amphibian, 11.7% of all fish, and 6.0% of all flowering plant species.[54] Many ecoregions, such as the shola forests, exhibit extremely high rates of endemism; overall, 33% of Indian plant species are endemic.[55] [56] India's forest cover ranges from the tropical rainforest of the Andaman Islands, Western Ghats, and northeastern India to the coniferous forest of the Himalaya. Between these extremes lie the sal-dominated moist deciduous forest of eastern India; the teak-dominated dry deciduous forest of central and southern India; and the babul-dominated thorn forest of the central Deccan and western Gangetic plain.[57] Important Indian trees include the medicinal neem, widely used in rural Indian herbal remedies. The pipal fig tree, shown on the seals of Mohenjo-daro, shaded Gautama Buddha as he sought enlightenment. According to latest report, less than 12% of India's landmass is covered by dense forests.[58] Many Indian species are descendants of taxa originating in Gondwana, from which the Indian plate separated a long time ago. Peninsular India's subsequent movement towards, and collision with, the Laurasian landmass set off a mass exchange of species. However, volcanism and climatic changes 20 million years ago caused the extinction of many endemic Indian forms.[59] Soon thereafter, mammals entered India from Asia through two zoogeographical passes on either side of the emerging Himalaya.[57] Consequently, among Indian species, only 12.6% of mammals and 4.5% of birds are endemic, contrasting with 45.8% of reptiles and 55.8% of amphibians.[54] Notable endemics are the Nilgiri leaf monkey and the brown and carmine Beddome's toad of the Western Ghats. India contains 172, or 2.9%, of IUCN-designated threatened species.[60] These include the Asiatic Lion, the Bengal Tiger, and the Indian white-rumped vulture, which suffered a near-extinction from ingesting the carrion of diclofenac-treated cattle. In recent decades, human encroachment has posed a threat to India's wildlife; in response, the system of national parks and protected areas, first established in 1935, was substantially expanded. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act[61] and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial habitat; in addition, the Forest Conservation Act was enacted in 1980.[62] Along with more than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries, India hosts thirteen biosphere reserves,[63] four of which are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; twenty-five wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention.[64]

India

Politics
India is the most populous democracy in the world.[65] [66] A parliamentary republic with a multi-party system,[67] it has six recognised national parties, including the Indian National Congress and Bhartiya Janata Party (BJP), and more than 40 regional parties.[68] The Congress is considered centre-left or "liberal" in the Indian political culture, and the BJP centre-right or "conservative". For most of the period between 1950when India first became a republicand the late 1980s, the Congress held a majority in the parliament. Since then, however, it has increasingly shared the political stage with the BJP,[69] as well as with ever more powerful regional parties which have often forced multi-party coalitions at the centre.[70]

The Secretariat Building, in New Delhi, houses key government offices.

In the first three general elections in the Republic of India, in 1951, 1957 and 1962, the Congress, led by Jawaharlal Nehru, won easy victories. In 1964, after Nehru's death, Lal Bahadur Shastri briefly became prime minister, and was succeeded after his own unexpected death, in 1966, by Indira Gandhi, who went on to lead the Congress to election victories in 1967 and 1971. Following public discontent with the state of emergency declared by Indira Gandhi in 1975, the Congress was voted out of power in 1977, and a new party, the Janata Party, which had opposed the emergency, voted in. Its government, however, proved short lived, lasting just over three years. Back in power in 1980, the Congress saw a change in leadership in 1984, when prime minister Indira Gandhi was assassinated and succeeded by her son Rajiv Gandhi, who won an easy victory in the general elections later that year. The Congress was voted out again in 1989, when a National Front coalition, led by the newly formed Janata Dal, in alliance with the Left Front, won the elections; that government too proved short lived, lasting just under two years.[71] Elections were held again in 1991 in which no party won an absolute majority, but the Congress, as the largest single party, was able to form a minority government, led by P.V. Narasimha Rao, and to complete a five-year term.[72] The two years after the general election of 1996 were years of political turmoil, with several short-lived alliances sharing power at the centre. The BJP formed a government briefly in 1996, followed by one of the United Front coalition, but without the support of either the BJP or the Congress. In 1998, the BJP was able to form a successful coalition, the National Democratic Alliance (NDA), which, under the leadership of Atal Bihari Vajpayee, became the first non-Congress government to complete a full five-year term.[73] In the 2004 Indian general elections, again no party won an absolute majority, but the Congress emerged as the largest single party, forming a successful coalition, the United Progressive Alliance (UPA), with the support of left-leaning parties and MPs opposed to the BJP. The UPA coalition was returned to power in the 2009 general election, the proportion of left-leaning parties within the coalition now significantly reduced.[74] That year, Manmohan Singh became the first prime minister since Jawaharlal Nehru in 1957 and 1962 to be re-elected to a second five-year term.[75]

Government

India

National Symbols of India Flag Emblem Anthem Song Animal Bird Aquatic animal Flower Tree Fruit Game Calendar River Tricolour

[76] [77]

Sarnath Lion Capital Jana Gana Mana Vande Mataram Royal Bengal Tiger Indian Peacock Dolphin Lotus Banyan Mango Field hockey Saka Ganges

India is a federation with a parliamentary system governed under the Constitution of India.[78] It is a constitutional republic and representative democracy, in which "majority rule is tempered by minority rights protected by law." Federalism in India defines the power distribution between the federal government and the states. The government is regulated by a checks and balances defined by Indian Constitution, which serves as the country's supreme legal document. The Constitution of India, which came into effect on 26 January 1950,[79] states in its preamble that India is a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic.[80] India's form of government, traditionally described as 'quasi-federal' with a strong centre and weak states,[81] has grown increasingly federal since the late 1990s as a result of political, economic and social changes.[82] The President of India is the head of state[83] elected indirectly by an electoral college[84] for a five-year term.[85] [86] The Prime Minister is the head of government and exercises most executive power.[83] Appointed by the President,[87] the prime minister is by convention supported by the party or political alliance holding the majority of seats in the lower house of parliament.[83] The executive branch of the Indian government consists of the president, the vice-president, and the council of ministers (the cabinet being its executive committee) headed by the prime minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of one of the houses of parliament. In the Indian parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature, with the prime minister and his council directly responsible to the lower house of the parliament.[88] The legislature of India is the bicameral parliament, operating under a Westminster-style parliamentary system, and comprising the upper house called the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the lower called the Lok Sabha (House of People).[89] The Rajya Sabha, a permanent body, has 245 members serving staggered six year terms.[90] Most are elected indirectly by the state and territorial legislatures, their numbers in proportion to their state's population.[90] All but two of the Lok Sabha's 545 members are directly elected by popular vote to represent individual constituencies for five-year terms.[90] The remaining two members are nominated by the president from among the Anglo-Indian community, in case the president decides that the community is not adequately represented.[90]

India

Judiciary
India has a unitary three-tier judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of India, 21 High Courts, and a large number of trial courts.[91] The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction over cases involving fundamental rights and over disputes between states and the Centre, and appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts.[92] It is judicially independent,[91] and has the power both to declare the law and to strike down Union or State laws which contravene the Constitution.[93] The Supreme Court is also the ultimate interpreter of the Constitution, it being one of its most important functions.[94]

Administrative divisions
India is a federation composed of 28 states and seven Union Territories.[95] All states, as well as the union territories of Puducherry and the National Capital Territory of Delhi, have elected legislatures and governments, both patterned on the Westminster model. The remaining five union territories are directly ruled by the Centre through appointed administrators. In 1956, under the States Reorganisation Act, states were reorganised on a linguistic basis.[96] Since then, their structure has remained largely unchanged. Each state or union territory is further divided into administrative districts.[97] The districts in turn are further divided into tehsils and ultimately into villages. States:

The 28 states and 7 union territories of India

Andhra Pradesh Assam Bihar Chhattisgarh Goa Gujarat

Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jharkhand Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh

Maharashtra Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Orissa Punjab

Rajasthan Sikkim Tamil Nadu Tripura Uttar Pradesh Uttarakhand West Bengal

Arunachal Pradesh

Jammu and Kashmir

Union Territories:

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10

Andaman and Nicobar Islands Chandigarh Dadra and Nagar Haveli Daman and Diu Lakshadweep National Capital Territory of Delhi Puducherry

Foreign relations
Since its independence in 1947, India has maintained cordial relations with most nations. In the 1950s, it strongly supported the independence of European colonies in Africa and Asia and played a pioneering role in the Non-Aligned Movement.[99] [100] In the late 1980s, India made two brief military interventions at the invitation of neighbouring countries, one by the Indian Peace Keeping Force in Sri Lanka and the other, Operation Cactus, in the Maldives. However, India has had a tense relationship with neighbouring Pakistan and the two countries India and Russia share an extensive economic, have gone to war four times, in 1947, 1965, 1971 and 1999. The [98] defence and technological relationship. Kashmir dispute was the predominant cause of these wars, excepting Shown here is PM Manmohan Singh with that of 1971, which followed the civil unrest in erstwhile East President Dmitry Medvedev at the 34th G8 Summit. Pakistan.[101] After the India-China War of 1962 and the 1965 war with Pakistan, India proceeded to develop close military and economic ties with the Soviet Union; by late 1960s, the Soviet Union had emerged as India's largest arms supplier.[102] Today, in addition to the continuing strategic relations with Russia, India has wide ranging defence relations with Israel and France. In recent years, India has played an influential role in the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and the World Trade Organization.[103] The nation has provided 55,000 military and police personnel to serve in thirty-five UN peacekeeping operations across four continents.[104] India is also an active participant in various multilateral forums, most notably the East Asia Summit and the G8+5.[105] [106] In the economic sphere, India has close relationships with the developing nations of South America, Asia and Africa. For about a decade now, India has also pursued a "Look East" policy which has helped it strengthen its partnerships with the ASEAN nations, Japan and South Korea on a wide range of issues, but especially economic investment and regional security.[107] [108] Recently, India has also increased its economic, strategic and military cooperation with the United States and the European Union.[109] In 2008, a civilian nuclear agreement was signed between India and the United States. Although India possessed nuclear weapons at the time and was not party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), it received waivers from the International Atomic Energy Agency and the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG), ending earlier restrictions on India's nuclear technology and commerce. As a consequence, India has become the world's sixth de facto nuclear weapons state.[110] Following the NSG waiver, India was also able to sign civilian nuclear energy cooperation agreements with other nations, including Russia,[111] France,[112] the United Kingdom,[113] and Canada.[114]

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Military
India's military, comprising the Indian Army, Navy, Air Force, and auxiliary forces such as the Paramilitary Forces, the Coast Guard, and the Strategic Forces Command, is the third largest in the world.[31] The President of India is the supreme commander of the Indian Armed Forces. The official Indian defence budget for 2011 stands at US$36.03 billion (or 1.83% of GDP).[116] According to a 2008 SIPRI report, India's annual military expenditure in terms of purchasing power stood at US$72.7 billion,[117] India has also become the world's Jointly developed by Sukhoi and Hindustan largest arms importer, receiving 9% of all international arms transfers Aeronautics, the Su-30 MKI "Flanker-H" is the [118] during the period from 20062010. Defence contractors, such as Indian Air Force's prime air superiority [115] the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and fighter. Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL), oversee indigenous development of sophisticated arms and military equipment, including ballistic missiles, fighter aircraft and main battle tanks, in order to reduce India's dependence on foreign imports. China's nuclear test of 1964 as well as its repeated threats to intervene in support of Pakistan in the 1965 war convinced India to develop nuclear weapons of its own.[119] India conducted its first nuclear weapons test in 1974 and further underground testing in 1998. Despite criticism and military sanctions, India has signed neither the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) nor the NPT, considering both to be flawed and discriminatory.[120] India maintains a "no first use" nuclear policy and is developing a nuclear triad capability as a part of its "minimum credible deterrence" doctrine.[121] [122] It is also developing a ballistic missile defence shield and, in collaboration with Russia, a fifth generation fighter jet.[123] [124] Other major indigenous military development projects include Vikrant class aircraft carriers and Arihant class nuclear submarines.[125] [126]

Economy
According to the International Monetary Fund, India's nominal GDP stands at US$1.53 trillion, making it the tenth-largest economy in the world.[127] With purchasing power parity (PPP), India's economy is the fourth largest in the world at US$4.06 trillion.[128] With its average annual GDP growing at 5.8% for the past two decades, India is also one of the fastest growing economies in the world.[129] However, India's per capita income is US$1,000,[130] and the country ranks 138th in nominal GDP per capita and 129th in GDP per capita at PPP among all countries of the world.[127] Until 1991, all Indian governments followed protectionist policies that were influenced by socialist economics. Widespread state intervention and regulation[131] caused the Indian economy to be largely closed to the outside world. After an acute balance of payments crisis in 1991, the nation liberalised its economy and has since continued to move towards a free-market system,[132] [133] emphasizing both foreign trade and investment.[134] Consequently, India's economic model is now being described overall as capitalist.[133]

The Bombay Stock Exchange, in Mumbai, is Asia's oldest and India's largest stock exchange by market capitalisation.

With 467 million workers, India has the world's second largest labour force.[135] The service sector makes up 54% of the GDP, the agricultural sector 28%, and the industrial sector 18%. Major agricultural products include rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, and potatoes.[95] Major industries include textiles, telecommunications, chemicals, food processing, steel, transport equipment, cement, mining, petroleum, machinery and software.[95] By

India 2006, India's external trade had reached a relatively moderate proportion of GDP at 24%, up from 6% in 1985.[132] In 2008, India's share of world trade was 1.68%;[136] India was the world's fifteenth largest importer in 2009, and the eighteenth largest exporter.[137] Major exports include petroleum products, textile goods, gems and jewelry, software, engineering goods, chemicals, and leather manufactures.[95] Major imports include crude oil, machinery, gems, fertiliser, chemicals.[95] Averaging an economic growth rate of 7.5% during the last few years,[132] India has more than doubled its hourly wage rates during the last decade.[140] Moreover, since 1985, India has moved 431 million of its citizens out of poverty, and by 2030 India's middle class numbers will grow to more than 580 million.[141] Although ranking 51st in global competitiveness, India ranks 16th in financial market sophistication, 24th in the banking sector, 27th in business sophistication and 30th in innovation, ahead of several advanced economies.[142] With seven of the world's top 15 technology outsourcing companies based in India, the country is viewed as the [138] Tata Nano, the world's cheapest car. India is second most favourable outsourcing destination after the United the world's number one producer of basic [139] States.[143] India's consumer market, currently the world's thirteenth cars. largest, is expected to become fifth largest by 2030.[141] Its telecommunication industry, the world's fastest growing, added 227 million subscribers during 201011 [144] its automobile industry, the world's second-fastest growing, increased domestic sales by 26% during 200910,[145] and exports by 36% during 200809.[146] Despite impressive economic growth during recent decades, India continues to face a number of socio-economic challenges. India contains the largest concentration of people living below the World Bank's international poverty line of $1.25/day,[147] the proportion having decreased from 60% in 1981 to 42% in 2005.[148] Half of the children in India are underweight[149] and 46% of children under the age of three suffer from malnutrition.[147] Since 1991, economic inequality between India's states has consistently grown: the per capita net state domestic product of the richest states in 2007 was 3.2 times that of the poorest.[150] Corruption in India is perceived to have increased significantly,[151] with one report estimating the illegal capital flows since independence to be US$462 billion.[152] Driven by consistent growth, India's nominal GDP per capita has steadily increased from U$463 in 2001 to U$1,176 by 2010, yet it remains lower than those of other Asian developing countries such as Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, and Iran.[153] According to a 2011 PwC report, India's GDP at purchasing power parity will overtake that of Japan during 2011 itself and that of the United States by 2045.[154] Moreover, during the next four decades, India's economy is expected to grow at an average of 8%, making the nation potentially the world's fastest growing major economy until 2050.[154] The report also highlights some of the key factors behind high economic growth a young and rapidly growing working age population; the growth of the manufacturing sector due to rising levels of education and engineering skills; and sustained growth of the consumer market due to a rapidly growing middle class.[154] However, the World Bank cautions that for India to achieve its economic potential, it must continue to focus on public sector reform, transport infrastructure, agricultural and rural development, removal of labor regulations, education, energy security, and public health and nutrition.[155]

12

India

13

Demographics
With 1,210,193,422 citizens reported in the 2011 provisional Census,[156] India is the world's second most populous country. India's population grew at 1.76% per annum during the last decade,[8] down from 2.201% per annum in the previous decade.[31] The human sex ratio in India, according to the 2011 census, is 940 females per 1,000 males,[8] the lowest since independence. India's median age was 24.9 in the 2001 census.[31] Medical advances of the last 50 years, as well increased agricultural productivity brought about by the "green revolution" have caused India's population to grow rapidly.[157] [158] The percentage of Indian population living in urban areas has grown as well, increasing by 31.2% from 1991 to 2001.[159] Despite this, in 2001, over 70% of India's population continued to live in rural areas.[160] [161] According to the 2001 census, there are twenty seven million-plus cities in the country,[159] with Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata being the largest.

Population density map of India.

India's overall literacy rate in 2011 is 74.04%, its female literacy rate standing at 65.46% and its male at 82.14%.[162] The state of Kerala has the highest literacy rate, whereas Bihar has the lowest.[163] [164] India continues to face several public health-related challenges.[165] [166] According to the World Health Organization, 900,000 Indians die each year from drinking contaminated water or breathing polluted air.[167] There are about 60 physicians per 100,000 people in India.[168] The Indian Constitution recognises 212 scheduled tribal groups which together constitute about 7.5% of the country's population.[169] The 2001 census reported the religion in India with the largest number of followers was Hinduism, with over 800 million (80.5%) of the population recording it as their religion. Other religious groups include Muslims (13.4%), Christians (2.3%), Sikhs (1.9%), Buddhists (0.8%), Jains (0.4%), Jews, Zoroastrians and Bah's.[170] India has the world's third-largest Muslim population and the largest Muslim population for a non-Muslim majority country. India is home to two major linguistic families: Indo-Aryan (spoken by about 74% of the population) and Dravidian (spoken by about 24%). Other languages spoken in India come from the Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman linguistic families. Neither the Constitution of India, nor any Indian law defines any national language.[171] Hindi, with the largest number of speakers,[172] is the official language of the union.[173] English is used extensively in business and administration and has the status of a 'subsidiary official language;'[174] it is also important in education, especially as a medium of higher education. In addition, every state and union territory has its own official languages, and the constitution also recognises in particular 21 "scheduled languages".

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Culture
India's culture is marked by a high degree of syncretism[176] and cultural pluralism.[177] India's cultural tradition dates back to 8000 BCE[178] and has a continuously recorded history for over 2,500 years.[179] With its roots based in the Indus Valley Tradition, the Indian culture took a distinctive shape during the 11th century BCE Vedic age which laid the foundation of Hindu philosophy, mythology, literary tradition and beliefs and practices, such as dhrma, krma, yga and moka.[180] It has managed to preserve established traditions while absorbing new customs, traditions, and ideas from invaders and immigrants and spreading its cultural influence to other parts of Asia, mainly South East and East Asia.

Indian religions form one of the most defining aspects of Indian culture.[181] Major dhrmic religions which were founded in India include Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. Considered to be a [182] successor to the ancient Vedic religion, Hinduism has been shaped by the various schools of thoughts based on the Upanishads,[183] the Yoga Sutras and the Bhakti movement.[181] Buddhism originated in India in 5th century BCE and prominent early Buddhist schools, such as Theravda and Mahyna, gained dominance during the Maurya Empire.[181] Though Buddhism entered a period of gradual decline in India 5th century CE onwards,[184] it played an influential role in shaping Indian philosophy and thought.[181] Indian architecture is one area that represents the diversity of Indian culture. Much of it, including notable monuments such as the Taj Mahal and other examples of Mughal architecture and South Indian architecture, comprises a blend of ancient and varied local traditions from several parts of the country and abroad. Vernacular architecture also displays notable regional variation. Considered to be the earliest and foremost "monument" of Indian literature, the Vedic or Sanskrit literature was developed from 1,400 BCE to 1,200 AD.[185] [186] Prominent Indian literary works of the classical era include epics such as Mahbhrata and Ramayana, dramas such as the Abhijnakuntalam (The Recognition of akuntal), and poetry such as the Mahkvya.[187] Developed between 600 BCE and 300 AD, the Sangam literature consists 2,381 poems and is regarded as a predecessor of Tamil literature.[188] [189] [190] From 7th century AD to 18th century AD, India's literary traditions went through a period of drastic change because of the emergence of devotional poets such as Kabr, Tulsds and Guru Nnak. This period was characterised by varied and wide spectrum of thought and expression and as a consequence, medieval Indian literary works differed significantly from classical traditions.[191] In the 19th century, Indian writers took new interest in social questions and psychological descriptions. During the 20th century, Indian literature was heavily influenced by the works of universally acclaimed Bengali poet and novelist Rabindranath Tagore.[192]

The Taj Mahal in Agra was built by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan as a memorial to his deceased wife Mumtaz Mahal. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site considered to be of [175] "outstanding universal value".

Society and traditions

Traditional Indian society is defined by relatively strict social hierarchy. The Indian caste system describes the social stratification and social restrictions in the Indian subcontinent, in which social classes are defined by thousands of endogamous hereditary groups, often termed as jtis or castes.[193] Several influential social reform movements, such as the Bramho Shmaj, the Arya Samja and the Ramakrishna Mission, have played a pivotal role in the emancipation of Dalits (or "untouchables") and other lower-caste communities in India.[194] However, the majority of Dalits continue to live in segregation and are often persecuted and discriminated against.[195] Traditional Indian family values are highly respected, and multi-generational patriarchal joint families have been the norm, although nuclear families are becoming common in urban areas.[196] An overwhelming majority of Indians

India have their marriages arranged by their parents and other respected family members, with the consent of the bride and groom.[197] Marriage is thought to be for life,[197] and the divorce rate is extremely low.[198] Child marriage is still a common practice, more so in rural India, with about half of women in India marrying before the legal age of 18.[199]
[200]

15

Many Indian festivals are religious in origin, although several are celebrated irrespective of caste and creed. Some popular festivals are Diwali, Ganesh Chaturthi, Ugadi, Thai Pongal, Holi, Onam, Vijayadashami, Durga Puja, Eid ul-Fitr, Bakr-Id, Christmas, Buddha Jayanti, Moharram and Vaisakhi.[201] [202] India has three national holidays which are observed in all states and union territories Republic Day, Independence Day and Gandhi Jayanti. Other sets of holidays, varying between nine and twelve, are officially observed in individual states. Religious practices are an integral part of everyday life and are a very public affair. Traditional Indian dress varies across the regions in its colours and styles and depends on various factors, including climate. Popular styles of dress include draped garments such as sari for women and dhoti or lungi for men; in addition, stitched clothes such as salwar kameez for women and kurta-pyjama and European-style trousers and shirts for men, are also popular.

Music, dance, theatre and cinema

Indian music covers a wide range of traditions and regional styles. Classical music largely encompasses the two genres North Indian Hindustani, South Indian Carnatic traditions and their various offshoots in the form of regional folk music. Regionalised forms of popular music include filmi and folk music; the syncretic tradition of the bauls is a well-known form of the latter. Indian dance too has diverse folk and classical forms. Among the well-known folk dances are the bhangra of the Punjab, the bihu of Assam, the chhau of West Bengal, Jharkhand , sambalpuri of Orissa , the ghoomar of Rajasthan and the Lavani of Maharashtra. Eight dance forms, many with narrative forms and mythological elements, have been accorded classical dance status by India's National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama. These are: bharatanatyam of the state of Tamil Nadu, kathak of Uttar Pradesh, kathakali and mohiniyattam of Kerala, kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh, manipuri of Manipur, odissi of Orissa and the sattriya of Assam.[203] Theatre in India often incorporates music, dance, and improvised or written dialogue.[204] Often based on Hindu mythology, but also borrowing from medieval romances, and news of social and political events, Indian theatre includes the bhavai of state of Gujarat, the jatra of West Bengal, the nautanki and ramlila of North India, the tamasha of Maharashtra, the burrakatha of Andhra Pradesh, the terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu, and the yakshagana of Karnataka.[205] The Indian film industry is the largest in the world.[206] Bollywood, based in Mumbai, makes commercial Hindi films and is the most prolific film industry in the world.[207] Established traditions also exist in Assamese, Bengali, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya, Tamil, and Telugu language cinemas.[208]

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Cuisine
Indian cuisine is characterised by a wide variety of regional styles and sophisticated use of herbs and spices. The staple foods in the region are rice (especially in the south and the east), wheat (predominantly in the north)[209] and lentils.[210] Spices, such as black pepper which are now consumed world wide, are originally native to the Indian subcontinent. Chili pepper, which was introduced by the Portuguese, is also widely used in Indian cuisine.[211]

Sport
India's official national sport is field hockey, administered by Hockey India. The Indian hockey team won the 1975 Hockey World Cup and 8 gold, 1 silver and 2 bronze medals at the Olympic games, making it one of the world's most successful national hockey teams ever. Cricket, however, is by far the most popular sport;[212] the India cricket team won the 1983 and the 2011 World Cups, 2007 ICC World Twenty20, and shared the 2002 ICC Champions Trophy with Sri Lanka. Cricket in India is administered by the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI) and domestic competitions include the Ranji Trophy, the Duleep Trophy, the Deodhar Trophy, the Irani Trophy and the NKP Salve Challenger Trophy. In addition, BCCI conducts the Indian Premier League, a Twenty20 competition.

A 2008 Indian Premier League Twenty20 cricket match being played between the Chennai Super Kings and Kolkata Knight Riders

India is home to several traditional sports which originated in the country and continue to remain fairly popular. These include kabaddi, kho kho, pehlwani and gilli-danda. Some of the earliest forms of Asian martial arts, such as Kalarippayattu, Yuddha, Silambam and Varma Kalai, originated in India. The Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna and the Arjuna Award are India's highest awards for achievements in sports, while the Dronacharya Award is awarded for excellence in coaching. Chess, commonly held to have originated in India, is regaining widespread popularity with the rise in the number of Indian Grandmasters.[213] Tennis has also become increasingly popular, owing to the victories of the India Davis Cup team and the success of Indian tennis players.[214] India has a strong presence in shooting sports, winning several medals at the Olympics, the World Shooting Championships and the Commonwealth Games.[215] [216] Other sports in which Indian sports-persons have won numerous awards or medals at international sporting events include badminton,[217] boxing[218] and wrestling.[219] [220] Football is a popular sport in northeastern India, West Bengal, Goa, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.[221] India has hosted or co-hosted several international sporting events, such as the 1951 and the 1982 Asian Games, the 1987, 1996 and 2011 Cricket World Cups, the 2003 Afro-Asian Games, the 2006 ICC Champions Trophy, the 2010 Hockey World Cup and the 2010 Commonwealth Games. Major international sporting events annually held in India include the Chennai Open, Mumbai Marathon, Delhi Half Marathon and the Indian Masters. It will also host the first Indian Grand Prix in 2011 in Greater Noida.[222]

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Early classical Tamil literature (c. 100 BCAD 250) consists of the Eight Anthologies (Euttokai), the Ten Long Poems (Pattuppu), and a grammar called the Tolkppiyam or the 'Old Composition.'... The literature of classical Tamil later came to be known as Cankam (pronounced Sangam) literature. (pp. ixx.)" [191] Kumar Das, Sisir. A history of Indian literature, 500-1399: from courtly to the popular. Sahitya Akademi, 2006. ISSN8126021713, 9788126021710.

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Kothari, Sunil. 2007. Sattriya dance of the celibate monks of Assam, India (http:/ / www. rhul. ac. uk/ Drama/ News-and-Events/ Events_archive/ KothariLecture. html). Royal Holloway College, University of London. [204] Lal 1998 [205] (Karanth 1997, p.26) Quote: "The Yakagna folk-theatre is no isolated theatrical form in India. We have a number of such theatrical traditions all around Karnataka... In far off Assam we have similar plays going on by the name of Ankia Nat, in neighouring Bengal we have the very popular Jatra plays. Maharashtra has Tamasa. (p. 26.) [206] "Country profile: India" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ south_asia/ country_profiles/ 1154019. stm). BBC. 19 August 2009. . Retrieved 2007. [207] Dissanayake & Gokulsing 2004 [208] Rajadhyaksha & Willemen (editors) 1999 [209] Delphine, Roger, "The History and Culture of Food in Asia", in Kiple & Kriemhild 2000, pp.11401151. [210] Lentil: An Ancient Crop for Modern Times (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=VfT6hZHpXPkC& pg=PA174& dq=lentils+ staple+ india& hl=fr& ei=IQEzTbKDLoyqhAfI2YDPCw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=lentils staple india& f=false). . "But it has been red lentils which have 'fed the masses' particularly in the Indian subcontinent. Lentils are a staple food in many regions" [211] Achaya 1994, Achaya 1997 [212] Shores, Lori. Teens in India. Compass Point Books, 2007. ISBN0756520630, 9780756520632. [213] "Anand crowned World champion" (http:/ / www. rediff. com/ sports/ 2008/ oct/ 29anand. htm). Rediff. 29 October 2008. . Retrieved 29 October 2008. [214] "India Aims for Center Court" (http:/ / online. wsj. com/ article/ SB10001424052970203440104574406704026883502. html). WSJ. September 11, 2009. . Retrieved 29 September 2010. [215] "Shooting is India's No. 1 sport: Gagan" (http:/ / www. deccanherald. com/ content/ 102196/ shooting-indias-no-1-sport. html). Deccan Herald. 5 October 2010. . Retrieved 5 October 2010. [216] "Sawant shoots historic gold at World Championships" (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ sports/ more-sports/ shooting/ Sawant-shoots-historic-gold-at-World-Championships/ articleshow/ 6274795. cms). TOI. Aug 9, 2010. . Retrieved 5 October 2010. [217] "Saina Nehwal: India's badminton star and 'new woman'" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ news/ world-south-asia-10725584). BBC. 1 August 2010. . Retrieved 5 October 2010. [218] "Is boxing the new cricket?" (http:/ / www. livemint. com/ 2010/ 09/ 24211250/ Is-boxing-the-new-cricket. html). Live Mint. Sep 24 2010. . Retrieved 5 October 2010. [219] "India makes clean sweep in Greco-Roman wrestling" (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ cwgarticleshow/ 6691936. cms). TOI. Oct 5, 2010. . Retrieved 5 October 2010. [220] Xavier, Leslie (Sep 12, 2010). "Sushil Kumar wins gold in World Wrestling Championship" (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ sports/ more-sports/ wrestling/ Sushil-Kumar-wins-gold-in-World-Wrestling-Championship/ articleshow/ 6542488. cms). TOI. . Retrieved 5 October 2010. [221] Majumdar & Bandyopadhyay 2006, pp.15. [222] "Indian Grand Prix" (http:/ / www. amritt. com/ Indian-Grand-Prix. html). . Retrieved April 23, 2011.

23

History Brown, Judith M. (1994). Modern India: The Origins of an Asian Democracy (http://www.oup.com/uk/ catalogue/?ci=9780198731139). Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. xiii, 474. ISBN0-19-873113-2.

India Guha, Ramchandra (2007). India after Gandhi The History of the World's Largest Democracy. 1st edition. Picador. xxvii, 900. ISBN978-0-330-39610-3. Kulke, Hermann; Dietmar Rothermund (2004). A History of India (http://www.amazon.com/ History-India-Hermann-Kulke/dp/0415329205/). 4th edition. Routledge. xii, 448. ISBN0-415-32920-5. Metcalf, Barbara; Thomas R. Metcalf (2006). A Concise History of Modern India (Cambridge Concise Histories) (http://www.amazon.com/Concise-History-Modern-Cambridge-Histories/dp/0521682258/). Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. xxxiii, 372. ISBN0-521-68225-8. Spear, Percival (1990). A History of India (http://www.amazon.com/History-India-Vol-2/dp/0140138366/ ref=pd_ybh_a_6/104-7029728-9591925). 2. New Delhi and London: Penguin Books. p.298. ISBN0-14-013836-6. Stein, Burton (2001). A History of India (http://www.amazon.com/History-India-World/dp/0631205462/ ref=pd_ybh_a_7/104-7029728-9591925). New Delhi and Oxford: Oxford University Press. xiv, 432. ISBN0-19-565446-3. Thapar, Romila (1990). A History of India (http://www.amazon.com/History-India-Penguin/dp/0140138358/ ). 1. New Delhi and London: Penguin Books. p.384. ISBN0-14-013835-8. Wolpert, Stanley (2003). A New History of India (http://www.amazon.com/ New-History-India-Stanley-Wolpert/dp/0195166787/). Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. p.544. ISBN0-19-516678-7. Geography Dikshit, K.R.; Joseph E. Schwartzberg (2007). "India: The Land" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/ topic/285248/India). Encyclopdia Britannica. pp.129. Retrieved 29 September 2007. Government of India (2007). India Yearbook 2007. Publications Division, Ministry of Information & Broadcasting. ISBN81-230-1423-6. Heitzman, J.; R.L. Worden (1996). India: A Country Study. Library of Congress (Area Handbook Series). ISBN0-8444-0833-6. Posey, C.A (1994). The Living Earth Book of Wind and Weather. Reader's Digest Association. ISBN0-89577-625-1. Flora and fauna Ali, Salim; Ripley, S. Dillon (1995). A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Mumbai: Bombay Natural History Society and Oxford University Press. pp. 183, 106 colour plates by John Henry Dick. ISBN0-19-563732-1 Blatter, E.; Millard, Walter S. (1997). Some Beautiful Indian Trees. Mumbai: Bombay Natural History Society and Oxford University Press. pp. xvii, 165, 30 colour plates. ISBN0-19-562162-X Israel, Samuel; Sinclair (editors), Toby (2001). Indian Wildlife. Discovery Channel and APA Publications.. ISBN981-234-555-8 Prater, S. H. (1971). The book of Indian Animals. Mumbai: Bombay Natural History Society and Oxford University Press. pp. xxiii, 324, 28 colour plates by Paul Barruel.. ISBN0-19-562169-7 Rangarajan, Mahesh (editor) (1999). Oxford Anthology of Indian Wildlife: Volume 1, Hunting and Shooting. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. pp. xi, 439. ISBN0-19-564592-8 Rangarajan, Mahesh (editor) (1999). Oxford Anthology of Indian Wildlife: Volume 2, Watching and Conserving. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. pp. xi, 303. ISBN0-19-564593-6 Tritsch, Mark F. (2001). Wildlife of India. London: Harper Collins Publishers. p. 192. ISBN0-00-711062-6 Culture Dissanayake, Wimal K.; Gokulsing, Moti (2004). Indian Popular Cinema: A Narrative of Cultural Change (http:/ /books.google.com/?id=_plssuFIar8C&dq). Trentham Books. p.161. ISBN1-85856-329-1

24

India Johnson, W. J. (translator and editor) (1998). The Sauptikaparvan of the Mahabharata: The Massacre at Night (http://www.oup.com/uk/catalogue/?ci=9780192823618). Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press (Oxford World's Classics). p.192. ISBN978-0-19-282361-8 Klidsa; Johnson (editor), W. J. (2001). The Recognition of akuntal: A Play in Seven Acts (http://www.oup. com/uk/catalogue/?ci=9780192839114). Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press (Oxford World's Classics). p.192. ISBN978-0-19-283911-4 Karanth, K. Shivarama (1997). Yakagna. (Forward by H. Y. Sharada Prasad). Abhinav Publications. p.252. ISBN81-7017-357-4 Kiple, Kenneth F.; Ornelas, Kriemhild Cone, eds (2000). The Cambridge World History of Food. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-40216-6 Lal, Ananda (1998). Oxford Companion to Indian Theatre (http://www.amazon.com/ Oxford-Companion-Indian-Theatre/dp/0195644468/). Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. p.600. ISBN0-19-564446-8 MacDonell, Arthur Anthony (2004). A History of Sanskrit Literature. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN1-4179-0619-7 Majumdar, Boria; Bandyopadhyay, Kausik (2006). A Social History Of Indian Football: Striving To Score. Routledge. ISBN0-415-34835-8 Massey, Reginald (2006). India's Dances. Abhinav Publications. ISBN81-7017-434-1 Ramanujan, A. K. (1985). Poems of Love and War: From the Eight Anthologies and the Ten Long Poems of Classical Tamil (http://books.google.com/?id=nIybE0HRvdQC&dq). New York: Columbia University Press. p.329. ISBN0-231-05107-7 Rajadhyaksha, Ashish; Willemen (editors), Paul (1999). Encyclopedia of Indian Cinema, 2nd revised edition (http://web.archive.org/web/20070806090314/http://ucpress.edu/books/bfi/pages/PROD0008.html). University of California Press and British Film Institute. p.652. ISBN978-0-85170-669-6. Archived from the original (http://www.ucpress.edu/books/bfi/pages/PROD0008.html) on 6 August 2007 Vilanilam, John V. (2005). Mass Communication in India: A Sociological Perspective. Sage Publications. ISBN0-7619-3372-7

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External links
Government of India (http://india.gov.in/) Official government portal (in English) India (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in.html) entry at The World Factbook India (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/india.htm) at UCB Libraries GovPubs India (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/India/) at the Open Directory Project Wikimedia Atlas of India India travel guide from Wikitravel kbd:

26

Etymology
Names of India

The geographic region containing the Indian subcontinent.

India

This article is part of the series: India

The name India () may refer to either the Indian Subcontinent, the contemporary Republic of India or the region of Greater India. The term is derived from the name of the Sindhu (Indus River) and has been in use in Greek since Herodotus (4th century BC). The term appears in Old English in the 9th century, and again in Modern English since the 17th century. The Republic of India has three principal short names, in both official and popular English usage, each of which is historically significant. All originally designated a single entity comprising all the modern nations of the Indian subcontinent. These names are India and Bharat.[1] The first Article of the Constitution of India states that "India, that is Bharat, shall be a union of states." Thus, India and Bharat are equally official short names for the Republic of India, Indians commonly refer to their country as Bharat, India depending on the context and language of conversation.

Names of India

27

India
India is the most widely used name (internationally and locally) for the Republic of India. The English term is from Greek (Inda), via Latin India. Iinda in Byzantine (Koine Greek) ethnography denotes the region beyond the Indus () river, since Herodotus (5th century BC) , h Indik chr; "Indian land", , Indos, "an Indian", from Avestan Hindu (referring to Sindh, and listed as a conquered territory by Darius I in the Persepolis terrace inscription). The name is derived ultimately from Sindhu, the Sanskrit name of the river, but also meaning "river" generically. Latin India is used by Lucian (2nd century). The name India was known in Old English, and was used in King Alfred's translation of Orosius. In Middle English, the name was, under French influence, replaced by Ynde or Inde, which entered Early Modern English as Indie. The name India then came back to English usage from the 17th century onwards, and may be due to the influence of Latin, or Spanish or Portuguese.[2] Sanskrit indu "drop (of Soma)", also a term for the Moon, is unrelated, but has sometimes been erroneously connected, listed by, among others, Colonel James Todd in his Annals of Rajputana. Todd describes ancient India as under control of tribes claiming descent from the Moon, or "Indu" (referring to Chandravanshi Rajputs)

Bharat
The name Bhrat has been used as a self-ascribed name by people of the Indian Subcontinent and the Republic of India.[3] Bhrat along with India is the official English name of the country, Bhrata is the official Sanskrit name of the country, Bhrata Gaarjya, and the name is derived from the ancient Indian texts, the Puranas, which refers to the land that comprises India as Bharata varam, and uses this term to distinguish it from other varas or continents.[4] For example, the Vayu Puranas says he who conquers the whole of Bharata-varsa is celebrated as a samrt (Vayu Purana 45, 86).[4] However in some puranas, the term 'Bharate' refers to the whole Earth as Emperor Bharata is said to have ruled the whole Earth. Until the death of Maharaja Parikshit, the last formidable emperor of the Kuru dynasty, the known world was known as Bharata varsha. According to the most popular theory the name Bhrata is the vriddhi of Bharata, son of Jain Tirthankar Rishabdev who became the first emperor of the unified Greater India. The Sanskrit word bhrata is a vrddhi derivation of bharata, which was originally an epithet of Agni. The term is a verbal noun of the Sanskrit root bhr-, "to bear / to carry", with a literal meaning of "to be maintained" (of fire). The root bhr is cognate with the English verb to bear and Latin fer. This term also means "one who is engaged in search for knowledge". According to the Puranas, this country is known as Bharatavasha after the king Bharata Chakravarti. This has been mentioned in Vishnu Purana (2,1,31), Vayu Purana,(33,52), Linga Purana(1,47,23), Brahmanda Purana (14,5,62), Agni Purana ( 107,11-12), Skanda Purana ,Khanda (37,57) and Markandaya Purana (50,41) it is clearly stated that this country is known as Bharata Varsha. Vishnu Purna mentions: , Rishabha was born to Marudevi, Bharata was born to Rishabh, Bharatvarsha (India) arose from Bharata, and Sumati arose from Bharata Vishnu Purana (2,1,31) : ( , ,,) This country is known as Bharatavarsha since the times the father entrusted the kingdom to the son Bharata and he himself went to the forest for ascetic practices

Names of India Vishnu Purana (2,1,32) The Bhratas were an Aryan tribe mentioned in the Rigveda, notably participating in the Battle of the Ten Kings. The realm of Bharata is known as Bhartavara in the Mahabhrata (the core portion of which is itself known as Bhrata) and later texts. The term varsa means a division of the earth, or a continent. [5] A version of the Bagavatha Purana says, the Name Bharatha is after Jata Bharatha who appears in the fifth canto of the Bagavatha. From: Vishnu Purana (2.3.1)[6][7] uttara yatsamudrasya himdrecaiva dakiam vara tadbhrata nma bhrat yatra santati "The country (varam) that lies north of the ocean and south of the snowy mountains is called Bhratam; there dwell the descendants of Bharata." The term in Classical Sanskrit literature is taken to comprise the territory of Republic of India, Pakistan, Nepal and Bangladesh, as well as portions of eastern Afghanistan. This corresponds to the approximate extent of the historical Maurya Empire under emperors Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka the Great (4th to 3rd centuries BC). Later political entities unifying approximately the same region are the Mughal Empire (17th century), the Maratha Empire (18th century) , and the British Raj (19th to 20th centuries). From the perspective of the Malayans, Indian traders were the most common ones coming from "the West", therefore the word was absorbed into the Malay language. In the Malay language, "Barat" literally means "West". For Middle Eastern traders, particularly Arabs and Turks, spices were the most common materials coming from the East. Hence, the term "Bharata" was borrowed first into Arabic as bahart, meaning "spices;" this migrated into the Turkish "baharat" with the same meaning.

28

Hindustan and Hind

The name Hind is derived from the Iranian equivalent of Indo-Aryan Sindh. The Avestan -stn means country or land (cognate to Sanskrit sthna "place, land"). India was called Hindustn in Persian although the term Hind is in current use. al-Hind is the term in the Arabic language (e.g. in the 11th century Tarikh Al-Hind "history of India"). It also occurs intermittently in usage within India, such as in the phrase Jai Hind. The terms Hind and Hindustn were current in Persian and Arabic from the 11th century Islamic conquests: the rulers in the Sultanate and Mughal periods called their Indian dominion, centred around Delhi, Hindustan. Hindustn, as is the term entered the English language in the 17th century. In the 19th century, the term as used in English referred to the northern region of India between the Indus and Brahmaputra rivers and between the Himalayas and the Vindhyas in particular, hence the term Hindustani for the Hindi-Urdu language. Hindustan was in use synonymously with India during the British Raj. Hind (Hindi: ) remains in use in Hindi. In contemporary Persian language and Urdu language, the term Hindustan has come to mean the Republic of India. The same is the case with Arabic language, where al-Hind is the name of the Republic of India. Today, Hindustn does not stand as the Official name for India. Although some countries in Middle East (Gulf) still refer with one of the old names of India i.e. Hind or al-Hind.

Names of India

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Tenjiku
Tenjiku () is the Japanese word commonly used in reference to pre-modern India. Tian, the root word for the Japanese kanji, means "heaven", while, jiku, means: "the center of", or 'primary concentration of'. Therefore the word is known to mean: "the heavenly center of the world" or "the spiritual axis (center)", a reference to the Indian origins of Buddhism.

Jambudvipa
There is a story in Jain mythology and in Hindu and Buddhist texts as well that describe Jambudvipa (also referred to as Jampudvipa [8]) being one of the seven islands/continents of the world. It is possible that perhaps "island" is used to refer to India because India in one time was a separate Indian Plate. Perhaps the phrase is used in the manner that the land of India is still an island in between the Indus River and the rest of the Asian Plate. Jambudvipa is also addressed in Buddhist mythology and in some he is addresses as the ruler over entire Jambudvipa and in one, "He reigned over a quarter of the land of Jambudvipa..."[9]

Some historical definitions

Some historical definitions prior to 1500 are presented below [10]
Year Name Source Definition

c. 486 BCE

Hidush

Naksh-i-Rustam "Says Darius the King: By the grace of Ormazd these (are) the countries which I have acquired besides Persia. I have established my power over them. They have brought tribute to me. That which has been said to them by me they have done. They have obeyed my law. Medea... Arachotia (Harauvatish), Sattagydia (Thatagush), Gandaria (Gadra), India (Hidush)...." Herodotus "Eastward of India lies a tract which is entirely sand. Indeed, of all the inhabitants of Asia, concerning whom anything is known, the Indians dwell nearest to the east, and the rising of the Sun."

c. 440 BCE c. 300 BCE

India

India/Indik Megasthenes

"India then being four-sided in plan, the side which looks to the Orient and that to the South, the Great Sea compasseth; that towards the Arctic is divided by the mountain chain of Hmdus from Scythia, inhabited by that tribe of Scythians who are called Sakai; and on the fourth side, turned towards the West, the Indus marks the boundary, the biggest or nearly so of all rivers after the Nile." "The boundary of the land of India towards the north is Mount Taurus. It is not still called Taurus in this land; but Taurus begins from the sea over against Pamphylia and Lycia and Cilicia; and reaches as far as the Eastern Ocean, running right across Asia. But the mountain has different names in different places; in one, Parapamisus, in another Hemodus; elsewhere it is called Imaon, and perhaps has all sorts of other names; but the Macedonians who fought with Alexander called it Caucasus; another Caucasus, that is, not the Scythian; so that the story ran that Alexander came even to the far side of the Caucasus. The western part of India is bounded by the river Indus right down to the ocean, where the river runs out by two mouths, not joined together as are the five mouths of the Ister; but like those of the Nile, by which the Egyptian delta is formed; thus also the Indian delta is formed by the river Indus, not less than the Egyptian; and this in the Indian tongue is called Pattala. Towards the south this ocean bounds the land of India, and eastward the sea itself is the boundary. The southern part near Pattala and the mouths of the Indus were surveyed by Alexander and Macedonians, and many Greeks; as for the eastern part, Alexander did not traverse this beyond the river Hyphasis. A few historians have described the parts which are this side of the Ganges and where are the mouths of the Ganges and the city of Palimbothra, the greatest Indian city on the Ganges. (...) The Indian rivers are greater than any others in Asia; greatest are the Ganges and the Indus, whence the land gets its name; each of these is greater than the Nile of Egypt and the Scythian Ister, even were these put together; my own idea is that even the Acesines is greater than the Ister and the Nile, where the Acesines having taken in the Hydaspes, Hydraotes, and Hyphasis, runs into the Indus, so that its breadth there becomes thirty stades. Possibly also other greater rivers run through the land of India."

c. 140.

Indoi, Indou Arrian

Names of India

30
Istakhri "As for the land of the Hind it is bounded on the East by the Persian Sea (i.e. the Indian Ocean), on the W. and S. by the countries of Islm, and on the N. by the Chinese Empire. . . . The length of the land of the Hind from the government of Mokrn, the country of Mansra and Bodha and the rest of Sind, till thou comest to Kannj and thence passest on to Tibet, is about 4 months, and its breadth from the Indian Ocean to the country of Kannj about three months." "The circumference of (Modern Chinese: W Yn, the Five Indies) is about 90,000 li; on three sides it is bounded by a great sea; on the north it is backed by snowy mountains. It is wide at the north and narrow at the south; its figure is that of a half-moon." "For the nonce let us confine ourselves to summary notices concerning the kings of Sind and Hind. The language of Sind is different from that of Hind. . . ." "Hind is surrounded on the East by Chn and Mchn, on the West by Sind and Kbul, and on the South by the Sea.""The whole country of Hind, from Peshawar in the north, to the Indian Ocean in the south; from Sehwan (on the west bank of the Indus) to the mountains on the east dividing from China." "India the Greater is that which extends from Maabar to Kesmacoran (i.e. from Coromandel to Mekran), and it contains 13 great kingdoms. . . . India the Lesser extends from the Province of Champa to Mutfili (i.e. from Cochin-China to the Kistna Delta), and contains 8 great Kingdoms. . . . Abash (Abyssinia) is a very great province, and you must know that it constitutes the Middle India."

c. 590.

Hind

c. 650

Five Indies

Xuanzang

c. 944. c. 1020 1205

Hind, Sind

Masudi

Hind

Al-Birn

Hind

Hasan Nizm

1298

India the Greater India the Minor Middle India

Marco Polo

c. India 1328.

Friar Jordanus

"What shall I say? The great- ness of this India is beyond description. But let this much suffice concerning India the Greater and the Less. Of India Tertia I will say this, that I have not indeed seen its many marvels, not having been there. . . ." "And this same Thursday that the said Ambassadors arrived at this great River (the Oxus) they crossed to the other side. And the same day . . . came in the evening to a great city which is called Tenmit (Termez), and this used to belong to India Minor, but now belongs to the empire of Samarkand, having been conquered by Tamurbec."

1404

India Minor Clavijo

Republic of India
Official names
The official names as set down in article 1 of the Indian constitution are: English: India; Bharat Hindi: (Bhrat)

References
[1] Constitution of India - Article one ( Stating the official Names of India) [2] India Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition: 1989. [3] Article 1 of the English version of the Constitution of India: "India that is Bharat shall be a Union of States." [4] Pargiter, F. F. (1922), Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, pp.131 [5] http:/ / webapps. uni-koeln. de/ tamil/ [6] http:/ / www. sub. uni-goettingen. de/ ebene_1/ fiindolo/ gretil/ 1_sanskr/ 3_purana/ visnup_u. htm [7] http:/ / is1. mum. edu/ vedicreserve/ puranas/ vishnu_purana. pdf [8] http:/ / www. kagyu. org/ kagyulineage/ teachers/ tea06a. php [9] Two Kinds of Faith (http:/ / www. buddhistinformation. com/ the_lotus_sutra_study_center/ two_kinds_of_faith. htm) [10] Hobson Jobson Dictionary (http:/ / dsal. uchicago. edu/ cgi-bin/ philologic/ getobject. pl?c. 1:1:191. hobson)

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External links
Meaning of the word Hindu (http://www.voi.org/books/htemples2/app3.htm) Looking for a Hindu Identity (http://www.sacw.net/India_History/dnj_Jan06.pdf)

32

History
History of India
The history of India begins with evidence of human activity of Homo sapiens as long as 75,000 years ago, or with earlier hominids including Homo erectus from about 500,000 years ago. The Indus Valley Civilization, which spread and flourished in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent from c. 3300 to 1300 BCE, was the first major civilization in India. A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture developed in the Mature Harappan period, from 2600 to 1900 BCE. This Bronze Age civilization collapsed before the end of the second millennium BCE and was followed by the Iron Age Vedic Civilization, which extended over much of the Indo-Gangetic plain and which witnessed the rise of major polities known as the Mahajanapadas. In one of these kingdoms, Magadha, Mahavira and Gautama Buddha were born in the 6th or 5th century BCE and propagated their ramanic philosophies. Almost all of the subcontinent was conquered by the Maurya Empire during the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE. It subsequently became fragmented, with various parts ruled by numerous Middle kingdoms for the next 1,500 years. This is known as the classical period of Indian history, during which India has sometimes been estimated to have had the largest economy of the ancient and medieval world, controlling between one third and one fourth of the world's wealth up to the 18th century. Much of northern and central India was once again united in the 4th century CE, and remained so for two centuries thereafter, under the Gupta Empire. This period, witnessing a Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence, is known among its admirers as the "Golden Age of India". During the same time, and for several centuries afterwards, southern India, under the rule of the Chalukyas, Cholas, Pallavas, and Pandyas, experienced its own golden age. During this period, aspects of Indian civilization, administration, culture, and religion (Hinduism and Buddhism) spread to much of Asia. The southern state of Kerala had maritime business links with the Roman Empire from around 77 CE. Islam was introduced in Kerala through this route by Muslim traders. Muslim rule in the subcontinent began in 712 CE when the Arab general Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh and Multan in southern Punjab in modern day Pakistan,[1] setting the stage for several successive invasions from Central Asia between the 10th and 15th centuries CE, leading to the formation of Muslim empires in the Indian subcontinent such as the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire. Mughal rule came from Central Asia to cover most of the northern parts of the subcontinent. Mughal rulers introduced Central Asian art and architecture to India. In addition to the Mughals and various Rajput kingdoms, several independent Hindu states, such as the Vijayanagara Empire, the Maratha Empire, and the Ahom Kingdom, flourished contemporaneously in southern, western, and northeastern India respectively. The Mughal Empire suffered a gradual decline in the early 18th century, which provided opportunities for the Afghans, Balochis, Sikhs, and Marathas to exercise control over large areas in the northwest of the subcontinent until the British East India Company gained ascendancy over South Asia.[2] Beginning in the mid-18th century and over the next century, India was gradually annexed by the British East India Company. Dissatisfaction with Company rule led to the Indian Rebellion of 1857, after which India was directly administered by the British Crown and witnessed a period of both rapid development of infrastructure and economic decline. During the first half of the 20th century, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress and later joined by the Muslim League. The subcontinent gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1947, after being partitioned into the dominions of India and Pakistan.

History of India

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Pre-Historic era
Stone Age

Bhimbetka rock painting, Madhya Pradesh, India. Stone age (5000 BC) writings of Edakkal Caves in Kerala, India.

Isolated remains of Homo erectus in Hathnora in the Narmada Valley in central India indicate that India might have been inhabited since at least the Middle Pleistocene era, somewhere between 500,000 and 200,000 years ago.[3] [4] Recent finds in Tamil Nadu (at c. 75,000 years ago, before and after the explosion of the Toba volcano) indicate the presence of the first anatomically modern humans in the area. Tools crafted by proto-humans that have been dated back two million years have been discovered in the northwestern part of the subcontinent.[5] [6] The ancient history of the region includes some of South Asia's oldest settlements[7] and some of its major civilizations.[8] [9] The earliest archaeological site in the subcontinent is the palaeolithic hominid site in the Soan River valley.[10] Soanian sites are found in the Sivalik region across what are now India, Pakistan, and Nepal.[11] The Mesolithic period in the Indian subcontinent was followed by the Neolithic period, when more extensive settlement of the subcontinent occurred after the end of the last Ice Age approximately 12,000 years ago. The first confirmed semipermanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago in the Bhimbetka rock shelters in modern Madhya Pradesh, India. Early Neolithic culture in South Asia is represented by the Mehrgarh findings (7000 BCE onwards) in present-day Balochistan, Pakistan.[12] Traces of a Neolithic culture have been alleged to be submerged in the Gulf of Khambat in India, radiocarbon dated to 7500 BCE.[13] However, the one dredged piece of wood in question was found in an area of strong ocean currents. Neolithic agriculture cultures sprang up in the Indus Valley region around 5000 BCE, in the lower Gangetic valley around 3000 BCE, and in later South India, spreading southwards and also northwards into Malwa around 1800 BCE. The first urban civilization of the region began with the Indus Valley Civilization.[14]

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Bronze Age
The Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BCE with the early Indus Valley Civilization. It was centered on the Indus River and its tributaries which extended into the Ghaggar-Hakra River valley,[8] the Ganges-Yamuna Doab,[15] Gujarat,[16] and southeastern Afghanistan.[17] The civilization is primarily located in modern-day India (Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan provinces) and Pakistan (Sindh, Punjab, and Balochistan provinces). Historically part of Ancient India, it is one of the world's earliest urban civilizations, along with Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt.[18] Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft (carneol products, seal carving), and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin.

Ancient Lothal as envisaged by the Archaeological Survey of India.

The Mature Indus civilization Valley Civilization flourished from about 2600 to 1900 BCE, marking the beginning of the urban civilization on the subcontinent. The civilization included urban centers such as Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rupar, Rakhigarhi, and Lothal in modern-day India, and Harappa, Ganeriwala, and Mohenjo-daro in modern-day Pakistan. The civilization is noted for its cities built of brick, roadside drainage system, and multistoried houses.

"Priest King" of Indus

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Early historic period

Vedic period
The Vedic period is characterized by Indo-Aryan culture associated with the texts of Vedas, sacred to Hindus, which were orally composed in Vedic Sanskrit. The Vedas are some of the oldest extant texts, next to those of Egypt and Mesopotamia. The Vedic period lasted from about 1500 to 500 BCE, laying the foundations of Hinduism and other cultural aspects of early Indian society. The Aryas established Vedic civilization all over north India, particularly in the Gangetic Plain. This period succeeded the prehistoric Late Harappan, during which immigrations of Indo-Aryan-speaking tribes overlaid the existing civilizations of local people whom they called Dasyus.

Map of North India in the late Vedic period.

Early Vedic society consisted of largely pastoral groups, with late Harappan urbanization having been abandoned.[19] After the time of the Rigveda, Aryan society became increasingly agricultural and was socially organized around the four varnas, or social classes. In addition to the Vedas, the principal texts of Hinduism, the core themes of the Sanskrit epics Ramayana and Mahabharata are said to have their ultimate origins during this period.[20] The early Indo-Aryan presence probably corresponds, in part, to the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture in archaeological contexts.[21] The Kuru kingdom[22] corresponds to the Black and Red Ware and Painted Grey Ware cultures and to the beginning of the Iron Age in northwestern The swastika is a major element of Hindu India, around 1000 BCE, as well as with the composition of the Atharvaveda, iconography. the first Indian text to mention iron, as yma ayas, literally "black metal." The Painted Grey Ware culture spanned much of northern India from about 1100 to 600 BCE.[21] The Vedic Period also established republics such as Vaishali, which existed as early as the 6th century BCE and persisted in some areas until the 4th century CE. The later part of this period corresponds with an increasing movement away from the previous tribal system towards the establishment of kingdoms, called mahajanapadas.

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Mahajanapadas
In the later Vedic Age, a number of small kingdoms or city states had covered the subcontinent, many mentioned in Vedic, early Buddhist and Jaina literature as far back as 1000 BCE. By 500 BCE, sixteen monarchies and "republics" known as the Mahajanapadas Kasi, Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji (or Vriji), Malla, Chedi, Vatsa (or Vamsa), Kuru, Panchala, Matsya (or Machcha), Surasena, Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara, and Kamboja stretched across the Indo-Gangetic Plain from modern-day Afghanistan to Bengal and Maharastra. This period saw the second major rise of urbanism in India after the Indus Valley Civilization. Many smaller clans mentioned within early literature seem to have been present across the rest of the subcontinent. Some of these kings were hereditary; other states elected their rulers. The educated speech at that time was Sanskrit, while the languages of the general population of northern India are referred to as Prakrits. Many of the sixteen kingdoms had coalesced to four major ones by 500/400 BCE, by the time of Siddhartha Gautama. These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, and Magadha.[23] Hindu rituals at that time were complicated and conducted by the priestly class. It is thought that the Upanishads, late Vedic texts dealing mainly with philosophy, were composed in the later Vedic Age and early in this period of the Mahajanapadas (from about 600 to 400 BCE). The Upanishads had a substantial effect on Indian philosophy and were contemporary with the development of Buddhism and Jainism, indicating a golden age of thought in this period. It is believed that circa 537 BCE, that Siddhartha Gautama attained the state of "enlightenment" and became known as the "Buddha" - the enlightened one. Around the same time, Mahavira (the 24th Jain tirthankar according to Jains) propagated a similar theology that was to later become Jainism.[24] However, Jain orthodoxy believes it predates all known time. The Vedas are believed to have documented a few Jain tirthankars and an ascetic order similar to the sramana movement.[25]
Detail of a leaf with, The Birth of Mahavira (the 24th Jain Tirthankara), from the Kalpa Sutra, c.1375-1400.

Gautama Buddha undertaking extreme ascetic practices before his enlightenment on the bank of river Falgu in Bodh Gaya, Bihar.

The Buddha's teachings and Jainism had doctrines inclined toward asceticism, and they were preached in Prakrit, which helped them gain acceptance amongst the masses. They have profoundly influenced practices that Hinduism and Indian spiritual orders are associated with, including vegetarianism, prohibition of animal slaughter and ahimsa (non-violence). While the geographic impact of Jainism was limited to India, Buddhist nuns and monks eventually spread the teachings of Buddha to Central Asia, East Asia, Tibet, Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia.

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The Mahajanapadas were the sixteen most powerful kingdoms and republics of the era, located mainly across the fertile Indo-Gangetic plains, however there were a number of smaller kingdoms stretching the length and breadth of Ancient India.

Nalanda University is considered one of the first great universities in recorded history. It was the center of Buddhist learning and research in the world from 450 to 1193 CE.

Persian and Greek conquests

Much of the northwestern subcontinent (present-day eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan) came under the rule of the Persian Achaemenid Empire in c. 520 BCE, during the reign of Darius the Great, and remained so for two centuries.[26] In 326 BCE, Alexander the Great conquered Asia Minor and the Achaemenid Empire, reaching the northwest frontiers of the Indian subcontinent. There he defeated King Porus in the Battle of the Hydaspes (near modern-day Jhelum, Pakistan) and conquered much of the Punjab.[27]

Asia in 323 BCE, the Nanda Empire and Gangaridai Empire in relation to Alexander's Empire and neighbors.

History of India Alexander's march east put him in confrontation with the Nanda Empire of Magadha and the Gangaridai Empire of Bengal. His army, exhausted and frightened by the prospect of facing larger Indian armies at the Ganges River, mutinied at the Hyphasis (modern Beas River) and refused to march further East. Alexander, after the meeting with his officer, Coenus, was convinced that it was better to return. The Persian and Greek invasions had important repercussions on Indian civilization. The political systems of the Persians were to influence future forms of governance on the subcontinent, including the administration of the Mauryan dynasty. In addition, the region of Gandhara, or present-day eastern Afghanistan and northwest Pakistan, became a melting pot of Indian, Persian, Central Asian, and Greek cultures and gave rise to a hybrid culture, Greco-Buddhism, which lasted until the 5th century CE and influenced the artistic development of Mahayana Buddhism.

38

Maurya Empire

Ashokan pillar at Vaishali, 3rd century BCE. Maurya Empire under Ashoka the Great

The Maurya Empire (322185 BCE), ruled by the Mauryan dynasty, was a geographically extensive and powerful political and military empire in ancient India. The empire was established by Chandragupta Maurya in Magadha what is now Bihar and it further flourished under Ashoka the Great. At its greatest extent, it stretched to the north to the natural boundaries of the Himalayas and to the east into what is now Assam. To the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan, annexing Balochistan and much of what is now Afghanistan, including the modern Herat and Kandahar provinces. The empire was expanded into India's central and southern regions by the emperors Chandragupta and Bindusara, but it excluded extensive unexplored tribal and forested regions near Kalinga which were subsequently taken by Ashoka. Ashoka propagated Buddhism and established many Buddhist monuments. Chandragupta's minister Chanakya wrote the Arthashastra, one of the greatest treatises on economics, politics, foreign affairs, administration, military arts, war, and religion produced in Asia. Archaeologically, the period of Mauryan rule in South Asia falls into the era of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). The Arthashastra and the Edicts of Ashoka are primary written records of the Mauryan times. The Lion Capital of Asoka at Sarnath, is the national emblem of India.

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Early Middle Kingdoms The Golden Age

Kharavela Empire

Gupta Empire Ancient India during the rise of Sunga Empire and Satavahana Empire. Kushan Empire and Western Satraps of Ancient India in the north along with Pandyans and Early Cholas in southern India.

The middle period was a time of notable cultural development. The Satavahana dynasty, also known as the Andhras, ruled in southern and central India after around 230 BCE. Satakarni, the sixth ruler of the Satvahana dynasty, defeated the Sunga Empire of north India. Afterwards, Kharavela, the warrior king of Kalinga,[28] ruled a vast empire and was responsible for the propagation of Jainism in the Indian subcontinent.[28] The Kharavelan Jain empire included a formidable maritime empire with trading routes linking it to Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Borneo, Bali, Sumatra, and Java. Colonists from Kalinga settled in Sri Lanka, Burma, as well as the Maldives and the Malay Archipelago. The Kuninda Kingdom was a small Himalayan state that survived from around the 2nd century BCE to roughly the 3rd century CE. The Kushanas migrated from Central Asia into northwestern India in the middle of the 1st century CE and founded an empire that eventually stretched from Tajikistan to the middle Ganges. The Western Satraps (35-405 CE) were Saka rulers of the western and central part of India. They were the successors of the Indo-Scythians and contemporaries of the Kushans who ruled the northern part of the Indian subcontinent and the Satavahana (Andhra) who ruled in central and southern India. Different dynasties such as the Pandyans, Cholas, Cheras, Kadambas, Western Gangas, Pallavas, and Chalukyas, dominated the southern part of the Indian peninsula at different periods of time. Several southern kingdoms formed overseas empires that stretched into Southeast Asia. The kingdoms warred with each other and the Deccan states for domination of the south. The Kalabras, a Buddhist dynasty, briefly interrupted the usual domination of the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas in the south.

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Northwestern hybrid cultures

The northwestern hybrid cultures of the subcontinent included the Indo-Greeks, the Indo-Scythians, the Indo-Parthians, and the Indo-Sassinids. The first of these, the Indo-Greek kingdom Kingdom, was founded when the Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius invaded the region in 180 BCE, extending his rule over various parts of present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan. Lasting for almost two centuries, the kingdom was ruled by a succession of more than 30 Greek kings, who were often in conflict with each other. The Indo-Scythians were a branch of the Indo-European Sakas (Scythians) who migrated from southern Siberia, first into Bactria, The founder of the Indo-Greek subsequently into Sogdiana, Kashmir, Arachosia, and Gandhara, and finally into Kingdom, Demetrius I "the Invincible" (205171 BCE). India. Their kingdom lasted from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century BCE. Yet another kingdom, the Indo-Parthians (also known as the Pahlavas), came to control most of present-day Afghanistan and northern Pakistan, after fighting many local rulers such as the Kushan ruler Kujula Kadphises, in the Gandhara region. The Sassanid empire of Persia, who was contemporaneous with the Gupta Empire, expanded into the region of present-day Balochistan in Pakistan, where the mingling of Indian culture and the culture of Iran gave birth to a hybrid culture under the Indo-Sassanids.

Kushan Empire
The Kushan Empire expanded out of what is now Afghanistan into the northwest of the subcontinent under the leadership of their first emperor, Kujula Kadphises, about the middle of the 1st century CE. By the time of his grandson, Kanishka, (whose era is thought to have begun c. 127 CE), they had conquered most of northern India, at least as far as Saketa and Pataliputra, in the middle Ganges Valley, and probably as far as the Bay of Bengal.[29] They played an important role in the establishment of Buddhism in India and its spread to Central Asia and China. By the 3rd century, their empire in India was disintegrating; their last known great emperor being Vasudeva I (c. 190-225 CE).

Roman trade with India

Roman trade with India started around 1 CE, during the reign of Augustus and following his conquest of Egypt, which had been India's biggest trade partner in the West. The trade started by Eudoxus of Cyzicus in 130 BCE kept increasing, and according to Strabo (II.5.12.[30] ), by the time of Augustus, up to 120 ships set sail every year from Myos Hormos on the Red Sea to India. So much gold was used for this trade, and apparently recycled by the Kushans for their own coinage, that Pliny the Elder (NH VI.101) complained about the drain of specie to India: "India, China and the Arabian peninsula take one hundred million sesterces from our empire per annum at a conservative estimate: that is what our luxuries and women cost us. For what percentage of these imports is intended for sacrifices to the gods or the spirits of the dead?" Pliny, Historia Naturae 12.41.84.[31] The maritime (but not the overland) trade routes, harbours, and trade items are described in detail in the 1st century CE Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.

Coin of the Roman emperor Augustus found at the Pudukottai, South India.

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Gupta rule
The Classical Age refers to the period when much of the Indian subcontinent was reunited under the Gupta Empire (c. 320550 CE).[32] [33] This period has been called the Golden Age of India[34] and was marked by extensive achievements in science, technology, engineering, art, dialectic, literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion, and philosophy that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as Hindu culture.[35] The decimal numeral system, including the concept of zero, was invented in India during this period.[36] The peace and prosperity created under leadership of Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors in India.[37] The high points of this cultural creativity are magnificent architecture, sculpture, and painting.[38] The Gupta period produced scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma, and Vatsyayana who made great advancements in many academic fields.[39] Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era. Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural center and established it as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri Lanka, the Malay Archipelago, and Indochina.

Kalidasa's Sanskrit play Abhijnakuntala is one of the Legacy of the Gupta Empire.

The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimize their rule, but they also patronized Buddhism, which continued to provide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. The military exploits of the first three rulersChandragupta I (c. 319335), Samudragupta (c. 335376), and Chandragupta II (c. 376415) brought much of India under their leadership.[40] They successfully resisted the northwestern kingdoms until the arrival of the Hunas, who established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century, with their capital at Bamiyan.[41] However, much of the Deccan and southern India were largely unaffected by these events in the north.[42] [43]

Late Middle Kingdoms The Classical Age

Pala Empire under Dharmapala Pala Empire under Devapala

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The "Classical Age" in India began with the Gupta Empire and the resurgence of the north during Harsha's conquests around the 7th century CE, and ended with the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in the south in the 13th century, due to pressure from the invaders to the north. This period produced some of India's finest art, considered the epitome of classical development, and the development of the main spiritual and philosophical systems which continued to be in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. King Harsha of Kannauj succeeded in reuniting northern India during his reign in the 7th century, after the collapse of the Gupta dynasty. His kingdom collapsed after his death. From the 7th to the 9th century, three dynasties contested for control of northern India: the Gurjara Pratiharas of Malwa, the Palas of Bengal, and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan. The Sena dynasty would later assume control of the Pala Empire, and the Gurjara Pratiharas fragmented into various states. These were the first of the Rajput states, a series of kingdoms which managed to survive in some form for almost a millennium, until Indian independence from the British. The first recorded Rajput kingdoms emerged in Rajasthan in the 6th century, and small Rajput dynasties later ruled much of northern India. One Gurjar[44] [45] Rajput of the Chauhan clan, Prithvi Raj Chauhan, was known for bloody conflicts against the advancing Islamic sultanates. The Shahi dynasty ruled portions of eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Kashmir from the mid-7th century to the early 11th century. The Chalukya dynasty ruled parts of southern and central India from Badami in Karnataka between 550 and 750, and then again from Kalyani between 970 and 1190. The Pallavas of Kanchipuram were their contemporaries further to the south. With the decline of the Chalukya empire, their feudatories, the Hoysalas of Halebidu, Kakatiyas of Warangal, Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, and a southern branch of the Kalachuri, divided the vast Chalukya empire amongst themselves around the middle of 12th century. The Chola Empire at its peak covered much of the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. Rajaraja Chola I conquered all of peninsular south India and parts of Sri Lanka. Rajendra Chola I's navies went even further, occupying coasts from Burma (now Myanmar) to Vietnam,[46] the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Lakshadweep (Laccadive) islands, Sumatra, and the Malay Peninsula in Southeast Asia and the Pegu islands. Later during the middle period, the Pandyan Empire emerged in Tamil Nadu, as well as the Chera Empire in Kerala. By 1343, all these dynasties had ceased to exist, giving rise to the Vijayanagar empire.

Chola Empire under Rajendra Chola c. 1030 C.E.

Badami Chalukya Empire

The Kanauj Triangle was the focal point of empires the Rashtrakutas of Deccan, the Gurjara Pratiharas of Malwa, and the Palas of Bengal.

History of India The ports of south India were engaged in the Indian Ocean trade, chiefly involving spices, with the Roman Empire to the west and Southeast Asia to the east.[47] [48] Literature in local vernaculars and spectacular architecture flourished until about the beginning of the 14th century, when southern expeditions of the sultan of Delhi took their toll on these kingdoms. The Hindu Vijayanagar dynasty came into conflict with the Islamic Bahmani Sultanate, and the clashing of the two systems caused a mingling of the indigenous and foreign cultures that left lasting cultural influences on each other. The Vijaynagar Empire eventually declined due to pressure from the first Delhi sultanates that had managed to establish themselves in the north around the city of Delhi by that time.

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The Islamic Sultanates

After conquering Persia, Arab Islamic Caliphate incorporated parts of what is now Pakistan around 720 CE. The Muslim rulers were keen to invade India,[49] which was a rich region,[50] with a flourishing international trade and the only known diamond mines in the world. In 712 CE an Arab Muslim general called Muhammad bin Qasim conquered most of the Indus region in modern day Pakistan, for the Umayyad empire, to be made the "As-Sindh" province with its capital at Al-Mansurah, 72km (45mi) north of modern Hyderabad in Sindh, Pakistan. After several wars including the Battle of Rajasthan, where the Hindu Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur, has the second largest Rajput clans defeated the Umayyad Arabs, their expansion was pre-modern dome in the world after the Byzantine checked and contained to Sindh in Pakistan, many short-lived Hagia Sophia. Islamic kingdoms (sultanates) under foreign rulers were established across the north western subcontinent over a period of a few centuries. Additionally, Muslim trading communities had flourished throughout coastal south India, particularly in Kerala, where Muslim traders arrived in small numbers, mainly from the Arabian peninsula. This had marked the introduction of a third Abrahamic Middle Eastern religion, following Judaism and Christianity, often in puritanical form. Later, the Bahmani Sultanate and Deccan sultanates founded by Turkic rulers, flourished in the south.

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Delhi Sultanate
In the 12th and 13th centuries, Turks and Afghans invaded parts of northern India and established the Delhi Sultanate in the former Rajput holdings.[51] The subsequent Slave dynasty of Delhi managed to conquer large areas of northern India, approximately equal in extent to the ancient Gupta Empire, while the Khilji dynasty was also able to conquer most of central India, but were ultimately unsuccessful in conquering and uniting the subcontinent. The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing. It is surmised that the language of Urdu (literally meaning "horde" or "camp" in various Turkic dialects) was born during the Delhi Sultanate period as a result of the intermingling of the local speakers of Sanskritic Prakrits with immigrants speaking Persian, Turkic, and Arabic under the Muslim rulers. The Delhi Sultanate is the only Indo-Islamic empire to have enthroned one of the few female rulers in India, Razia Sultana (12361240).

A Turco-Mongol conqueror in Central Asia, Timur (Tamerlane), attacked the reigning Sultan Nasir-u Din Mehmud of the Tughlaq Dynasty in the north Indian city of Delhi.[52] The Sultan's army was defeated on December 17, 1398. Timur entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins, after Timur's army had killed and plundered for three days and nights. He ordered the whole city to be sacked except for the sayyids, scholars, and the other Muslims,; 100,000 war prisoners, mostly Hindus, were put to death in one day.[53]

Qutub Minar is the world's tallest brick minaret, commenced by Qutb-ud-din Aybak of the Slave dynasty.

The Mughal era

In 1526, Babur, a Timurid descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan from Fergana Valley(modern day Uzbekistan), swept across the Khyber Pass and established the Mughal Empire, covering modern day Afghanistan, Pakistan, India and Bangladesh.[54] However, his son Humayun was defeated by the Afghan warrior Sher Shah Suri in the year 1540, and Humayun was forced to retreat to Kabul. After Sher Shah's death, his son Islam Shah Suri and the Hindu king Samrat Hem Chandra Vikramaditya, who had won 22 battles from Punjab to Bengal and had established a secular Hindu Raj, ruled North India from Delhi till 1556, when Akbar's forces defeated and killed Hemu in the Second Battle of Panipat on 6 November 1556. The Mughal dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcontinent by 1600; it went into a slow decline after 1707 and was finally defeated during the Indian Rebellion of 1857, also called the 1857 War of Independence. This period marked vast social change in the subcontinent as the Hindu majority were ruled over by the Mughal emperors, most of whom
Extent of the Mughal Empire in 1700.

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45 showed religious tolerance, liberally patronising Hindu culture. The famous emperor Akbar, who was the grandson of Babar, tried to establish a good relationship with the Hindus. However, later emperors such as Aurangazeb tried to establish complete Muslim dominance, and as a result several historical temples were destroyed during this period and taxes imposed on non-Muslims. During the decline of the Mughal Empire, several smaller states rose to fill the power vacuum and themselves were contributing factors to the decline. In 1739, Nader Shah, emperor of Iran, defeated the Mughal army at the huge Battle of Karnal. After this victory, Nader captured and sacked Delhi, carrying away many treasures, including the Peacock Throne.[55]

Taj Mahal, built by the Mughals

The Mughals were perhaps the richest single dynasty to have ever existed. During the Mughal era, the dominant political forces consisted of the Mughal Empire and its tributaries and, later on, the rising successor states - including the Maratha confederacy - which fought an increasingly weak Mughal dynasty. The Mughals, while often employing brutal tactics to subjugate their empire, had a policy of integration with Indian culture, which is what made them successful where the short-lived Sultanates of Delhi had failed. Akbar the Great was particularly famed for this. Akbar declared "Amari" or non-killing of animals in the holy days of Jainism. He rolled back the jizya tax for non-Muslims. The Mughal emperors married local royalty, allied themselves with local maharajas, and attempted to fuse their Turko-Persian culture with ancient Indian styles, creating a unique Indo-Saracenic architecture. It was the erosion of this tradition coupled with increased brutality and centralization that played a large part in the dynasty's downfall after Aurangzeb, who unlike previous emperors, imposed relatively non-pluralistic policies on the general population, which often inflamed the majority Hindu population.

Post-Mughal period

The Maratha Empire in 1760. The last Hindu empire of India.

Harmandir Sahib or The Golden Temple is culturally the most significant place of worship for the Sikhs.

The post-Mughal era was dominated by the rise of the Maratha suzerainty as other small regional states (mostly late Mughal tributary states) emerged, and also by the increasing activities of European powers (see colonial era below). The Maratha kingdom or confederacy was founded and consolidated by Shivaji. By the 18th century, it had transformed itself into the Maratha Empire under the rule of the peshwas (prime ministers). By 1760, the domain of the Marathas stretched across practically the entire subcontinent. This expansion was brought to an end by the defeat of the Marathas by an Afghan army led by Ahmad Shah Durrani at the Third Battle of Panipat (1761). The last

History of India peshwa, Baji Rao II, was defeated by the British in the Third Anglo-Maratha War. The Kingdom of Mysore in southern India was founded around 1400 CE by the Wodeyar dynasty. The rule of the Wodeyars was interrupted by Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan. Under their rule, Mysore fought a series of wars sometimes against the combined forces of the British and Marathas, but mostly against the British, with Mysore receiving some aid or promise of aid from the French. Hyderabad was founded by the Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda in 1591. Following a brief Mughal rule, Asif Jah, a Mughal official, seized control of Hyderabad and declared himself Nizam-al-Mulk of Hyderabad in 1724. It was ruled by a hereditary Nizam from 1724 until 1948. Both Mysore and Hyderabad became princely states in British India. The Punjabi kingdom, ruled by members of the Sikh religion, was a political entity that governed the region of modern-day Punjab. This was among the last areas of the subcontinent to be conquered by the British. The first and second Anglo-Sikh war marked the downfall of the Sikh Empire. Around the 18th century, the modern state of Nepal was formed by Gurkha rulers.

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Colonial era
Vasco da Gama's maritime success to discover for Europeans a new sea route to India in 1498 paved the way for direct Indo-European commerce.[56] The Portuguese soon set up trading-posts in Goa, Daman, Diu and Bombay. The next to arrive were the Dutch, the Britishwho set up a trading-post in the west-coast port of Surat[57] in 1619and the French. The internal conflicts among Indian Kingdoms gave opportunities to the European traders to gradually establish political influence and appropriate lands. Although these continental European powers were to control various coastal regions of southern and eastern India during the ensuing century, they would eventually lose all their territories in India to the British islanders, with the exception of the French outposts of Pondicherry and Chandernagore, the Dutch port of Travancore, and the Portuguese colonies of Goa, Daman, and Diu.

Company rule in India

The British East India Company had been given permission by the Mughal emperor Jahangir in 1617 to trade in India.[58] Gradually their increasing influence led the de-jure Mughal emperor Farrukh Siyar to grant them dastaks or permits for duty free trade in Bengal in 1717.[59] The Nawab of Bengal Siraj Ud Daulah, the de facto ruler of the Bengal province, opposed British attempts to use these permits. This led to the Battle of Plassey in 1757, in which the 'army' of East India Company, led by Robert Clive, defeated the Nawab's forces. This was the first political foothold with territorial implications that the British acquired in India. Clive was appointed by the Company as its first 'Governor of Bengal' in 1757.[60] This was combined with British victories over the French at Madras, Wandiwash and Pondicherry that, along with wider British successes during the Seven Years War, reduced French influence in India. After the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the Company acquired the civil rights of administration in Bengal from the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II; it marked the beginning of its formal rule, which was to engulf eventually most of India and extinguish the Moghul rule and dynasty itself in a century.[61] The East India

Map of India in 1857 at the end of Company rule.

History of India Company monopolized the trade of Bengal. They introduced a land taxation system called the Permanent Settlement which introduced a feudal-like structure (See Zamindar) in Bengal. By the 1850s, the East India Company controlled most of the Indian sub-continent, which included present-day Pakistan and Bangladesh. Their policy was sometimes summed up as Divide and Rule, taking advantage of the enmity festering between various princely states and social and religious groups.

47

British Raj
The first major movement against the British Company's high handed rule resulted in the Indian Rebellion of 1857, also known as the "Indian Mutiny" or "Sepoy Mutiny" or the "First War of Independence". After a year of turmoil, and reinforcement of the East India Company's troops with British soldiers, the Company overcame the rebellion. The nominal leader of the uprising, the last Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar, was exiled to Burma, his children were beheaded and the Moghul line abolished. In the aftermath all power was transferred from the East India Company to the British Crown, which began to administer most of India as a colony; the Company's lands were controlled directly and the rest through the rulers of what it called the Princely states. There were 565 princely states when the Indian subcontinent gained independence from Britain in August 1947.[62]

The British Indian Empire at its greatest extent (in a map of 1909)

During the British Raj, famines in India, often attributed to failed government policies, were some of the worst ever recorded, including the Great Famine of 187678, in which 6.1 million to 10.3 million people died[63] and the Indian famine of 18991900, in which 1.25 to 10 million people died.[63] The Third Plague Pandemic started in China in the middle of the 19th century, spreading plague to all inhabited continents and killing 10 million people in India alone.[64] Despite persistent diseases and famines, however, the population of the Indian subcontinent, which stood at about 125 million in 1750, had reached 389 million by 1941.[65]

The Indian Independence movement

The physical presence of the British in India was not significant. Yet the British were able to rule two-thirds of the subcontinent directly, and exercise considerable leverage over the Princely States that accounted for the remaining one-third. The British employed "Divide and Rule" in British India as a means of preventing an uprising against the Raj.[66] In this environment of Hindu-Muslim disunity, the first step toward Indian independence and western-style democracy was taken with the Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi and Muhammad appointment of Indian councilors to advise the British viceroy,[67] and Ali Jinnah, Bombay, 1944. with the establishment of provincial Councils with Indian members; the councillors' participation was subsequently widened in legislative councils.[68] From 1920 leaders such as Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi began highly popular mass movements to campaign against the British Raj, using largely peaceful methods. Some others adopted militant approach that sought to overthrow British rule by armed struggle; revolutionary activities against the British rule took place throughout the Indian sub-continent. The Gandhi led independence movement, opposed the British rule using non-violent methods like non-cooperation, civil disobedience and economic resistance. These movements succeeded in bringing independence to the Indian sub-continent in 1947.

History of India

48

Independence and Partition

Along with the desire for independence, tensions between Hindus and Muslims had also been developing over the years. The Muslims had always been a minority, and the prospect of an exclusively Hindu government made them wary of independence; they were as inclined to mistrust Hindu rule as they were to resist the foreign Raj, although Gandhi called for unity between the two groups in an astonishing display of leadership. The British, extremely weakened by the World War II, promised that they would leave and participated in the formation of an interim government. The British Indian territories gained independence in 1947, after being partitioned into the Union of India and Dominion of Pakistan. Following the controversial division of pre-partition Punjab and Bengal, rioting broke out between Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims in these provinces and spread to several other parts of India, leaving some 500,000 dead.[69] Also, this period saw one of the largest mass migrations ever recorded in modern history, with a total of 12 million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims moving between the newly created nations of India and Pakistan (which gained independence on 15 and 14 August 1947 respectively).[69] In 1971, Bangladesh, formerly East Pakistan and East Bengal, seceded from Pakistan. The histories of each of these modern nations can be found on the respective pages shown above.

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[19] India: Reemergence of Urbanization (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-46838/ India). Retrieved on May 12, 2007. [20] Valmiki (March 1990). Goldman, Robert P. ed. The Ramayana of Valmiki: An Epic of Ancient India, Volume 1: Balakanda. Ramayana of Valmiki. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p.23. ISBN069101485X. [21] Krishna Reddy (2003). Indian History. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill. p.A11. ISBN0070483698. [22] M. Witzel, Early Sanskritization. Origins and development of the Kuru State. B. Klver (ed.), Recht, Staat und Verwaltung im klassischen Indien. The state, the Law, and Administration in Classical India. Mnchen : R. Oldenbourg 1997, 27-52 = Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies, vol. 1,4, December 1995, (http:/ / ejvs. laurasianacademy. com) [23] Krishna Reddy (2003). Indian History. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill. p.A107. ISBN0070483698. [24] Mary Pat Fisher (1997) In: Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths I.B.Tauris : London ISBN 1-86064-148-2 - Jainism's major teacher is the Mahavira, a contemporary of the Buddha, and who died approximately 526 BC. Page 114 [25] Mary Pat Fisher (1997) In: Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths I.B.Tauris : London ISBN 1-86064-148-2 - The extreme antiquity of Jainism as a non-vedic, indigenous Indian religion is well documented. Ancient Hindu and Buddhist scriptures refer to Jainism as an existing tradition which began long before Mahavira. Page 115 [26] Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art (October 2004). "The Achaemenid Persian Empire (550330 B.C.E)" (http:/ / www. metmuseum. org/ TOAH/ hd/ acha/ hd_acha. htm). Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. . Retrieved 2007-05-19. [27] Fuller, J.F.C. (February 3, 2004). "Alexander's Great Battles". The Generalship of Alexander the Great (Reprint ed.). New York: Da Capo Press. pp.188199. ISBN0306813300. [28] Agrawal, Sadananda (2000): r Khravela, Sri Digambar Jain Samaj, Cuttack, Orissa [29] Sims-Williams and Cribb (1995-1996), pp. 175-176. [30] "At any rate, when Gallus was prefect of Egypt, I accompanied him and ascended the Nile as far as Syene and the frontiers of Ethiopia, and I learned that as many as one hundred and twenty vessels were sailing from Myos Hormos to India, whereas formerly, under the Ptolemies, only a very few ventured to undertake the voyage and to carry on traffic in Indian merchandise." Strabo II.5.12. Source (http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Strabo/ 2E1*. html) [31] "minimaque computatione miliens centena milia sestertium annis omnibus India et Seres et paeninsula illa imperio nostro adimunt: tanti nobis deliciae et feminae constant. quota enim portio ex illis ad deos, quaeso, iam vel ad inferos pertinet?" Pliny, Historia Naturae 12.41.84. [32] "Gupta Dynasty - MSN Encarta" (http:/ / encarta. msn. com/ encyclopedia_761571624/ gupta_dynasty. html). Gupta Dynasty - MSN Encarta. . [33] "India - Historical Setting - The Classical Age - Gupta and Harsha" (http:/ / historymedren. about. com/ library/ text/ bltxtindia7. htm). Historymedren.about.com. 2009-11-02. . Retrieved 2010-05-16. [34] "Gupta Dynasty, Golden Age Of India" (http:/ / www. nupam. com/ Sgupta1. html). Nupam.com. . Retrieved 2010-05-16. [35] "The Age of the Guptas and After" (http:/ / www. wsu. edu:8001/ ~dee/ ANCINDIA/ GUPTA. HTM). Wsu.edu. 1999-06-06. . Retrieved 2010-05-16. [36] "Gupta Empire in India, art in the Gupta empire, Indian history" (http:/ / www. indianchild. com/ gupta_empire. htm). Indianchild.com. . Retrieved 2010-05-16. [37] "Gupta dynasty (Indian dynasty)" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 249590/ Gupta-dynasty). Encyclopdia Britannica. . Retrieved 2010-05-16. [38] "Gupta dynasty: empire in 4th century" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic-art/ 285248/ 1960/ The-Gupta-empire-at-the-end-of-the-4th-century). Encyclopdia Britannica. . Retrieved 2010-05-16. [39] "The Gupta Empire of India | Chandragupta I | Samudragupta" (http:/ / www. historybits. com/ gupta. htm). Historybits.com. 2001-09-11. . Retrieved 2010-05-16. [40] "The Story of India - Photo Gallery" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ thestoryofindia/ gallery/ photos/ 8. html). PBS. . Retrieved 2010-05-16. [41] Iaroslav Lebedynsky, "Les Nomades", p172. [42] Early History of India, p 339, Dr V. A. Smith; See also Early Empire of Central Asia (1939), W. M. McGovern. [43] Ancient India, 2003, p 650, Dr V. D. Mahajan; History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Kanauj, p 50, Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr A. D. Pusalkar. [44] Dasharatha Sharma (1975). Early Chauhn dynasties: a study of Chauhn political history, Chauhn political institutions, and life in the Chauhn dominions, from 800 to 1316 A.D. (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=n4gcAAAAMAAJ& q=bhandarkar+ + gurjara& dq=bhandarkar+ + gurjara& cd=6). Motilal Banarsidass. p.280. ISBN0842606181, ISBN 978-0-8426-0618-9. . "According to a number of scholars, the agnikula clas were originally Gurjaras." [45] Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (1834). Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Volume 1999 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=TPgAAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA651). Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland.. p.651. . "By that marriage Haarsha had contracted an alliance with the dominant race of the Gurjaras, of whom the chauhans were a prominent clan." [46] "The Last Years of Cholas: The decline and fall of a dynasty" (http:/ / www. en. articlesgratuits. com/ the-last-years-of-cholas-the-decline-and-fall-of-a-dynasty-id1804. php). En.articlesgratuits.com. 2007-08-22. . Retrieved 2009-09-23. [47] Miller, J. Innes. (1969). The Spice Trade of The Roman Empire: 29 B.C. to A.D. 641. Oxford University Press. Special edition for Sandpiper Books. 1998. ISBN 0-19-814264-1. [48] Search for India's ancient city (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ south_asia/ 4970452. stm). BBC News. Retrieved on June 22, 2007. [49] "History Sindh, Invasions, Arab contact, trade, civilization, India, Pakistan, Islam" (http:/ / india_resource. tripod. com/ sindh. html). India_resource.tripod.com. . Retrieved 2010-05-16.

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History of India
[50] http:/ / www. indianscience. org/ essays/ 22-%20E--Gems%20& %20Minerals%20F. pdf [51] Battuta's Travels: Delhi, capital of Muslim India (http:/ / www. sfusd. k12. ca. us/ schwww/ sch618/ Ibn_Battuta/ Battuta's_Trip_Seven. html) [52] Timur - conquest of India (http:/ / www. gardenvisit. com/ travel/ clavijo/ timurconquestofindia. htm) [53] Elliot & Dawson. The History of India As told By Its Own Historians Vol III. pp.445446. [54] The Islamic World to 1600: Rise of the Great Islamic Empires (The Mughal Empire) (http:/ / www. ucalgary. ca/ applied_history/ tutor/ islam/ empires/ mughals/ ) [55] Iran in the Age of the Raj (http:/ / www. avalanchepress. com/ Soldier_Shah. php) [56] "Vasco da Gama: Round Africa to India, 1497-1498 CE" (http:/ / www. fordham. edu/ halsall/ mod/ 1497degama. html). Internet Modern History Sourcebook. Paul Halsall. June 1998. . Retrieved 2007-05-07. From: Oliver J. Thatcher, ed., The Library of Original Sources (Milwaukee: University Research Extension Co., 1907), Vol. V: 9th to 16th Centuries, pp. 26-40. [57] "Indian History - Important events: History of India. An overview" (http:/ / www. indianchild. com/ history_of_india. htm). History of India. Indianchild.com. . Retrieved 2007-05-07. [58] "The Great Moghul Jahangir: Letter to James I, King of England, 1617 A.D." (http:/ / www. fordham. edu/ halsall/ india/ 1617englandindies. html). Indian History Sourcebook: England, India, and The East Indies, 1617 CE. Internet Indian History Sourcebook, Paul Halsall. June 1998. . Retrieved 2007-05-07. From: James Harvey Robinson, ed., Readings in European History, 2 Vols. (Boston: Ginn and Co., 1904-1906), Vol. II: From the opening of the Protestant Revolt to the Present Day, pp. 333335. [59] "KOLKATA (CALCUTTA) : HISTORY" (http:/ / www. calcuttaweb. com/ history. shtml). Calcuttaweb.com. . Retrieved 2007-05-07. [60] Rickard, J. (1 November 2000). "Robert Clive, Baron Clive, 'Clive of India', 1725-1774" (http:/ / www. historyofwar. org/ articles/ people_cliveofindia. html). Military History Encyclopedia on the Web. historyofwar.org. . Retrieved 2007-05-07. [61] Prakash, Om. "The Transformation from a Pre-Colonial to a Colonial Order: The Case of India" (http:/ / www. lse. ac. uk/ collections/ economicHistory/ GEHN/ GEHN PDF/ Transformation from a Pre-Colonial - Om Prakash. pdf) (PDF). Global Economic History Network. Economic History Department, London School of Economics. pp. 340. . Retrieved 2007-05-07. [62] Kashmir: The origins of the dispute (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ south_asia/ 1762146. stm), BBC News, January 16, 2002 [63] Davis, Mike. Late Victorian Holocausts. 1. Verso, 2000. ISBN 1-85984-739-0 pg 7 [64] Plague (http:/ / www. who. int/ vaccine_research/ diseases/ zoonotic/ en/ index4. html). World Health Organization. [65] Reintegrating India with the World Economy (http:/ / www. petersoninstitute. org/ publications/ chapters_preview/ 98/ 1iie2806. pdf). Peterson Institute for International Economics. [66] The Partition of India (http:/ / www. english. emory. edu/ Bahri/ Part. html) [67] Mohsin, K.M.. "Canning, (Lord)" (http:/ / banglapedia. search. com. bd/ HT/ C_0035. htm). Banglapedia. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. . Retrieved 2007-05-07. "Indian Council Act of 1861 by which non-official Indian members were nominated to the Viceroy's Legislative Council." [68] "Minto-Morley Reforms" (http:/ / www. storyofpakistan. com/ articletext. asp?artid=A119). storyofpakistan.com. Jin Technologies. June 1, 2003. . Retrieved 2007-05-07. [69] Symonds, Richard (1950). The Making of Pakistan. London: Faber and Faber. p.74. OCLC1462689. ASIN B0000CHMB1. "at the lowest estimate, half a million people perished and twelve million became homeless"

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Further reading
Bannerjee, Dr. Gauranganath (1921). India as known to the ancient world (http://www.archive.org/stream/ indiaasknowntoan00banerich#page/n3/mode/2up). Humphrey Milford, Oxford University Press, London. Basham, A. L. (1954), The wonder that was India. Sidgwick and Jackson, London. Danilou, Alain (2003). A Brief History of India ISBN 0-89281-923-5 Elliot, Henry Miers; John Dowson (186777). The History of India, as told by its own historians. The Muhammadan Period (http://persian.packhum.org/persian/main?url=pf?file=80201010&ct=0). London: Trbner and Co. Keay, John (2000). India: A History (http://books.google.com/books?id=3aeQqmcXBhoC). New York, USA: Grove Press. ISBN0802137970. Kulke, Hermann and Dietmar Rothermund. A History of India (http://books.google.com/ books?id=V73N8js5ZgAC). 3rd ed. (1998) R.C. Majumdar, H.C. Raychaudhuri, and Kaukinkar Datta. An Advanced History of India. London: Macmillan. 1960. ISBN 0-333-90298-X R.C. Majumdar, The History and Culture of the Indian People, New York: The Macmillan Co., 1951. Mcleod, John. The History of India (http://books.google.com/books?id=DAwmUphO6eAC) (2002)

History of India Rothermund, Dietmar. An Economic History of India: From Pre-Colonial Times to 1991 (http://books.google. com/books?id=7cZ_oJGWWK0C) (1993) Sharma, R.S., India's Ancient Past, Oxford University Press Sims-Williams, Nicholas and J. Cribb (1995-1996) "A new Bactrian inscription of Kanishka the Great", in Silk Road Art and Archaeology No. 4, 1995-1996. Singhal, D.P. (1983), A History of the Indian People. Methuen, London. Smith, Vincent. The Oxford History of India (1981) Spear, Percival. The History of India Vol. 2 (1990) Tavernier, Jean Baptiste - Baron of Aubonne; Ball, Valentine (tr. from the Org French Ed. 1676) (1899). Travels in India (Vol. 1) (http://www.archive.org/stream/travelsinindia00unkngoog#page/n8/mode/2up). Macmillan & Co., London. Tavernier, Jean Baptiste; Ball, Valentine (tr. from the Org French Ed. 1676) (1899). Travels in India (Vol. 2) (http://www.archive.org/details/travelsinindia00tavegoog). Macmillan & Co., London. Thapar, Romila. Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 (http://books.google.com/ books?id=-5irrXX0apQC) (2004) Wolpert, Stanley. A New History of India. 6th ed. (1999)

51

External links
History of India (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/India/Society_and_Culture/History//) at the Open Directory Project

History of the Republic of India

The history of the Republic of India began on 26 January, 1950. The country became an independent dominion within the British Commonwealth 15 August 1947. George VI (Albert Frederick Arthur George) was King until the Republic was proclaimed in 1950. Concurrently the Muslim-majority northwest and east of British India was separated into the Dominion of Pakistan, by the partition of India. The partition led to a population transfer of more than 10 million people between India and Pakistan and the death of about one million people.[1] Lord Louis Mountbatten, and later Chakravarti Rajagopalachari served in the office of the Governor General of India. Jawaharlal Nehru became the first Prime Minister of India and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel became the Deputy Prime Minister of India and its Minister of Home Affairs. On 26 January 1950, India became a republic and a new constitution came into effect under which India was established as a secular and a democratic state.[2] In the years since independence India has made huge progress and coped with great problems, and has developed its industry and its agriculture, and has maintained a system of government which makes it the largest democracy in the world. The nation has faced challenges from religious violence, casteism, naxalism, terrorism and regional separatist insurgencies, especially in Jammu and Kashmir and northeastern India. India has unresolved territorial disputes with the People's Republic of China, which, in 1962, escalated into the Sino-Indian War, and with Pakistan, which resulted in wars in 1947, 1965, 1971 and 1999. India is a state armed with nuclear weapons; having conducted its first nuclear test in 1974,[3] followed by another five tests in 1998.[3] From the 1950s to the 1980s, India followed socialist-inspired policies. The economy was shackled by extensive regulation, protectionism and public ownership, leading to pervasive corruption and slow economic growth.[4] Beginning in 1991, significant economic reforms[5] have transformed India into one of the fastest-growing economies in the world, increasing its global clout.

History of the Republic of India

52

19471950
Independent India's first years were marked with turbulent events a massive exchange of population with Pakistan, the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 and the integration of over 500 princely states to form a united nation.

Partition Of India
An estimated 3.5 million[6] [7] [8] [9] [10] Hindus and Sikhs living in West Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, Baluchistan, East Bengal and Sind migrated to India in fear of domination and suppression in Muslim Pakistan. Communal violence killed an estimated one million Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs, and gravely destabilized both Dominions along their Punjab and Bengal boundaries, and the cities of Calcutta, Delhi and Lahore. The violence was stopped by early September owing to the cooperative efforts of both Indian and Pakistani leaders, and especially due the efforts of Mohandas Gandhi, the leader of the Indian freedom struggle, who undertook a fast-unto-death in Calcutta and later in Delhi to calm people and emphasize peace despite the threat to his life. Both Governments constructed large relief camps for incoming and leaving refugees, and the Indian Army was mobilized to provide humanitarian assistance on a massive scale. The assassination of Mahatma Gandhi on 30 January 1948 was carried out by Nathuram Vinayak Godse, who was affiliated with the Hindu nationalist movement, which held him responsible for partition and charged that Gandhi was appeasing Muslims. More than one million people flooded the streets of Delhi to follow the procession to cremation grounds and pay their last respects. In 1949, India recorded close to 1 million Hindu refugees flooded into West Bengal and other states from East Pakistan, owing to communal violence, intimidation and repression from Muslim authorities. The plight of the refugees outraged Hindus and Indian nationalists, and the refugee population drained the resources of Indian states, who were unable to absorb them. While not ruling out war, Prime Minister Nehru and Sardar Patel invited Liaquat Ali Khan for talks in Delhi. Although many Indians termed this appeasement, Nehru signed a pact with Liaquat Ali Khan that pledged both nations to the protection of minorities and creation of minority commissions. Although opposed to the principle, Patel decided to back this Pact for the sake of peace, and played a critical role in garnering support from West Bengal and across India, and enforcing the provisions of the Pact. Khan and Nehru also signed a trade agreement, and committed to resolving bilateral disputes through peaceful means. Steadily, hundreds of thousands of Hindus returned to East Pakistan, but the thaw in relations did not last long, primarily owing to the Kashmir dispute.

Union's Integration
British India consisted of 17 provinces and 562 princely states. The provinces were given to India or Pakistan, in some cases in particular Punjab and Bengal after being partitioned. The princes of the princely states, however, won the right to either remain independent or join either nation. Thus India's leaders faced the prospect of inheriting a nation fragmented between medieval-era kingdoms and provinces organized by colonial powers. Under the leadership of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, the new Government of India employed political negotiations backed with the option (and, on several occasions, the use) of military action to ensure the primacy of the Central government and of the Constitution then being drafted. There were three States that proved more difficult to integrate than others: 1. Junagadh a December 1947 plebiscite resulted in a 99% vote[11] to merge with India, annulling the controversial accession to Pakistan, which was made despite the people of the state being overwhelmingly Hindu. 2. Hyderabad Patel ordered the Indian army to depose the government of the Nizam after the failure of negotiations, which was done between 1317 September 1948. It was incorporated as a state of India the next year. 3. The area of Kashmir in the far north of the subcontinent quickly became a source of controversy that erupted into the First Indo-Pakistani War which lasted from 1947 to 1949. Eventually a United Nations-overseen ceasefire was agreed that left India in control of two thirds of the contested region.The Controversy arose because Jawaharlal

History of the Republic of India Nehru had agreed to give a plebiscite to the State. But due to Pakistan's forced attempt to integrate Kashmir, it was helped and integrated by India, the plebiscite never being held. The Indian Constitution came into force in Kashmir on 26 January 1950 with special clauses for the state.

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Constitution
The Constituent Assembly adopted the Constitution of India, drafted by a committee headed by B. R. Ambedkar, on 26 November 1949. India became a federal, democratic republic after its constitution came into effect on 26 January 1950. Rajendra Prasad became the first President of India.

1950s and 1960s

India held its first national elections under the Constitution in 1952, where a turnout of over 60% was recorded. The National Congress Party won an overwhelming majority, and Jawaharlal Nehru began a second term as Prime Minister. President Prasad was also elected to a second term by the electoral college of the first Parliament of India.

Nehru administration (19521964)

Prime Minister Nehru led the Congress to major election victories in 1957 and 1962. The Parliament passed extensive reforms that increased the legal rights of women in Hindu society, and further legislated against caste discrimination and untouchability. Nehru advocated a strong initiative to enroll India's children to complete primary education, and thousands of schools, colleges and institutions of advanced learning, such as the Indian Institutes of Technology were founded across the nation. Nehru advocated a socialist model for the economy of India no taxation for Indian farmers, minimum wage and benefits for blue-collar workers, and the nationalization of heavy industries such as steel, aviation, shipping, electricity and mining. An extensive public works and industrialization campaign resulted in the construction of major dams, irrigation canals, roads, thermal and hydroelectric power stations.

States reorganization
Potti Sreeramulu's fast-unto-death, and consequent death for the demand of an Andhra State in 1953 sparked a major re-shaping of the Indian Union. Nehru appointed the States Reorganization Commission, upon whose recommendations, the States Reorganization Act was passed in 1956. Old states were dissolved and new states created on the lines of shared linguistic and ethnic demographics. The separation of Kerala and the Telugu-speaking regions of Madras State enabled the creation of an exclusively Tamil-speaking state of Tamil Nadu. On 1 May 1960, the states of Maharashtra and Gujarat were created out of the Bombay state. The creation of Punjabi Suba on 1 November 1966, an exclusively Punjabi speaking state of Punjab (India), occurred after a long struggle.

Foreign policy and military conflicts

Nehru's foreign policy was the inspiration of the Non-Aligned Movement, of which India was a co-founder. Nehru maintained friendly relations with both the United States and the Soviet Union, and encouraged the People's Republic of China to join the global community of nations. In 1956, when the Suez Canal Company was seized by the Egyptian government, an international conference voted 18-4 to take action against Egypt. India was one of the four backers of Egypt, along with Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and the USSR. India had controversially opposed the partition of Palestine and the 1956 invasion of the Sinai by Israel, Britain and France, but did not oppose the Chinese direct control over Tibet and the suppression of a pro-democracy movement in Hungary by the Soviet Union. Although Nehru disavowed nuclear ambitions for India, Canada and France aided India in the development of nuclear power stations for electricity. India also negotiated an agreement in 1960 with Pakistan on the just use of the waters of seven rivers shared by the countries. Nehru had visited Pakistan in 1953, but owing to political turmoil in Pakistan, no headway was made on the Kashmir dispute.

History of the Republic of India 1. India has fought a total of four wars/military conflicts with its rival nation Pakistan, two in this period.In the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 fought over Kashmir, Pakistan occupied one third of Kashmir (which India claims as its territory), and India occupied three fifths (which Pakistan claims as its territory). In the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 India attacked Pakistan on all fronts after attempts by Pakistani troops to infiltrate into Indian controlled Kashmir. 2. In 1960, after continual petitions for a peaceful handover, India invaded and annexed the Portuguese colony of Goa on the west coast of India. 3. In 1962 China and India engaged in the brief Sino-Indian War over the border in the Himalayas. The war was a complete rout for the Indians and led to a refocusing on arms build-up and an improvement in relations with the United States. China withdrew from disputed territory in, what is to China South Tibet, and to India part of the North-East Frontier Agency that it crossed during the war. Unrelated to that war, India disputes China's sovereignty over the smaller Aksai Chin territory that it controls on the western part of the Sino-Indian border.

54

Post-Nehru India
Jawaharlal Nehru died on 27 May 1964. Lal Bahadur Shastri succeeded him as Prime Minister. In 1965 in the Second Kashmir War India and Pakistan again went to war, but without any definitive outcome or alteration of the Kashmir boundary. The Tashkent Agreement was signed under the mediation of the Soviet government, but Shastri died on the night after the signing ceremony. A leadership election resulted in the elevation of Indira Gandhi, Nehru's daughter who had been serving as Minister for Information and Broadcasting, as the third Prime Minister. She defeated right-wing leader Morarji Desai. The Congress Party won a reduced majority in the 1967 elections owing to widespread disenchantment over rising prices of commodities, unemployment, economic stagnation and a food crisis. Indira Gandhi had started on a rocky note after agreeing to a devaluation of the Indian rupee, which created much hardship for Indian businesses and consumers, and the import of wheat from the U.S. fell through due to political disputes. Morarji Desai entered Gandhi's government as Deputy Prime Minister and Finance Minister, and with senior Congress politicians attempted to constrain Gandhi's authority. But following the counsel of her political advisor P. N. Haksar, Gandhi resuscitated her popular appeal by a major shift towards socialist policies. She successfully ended the privy purse guarantee for former Indian royalty, and waged a major offensive against party hierarchy over the nationalization of India's banks. Although resisted by Desai and India's business community, the policy was popular with the masses. When Congress politicians attempted to oust Gandhi by suspending her Congress membership, Gandhi was empowered with a large exodus of MPs to her own Congress (R). The bastion of the freedom struggle, the Indian National Congress had split in 1969. Gandhi continued to govern with a slim majority.

1970s
In 1971, Indira Gandhi and her Congress (R) were returned to power with a massively increased majority. The nationalization of banks was carried out, and many other socialist economic and industrial policies enacted. India intervened in Bangladesh Liberation War a civil war taking place in Pakistan's Bengali half, after millions of refugees had fled the persecution of the Pakistani army. The clash resulted in the independence of East Pakistan, which became known as Bangladesh, and Prime Minister Indira Gandhi's elevation to immense popularity. Relations with the United States grew strained, and India signed a 20-year treaty of friendship with the Soviet Union - breaking explicitly for the first time from non-alignment. In 1974, India tested its first nuclear weapon in the desert of Rajasthan. Meanwhile, in the Indian protectorate of Sikkim, a referendum was held that resulted in a vote to formally join India and depose the Chogyal. On 26 April 1975, Sikkim formally became India's 22nd state.

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Green revolution and Operation Flood

India's population passed the 500 million mark in the early 1970s, but its long-standing food crisis was resolved with greatly improved agricultural productivity due to the Green revolution. The Government sponsored modern agricultural implements, new varieties of generic seeds and increased financial assistance to farmers that increased the yield of food crops such as wheat, rice and corn, as well as commercial crops like cotton, tea, tobacco and coffee. Increased agricultural productivity expanded across the states of the Indo-Gangetic plains and the Punjab. Under Operation Flood, the Government encouraged the production of milk, which increased greatly, and improved rearing of livestock across India. This enabled India to become self-sufficient in feeding its own population, ending two decades of food imports.

Indo-Pakistan War of 1971

The Indo-Pakistan War of 1971 was the third in four wars fought between the two nations. In this war, fought over the issue of the Independence of East Pakistan from Pakistan into the nation of Bangladesh India decisively defeated Pakistan resulting in the independence of Bangladesh from Pakistani control.

Indian Emergency
Economic and social problems, as well as allegations of corruption caused increasing political unrest across India, culminating in the Bihar Movement. In 1974, the Allahabad High Court found Indira Gandhi guilty of misusing government machinery for election purposes. Opposition parties conducted nationwide strikes and protests demanding her immediate resignation. Various political parties united under Jaya Prakash Narayan to resist what he termed Mrs. Gandhi's dictatorship. Leading strikes across India that paralyzed its economy and administration, Narayan even called for the Army to oust Mrs. Gandhi. In 1975, Mrs. Gandhi advised President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed to declare a state of emergency under the Constitution, which allowed the Central government to assume sweeping powers to defend law and order in the nation. Explaining the breakdown of law and order and threat to national security as her primary reasons, Mrs. Gandhi suspended many civil liberties and postponed elections at national and state levels. Non-Congress governments in Indian states were dismissed, and opposition political leaders and activists imprisoned. Strikes and public protests were outlawed in all forms. India's economy benefited from an end to paralyzing strikes and political disorder. India announced a 20-point programme which enhanced agricultural and industrial production, increasing national growth, productivity and job growth. But many organs of government and many Congress politicians were accused of corruption and authoritarian conduct. Police officers were accused of arresting and torturing innocent people. Indira's son and political advisor, Sanjay Gandhi was accused of committing gross excesses - Sanjay was blamed for the Health Ministry carrying out forced vasectomies of men and sterilization of women as a part of the initiative to control population growth, and for the demolition of slums in Delhi near the Turkmen Gate, which left thousands of people dead and many more displaced.

Janata interlude
Indira called for elections in 1977, only to suffer a humiliating electoral defeat at the hands of the Janata Party, an amalgamation of opposition parties. Morarji Desai became the first non-Congress Prime Minister of India. The Desai administration established tribunals to investigate Emergency-era abuses, and Indira and Sanjay Gandhi were arrested after a report from the Shah Commission. But in 1979, the coalition crumbled and Charan Singh formed an interim government. The Janata party had become intensely unpopular due to its internecine warfare, and the fact that it offered no leadership on solving India's serious economic and social problems.

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1980s
Indira Gandhi and her Congress (I) party were swept back into power with a large majority in January, 1980. But the rise of an insurgency in Punjab would jeopardize India's security. In Assam, there were many incidents of communal violence between native villagers and refugees from Bangladesh, as well as settlers from other parts of India. When Indian forces, undertaking Operation Bluestar, raided the hideout of Khalistan militants in the Golden Temple in Amritsar, the inadvertent deaths of civilians and damage to the temple building inflamed tensions in the Sikh community across India. The Government used intensive police operations to crush militant operations, but it resulted in many incidents of abuse of civil liberties. Northeast India was paralyzed owing to the ULFA's clash with Government forces. On 31 October 1984, the Prime Minister's own Sikh bodyguards killed her, and communal violence erupted in Delhi and parts of Punjab, causing the deaths of thousands of people along with terrible pillage, arson and rape. Government investigation has failed to date to discover the causes and punish the perpetrators, but public opinion blamed Congress leaders for directing attacks on Sikhs in Delhi.

Rajiv Gandhi administration

The Congress party chose Rajiv Gandhi, Indira's older son as the next Prime Minister. Rajiv had been elected to Parliament only in 1982, and at 40, was the youngest national political leader and Prime Minister ever. But his youth and inexperience were an asset in the eyes of citizens tired of the inefficacy and corruption of career politicians, and looking for newer policies and a fresh start to resolve the country's long-standing problems. The Parliament was dissolved, and Rajiv led the Congress party to its largest majority in history (over 415 seats out of 545 possible), reaping a sympathy vote over his mother's assassination. Rajiv Gandhi initiated a series of reforms - the license raj was loosened, and government restrictions on foreign currency, travel, foreign investment and imports decreased considerably. This allowed private businesses to use resources and produce commercial goods without government bureaucracy interfering, and the influx of foreign investment increased India's national reserves. As Prime Minister, Rajiv broke from his mother's precedent to improve relations with the United States, which increased economic aid and scientific cooperation. Rajiv's encouragement of science and technology resulted in a major expansion of the telecommunications industry, India's space program and gave birth to the software industry and information technology sector. India in 1987 brokered an agreement between the Government of Sri Lanka and the LTTE insurgency that had torn apart the island for over a decade. Rajiv sent Indian troops to enforce the agreement and disarm the Tamil rebels, but the Indian Peace Keeping Force, as it was known, became entangled in outbreaks of violence - ultimately ending up fighting the Tamil rebels itself, and becoming a target of attack from Sri Lankan nationalists. VP Singh withdrew the IPKF in 1990, but thousands of Indian soldiers had died. Rajiv's departure from socialist policies did not sit well with the masses, who did not benefit from the innovations. Unemployment was a serious problem, and India's burgeoning population added ever-increasing needs for diminishing resources. Rajiv Gandhi's image as an honest politician (he was nicknamed Mr. Clean by the press) was shattered when the Bofors scandal broke, revealing that senior government officials had taken bribes over defence contracts by a Swedish guns producer.

Janata Dal
Elections in 1989 gave Rajiv's Congress a plurality, a far cry from the majority which propelled him to power. Power came instead to his former finance and defence minister, VP Singh. Singh had been moved from the Finance ministry to the Defence ministry after he unearthed some scandals which made the Congress leadership uncomfortable. Singh then unearthed the Bofors scandal, and was sacked from the party and office. Becoming a popular crusader for reform and clean government, Singh led the Janata Dal coalition to a majority. He was supported by BJP and the leftist parties from outside. Becoming Prime Minister, Singh made an important visit to the Golden Temple shrine, to heal the wounds of the past. He started to implement the controversial Mandal commission report, to increase the quota in reservation for low caste Hindus. The BJP protested these implementations, and took

History of the Republic of India its support back, following which he resigned. Chandra Shekhar split to form the Janata Dal (Socialist), supported by Rajiv's Congress. This new government also collapsed in a matter of months, when congress withdrew its support.

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1990s
On 21 May 1991, while Rajiv Gandhi campaigned in Tamil Nadu on behalf of Congress (I), a Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) female suicide bomber killed him and many others, setting off the bomb in her belt by leaning forward while garlanding him. In the elections, Congress (I) won 244 parliamentary seats and put together a coalition, returning to power under the leadership of P.V. Narasimha Rao. This Congress-led government, which served a full 5-year term, initiated a gradual process of economic liberalisation and reform, which has opened the Indian economy to global trade and investment. India's domestic politics also took new shape, as traditional alignments by caste, creed, and ethnicity gave way to a plethora of small, regionally-based political parties. But India was rocked by communal violence between Hindus and Muslims that killed over 10,000 people, following the Babri Mosque demolition by Hindu mobs in the course of the Ram Janmabhoomi dispute in Ayodhya in 1992. The final months of the Rao-led government in the spring of 1996 suffered the effects of several major political corruption scandals, which contributed to the worst electoral performance by the Congress Party in its history.

Era of coalitions
The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) emerged from the May 1996 national elections as the single-largest party in the Lok Sabha but without enough strength to prove a majority on the floor of that Parliament. Under Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee, the BJP coalition lasted in power 13 days. With all political parties wishing to avoid another round of elections, a 14-party coalition led by the Janata Dal emerged to form a government known as the United Front. A United Front government under former Chief Minister of Karnataka H.D. Deve Gowda lasted less than a year. The leader of the Congress Party withdrew his support in March 1997. Inder Kumar Gujral replaced Deve Gowda as the consensus choice for Prime Minister of a 16-party United Front coalition. In November 1997, the Congress Party again withdrew support for the United Front. New elections in February 1998 brought the BJP the largest number of seats in Parliament (182), but this fell far short of a majority. On 20 March 1998, the President inaugurated a BJP-led coalition government with Vajpayee again serving as Prime Minister. On 11 and 13 May 1998, this government conducted a series of underground nuclear tests, prompting President of the United States Bill Clinton and Japan to impose economic sanctions on India pursuant to the 1994 Nuclear Proliferation Prevention Act.

Into the 21st century

In April 1999, the coalition government led by the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) fell apart, leading to fresh elections in September. In May and June 1999, India discovered an elaborate campaign of terrorist infiltration that resulted in the Kargil War in Kashmir, derailing a promising peace process that had begun only three months earlier when Prime Minister Vajpayee visited Pakistan, inaugurating the Delhi-Lahore bus service. Indian forces killed infiltrators, who included Pakistani soldiers, and reclaimed important border posts in high-altitude warfare. In the same year, India's population exceeded 1 billion. However, terrorism has increased in India with bomb blasts in leading cities like Mumbai, New Delhi, Jaipur, Bangalore, Hyderabad has been very common.[12]

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Soaring on popularity earned following the successful conclusion of the Kargil conflict, the National Democratic Alliance - a new coalition led by the BJP gained a majority to form a government with Vajpayee as Prime Minister in October 1999. The NDA government's credibility was adversely affected by reports of intelligence failures that led to the Kargil incursions going undetected, as well as allegations that the Defence Minister George Fernandes took bribes over the purchase of coffins for soldiers who died in the battle despite the fact that Fernandes was himself one Manmohan Singh talks with U.S. President Barack Obama during the of the simplest and best ministers. Later the CBI charge 2009 G-20 Pittsburgh summit at the Phipps Conservatory & sheeted senior BJP leaders for inciting the demolition Botanical Gardens. of the Babri mosque. Later, all of them were acquitted from the respective cases. In 2002, tensions increased over the Ram Janmabhoomi dispute when the Vishwa Hindu Parishad threatened to defy the government, vowing to perform a religious ceremony on the disputed site. 59 Hindu activists died returning from the site when a train carriage took fire a month later, in Godhra, Gujarat. This sparked off the 2002 Gujarat violence, leading to the deaths of thousands of Hindus and Muslims. The NDA government led by Vajpayee is rated as one of the best governments India has ever had with the country showing immense growth in all sectors and was well on the way of becoming a super power. Throughout 2003, India's speedy economic progress, political stability and a rejuvenated peace initiative with Pakistan increased the government's popularity. In January 2004 Vajpayee recommended early dissolution of the Lok Sabha and general elections. The Congress Party-led alliance won an upset victory in elections held in May 2004. Manmohan Singh became the Prime Minister, after the Congress President Sonia Gandhi, the widow of Rajiv Gandhi declined to take the office, in order to defuse the controversy about whether her foreign birth should be considered a disqualification for the Prime Minister's post. The Congress formed a coalition with socialist and regional parties, and enjoys the outside support of India's Communist parties. Manmohan Singh became the first Sikh to date to hold India's most powerful office. Singh has continued economic liberalization, although the need for support from Indian socialists and communists has forestalled further privatization. The 21st century saw India, improve relations, with many countries and foreign unions including the United States, the European Union, Israel and the People's Republic of China. The economy of India, has accelerated by growing at a very rapid pace. India, is now being looked at as a potential superpower.[13] [14] In the Indian General Election in 2009, the United Progressive Alliance won a convincing 262 seats with INC alone winning 206 seats. But the Congress led government is facing a lot of allegations against it. The inflation rose to an all time high and the ever increasing prices of food commodities has caused wide spread agitation. The commonwealth games scandal rocked the country in 2010, which raised questions about the credibility of the government. The Commonwealth games committee was headed by Suresh Kalmadi, a former Congress MP. This was followed by the spectrum scandal involving the minister for telecommunications A.Raja, which had caused an estimated loss of 1,76,000 crores to the exchequer. There was an another scam involving the Congress government in Maharastra, where various Congress bureaucrats and the CM itself held illegal possessions in a building build for wartime heroes. Even though the current Indian PM was seen as an economist who brought policy reforms, these scandals raised question about his capability and doubts over his authority being undermined by Congress president Sonia Gandhi. Despite all this, India showed a great promise with a higher growth rate and GDP.

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Economic transformation
Under the policies initiated by Late Prime Minister Narasimha Rao and his Finance minister Manmohan Singh, India's economy expanded rapidly. The Rao administration initiated the privatization of large, inefficient and loss-inducing government corporations. The UF government had attempted a progressive budget that encouraged reforms, but the 1997 Asian financial crisis and political instability created economic stagnation. The Vajpayee administration continued with privatization, reduction of taxes, a sound fiscal policy aimed at reducing deficits and debts and increased initiatives for public works. The Golden Quadrilateral project aimed to link India's corners with a network of modern highways. Cities like Bangalore, Hyderabad, Pune and Ahmedabad have risen in prominence and economic importance, became centres of rising industries and destination for foreign investment and firms. Strategies like forming Special Economic Zones - tax amenities, good communications infrastructure, low regulation to encourage industries has paid off in many parts of the country. A rising generation of well-educated and skilled professionals in Manmohan Singh widely credited for initiating scientific sectors of industry began propelling the Indian economy, as economic reforms in India. the information technology industry took hold across India with the proliferation of computers. The new technologies increased the efficiency of activity in almost every type of industry, which also benefitted from the availability of skilled labor. Foreign investment and outsourcing of jobs to India's labor markets further enhanced India's economic growth. A large middle-class has arisen across India, which has increased the demand, and thus production of a wide array of consumer goods. Unemployment is steadily declining, and poverty has fallen to approximately 22%. Gross Domestic Product growth increased to beyond 7%. While serious challenges remain, India is enjoying a period of economic expansion that has propelled it to the forefront of the world economy, and has correspondingly increased its influence in political and diplomatic terms.

References
[1] Larres, Klaus. A companion to Europe since 1945. Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. ISBN1405106123, 9781405106122. [2] "CIA Factbook: India" (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ in. html). CIA Factbook. . Retrieved 10 March 2007. [3] "India Profile" (http:/ / www. nti. org/ e_research/ profiles/ India/ index. html). Nuclear Threat Initiative (NTI). 2003. . Retrieved 20 June 2007. [4] Eugene M. Makar (2007). An American's Guide to Doing Business in India. [5] Montek Singh Ahluwalia (2002) (MS Word). Economic Reforms in India since 1991: Has Gradualism Worked? (http:/ / planningcommission. nic. in/ aboutus/ speech/ spemsa/ msa008. doc). Journal of Economic Perspectives. . Retrieved 13 June 2007. [6] Independence Day (http:/ / festivals. tajonline. com/ independence-day. php), Taj Online Festivals. [7] Partition of India#Population exchanges. [8] KCM (http:/ / kcm. co. kr/ bethany_eng/ p_code3/ 1496. html). [9] Pakistan (http:/ / encarta. msn. com/ encyclopedia_761560851_9/ Pakistan. html), Encarta. Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5kwqySWBG) 2009-10-31. [10] Timeline (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wnet/ wideangle/ shows/ india/ timeline4. html), PBS. [11] Gandhi, Rajmohan (1991). Patel: A Life. India: Navajivan. p.292. ASIN B0006EYQ0A. [12] "Serial bomb blasts leave 60 dead in India - CNN.com" (http:/ / edition. cnn. com/ 2008/ WORLD/ asiapcf/ 05/ 13/ india. bombs/ index. html). Edition.cnn.com. 14 May 2008. . Retrieved 2008-11-04. [13] http:/ / www. newsweek. com/ id/ 47261 [14] Giridharadas, Anand (21 July 2005). The New York Times. http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2005/ 07/ 20/ world/ asia/ 20iht-india. html?_r=1. Retrieved 4 May 2010.

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Government
Government of India
The Government of India, officially known as the Union Government, and also known as the Central Government, was established by the Constitution of India, and is the governing authority of the union of 28 states and seven union territories, collectively called the Republic of India. It is seated in New Delhi, the capital of India. The government comprises three branches: the executive, the legislative and the judiciary. The executive branch headed by the President, who is the Head of State and exercises his or her power directly or through officers subordinate to him.[1] The Legislative branch or the Parliament consists of the lower house, the Lok Sabha, and the upper house, the Rajya Sabha, as well as the president. The Judicial branch has the Supreme Court at its apex, 21 High Courts, and numerous civil, criminal and family courts at the district level. The basic civil and criminal laws governing the citizens of India are set down in major parliamentary legislation, such as the Civil Procedure Code, the Indian Penal Code, and the Criminal Procedure Code. The union and individual state governments consist of executive, legislative and judicial branches. The legal system as applicable to the federal and individual state governments is based on the English Common and Statutory Law. India accepts International Court of Justice jurisdiction with several reservations. By the 73rd and 74th amendments to the constitution, the Panchayat Raj system has been institutionalised for local governance.

Parliamentary government
India has a parliamentary system of government based largely on that of the United Kingdom (Westminster system). However, eminent scholars including the first President Dr Rajendra Prasad have raised the question "how far we are entitled to invoke and incorporate into our written Constitution by interpretation the conventions of the British Constitution".[2] The legislature is the Parliament. It is bicameral, consisting of two houses: the directly-elected 545-member Lok Sabha ("House of the People"), the lower house, and the 250-member indirectly-elected and appointed Rajya Sabha ("Council of States"), the upper house. The parliament enjoys parliamentary supremacy.

Sansad Bhavan

All the members of the Council of Ministers as well as the Prime Minister are members of Parliament. If they are not, they must be elected within a period of six months from the time they assume their respective office. The Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers are responsible to the Lok Sabha, individually as well as collectively.

Individual responsibility
Every individual minister is in charge of a specific ministry or ministries (or specific other portfolio). He is responsible for any act of failure in all the policies relating to his department. In case of any lapse, he is individually responsible to the Parliament. If a vote of no confidence is passed against the individual minister, he has to resign. Individual responsibility can amount to collective responsibility. Therefore, the Prime Minister, in order to save his government, can ask for the resignation of such a minister and the people have a say.

Government of India

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Collective responsibility
The Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers are jointly accountable to the Lok Sabha. If there is a policy failure or lapse on the part of the government, all the members of the council are jointly responsible. If a vote of no confidence is passed against the government, then all the ministers headed by the Prime Minister have to resign.

Executive Branch
Executive branch of government is the part of government that has sole authority and responsibility for the daily administration of the state bureaucracy.The division of power into separate branches of government is central to the republican idea of the separation of powers. The separation of powers system is designed to distribute authority away from the executive branch an attempt to preserve individual liberty in response to tyrannical leadership throughout history.

President
The executive power is vested on mainly the President of India by Article 53(1) of the constitution. The President enjoys all constitutional powers and exercises them directly or through officers subordinate to him as per the aforesaid Article 53(1).The President is to act in accordance with aid and advise tendered by the head of government (Prime Minister of India) and his or her Council of Ministers (the cabinet) as described in Article 74 (Constitution of India).

The Rashtrapati Bhawan where President,Vice President,Cabinet Secretary and other Secretaries meet.

The Constitution vests in the President of India all the executive powers of the Central Government. The President appoints the Prime Minister the person most likely to command the support of the majority in the Lok Sabha (usually the leader of the majority party or coalition). The President then appoints the other members of the Council of Ministers, distributing portfolios to them on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Council of Ministers remains in power during the 'pleasure' of the President. In practice, however, the Council of Ministers must retain the support of the Lok Sabha. If a President were to dismiss the Council of Ministers on his or her own initiative, it might trigger a constitutional crisis. Thus, in practice, the Council of Ministers cannot be dismissed as long as it commands the support of a majority in the Lok Sabha. The President is responsible for making a wide variety of appointments. These include: Governors of States The Chief Justice, other judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts of India. The Attorney General The President's Officer The Comptroller and Auditor General The Chief Election Commissioner and Cabinet Secretary The Chairman and other Members of the Union Public Service Commission

Ambassadors and High Commissioners to other countries. The President also receives the credentials of Ambassadors and High Commissioners from other countries. The President is the de jure Commander in Chief of the Indian Armed Forces. The President of India can grant a pardon to or reduce the sentence of a convicted person for

Government of India one time, particularly in cases involving punishment of death. The decisions involving pardoning and other rights by the president are independent of the opinion of the Prime Minister or the Lok Sabha majority. In most other cases, however, the President exercises his or her executive powers on the advice of the Prime Minister.

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Cabinet Secretary
The head of executive officers is Cabinet Secretary after President of India.The Cabinet Secretary is under the direct charge of the Prime Minister. The administrative head of the Cabinet Secretariat is the Cabinet Secretary who is also the ex-officio Chairman of the Civil Services Board, and thus the head of the Indian Administrative Service. As a matter of convention the senior most civil servant is appointed as a Cabinet Secretary. He belongs to the Indian Administrative Service. The incumbent has a fixed tenure of 4 years.

The Cabinet Secretariat of India.

The Cabinet Secretary is the head of all the civil services under the constitution like IAS, IPS, IRS, IFS, PCS, PPS etc. Thus, he is the head of all the All India services including the Indian Police Service(IPS), Indian Administrative Service(IAS), Indian Foreign Service(IFS), Indian Revenue Service(IRS) and the Indian Forest Service(IFS). He ranks tenth in the Table of Precedence of India. The current Cabinet Secretary is Shri K.M.Chandrasekhar. The following are the functions of a Cabinet Secretary: Provide assistance to the Council of Ministers Act as advisor and conscience keeper of the civil services Handle senior appointments Prepare of the agenda of the Cabinet Attend the meetings of the Cabinet Ensure that the Cabinet decisions are implemented Advise the Prime Minister Act as the Chairman of the Committee of Secretaries on Administration Act as the Chairman of the Chief Secretaries Committee Provide an element of continuity and stability to administration during crises In the Government of India Allocation of Business Rules, 1961 "Cabinet Secretariat" finds a place in the First Schedule to the Rules. The subjects allotted to this Secretariat are, firstly, secretarial assistance to Cabinet and Cabinet Committees, and secondly, the administration of the Rules of Business. The Cabinet Secretariat is responsible for the administration of the Government of India Transaction of Business Rules, 1961 and the Government of India Allocation of Business Rules 1961, facilitating smooth transaction of business in Ministries/Departments of the Government by ensuring adherence to these rules. The Secretariat assists in decision-making in Government by ensuring Inter-Ministerial coordination, ironing out differences amongst Ministries/Departments and evolving consensus through the instrumentality of the standing/adhoc Committees of Secretaries. Through this mechanism new policy initiatives are also promoted. The Cabinet Secretariat ensures that the President of India, the Vice-President and Ministers are kept informed of the major activities of all Departments by means of a monthly summary of their activities. Management of major crisis situations in the country and coordinating activities of the various Ministries in such a situation is also one of the functions of the Cabinet Secretariat. The Cabinet Secretariat has 3 wings: Civil, Military and Intelligence. The Civil wing is the main wing and provides aid, advise and assistance to the Union Cabinet. The Military wing provides secretarial assistance to the Defence Committee of the Cabinet, the Military Affairs Committee, the National Defence Council and other committees dealing with defence matters. The Intelligence wing deals with matters pertaining to the Joint Intelligence

Government of India Committee of the Union Cabinet. The chief of Research and Analysis Wing R&AW also officially first reports to the Cabinet Secretary, and is officially designated Secretary R in the Cabinet Secretariat. The Cabinet Secretary is arguably India's most powerful bureaucrat and right hand of Prime Minister of India.

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Judicial branch
India's independent judicial system began under the British, and its concepts and procedures resemble those of Anglo-Saxon countries. The Supreme Court of India consists of a Chief Justice and 30 associate justices, all appointed by the President on the advice of the Chief Justice of India. In the 1960s, India moved away from using juries for most trials, finding them to be corrupt and ineffective, instead almost all trials are conducted by judges. Unlike its US counterpart, the Indian justice system consists of a unitary system at both state and federal level. The judiciary consists of the Supreme Court of India, High Courts of India at the state level, and District Courts and Sessions Courts at the district level.

Supreme Court of India.

National judiciary
The Supreme Court of India has original, appellate and advisory jurisdiction. Its exclusive original jurisdiction extends to any dispute between the Government of India and one or more states, or between the Government of India and any state or states on one side and one or more states on the other, or between two or more states, if and insofar as the dispute involves any question (whether of law or of fact) on which the existence or extent of a legal right depends. In addition, Article 32 of the Indian Constitution gives an extensive original jurisdiction to the Supreme Court in regard to enforcement of Fundamental Rights. It is empowered to issue directions, orders or writs, including writs in the nature of habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, quo warranto and certiorari to enforce them. The Supreme Court has been conferred with power to direct transfer of any civil or criminal case from one State High Court to another State High Court, or from a court subordinate to another State High Court. Public Interest Litigation (PIL) : Although the proceedings in the Supreme Court arise out of the judgments or orders made by the Subordinate Courts, of late the Supreme Court has started entertaining matters in which interest of the public at large is involved, and the Court may be moved by any individual or group of persons either by filing a Writ Petition at the Filing Counter of the Court, or by addressing a letter to Hon'ble The Chief Justice of India highlighting the question of public importance for invoking this jurisdiction.

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Reform
Corruption
In 2009, nearly a quarter of the 543 elected members of parliament had been charged with crimes, including rape or murder.[3] There are many institutional efforts such as the Right to Information Act, computerization/e-Governance, the establishment of Lokayukta who can be Cabinet Secretary to check corruption.
Overview of the index of perception of corruption, 2007

Inefficiency
Currently, most spending fails to reach its intended recipients.[4] Lant Pritchett calls India's public sector "one of the world's top ten biggest problems - of the order of AIDS and climate change".[4] The Economist article about Indian civil service (2008) said that Indian central government employs around 3 million people and states another 7 million, including "vast armies of paper-shuffling peons".[4] The Economist states that "India has some of the hardest-working bureaucrats in the world, but its administration has an abysmal record of serving the public".[5] Unannounced visits by government inspectors showed that 25% of public sector teachers and 40% of public sector medical workers could not be found at the workplace. Teacher absence rates ranged from 15% in Maharashtra to 71% in Bihar. Despite worse absence rates, public sector teachers enjoy salaries at least five times higher than private sector teachers. India's absence rates are among the worst in the world.[6] [7] [8] [9] Many experiments with computerization have failed due to corruption and other factors.[10] [11] In 2008, Tanmoy Chakrabarty noted that "There are vested interests everywhere, politicians fear that they will lose control with e-government, and this is coming in the way of successful implementation of e-government projects in India. [...] Out of the 27 projects under the NEGP, only one (the MCA21 program) has been completed. There is tremendous gap between conceptualization and implementation".[11]

Spending priorities
The government subsidizes everything from gasoline to food.[12] Loss-making state-owned enterprises are supported by the government.[12] Farmers are given electricity for free.[12] Overall, a 2005 article by International Herald Tribune stated that subsidies amounted to 14% of GDP.[12] As much as 39 percent of subsidized kerosene is stolen.[12] Moreover, these subsidies cause economic distortions.[12] On the other hand, India spends relatively little on education, health, or infrastructure. Urgently needed infrastructure investment has been much lower than in China. According to the UNESCO, India has the lowest public expenditure on higher education per student among developing and developed countries.[13]

Government of India

65

Deficits
As per the CIA World Factbook, India ranks 23rd in the world, with respect to the Public Debt, with a total of 61.30% of GDP, just before United States, which ranks 24th (2008 estimated).[14]

Finance
Taxation
It is headed by the finance ministry of the government of india. India has a three-tier tax structure, wherein the constitution empowers the union government to levy income tax, tax on capital transactions (wealth tax, inheritance tax), sales tax, service tax, customs and excise duties and the state governments to levy sales tax on intrastate sale of goods, tax on entertainment and professions, excise duties on manufacture of alcohol, stamp duties on transfer of property and collect land revenue (levy on land owned). The local governments are empowered by the state government to levy property tax and charge Regional office of the State Bank of India (SBI), users for public utilities like water supply, sewage etc.[15] [16] More India's largest bank, in Mumbai. The government than half of the revenues of the union and state governments come of India is the largest shareholder in SBI. from taxes, of which half come from Indirect taxes. More than a quarter of the union government's tax revenues is shared with the state governments.[17] The tax reforms, initiated in 1991, have sought to rationalise the tax structure and increase compliance by taking steps in the following directions: Reducing the rates of individual and corporate income taxes, excises, customs and making it more progressive Reducing exemptions and concessions Simplification of laws and procedures Introduction of permanent account number (PAN) to track monetary transactions 21 of the 28 states introduced value added tax (VAT) on 1 April 2005 to replace the complex and multiple sales tax system[16] [18]

The non-tax revenues of the central government come from fiscal services, interest receipts, public sector dividends, etc., while the non-tax revenues of the States are grants from the central government, interest receipts, dividends and income from general, economic and social services.[19] Inter-state share in the federal tax pool is decided by the recommendations of the Finance Commission to the President. Total tax receipts of Centre and State amount to approximately 18% of national GDP. This compares to a figure of 3745% in the OECD.

General budget
The Finance minister of India presents the annual union budget in the Parliament on the last working day of February. The budget has to be passed by the Lok Sabha before it can come into effect on 1 April, the start of India's fiscal year. The Union budget is preceded by an economic survey which outlines the broad direction of the budget and the economic performance of the country for the outgoing financial year. This economic survey involves all the various NGOs, women organizations, business people, old people associations etc. The 2009 Union budget of India had a total estimated expenditure for 2009-10 was 1020838 crore (US$226.6 billion), of which 695689 crore (US$154.4 billion) was towards Non Plan and 325149 crore (US$72.2 billion) towards Plan expenditure. Total estimated revenue was 619842 crore (US$137.6 billion), including revenue

Government of India receipts of 614497 crore (US$136.4 billion) and capital receipts of 5345 crore (US$1.2 billion), excluding borrowings. The resulting fiscal deficit was 400996 crore (US$89 billion) while revenue deficit was 282735 crore (US$62.8 billion).The gross tax receipts were budgeted at 641079 crore (US$142.3 billion) and non-tax revenue receipts at 140279 crore (US$31.1 billion). India's non-development revenue expenditure has increased nearly fivefold in 200304 since 199091 and more than tenfold since 19851986. Interest payments are the single largest item of expenditure and accounted for more than 40% of the total non development expenditure in the 200304 budget. Defence expenditure increased fourfold during the same period and has been increasing due to India's desire to project its military prowess beyond South Asia. In 2007, India's defence spending stood at US$26.5 billion.[20]

66

Further reading
Subrata K. Mitra and V.B. Singh. 1999. Democracy and Social Change in India: A Cross-Sectional Analysis of the National Electorate. New Delhi: Sage Publications. ISBN 81-7036-809-X (India HB) ISBN 0-7619-9344-4 (U.S. HB).

References
[1] Ministry of Law and Justice, Govt of India: Constitution of India, updated up to 94th Amendment Act, page 26,http:/ / lawmin. nic. in/ coi/ coiason29july08. pdf [2] Why we need an executive president : Rajinder Puri, Outlook India, para 11, http:/ / www. outlookindia. com/ article. aspx?235067'' [3] Washington Post:When the Little Ones Run the Show (quote from the New Delhi based Association for Democratic Reform) (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2009/ 05/ 13/ AR2009051303758. html) retrieved 14 May 2009 [4] India's civil service: Battling the babu raj (http:/ / www. economist. com/ displaystory. cfm?story_id=10804248) 6 March 2008 The Economist [5] "India's civil service: Battling the babu raj" (http:/ / www. economist. com/ world/ asia/ displaystory. cfm?story_id=10804248). The Economist. 6 March 2008. . [6] Teachers and Medical Worker Incentives in India by Karthik Muralidharan (http:/ / econ. ucsd. edu/ ~kamurali/ teachers and medical worker incentives in india. pdf) [7] Combating India's truant teachers (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ south_asia/ 4051353. stm). BBC [8] Private Schools in Rural India: Some Facts (http:/ / www. ncaer. org/ downloads/ lectures/ popuppages/ PressReleases/ popuppages/ PressReleases/ 7thNBER/ KMuralidharan. pdf) (presentation) / Public and Private Schools in Rural India (http:/ / scripts. mit. edu/ ~varun_ag/ readinggroup/ images/ d/ dc/ Public_and_Private_Schools_in_Rural_India. pdf) (a paper). Karthik Muralidharan, Michael Kremer. [9] Teacher absence in India: A snapshot (http:/ / globetrotter. berkeley. edu/ macarthur/ inequality/ papers/ KremerTeacherAbsenceinIndia. pdf) [10] Subhash Bhatnagar (Indian Institute of Management). "Transparency and Corruption: Does E-Government Help?" (http:/ / www. iimahd. ernet. in/ ~subhash/ pdfs/ CHRIDraftPaper2003. pdf). . [11] Swati Prasad (2008). "'Corruption' slowing India's e-govt growth" (http:/ / www. zdnetasia. com/ news/ business/ 0,39044229,62044787,00. htm). ZDNet Asia. . [12] "India should redirect subsidies to those who need them" (http:/ / www. iht. com/ articles/ 2005/ 10/ 25/ bloomberg/ sxmuk. php). The International Herald Tribute. 2005. . [13] "Higher education spending: India at the bottom of BRIC" (http:/ / www. rediff. com/ money/ 2007/ feb/ 05edu. htm). Rediff. 2005. . [14] CIA World Factbook (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ rankorder/ 2186rank. html?countryName=India& countryCode=IN& regionCode=sas#IN) [15] Service tax and expenditure tax are not levied in Jammu and Kashmir; Intra-state sale happens when goods or the title of goods move from one state to another. [16] Bernardi, Luigi and Fraschini, Angela (2005). Tax System And Tax Reforms In India (http:/ / ideas. repec. org/ p/ uca/ ucapdv/ 45. html). Working paper n. 51. . [17] Tax revenue was 88% of total union government revenue in 195051 and has come down to 73% in 200304, as a result of increase in non-tax revenue. Tax revenues were 70% of total state government revenues in 2002 to 2003. Indirect taxes were 84% of the union governments total tax revenue and have come down to 62% in 200304, mostly due to cuts in import duties and rationalisation. The states share in union government's tax revenue is 28.0% for the period 2000 to 2005 as per the recommendations of the eleventh finance commission. In addition, states that do not levy sales tax on sugar, textiles and tobacco, are entitled to 1.5% of the proceeds.Datt, Ruddar & Sundharam, K.P.M. (2005). Indian Economy. S.Chand. pp.938, 942, 946. ISBN81-219-0298-3. [18] "Indif_real_GDP_per_capitaa says 21 of 29 states to launch new tax" (http:/ / www. dailytimes. com. pk/ default. asp?page=story_25-3-2005_pg5_13). Daily Times. 25 March 2005. . [19] Datt, Ruddar & Sundharam, K.P.M.. "55". Indian Economy. pp.943945.

Government of India
[20] Kamdar, Mira (3 April 2008). "India's budget may backfire | The Australian" (http:/ / www. theaustralian. news. com. au/ story/ 0,25197,23474033-23850,00. html). Theaustralian.news.com.au. . Retrieved 2008-11-03.

67

External links
Official Portal of the Indian Government (http://www.india.gov.in) Highest Executive, Judiciary and Legislative officers in India (http://india.gov.in/govt/whoswho.php)

Administrative divisions of India

The Administrative divisions of India are Indian subnational administrative units; they compose a nested hierarchy of country subdivisions. Indian states and territories frequently use different local titles for the same level of subdivision (e.g., the mandals of Andhra Pradesh correspond to tehsils of Uttar Pradesh and other Hindi-speaking states and taluka of Gujarat and Maharashtra). The smaller subdivisions (villages and blocks) exist only in rural areas. In urban areas Urban Local Bodies exist instead of these rural subdivisions. In the context of the Indian Constitution, local government bodies are the subject of the State List and are thereby governed by State Statutes, or in the case of Union Territories, by the Union Parliament. Federal recognition of local government was substantively expressed in the 74th Constitution Amendment Act of 1992.

Structure
Note: The State Government box in the diagram stands for both the Governments of States and Union Territories of India.

Administrative divisions of India

68

States and union territories

India is composed of 28 states and 7 union territories (including a national capital territory).[1] The union territories are governed by administrators, appointed by the President of India. Two of the territories (Delhi and Puducherry) have been given partial statehood, with elected legislatures and executive councils of ministers, but limited powers. States

Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

State Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Assam Bihar Chhattisgarh Goa Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu and Kashmir Jharkhand Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh

Code AP AR AS BR CG GA GJ HR HP JK JH KA KL MP

Capital Hyderabad Itanagar Dispur Patna Raipur Panaji Gandhinagar Chandigarh Shimla Srinagar Ranchi Bangalore Thiruvananthapuram Bhopal

Administrative divisions of India

69
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Maharashtra Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Orissa Punjab Rajasthan Sikkim Tamil Nadu Tripura Uttar Pradesh Uttarakhand West Bengal MH MN ML MZ NL OR PB RJ SK TN TR UP UK WB Mumbai Imphal Shillong Aizawl Kohima Bhubaneswar Chandigarh Jaipur Gangtok Chennai Agartala Lucknow Dehradun Kolkata

Union territories
Number A B C D E F G Union territory Andaman and Nicobar Islands Chandigarh Dadra and Nagar Haveli Daman and Diu Lakshadweep National Capital Territory Puducherry Code AN CH DN DD LD ND PY Capital Port Blair Chandigarh Silvassa Daman Kavaratti New Delhi Puducherry

See also: List of states and union territories of India by population (area can also be found) Official languages of India#Languages currently used In Indian states and union territories

Regions
The States of India are divided into regions. The Regions of India are not official administrative divisions. They have no official administrative governmental status. They are purely geographic regions; some correspond to historic countries, states or provinces. A region may comprise one or more divisions, averaging about three divisions per region. However, the boundaries of the regions and the boundaries of the divisions do not always coincide exactly. So far there has been no movement to give the regions official administrative status. If this were to be done, it would presumably require that the boundaries of the regions be slightly modified so that they correspond exactly with their constituent districts. Regions of Gujarat Regions of Kerala Regions of Maharashtra Regions of Uttar Pradesh

Administrative divisions of India

70

Divisions (Super-Districts)
Indian states are subdivided into divisions each comprising several districts: Divisions of Andhra Pradesh Divisions of Arunachal Pradesh Divisions of Assam Divisions of Bihar Divisions of Chhattisgarh Divisions of Goa Divisions of Gujarat Divisions of Haryana Divisions of Himachal Pradesh Divisions of Jammu and Kashmir Divisions of Jharkhand Divisions of Karnataka Divisions of Kerala Divisions of Madhya Pradesh Divisions of Maharashtra Divisions of Manipur Divisions of Meghalaya Divisions of Mizoram Divisions of Nagaland Divisions of Orissa Divisions of Punjab (India) Divisions of Rajasthan Divisions of Sikkim Divisions of Tamil Nadu Divisions of Tripura Divisions of Uttar Pradesh Divisions of Uttarakhand Divisions of West Bengal Divisions of Delhi

Districts
States and territories (or divisions) are further subdivided in Districts (zilla), of which there are 604.[2] Districts in the states: Districts of Andhra Pradesh Districts of Arunachal Pradesh Districts of Assam Districts of Bihar Districts of Chhattisgarh Districts of Goa Districts of Gujarat Districts of Haryana

Districts of Himachal Pradesh Districts of Jammu and Kashmir Districts of Jharkhand

Administrative divisions of India Districts of Karnataka Districts of Kerala Districts of Madhya Pradesh Districts of Maharashtra Districts of Manipur Districts of Meghalaya Districts of Mizoram Districts of Nagaland Districts of Orissa Districts of Punjab Districts of Rajasthan Districts of Sikkim Districts of Tamil Nadu Districts of Tripura Districts of Uttar Pradesh Districts of Uttarakhand Districts of West Bengal

71

Districts in Territories: Districts of Andaman and Nicobar Islands Districts of Chandigarh Districts of Dadra and Nagar Haveli Districts of Daman and Diu Districts of Lakshadweep Districts of Delhi Districts of Puducherry

Sub-divisions
In certain states districts are further divided into Sub-Divisions. (pargana, anuvibhag, mahakuma), which comprise several blocks. States with Sub-Divisions include Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal.

Tehsils (Sub-Districts)
Tehsils, talukas, blocks or mandals (sub-districts), headed by a Tehsildar or Talukdar, comprise several villages or village clusters. The governmental bodies at the Tehsil level are called the panchayat samiti.

Administrative divisions of India

72

Block
Block is the next level of administrative division after the tehsil.

Hobli
Hobli is a subdivision of Taluk or Taluka grouping a few villages. This must have done for administrative purpose by revenue department in case of Karnataka state.

Villages
Villages are often the lowest level of subdivisions in India. The governmental bodies at the village level are called Gram Panchayat, of which there were an estimated 256,000 in 2002. Each Gram Panchayat covers a large village or a cluster of smaller villages with a combined population exceeding 500 (Gram Group). Clusters of villages are also sometimes called Hobli.

Habitations
Certain governmental functions and activities - including clean water availability, rural development, and education are tracked at a sub-village level.[3] These hamlets are termed "habitations". India is composed of approximately 1.6 million habitations.[4] In some states, most villages have a single habitation; in others (notably Kerala and Tripura) there is a high ratio of habitations to villages.[5]

Municipalities
Municipalities of India are governed by Municipal Corporations (Mahanagar Paalika) for large urban areas, Municipal Council (Nagar Paalika) for smaller urban areas, and Town Councils (Nagar Panchayats) for suburban areas. Municipalities can be as large as a district or smaller than a Tehsil.

Historic
Pargana Sarkar Subah

External links
Explore places from India hierarchically leading to local information and geographic location on map [6] Citymayors.com [7] Example of district with different subdivisions [8] Seasons, Climate, Global Warming in India - Reference Links Students Project [9]

Administrative divisions of India

73

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] (http:/ / india. gov. in/ knowindia/ state_uts. php) States and Union Territories of India - Source - Government of India Official Website (http:/ / dolr. nic. in/ hyperlink/ distlistnew. htm#chandi) Statewise Districts list in India - Source - Government of India Indian Department of Drinking Water Supply (http:/ / ddws. nic. in/ habquery/ main_menu. asp) Indian Department of Drinking Water Supply (http:/ / ddws. nic. in/ habquery/ rep_stwisencpcfc. asp) Indian Department of Education (http:/ / www. education. nic. in/ cd50years/ g/ z/ H7/ 0ZH70F01. htm) http:/ / www. geolysis. com/ explore. php?c=India http:/ / www. citymayors. com/ government/ india_government. html#Anchor-Municipal-49575 http:/ / raisen. nic. in/ admin. htm http:/ / www. SeasonsIndia. info

74

States of India
Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh
State

Seal

Location of Andhra Pradesh in India

Map of Andhra Pradesh

Andhra Pradesh

75
Coordinates (Hyderabad): 172158N 782834E Country Established Capital Largest city Districts Government -Body -Governor -ChiefMinister -Legislature -High Court Area -Total Area rank Population (2011) -Total -Rank -Density Time zone ISO 3166 code HDI HDI rank Literacy 275045km2(106195.5sqmi) 3rd [1] 84,655,533 5th unknown operator: u','/km2(/sqmi) IST (UTC+05:30) IN-AP 0.572 (medium) 20th (2005) 67.77% (2011) Government of India, Government of Andhra Pradesh E. S. L. Narasimhan N. Kiran Kumar Reddy Bicameral (294 + 90 seats) India 1 November 1956 Hyderabad Hyderabad 23 total

Official languages Telugu[2] Website ap.gov.in [3]

Andhra Pradesh (Telugu: , ndhra Prad?,

Hindustani pronunciation:[andr

prde]

listen),)

abbreviated A.P., is a state situated on the southeastern coast of India. It is India's fourth largest state by area and fifth largest by population. Its capital and largest city by population is Hyderabad. The State has the second-longest coastline of 972km (604mi) among all the States in India.[4] The primary official language of Andhra Pradesh is Telugu and Urdu is the secondary official language in some places,[2] while other languages spoken in Andhra Pradesh are Hindi, Tamil, Marathi, Kannada. 10281 persons declare English as their first language in Andhra Pradesh according to the 2001 census.[5] Andhra Pradesh lies between 1241' and 22N latitude and 77 and 8440'E longitude, and is bordered by Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh and Odisha in the north, the Bay of Bengal in the East, Tamil Nadu to the south and Karnataka to the west. Andhra Pradesh is historically called the "Rice Bowl of India". More than 77% of its crop is rice; Andhra Pradesh produced 17,796,000 tonnes of rice in 2006.[6] Two major rivers, the Godavari and the Krishna, run across the state. The small enclave (30square kilometres (12sqmi)) of Yanam, a district of Puducherry, lies in the Godavari Delta in the northeast of the state.

Andhra Pradesh On 1 November 1956, the States Reorganization Act formed Andhra Pradesh by merging Telugu-speaking areas of Hyderabad State and the Telugu-speaking part of the Madras Presidency.[7]

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History
Main : History Of Andhra Pradesh

Prior to independence
An Andhra tribe was mentioned in the Sanskrit epics such as Aitareya Brahmana (800 BCE) and Mahabharata (400 BCE).[8] The Natya Shastra written by Bharatha (1st century BCE) also mentions the Andhra people.[9] The roots of the Telugu language have been seen on inscriptions found near the Guntur district[10] and from others dating to the rule of Renati Cholas in the 5th century CE.[11] Megasthenes, a Greek traveller and geographer who visited the Court of Chandragupta Maurya (322297 BCE), mentioned that the region had three fortified towns and an army of 100,000 infantry, 200 cavalry, and 1,000 elephants.Buddhist books reveal that Andhras established their huts or tents near the Godavari River at that time. Inscriptional evidence shows that there was an early kingdom in coastal Andhra (Guntur District) ruled first by Kuberaka and then by his son Varun, with Pratipalapura (Bhattiprolu) as the capital. Around the same time, Dhanyakatakam/Dharanikota (present day Amaravati) appears to have been an important place, which was visited by Gautama Buddha. According to the ancient Tibetan scholar Taranatha: "On the full moon of the month Chaitra in the year following his enlightenment, at the great stupa of Dhanyakataka, the Buddha emanated the mandala of 'The Glorious Lunar Mansions' (Kalachakra)".[12] [13] Literary evidence shows that long before Satavahanas, a legendary king named ndhra Vihu ruled in and around the Diviseema region of Andhra Pradesh. After his reign, people came to believe that he had an amsa of the divine savior Lord Maha Vishnu himself. Perhaps in his honor, people dedicated a new temple now located at Srikkuam, Krishna District. The lord of the temple is known as ndhra Vihu or Srikkundhra Vihu. The Mauryans extended their rule over Andhra in the 4th century BC. With the fall of the Maurya Empire in the 3rd century BC, the Kakatiya sculpture at Warangal Satavahanas became independent. After the decline of the Satavahanas in 220 CE, the Ikshvaku dynasty, Pallavas, Ananda Gotrikas, Rashtrakutas, Vishnukundinas, Eastern Chalukyas, and Cholas ruled the land. During this period, Telugu emerged as a popular language, supplanting Prakrit and Sanskrit.[14] Telugu was made the official language by the Vishnukundina kings (5th and 6th centuries), who ruled from their capital city of Vengi. Eastern Chalukyas ruled for a long period after the decline of Vishnukundinas; their capital was also Vengi. As early as the 1st century CE, Chalukyas were mentioned as being vassals and chieftains under the Satavahanas and later under the Ikshvakus. The Chalukya ruler Rajaraja Narendra ruled Rajahmundry around 1022 CE. The battle of Palnadu (1182) resulted in the weakening of the Eastern Chalukya dynasty and led to the emergence of the Kakatiya dynasty in the 12th and 13th centuries CE. The Kakatiyas were at first vassals of the Rashtrakutas, and ruled over a small territory near Warangal. Eventually all the Telugu lands were united by the Kakatiyas. In 1323 CE, Delhi Sultan Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq sent a large army under Ulugh Khan to conquer the Telugu country and captured Warangal. King Prataparudra was taken prisoner. Musunuri Nayaks recaptured Warangal from the Delhi Sultanate in 1326 CE and ruled for fifty years. Inspired by their success, the Vijayanagara Empire, one of the greatest empires in the history of Andhra Pradesh and India, was founded by Harihara and Bukka, who served as treasury officers of the Kakatiyas of Warangal.[15] In 1347 CE, an independent Muslim state, the Bahmani Sultanate,

Andhra Pradesh was established in south India by Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah in a revolt against the Delhi Sultanate. The Qutb Shahi dynasty held sway over the Andhra country for about two hundred years from the early part of the 16th century to the end of the 17th century. In Colonial India, Northern Circars became part of the British Madras Presidency. Eventually this region emerged as the Coastal Andhra region. Later the Nizam rulers of Hyderabad ceded five territories to the British which eventually emerged as Rayalaseema region. The Nizams retained control of the interior provinces as the Princely state of Hyderabad, acknowledging British rule in return for local autonomy. Meanwhile, the French occupied Yanam, in the Godavari delta, and (save for periods of British control) would hold it until 1954.

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After independence
India became independent from the United Kingdom in 1947. The Nizam wanted to retain the independence of the Princely Hyderabad State from India, but the people of the region launched a movement to join the Indian Union. The state of Hyderabad was forcibly joined to the Republic of India with Operation Polo in 1948. In an effort to gain an independent state based on the lingustic and protect the interests of the Andhra (telugu speaking) people of Madras State, Potti Sreeramulu fasted until death in 1952. After his death, Andhra attained statehood on 1 November 1953, with Kurnool as its capital.[16] On 1 November 1956, the States Reorganization Act merged the Telugu-speaking areas of the former Hyderabad state with the Telugu-speaking areas of the former Madras state to form the state of Vishalandhra, which is named as Andhra Pradesh.[7] The city of Hyderabad, the former capital of the Hyderabad State, was made the capital of the new state. There were several movements to disintigrate Andhra Pradesh into two States viz. Andhra and Telengana in the late 1960 which are continuing till date. On 9 December 2009, it was announced that a separation proposal for Telangana would be introduced to the state assembly.[17] Controversy arose as to the future status of Hyderabad City, part of one of the ten districts of Telangana region.[18] This move was opposed by protesters from Andhra and Rayalaseema regions. On 23 December 2009, the government decided to put the decision of bifurcating the state on hold until a consensus is achieved among the different political parties. This agitated supporters of a separate Telangana state.[19] On 5 January 2010, the Central Government represented by Home Minister P Chidambaram conducted a meeting by inviting all the recognised political parties of AP and recorded their stand on the issue. The Government of India appointed a committee, headed by B. N. Srikrishna, to guide the central government to settle the issue of Telangana amicably.[20] The committee submitted its report on 30 December 2010, a day before its term was to expire.[21]

Geography and climate

Geographically, Andhra Pradesh is composed of most of the eastern half of the Deccan plateau and the plains to the east of the Eastern Ghats. Andhra Pradesh is divided into three regions. The northern part of the plateau is the Telangana region and the southern part is known as Rayalaseema. These two regions are separated by the River Krishna. The third region is Coastal Andhra.[22] The plains to the east of Eastern Ghats form the Eastern coastal plains. The Eastern Ghats are Greater Flamingoes (Phoenicopterus roseus) taking off Pocharam lake discontinuous and individual sections have local names. The Kadapa [23] Basin formed by two arching branches of the Eastern Ghats is a mineral rich area. The coastal plains are for the most part delta regions formed by the Godavari, Krishna, andPenner rivers. The Eastern Ghats are a major dividing line in the state's geography. The Ghats become

Andhra Pradesh

78

more pronounced towards the south and extreme north of the coast. The Eastern Ghat region is home to dense tropical forests, while the vegetation becomes sparse as the Ghats give way to the Deccan Plateau, where shrub vegetation is more common. Most of the coastal plains are put to intense agricultural use. The west and southwest parts of Andhra Pradesh have semi-arid conditions. The climate of Andhra Pradesh varies considerably, depending on the geographical region. Monsoons play a major role in determining the climate of the state. Summers last from March to June. In the coastal plain, the summer temperatures are generally higher than the rest of the state, with temperature ranging between 20 C and 41 C.[24]

The railroad bridge between Rajahmundry and Kovvur

July to September is the seasons for tropical rains in Andhra Pradesh. The state receives heavy rainfall from Southwest Monsoon during these months. About one third of the total rainfall in Andhra Pradesh is brought by the Northeast Monsoon. October and November see low-pressure systems and tropical cyclones form in the Bay of Bengal which, along with the Northeast Monsoon, bring rains to the southern and coastal regions of the state. November, December, January, and February are the winter months in Andhra Pradesh. Since the state has a long coastal belt the winters are not very cold. The range of winter temperature is generally 12 C to 30 C.[24] Hyderabad is the capital and, along with the adjoining twin city Secunderabad, is the largest city in the state.Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh's main seaport, is the second largest city and is home to the Indian Navy's Eastern Naval Command. Due to its location and proximity to major rail and road routes, Vijayawada is a major trading center. It is the third largest city of the state followed by Tirupati, Rajahmundry, Kakinada and Guntur. Other important cities of the state are Warangal, Nellore, Kurnool, Kadapa, and Srikakulam.

Demographics
Telugu is the official language of the state, spoken by 83% of the population. Major linguistic minority groups include Urdu (8.63%), Hindi (3.23%), and Tamil (1.01%). Other languages spoken in Andhra Pradesh by less than 1% each are Marathi (0.8%), Kannada(0.74%), and Oriya (0.44%). Languages spoken by less than 0.2% of the population include Malayalam (0.08%), Gujarati (0.06%), Bengali (0.05%), Gorkhali/Nepali (0.03%), Punjabi (0.01%) and Sindhi(0.01%).[26] The main ethnic group of Andhra Pradesh is the Telugu people, who are primarily Dravidians. Andhra Pradesh ranks tenth compared to all Indian States in the Human Development Index scores[27] with a score of 0.416. The National Council of Applied Economic Research district analysis in 2001 reveals that Khammam, Krishna, West Godavari, Chittoor, and Medak are the five districts with the highest Human Development Indexscores in ascending order in rural AP. The data show that the poor make up 16.3 per cent of the total population in rural AP and expenditure on consumption is around 13.5 per cent of the total consumption expenditure. The female literacy rate is 0.66 compared to male literacy rate in rural AP. The district-wise variations for poverty ratio are high and low for the ratio of female/male literacy rate.[28]

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Economy

Woman picking cotton in Andhra Pradesh

GDP by year
Year 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2007 State GDP ( MM) 81,910 152,660 333,360 798,540 1,401,190 2,294,610

Andhra Pradesh's GSDP for 2010 was estimated at $100.35 billion in current prices. The state ranks third in terms of overall Gross State Product among all the states of the Indian Union.[29] In terms of per capita GSDP the state compares very favorably with other large states. In the 2010 list by Forbes Magazine, there are Seven from Andhra Pradesh among the top 100 richest Indians. Agriculture has been the chief source of income for the state's economy. Andhra Pradesh is an exporter of many agricultural products. Four important rivers of India, the Godavari, Krishna, Penna, and Thungabhadra flow through the state, providing irrigation. Rice, sugarcane, cotton, Chili pepper, mango, and tobacco are the local crops. Recently, crops used for vegetable oil production such as sunflower and peanuts have gained favour. There are many multi-state irrigation projects in development, including Godavari River Basin Irrigation Projects and Nagarjuna Sagar Dam.[30] [31] The service sector of the state accounts for 43% of the gross state domestic product (GSDP) and employs 20% of the work force.[31] Andhra Pradesh economy has registered over 5.5% annual economic growth rate during the last two decades. The state is one of the most industrially developed states of India. Andhra Pradesh ranks second in India in terms of mineral wealth. The state has about one third of India's limestone reserves, estimated at about 30billion tonnes. The Krishna Godavari Basin has huge reserves of natural gas and petroleum. The state has a large amount of coal reserves.[31] The state ranks first nationwide in hydro electricity generation, with a national market share of over 11%. Andhra Pradesh has the second largest power generating utility in the country, with an installed capacity of around 10,650 MW. The two cheapest sources of thermal power generation coal and natural gas are in abundance.

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Information technology
In 20042005, Andhra Pradesh was at the second position in the list of top information technology exporting states of India. The IT exports from the state were 8,270 crores in 20042005 ($1.8billion).[32] The IT sector is expanding at a rate of 52.3% every year. The IT exports reached 19,000 crores ($4.5billion) in 20062007, contributed to 14 per cent of total IT exports of the nation and ranked fourth in India.[33]

Biotechnology
Cyber Towers at Hyderabad

the field of biotechnology in Andra pradesh is developing day by day.and the government is not funding money for research in the field of bio tech,some universities like Andra university ,Nagarjuna universityes , etc are not able to run the course of bio tech becouse of lack of funds The state capital of Hyderabad is considered to be the bulk drug capital of India. Four of the top ten pharmaceutical companies are from the state. Major pharma companies from the state are: Dr. Reddy's Laboratories Novartis Hetero Drugs Ltd Aurobindo Pharma Vasudha Pharma Divi Laboratories

Other key sectors

Power Sector Automobiles and auto component industry Tourism Textiles and leather Mining

Government and politics

Andhra Pradesh has a Vidhan Sabha (legislative assembly, lower house) of 294 seats, and a Vidhan Parishad (legislative council, upper house) of 90 members. 31 members are elected from local bodies, 31 members are elected from the assembly, eight members are elected from teachers, eight members are elected from graduates, and 12 members are nominated by the Governor. In the Parliament of India Andhra Pradesh has 18 in the Rajya Sabha, the Upper House, and 42 in the Lok Sabha, the Lower House.[34] [35] Andhra Pradesh had a series of governments headed by Indian National Congress (INC) Party until 1982. N. Chandrababu Naidu held the record for the longest serving chief minister (1995 to 2004). P. V. Narasimha Rao served as the chief minister of the state from 1971 to 1973, and went on to become the Prime Minister of India in 1991. The first Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh was Neelam Sanjiva Reddy, who later served
The Andhra Pradesh State Legislative Assembly at the centre of Hyderabad City.

as President of India. The notable chief ministers of the state are Tanguturi Prakasam, Damodaram Sanjivayya, Kasu Brahmananda Reddy, P. V. Narasimha Rao, Jalagam Vengala Rao, Marri Chenna Reddy, Tanguturi Anjaiah,

Andhra Pradesh Bhavanam Venkatarami Reddy, Kotla Vijaya Bhaskara Reddy, N. T. Rama Rao, Nadendla Bhaskara Rao, Nedurumalli Janardhana Reddy, N.Chandrababu Naidu, Y. S. Rajasekhara Reddy, Konijeti Rosaiah and N. Kiran Kumar Reddy . Until 1962, the CPI, along with socialist parties, played an important role as opposition parties. Parties namely Praja Socialist Party and Krishi Lok Party played important role in 1950's. In the 1967 state assembly elections all socialist parties were eliminated and CPI lost opposition party status. N.G. Ranga's Swatantra Party became the Opposition Party. They also failed to hold control later and became defunct. In 1978 Jalagam Vengal Rao and Kasu Brahmananda Reddy formed the Reddy Congress and contested against Congress (I) but lost.

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Andhra Pradesh High Court at Hyderabad, the main judicial body for the State

In 1983 the Telugu Desam Party (TDP) won the State elections and N.T. Rama Rao (NTR) became the chief minister of the state for the first time. This broke the long time single party monopoly enjoyed by the INC from 1956 until 1982. A few months after the election, Nadendla Bhaskara Rao usurped power when NTR was away in the United States for medical treatment. After coming back, NTR campaigned for a comeback by demonstrating the support of the majority of the elected MLAs. The governor Thakur Ram Lal was ousted by Indira Gandhi and in his place she appointed Shankar Dayal Sharma. NTR was reinstated as Chief Minister. Within a month NTR recommended the dissolution of the assembly and called for fresh elections. Gandhi was assassinated on 31 October 1984 by her Sikh bodyguard and Rajiv Gandhi was made Prime Minister by President Giani Zail Singh. In the ensuing elections for Lok Sabha and the AP Assembly, the Telugu Desam Party won in Andhra Pradesh and NTR came back to power. The 1989 elections ended the rule of NTR, with the INC party returning to power with Marri Chenna Reddy at the helm. He was replaced byJanardhan Reddy in 1990, who was replaced by Kotla Vijaya Bhaskara Reddy in 1992. In 1994, Andhra Pradesh gave a mandate to the Telugu Desam Party again, and NTR became the chief minister again. Nara Chandrababu Naidu, the son-in-law of NTR, usurped power with the backing of a majority of the MLAs. The Telugu Desam Party won both the assembly and Lok Sabha election in 1999 under the leadership of Chandrababu Naidu. There was an assassination attempt on Naidu in 2003 in Tirupathi; he survived the attack. In the ensuing elections the party lost power to a resurgent Congress Party and its allies. Congress on its own won 185 seats in 294 assembly, and with its allies won 226 seats; Y. S. Rajasekhar Reddy became the Chief Minister. Y. S. Rajasekhar Reddy became the CM again by fending off the Praja Rajyam Party and a major alliance of TDP, TRS, CPI and CPM. He died on 2 September 2009 in a helicopter crash. Konijeti Rosaiah, a senior statesman and former State Finance Minister, became the Chief Minister of AP on 3 September 2009. On 24 November 2010, Rosaiah submitted his resignation on the grounds of increased work pressure. Nallari Kiran Kumar Reddy Reddy was sworn in as the new CM on the following day.[36]

Culture
Cultural institutions
Andhra Pradesh has many museums, the Salar Jung Museum in Hyderabad, which features a varied collection of sculptures, paintings, and religious artifacts, including the Archaeological Museum[37] at Amaravati near Guntur City that features relics of nearby ancient sites,and the Visakha Museum, in Visakhapatnam, which displays the history of the pre-Independence,and Thotla konda which depicts the age old budhist stupa's and cultural style, Madras Presidency in a rehabilitated Dutch bungalow.[38] Victoria Jubilee Museum in Vijayawada has a good collection of ancient sculptures, paintings, idols, weapons, cutlery and inscriptions. Other ancient sites include dozens of ancient Buddhist stupas in Nagarjunakonda which is now an island in Nagarjuna Sagar, an artificial lake

Andhra Pradesh that formed after the construction of Nagarjuna Sagar Dam. The Island has a large museum that houses many Buddhist relics.[39]

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Cuisine
The cuisine of Andhra Pradesh is one of the spiciest of all Indian cuisines. There are many variations to the cuisine (all involving rice) depending on geographical regions, caste, and traditions. Pickles and chutneys, called thoku also called as pachadi in Telugu, are particularly popular in Andhra Pradesh and many varieties of pickles and chutneys are unique to the State. Chutneys are made from practically every vegetable including tomatoes, brinjals (eggplant), and roselle (Gongura).Avaakaya (mango) is probably the best known of the Andhra Pradesh pickles. Rice is the staple food and is used in a wide variety of ways. Typically, rice is either boiled and eaten with curry, or made into a batter for use in a crepe-like dish called attu (pesarattu is made of a mixture of this batter and mung beans) or dosas, a crepe filled with black beans or lentils. Meat, vegetables and greens are prepared with different spices (masala) into a variety of strongly flavored dishes such as Hyderabadi Biryani, Hyderabad biryani served with other Indian fish curry, brinjal curry, and Gongura pachadi the most popular dish of dishes andhra pradesh.An Andhra dish is recognized with the dish being listed in the menu.The coastal region is even more well versed with the varieties in sea food "chapala purulusulu"specially known for "Bommidala pulusu","Koramenu kura". Especially Hyderabadi cuisine is influenced by the Muslims who arrived in Telangana in the 14th century. Much of the cuisine revolves around meat. It is rich and aromatic, with a liberal use of exotic spices and ghee (clarified butter). Lamb, chicken, and fish are the most widely used meats in the non-vegetarian dishes. Biriyani is perhaps the most distinctive and popular dish of Hyderabadi cuisine.

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Dance
Classical dance in Andhra can be performed by both men and women; women tend to learn it more often. Kuchipudi is the state's best-known classicaldance form. The various dance forms that existed through the state's history are Bonalu, Dappu , Chenchu Bhagotham, Kuchipudi, Bhamakalapam, Burrakatha, Veeranatyam, Butta bommalu, Tappeta Gullu, Lambadi, Dhimsa, Kolattam, and Chindu. Jaanapadam theenmar is a popular folk dance. Jayapa Senani was the first person to write about the dances prevalent in Andhra Pradesh.[40] Both Desi and Margi forms of dances are included in his Sanskrit treatise Nrutya Ratnavali.

Festivals
Just like in othe parts of the country, many festivals are celebrated in Andhra Pradesh. However, certain festivals epitomize the culture of the state better and reflect its unique identity. These include Ugadi-which begins the Telugu New Year,Sankranthi-which is a harvest festival and Vijayadashami/Dasara.[41] . Bonalu and Batukamma are celebrated with gusto especially in the Telangana region. Brief details of these and other festivals are provided below. Sankranthi in January Maha Shivaratri in February/March Holi in March Ugadi or the Telugu New Year in March/April Muharram celebrated according to Muslim Lunar Hijri Calendar Milad-un-Nabi celebrated according to Muslim Lunar Hijri Calendar Sri Rama Navami celebrated in March/April, nine days after Ugadi Bonalu Celebrated in Telengana Region only in the month of July/August Nagula Chaviti in August Varalakshmi Vratham in August Rakhi poornima in August Vinayaka Chavithi in August/September Dasara in September/October Deepavali in October/November, 20 days after Dasara Batukamma celebrated for nine days during Durgastami (called as NavratriDasara in Telangana region)

Kuchipudi, the traditional dance of Andhra Pradesh,by Yamini Reddy

Games
Outdoor games include Cricket, Football, Kabaddi, Kho Kho, Gilli-danda, Gilli Kaama, Gooti Billa, Gujjana Goollu, Gotilu, lingosh, Kothi Kommachi, Nalugu Stambhalata, Nalugu Rallu Aata, Tokkudu Billa, Goleelu and Nela-Banda. The major outdoor game played is cricket. Indoor board games include Puli Joodam, Carroms, Ashta Chamma, Dahdi, Vamagunatalu, Vaikuntapali, Gavalu Aataa and Chintha Ginjallu Aataa. Achenagandlu, Ramudu Sita, star, ashtachamma are indoor games played by children and elders.

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Literature
Nannayya, Tikkana, and Yerrapragada form the trinity who translated the great Sanskrit epic Mahabharata into Telugu. BommeraPothana is the poet who composed the classic SriMad Maha Bhagavatamu, a Telugu translation of Sri Bhagavatham, authored by Veda Vyasa inSanskrit. Nannayya (c. 11th century AD), the earliest know Telugu author, was patronized by the king Rajaraja Narendra who ruled from Rajamahendravaram (now Rajahmundry). The Vijayanagara emperor Krishnadevaraya wrote Amuktamalyada. The Telugu poet Vemana, a native of Kadapa, is notable for his philosophical poems. Telugu literature after Kandukuri Veeresalingam (18481919) is termed modern literature. Known as Gadya Tikkana, Satyavathi Charitam was the author Telugu-language social novel, Satyavathi Charitam. Jnanpith Award winners include Sri Viswanatha Satya Narayana and Dr. C. Narayana Reddy. The Andhra Pradesh native and revolutionary poet Sri Sri brought new forms of expressionism into Telugu literature. Other modern writers include Gunturu Seshendra Sarma, the only person nominated from India for a Nobel prize in literature since Rabindranath Tagore. The West Bengal Government conferred on him the title Rashtrendu ("Moon of the Nation"). Telugu University awarded him an honorary Doctorate in Literature in 1994. He received the Kalidas Samman award from the Madhya Pradhesh government, and he won the Central Sahitya Akademi fellowship in 1999. Seshendra's first work in print appeared in 1952.[1] It is the translation of Matthew Arnold's Sohrab and Rustum, which is based upon the Persian Epic Shahnama. Initially he focused on poetry and occasionally worked on literary criticism. Seshendra's first collection of prose-poems Sesha Jyotsna. He composed it strictly conforming to Telugu prosody which was published in 1972 in Telugu and English. Its translations into Hindi and Urdu appeared separately. His magnum opus was Naa Desham, Naa Prajalu (My Country, My People, Meri Dharti, Mere Log). It led to his nomination for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2004. Shri Puttaparthi Narayanacharyulu is one of the scholarly poets of Telugu literature. He wrote the books Sivatandavam and Panduranga Mahatyam. Other notable writers from Andhra Pradesh include Srirangam Sreenivasarao, Gurram Jashuva, Chinnaya Suri, Viswanatha Satyanarayana.

Movies
Andhra Pradesh has around 3,300 cinema halls. The state produces about 200 movies a year. It has around 40% (330 out of 930) of the Dolby Digitaltheatres in India. It houses an IMAX theatre which was the biggest 3D IMAX screen in the world when it was built in 2007:[42] the Prasads IMAX. Tollywood produces the largest number of movies in India per year.[43]

Music
Many composers of Carnatic music like Annamacharya, Tyagaraja, Kshetrayya, Syama Sastri and Bhadrachala Ramadasu were of Telugu descent. Modern Carnatic music composers like Ghantasala and Sri M. Balamuralikrishna are also of Telugu descent. The local film industry hosts many music composers and playback singers such as S. P. Balasubrahmanyam. Folk songs are popular in the many rural areas of the state. Forms such as the Burra katha and Poli are still performed today.[44]

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Religion Religious affiliations

Religion Hindu Muslim Christian Sikhs Jains Population 67,836,651 6,986,856 1,181,917 30,998 41,846 Total 88.30% 9.16% 1.7% 0.04% 0.05% 0.17%

Other religions 131,739

Hinduism is the main religion of the people of Andhra Pradesh.Consequently, the state has many notable hindu-pilgrimage places. Andhra Pradesh is home to Hindu saints of all castes. An important figure is Saint Yogi Sri Potuluri Virabrahmendra Swami. He was born in theVishwabrahmin (goldsmith) caste and had Brahmin and Dalit disciples.[45] Fisherman Raghu was a Shudra saint.[46] Saint Kakkayya was a chura (sweeper) Harijan saint. Islam in Hyderabad, with historical patronizing by the rulers, has a strong Sufi influence, with various moments active in the last two decades. Hyderabad has also produced many renowned religious scholars of representing different Islamic sects and trends, including Abul Ala Maududi, Turab-ul-Haq Qadri, and Allamah Rasheed Turabi.[47] Several important Hindu modern-day saints are from Andhra Pradesh. These include Nimbarka, who founded Dvaitadvaita; Mother Meera, who runs an ashram in Madanapalle; Sri Sathya Sai Baba, Sri Sivabala Yogi Maharaj who advocates religious unity in worship; Swami Sundara Chaitanyanandaji of the Aurobindo Mission; and Brahmarshi Subhash Patri, founder of the pyramid spiritual societies movement. Pilgrimages and religious sites Tirumala Venkateswara Temple in the town of Tirumala in Chittoor district is a very important pilgrimage site for Hindus throughout India. It is the richest piligrimage city of any religious faith in the world.[48] Its main temple is dedicated to the god Venkateswara. Simhachalam is another popular pilgrimage site of national importance located on a hill 20kilometres (12mi) north of the Visakhapatnam city centre. Simhachalam is said to be the abode of the savior-god Narasimha, who rescued Prahlada from his abusive father Tirumala Venkateswara Temple, an important pilgrimage site in Tirupati Hiranyakashipu. One of the most exquisitely sculpted shrines of Andhra Pradesh, it has a beautifully carved 16-pillared Natya mantapa and a 96-pillared Kalyana mantapa. The temple was built in 11th century by Kullotunga, a Chola Dynasty king. Engaged couples go to this temple as a ritual just before marriage. It is one of the most crowded temples of Andhra Pradesh. Srisailam temple in Kurnool district is a very famous Shiva temple, and is one of the twelve Jyotirlinga shrines. Lord Ramahimself installed the Sahasralinga, while the Pandavas lodged the

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Panchapandava lingas in the temple courtyard. The Skanda Purana, an ancient religious text, has a chapter called "Srisaila Kandam" dedicated to this temple, which points to its ancient origin. It is said that Adi Shankara (c. 788821 CE) visited this temple at the time that he composed his Sivananda Lahiri. Srisailam is located in Kurnool district.

Birla Mandir Hindu temple

Statue of Buddha on the Hussain Sagar Lake

Bhadrachalam Temple is a temple to Lord Rama in the town of Bhadrachalam in Khammam district. It is situated on the banks of the river Godavari. This is the place where Kancherla Gopanna (16201680) wrote his devotional songs dedicated to lord Rama. It was believed that lord Rama spent some years on the banks of river Godavari here in Treta Yuga. Kancherla Gopanna raised the funds and constructed the temple during the reign of Tanisha in the 17th century. Sri Rama Navami, a celebration of the Marriage of Lord Rama and sita, is celebrated here every year. Government of Andhra Pradesh sends pearls for the event. Kanaka Durga Temple is a temple to the goddess Durga situated on the Indrakeeladri Hill in the city of Vijayawada on the banks of Krishna River. Special pujas are performed during Dasara, also called Navratri. The most significant are Saraswati puja and Theppotsavam. The festival of Dasara for the Goddess Durga is celebrated there every year. A large number of pilgrims attend the colourful celebrations and take a holy dip in the Krishna River. Other temples and pilgrimage sites in Andhra Pradesh include:

Ramappa Temple

Gnana Saraswati Temple, Basar is a temple to the goddess Saraswati, goddess of education. Basar is located inAdilabad district 50 kilometers from Nirmal.

The Yaganti Caves and Mahanandi are pilgrimage centres in Kurnool District. The Birla Mandir, Hyderabad is a temple to Lord Venkateswara. Ramappa Temple, constructed in 1213, is located 77km from Warangal. Muslim centres include Mecca Masjid, Charminar, Falaknuma Palace, Golconda Fort, and Osmania University, all in Hyderabad. There is a statue of Buddha that was erected in 1992 on the Hussain Sagar Lake in Hyderabad. Srikalahasti Temple is an ancient Shiva temple located on the banks of river Swarnamukhi in Chittoor district. There is a Satyanarayana Swamy temple in Annavaram in East Godavari district. Vemulavada in Karimnagar district is another popular place of pilgrimage. It is best known for the Sri Raja Rajeshwara temple. Viswakkarma temple (Construction) in Machilipatnam Most famous Venkateswara Temple in chinna Tirupathi(Dwaraka Tirumala) near to tadepalligudem and elluru.

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Other cultural elements

Andhra Pradesh State Symbols State language Telugu () State symbol State song Poorna kumbham () Maa Telugu Thalliki ( ) by Sri Sankarambadi Sundaraachari Black Buck ( ) Indian Roller ( ) Neem () Kabaddi () Kuchipudi () Water lily ( )

State animal State bird State tree State sport State dance State flower

Bapu's paintings, Nanduri Venkata Subba Rao's Yenki Paatalu (Songs about a washerwoman called Yenki), mischievous Budugu (a character by Mullapudi), Annamayya's songs, Aavakaaya (a variant of mango pickle in which the kernel of mango is retained), Gongura (a chutney from Roselle plant), Atla Taddi (a seasonal festival predominantly for teenage girls), the banks of river Godavari, and the Dudu basavanna (the ceremonial ox decorated for door-to-door exhibition during the harvest festival Sankranthi) have long defined Telugu culture. The village of Durgi is known for stone craft, producing carvings of idols in soft stone that must be exhibited in the shade because they are prone to weathering. Kalamkari is an ancient textile art form dating back to the Indus Valley Civilization. Andhra Pradesh is famous for doll making. Dolls are made from wood, mud, dry grass, and lightweight metal alloys. Tirupathi is famous for redwood carvings. Kondapalli is famous for mud toys with rich colors. The village of Etikoppaka, located inVisakhapatnam district, produces lacquered toys. Nirmal paintings are expressive and are usually painted over a black background. Story telling in Andhra Pradesh is an art form in itself. Folk dances unique to Andhra Pradesh include Yaksha ganam, Burra katha (usually done by three people, telling stories using three different musical instruments), Jangama kathalu, Hari kathalu, Chekka bajana, Urumula natyam (usually done at festivals, where a group of people dance in circles with loud music), and Ghata natyam (performances done with earthen pots over one's head).

Education
Andhra Pradesh is served by more than 20 institutes of higher education. All major arts, humanities, science, engineering, law, medicine, business, and veterinary science are offered, with first degrees and postgraduate awards available. Advanced research is conducted in all major areas.

Indian School of Business

Andhra Pradesh has 1,330 arts, science and commerce colleges; 1,000 MBA and MCA colleges; 847 engineering colleges; 53 medical colleges, and one Indian Institute of Technology (in Hyderabad). The student to teacher ratio in higher education is 19:1. According to the 2001 census, Andhra Pradesh has an overall literacy rate of 61.11% (as per Andhra pradesh Govt's official website). The male literacy rate is 70.3% and the female literacy rate is 67.4%. Andhra Pradesh is the home to Osmania University, it is one of the oldest modern universities in India. It is one of the largest university systems in the subcontinent with over 300,000 students on its various campuses and affiliated

Andhra Pradesh colleges. [49] The Government of Andhra Pradesh has established Rajiv Gandhi University of Knowledge Technologies (RGUKT)[50] in 2008 to cater to the educational needs of the gifted rural youth of Andhra Pradesh. The Institute specializes in teaching and research in Information Technology and other emerging disciplines under the control of a common university Governing Council and following a common syllabus. The state has recently made strides in setting up several institutes. Andhra Pradesh is home to the Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad,[51] Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Hyderabad,[52] International Institute of Information Technology, Hyderabad (IIIT-H),[53] National Institute of Technology NIT Warangal,[54] the Nalsar University of Law, Birla Institute of Technology and Science (Hyderabad Campus), University of Hyderabad, School of Planning and Architecture, Vijayawada and the Indian School of Business (ISB). The National Institute of Fashion Technology (NIFT) and The Institute of Hotel Management, Catering Technology and Applied Nutrition are also located in Hyderabad. Also Georgia Institute of Technology,[55] is in the process of setting up their campus in Hyderabad.

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School children in an elementary school in Andhra Pradesh

Apart from this Andhra Pradesh was home to many more top class university's like English and Foreign Languages University, Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University,[56] Osmania University,[57] Andhra University,[58] Nagarjuna University,[59] Kakatiya University,[60] Sri Venkateswara University,[61] Sri Krishnadevaraya University,[62] Potti Sreeramulu Telugu University,[63] Acharya N. G. Ranga Agricultural University,[64] and private engineering colleges like Vasavi College of Engineering,Chaitanya Bharathi Institute of Technology to serve their people across Andhra Pradesh. The Government of Andhra Pradesh has established the first University of Health Sciences, fulfilling the recommendations of several committees. The Andhra Pradesh University of Health Sciences was established by Act.No. 6 of the Andhra Pradesh legislature and was inaugurated in 1986 by the late Sri N.T. Rama Rao, then Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh. After the death of its founder Sri N.T. Rama Rao the University was named after him as NTR University of Health Sciences, Andhra Pradesh.

Newspapers and journals

Andhra Pradesh has several Telugu-language newspapers: Andhra Bhoomi Andhra Jyothy Andhra Prabha Eenadu Prajasakti Sakshi Suryaa Vaartha

Islamic Voice [65], Telugu Andhra Pradesh's Urdu-language newspapers include : Awam The Munsif Daily The Siasat Daily There are several English-language newspapers in Andhra Pradesh, including: The Business Line

Andhra Pradesh The Deccan Chronicle The Economic Times The Hindu The New Indian Express The Times of India

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Andhra Pradesh is also home to several Hindi-language newspapers.

Tourism
Andhra Pradesh is promoted by its tourism department as the "Koh-i-Noor of India." Andhra Pradesh is the home of many religious pilgrim centres. Tirumala Venkateswara Temple in Tirupati, the abode of Hindu god Venkateswara, is most visited religious center of any faith in the world. Srisailam, nestled in the Nallamala Hills is the abode of Mallikarjuna and is one of twelve Jyothirlingas in India. Amaravati's Shiva temple is one of the Pancharamams, as is Yadagirigutta, the abode of an avatara of Vishnu, Lakshmi Narasimha. The Ramappa temple and Thousand Pillars temple in Warangal are famous for their temple carvings. The state has numerous Buddhist centres at Amaravati, Nagarjuna Konda, Bhattiprolu, Ghantasala, Nelakondapalli, Dhulikatta, Bavikonda, Thotlakonda, Shalihundam, Pavuralakonda, Sankaram, Phanigiri and Kolanpaka.
Belum Caves

Rishikonda beach

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The Badami cave temples in Karnataka are an excellent example of Chalukya art and sculpture.[66] The Vijayanagara Empire built number of monuments, including the Srisailam temple and Lepakshi temples. The golden beaches at Visakhapatnam, the one-million-year-old limestone caves at Borra, picturesque Araku Valley, hill resorts of Horsley Hills, river Godavari racing through a narrow gorge at Papi Kondalu, waterfalls at Ettipotala, Kuntala and rich bio-diversity at Talakona are some of the natural attractions of the state. Kailashagiri is a park near the sea in Visakhapatnam. Visakhapatnam is home to other tourist attactions such as the INS Kursura S20 Submarine museum (the only one of its kind in India), the longest beach road in India, Yarada Beach, Araku Valley, and Indira Gandhi Zoological Gardens. The Borra Caves are located in the Anatagiri Hills of the Eastern Ghats, near Vishakapatnam. They are at an altitude of about 800 to 1300 metres and are famous for million-year-old stalactite and stalagmite formations. They were discovered by British geologist William King George in 1807. The caves get their name from a formation inside the caves that looks like the human brain, which in the local language, Telugu, is known as burra. The Belum caves were formed due to erosion in limestone deposits in the area by the weakly acidic water of the Chitravati River millions of years ago. The Papi Hills are located in Khammam district, near Bhadrachalam. Boat cruises are available on the river Godavari.
Borra Caves (stalagmites and stalactites)

Araku Valley

The Belum Caves in Kurnool District have a length of 3229metres (10594ft), making them the second largest natural caves on the Indian subcontinent. The Belum Caves derive their name from Bilum, the Sanskrit word for caves. In Telugu, the caves are known as Belum Guhalu. The caves have long passages, spacious chambers, freshwater galleries, and siphons. The caves' deepest point is 120feet (37m) from the entrance and is known asPatalganaga. Horsley Hills, elevation 1265metres (4150ft), is a summer hill resort in Andhra Pradesh, about 160km (99mi) from Bangalore and144km (89mi) from Tirupati. The town of Madanapalle lies nearby. Major tourist attractions include the Mallamma temple and the Rishi Valley School. Horsely Hills is the departure point for the Koundinya Wildlife Sanctuary at a distance of 87km (54mi). Nirmal is famous for its handicrafts and paintings. Kuntala waterfall, at 45metres (148ft), is the biggest in the state. Charminar, Golconda Fort, Chandragiri Fort, Chowmahalla Palace, and Falaknuma Palace are some of the monuments in the state. Kanaka Durga Temple in Vijayawada in Krishna district, Venkateswara Temple in Dwaraka Tirumala, West Godavari District, and Surya temple in Arasavelli in Srikakulam District are also places to see in Andhra Pradesh. The Annavaram Satayannarayana Swami temple is in East Godavari, near Kakinada.Konaseema is another place in East Godavari for nature lovers with scenic greenery of lush paddy fields and coconut groves. All along the banks of river Godavari and its canals.

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Transport
Road
A total of 146944 km (91307 mi) of roads are maintained by the State, of which State Highways comprise 42511km (26415 mi), National Highways 2949km (1832mi), and District Roads 101484 km (63059 mi). The growth rate for vehicle ownership in Andhra Pradesh is the highest in the country at 16%.[67] Andhra Pradesh State Road Transport Corporation (APSRTC) is the major public transport corporation owned by the government of Andhra Pradesh that connects all the cities and villages. APSRTC is in the Guinness Book of World Records for having the largest fleet of vehicles (approximately 21,000), and the longest distance covered daily.Vijayawada is the 2nd largest Bus-Standing in Asia.[68] Major road links of Andhra Pradesh Thousands of private operators also run buses connecting major cities and towns. Private vehicles like cars, motorised scooters, and bicycles occupy a major share of the local transport in the cities and adjoining villages.

Rail
Railways are a major means of transport connecting all major cities and towns. The history of railways in Andhra Pradesh dates back to the time ofNizam of Hyderabad. Most of Andhra Pradesh falls under the auspices of the South Central Railway, founded in 1966 with its headquarters atSecunderabad. The East Coast Railway serves Srikakulam, Vizianagaram District, and part of Visakhapatnam district including Visakhapatnam City. Vijayawada Railway Station is the one of the busiest railway junctions in India.5th largest Railway station in South.

Air
Hyderabad International Airport, also known as Rajiv Gandhi International Airport, is the international airport for the city of Hyderabad. It is the largest airport in the state and one of the busiest airports nationwide. Other airports in the state are Visakhapatnam Airport, Vijayawada Airport, Rajahmundry Airport, and Tirupati Airport. The government also has plans to start airports in eight other cities: Guntur, Ongole, Nellore, Warangal, Kadapa, Tadepalligudem, Kurnool and Karimnagar,Ramagundam and Kothagudem.

The Secunderabad Railway Station, headquarters of the South Central Railway

Visakhapatnam seaport

Sea
Andhra Pradesh has two of the major ports of India at Visakhapatnam and Kakinada and three minor ports at Krishnapatnam (Nellore), Machilipatnam, and Nizampatnam (Guntur). A private port is being developed at Gangavaram, near Visakhapatnam. This deep seaport can accommodate ocean liners up to 200,000250,000 DWT.

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Notes
[1] "census of india" (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ ). Census of India 2001. Government of India. 27 May 2002. . Retrieved 14 April 2007. [2] "AP Online, Index.html" (http:/ / www. aponline. gov. in/ quick links/ departments/ school education (ssa wing)/ directorate of a p open school society/ introduction/ index. html) (PDF). Andhra Pradesh official website. . Retrieved 16 January 2011. [3] http:/ / www. ap. gov. in [4] "Citizen Help" (http:/ / www. aponline. gov. in/ quick links/ apfactfile/ apfactmain. html). APOnline. 1 November 1956. . Retrieved 3 March 2009. [5] http:/ / www. lisindia. net/ English/ Eng_Demo. html#top [6] "Rough rice production (000 t) in India, by state, 19612006" (http:/ / www. irri. org/ science/ ricestat/ data/ may2008/ WRS2008-Table07. pdf). International Rice Research Institute. May 2008. . Retrieved 25 August 2009. [7] "Know Hyderabad: History" (http:/ / hyderabadonline. in/ Profile/ History/ ). Pan India Network. 2010. . Retrieved 5 October 2010. [8] "History and Culture-History" (http:/ / www. aponline. gov. in/ quick links/ hist-cult/ history. html). APonline. . Retrieved 3 March 2009. [9] "TeluguUniversity.ac.in" (http:/ / teluguuniversity. ac. in/ Language/ prachina_telugu_note. html). TeluguUniversity.ac.in. . Retrieved 7 March 2011. [10] "Andhra Pradesh News : Telugu is 2,400 years old, says ASI" (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ 2007/ 12/ 20/ stories/ 200712204820600. htm). The Hindu. 20 December 2007. . Retrieved 15 August 2010. [11] Indian Epigraphy, R. Saloman, Oxford University Press, 1998, ISBN 0-19-509984-2, p. 106 [12] Helmutt Hoffmann, "Buddha's Preaching of the Kalachakra Tantra at the Stupa of Dhanyakataka," German Scholars on India, Vol. I. PP. 136140. (Varanasi, 1973) [13] "Kalacakra.org" (http:/ / www. kalacakra. org/ history/ khistor2. htm). Kalacakra.org. 8 August 2010. . Retrieved 7 March 2011. [14] Epigraphica Indica, 27: 220228 [15] Robert Sewell, A Forgotten Empire (Vijayanagar): A contribution to the history of India, Chapter 2 Gutenberg.org (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ etext02/ fevch10. txt) [16] "Reorganisation, then and now" (http:/ / www. hinduonnet. com/ fline/ fl2626/ stories/ 20100101262602100. htm). Hinduonnet.com. . Retrieved 7 March 2011. [17] "/ India / Politics & Society Protests as India carves up Andhra Pradesh" (http:/ / www. ft. com/ cms/ s/ 0/ 7bb4f9e8-e5ae-11de-b5d7-00144feab49a. html). Financial Times. 10 December 2009. . Retrieved 15 August 2010. [18] "Home Secretary retracts Hyderabad statement" (http:/ / www. ndtv. com/ news/ india/ home_secretary_to_retract_hyderabad_statement. php). Ndtv.com. . Retrieved 15 August 2010. [19] "No consensus, so no Telangana now: Centre Politics News IBNLive" (http:/ / ibnlive. in. com/ news/ no-consensus-no-telangana-now-centre/ 107631-37. html?from=tn). Ibnlive.in.com. 3 February 2010. . Retrieved 15 August 2010. [20] "Srikrishna panel to visit Hyderabad from May2426" (http:/ / www. hindustantimes. com/ Srikrishna-panel-to-visit-Hyderabad-from-May-24-6/ H1-Article1-547218. aspx). Hindustan Times. 22 May 2010. . Retrieved 15 August 2010. [21] "Srikrishna Committee submits Telangana statehood report" (http:/ / www. indianexpress. com/ news/ srikrishna-committee-submits-telangana-statehood-report/ 731163/ ). The Indian Express. India. . Retrieved 7 March 2011. [22] "Andhra Pradesh Geography" (http:/ / www. maharashtraweb. com/ AndhraPradesh/ AndhraPradeshgeography. htm). Maharashtraweb.com. . Retrieved 15 August 2010. [23] (http:/ / www. dae. gov. in/ amd/ regions/ scr_cud. htm) [24] Aptdc, Andhra Pradesh Tourism Development Corporation (27 May 2010). "APTDC Andhra Pradesh Tourism Development Corporation" (http:/ / www. tourisminap. com/ know_ap/ index. php). Tourisminap.com. . Retrieved 15 August 2010. [25] "Population Characteristics Andra Pradesh" (http:/ / budget. ap. gov. in/ tab1_1. htm). Census of India. budget.ap.gov.in. . Retrieved 4 June 2008. [26] "Distribution of 10,000 Persons by Language India, States and Union Territories 2001" (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Census_Data_2001/ Census_Data_Online/ Language/ Statement3. htm). Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. 2001. . Retrieved 16 June 2010. [27] "Human Development Report 2007" (http:/ / www. aponline. gov. in/ Apportal/ HumanDevelopmentReport2007/ APHDR_2007_Chapter2. pdf). APonline.gov.in. . Retrieved 15 August 2010. [28] Beti, Jatinder S.; Ramachandran, Dr. H. (December 2008). "Human Development Index for Rural Andhra Pradesh" (http:/ / www. ncaer. org/ Downloads/ WorkingPapers/ WP99. pdf). www.ncaer.org. National Council of Applied Economic Research. . Retrieved 15 August 2010. [29] "Error: no |title= specified when using {{[[Template:Cite web|Cite web (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ List_of_Indian_states_by_GDP#cite_note-0)]}}"]. . [30] "Agriculture Dept. of Andhra Pradesh" (http:/ / agri. ap. nic. in). . [31] "Key Sectors of Andhra Pradesh" (http:/ / www. apind. gov. in/ indussectors. html). . [32] http:/ / finance. indiainfo. com/ news/ 2005/ 05/ 11/ 1105it-exports. html [33] (http:/ / www. pppinindia. com/ business-opportunities-andhra-pradesh. asp) [34] "Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly" (http:/ / www. apassemblylive. com). . [35] "Parliament of India" (http:/ / 164. 100. 24. 209/ newls/ membershomepage. aspx). .

Andhra Pradesh
[36] thehindu.com (http:/ / www. thehindu. com/ news/ national/ article91229. ece?homepage=true) [37] "Archaeological Museum, Amaravati Archaeological Survey of India" (http:/ / asi. nic. in/ asi_museums_amravati. asp). Asi.nic.in. . Retrieved 19 August 2010. [38] "VizagCityOnline.com Visakha Museum" (http:/ / www. vizagcityonline. com/ visakha_museum/ ). Vizagcityonline.com. . Retrieved 29 November 2008. [39] IndiaTourism.com (http:/ / www. indiatourism. com/ andhra-pradesh-museums/ victoria-jubilee-museum. html), Victoria Jubilee Museum. [40] TeluguPeople.com (http:/ / www. telugupeople. com/ discussion/ article. asp?id=111), Ntitya Ratnavali. [41] "Error: no |title= specified when using {{[[Template:Cite web|Cite web (http:/ / telugupandagalu. blogspot. com/ )]}}"]. . Retrieved 10 April 2010. [42] "100 New IMAX Screens | /Film" (http:/ / www. slashfilm. com/ 2007/ 12/ 06/ 100-new-imax-screens/ ). Slashfilm.com. 6 December 2007. . Retrieved 15 August 2010. [43] K.V. Kurmanath (6 November 2007). "Telugu film industry enters new era" (http:/ / www. blonnet. com/ 2007/ 11/ 06/ stories/ 200711060842300. htm). Hindu Business Line. . Retrieved 21 October 2009. [44] Manorma Sharma (2007). Musical Heritage of India. APH. pp.1932. ISBN8131300463. [45] "Sri Potuluri Veera Brahmendra Swami" (http:/ / www. mihira. com/ wisdommasters/ veerabrahmam. htm). Mihira.com. . Retrieved 29 November 2008. [46] "Stories of Bhaktas Fisherman Raghu" (http:/ / www. telugubhakti. com/ telugupages/ Monthly/ Bhaktas/ content1. htm). Telugubhakti.com. . Retrieved 29 November 2008. [48] Uma Sudhir (13 September 2007). "Tirupati Ousts Vatican, Reigns at Top" (http:/ / www. ndtv. com/ convergence/ ndtv/ story. aspx?id=NEWEN20070026005). NDTV.com. . Retrieved 16 August 2010. [49] (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Osmania_University) [50] (http:/ / www. rgukt. inwww. rgukt. in) [51] "IITH.ac.in" (http:/ / www. iith. ac. in). IITH.ac.in. 3 January 2011. . Retrieved 7 March 2011. [52] (http:/ / www. univ. tifr. res. in) [53] "IIIT.net" (http:/ / www. iiit. net/ themes/ iiit-july-1/ homePage/ images/ mImg1. jpg). . Retrieved 7 March 2011. [54] "NITW.ac.in" (http:/ / www. nitw. ac. in). NITW.ac.in. . Retrieved 7 March 2011. [55] (http:/ / www. gatech. edu/ ), [56] "Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Hyderabad, AP, India" (http:/ / www. jntu. ac. in/ ). Jntu.ac.in. . Retrieved 7 March 2011. [57] "Welcome to Osmania University Hyderabad" (http:/ / www. osmania. ac. in/ ). Osmania.ac.in. . Retrieved 7 March 2011. [58] ":: Welcome to Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, India - 530 003 ::" (http:/ / www. andhrauniversity. info/ ). Andhrauniversity.info. . Retrieved 7 March 2011. [59] "welcome to ANU website" (http:/ / www. nagarjunauniversity. ac. in/ ). Nagarjunauniversity.ac.in. . Retrieved 7 March 2011. [60] "Welcome to Kakatiya University" (http:/ / www. kuwarangal. com/ default. aspx). Kuwarangal.com. . Retrieved 7 March 2011. [61] "Sri Venkateswara University" (http:/ / www. svuniversity. in/ ). Svuniversity.in. . Retrieved 7 March 2011. [62] document.write(TODAY);. "Welcome to Sri Krishnadevaraya University :: Anantapur, AP, India" (http:/ / www. skuniversity. org/ ). Skuniversity.org. . Retrieved 7 March 2011. [63] http:/ / www. teluguuniversity. ac. in/ [64] ":: Acharya N G Ranga Agricultural University ::>>Home<< ::" (http:/ / www. angrau. net/ ). Angrau.net. . Retrieved 7 March 2011. [65] http:/ / www. islamicvoice. co. in [66] "The Templenet Encyclopedia Temples of Andhra Pradesh" (http:/ / www. templenet. com/ encandh1. html). . Retrieved 26 February 2009. [67] "AP Fact File-Natural Advantages" (http:/ / www. aponline. gov. in/ Quick links/ apfactfile/ naturaladvantages. html#Airways). APonline. . Retrieved 3 March 2009. [68] "citi-Charter" (http:/ / www. apsrtc. gov. in/ Contact Us/ Grievances/ Citi-Chart. htm). Apsrtc.gov.in. . Retrieved 19 August 2010.

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External links
Map of Andhra Pradesh (http://www.indiamapssite.com/andhra-pradesh/andhra-pradesh-state-map.html) Official website of the Government of Andhra Pradesh (http://www.aponline.gov.in/) Andhra Pradesh Government Tourism Department (http://www.aptourism.in/) Andhra Pradesh (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/India/Andhra_Pradesh/) at the Open Directory Project Andhra Pradesh Portal at NIC website (http://www.ap.nic.in/) AP Directorate of Economics & Statistics (http://www.apdes.ap.gov.in/) Official website of State Police of Andhra Pradesh (http://www.apstatepolice.org/)

Citizen Reports and Latest News from Andhra Pradesh (http://www.andhramirror.com/)

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Arunachal Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
State

Seal

Location of Arunachal Pradesh in India

Map of Arunachal Pradesh Coordinates (Itanagar): 2704N 9322E Country Established Capital Largest city Districts Government India 20 February 1987 Itanagar Itanagar 16

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-Governor -ChiefMinister -Legislature Area -Total Area rank Population (2011) -Total -Rank -Density Time zone ISO 3166 code HDI HDI rank Literacy 1382611 26th 16.5/km2(42.8/sqmi) IST (UTC+05:30) IN-AR 0.617 (medium) 18th (2005) 66.95% 83743km2(32333.4sqmi) 14th Joginder Jaswant Singh (2008-) Jarbom Gamlin (2011-) Unicameral (60 seats)

Official languages Hindi, Deori, Assamese, English, and many local languages. Website arunachalpradesh.nic.in [1]

Arunachal Pradesh (Hindi: , pronounced[ratl prde] ( listen)) is a state of India, located in the far northeast. It borders the states of Assam and Nagaland to the south, and shares international borders with Burma in the east, Bhutan in the west, and the People's Republic of China in the north. The majority of the territory is claimed by the People's Republic of China as part of South Tibet. The northern border of Arunachal Pradesh reflects the McMahon Line, a controversial 1914 treaty between the United Kingdom and a Tibetan government, which was never accepted by the Chinese government, and not enforced by the Indian government until 1950. Itanagar is the capital of the state. Arunachal Pradesh means "land of the dawn lit mountains"[2] in Sanskrit. It is also known as "land of the rising sun"[3] ("pradesh" means "state" or "region") in reference to its position as the easternmost state of India. Most of the people native to and/or living in Arunachal Pradesh are of Tibeto-Burman origin. A large and increasing number of migrants have reached Arunachal Pradesh from many other parts of India, although no reliable population count of the migrant population has been conducted, and percentage estimates of total population accordingly vary widely. Part of the famous Ledo Burma Road, which was a lifeline to China during World War II, passes through the eastern part of the state.

History
Early history
The history of pre-modern Arunachal Pradesh remains shrouded in mystery. It is popularly believed, and may be speculatively assumed, that the first ancestors of most indigenous tribal groups migrated from pre-Buddhist Tibet two or three thousand years ago, if not before, and were joined by Tibetic and Thai-Burmese counterparts later. The earliest written references to Arunachal are popularly believed to be found in the Mahabharata, Ramayana and other Vedic legends. Several characters, such as, King Bhismaka, are believed to represent people from the region in the Mahabharata; however, since corroborating information is unavailable, and since place-names cannot be verified at that historical time-depth, such associations are to a large extent speculative. For example, there is no evidence

Arunachal Pradesh whatsoever that the name Bhismaka plausibly associates with any indigenous Arunachali tribes or languages at all. Oral histories possessed to this day by many Arunachali tribes of Tibeto-Burman stock are much richer, and point unambiguously to a northern origin in modern-day Tibet. Again, however, corroboration remains difficult. From the point of view of material culture, it is clear that most indigenous Arunachali groups align with Burma-area hill tribals, a fact that could either be explainable in terms of a northern Burmese origin or from westward cultural diffusion. From the perspective of material culture, the most unusual Arunachali group by far is the Puroik/Sulung, whose traditional staple food is sago palm and whose primary traditional productive strategy is foraging. While speculatively considered to be a Tibeto-Burman population, the uniqueness of Puroik culture and language may well represent a tenuous reflection of a distant and all but unknown pre-Tibeto-Burman, Tai and Indo-Aryan past. Recorded history from an outside perspective only became available in the Ahom chronicles of the 16th century. The Monpa and Sherdukpen do keep historical records of the existence of local chiefdoms in the northwest as well. Northwestern parts of this area came under the control of the Monpa kingdom of Monyul, which flourished between 500 B.C. and 600 A.D. This region then came under the loose control of Tibet and Bhutan, especially in the Northern areas. The remaining parts of the state, especially those bordering Myanmar, came under the titular control of the Ahom and the Assamese until the annexation of India by the British in 1858. However, most Arunachali tribes remained in practice largely autonomous up until Indian independence and the formalization of indigenous administration in 1947. Recent excavations of ruins of Hindu temples such as the 14th century Malinithan at the foot of the Siang hills in West Siang are somewhat automatically associated with the ancient history of Arunachal Pradesh, inasmuch as they fall within its modern-day political borders. However, such temples are generally south-facing, never occur more than a few kilometers from the Assam plains area, and are perhaps more likely to have been associated with Assam plains-based rather than indigenous Arunachali populations. Another notable heritage site, Bhismaknagar, has led to suggestions that the Idu (Mishmi) had an advanced culture and administration in pre-historical times. Again, however, no evidence directly associates Bhismaknagar with this or any other known culture. The third heritage site, the 400-year-old Tawang Monastery in the extreme north-west of the state, provides some historical evidence of the Buddhist tribal peoples. Historically, the area had a close relationship with Tibetan people and Tibetan culture, for example the sixth Dalai Lama Tsangyang Gyatso was born in Tawang.[4]

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Drawing of McMahon line

In 1913-1914 representatives of China, Tibet and Britain negotiated a treaty in India: the Simla Accord.[5] This treaty's objective was to define the borders between Inner and Outer Tibet as well as between Outer Tibet and British India. British administrator, Sir Henry McMahon, drew up the 550miles (890km) McMahon Line as the border between British India and Outer Tibet during the Simla Conference. The Tibetan and British representatives at the conference agreed to the line, which ceded Tawang and other Tibetan areas to the British Empire. The Chinese representative had no problems with the border between British India and Outer Tibet, however on British map published in 1909 showing the Indo-Tibetan traditional border (eastern section on the top right) the issue of the border between Outer Tibet and Inner Tibet the talks broke down. Thus, the Chinese representative refused to accept the agreement and walked out. The Tibetan Government and British Government went ahead with the Simla Agreement and declared that the benefits of other articles of this treaty would not be bestowed on China as long as it stays out of the purview.[6] The Chinese position was that Tibet was not independent from China, so Tibet could not have independently signed treaties, and per the Anglo-Chinese (1906) and Anglo-Russian (1907) conventions, any such agreement was invalid without Chinese assent.[7] Simla was initially rejected by the Government of India as incompatible with the 1907 Anglo-Russian Convention. However, this agreement(Anglo-Russian Convention) was renounced by Russia and Britain jointly in 1921, thus making the Simla Conference official. However, with the collapse of Chinese power in Tibet the line had no serious challenges as Tibet had signed the convention, therefore it was forgotten to the extent that no new maps were published until 1935, when interest was revived by civil service officer Olaf Caroe. The Survey of India published a map showing the McMahon Line as the official boundary in 1937. In 1938, the British finally published the Simla Convention as a bilateral accord two decades after the Simla Conference; in 1938 the Survey of India published a detailed map showing Tawang as part of NEFA. In 1944 Britain established administrations in the area, from Dirang Dzong in the west to Walong in the east. Tibet, however, altered its position on the McMahon Line in late 1947 when the Tibetan government wrote a note presented to the newly independent Indian Ministry of External Affairs laying claims to the Tibetan district (Tawang) south of the McMahon Line.[8] The situation developed further as India became independent and the People's Republic of China was established in 1949. With the PRC poised to take over Tibet, India unilaterally declared the McMahon Line to be the boundary in November 1950, and forced the last remnants of Tibetan administration out of the Tawang area in 1951.[9] [10] The PRC has never recognized the McMahon Line, and claims Tawang on behalf of Tibetans.[11] The 14th Dalai Lama, who led the Tibetan government from 1950 to 1959, said as recently as 2003 that Tawang is "actually part of Tibet".[12] He reversed his position in 2008, saying that it was part of India.[12]

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Conflicts between China and India

The NEFA (North East Frontier Agency) was created in 1954. The issue was quiet during the next decade or so of cordial Sino-Indian relations, but erupted again during the Sino-Indian War of 1962. The cause of the escalation into war is still disputed by both Chinese and Indian sources. During the war in 1962, the PRC captured most area of Arunachal Pradesh. However, China soon declared victory, voluntarily withdrew back to the McMahon Line and returned Indian prisoners of war in 1963. The war has resulted in the termination of barter trade with Tibet, although in 2007 the state government has shown signs to resume barter trade with Tibet.[13]

After the war

Arunachal Pradesh became a separate state of India in 1986. Of late, Arunachal Pradesh has come to face threats from certain insurgent groups, notably the National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN), who are believed to have base camps in the districts of Changlang and Tirap.[14] There are occasional reports of these groups harassing local people and extracting protection money.[15]

Geography
Much of Arunachal Pradesh is covered by the Himalayas. However, parts of Lohit, Changlang and Tirap are covered by the Patkai hills. Kangto, Nyegi Kangsang, the main Gorichen peak and the Eastern Gorichen peak are some of the highest peaks in this region of the Himalayas. At the lowest elevations, essentially at Arunachal Pradesh's border with Assam, are Brahmaputra Valley semi-evergreen forests. Much of the state, including the Himalayan foothills and the Patkai hills, are home to Eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests. Toward the northern border with China, with increasing elevation, come a mixture of Eastern and Northeastern Himalayan subalpine conifer forests followed by Eastern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows and ultimately rock and ice on the highest peaks. In 2006 Bumla pass in Tawang was opened to traders for the first time in 44 years. Traders from both sides of the pass were permitted to enter each other's territories, in addition to postal workers from each country. The Himalayan ranges that extend up to the eastern Arunachal separate it from Tibet. The ranges extend toward Nagaland, and form a boundary between India and Burma in Changlang and Tirap district, acting as a natural barrier called Patkai Bum Hills. They are low mountains compared to the Greater Himalayas.[16]

Arunachal Pradesh is famous for its mountainous landscape.

The Himalayas bordering Arunachal Pradesh

Climate

Arunachal Pradesh The climate of Arunachal Pradesh varies with elevation. Areas that are at a very high elevation in the Upper Himalayas close to the Tibetan border enjoy an alpine or Tundra climate. Below the Upper Himalayas are the Middle Himalayas, where people experience a temperate climate. Areas at the sub-Himalayan and sea-level elevation generally experience humid, sub-tropical climate with hot summers and mild winters. Arunachal Pradesh receives heavy rainfall of 80 to 160 inches (2000 to 4100 mm) annually, most of it between May and September. The mountain slopes and hills are covered with alpine, temperate, and subtropical forests of dwarf rhododendron, oak, pine, maple, fir, and juniper; sal (Shorea) and teak are the main economically valuable species.

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Sub-divisions
Arunachal Pradesh is divided into sixteen districts, each administered by a district collector, who sees to the needs of the local people. Especially along the Tibetan border, the Indian army has a considerable presence due to concerns about Chinese intentions in the region. Special permits called Inner Line Permits (ILP) are required to enter Arunachal Pradesh through any of its checkgates on the border with Assam. Districts of Arunachal Pradesh: Anjaw District Changlang District East Kameng East Siang Kurung Kumey Lohit District Lower Dibang Valley Lower Subansiri Papum Pare Tawang District Tirap District Upper Dibang Valley Upper Subansiri Upper Siang West Kameng West Siang

Dorjee Khandu, former Chief minister of Arunachal Pradesh

Economy
The chart below displays the trend of the gross state domestic product of Arunachal Pradesh at market prices estimated [17] by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation with figures in millions of Indian Rupees.

Arunachal Pradesh

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Year 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Gross State Domestic Product 1,070 2,690 5,080 11,840 17,830

Arunachal Pradesh's gross state domestic product for 2004 was estimated at $706 million in current prices. Agriculture primarily drives the economy. Jhum, the local word for a shifting cultivation widely practiced among the tribal groups, is now less practiced. Arunachal Pradesh has close to 61,000 square kilometers of forests, and forest products are the next most significant sector of the economy. Among the crops grown here are rice, maize, millet, wheat, pulses, sugarcane, ginger, and oilseeds. Arunachal is also ideal for horticulture and fruit orchards. Its major industries are rice mills, fruit preservation units, and handloom handicrafts. Sawmills and plywood trades are prohibited under law.[18] Arunachal Pradesh accounts for a large percentage of India's untapped hydroelectric power production potential. In 2008, the state government of Arunachal Pradesh signed deals with various Indian companies planning some 42 hydroelectric schemes that will produce electricity in excess of 27,000 MW.[19] Construction of the Upper Siang Hydroelectric Project, which is expected to generate between 10,000 to 12,000 MW, began in April 2009.[20] Corruption in Arunachal Pradesh is endemic, and reputed to be among the worst in India. During 2009 elections, the Arunachal Times reported that virtually all of the leading candidates had reported personal fortunes to the equivalent of several million US dollars - in a state with no income tax and where the average per capita income is only a dollar or two per day. The failure of Arunachali people to hold their leaders accountable has led to tremendous drains on the economy and a crumbling infrastructure. Another missed economic opportunity is that of tourism. Boasting a scenic natural beauty that equals and in some respects surpasses that of other Himalayan regions such as Sikkim, Bhutan, and Nepal, Arunachal Pradesh's strict and expensive "Restricted/Protected Area Permit" scheme ensures both that no more than a trickle of foreign tourists are able to visit the state each year, and that revenues so obtained go directly into the pockets of government officials and affiliated tour operators. Little if any benefit from tourism is able to reach the general population, which remains in general relatively impoverished.

Languages
Modern-day Arunachal Pradesh is one of the linguistically richest and most diverse regions in all of Asia, being home to at least thirty and possibly as many as fifty distinct languages in addition to innumerable dialects and subdialects thereof. Boundaries between languages very often correlate with tribal divisions - for example, Apatani and Nyishi are both tribally and linguistically distinct - but shifts in tribal identity and alignment over time have also ensured that a certain amount of complication enters into the picture - for example, Galo is and has seemingly always been linguistically distinct from Adi, whereas the earlier tribal alignment of Galo with Adi (i.e., "Adi Gallong") has only recently been essentially dissolved. The vast majority of languages indigenous to modern-day Arunachal Pradesh belong to the Tibeto-Burman language family. The majority of these in turn belong to a single branch of Tibeto-Burman, namely Tani. Almost all Tani languages are indigenous to central Arunachal Pradesh, including (moving from west to east) Nyishi/Nishi, Apatani, Bangni, Tagin, Hills Miri, Galo, Bokar, Lower Adi (Padam, Pasi, Minyong, and Komkar), Upper Adi (Aashing, Shimong, Karko and Bori), and Milang; only Mising, among Tani languages, is primarily spoken outside Arunachal Pradesh in modern-day Assam, while a handful of northern Tani languages including Bangni and Bokar are also spoken in small numbers in Tibet. Tani languages are noticeably characterized by an overall relative uniformity,

Arunachal Pradesh suggesting relatively recent origin and dispersal within their present-day area of concentration. Most Tani languages are mutually intelligible with at least one other Tani language, meaning that the area constitutes a dialect chain, as was once found in much of Europe; only Apatani and Milang stand out as relatively unusual in the Tani context. Tani languages are among the better-studied languages of the region. To the east of the Tani area lie three virtually undescribed and highly endangered languages of the "Mishmi" group of Tibeto-Burman, Idu, Digaru and Miju. A certain number of speakers of these languages are also found in Tibet. The relationships of these languages, both amongst one another and to other area languages, are as yet uncertain. Further south, one finds the Singpho (Kachin) language, which is primarily spoken by large populations in Burma, and the Nocte and Wancho languages, which show affiliations to certain "Naga" languages spoken to the south in modern-day Nagaland. To the west and north of the Tani area are found at least one and possibly as many as four Bodic languages, including Dakpa and Tshangla; within modern-day India, these languages go by the cognate but, in usage, distinct designations Monpa and Memba. Most speakers of these languages or closely related Bodic languages are found in neighbouring Bhutan and Tibet, and Monpa and Memba populations remain closely adjacent to these border regions. Between the Bodic and Tani areas lie a large number of almost completely undescribed and unclassified languages, which, speculatively considered to be Tibeto-Burman, exhibit many unique structural and lexical properties that probably reflect both a long history in the region and a complex history of language contact with neighbouring populations. Among them are Sherdukpen, Bugun, Aka/Hruso, Koro, Miji, Bangru and Puroik/Sulung. The high linguistic significance of all of these languages is belied by the extreme paucity of documentation and description of them, even in view of their highly endangered status. Puroik, in particular, is perhaps one of the most culturally and linguistically unique and significant populations in all of Asia from proto-historical and anthropological-linguistic perspectives, and yet virtually no information of any real reliability regarding their culture or language can be found in print even to this day. Finally, there is an unknown number of Tibeto-Burman languages of Nepal-area origin spoken in modern-day Arunachal Pradesh, including Gurung and Tamang; not classified as "tribal" in the Arunachali context, such languages generally go unrecognized, while their speakers are largely viewed as itinerant "Nepalis". An unknown number of Tibetan dialects are similarly spoken by recent migrants from Tibet, although they are not generally recognized or classified as tribal or indigenous. Outside of Tibeto-Burman, one finds in Arunachal Pradesh a single representative of the Tai language family, namely the Khamti language, which is closely affiliated to the Shan dialects of northern Burma; seemingly, Khamti is a recent arrival in Arunachal Pradesh whose presence dates from 18th and/or early 19th-century migrations from northern Burma. In addition to these non-Indo-European languages, the Indo-European languages Assamese, Bengali, English, Nepali and especially Hindi are making strong inroads into Arunachal Pradesh. Primarily as a result of the primary education system - in which classes are generally taught by Hindi-speaking immigrant teachers from Bihar and other Hindi-speaking parts of northern India - a large and growing section of the population now speaks a semi-creolized variety of Hindi as its mother tongue.

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Demographics
Arunachal Pradesh can be roughly divided into a set of semi-distinct cultural spheres, on the basis of tribal identity, language, religion, and material culture: the Tibetic area bordering Bhutan in the west, the Tani area in the centre of the state, the Mishmi area to the east of the Tani area, the Tai/Singpho/Tangsa area bordering Burma, and the "Naga" area to the south, which also borders Burma. In between there are transition zones, such as the Aka/Hruso/Miji/Sherdukpen area, which provides a "buffer" of sorts between the Tibetic Buddhist tribes and the animist Tani hill tribes. In addition, there are isolated peoples scattered throughout the state, such as the Sulung. Within each of these cultural spheres, one finds populations of related tribes speaking related languages and sharing similar traditions. In the Tibetic area, one finds large numbers of Monpa tribespeople, with several subtribes

Arunachal Pradesh speaking closely related but mutually incomprehensible languages, and also large numbers of Tibetan refugees. Within the Tani area, major tribes include Nishi, which has recently come to be used by many people to encompass Bangni, Tagin and even Hills Miri. Apatani also live among the Nishi, but are distinct. In the centre, one finds predominantly Galo people, with the major sub-groups of Lare and Pugo among others, extending to the Ramo and Pailibo areas (which are close in many ways to Galo). In the east, one finds the Adi, with many subtribes including Padam, Pasi, Minyong, and Bokar, among others. Milang, while also falling within the general "Adi" sphere, are in many ways quite distinct. Moving east, the Idu, Miju and Digaru make up the "Mishmi" cultural-linguistic area, which may or may not form a coherent historical grouping. Moving southeast, the Tai Khamti are linguistically distinct from their neighbours and culturally distinct from the majority of other Arunachali tribes;They are religiously similar to the Chakmas who have migrated from erstwhile East Pakistan.They follow the same Theraveda sect of Buddhism.The Chakmas consist of the majority of the tribal population.Districts of Lohit,Changlang,Dibang and Papumpare have a considerable number of Chakmas. They speak a linguistic variant derived from Assamese and Bengali. Their language is more similar to Assamese . Assam also have a large population of Chakmas who reside in the district of Karbi Anglong , Nagaon and Kachar. however, they also exhibit considerable convergence with the Singpho and Tangsa tribes of the same area; all of these groups are also found in Burma. Finally, the Nocte and Wancho exhibit cultural and possibly also linguistic affinities to the tribes of Nagaland, which they border. In addition, there are large numbers of migrants from diverse areas of India and Bangladesh, who, while legally not entitled to settle permanently, in practice stay indefinitely, progressively altering the traditional demographic makeup of the state. Finally, populations of "Nepalis" (in fact, usually Tibeto-Burman tribespeople whose tribes predominate in areas of Nepal, but who do not have tribal status in India) and Chakmas are distributed in different areas of the state (although reliable figures are hard to come by). Literacy has risen in official figures to 66.95% in 2011 from 54.74% in 2001. The literate population is said to number 789,943. Number of literate males are 454,532 (73.69%) and number of literate females are 335,411 (59.57%)[22] . An uncertain but relatively large percentage of Arunachal's population are animist, and follow shamanistic-animistic religious traditions such as Buddhism is practiced by 13% of the population. Shown here is a Donyi-Polo (in the Tani area) and Rangfrah (further statue of the Buddha in Tawang, Arunachal Pradesh. east). A small number of Arunachali peoples have traditionally identified as Hindus, although the number is growing as animist traditions are merged with Hindu traditions. Tibetan Buddhism predominates in the districts of Tawang, West Kameng, and isolated regions adjacent to Tibet. Theravada Buddhism is practiced by groups living near the Burmese border. Around 19% of the population are said to be followers of the Christian faith,[23] and this percentage is probably growing due to Christian missionary activities in the area. According to the 2001 Indian Census, the religions of Arunachal Pradesh break down as follows:[24] Hindu: 379,935 (34.6%) Others (mostly Donyi-Polo): 337,399 (30.7%) Christian: 205,548 (18.7%) Buddhist: 143,028 (13.0%) Muslim: 20,675 (1.9%)

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Sikh: 1,865 (0.1%) Jain: 216 (<0.1%)

Arunachal Pradesh A law has been enacted to protect the indigenous religions (e.g., Donyi-Poloism, Buddhism) in Arunanchal Pradesh against the spread of other religions, though no comparable law exists to protect the other religions.

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Transport
The state's airports are located at Daparjio, Ziro, Along, Tezu and Pasighat. However, owing to the rough terrain, these airports are mostly small and cannot handle many flights. Before being connected by road, they were originally used for the transportation of food. Arunachal Pradesh has two highways: the 336km (209mi) National Highway 52, completed in 1998, which connects Jonai with Dirak,[25] and another highway, which connects Tezpur in Assam with Tawang.[26] As of 2007, every village has been connected by road thanks to funding provided by the central government. Every small town has its own bus station and daily bus services are available. All places are connected to Assam, which has increased trading activity. An additional National Highway is being constructed following the famous Stillwell Ledo Road, which connects Ledo in Assam to Jairampur in Arunachal.

Education
The current education system in Arunachal Pradesh is relatively underdeveloped. The state government is expanding the education system in concert with various NGOs like Vivekananda Kendra. The state has several reputable schools, colleges, and institutions. There are also trust institutes like Pali Vidyapith run by Buddhists. They teach Pali and Khamti scripts in addition to typical educational subjects. Khamti is the only tribe in Arunachal Pradesh that has its own script. Libraries of sciptures are located in a number of places in Lohit district, the largest one in Chowkham. Rajiv Gandhi University formerly known as Arunachal University is the premier educational institution, the only university and North Eastern Regional Institute of Science and Technology, the only deemed university in the entire state. Additionally, there are 7 government colleges in different districts, providing students a higher education. NERIST plays an important role in technical and management higher education. The directorate of technical education conducts examinations yearly, so that students who qualify can continue on to higher studies in other states. The state has two polytechnic institutions, namely Rajiv Gandhi Government Polytechnic, located at Itanagar, and Tomi Polytechnic College, located at Basar.
Sl. No. 1 2 Name of Polytechnic Colleges Location Year of establishment 2002 2006

Rajiv Gandhi Govt. Polytechnic Itanagar Tomi Polytechnic College Basar

Arunachal Pradesh

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Tourism
Arunachal Pradesh attracts tourists from many parts of the world. Tourist attractions include Tawang, a beautiful town famous for its Buddhist monastery, Ziro, famous for cultural festivals, the Namdapha tiger project in Changlang district and Sela lake near Bomdila with its bamboo bridges overhanging the river. Religious places of interest include Malinithan in Lekhabali, Rukhmininagar near Roing (the place where Rukmini, Lord Krishna's wife in Hindu mythology, is said to have lived), and Parshuram Kund in Lohit district (which is believed to be the lake where Parshuram washed away his sins). Rafting and trekking are common activities. A visitor's permit from the tourism department is required. Places like Tuting have wonderful, undiscovered scenic beauty.

Across section of Changlang town.

A view of Tawang Monastery.

State Symbols
State Bird Hornbill [27] State Flower State Animal State Tree

Foxtail Orchid Hoolock gibbon Hollong

Notes
[1] http:/ / arunachalpradesh. nic. in [2] Usha Sharma (2005). Discovery of North-East India. Mittal Publications. p.65. ISBN9788183240345. [3] "Arunachal Pradesh - The Land of the Rising Sun" (http:/ / www. indyahills. com/ arnp/ ). Indyahills.com. . Retrieved 2010-10-06. (http:/ / www. tibet. cn/ t/ 040616zazc_cyjc/ 200402004617135758. htm) (Biography of Cangyang Gyaco; in Chinese) "Simla Convention" (http:/ / tibetjustice. org/ materials/ treaties/ treaties16. html). Tibetjustice.org. . Retrieved 2010-10-06. Lamb, Alastair, The McMahon line: a study in the relations between India, China and Tibet, 1904 to 1914, London, 1966, p529 Ray, Jayanta Kumar (2007). Aspects of India's International relations, 1700 to 2000: South Asia and the World. History of science, philosophy, and culture in Indian civilization: Towards independence. Pearson PLC. p.202. ISBN9788131708347. [8] Lamb, 1966, p580 [9] "The battle for the border" (http:/ / www. rediff. com/ news/ 2003/ jun/ 21spec. htm). Rediff.com. 2003-06-23. . Retrieved 2010-10-06. [10] Indias China War by Neville Maxwell (http:/ / www. centurychina. com/ plaboard/ uploads/ 1962war. htm) [4] [5] [6] [7]

Arunachal Pradesh
[11] Ramachandran, Sudha (2008-06-27). "China toys with India's border" (http:/ / www. atimes. com/ atimes/ South_Asia/ JF27Df01. html). South Asia (Asia Times). . Retrieved 2010-09-18. [12] "Tawang is part of India: Dalai Lama" (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ India/ Tawang_is_part_of_India_Dalai_Lama_/ articleshow/ 3097568. cms). TNN. 4 June 2008. . Retrieved 4 June 2008. [13] PM to visit Arunachal in mid-Feb (http:/ / in. news. yahoo. com/ 061227/ 48/ 6amqn. html) [14] "Apang rules out Chakma compromise" (http:/ / www. telegraphindia. com/ 1030812/ asp/ northeast/ story_2255514. asp). Telegraphindia.com. 2003-08-12. . Retrieved 2010-10-06. [15] (http:/ / in. news. yahoo. com/ 040611/ 43/ 2dkto. html) [16] "Trekking in Arunachal, Trekking Tour in Arunachal Pradesh,Adventure Trekking in Arunachal Pradesh" (http:/ / www. north-east-india. com/ arunachal-pradesh/ trekking-arunachal. html). North-east-india.com. . Retrieved 2010-10-06. [17] http:/ / mospi. nic. in/ mospi_nad_main. htm [18] Arunachal Pradesh Economy (http:/ / www. thisismyindia. com/ arunachal-pradesh/ arunachal-pradesh-economy. html), This Is My India [19] "Massive dam plans for Arunachal" (http:/ / www. indiatogether. org/ 2008/ feb/ env-arunachal. htm). Indiatogether.org. . Retrieved 2010-10-06. [20] India pre-empts Chinese design in Arunachal (http:/ / www. expressbuzz. com/ edition/ story. aspx?Title=India+ pre-empts+ Chinese+ design+ in+ Arunachal& artid=3CoV5eK0GKk=& SectionID=b7ziAYMenjw=& MainSectionID=b7ziAYMenjw=& SEO=DPR,+ Siang+ river& SectionName=pWehHe7IsSU=) [21] "Census Population" (http:/ / indiabudget. nic. in/ es2006-07/ chapt2007/ tab97. pdf) (PDF). Census of India. Ministry of Finance India. . Retrieved 18 December 2008. [22] "Census of India: Provisional Population Tables - Census 2011" (http:/ / censusindia. gov. in/ 2011-prov-results/ data_files/ Table-2(3)_literacy. pdf). Censusindia.gov.in. . Retrieved 2011-04-11. [23] "Census Reference Tables, C-Series Population by religious communities" (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Census_Data_2001/ Census_data_finder/ C_Series/ Population_by_religious_communities. htm). Censusindia.gov.in. . Retrieved 2010-10-06. [24] 2001 Indian Census (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Census_Data_2001/ Census_data_finder/ C_Series/ Population_by_religious_communities. htm) [25] Oral Answers to Questions September 13, 1991 (http:/ / parliamentofindia. nic. in/ ls/ lsdeb/ ls10/ ses1/ 0113099101. htm), Parliament of India [26] (http:/ / www. icar. org. in/ nrcyak/ background. html) [27] "Web India" (http:/ / www. webindia123. com/ arunachal/ index. htm). Webindia123.com. 2007-10-03. . Retrieved 2010-10-06.

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External links
Official website of the Government of Arunachal Pradesh (http://arunachalpradesh.nic.in/) Tourism in Arunachal Pradesh (http://arunachaltourism.com/) Arunachal News (http://arunachalnews.com) Inventory of Conflict and Environment (ICE), Arunachal Pradesh Territorial Dispute between India and China (http://www1.american.edu/ted/ice/india-china.htm)

Assam

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Assam
Assam
State

Seal

Location of Assam in India

Map of Assam Coordinates (Dispur): 2608N 9146E Country Established Capital India 15 August 1947 Dispur

Assam

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Largest city Districts Government[*] -Governor -ChiefMinister -Legislature Area -Total Area rank Population (2011) -Total -Rank -Density Time zone ISO 3166 code HDI HDI rank Literacy Official languages Website 31169272 14th 396.8/km2(1027.7/sqmi) IST (UTC+05:30) IN-AS 0.534 (medium) 22nd (2005) 76.3% (9th) Assamese; Bengali (in the Barak Valley); Bodo (in Bodoland) assam.gov.in [2] [1] 78550km2(30328.3sqmi) 16th J B Patnaik Tarun Gogoi Unicameral (126 seats) Guwahati 27

[*] Assam has had a legislature since 1937 [*] Assam is one of the original provinces of British India

Assam pronunciation (Assamese: ) pronounced [xm]) is a northeastern state of India. Its capital is Dispur, a city located on the outskirts of its largest city, Guwahati. Located south of the eastern Himalayas, Assam comprises the Brahmaputra and the Barak river valleys along with the Karbi Anglong and the North Cachar Hills with an area of 30,285 square miles (78,438km). Assam is surrounded by six of the other Seven Sister States: Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and Meghalaya. These states are connected to the rest of India via a narrow strip in West Bengal called the Siliguri Corridor or "Chicken's Neck".[3] Assam also shares international borders with Bhutan and Bangladesh; and cultures, peoples and climate with South-East Asia important elements in Indias Look East policy. Assam became a part of India after the British occupied the region following the First Anglo-Burmese War of 1824-1826. It is known for Assam tea, large and old petroleum resources, Assam silk and for its rich biodiversity. Assam has successfully conserved the one-horned Indian rhinoceros from near extinction, along with the tiger and numerous species of birds, and it provides one of the last wild habitats for the Asian elephant. It is becoming an increasingly popular destination for wildlife tourism, and Kaziranga and Manas are both World Heritage Sites.[4] Assam was also known for its Sal tree forests and forest products, much depleted now. A land of high rainfall, Assam is endowed with lush greenery and the mighty river Brahmaputra, whose tributaries and oxbow lakes provide the region with a unique hydro-geomorphic and aesthetic environment.

Assam

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Etymology
Assam was known as Pragjyotishpur in the Mahabharata; and Kamarup in the 1st millennium. While the Shan invaders called themselves Tai, they came to be referred to as sm, sam and sometimes as Acam by the indigenous people of the country. The modern Assamese word hom by which the Tai people are known is derived from sm or sam. The epithet applied to the Shan conquerors was subsequently transferred to the country over which they ruled and thus the name Kmarpa was replaced by sm,which ultimately took the Sanskritized form Asama, meaning unequalled, peerless or uneven. The British province after 1838 and the Indian state after 1947 came to be known as Assam. On 27 February 2006, the Government of Assam started a process to change the name of the state to Asom or Axom,[5] a controversial move that has been opposed by the people and political organizations.[6]

Physical geography
Geomorphic studies conclude that the Brahmaputra, the life-line of Assam is an antecedent river, older than the Himalayas. The river with steep gorges and rapids in Arunachal Pradesh entering Assam, becomes a braided river (at times 10mi/16km wide) and with tributaries, creates a flood plain (Brahmaputra Valley: 5060mi/80100km wide, 600mi/1000km long).[8] The hills of Karbi Anglong, North Cachar and those in and close to Guwahati (also Khasi-Garo Hills) now eroded and dissected are originally parts of the South Indian Plateau system.[8] In the south, the Barak originating in the Barail Range (Assam-Nagaland border), flows through the Cachar district with a 2530miles (4050km) wide valley and enters Bangladesh with the name Surma.

Assam is endowed with petroleum, natural gas, coal, limestone and other minor minerals such as magnetic quartzite, kaolin, sillimanites, clay and feldspar.[9] A small quantity of iron ore is available in western districts.[9] Discovered in 1889, all the major petroleum-gas reserves are in Upper parts. A recent USGS estimate shows 399million barrels ( m3) of oil, 1178 billion cubic feet (3.341010 m3) of gas and 67million barrels ( m3) of natural gas liquids in the Assam Geologic Province.[10]

Assam and its Environs: As per the plate tectonics, Assam is in the eastern-most projection of the Indian Plate, where the plate is thrusting underneath the Eurasian Plate creating a [7] subduction zone and the Himalayas. Therefore, Assam possesses a unique geomorphic environment, with plains, dissected hills of the South Indian Plateau system and with the Himalayas all around its north, north-east and east.

With the Tropical Monsoon Rainforest Climate, Assam is temperate (summer max. at 95100 F or 3538 C and winter min. at 4346 F or 68 C) and experiences heavy rainfall and high humidity.[8] [11] The climate is characterized by heavy monsoon downpours reducing summer temperatures and affecting foggy nights and mornings in winters. Thunderstorms known as Bordoicila are frequent during the afternoons. Spring (Mar-Apr) and Autumn (Sept-Oct) are usually pleasant with moderate rainfall and temperature. Assam is one of the richest biodiversity zones in the world and consists of tropical rainforests,[12] deciduous forests, riverine grasslands,[13] bamboo[14] orchards and numerous wetland[15] ecosystems; Many are now protected as national parks and reserved forests. The Kaziranga, home of the rare Indian Rhinoceros, and Manas are two UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Assam. The state is the last refuge for numerous other endangered species such as the Golden Langur (Presbetis geei), White-winged Wood Duck or Deohanh (Cairina scutulata), Bengal Florican, Black-breasted Parrotbill, Pygmy Hog, Greater Adjutant and so on. Some other endangered species with significant population in Assam are the tiger, elephant, Hoolock gibbon, Jerdon's Babbler and so on to name a few. Assam is also known for orchids.[16]

Assam The region is prone to natural disasters with annual floods and frequent mild earthquakes. Strong earthquakes are rare; three of which were recorded in 1869, 1897 (8.1 on the Richter scale); and in 1950 (8.6).

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A view of the Brahmaputra river.

An Indian Rhinoceros at Kaziranga National Park.

Areca nut or Tamul; the seed of the Areca catechu is an important element of cultural symbolism.

A Golden Langur; endangered and found in the Chakrashila Wildlife Sanctuary in Dhubri district and in the pea-cock island of Guwahati.

A White-winged Wood Duck or Deohanh, endangered. Mostly found in the Upper Assam Tropical Forests.

A tea garden of Assam

History
Pre-history
Assam and adjoining regions have evidences of human settlements from all the periods of the Stone ages. The hills at the height of 15002000 feet (460 to 615 m) were popular habitats probably due to availability of exposed doleritic basalt useful for tool-making.[17] According to the Kalika Purana (c.17th18th AD), written in Assam, the earliest ruler of Assam was Mahiranga followed by Hatak, Sambar, Ratna and Ghatak; Naraka removed this line of rulers and established his own Naraka dynasty. It mentions that the last of the Naraka-bhauma rulers, Narak, was slain by Krishna. A ferocious lion excavated in Madan Kamdev close to Naraka's son Bhagadatta, mentioned in the Mahabharata, fought Baihata Chariali in Assam representing the powerful Kamarupa-Palas (c. 9th10th century AD). for the Kauravas in the battle of Kurukshetra with an army of kiratas, chinas and dwellers of the eastern coast. Later rulers of Kamarupa frequently drew their lineage from the Naraka rulers. However, there are lots of evidences to say that Mahayana Buddhism was prominent in ancient Assam. After Huen Shang's visit Mahayana Buddhism came to Assam. Relics of Tezpur, Malini Than, Kamakhya and Madan Kam Dev Temple are the evidences of Mahayana Buddhism.

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Ancient and medieval

Ancient Assam, known as Kamarupa was ruled by powerful dynasties: the Varmanas (c.350650 AD), the Salstambhas (Xalostombho, c.655900 AD) and the Kamarupa-Palas (c.9001100 AD). In the reign of the Varman king, Bhaskaravarman (c.600650 AD), the Chinese traveler Xuan Zang visited the region and recorded his travels. Later, after weakening and disintegration (after the Kamarupa-Palas), the Kamarupa tradition was somewhat extended till c.1255 AD by the Lunar I (c.11201185 AD) and Lunar II (c.11551255 AD) dynasties.[17]

The Ahom Kingdom, c.1826.

Two later dynasties, the Ahoms and the Koch left larger impacts. The Ahoms, a Tai group, ruled Assam for nearly 600 years (12281826 AD) and the Koch, a Tibeto-Burmese, established sovereignty in c.1510 AD The Koch kingdom in western Assam and present North Bengal was at its zenith in the early reign of Naranarayana (c.15401587 AD). It split into two in c.1581 AD, the western part as a Moghul vassal and the eastern as an Ahom satellite state. Since c.13th AD, the nerve centre of Ahom polity was upper Assam; the kingdom was gradually extended till Karatoya River in the c.17th18th AD It was at its zenith during the reign of Sukhrungpha or Sworgodeu Rudra Simha (c.16961714 AD). Among other dynasties, the Chutiyas ruled north-eastern Assam and parts of present Arunachal Pradesh and the Kacharis ruled from Dikhow River to central and southern Assam. With expansion of Ahom kingdom, by c.1520 AD the Chutiya areas were annexed and since c.1536 AD Kacharis remained only in Cachar and North Cachar more as an Ahom ally then a competing force. Despite numerous invasions, mostly by the Muslim rulers, no western power ruled Assam until the arrival of the British. The most successful invader Mir Jumla, a governor of Aurangzeb, briefly occupied Garhgaon (c.166263 AD), the then capital, but found it difficult to control people making guerrilla attacks on his forces, forcing them to leave. The decisive victory of the Assamese led by the great general Lachit Borphukan on the Mughals, then under command of Raja Ram Singha at Saraighat (1671) had almost ended Mughal ambitions in this region. Mughals were finally expelled in c.1682 AD from lower Assam.

British Assam
Ahom palace intrigue and political turmoil due to the Moamoria rebellion aided the Burmese to invade Assam and install Chandra Kanta Singh as a puppet king in 1817. In 1821, Singh switched his allegiance to the British, leading the Burmese to invade again. The Burmese defeated the Assamese army in 1822, and made Assam a Burmese province under a military governor-general.[18] [19] With the Burmese having reached the East India Companys borders, the First Anglo-Burmese War ensued in 1824. The war ended under the Treaty of Yandabo[20] in 1826, with the Company taking control of Lower Assam and installing Purander Singh as king of Upper Assam in 1833. The arrangement lasted till 1838 and thereafter the British gradually annexed the entire region. Initially Assam was made a part of the Bengal Presidency, then in 1906 it was a part of Eastern Bengal and Assam province, and in 1912 it was reconstituted into a Chief Commissioners' province. In 1913, a Legislative Council and in 1937

A map of the British Indian Empire in 1909 during the partition of Bengal (19051911), showing British India in two shades of pink (coral and pale) and the princely states in yellow. The Assam Province (initially as the Province of Eastern Bengal and Assam) can be seen towards the north-eastern side of India

Assam the Assam Legislative Assembly was formed in Shillong, the erstwhile capital of the region. The British tea planters imported labour from central India adding to the demographic canvas. After few initial unsuccessful attempts to free Assam during the 1850s, the Assamese since early 20th century joined and actively supported the Indian National Congress against the British. At the turn of the 20th century, British India consisted of eight provinces that were administered either by a Governor or a Lieutenant-Governor. The Assam Province was one amongst those major eight provinces of British India. The following table lists their areas and populations (but does not include those of the dependent Native States):[21] During the partition of Bengal (19051911), a new province, Assam and East Bengal was created as a Lieutenant-Governorship. In 1911, East Bengal was reunited with Bengal, and the new provinces in the east became: Assam, Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.[21] Table below shows the major original provinces during British India that includes The Assam Province:
Province of British India Burma Bengal Madras Bombay United Provinces Central Provinces and Berar Punjab Assam [21] Area (in thousands of square miles) 170 151 142 123 107 104 97 49 Population (in millions of inhabitants) 9 75 38 19 48 13 20 6 Chief Administrative Officer Lieutenant-Governor Lieutenant-Governor Governor-in-Council Governor-in-Council Lieutenant-Governor Chief Commissioner Lieutenant-Governor Chief Commissioner

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In 1947, Assam including the present Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Mizoram and Meghalaya became a state of the Union of India (princely states, Manipur and Tripura became Group C provinces) and a district of Assam, Sylhet chose to join Pakistan.

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Post British
Since 1947, with increasing economic problems in the region, separatist groups began forming along ethnic lines, and demands for autonomy and sovereignty grew, resulting into fragmentation of Assam. Since the mid-20th century, people from present Bangladesh have been migrating to Assam. In 1961, the Government of Assam passed a legislation making use of Assamese language compulsory. It had to be withdrawn later under pressure from Bengali speaking people in Cachar. In the 1980s the Brahmaputra valley saw a six-year Assam Agitation[22] triggered by the discovery of a sudden rise in registered voters on electoral rolls. It tried to force the government to identify and deport foreigners illegally migrating from neighboring Bangladesh and changing the demographics. The agitation ended after an accord between its leaders and the Union Government, which remained unimplemented, causing simmering discontent.[23]
Assam till 1950s; The new states of Nagaland,

The post 1970s experienced the growth of armed separatist groups like Meghalaya and Mizoram formed in the 1960-70s. From Shillong, the capital of Assam was shifted United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA)[22] and National Democratic to Dispur, now a part of Guwahati. After the Front of Bodoland (NDFB). In November 1990, the Government of Indo-China war in 1962, Arunachal Pradesh was India deployed the Indian army, after which low-intensity military also separated out. conflicts and political homicides have been continuing for more than a decade. In recent times, ethnicity based militant groups (UPDS, HPDC etc.) have also mushroomed. Regional autonomy has been ensured for Bodos in Bodoland Territorial Council Areas (BTC) and for the Karbis in Karbi Anglong after agitation of the communities due to sluggish rate of development and aspirations for self-government.

A typical octagonal Ahom coin of Ahom Dynasty.

Rang Ghar, a pavilion built by Sunenphaa Pramatta Singha (17441751) in Ahom capital Rongpur, now Sibsagar; the Rang Ghar is one of the earliest pavilions of outdoor stadia in South Asia.

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Tea history
After discovery of Camellia sinensis (1834) in Assam followed by its tests in 183637 in London, the British allowed companies to rent land since 1839. Thereafter tea plantations mushroomed in Upper Assam, where the soil and the climate were most suitable. Problems with the imported laborers from China and hostilities of native Assamese resulted into migration of forced laborers from central-eastern parts of India. After initial trial and error with planting the Chinese and the Assamese-Chinese hybrid varieties, the planters later accepted the local Camellia assamica as the most suitable one for Assam. By 1850s, the industry started seeing some profits. Industry saw initial growth, when in 1861, investors were allowed to own land in Assam and it saw substantial progress with invention of new technologies and machinery for preparing processed tea during 1870s. The cost of Assam tea was lowered down manifold and became more competitive than its Chinese variant. Despite the commercial success, tea laborers continued to be exploited, working and living under poor conditions. Fearful of greater government interference, the tea growers formed The Indian Tea Association in 1888 to lobby to retain the status quo. The organization was very successful in this, and even after Indias independence conditions of the laborers have improved very little.[24]

This 1850 engraving shows the different stages in the process of making tea in Assam.

Tea leaves Assam produces a significant portion of the world's tea.

Subdivisions

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Assam is divided into 27 administrative districts.[25] More than half of these districts were carved out during 80s and 90s from original 1. Lakhimpur, 2. Jorhat, 3. Karbi Anglong, 4. Darrang, 5. Nagaon, 6. Kamrup, 7. Goalpara, 8. North Cachar and 9. Cachar districts, delineated by the British. Earlier, during 70s, Dibrugarh was separated out from original Lakhimpur district. These districts are further sub-divided into 49 Sub-divisions or Mohkuma.[25] Every district is administered from a district head quarter with the office of the District Collector, District Magistrate, Office of the District Panchayat and usually with a district court.

The districts are delineated on the basis of the features such as the rivers, hills, forests, etc. and majority of the newly constituted districts are sub-divisions of the earlier districts. For the present districts of Assam and their location, refer the attached map. The local governance system is organised under the jila-parishad (District Panchayat) for a district, panchayat for group of or individual rural areas and under the urban local bodies for the towns and cities. Presently there are 2489 village panchayats covering 26247 villages in Assam.[26] The 'town-committee' or nagar-xomiti for small towns, 'municipal board' or pouro-xobha for medium towns and municipal corporation or pouro-nigom for the cities consist of the urban local bodies. For the revenue purposes, the districts are divided into revenue circles and mouzas; for the development projects, the districts are divided into 219 'development-blocks' and for law and order these are divided into 206 police stations or thana.[26]

Districts of Assam. Note that since 2001, four new districts have been created: Baksa, Chirang, Udalguri and Kamrup (metropolitan); and Kamrup has been renamed Kamrup (rural).

Demographics
Total population of Assam was 26.66million with 4.91million households in 2001.[28] Higher population concentration was recorded in the districts of Kamrup, Nagaon, Sonitpur, Barpeta, Dhubri, Darang and Cachar. Assam's population was estimated at 28.67million in 2006 and at 30.57million by 2011, 34.18million by 2021 and 35.60million by 2026.[29] In 2001, the census recorded literacy in Assam at 63.3% with male literacy at 71.3% and female at 54.6%. Urbanisation rate was recorded at 12.9%.[30]
Woman teaworker plucking tea leaves in a tea garden of Assam

Growth of population in Assam has experienced a very high trajectory since the mid-decades of the 20th century. Population grew steadily from 3.29million in 1901 to 6.70million in 1941,

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while it has increased unprecedentedly to 14.63million in 1971 and 22.41million in 1991 to reach the present level.[28] The growth in the western and southern districts was of extreme high in nature mostly attributable to rapid influx of population from the then East Pakistan or Bangladesh.[23] There are approximately thirty lakhs of Nepali speakers Gorkha people community spreading over the state including of all the district of Assam. Assamese language being the main language, they are well versed in it. Agriculture and cattle rearing are the main occupation bur there are more Nepalese in educational field, industries and administration in Assam than other states. [31]

District-wise Demographic Characteristics in 2001

Assam has many ethnic groups and the People of India project has studied 115 of these. Out of which 79 (69%) identify themselves regionally, 22 (19%) locally, and 3 trans-nationally. The earliest settlers were Austroasiatic, followed by Tibeto-Burman, Indo-Aryan speakers, and Kradai speakers.[32] Forty-five languages are spoken by different communities, including three major language families: Austroasiatic (5), Sino-Tibetan (24) and Indo-European (12). Three of the spoken languages do not fall in these families. There is a high degree of bilingualism.
Population growth trend from 1901 to 2001

Religions
According to the 2001 census, there are 17,296,455 Hindus, 8,240,611 Muslims, 986,589 Christians, 22,519 Sikhs, 51,029 Buddhists, 23,957 Jains and 22,999 belonging to other religious communities.[33] The latter includes Animism (Khamti, Phake, Aiton etc. communities).

Hinduism

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The Hindus of Assam perform several dances to practice their devotion to their Gods. One category of them is the Sattriya Dances. Kamakhya, dedicated to Goddess Durga is the eastern-most pilgrimage of Hinduism. Popular forms of God in Assam are Durga, Shiva, Krishna and Narayana, although several tribes practice devotion to local deities as well. Brahmo Samaj: Assam is the home of Kalicharan Mech, a Bodo Hindu who stopped the British Christian missionaries, spread ahimsa and vegetarianism. He was deeply influenced by the Brahmo Samaj.[34] He later became known as "Gurudev Kalicharan Brahmachari"[35] or "Guru Brahma". His principles were established as the Brahma Dharma. Perhaps his teachings can be summarized by his given phrase, "Chandrama Surya Narayans Jyoti", meaning, "the light (jyoti) from the sun is capable from dispelling darkness and taking people to Brahma (Narayans)."[36]

Kamakhya Temple

From the teachings of Guru Brahma, the "Bodo-Brahmas" (the Bodos of this sect) have boycotted alcohol, heavy dowry as well as meat-eating. This sect is written by scholars to be Vedic and Upanishadic.[37] As per Vedic rituals, the priests perform Horn Yajna, which was begun by Guru Brahma to organize the Bodos.[38] While the Bodo Christians today are laying stress on adopting a Roman script for the Bodo community, the Bodo-Brahmas prefer the traditional Bengali-Ahomi script. Out of the 3,308,570 Assamese tribals reported in the 2001 Census, 90.7% were Hindus and 8.8% were Christians. There were also 6,267 Muslims, 5,153 Budhists and 3,574 Animists.[39]

Islam
Muslims constitute the second largest religious group in Assam with 8,240,611 persons, 31% of the Assam population. Amongst Indian provinces, Assam has the third largest proportion of Muslims - only the Unior Territory of Lakshaweep Islands and Jammu and Kashmir have a higher proportion. The history of the indigenous Muslims of Assam is a long one, though many details are obscure, especially for the Assamese Muslims. A Brahmin priest from Kamrup (near the geographical middle of Assam) was reported to have embraced Islam around the 13th century. Later in the 16th century, an Islamic saint Ajan Fakir Shah Miran and also known as Ghiyasuddin Auliya came from Baghdad to Assam to preach Islam in the area. The Masjid constructed by him is known as, The Pao Mecca mosque, Pao Mecca literally means one-fourth of Mecca. It is believed that the foundation of the mosque was laid upon a handful of earth brought from Mecca. The Pao-Mecca mosque was partially destroyed by a strong earthquake that occurred in 1897 and the dargah on the 750 ft. high Gaurachol hills is of Ghiyasuddin Auliya Ajan Fakir was buried on the hills of Gaurachol and hence the tomb on the hill is related to him, are considered sacrosanct not only by the Muslims but by people of other faiths as well.[40]

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Panchpeer Dargaha, Dhurbi District, Assam: It is Mazar Sharif of five Sufi Saints who accompanied Raja Ram Singh during his time of invassion to Assam.This Dargaha is the best example of religious harmony where all section of people irrespective of their religion pay visit with great respect. Integration of the Assamese Muslims, India. It is likely that the Assamese Muslims, who are found primarily in the northeastern parts of the state, are descended particularly from those who embraced Islam during this earlier period. The Assamese Muslims are well integrated with the rest of Assamese society. Proud of their language and culture, Assamese Muslims have often been in positions of influence within the society of Assam and even India.

Panch Peer Masjid, Dhurbi, Assam. One of the oldest Masjid in Assam

Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, President of the Indian Republic was from Assam.[41] [42] Syeda Anwara Taimur Muslim Chief Minister of Assam 1980.[43] Sir Saiyid Muhammad Saadulla Chief Minister of Assam Pre-Independence of India.

Christianity
The Bible was translated into Assamese in the year of 1819. In 1827, an attempt was made to start a Baptist church in Guwahati, but it made no permanent converts in the area. Later the American Baptist Foreign Missionary Society was able to make some headway in Guwahati. Although these earliest Christian missionary endeavors which were focused in the north-east of India, were in Modern Assam, the great success of Protestant missionaries in North-East India which they achieved in late 19th and the 20th Centuries, was primarily in areas such as Nagaland, Mizoram and Meghalaya which are not part of Assam anymore. As of 1991 only Tripura of the seven eastern states of India had a lower percentage of Christians than Assam. There were more Christians in Assam than in Mizoram even though Mizoram was the second most Christian state in India at the time.[44] Besides the Protestants there are also Catholics. There is a Roman Catholic Archdiocese in Shillong. According to the 2001 Census, there are a total of 986,589 Christians in Assam.[45] Out of this, 291,000 (29.5%) are tribals.[46]

Sikhism
The first prophet of the Sikhs, Guru Nanak Dev had visited Kamrup (Assam) in the 1505 as recorded in the his first visit in Purantan Janam Sakhi (the historical papers related to the visits and daily recorded activities of the Guru). Guru Nanak had met Srimanta Shankardeva (the founder of the Mahapuruxiya Dharma) as the Guru travelled from Dhaka to Assam. But no sangat or historical shrine dedicated to him survives as to date. Ninth Guru or prophet of Sikhs Guru Tegh Bahadur visited Assam in 1668. This place is also famous for the Sikh Gurdwara Thara Sahib or Gurdwara Damdama Sahib

Gurdwara Sri Guru Tegh Bahadur Sahib main building

Assam which was constructed in memory atop the hillock place of meditation of the Guru in Dhubri, Kamrup. The historical site and places of interest of the Gurdwara are many times referred to as Gurdwara Sri Guru Tegh Bahadur Sahib situated in Dhubri (Assam) by the banks of the Brahmaputra .[47] The grateful Ahom King invited Guruji to the Kamakhya shrine, where he was honoured with great respect. In the year 1820, few hundred Sikh soldiers went to Assam at the initiative of Maharaja Ranjit Singh to help Ahom rulers in a war. Their descendants are mostly concentrated in Lanka in Nagaon district of Assam.[48] Sikhs have been living in Assam for approximately two hundred years.[49]

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Buddhism
The religion is practised by 51,029 persons in Assam. Among them are the Chakma and Boruas.The Chakmas of Assam are loacted mostly in Chachar and Karbi Anglong with very lesser presence in Nagaon district. Guwahati has lots of Buddhist temples ,the most prominent being the Bamunimaidan Buddhist temple.

Culture and its evolution

Assamese culture is traditionally a hybrid one developed due to assimilation of ethno-cultural groups in the past. Therefore, both local elements or the local elements in Sanskritised forms are distinctly found.[50] The major milestones in evolution of Assamese culture are: Assimilation in the Kamarupa Kingdom for almost 700 years (under the Varmans for 300 years, Salastambhas and Palas for each 200 years).[17] Establishment of the Ahom dynasty in the 13th century AD and assimilation for next 600 years.[17] Assimilation in the Koch Kingdom (15th16th century AD) of western Assam and Kachari Kingdom (12th18th century AD) of central and southern Assam.[17] Vaishnava Movement led by Srimanta Shankardeva (Xonkordeu) and its contribution and cultural changes.Vaishanav Movement, the 15th century religio-cultural movement under the leadership of great Srimanta Sankardeva (Xonkordeu) and his disciples have provided another dimension to Assamese culture. A renewed Hinduisation in local forms took place, which was initially greatly supported by the Koch and later by the Ahom Kingdoms. The resultant social institutions such as namghar and sattra (the Vaishnav Monasteries) have become part of Assamese way life. The movement contributed greatly towards language, literature and performing and fine arts. It is also noticed that many a times, Vaishnav Movement attempted to introduce alien cultural attributes and modify the way of life of common people. Brajavali a language specially created by introducing words from other Indian languages had failed as a language but left its traces on the Assamese language. Moreover, new alien rules were also introduced changing people's food habits and other aspects of cultural life. This had a greater impact on alienation of many local ethno-cultural and political groups in the later periods.

Dakhinpat Satra of Majuli

Presenting 'Gayan Bayan' in Majuli, the Neo-Vaishnavite Cultural heritage of Assam

Historically, it is not difficult to understand that on one hand, during the strong politico-economic systems under stronger dynasties, greater cultural assimilations created common attributes of Assamese culture, while on the other during smaller politico-economic systems or during political disintegration, more localised attributes were created with spatial differentiation. Time-factor for such integrations

Assam and differentiations has also played extremely important role along with the position of individual events in the entire series of sequential events. With rich traditions, the modern culture is greatly influenced by events in the British and the Post-British Era. The language was standardised by the American Baptist Missionaries such as Nathan Brown, Dr. Miles Bronson and local pundits such as Hemchandra Barua with the form available in the Sibsagar (Sivasagar) District (the ex-nerve centre of the Ahom Kingdom). A renewed Sanskritisation was increasingly adopted for developing Assamese language and grammar. A new wave of Western and northern Indian influence was apparent in the performing arts and literature. Increasing efforts of standardisation in the 20th century alienated the localised forms present in different areas and with the less-assimilated ethno-cultural groups (many source-cultures). However, Assamese culture in its hybrid form and nature is one of the richest, still developing and in true sense is a 'cultural system' with sub-systems. It is interesting that many source-cultures of Assamese cultural-system are still surviving either as sub-systems or as sister entities, for e.g. Bodo or Karbi or Mishing. It is important to keep the broader system closer to its roots and at the same time to focus on development of the sub-systems. Some of the common and unique cultural traits in the region are peoples' respect towards areca-nut and betel leaves, symbolic clothes (Gamosa, Arnai, etc.), traditional silk garments and towards forefathers and elderly. Moreover, great hospitality and Bamboo culture are common.

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Symbolism
Symbolism is an ancient cultural practice in Assam and is still a very important part of Assamese way of life. Various elements are being used to represent beliefs, feelings, pride, identity, etc. Tamulpan, Xorai and Gamosa are three important symbolic elements in Assamese culture. Tamulpan (the areca nut and betel leaves) or guapan (gua from kwa) are considered along with the Gamosa (a typical woven cotton or silk cloth with embroidery) as the offers of devotion, respect and friendship. The Tamulpan-tradition is an ancient one and is being followed since time-immemorial with roots in the aboriginal Austro-Asiatic culture. Xorai is a traditionally manufactured bell-metal article of great respect and is used as a container-medium while performing respectful offers. Moreover, symbolically many ethno-cultural groups use specific clothes to portray respect and pride.

A pair of areca nuts, betel leaves and a Gamosa in a Xorai; this represents cultural symbolism of respect towards the recipient by the person presenting it.

There were many other symbolic elements and designs, but are now only found in literature, art, sculpture, architecture, etc. or in use today for only religious purposes. The typical designs of assamese-lion, dragon, flying-lion, etc. were used for symbolising various purposes and occasions. The archaeological sites such as the Madan Kamdev (c. 9th10th AD) exhibits mass-scale use of lions, dragon-lions and many other figures of demons to show case power and prosperity. The Vaishnava monasteries and many other architectural sites of late medieval period also showcase use of lions and dragons for symbolic effects.

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Languages
Assamese and Bodo are the major indigenous and official languages while Bengali holds official status in the three districts in the Barak Valley and is the second most widely spoken language of the state (27%).[51] Traditionally Assamese was the language of the commons (of mixed origin Austroasiatic, Tibeto-Burman, Magadhan Prakrit) in the ancient Kamarupa and in the medieval kingdoms of Kamatapur, Kachari, Chutiya, Borahi, Ahom and Koch. Traces of the language is found in many poems by Luipa, Sarahapa, etc. in Charyapada (c.7th8thAD). Modern dialects Kamrupi, Goalpariya, etc. are the remnant of this language. Moreover, Assamese in its traditional form was used by the ethno-cultural groups in the region as lingua-franca, which spread during the stronger kingdoms and was required for needed economic integration. Localised forms of the language still exist in Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh. The form used in the upper Assam was enriched by the advent of Tai-Shans in the 13th century.

A decorative Assamese Jaapi laid over a Gamosa

A page from Charyapada: 7th8th century specimen of Assamese literature Linguistically modern Assamese traces its roots to the version developed by the American Missionaries based on the local form in practice near Sibsagar (Xiwoxagor) district. Assamese (Oxomeeya) is a rich language due to its hybrid nature with its unique characteristics of pronunciation and softness. Assamese literature is one of the richest. Bodo is an ancient language of Assam. Spatial distribution patterns of the ethno-cultural groups, cultural traits and the phenomenon of naming all the major rivers in the North East Region with Bodo-Kachari words (e.g. Dihing, Dibru, Dihong, D/Tista, Dikrai, etc.) reveal that it was the most important language in the ancient times. Bodo is presently spoken largely in the Lower Assam (Bodo Territorial Council area). After years of neglect, now Bodo language is getting attention and its literature is developing. Other native languages of Tibeto-Burman origin and related to Bodo-Kachari are DEORI [52] Mishing, Karbi, Dimasa, Rabha, Tiwa, etc. Rajbongshi also known as Kamatapuri/Goalpariya is also widely spoken by the people of western Assam. Nepali is also spoken in almost all parts of the state.There are approxmately thirty lakhs of Nepali speakers spreading over the area of all the district of Assam. Assamese language being the main language, they are well versed in it. Assamese language is the main medium in educational institutions but Nepali language is also taught as a major Indian language. In Gawahati and Digboi, many Jr. basic School and Jr. high School are Nepali medium where all the teachers are Nepali. As a major Indian language, Nepali is included by Assam State Secondary Board, Assam Higher Secondary Council and Gawahati University in their HSCL, higher secondary and graduation level respectively, in some jr. basic and higher secondary schools and colleges, Nepali teachers and lecturers are also appointed. In these institutions, Nepali and literature are taught. There are smaller groups of people speaking Tai-Phake, Tai-Aiton, Tai-Khamti, Tai-Khamyang etc., some of the Tai languages. The Tai-Ahom language (brought by Sukaphaa and his followers), which is no more a spoken language today is getting attentions for research after centuries long care and preservation by the Bailungs (traditional priests). There are also small groups of people speaking Manipuri, Khasi, Garo, Hmar, Kuki, Zeme Naga etc. in different

Assam parts. Bengali is the official language in Barak Valley, although the widely spoken language is Sylheti, a dialect of Bengali. Bengali is also largely spoken in the western districts of Dhubri, Barpeta, and Goalpara. Santali or Santhali is also spoken widely by the tribal population in the tea garden districts of Assam. these people who were initially brought as tea estate labourers by the British to Assam have now made it their home state. Bishnupriya Manipuri language is also spoken by a small minority of people in Barak Valley.

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Festivals
There are several important traditional festivals in Assam. Bihu is the most important and common and celebrated all over Assam. Durga Puja is another festival celebrated with great enthusiasm.Muslims celebrate two Eids with much eagernes in all over Assam. Bihu is a series of three prominent festivals. Primarily a non-religious festival celebrated to mark the seasons and the significant points of a cultivator's life over a yearly cycle. Three Bihus, rongali or bohag, celebrated with the coming of spring and the beginning of the sowing season; kongali or kati, the barren bihu when the fields are lush but the barns are empty; and the bhogali or magh, the thanksgiving when the crops have been harvested and the barns are full. Bihu songs and Bihu dance are associated to rongali bihu. The day before the each bihu is known as 'uruka'. The first day of 'rongali bihu' is called 'Goru bihu' (the bihu of the cows), when the cows are taken to the nearby rivers or ponds to be bathed with special care. In recent times the form and nature of celebration has changed with the growth of urban centres. Moreover, there are other important traditional festivals being celebrated every year on different occasions at different places. Many of these are celebrated by different ethno-cultural groups (sub and sister cultures). Some of these are:

A Bihu dancer blowing a pepa (horn) .

Bodo girls performing the Kherai dance.

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An Assamese woman in Pat Silk performing Sattriya dance.

Me-dam-me-phi Ali-Aye-Ligang Kherai Garja Hapsa Hatarnai Awnkham Gwrlwi Janai

Chojun/Swarak Rongker Sokk-erroi Hacha-kekan Porag

Performing arts
Assam has rich tradition of performing arts. Ankiya Nat (Onkeeya Naat) is a traditional Vaishnav dance-drama (Bhaona) form popular since 15th century AD It makes use of large masks of gods, goddesses, demons and animals and in between the plays a Sutradhar (Xutrodhar) keeps on telling the story. The Bihu dance and Hucory performed during the Bohag Bihu, Kushan nritra of Rajbongshi's, Bagurumba and Bordoicikhla dance of Bodos, Mishing Bihu, Banjar Kekan performed during Chomangkan by Karbis are some of the major folk dances. Sattriya (Xotriya) dance related to Vaishnav tradition is a classical form of dance. Moreover, there are several other age-old dance-forms such as Barpetas Bhortal Nritya, Deodhoni Nritya, Oja Paali, Beula Dance, Ka Shad Inglong Kardom, Nimso Kerung, etc. The tradition of modern moving theatres is typical of Assam with immense popularity of many large theatre groups such as Kohinoor, Srimanta Sankardev, Abahan, Bhagyadevi, Hengul, Rajmahal, Apsara, etc.

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123 At the same time musical tradition is also rich. Folk songs and music related to Bihu and other festivals dates back to time-immemorial. Borgeet, the popular Vaishnav songs are written and composed in 15th century. Assam has large numbers of traditional musical instruments including several types of drums, string instruments, flutes, cymbals, pipes, etc. The indigenous folk music has substantially influenced the growth of a modern idiom, that finds expression in the music of such artists like Jyoti Prasad Agarwala, Bishnuprasad Rabha, Parvati Prasad Baruwa, Bhupen Hazarika, Pratima Barua Pandey, Anima Choudhury, Luit Konwar Rudra Baruah, Jayanta Hazarika, Khagen Mahanta, Deepali Borthakur, "Ganashilpi" Dilip Sarma, Sudakshina Sarma among many others. Among the new generation, Zubeen Garg, Jitul Sonowal, Angaraag Mahanta and Joi Barua have a great fan following.

Jyoti Prasad Agarwala

Literature
Noted writers: Dr.Indira Goswami(Mamoni Raisom Goswami) Bhabendra Nath Saikia Laxminath Bezbarua

Traditional crafts
Assam has a rich tradition of crafts; presently, Cane and bamboo craft, bell metal and brass craft, silk and cotton weaving, toy and mask making, pottery and terracotta work, wood craft, jewellery making, musical instruments making, etc. remained as major traditions.[53] Historically, Assam also excelled in making boats, traditional guns and gunpowder, ivory crafts, colours and paints, articles of lac, agarwood products, traditional building materials, utilities from iron, etc. Cane and bamboo craft provide the most commonly used utilities in daily life, ranging from household utilities, weaving accessories, fishing accessories, furniture, musical instruments, construction materials, etc. Utilities and symbolic articles such as Xorai and Bota made from bell metal and brass are found in every Assamese household.[54] [55] Hajo and Sarthebari (Xorthebaary) are the most important centres of traditional bell-metal and brass crafts. Assam is the home of several types of silks, the most prestigious are: Muga the natural golden silk, Pat a creamy-bright-silver coloured silk and Eri a variety used for manufacturing warm clothes for winter. Apart from Sualkuchi (Xualkuchi), the centre for the traditional silk industry, in almost every parts of the Brahmaputra Valley, rural households produce silk and silk garments with excellent embroidery designs. Moreover, various ethno-cultural groups in Assam make different types of cotton garments with unique embroidery designs and wonderful colour combinations.

Bell metal made xorai and xophura are important parts of culture; offerings with respect are made using these during festivals and religious ceremonies and are seen as respectable items.

A traditional brass dish from Assam.

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Moreover, Assam possesses unique crafts of toy and mask making mostly concentrated in the Vaishnav Monasteries, pottery and terracotta work in lower Assam districts and wood craft, iron craft, jewellery, etc. in many places across the region.

Fine arts
The archaic Mauryan Stupas discovered in and around Goalpara district are the earliest examples (c. 300BC to c. 100AD) of ancient A page of manuscript painting from Assam; The art and architectural works. The remains discovered in Daparvatiya medieval painters used locally manufactured (Doporboteeya) archaeological site with a beautiful doorframe in painting materials such as the colours of hangool Tezpur are identified as the best examples of art works in ancient and haital and papers manufactured from aloewood bark. Assam with influence of Sarnath School of Art of the late Gupta period. Many other sites also exhibit development of local art forms with local motifs and sometimes with similarities with those in the Southeast Asia. There are currently more than forty discovered ancient archaeological sites across Assam with numerous sculptural and architectural remains. Moreover, there are examples of several Late-Middle Age art and architectural works including hundreds of sculptures and motifs along with many remaining temples, palaces and other buildings. The motifs available on the walls of the buildings such as Rang Ghar, Joydoul, etc. are remarkable examples of art works. Painting is an ancient tradition of Assam. Xuanzang (7th centuryAD) mentions that among the Kamarupa king Bhaskaravarma's gifts to Harshavardhana there were paintings and painted objects, some of which were on Assamese silk. Many of the manuscripts such as Hastividyarnava (A Treatise on Elephants), the Chitra Bhagawata and in the Gita Govinda from the Middle Ages bear excellent examples of traditional paintings. The medieval Assamese literature also refers to chitrakars and patuas. There are several renowned contemporary artists in Assam. The Guwahati Art College in Guwahati is a government institution for tertiary education. Moreover, there are several art-societies and non-government initiatives across the state and the Guwahati Artists Guild is a front-runner organisation based in Guwahati.

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Economy
Macro-economy
Economy of Assam today represents a unique juxtaposition of backwardness amidst plenty.[58] Despite its rich natural resources, and supplying of up to 25% of India's petroleum needs, growth rate of Assams income has not kept pace with that of Indias; differences increased rapidly since 1970s.[59] Indian economy grew at 6% per annum over the period of 1981 to 2000, the same of Assam was only 3.3%.[60] In the Sixth Plan period Assam experienced a negative growth rate of 3.78% when India's was positive at 6%.[59] In the post-liberalised era (after 1991), the differences widened further. According to recent analysis, Assams economy is showing signs of improvement. In 200102, the economy grew (at 199394 constant prices) at 4.5%, to fall to 3.4% in the next financial year.[61] During 200304 and 200405, the economy grew (at 199394 constant prices) more satisfactorily at 5.5% and 5.3% respectively.[61] The advanced estimates placed the growth rate for 200506 at above 6%.[57] Assam's GDP in 2004 is estimated at $13billion in current prices. Sectoral analysis again exhibits a dismal picture. The average annual growth rate of agriculture, which was only 2.6% per annum over 1980s has unfortunately fallen to 1.6% in the 1990s.[62] Manufacturing sector has shown some improvement in the 1990s with a growth rate of 3.4% per annum than 2.4% in the 1980s.[62] Since past five decades, the tertiary sector has registered the highest growth rates than the other sectors, which even has slowed down in the 1990s than in 1980s.[63]
In the 1950s, per capita income in Assam was little higher than that in India. In 200001, in Assam it was INR 6,157 at constant prices (199394) and INR 10,198 at current prices; [56] almost 40% lower than that in India. [57] According to the recent estimates, per capita income in Assam has reached INR 6756 (199394 constant prices) in 200405, which is still much lower than India's.

Agriculture
Accounts for more than a third of Assams income and employs 69% of workforce.[64] Assam's biggest contribution to the world is tea. It produces some of the finest and expensive teas and has its own variety Camellia assamica. Assam also accounts for fair share of Indias production of rice, rapeseed, mustard seed, jute, potato, sweet potato, banana, papaya, areca nut and turmeric. It is also a home of large varieties of citrus fruits, leaf vegetables, vegetables, useful grasses, herbs, spices, etc. Assams agriculture yet to experience modernisation in real sense. With implications to food security, per capita food grain production has declined in past five decades.[65] Productivity has increased marginally; but still lower comparing to highly productive regions. For instance, yield of rice (staple food of Assam) was just 1531kg per hectare against Indias 1927kg per hectare in 200001[65] (which itself is much lower than Egypts 9283, USs 7279, South Koreas 6838,

A tea garden in Assam: tea is grown at elevations near sea level, giving it a malty sweetness and an earthy flavor, as opposed to the more floral aroma of highland (e.g. Darjeeling, Taiwanese) teas.

Assam Japans 6635 and Chinas 6131kg per hectare in 2001[66] ). On the other hand, after having strong domestic demand, 1.5million hectares of inland water bodies, numerous rivers and 165 varieties of fishes,[67] fishing is still in its traditional form and production is not self-sufficient.[68] The Assam Agriculture University is located at Jorhat, Assam. It is the only agricultural university for the Seven Sisters.

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Industry
Apart from tea and petroleum refineries, Assam has few industries of significance. Industrial development is inhibited by its physical and political isolation from neighbouring countries such as Myanmar, China and Bangladesh and from other growing Southeast Asian economies; ultimately leading to neglect by the federal government in regards to development a key motivation for separatist groups.[69] The region is landlocked, situated in the eastern periphery of India and is linked to the mainland by a flood and cyclone prone narrow corridor, known as the Siliguri Corridor or Chicken's Neck, with weak transport infrastructure that have remained undeveloped since independence. The international airport in Guwahati is yet to find airlines providing direct international flights. The Brahmaputra suitable for navigation does not possess sufficient infrastructure for international trade and success of such a navigable trade route will be dependent on proper channel maintenance and diplomatic and trade relationships with Bangladesh. Assam is a major producer of crude oil and it accounts for about 15% of India's crude output,[70] exploited by the Assam Oil Company Ltd., and natural gas in India and is the second place in the world (after Titusville in the United States) where petroleum was discovered. Asias first successful mechanically drilled oil well was drilled in Makum (Assam) way back in 1867. Most of the oilfields are located in the Upper Assam region. Assam has four oil refineries located in Guwahati, Digboi, Golaghat (Numaligarh) and Bongaigaon with a total capacity of 7Million metric tonnes (7.7million short tons) per annum. Despite its richness in natural resources, the benefits have yet to improve the lives of the people of Assam.

Processed Assam tea

Although having a poor overall industrial performance, several other industries have nevertheless been started, including a chemical fertiliser plan at Namrup, petrochemical industries at Namrup and Bongaigaon, paper mills at Jagiroad, Panchgram and Jogighopa, sugar mills at Barua Bamun Gaon, Chargola, Kampur, cement plant at Bokajan & Badarpur, cosmetics plant (HLL) at Doom Dooma, etc. Moreover, there are other industries such as jute mill, textile and yarn mills, silk mill, etc. Unfortunately many of these industries are facing loss and closure due to lack of infrastructure and improper management practices.[71]

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Education
Assam boasts of the most wide-ranging networks of higher educational institutions in the whole of North-Eastern region of India. Assam has developed into a top educational destination at the state as well as at the national level. To enhance the status of Assam education, the state government has introduced many innovative education polices. Its capital city; Guwahati is a key destination for higher education for students of the whole of north-eastern region. This article offers an understanding of Assam Education system.Assam has several institutions for tertiary education and research. The major institutions are:

Universities
Gauhati University Dibrugarh University Tezpur University Assam University, Silchar

Cotton College in Guwahati initiated modern tertiary education and research in Assam and has been continuing classical and high-educational standards for more than hundred years; many of the buildings in the college are excellent examples of Assamese architecture with colonial flavours.

Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat Assam Don Bosco University

Medical Colleges
Assam Medical College, Dibrugarh Gauhati Medical College and Hospital,Guwahati Silchar Medical College, Silchar Jorhat Medical College, Jorhat Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed Medical College, Barpeta
Academic complex of IIT Guwahati

Technology and Engineering Colleges

Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati National Institute of Technology, Silchar Assam Engineering College, Guwahati Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat

Media and magazine

Print media
Daily News Papers: The Times of India, Asomiya Pratidin, Asomiya Khobor, Amar Asom, Dainik Janambhumi, Dainik Asom, Aajir Dainik Batori, Janasadharan, Dainik Janambhumi, Dainik Agradoot, Aji , The Telegraph, The Assam Tribune, The Sentinel, Samay Prabaha, Dainik Jugasankha, Samayik Prasanga, Sonar Cachar, Edin, Dainik Purvodaya, The Assam Post, Dainindin Barta, Thekar (Karbi daily) Weekly Newspapers: Sadin, Asom Bani Weekly Advertising News Paper: The Guwahati Mirror

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Magazines
Fortnightly Magazine: Prantik Monthly Magazine: Angana, Satsori, Bismoi, Goriyoshi, Maya, Priyo Sakhi, Rahasya, Nandini, The Eclectic Children's Magazine: Mouchaq, Sofura, Rongmela, Rod Kanshiyoli

Electronic media
NE TV, News Live, DY 365, News Time Assam, DD North-East, Frontier TV

Places
Cities and towns
History of urban development goes back to almost two thousand years in the region. Existence of ancient urban areas such as Pragjyotishapura (Guwahati), Hatapesvara (Tezpur), Durjaya, etc. and medieval towns such as Charaideu, Garhgaon, Rongpur, Jorhat, Khaspur, Guwahati, etc. are well recorded.[17] Guwahati is the largest urban centre and a million plus A view of Guwahati; the city known as Pragjyotishapura (city of city in Assam. The city has experienced multifold eastern light) in the ancient times has a past extended to more than growth during past three decades to grow as the two thousand years. primate city in the region; the city's population was approximately 900,000 (considering GMDA area) during the census of 2001.Population-wise and area-wise Silchar is the second largest and important city in the state. It is the economic gateway to the state of Mizoram, Manipur and Tripura. The town of Silchar has tremendous commercial importance. It consequently, witnesses the settlement of a sizeable population of traders from distant parts of India. The other important urban areas are Dibrugarh, Jorhat, Golaghat, Tinsukia (Tinicukiya), Sibsagar (Sivasagar), Tezpur, Nagaon, North Lakhimpur, Bongaigaon, etc. Nalbari, Rangia, Mangaldoi, Karimganj, Hailakandi, Barpeta, Kokrajhar, Goalpara, Diphu, Dhubri (Dhubury), Haflong etc. are other towns and district head quarters. On the other hand Duliajan, Digboi, Namrup, Moran, Bongaigaon, Numaligarh, Jogighopa, Rangia, etc. are major industrial towns. Currently, there are around 125 total urban centres in the state.

Assam Growth Dynamism in Major Urban Areas

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Tourism
Assam is the central state in the North-East Region of India and serves as the gateway to the rest of the Seven Sister States. For the purposes of tourism there are wildlife preserves like the Kaziranga National Park, Manas National Park etc. The climate is sub-tropical. Assam experiences the Indian monsoon and has one of the highest forest densities in India. The winter months are the best time to visit. It has a rich cultural heritage going back to the Ahom Dynasty which governed the region for many centuries before the British occupation.

The famous rhinoceros of Assam grazing at Kaziranga.

Rang Ghar in Sivasagar.

Kamalabari satra of Majuli.

View of Nameri National Park of Sonitpur District.

Main Destinations
Brahmaputra: The only male river in India, this is both a source of sorrow and sustenance for the people of Assam.There is cruise facility to enjoy the beauty of the river. Guwahati: One of the key urban centres of Assam and the biggest city in North-East India, this serves as the major gateway to the whole region. This is the primary hopping point for accessing Shillong, the hill station. Tinsukia Tinsukia is considered as the business capital of Assam. Jorhat Jorhat Town (Assamese: ) is town in Indian state Assam. It is situated 307kilometres (191mi) east of Guwahati. Jorhat was established as the new capital in the closing years of the 18th century by the decaying and declining Tunkhungia Ahom Dynasty.Jorhat is also a major tourist spot in Assam.It has a numerous tourist spots and temples like Tokolai Tea Research center,Hatigar Dewal, Burigosani Than or Dewal, Garakhiadol Temple (Shiva Temple), Borbheti Than (Originally moneastery), Dhekiakhowa Bornamghar, NEIST,Gymkhana Club, Lachit Borphukan's Maidam, Gibbon Wildlife Sanctuary, The Chandrakanta Handique BhavanAsom Sahitya Sabha. and major spot etc......, Jorhat today has grown into a thriving with a strong sense of character and identity. Majuli: The largest freshwater island in South Asia on the Brahmaputra River. Kaziranga National Park: This is one of the few places covered as a World Heritage Site and the main habitat of the Great Indian One-horned Rhinoceros. Also check out Orang National Park and Nameri National Park. Jatinga: The mystery of the bird suicides in Jatinga in the North Cachar Hills.

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Tezpur: Small town steeped in history and culture. Check out Usha Pahar, Agnigarh, Mahabhairav Temple, etc... Sivasagar: Seat of the Ahom Kingdom. Check out Rang Ghar, Talatal Ghar, Sivadol, Kareng Ghar of Garhgaon etc... Hajo: Hajo is a small township situated to the northwest of Guwahati across the river Brahmaputra.Hajo is a remarkable example of communal harmony .This is an ancient pilgrimage centre for three religions Hinduism, Islam and Buddhism. Dibru-Saikhowa National Park: Dibru-Saikhowa National Park is a beautiful National Park situated in Tinsukia district. There are few Eco lodges situated here to enjoy the beauty of this park.
Agnigarh Hill, Tezpur

Goalpara: Goalpara is also a major tourist spot in Assam.It has a numerous tourist spots and temples like Sri Surya Pahar,Tekreshwari Pahar,Paglartek in Pancharatna,Pir Babas Mazar in Joleshwar,Naranarayan Setu (Bridge) connecting northern Assam districts like Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Dhubri etc. to Goalpara,Guwahati and major part of Meghalaya.

Attractive destinations
Assam has several attractive destinations; majority of these are National Parks, Wildlife and Bird Sanctuaries,[72] areas with archaeological interests and areas with unique cultural heritage. Moreover, as a whole, the region is covered by beautiful natural landscapes. Kaziranga National Park Manas National Park Nameri National Park Dibru-Saikhowa National Park[73] Orang National Park Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary Gibbon Wildlife Sanctuary Garampani Wildlife Sanctuary Chakrashila Wildlife Sanctuary Burasapori Wildlife Sanctuary Bornodi Wildlife Sanctuary Sonai-rupai Wildlife Sanctuary Nambor Wildlife Sanctuary Laokhowa Wildlife Sanctuary Joydihing Rainforest Podumani Bherjan Borajan Wildlife Sanctuary Panidihing Bird Sanctuary Deepor Beel Bird Sanctuary Majuli Barpeta Sualkuchi Sarthebari Jorhat Gymkhana Club

A Crimson Sunbird at Kaziranga.

Assam Bogamati Digboi oil town[74] Ledo and Stilwell Road Haflong, Maibong and Jatinga Bongaigaon

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Orchids are abundantly found in Assam; a variety Bhatou Phul or Vanda coerulea, the 'Blue Orchid.

Umrangshu hotwater spring Guwahati Hajo archaeological region Madan Kamdev archaeological region Sibsagar archaeological region Charaideo Surya Pahar Goalpara archaeological region Tezpur archaeological region Kapili Valley archaeological region Dhansiri/Dhonxiri Valley archaeological region Karbi Anglong Mayong Bordua Chapanalla Waterfall

Notes and references

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Assam UNDP (2004), Chapter 2, Income, Employment and Poverty in Assam Human Development Report, 2003 (http:// planassam.org/reports/hdr_2003/HRD.htm)PDF, Government of Assam Wandrey, C. J. (2004), " Sylhet-Kopili/Barail-Tipam Composite Total Petroleum System, Assam Geologic Province, India (http://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/2208/D/b2208-d.pdf)", U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 2208-D

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Further reading
Online Books and material A statistical account of Assam (http://www.archive.org/stream/astatisticalacc32huntgoog) (1879) by WW Hunter Assam Attitude to Federalism (http://ia331336.us.archive.org/0/items/assamattitudetof034931mbp/ assamattitudetof034931mbp.pdf) (1984)by Girin Phukon A Glimpse of Assam (http://www.archive.org/stream/aglimpseassam00wardgoog) (1884) by Susan Ward A history of Assam (http://www.archive.org/stream/ahistoryassam00gaitgoog) (1906) by Edward Gait Physical and political geography of the province of Assam (http://ia311225.us.archive.org/0/items/ physicalpolitica00assa/physicalpolitica00assa.pdf) (1896) by Assam Secretariat Printing Office Outline Grammar of the Kachri (Br) Language as Spoken in District Darrang, Assam (http://www.archive. org/stream/outlinegrammark00endlgoog)(1884) by Sidney Endle An outline grammar of the Deori Chutiya language spoken in upper Assam (http://www.archive.org/stream/ anoutlinegramma00browgoog)(1895) by William Barclay Brown Travels and adventures in the province of Assam, during a residence of fourteen years (http://www.archive.org/ stream/travelsandadven00butlgoog) (1855) by John Butler Language and literature Bara, Mahendra (1981), The Evolution of the Assamese Script, Jorhat, Assam: Asam Sahitya Sabha Barpujari, H. K. (1983), Amerikan Michanerisakal aru Unabimsa Satikar Asam, Jorhat, Assam: Asam Sahitya Sabha Barua, Birinchi Kumar (1965), History of Assamese Literature, Guwahati: East-West Centre Press Barua, Hem (1965), Assamese Literature, New Delhi: National Book Trust Brown, William Barclay (1895), An Outline Grammar of the Deori Chutiya Language Spoken in Upper Assam with an Introduction, Illustrative Sentences, and Short Vocabulary, Shillong: The Assam Secretariat Printing Office Deka, Bhabananda (1961), Industrialisation of Assam, Guwahati: Gopal Das Dhekial Phukan, Anandaram 1829-1859 (1977), Anandaram Dhekiyal Phukanar Racana Samgrah, Guwahati: Lawyer's Book Stall Endle, Sidney (1884), Outline of the Kachari (Baro) Language as Spoken in District Darrang, Assam, Shillong: Assam Secretariat Press Gogoi, Lila (1972), Sahitya-Samskriti-Buranji, Dibrugarh: New Book Stall Gogoi, Lila (1986), The Buranjis, Historical Literature of Assam, New Delhi: Omsons Publications Goswami, Praphulladatta (1954), Folk-Literature of Assam, Guwahati: Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies in Assam Gurdon, Philip Richard Thornhagh (1896), Some Assamese Proverbs, Shillong: The Assam Secretariat Printing Office, ISBN1104306336 Kakati, Banikanta (1959), Aspects of Early Assamese Literature, Guwahati: Gauhati University Kay, S. P. (1904), An English-Mikir Vocabulary, Shillong: The Assam Secretariat Printing Office Medhi, Kaliram (1988), Assamese Grammar and Origin of the Assamese Language, Guwahati: Assam Publication Board Miles, Bronson (1867), A Dictionary in Assamese and English, Sibsagar, Assam: American Baptist Mission Press

Assam Morey, Stephen (2005), The Tai languages of Assam : a grammar and texts, Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, ISBN0858835495 History Antrobus, H. (1957), A History of the Assam Company, Edinburgh: Private Printing by T. and A. Constable Barabaruwa, Hiteswara 18761939 (1981), Ahomar Din, Guwahati: Assam Publication Board Barooah, Nirode K. (1970), David Scott In North-East India, 18021831, New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Barua, Harakanta 18131900 (1962), Asama Buranji, Guwahati: Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies, Assam Barpujari, H. K. (1963), Assam in the Days of the Company, 18261858, Guwahati: Lawyer's Book Stall Barpujari, H. K. (1977), Political History of Assam. Department for the Preparation of Political History of Assam, Guwahati: Government of Assam Barua, Kanak Lal, An Early History of Kamarupa, From the Earliest Time to the Sixteenth Century, Guwahati: Lawyers Book Stall Barua, Kanak Lal, Studies in the Early History of Assam, Jorhat, Assam: Asam Sahitya Sabha Baruah, Swarna Lata (1993), Last days of Ahom monarchy : a history of Assam from 1769-1826, New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Bhuyan, Suryya Kumar (1949), Anglo-Assamese Relations, 17711826, Guwahati: Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies in Assam Bhuyan, Suryya Kumar (1947), Annals of the Delhi Badshahate, Guwahati: Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies, Government of Assam Bhuyan, Suryya Kumar (1957), Atan Buragohain and His Times, Guwahati: Lawyer's Book Stall Bhuyan, Suryya Kumar (1962), Deodhai Asam Buranji, Guwahati: Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies Bhuyan, Suryya Kumar (1928), Early British Relations with Assam, Shillong: Assam Secretariat Press Bhuyan, Suryya Kumar (1947), Lachit Barphukan and His Times, Guwahati: Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies, Government of Assam Bhuyan, Suryya Kumar (1964), Satasari Asama Buranji, Guwahati: Gauhati University Bhuyan, Suryya Kumar (1975), Swargadew Rajeswarasimha, Guwahati: Assam Publication Board Buchanan, Francis Hamilton 17621829 (1963), An Account of Assam, Guwahati: Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies Duara Barbarua, Srinath (1933), Tungkhungia Buranji, Bombay: H. Milford, Oxford University Press Gait, Edward Albert 18631950 (1926), A History of Assam, Calcutta: Thacker, Spink & Co. Gogoi, Padmeswar (1968), The Tai and the Tai Kingdoms, Guwahati: Gauhati University Guha, Amalendu (1983), The Ahom Political System, Calcutta: Centre for Studies in Social Sciences Hunter, William Wilson 1840-1900 (1879), A Statistical Account of Assam, London: Trubner & Co. Tradition and Culture Barkath, Sukumar (1976), Hastibidyarnnara Sarasamgraha (English & Assamese), 18th Century, Guwahati: Assam Publication Board Barua, Birinchi Kumar (1969), A Cultural History of Assam, Guwahati: Lawyer's Book Stall Barua, Birinchi Kumar (1960), Sankardeva, Guwahati: Assam Academy for Cultural Relations Gandhiya, Jayakanta (1988), Huncari, Mukali Bihu, aru Bihunac, Dibrugarh Goswami, Praphulladatta (1960), Ballads and Tales of Assam, Guwahati: Gauhati University Goswami, Praphulladatta (1988), Bohag Bihu of Assam and Bihu Songs, Guwahati: Assam Publication Board Mahanta, Pona (1985), Western Influence on Modern Assamese Drama, Delhi: Mittal Publications

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Assam Medhi, Kaliram (1978), Studies in the Vaisnava Literature and Culture of Assam, Jorhat, Assam: Asam Sahitya Sabha

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External links
Government of Assam (http://assamgovt.nic.in/) Assam Tourism (http://assamtourism.org/) Investment potentialities in Assam (http://investinassam.com/) Assam News Headlines (http://www.northeastindianews.com/category/ assam-guwahati-breaking-news-headlines/) Assam (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/India/Assam/) at the Open Directory Project

Bihar
Bihar
State

Capital of bihar

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Location of Bihar in India

Map of Bihar Coordinates (Patna): 2522N 8508E Country Region Division Established Capital Largest city Districts Government -Body -Governor -ChiefMinister Government of India, Government of Bihar Devanand Konwar Nitish Kumar Sushil Kumar Modi (Deputy) Bicameral (243 + 75 seats) India Angika Region, Bhojpuri Region, Magadh Region, Mithila Region Patna, Tirhut, Saran, Darbhanga, Kosi, Purnia, Bhagalpur, Munger, Magadha 1912 (as Bihar) Patna Patna 38 total

-Legislature

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-Parliamentary constituency Bihar -High Court Area -Total Area rank Population (2011) -Total -Rank -Density Time zone UN/LOCODE ISO 3166 code Vehicle registration HDI HDI rank Literacy [1] 103,804,637 3rd unknown operator: u','/km2(/sqmi) IST (UTC+05:30) INBR IN-BR BR 0.449 (low) 28th (2005) 63.82% (28th) 59.7% (male) 33.1% (female) Hindi, Urdu, Maithili, gov.bih.nic.in [3] [2] Magahi. 94,163km2(unknown operator: u','sqmi) 12th Patna High Court

Official languages Website

Bihar (Hindi: , Urdu: ,pronounced[bar] ( listen)) is a state in eastern India.[4] [5] It is the 12th largest state in terms of geographical size at 38,202 sqmi (94,163km) and 3rd largest by population. Close to 85% of the population lives in villages. Almost 58% of Biharis are below the age of 25,[6] which is the highest proportion in India. Bihar lies mid-way between West Bengal in the east and Uttar Pradesh in the west. It is bounded by the country of Nepal to the north and by Jharkhand to the south. The Bihar plain is divided into two parts by the river Ganges which flows through the middle from west to east. Bihar has notified forest area of 6,764.14km,[7] which is 6.8% of its geographical area. Hindi and Urdu are the official languages of the state, while the majority of the people speak Angika, Bhojpuri, Magadhi, Maithili and Bajjika. Ancient Bihar (which consisted of Anga, Videha/Mithila, Magadha and Vajji/Vrijji) was a centre of power, learning and culture in ancient and classical India.[8] From Magadha arose India's first great empire, the Maurya empire as well as one of the world's most widely adhered-to religions, Buddhism.[9] Magadha empires, notably under the Maurya and Gupta dynasties, unified large parts of South Asia under a central rule.[10] Its capital Patna, earlier known as Pataliputra, was an important centre of Indian civilization. Nalanda was a centre of learning established by the 5th century CE in Bihar. Today, Bihar lags behind the other Indian states in human, economic development terms.[11] [12] [13] Economists and social scientists claim that this is a direct result of the skewed policies of the central government, such as the freight equalization policy,[14] [15] its apathy towards Bihar,[6] [16] [17] lack of Bihari sub-nationalism (resulting in no spokesperson for the state),[15] [18] [19] and the Permanent Settlement of 1793 by the British East India Company.[15] The current state government has however made significant strides in improving governance.[20]

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Recent turnaround of image

The improved governance has led to an economic revival[21] in the state through increased investment in infrastructure, better health care facilities, greater emphasis on education, and an abatement in crime and corruption.[22] [23] Indian[24] and global business and economic leaders feel that Bihar now has good opportunity to sustain its growth and thus have shown interest in investing in the state.[25] [26] A recent New York Times article talks about the vastly improved law and order situation in the state and the phenomenal economic growth shown over the course of last 5 years.[27] Another BBC article titled "Where 'backward' Bihar leads India"[28] talked about how the state has made strides in the areas of women empowerment, judicial reforms, tax reforms, and public safety. Between 2003 and 2008, the inflow of foreign tourists saw a near-sixfold rise from 61,000 to 346,000.[29]

Etymology of the name

The name Bihar is derived from the Sanskrit and Pali word Vihara[30] (Devanagari: ), which means "abode". The region roughly encompassing the present state was dotted with Buddhist vihara, the abodes of Buddhist monks in the ancient and medieval period. Medieval writer Minhaj al-Siraj records in the Tabakat-i-Nasiri that in 1198 AD Bakhtiyar Khalji committed a massacre in a town now known as Sharif (about 70km away from Bodh Gaya).[31] Minhaj writes that the inhabitants were 100,000 Brahmins[32] with shaven heads and all of them were killed. Later, Bakhtiyar learned that the town was a college, and the word for 'college' is bihar.[31] Perhaps from this destruction came about the current usage of the word 'Vihar'. According to the Rajopankhyana, the place is so called because Jalpeswara Siva made his viharas, or wanderings, there.[33]

The Mahabodhi Temple, among the four holy sites related to the life of the Lord Buddha and UNESCO World Heritage Site

History
The greatest Indian empire, the Mauryan empire, originated from Magadha in 325 BC, it was started by Chandragupta Maurya who was born in Magadha, and had its capital at Patliputra (modern Patna). The Mauryan Emperor, Ashoka, who was born in Patliputra (Patna) is believed to be one of the greatest rulers in the history of India and the world.[34] [35] According to indologist A.L. Basham, the author of the book The Wonder that was India,
Gautama Buddha undertaking extreme ascetic practices before he realised it was not necessary and his enlightenment on the bank of river Falgu in Bodh Gaya, Bihar.

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The age in which true history appeared in India was one of great intellectual and spiritual ferment. Mystics and sophists of all kinds roamed through the Ganges Valley, all advocating some form of mental discipline and asceticism as a means to salvation; but the age of the Buddha, when many of the best minds were abandoning their homes and professions for a life of asceticism, was also a time of advance in commerce [36] and politics. It produced not only philosophers and ascetics, but also merchant princes and men of action.

Bihar remained an important place of power, culture and education during the next one thousand years. The Gupta Empire, which again originated from Magadha in 240 CE, is referred to as the Golden Age of India in science, mathematics, astronomy, religion and Indian philosophy. The peace and prosperity created under leadership of Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors. Historians place the Gupta dynasty alongside with the Han Dynasty, Tang Dynasty and Roman Empire as a model of a classical civilization. The capital of Gupta empire was Pataliputra, present day Patna. The Vikramshila and Nalanda universities were among the oldest and best centres of education in ancient India. Some writers believe the period between the 400 CE and 1000 CE saw gains by Hinduism at the expense of Buddhism.[37] [38] [39] [40] The Hindu kings gave much grants to the Buddhist monks for building Brahmaviharas. A National Geographic edition[41] reads, "The essential tenets of Buddhism and Hinduism arose from similar ideas best described in the Upanishads, a set of Hindu treatises set down in India largely between the eighth and fourth centuries B.C." The Buddhism of Magadha was swept away by the Muslim invasion under Muhammad Bin Bakhtiar Khilji, during which many of the viharas and the famed universities of Nalanda and Vikramshila were destroyed, and thousands of Buddhist monks were massacred in 12th century CE.[42] [43] [44] [45] [46] [47] In the years 155356 Pashtun dynasty ruler 'Adil Shah' took the reigns of North-India and made 'Chunar' his capital. He deputed 'Hemu' the Hindu General, also known as 'Hemu Vikramaditya' as his Prime Minister and Chief-of-Army. Hemu fought and won 22 battles continuously against Afghan rebels and Akbar's forces at Agra and Delhi and established 'Hindu Raj' in Delhi, after a foreign rule of 300 years. Hemu, who was bestowed the title of 'Samrat' at Purana Quila, Delhi was then known as 'Samrat Hem Chandra Vikramaditya'. Hemu lost his life while fighting in the 'Second Battle of Panipat' against Akbar's forces on 7 Nov. 1556. During 15571576, Akbar, the Mughal emperor, annexed Bihar and Bengal to his empire.[48] Thus, the medieval period was mostly one of anonymous provincial existence.

Kalidasa's Sanskrit play Abhijnakuntala is one of the Legacy of the Gupta Empire.

The tenth and the last Guru of Sikhism, Guru Gobind Singh was born in Patna. After the Battle of Buxar (1764), the British East India Company obtained the diwani rights (rights to administer, and collect revenue or tax) for Bihar, Bengal and Orissa.The rich resources of fertile Land, water and skilled labour had attracted the foreign entrepreneurs,specially the Dutch and Britishers in eighteenth century. A number of Agrio based industries [49] had been started in Bihar by the foreign entrepreneurs. From this point, Bihar remained a part the Bengal Presidency of the British Raj until 1912, when the province of Bihar and Orissa was carved out as a separate province. Bihar now celebrates its birthday as Bihar Diwas on 22 March from 2010. In 1935, certain portions of Bihar were reorganised into the separate province of Orissa. Babu Kunwar Singh of Jagdishpur and his army, as well as countless other persons from Bihar, contributed to the India's First War of Independence (1857), also called the Sepoy Mutiny by some historians. Resurgence in the history of Bihar came during the struggle for India's independence. It was from Bihar that Mahatma Gandhi launched his pioneering civil-disobedience movement, Champaran Satyagraha. Brahmins in Champaran had earlier revolted against indigo cultivation in 1914 (at Pipra) and 1916 (Turkaulia) and Pandit Raj Kumar Shukla took Mahatma Gandhi to Champaran and the Champaran Satyagraha

Bihar began.[50] Raj Kumar Shukla drew the attention of Mahatma Gandhi to the exploitation of the peasants by European indigo planters. Champaran Satyagraha received the spontaneous support from many Bihari nationalists like Rajendra Prasad who became the first President of India and Anugrah Narayan Sinha who ultimately became the first Deputy Chief Minister cum Finance Minister of Bihar.[51] In the northern and central regions of Bihar, peasants movement was an important consequence of the Freedom Movement. The Kisan Sabha movement started in Bihar under the leadership of Swami Sahajanand Saraswati who had formed in 1929, the Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha (BPKS), in order to mobilize peasant grievances against the zamindari attacks on their occupancy rights.[52] Gradually the peasant movement intensified and spread across the rest of India. All these radical developments on the peasant front culminated in the formation of the All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS) at the Lucknow session of the Indian National Congress in April 1936 with Swami Sahajanand Saraswati elected as its first President.[53] This movement aimed at overthrowing the feudal (zamindari) system instituted by the British. It was led by Swami Sahajanand Saraswati and his followers Pandit Yamuna Karjee, Rahul Sankrityayan, Pandit Karyanand Sharma, Baba Nagarjun and others. Pandit Yamuna Karjee along with Rahul Sankritayan and a few others started publishing a Hindi weekly Hunkar from Bihar, in 1940. Hunkar later became the mouthpiece of the peasant movement and the agrarian movement in Bihar and was instrumental in spreading it. Bihar made an immense contribution to the Freedom Struggle, with outstanding leaders like Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, Dr. Rajendra Prasad, Sri Krishna Sinha,Dr. Anugrah Narayan Sinha,K. B. Sahay, Brajkishore Prasad,Mulana Mazharul Haque, Jayaprakash Narayan,Thakur Jugal Kishore Sinha,Satyendra Narayan Sinha,Ram Dulari Sinha,Basawon Singh, Rameshwar Prasad Sinha, Yogendra Shukla, Baikuntha Shukla, Sheel Bhadra Yajee, Pandit Yamuna Karjee and many others who worked for India's freedom relentlessly and helped in the upliftment of the underprivileged masses.[54] Khudiram Bose, Upendra Narayan Jha "Azad", Prafulla Chaki and Baikuntha Shukla were active in revolutionary movement in Bihar. On 15 January 1934, Bihar was devastated by an earthquake of magnitude 8.4. Some 30,000 people were said to have died in the quake. The state of Jharkhand was carved out of Bihar in the year 2000.[55] The 2005 Bihar assembly elections ended 15 years of continuous RJD rule in the state, giving way to NDA led by Nitish Kumar. Bihari migrant workers have faced violence and prejudice in many parts of India, such as Maharashtra, Punjab and Assam, making an impression that India still carries tribal localized mindset despite of more than 50 years of Independence as a Republic.[56] [57] [58]

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Geography and climate

Map of Bihar

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Climate
Classification ETh Avg. temperature 27C (81F) Summer Winter Precipitation 34C (93F) 10C (50F) 1200mm (47in)

Geography
Bihar is a vast stretch of fertile plain. It is drained by the Ganges River, including its northern tributaries Gandak and Koshi, originating in the Nepal Himalayas and the Bagmati originating in the Kathmandu Valley that regularly flood parts of the Bihar plains. The total area covered by the state of Bihar is 94,163km. the state is located between 21-58'-10" N ~ 27-31'-15" N latitude and between 83-19'-50" E ~ 88-17'-40" E longitude. Its average elevation above sea level is 173feet (53m).The Ganges divides Bihar into two unequal halves and flows through the middle from west to east. Other Ganges tributaries are the Son River, Topographic map Budhi Gandak, Chandan, Orhani and Falgu. Though the Himalayas begin at the foothills, a short distance inside Nepal and to the north of Bihar, the mountains influence Bihar's landforms, climate, hydrology and culture. Central parts of Bihar have some small hills, for example the Rajgir hills. To the south is the Chota Nagpur plateau, which was part of Bihar until 2000 but now is part of a separate state called Jharkhand.

Climate
Bihar is mildly cold in the winter, with the lowest temperatures being in the range from 410 C (3950F). Winter months are December and January. It is hot in the summer, with average highs around 3540 C (95104F). April to mid June are the hottest months. The monsoon months of June, July, August, and September see good rainfall. October, November, February, and March have a pleasant climate.

Flooded farmlands in northern Bihar

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Flora and fauna

Bihar has notified forest area of 6,764.14km, which is 7.1% of its geographical area.[7] The sub Himalayan foothill of Someshwar and the Dun ranges in the Champaran district are another belt of moist deciduous forests. These also consist of scrub, grass and reeds. Here the rainfall is above 1,600mm and thus promotes luxuriant Sal forests in the area. The most important trees are Shorea Robusta, Sal Cedrela Toona, Khair, and Semal. Deciduous forests also occur in the Saharsa and Purnia districts.[59] Shorea Robusta (sal), Diospyros melanoxylon (kendu), Boswellia serrata (salai), Terminalia tomentose (Asan), Terminalia bellayoica (Bahera), Terminalia Arjuna (Arjun), Pterocarpus Marsupium (Paisar), Madhuca indica (Mahua) are the common flora across the forest of Bihar. The Ganges River dolphins, or "sois" are found in the Ganges and Brahmaputra.This river dolphin is the national aquatic animal of India. It is now considered amongst the most endangered mammals of the region. The dolphins range from 2.3 to 2.6 meters in length. They have impaired vision due to the muddy river water but use sonar signals to navigate.Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary ,near Bhagalpur is set up to ensure the protection of this species. Valmiki National Park, West Champaran district, covering about 800km of forest, is the 18th Tiger Reserve of India and is ranked fourth in terms of density of tiger population.[60] It has a diverse landscape, sheltering rich wildlife habitats and floral and faunal composition, along with the prime protected carnivores.
Bauhinia acuminata locally knowns as Kachnaar

Peepal tree (The Bodhi Tree at the Mahabodhi Temple is also Peepal tree)'

Demographics
Bihar is the third most populated state of India with total population of 82,998,509 (43,243,795 male and 39,754,714 female).[62] [63] Nearly 85% of Bihar's population lives in rural areas. Almost 58% of Biharis are below 25 years age, which is the highest in India. Density is 881. Sex Ratio is 919 females per 1000 males. Since ancient times, Bihar has attracted migrants and settlers including Bengalis, Turks from Central Asia, Persians, Afghans and Punjabi Hindu refugees during the Partition of British India in 1947.[64] Bihar has a total literacy rate of 63.82% (75.7% for males 55.1% for females).[65] Largest cities in Bihar
City 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Patna Gaya Bhagalpur Muzaffarpur Darbhanga Biharsarif Arrah District Patna Gaya Bhagalpur Muzaffarpur Darbhanga Nalanda Bhojpur [66] Population 1,866,444 385,432 340,767 305,525 267,348 232,071 203,380 Muzzafarpur Patna 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 City Munger Chapra Katihar Purnia Danapur Sasaram Dehri District Munger Saran Katihar Purnia Patna Rohtas Rohtas Population 188,050 179,190 175,199 171,687 131,176 141,176 119,007

Source: Census of India 2001

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Government and administration

Vidhansabha Building, Patna

Bihar State Symbols State bird State animal State flower State tree

[67]

India roller Gaur Kanchnar Peepal

The constitutional head of the Government of Bihar is the Governor, who is appointed by the President of India. The real executive power rests with the Chief Minister and the cabinet. The political party or the coalition of political parties having a majority in the Legislative Assembly forms the Government. The head of the bureaucracy of the State is the Chief Secretary. Under this position, is a hierarchy of officials drawn from the Indian Administrative Service, Indian Police Service, and different wings of the State Civil Services. The judiciary is headed by the Chief Justice. Bihar has a High Court which has been functioning since 1916. All the branches of the government are located in the state capital, Patna. The state is divided into 09 divisions and 38 districts, for administrative purposes. The various districts included in the divisions - Patna, Tirhut, Saran, Darbhanga, Kosi, Purnia, Bhagalpur, Munger and Magadh Division, are as listed below.

District map of Bihar

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Division Bhagalpur

Headquarters Districts Bhagalpur Banka, Bhagalpur Begusarai, Darbhanga, Madhubani, Samastipur Madhepura, Saharsa, Supaul Arwal, Aurangabad, Gaya, Jehanabad, Nawada Jamui, Khagaria, Munger, Lakhisarai, Sheikhpura Bhojpur, Buxar, Kaimur, Patna, Rohtas, Nalanda Araria, Katihar, Kishanganj, Purnia Gopalganj, Saran, Siwan East Champaran, Muzaffarpur, Sheohar, Sitamarhi, Vaishali, West Champaran

Darbhanga Darbhanga Kosi Magadh Munger Patna Purnia Saran Tirhut Saharsa Gaya Munger Patna Purnia Chapra Muzaffarpur

Politics
See also: Political parties in Bihar, Elections in Bihar Bihar was an important part of India's struggle for independence. Gandhi became the mass leader only after the Champaran Satyagraha that he launched on the repeated request of a local leader, Raj Kumar Shukla, and Gandhi was supported by Rajendra Prasad, Sri Krishna Sinha, Anugrah Narayan Sinha and Brajkishore Prasad. The first Bihar governments in 1937 and 1946 were led by two eminent leaders Sri Babu (Dr. Sri Krishna Sinha) and Anugrah Babu (Dr. Anugrah Narayan Sinha) who were men of unimpeachable integrity and great public spirit.[68] They ran an exemplary government in Bihar.[68] Bihar was rated as the best administered among the states in the country at that time.[69] Even after independence, when India was falling into an autocratic rule during the regime of Indira Gandhi, the main thrust to the movement to hold elections came from Bihar under the leadership of Jayaprakash Narayan. The airport of Patna is also named after him. This resulted in two things: 1. Bihar gained an anti-establishment image. The establishment-oriented press often projected the state as indiscipline and anarchy. 2. As a result, the identity of Bihar, representing a glorious past, was lost. Its voice often used to get lost in the din of regional clamor of other states, specially the linguistic states like Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, etc. Since the regional identity was slowly getting sidelined, its place was taken up by caste based politics, power initially being in the hands of the Bhumihar, Kayastha, Rajput and Brahmin. After independence, the power was shared by the two great Gandhians Dr. Sri Krishna Sinha, who later became the first Chief Minister of Bihar and Dr. Anugrah Narayan Sinha, who decidedly was next to him in the cabinet and served as the first deputy chief minister cum Finance Minister of Bihar. In the late 60s, the death of Mr. Lalit Narayan Mishra, the Indian Railway minister (who was killed by a hand grenade attack for which Central leadership is blamed most of the time) pronounced the end of indigenous work oriented mass leaders. For two decades, the Congress ruled the state with the help of puppet

Dr Sri Krishna Sinha (right) with Dr Anugrah Narayan Sinha (left) during swearing-in ceremony of independent Bihar's first government on 15 August 1947

Bihar chief ministries hand in glove with the central government (Indira Gandhi) ignoring the welfare of the people of the state. It was at this time that Chandrashekhar Singh became the Chief Minister. It was the time when a prominent leader like Satyendra Narayan Sinha took sides with the Janata Party and deserted congress from where his political roots originated, following the ideological differences with the congress. Idealism did assert itself in the politics from time to time, viz, 1977 when a wave defeated the entrenched Congress Party and then again in 1989 when Janata Dal came to power on an anti corruption wave. In between, the socialist movement tried to break the stranglehold of the status quoits under the leadership of Mahamaya Prasad Sinha and Karpoori Thakur. Unfortunately, this could not flourish, partly due to the impractical idealism of these leaders and partly due to the machinations of the central leaders of the Congress Party who felt threatened by a large politically aware state. Communist Party in Bihar was formed in 1939. The Communist movement in Bihar was led by veteran communist leaders like the venerable Pandit Karyanand Sharma, Indradeep Sinha, Sunil Mukherjee, Jagannath Sarkar, Rahul Sankrityayan, Karyanand Sharma and others.[68] Communist Party in Bihar was a formidable force. They were in the forefront of all the progressive movements in Bihar. It was Communist Party of Bihar headed by Jagannath Sarkar fought against the "total revolution" of Jaya Prakash Narain. Janata Dal came to power in the state in 1990 on the back of its victory at the national stage in 1989. Lalu Prasad Yadav became Chief Minister after winning the race of legislative party leadership by a slender margin against Ram Sundar Das, a former chief minister from the Janata Party and close to eminent Janata Party leaders like Chandrashekhar and S N Sinha. Later, Lalu Prasad Yadav gained popularity with the masses through a series of popular and populist measures. The principled socialists, Nitish Kumar included, gradually left him and Lalu Prasad Yadav by 1995, was both Chief Minister as well as the President of his party, Rashtriya Janata Dal. He was a charismatic leader who had the people's support. But he couldn't bring the derailed wagon of development of the state onto the track. When corruption charges got serious, he quit the post of CM but anointed his wife as the CM and ruled through proxy. In this period, the administration deteriorated quickly. By 2004, 14 years after Lalu's victory, The Economist magazine said that "Bihar [had] become a byword for the worst of India, of widespread and inescapable poverty, of corrupt politicians indistinguishable from mafia-dons they patronize, caste-ridden social order that has retained the worst feudal cruelties".[70] In 2005, the World Bank believed that issues faced by the state was "enormous" because of "persistent poverty, complex social stratification, unsatisfactory infrastructure and weak governance".[71] In 2005, as disaffection reached a crescendo among the masses including the middle classes, the RJD was voted out of power and Lalu Prasad Yadav lost an election to a coalition headed by his previous ally and now rival Nitish Kumar. Despite the separation of financially richer Jharkhand, Bihar has actually seen more positive growth in recent years under his leadership. Currently, there are two main political formations: the NDA which comprises Janata Dal, Bharatiya Janata Party and the Rashtriya Janata Dal led coalition which also has the Indian National Congress. There are myriad other political formations. Ram Vilas Paswan led Lok Janshakti Party is a constituent of the UPA at the center. The Communist Party of India had a strong presence in Bihar at one time, but is weakened now. The CPM and Forward Bloc have a minor presence, along with the other extreme Left. In the 2010 state elections Bihar's current Chief Minister Nitish Kumar led government got thunderous support from public and won 206 seats out of 243 seats. Analysts and even Nitish Kumar's political opponents credit Kumar's excellent pro-public governance centered around development, curb on crime and corruption and given importance of all sections of society.[72] In past 5 years Bihar made fast progress and have implemented many novel ideas, for which it is taken in high steam by other states of India. The recent performance in assembly election and mature voting by people of Bihar, which also saw for the first time in Indian electorates the highest number of female voting, is being called as something to follow all over India to bring political maturity in the nation and improve the quality of governance and politicians by rightfully exercising the democratic rights in true sense. Bihar is credited to set this example. Also after coming to power again in 2010, the

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Bihar current government immediately started its movement against corruption by confiscating properties of corrupt officials and opening schools in them.[73] Simultaneously they introduced Bihar Special Court Act to curb crime.[74] Amongst the eminent Bihari immigrants overseas are Dr.Gholam Mujtaba,a Pakistani-American politician and Ambassador Rashad Hussain,an Indian-American presently serving as United States Ambassador to the OIC (Organization of Islamic countries).

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Economy
Year Gross State Domestic Product [75] (millions of Indian Rupees) 73,530 142,950 264,290 244,830 469,430 710,060
[76]

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

Bihar accounts for 65% of India's annual litchi [77] production.

The economy of Bihar is largely service oriented, but it also has a significant agricultural base. The state also has a small industrial sector. As of 2008, agriculture accounted for 35%, industry 9% and service 55% of the economy of the state.[78] Among all the sector, manufacturing sector performed very poorly in the state between 20022006, with an average growth rate of 0.38% compared to India's 7.8%. Bihar was the lowest GDP per capita in India, although there are pockets of higher than the average per capita income.[79] Between 1999 and 2008, GDP grew by 5.1% a year, which was below the Indian average of 7.3%.[80] More recently, Bihar's state GDP recorded a growth of 18% between 20062007,[] and stood at 94251 Crores Rupees[81] ($21billion nominal GDP). Between a 5 year period of 2004-2009, Bihar's GDP grew at a stunning rate of 11.03%.[82] This makes Bihar the fastest growing major state. In actual terms, Bihar state GDP was ranked 2nd out of 28 states, ranking it next only to Gujarat.[82]

Corruption is an import hurdle for the government to overcome according to Transparency International India, which highlighted Bihar as the Union's most corrupt state in a 2005 report. Despite the recent economic gains, significant challenges remain and the government has Farm workers in Bihar also stated that combating corruption is now the biggest challenge the administration is faced. Bihar has seen a sea change under the Nitish Kumar regime.[83] [84]

Bihar

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Bihar has significant levels of production of mango, guava, litchi, pineapple, brinjal, cauliflower, bhindi, and cabbage in India.[85] Despite the states leading role in food production, investment in irrigation and other agriculture facilities has been inadequate in the past. Historically, the sugar and vegetable oil industries were flourishing sectors of Bihar. Until the mid fifties, 25% of India's sugar output was from Bihar. Dalmianagar was a large agro-industrial town. There have been attempts to industrialize the state between 1950 and A village market 1980: an oil refinery in Barauni, a motor scooter plant at Fatuha, and a power plant at Muzaffarpur. However, these were forced to shut down due to central government policy which neutralized the strategic advantages of Bihar. Hajipur, near Patna, remains a major industrial town in the state, linked to the capital city through the Ganges bridge and good road infrastructure. The state's debt was estimated at 77% of GDP by 2007.[86] The Finance Ministry has given top priority to create investment opportunities for big industrial houses like Reliance Industries. Further developments have taken place in the growth of small industries, improvements in IT infrastructure, the new software park in Patna, and the completion of the expressway from the Purvanchal border through Bihar to Jharkhand. In August 2008, a Patna registered company called the Security and Intelligence Services (SIS) India Limited[87] took over the Australian guard and mobile patrol services business of American conglomerate, United Technologies Corp (UTC). SIS is registered and taxed in Bihar.[88] The capital city, Patna, is one of the better off cities in India when measured by per capita income.[89]

Education
Historically, Bihar has been a major centre of learning, home to the ancient universities of Nalanda (established in 450 CE), Odantapur ( established in 550CE) and Vikramshila (established in [90] 783 AD). Unfortunately, that tradition of learning which had its origin from the time of Buddha or perhaps earlier, was lost during the medieval period when it is believed that marauding armies of the invaders destroyed these centers of learning.[91] Bihar saw a revival of its education system during the later part of the British rule when they established Patna University (established in 1917) which is the seventh oldest university of the Indian subcontinent.[92] Some other centers of high learning established by the British rule are Patna College (established in 1839), Bihar School of Engineering (established in 1900; now School girls returning home in Pashchim Champaran, Bihar. known as National Institute of Technology, Patna), Prince of Wales Medical College (established in 1925; now Patna Medical College and Hospital), Science College, Patna (established in 1928) among others. After independence Bihar lost the pace in terms of establishing a centre of education. Modern Bihar has a grossly inadequate educational infrastructure creating a huge mismatch between demand and supply. This problem further

Bihar gets compounded by the growing aspirations of the people and an increase in population. The craving for higher education among the general population of Bihar has led to a massive migration of the student community from the state.

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Literacy rate from 1951~2001[93]

Year Total Males Females 1951 13.49 22.68 1961 21.95 35.85 1971 23.17 35.86 1981 32.32 47.11 1991 37.49 51.37 2001 47.53 60.32 4.22 8.11 9.86 16.61 21.99 33.57

Bihar being a comparatively less literate state in India, with women's literacy being only 33.57%, is striving to climb as the government has established various educational institutions. At the time of independence, women's literacy in Bihar was 4.22%. It is a pleasant surprise to find that in spite of the meagre investment on education in Bihar, specially compared to other Indian states, the students have done very well. Famed national institutes of learning such as IITs, IIMs, NITs and AIIMS have always have had a good representation from Bihar which is usually higher than their proportion of the population. Bihar has a National Institute of Technology (NIT) in Patna and an Indian Institute of Technology (IIT)in Patna. Other institutions of higher learning, and coveted positions in the government also show a greater share than the percentage of their population. A recent survey by Pratham[94] rated the absorption of their teaching by the Bihar children better than those in other states. Bihar established several new education institutes between 2006-2008. BIT Mesra started its Patna extension center in September 2006. On 8 August 2008, IIT was inaugurated in Patna with students from all over India.[95] National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER)[96] is being set up in Hajipur. On 4 August 2008, National Institute of Fashion Technology Patna was established as 9th such institute of fashion technology in India.[97] Chanakya National Law University a law university and Chandragupt Institute of Management a management institute was established in later half of 2008.Steps to revive the ancient Nalanda University as Nalanda International University is being taken for which countries like Japan, Korea and China have also taken initiatives. The Aryabhatt Knowledge University is almost framed to start in Patna this year to deal with technical & medical studies & research. The A.N. Sinha Institute[98] of Social Studies is a premier research institute in the state. Bihar is pioneer in the field of yoga with its internationally renowned institute Bihar School of Yoga in Munger. Bihar e-Governance Services & Technologies (BeST) and the Government of Bihar have initiated a unique program to establish a center of excellence called Bihar Knowledge Center, a finishing school to equip students with the latest skills and customized short-term training programs at an affordable cost. The center aims to attract every youth of the state to hone up their technical, professional and soft skills and prepare them for the present industry requirement/job market.[99]

Culture
Language and literature
Hindi and Urdu are the official languages of the state (recently Maithili is also included as one of the official languages of the state, although the usage of the language for official purposes is negligible), while the majority of the people speak one of the Bihari languages - Bhojpuri or Magadhi. Presently Bihari languages are considered one of the five subgroups of Hindi; however, Maithili was declared a separate language. However, these are considered

Bihar to be derived from the language of the erstwhile Magadha state - Magadhi Prakrit, along with Bengali, Assamese, and Oriya. Bihari Hindi, a slang form of Standard Hindi, is used as a lingua franca and many speak it as their first language throughout the state. A small minority also speak Bengali, mainly in big districts or along the border area with West Bengal. Many Bengali speakers are people from West Bengal or Hindu people from erstwhile East Pakistan who immigrated during the Partition of India in 1947. Though Urdu and Bihari languages may relate to each other, however they are different in many ways. Few words in Bihari language sounds same as they are spoken in Urdu; e.g. Sulf-nazuk in Bihari is Sinf-e-Nazuk in Urdu. Also, masculine and feminine words are often not clear in Bihari language as these are in Urdu. In spite of the large number of speakers of Bihari languages, they have not been constitutionally recognized in India. Hindi is the language used for educational and official matters in Bihar.[100] These languages were legally absorbed under the subordinate label of 'HINDI' in the 1961 Census. Such state and national politics have created conditions for language endangerment.[101] The first success for spreading Hindi occurred in Bihar in 1881, when Hindi displaced Urdu as the sole official language of the province. In this struggle between competing Hindi and Urdu, the potential claims of the three large mother tongues in the region - Magahi, Bhojpuri and Maithili were ignored. After independence Hindi was again given the sole official status through the Bihar Official Language Act, 1950.[102] Urdu became the second official language in the undivided State of Bihar on 16 August 1989. The relationship of Maithili community with Bhojpuri and Magahi communities the immediate neighbors have been neither very pleasant nor very hostile. Maithili has been the only one among them which has been trying to constantly deny superimposition of Hindi over her identity. As of now Maithili is a separate language that uses Devanagari as the writing script rather than its own script Mithilakshar due to lack of the development of the printing press and also due to ignorance. The other two have given up their claims and have resigned to accept the status of dialects of Hindi. Bihar has produced a number of writers and scholars, including Mahamahopadhyaya Pandit Ram Avatar Sharma, Dr.Bhagwati Sharan Mishra,R. K. Sinha, Raja Radhika Raman Singh, Shiva Pujan Sahay, Divakar Prasad Vidyarthy, Ramdhari Singh 'Dinkar', Ram Briksh Benipuri, Phanishwar Nath 'Renu', Pandit Nalin Vilochan Sharma, Gopal Singh "Nepali", Baba Nagarjun, Mridula Sinha, and Pankaj Rag. Mahapandit Rahul Sankrityayan, the great writer and Buddhist scholar, was born in U.P. but spent his life in the land of Lord Buddha, i.e., Bihar. Hrishikesh Sulabh is the prominent writer of the new generation. He is short story writer, playwright and theatre critic. Arun Kamal and Aalok Dhanwa are the well-known poets. Different regional languages also have produced some prominent poets and authors. Sharat Chandra Chattopadhyay, who is among the greatest writers in Bangla, resided for some time in Bihar. Of late, the latest Indian writer in English, Upamanyu Chatterjee also hails from Patna in Bihar. Devaki Nandan Khatri, who rose to fame at the beginning of the 20th century on account of his novels such as Chandrakanta and Chandrakanta Santati, was born in Muzaffarpur, Bihar. Vidyapati Thakur is the most renowned poet of Maithili (c. 14-15th century).
Nagarjun, known as People's poet

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Interestingly, the first Indian author in English was a Bihari, Deen Mohammad. Among the contemporary writers in English Amitava Kumar, Tabish Khair and Siddharth Choudhary are important names. Siddharth Choudhary has been shortlisted for 2009 Man Asian Literary Prize for his book Day Scholar. Bihar has also made important contributions to Urdu literature. Shad Azimabadai, Nasikh, Jamil Mazhari and Mazhar Imam as eminent poets; Suhail Azimabadi, Akhtar Orenivi, Shaukat Hayat and Shamoel Ahmed as short story writers; and Paigham Afaqui (novel Makaan), Abdus Samad (novel Do Gaz Zameen), Husainul Haque (novel Farat), Ilyas Ahmed Gaddi (novel Fire Area) enjoy special place in global literature.

Bihar The literary and cultural movement Bhookhi Peedhi, or 'Hungry generation', was launched from Bihar's capital in November 1961 by two brothers, Samir Roychoudhury and Malay Roy Choudhury. The movement impacted most of the Indian languages of the time. Urdu is second government language in Bihar which is the mother tongue of Muslims who form about 17% of state's population. Near 25% people in Bihar read and write Urdu. Bihar has produced many Urdu scholars, such as Shaad Azimabadi, Jamil Maz'hari, Khuda Baksh Khan, Maulana Shabnam Kamali, Bismil Azimabadi (poet known for the patriotic ghazal "Sarfaroshi ki tamanna ab hamare dil mein hai"), Kaif Azimabadi, Rasikh Azimabadi, and in these days, Kalim Aajiz.

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Arts and crafts

Madhubani painting is a style of Indian painting practiced in the Mithila region of Bihar. Tradition states that this style of painting originated at the time of the Ramayana, when King Janak commissioned artists to do paintings at the time of marriage of his daughter, Sita, to Lord Ram. The painting was traditionally done on freshly plastered mud wall of huts, but now it is also done on cloth, hand-made paper and canvas. Madhubani painting mostly depict nature and Hindu religious motifs, and the themes generally revolve around Hindu deities like Krishna, Ram, Shiva, Durga, Lakshmi, and Saraswati. Natural objects like the sun, the moon, and religious plants like tulsi are also widely painted, along with scenes from the royal court and social events like weddings. Generally no space is left empty. Traditionally, painting was one of the skills that was passed down from generation to generation in the families of the Mithila Region, mainly by women. The painting was usually done on walls during festivals, religious events, and other milestones of the life-cycle such as birth, Upanayanam (Sacred thread ceremony), and marriage.

Madhubani painting

Manjusha Kala or Angika Art is an art form of Anga region of Bihar. Notably artist Jahar Dasgupta born in Jamshedpur, Bihar which is presently under state Jharkhand. Patna School of Painting or Patna Qalaam, some times also called Company painting, offshoot of the well-know Mughal Miniature School of Painting flourished in Bihar during early 18th to mid 20th century. The practitioners of this art form were descendants of Hindu artisans of Mughal painting who facing persecution from the Mughal Emperor, Aurangzeb found refuge, via Murshidabad, in Patna during late 18th century. They shared the characteristics of the Mughal painters, but unlike them (whose subjects included only royalty and court scenes), the Patna painters also started painting bazaar scenes. The paintings were executed in A painting of the city of Patna, on the River Ganges, Patna School of Painting watercolours on paper and on mica. Favourite subjects were scenes of Indian daily life, local rulers, and sets of festivals and ceremonies. Most successful were the studies of natural life, but the style was generally of a hybrid and

Bihar undistinguished quality. It is this school of painting that formed the nucleus for the formation of the Patna Art School under the leadership of Shri Radha Mohan. College of Arts and Crafts, Patna is an important centre of fine arts in Bihar. The artisans of Bihar have been very skillful in creating articles using local materials. Baskets, cups and saucers made from bamboo-strips or cane reed are painted in vivid colors are commonly found in Bihari homes. A special container woven out of Sikki Grass in the north, the "pauti", is a sentimental gift that accompanies a bride when she leaves her home after her wedding. The weavers of Bihar have been practicing their trade for centuries. Among their products in common use are the cotton dhurries and curtains. They are produced by artisans in central Bihar, particularly in the Patna and Biharsharif areas. These Artisans selling their work near GPO Patna. colourful sheets, with motifs of Buddhist artifacts, pictures of birds, animals, and/or flowers, gently wafting in the air through doors and windows, blown by a cool summer breeze, used to be one of the most soothing sights as one approached a home or an office. Bhagalpur is well known for its seri-culture, manufacture of silk yarn and weaving them into lovely products. It is known as the tussah or tusser silk.

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Performing arts
Bihar has contributed to the Indian (Hindustani) classical music and has produced musicians like Bharat Ratna Ustad Bismillah Khan, who later migrated out of Bihar. Dhrupad singers like the Malliks (Darbhanga Gharana) and the Mishras (Bettiah Gharana), who were patronised by the Zamindars of Darbhanga and Bettiah respectively, have produced maestros like Ram Chatur Mallik, Abhay Narayan Mallick, Indra Kishore Mishra. Perhaps, not well acknowledged and commercialised as those from the Dagar school of Dhrupad, they have kept the Dhrupad tradition in Magahi folk singers perhaps the purest forms. Gaya was another centre of excellence in classical music, particularly of the Tappa and Thumri variety. Pandit Govardhan Mishra, son of the Ram Prasad Mishra, himself, an accomplished singer, is perhaps the finest living exponent of Tappa singing in India today, according to Padmashri Gajendra Narayan Singh, former Chairman of Bihar Sangeet Natak Academy. Gajendra Narayan Singh also writes in his latest book "surile Logon Ki Sangat" that Champanagar, Banaili was another major centre of classical music. Rajkumar Shyamanand Sinha of Champanagar Banaili estate was a great patron of music and himself, was one of the finest exponents of classical vocal music in Bihar in his time. Gajendra Narayan Singh in his other book "Swar Gandh" has written that "Kumar Shyamanand Bharat Ratna Ustad Bismillah Khan, from Singh of Banaili estate had such expertise in singing that many great Dumraon, Bihar singers including Kesarbai Kerkar were convinced about his prowess in singing. After listening to Bandishes from Kumar Saheb, Pandit Jasraj was moved to tears and lamented that alas! he could have such ability himself" (free translation of Hindi text).

Bihar Bihar has a very old tradition of beautiful folk songs, sung during important family occasions, such as marriage, birth ceremonies, festivals, etc. and the most famous folk singer has been Padma Shri Sharda Sinha. They are sung mainly in group settings without the help of many musical instruments like Dholak, Bansuri and occasionally Tabla and Harmonium are used. Bihar also has a tradition of lively Holi songs known as 'Phagua', filled with fun rhythms. During the 19th century, when the condition of Bihar worsened under the British misrule, many Biharis had to migrate as indentured laborers to West Indian islands, Fiji, and Mauritius. During this time many sad plays and songs called biraha became very popular, in the Bhojpur area. Dramas on that theme continue to be popular in the theaters of Patna. Dance forms of Bihar are another expression of rich traditions and ethnic identity. There are several folk dance forms that can keep one enthralled, such as dhobi nach, jhumarnach, manjhi, gondnach, jitiyanach, more morni, dom-domin, bhuiababa, rah baba, kathghorwa nach, jat jatin, launda nach, bamar nach, jharni, jhijhia, natua nach, bidapad nach, sohrai nach, and gond nach. Theatre is another form in which the Bihari culture expresses itself. Some forms of theater with rich traditions are Bidesia, Reshma-Chuharmal, Bihula-Bisahari, Bahura-Gorin, Raja Salhesh, Sama Chakeva, and Dom Kach. These theater forms originate in the Anga region of Bihar.

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Cuisine
The cuisine of Bihar for the Hindu upper and middle classes is predominantly vegetarian, but eating non-vegetarian food is also popular. However, people discourage eating meat daily and many Hindu don't eat meat during Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday. The Muslims in Bihar however do generally eat meat as well as vegetables. In Bihar people generally eat boiled rice and daal etc. and no Roti during lunch and Roti is eaten in night with vegetables. The traditional cooking medium is mustard oil. Khichdi, a broth of rice and lentils seasoned with spices and served with several accompanying items, constitutes the mid-day meal for most Hindu Biharis on Saturdays. The favourite dish among Biharis is litti-chokha. Litti is made up of dough stuffed with sattu (ground powder coming from roasted brown chickpeas) then boiled in water. It is then fried in oil, but little oil is used since it has been pre-boiled. The other way of cooking Litti is grilling it on red hot coal. Chokha is made of mashed potatoes, fried onions, salt, cilantro, and carrom seeds. Litti is also accompanied with ghee and channa (small brown chickpeas with onions and masala). Chitba and Pitthow which are prepared basically from rice, are special foods of the Anga region. Tilba and Chewda of Katarni rice are also special preparations of Anga. Kadhi bari is a popular favorite and consists of fried soft dumplings made of besan (gram flour) that are cooked in a spicy gravy of yoghurt and besan. This dish goes very well with plain rice. Bihar offers a large variety of sweet delicacies which, unlike those from Bengal, are mostly dry. These include Anarasa, Belgrami-Udvant nagar ke Belgrami, Chena Murki, Motichoor ke Laddoo-Maner ka Laddoo, Kala Jamun, Kesaria Peda, Khaja, Khurma, Khubi ki Lai, Laktho, Parwal ki Mithai, Pua & Mal Pua, Thekua, Murabba and Tilkut. Tilkut and Anarsa from Gaya is world famous and Lai from Dhanarua is also famous. Gurahi Laddu is also famous from Bhabua. Many of these originate in towns in the vicinity of Patna. Several other traditional salted snacks and savories popular in Bihar are Chiwra, Dhuska, Litti, Makhana and Sattu. Khaja from Silaw, Nalanda is very famous in whole of state. There is a distinctive Bihari flavor to the non-vegetarian cuisine as well, although some of the names of the dishes may be the same as those found in other parts of North India. Roll is a typical Bihari non-vegetarian dish. These are popular and go by the generic name Roll Bihari in and around Lexington Avenue (South) in New York City. There is a very popular non-vegetarian dish called Tash, made by frying marinated mutton and eaten with Chewra, the flattened rice. This particular dish is popular in Motihari and Bettiah. Fish Curry cooked in mustard paste with Rice maaach-bhaat is also a popular dish in non-vegetarian Maithili homes.

Bihar Islamic culture and food, with Bihari flavor are also part of Bihar's unique confluence of cultures. Famous food items include Biharee Kabab, Shami Kabab, Nargisi Kufte, Shabdeg, Yakhnee Biryanee, Motton Biryani, Shaljum Gosht, Baqer Khani, Kuleecha, Naan Rootee, Sawee ka Zarda, Qemamee Sawee, Gajar ka Halwa, Ande ka ZfraniHalwa, etc.

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Religion
Religion in Bihar Religion Hinduism Islam Other Percent 83% 16% 1%

Gautam Buddha attained Enlightenment at Bodh Gaya, a town located in the modern day district of Gaya in Bihar. Vardhamana Mahavira, the 24th and the last Tirthankara of Jainism, was born in Vaishali around sixth century BC.[103] A typical Hindu Brahmin household would begin the day with the blowing of a conch shell at dawn. In rural Bihar, religion is the main component of popular culture. Shrines are located everywhere - even at the foot of trees, roadsides, etc., religious symbols or images of deities can be found in the most obscure or the most public places. From the dashboard of a dilapidated taxi to the plush office of a top executive, holy symbols or idols have their place. There are many variations on the festival theme. While some are celebrated all over the state, others are observed only in certain areas. However Bihar is so diverse that different regions and religions have something to celebrate at some time or the other during the year. So festivals take place round the year. Many of these are officially recognized by the days on which they take place being proclaimed as government holidays.
Buddha's statue at Bodh Gaya's temple

Bihar Regiment
One of the battle cry of the Bihar Regiment, consisting of 17 battalions, is "Jai Bajrang Bali" (Victory to Lord Hanuman).[104]

Vishnupadh Temple, Gaya, IndiaGaya, Bihar

Bihar

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Festivals
Chhath, also called Dala Chhath - is an ancient and major festival in Bihar, and is celebrated twice a year: once in the summers, called the Chaiti Chhath, and once around a week after Deepawali, called the Kartik Chhath. The latter is more popular because winters are the usual festive season in North India, and Chhath being an arduous observance requiring the worshippers to fast without water for more than 24 hours, is easier to do in the Indian winters. Chhath is the worship of the Sun God. Wherever people from Bihar have migrated, they have taken with them the tradition of Chhath. This is a ritual bathing festival that follows a period of The Morning Worship Dala Chhath. abstenance and ritual segregation of the worshiper from the main household for two days. On the eve of Chhath, houses are scrupulously cleaned and so are the surroundings. The ritual bathing and worship of the Sun God takes place, performed twice: once in the evening and once on the crack of the dawn, usually on the banks of a flowing river, or a common large water body. The occasion is almost a carnival, and besides every worshipper, usually women, who are mostly the main ladies of the household, there are numerous participants and onlookers, all willing to help and receive the blessings of the worshiper. Ritual rendition of regional folk songs, carried on through oral transmission from mothers and mothers-in-law to daughters and daughters-in-law, are sung on this occasion for several days on the go. These songs are a great mirror of the culture, social structure, mythology and history of Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh. Chhath being celebrated at the crack of the dawn is a beautiful, elating spiritual experience connecting the modern Indian to his ancient cultural roots. Chhath is believed to be started by Karna, the king of Anga Desh (modern Bhagalpur region of Bihar). Among ritual observances, the month-long Shravani Mela, held along a 108-kilometre route linking the towns of Sultanganj and Deoghar (now in Jharkhand state), is of great significance. Shravani Mela is organised every year in the Hindu month of Shravan, that is the lunar month of JulyAugust. Pilgrims, known as Kanwarias, wear saffron coloured clothes and collect water from a sacred Ghat (river bank) at Sultanganj, walking the 108km stretch barefooted to the town of Deoghar to bathe a sacred ShivaLinga. The observance draws thousands of people to the town of Deoghar from all over India. Teej and Chitragupta Puja are other local festivals celebrated with fervor in Bihar. Bihula-Bishari Puja is celebrated in the Anga region of Bihar. The Sonepur cattle fair is a month long event starting approximately half a month after Deepawali and is considered the largest cattle fair in Asia. It is held on the banks of the Gandak River in the town of Sonepur. The constraints of the changing times and new laws governing the sale of animals and prohibiting the trafficking in exotic birds and beasts have eroded the once-upon-a-time magic of the fair. Apart from Chhath, all major festivals of India are celebrated in Bihar, such as Makar Sankranti, Saraswati Puja, Holi, Eid-ul-Fitr, Eid-ul-Adha (often called Eid-ul-Zuha in the Indian Subcontinent), Muharram, Ram Navami, Rath yatra, Rakshabandhan, Maha Shivaratri, Durga Puja is celebrated with a grandeur akin to the neighbouring state of Bengal, Diwali, Kali Puja/Shyama Puja/Nisha Puja is celebrated in the Mithilanchal portion, Kojagra is also celebrated in the Mithilanchal region, Laxmi Puja, Christmas, Mahavir Jayanti, Buddha Purnima, Chitragupta Puja, Gurpurab and several other local festivals as well.

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Cinema
Bihar has a robust cinema industry for the Bhojpuri language. There are some small Maithili, Angika and Magadhi film industry. First Bhojpuri Film was Ganga Jamuna released in 1961.[105] "Lagi nahin chute ram" was the all-time superhit Bhojpuri film which was released against "Mugle Azam" but was a superhit in all the eastern and northern sector. Bollywood's Nadiya Ke Paar is among the most famous Bhojpuri language movie. The first Maithili movie was Kanyadan released in 1965,[106] of which a significant portion was made in the Maithili language. Bhaiyaa a Magadhi film was released in 1961.[107] Bhojpuri's history begins in 1962 with the well-received film Ganga Maiyya Tohe Piyari Chadhaibo ("Mother Ganges, I will offer you a yellow sari"), which was directed by Kundan Kumar.[108] Throughout the following decades, films were produced only in fits and starts. Films such as Bidesiya ("Foreigner", 1963, directed by S. N. Tripathi) and Ganga ("Ganges", 1965, directed by Kundan Kumar) were profitable and popular, but in general Bhojpuri films were not commonly produced in the 1960s and 1970s. In the 1980s, enough Bhojpuri films were produced to tentatively make up an industry. Films such as Mai ("Mom", 1989, directed by Rajkumar Sharma) and Hamar Bhauji ("My Brother's Wife", 1983, directed by Kalpataru) continued to have at least sporadic success at the box office. However, this trend faded out by the end of the decade, and by 1990, the nascent industry seemed to be completely finished.[109] The industry took off again in 2001 with the super hit Saiyyan Hamar ("My Sweetheart", directed by Mohan Prasad), which shot the hero of that film, Ravi Kissan, to superstardom.[110] This success was quickly followed by several other remarkably successful films, including Panditji Batai Na Biyah Kab Hoi ("Priest, tell me when I will marry", 2005, directed by Mohan Prasad) and Sasura Bada Paisa Wala ("My father-in-law, the rich guy", 2005). In a measure of the Bhojpuri film industry's rise, both of these did much better business in the states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar than mainstream Bollywood hits at the time, and both films, made on extremely tight budgets, earned back more than ten times their production costs.[111] Sasura Bada Paisa Wala also introduced Manoj Tiwari, formerly a well-loved folk singer, to the wider audiences of Bhojpuri cinema. In 2008, he and Ravi Kissan are still the leading actors of Bhojpuri films, and their fees increase with their fame. The extremely rapid success of their films has led to dramatic increases in Bhojpuri cinema's visibility, and the industry now supports an awards show[112] and a trade magazine, Bhojpuri City,[113] which chronicles the production and release of what are now over one hundred films per year. Many of the major stars of mainstream Bollywood cinema, including Amitabh Bachchan, have also recently worked in Bhojpuri films.

Media
Biharbandhu was the first Hindi newspaper published from Bihar. It was started in 1872 by Madan Mohan Bhatta, a Maharashtrian Brahman settled in Biharsharif.[114] Hindi journalism in Bihar, and specially Patna, could make little headway initially. It was mainly due to lack of respect for Hindi among the people at large. Many Hindi journals took birth and after a lapse of time vanished. Many journals were shelved even in the embryo.[115] But once Hindi enlisted the official support, it started making a dent into the remote areas in Bihar. Hindi journalism also acquired wisdom and maturity and its longevity was prolonged. Hindi was introduced in the law courts in Bihar in 1880.[114]
[116]

Urdu journalism and poetry has a glorious past in Bihar. Many poets belong to Bihar such as Shaad Azimabadi, Kaif Azimabadi, Kalim Ajiz and many more. Shanurahman, a world famous radio announcer, is from Bihar. Many Urdu dailies such as Qomi Tanzim and Sahara publish from Bihar at this time. There is a monthly Urdu magazine called "VOICE OF BIHAR" - which is the first of its kind and becoming popular among the Urdu speaking people. The beginning of the twentieth century was marked by a number of notable new publications. A monthly magazine named Bharat Ratna was started from Patna in 1901. It was followed by Ksahtriya Hitaishi, Aryavarta from Dinapure, Patna, Udyoga and Chaitanya Chandrika.[117] Udyog was edited by Vijyaanand Tripathy, a famous poet of the time and Chaitanya Chandrika by Krishna Chaitanya Goswami, a literary figures of that time. The literary activity was not confined to Patna alone but to many districts of Bihar.[114] [118]

Bihar Magahi Parishad, established in Patna in 1952, pioneered Magadhi journalism in Bihar. It started the monthly journal, Magadhi, which was later renamed Bihan. DD Bihar and ETV Bihar are the television channels dedicated to Bihar. Recently a dedicated Bhojpuri channel, Mahuaa TV has been launched.[119] [120] followed by Hamar TV and Maurya TV. Hindustan, Dainik Jagran, Aaj, Nayee Baat and Prabhat Khabar are some of the popular Hindi news papers of Bihar. National English dailies like The Times of India, Hindustan Times, The Telegraph and The Economic Times have readers in the urban regions.

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Transportation
Bihar has two operational airports: Lok Nayak Jayaprakash Airport, Patna, and the Gaya Airport, Gaya. The Patna airport is connected to Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Lucknow, Bangaluru, Hyderabad, Chennai, Pune and Ranchi. The Patna airport is categorized as a restricted international airport, with customs facilities to receive international chartered flights. It is also known as the most dangerous airport in India with a runway span of just around 6000ft making landing of large planes like 747 and 777 impossible. Only small jets like A320, 737 etc. can land with full brakes,flaps and reverse thrust.
Streamers and dredgers at Gai Ghat, Patna.

The Gaya Airport is an international airport connected to Colombo, Singapore, Bangkok, Paro and more. Bihar is well-connected by railway lines to the rest of India. Most of the towns are interconnected, and they also are directly connected to Kolkata, Delhi and Mumbai. Patna, Gaya, Bhagalpur, Muzaffarpur, Darbhanga, Katihar, Barauni and Chhapra are Bihar's best-connected railway stations. The state has a vast network of National and State highways. East-West corridor goes through the cities of Bihar (Muzaffarpur-Darbhanga-Purnia NH57) 4-6 lanes. For Buddhist pilgrims, the best option for travel to Bihar is to reach Patna or Gaya, either by air or train, and then travel to Bodh Gaya, Nalanda, Rajgir and Vaishali. Sarnath in Uttar Pradesh also is not very far. The Ganges navigable throughout the year was the principal river highway across the vast north Indo-Gangetic Plain. Vessels capable of accommodating five hundred merchants were known to ply this river in the ancient period; it served as a conduit for overseas trade, as goods were carried from Pataliputra (later Patna) and Champa (later Bhagalpur) out to the seas and to ports in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. The role of Ganges as a channel for trade was enhanced by its natural links - it embraces all the major rivers and streams in both north and south Bihar.[121] In recent times Inland Waterways Authority of India has declared the Ganges between Allahabad and Haldia to be a national inland waterway and has taken steps to restore its navigability.

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Tourism
Bihar is one of the oldest inhabited places in the world, with a history spanning 3,000 years. The rich culture and heritage of Bihar is evident from the innumerable ancient monuments spread throughout the state. Bihar is visited by scores of tourists from all over the world,[122] with around 6,000,000 (6 million) tourists visiting Bihar every year.[122] In earlier days, tourism in the region was purely based educational tourism, as Bihar was home of some prominent ancient universities like Nalanda University & Vikramala University.[123] [124] Bihar is one of the most sacred place for various religions like Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and Islam.[122] Mahabodhi Temple, a Buddhist shrine and UNESCO World Heritage Site is also situated in Bihar. Mahatma Gandhi Setu, Patna, is the second longest river bridge in the world.

Trolley ride in Rajgir

Remains of the ancient city of Vaishali

Archaeological sites and Monuments in Bihar

Excavation KumhrarAgam KuanBarabar CavesNalandaVikramsila Ancient Vishnupada Temple Mahabodhi Temple Sasaram Maner Sharif Patliputra Brahmayoni Hill Pretshila Hill Ramshila Hill Forts Rohtasgarh Fort Munger Fort Sasaram Fort Palamu Fort Maner Fort Jalalgarh Fort Rajmahal, Bihar Monuments Golghar Patna Museum Kargil Chowk Mahatma Gandhi Setu

Pilgrimage sites in Bihar

Hindu Pilgrimage Mahavir Mandir Hariharkshetra, Hajipur. Sitamarhi Madhubani Punausa Buxur West Champaran Munger Jamui Darbhanga Anga Jain Pilgrimage Rajgir Pawapuri Patliputra Arrah Vikramasila Kundalpur Buddhist Pilgrimages Mahabodhi Temple Bodhi Tree Bodh Gaya Gaya Vaishali Pawapuri Nalanda Rajgir Kesariya Vikramshila Areraj Patliputra Sikh Pilgrimage Takht Shri Harmandir Saheb Guru ka Bagh Ghai Ghat Handi Sahib Gobind Ghat Bal Lila MainiTaksali Sangat Guru Bagh Chacha Phaggu Mal Pakki Sangat Bari Sangat Islamic Pilgrimages Sasaram Maner Sharif Bihar Sharif Phulwari Sharif Patna Christian Pilgrimages Padari ki haveli

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159

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Bihar
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[73] http:/ / www. theweekendleader. com/ page. php?cy=Causes& id=420& title=Perfect-justice [74] http:/ / www. newkerala. com/ news/ world/ fullnews-154170. html [75] estimated (http:/ / mospi. nic. in/ mospi_nad_main. htm), Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation [76] "Bihar's economy climbs to $12b by 2005" (http:/ / specials. rediff. com/ money/ 2009/ mar/ 31slide5-indias-top-ten-debt-ridden-states. htm). Specials.rediff.com. 31 March 2009. . Retrieved 15 October 2009. [77] "Distressed Delicacy" (http:/ / www. tehelka. com/ story_main39. asp?filename=Bu050708distresseddelicacy. asp). Tehelka. 2008. . Retrieved 29 September 2008. [78] "Slide 1" (http:/ / industries. bih. nic. in/ Slides01/ Presentation. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 15 October 2009. [79] Aditi Nigam. "For Bihar, P stands for Patna and prosperity" (http:/ / www. financialexpress. com/ news/ for-bihar-p-stands-for-patna-and-prosperity/ 293289/ ). Financialexpress.com. . Retrieved 15 October 2009. [80] "A special report on India: Ruled by Lakshmi" (http:/ / www. economist. com/ surveys/ displaystory. cfm?story_id=12749719& fsrc=rss). The Economist. 11 December 2008. . [81] Gross State Domestic Product at current prices (http:/ / mospi. nic. in/ 6_gsdp_cur_9394ser. htm) [82] Bihar grew by 11.03%, next only to Gujarat (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ business/ india-business/ Bihar-grew-by-1103-next-only-to-Gujarat/ articleshow/ 5405973. cms) [83] "Doing business the hard way in Bihar" (http:/ / www. financialexpress. com/ news/ doing-business-the-hard-way-in-bihar/ 274316/ ). Financial express. 2008. . [84] "CM: Corruption biggest challenge" (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ Cities/ Patna/ CM_Corruption_biggest_challenge/ articleshow/ 3829800. cms). Timesofindia.indiatimes.com. 13 December 2008. . Retrieved 15 October 2009. [85] "Industries Department" (http:/ / industries. bih. nic. in/ ). Industries.bih.nic.in. . Retrieved 15 October 2009. [86] "Bihar's debt soars to 77% of GDP" (http:/ / specials. rediff. com/ money/ 2009/ mar/ 31slide5-indias-top-ten-debt-ridden-states. htm). Specials.rediff.com. 31 March 2009. . Retrieved 15 October 2009. [87] "History" (http:/ / www. sisindia. com/ history. htm). Sisindia.com. 29 July 1993. . Retrieved 15 October 2009. [88] "Bihar security firm sets foot in Australia" (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ Cities/ Patna/ Bihar_security_firm_sets_foot_in_Australia/ articleshow/ 3401009. cms). The Times of India. 25 August 2008. . Retrieved 25 August 2008. [89] "For Bihar, P stands for Patna and prosperity" (http:/ / www. financialexpress. com/ news/ For-Bihar-P-stands-for-Patna-and-prosperity/ 293289/ ). The Financial Express. 2008. . Retrieved 7 April 2008. [90] Altekar, Anant Sadashiv (1965). Education in Ancient India, Sixth, Varanasi: Nand Kishore & Bros. [91] Scott, David (May 1995). "Buddhism and Islam: Past to Present Encounters and Interfaith Lessons". Numen 42 (2): 141. doi:10.1163/1568527952598657. [92] "Patna University" (http:/ / www. patnauniversity. ac. in/ about_university. htm). Patna University. . Retrieved 15 October 2009. [93] "Census Statistics for Bihar" (http:/ / gov. bih. nic. in/ Profile/ CensusStats-03. htm). Gov.bih.nic.in. . Retrieved 15 October 2009. [94] Pratham .org | Pratham - A Network of Societal Missions to Achieve Universal Primary Education in India (http:/ / www. pratham. org/ aserrep. php) [95] Jha, Abhay Mohan (4 August 2008). "Brand new IIT in Patna impresses all" (http:/ / www. ndtv. com/ convergence/ ndtv/ story. aspx?id=NEWEN20080059982). NDTV. . Retrieved 4 August 2008. [96] NITPU Chandigarh. "National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, S.A.S. Nagar" (http:/ / niper. ac. in). Niper.ac.in. . Retrieved 15 October 2009. [97] NIFT starts classes in Patna (http:/ / www. hindustandainik. com/ news/ 7097_2150113,008700010014. htm) [98] "Premier Research Institute:ANSISS" (http:/ / www. ansiss. org/ AboutUs. aspx). Official website. .

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Bihar
[99] http:/ / www. biharonline. gov. in/ Site/ BKC/ Default. aspx [100] History of Indian languages (http:/ / www. diehardindian. com/ demogrph/ moredemo/ histlang. htm). "Bihari is actually the name of a group of three related languagesBhojpuri, Maithili, and Magahispoken mainly in northeastern India in Bihar. Despite its large number of speakers, Bihari is not a constitutionally recognized language of India. Even in Bihar, Hindi is the language used for educational and official matters." [101] Verma, Mahandra K. (1 January 2001). "Language Endangerment and Indian languages : An exploration and a critique" (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=tcfJY7kANo8C& pg=PA5& lpg=PA5& dq=awadhi+ and+ magahi+ languages). Linguistic Structure and Language Dynamics in South Asia. ISBN9788120817654. . [102] Brass Paul R., The Politics of India Since Independence, Cambridge University Press, p. 183 [103] Pathak Prabhu Nath,Society and Culture in Early Bihar, Commonwealth Publishers, 1988, p. 140 [104] THE BIHAR REGIMENT (http:/ / www. bharat-rakshak. com/ LAND-FORCES/ Army/ Regiments/ Bihar. html) [105] Ganga Jamuna - First Bhojpuri language film (http:/ / us. imdb. com/ title/ tt0054910/ ) [106] Kanyadan - First Maithili language film (http:/ / us. imdb. com/ title/ tt0236358/ ) [107] Bhaiyaa - First Magadhi language film (http:/ / us. imdb. com/ title/ tt0236021/ ) [108] IMDB (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0233774/ ) [109] Tripathy, Ratnakar (2007) 'BHOJPURI CINEMA', South Asian Popular Culture, 5:2, 145165 [110] "For my female audiences, Ill wear a really flimsy dhoti" (http:/ / www. telegraphindia. com/ 1060414/ asp/ etc/ story_6075200. asp). The Telegraph. Kolkota, India. 14 April 2006. . Retrieved 15 October 2009. [111] Move over Bollywood, Here's Bhojpuri (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ go/ pr/ fr/ -/ 1/ hi/ world/ south_asia/ 4512812. stm), BBC News [112] "Home" (http:/ / www. bhojpurifilmaward. com/ ). Bhojpuri Film Award. . Retrieved 15 October 2009. [113] "bhojpuricity.com" (http:/ / www. bhojpuricity. com/ ). bhojpuricity.com. . Retrieved 15 October 2009. [114] Ahmad Qeyamuddin, Patna Through the ages: Glimpses of History, Society and Economy, Commonwealth Publishers, New Delhi, 1988 [115] Rajendra Abhinandan Granth, "Nagri Pracharini Sabha", Arrah, 3 March 1950, pp. 353 [116] Kumar N., Journalism in Bihar, A Supplement to Bihar State Gazette pp. 28 [117] Bihar ki Sahityik Pragati, Bihar Hindi Sahitya Sammelan, Patna 1956, p. 73 [118] Jayanti Smarak Granth, pp. 583585 [119] "Bhojpuri Channel Mahuaa TV Launched" (http:/ / www. india-server. com/ news/ bhojpuri-channel-mahuaa-tv-launched-2868. html). India-server.com. . Retrieved 15 October 2009. [120] "Bhojpuri Channel MAHUAA TV launched" (http:/ / www. tvnext. in/ news/ 149/ ARTICLE/ 1570/ 2008-08-11. html). Tvnext.in. . Retrieved 15 October 2009. [121] Yang, Anand A (1998). Bazaar India: Markets, Society, and the Colonial State in Gangetic Bihar (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=D5lQutvzAp4C& printsec=frontcover& dq=Bazaar+ India). Books.google.co.in. ISBN9780520211001. . Retrieved 15 October 2009. [122] Statics [[Tourism in Bihar (http:/ / www. tourism. gov. in/ survey/ BIHAR TOURISM ANNUAL STATISTICS REPORT Final. pdf)] on Indian Government's website] [123] Wriggins, Sally Hovey. Xuanzang: A Buddhist Pilgrim on the Silk Road. Westview Press, 1996. Revised and updated as The Silk Road Journey With Xuanzang. Westview Press, 2003. ISBN 0-8133-6599-6. [124] A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms: Being an account by the Chinese Monk Fa-Hien of his travels in India and Ceylon (A.D. 399-414) in search of the Buddhist Books of Discipline (http:/ / etext. library. adelaide. edu. au/ f/ fa-hien/ f15l/ ). Oxford, Clarendon Press. Reprint: New York, Paragon Book Reprint Corp. 1965. ISBN 0-486-21344-7

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Further reading
Swami Sahajanand Saraswati Rachnawali (Selected works of Swami Sahajanand Saraswati), Prakashan Sansthan, Delhi, 2003. Christopher Alan Bayly, Rulers, Townsmen, and Bazaars: North Indian Society in the Age of British Expansion, 1770-1870, Cambridge University Press, 1983. Anand A. Yang, Bazaar India: Markets, Society, and the Colonial State in Bihar, University of California Press, 1999. Acharya Hazari Prasad Dwivedi Rachnawali, Rajkamal Prakashan, Delhi. Swami Sahajanand and the Peasants of Jharkhand: A View from 1941 translated and edited by Walter Hauser along with the unedited Hindi original (Manohar Publishers, paperback, 2005). Sahajanand on Agricultural Labour and the Rural Poor translated and edited by Walter Hauser (Manohar Publishers, paperback, 2005). Religion, Politics, and the Peasants: A Memoir of India's Freedom Movement translated and edited by Walter Hauser (Manohar Publishers, hardbound, 2003).

Bihar Pandit Yadunandan (Jadunandan) Sharma, 1947, Bakasht Mahamari Aur Uska Achook Ilaaz (Bakasht Epidemic and its Infalliable Remedy) in Hindi, Allahabad. Indradeep Sinha, 1969, Sathi ke Kisanon ka Aitihasic Sangharsha (Historic Struggle of Sathi Peasants), in Hindi, Patna. Indradeep Sinha, Real face of JP's total revolution, Communist Party of India (1974). Indradeep Sinha, Some features of current agrarian situation in India, All India Kisan Sabha, (1987). Indradeep Sinha, The changing agrarian scene: Problems and tasks, Peoples Publishing House (1980). Indradeep Sinha, Some questions concerning Marxism and the peasantry, Communist Party of India (1982). Nand Kishore Shukla, The Trial of Baikunth Sukul: A Revolutionary Patriot, Har-Anand, 1999, 403 pages, ISBN 81-241-0143-4. Shramikon Ke Hitaishi Neta, Itihas Purush: Basawon Singh published by the Bihar Hindi Granth Academy (1st Edition, April 2000). Ramchandra Prasad, Ashok Kumar Sinha, Sri Krishna Singh in Adhunik Bharat ke Nirmata Series, Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. Walter Hauser, 1961, Peasant Organisation in India: A Case Study of the Bihar Kisan Sabha, 1929-1942, PhD Thesis, University of Chicago, (Forthcoming publication). Rai, Algu, 1946, A Move for the Formation of an All-Indian Organisation for the Kisans, Azamgrah. N. G. Ranga, 1949, Revolutionary Peasants, New Delhi. N. G. Ranga, 1968, Fight For Freedom, New Delhi. Mahapandit Rahul Sankrityayan, 1943, Naye Bharet ke Naye Neta (New Leaders of New India), in Hindi, Allahabad. Mahapandit Rahul Sankrityayan, 1957, Dimagi Gulami (Mental Slavery), in Hindi, Allahabad. Manmath Nath Gupta, Apane samaya ka surya Dinkar, Alekha Prakasana (1981). Khagendra Thakur, Ramdhari Singh Dinkar: Vyaktitva aur Krititva, Publications Division, 2008 Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. Vijendra Narayan Singh, Bharatiya Sahitya ke Nirmata: Ramdhari Singh 'Dinkar, Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi, 2005, ISBN 81-260-2142-X. Kumar Vimal, Ramdhari Singh Dinkar Rachna Sanchayan, Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi, 2008, ISBN 978-81-260-2627-2. Mishra Shree Govind, History Of Bihar 1740-1772 (http://books.google.com/books?id=-tO1AAAAIAAJ& q=History+Of+Bihar+1740-1772&dq=History+Of+Bihar+1740-1772&pgis=1), Munshiram Manoharlal, 1970 Verma B S, Socio-religious Economic And Literary Condition Of Bihar (From ca. 319 A.D. to 1000 A.D.) (http:// books.google.com/books?id=0ZVtGQAACAAJ&dq=Socio-religious+Economic+And+Literary+Condition+ Of+Bihar), Munshiram Manoharlal, 1962 Maitra A , Magahi Culture (http://books.google.com/books?id=d5ceAAAAMAAJ&q=History+Of+ Magadh&dq=History+Of+Magadh&pgis=1), Cosmo Publications, New Delhi, 1983 Naipaul V S, India: A Wounded Civilization, Picador, 1977 Trevithick Alan, The Revival Of Buddhist Pilgrimage At Bodh Gaya (18111949): Anagarika Dharmapala And The Mahabodhi Temple Jannuzi F. Tomasson, Agrarian Crisis In India: The Case Of Bihar (http://books.google.com/ books?id=tTSFAAAAIAAJ&q=Agrarian+Crisis+in+India:+the+Case+of+Bihar&dq=Agrarian+Crisis+in+ India:+the+Case+of+Bihar&pgis=1), University of Texas Press, 1974, ISBN 0-292-76414-6, 9780292764149 Omalley L S S, History Of Magadh, Veena Publication, 2005, ISBN 81-89224-01-8 Shukla Prabhat Kumar, Indigo And The Raj: Peasant Protests In Bihar 1780-1917 (http://books.google.com/ books?id=AooQAgAACAAJ&dq=Indigo+And+The+Raj:+Peasant+Protests+In+Bihar+1780-1917), Pragati Publications, 1993, ISBN 81-7307-004-0

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Bihar Ahmad Qeyamuddin, Patna Through The Ages: Glimpses of History, Society & Economy (http://books.google. com/books?id=W_J-HgAACAAJ&dq=Patna+Through+The+Ages), Commonwealth Publishers, 1988 Jain B D, Ardha Magadhi Reader, Sri Satguru Publications, Lahore, 1923 Crindle John W Mc, Ancient India As Described By Ptolemy (http://books.google.com/ books?id=A3UIAAAAQAAJ&q=Ancient+India+As+Described+By+Ptolemy&dq=Ancient+India+As+ Described+By+Ptolemy&pgis=1), Munshiram Manoharlal, 1927, ISBN 81-215-0945-9 Patra C, Life In Ancient India: As Depicted In The Digha Nikaya, Punthi Pustak, 1996, ISBN 81-85094-93-4 Hazra Kanai Lal, Buddhism In India As Described By The Chinese Pilgrims AD 399-689, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1983, ISBN 81-215-0132-6 Mccrindle John W, Ancient India As Described By Megasthenes And Arrian, Munshiram Manoharlal Sastry Harprasad, Magadhan Literature, Sri Satguru Publications, Calcutta, 1923 Rai Alok, Hindi Nationalism, Orient Longman, 2000, ISBN 81-250-1979-0 Waddell Austine L., Report On The Excavations At Pataliputra (Patna) - The Palibothra Of The Greeks, Asian Publicational Services, Calcutta, 1903 Das Arvind N., The State of Bihar: an economic history without footnotes, Amsterdam: VU University Press, 1992 Brass Paul R., The politics of India since Independence, Cambridge University Press, 1990 Askari S. H., Mediaeval Bihar: Sultante and Mughal Period, Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Public Library, Patna, 1990 Tayler William, Three Months at Patna during the Insurrection of 1857, Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Public Library, Patna, 2007 Taylor P.J.O., "What really happened during the during the Mutiny: A day by day account of the major events of 1857-1859 in India", Oxford University Press, 1997, ISBN 0-19-564182-5 Pathak Prabhu Nath, Society and Culture in Early Bihar (C.A.D. 200 - 600) (http://books.google.com/ books?id=sUMdAAAAIAAJ&q=Socio-religious+Economic+And+Literary+Condition+Of+Bihar& dq=Socio-religious+Economic+And+Literary+Condition+Of+Bihar&pgis=1), Commonwealth Publishers, 1988 Basham A. L., The Wonder that was India, Picador, 1954, ISBN 0-330-43909-X Nambisan Vijay, Bihar in the eye of the beholder, Penguin Books, 2000, ISBN 978-0-14-029449-1 Pathak Mohan, Flood plains and Agricultural occupance, Deep & Deep Publication, 1991, ISBN 81-7100-289-7 D'Souza Rohan, Drowned and Dammed:Colonial Capitalism and Flood Control in Eastern India, Oxford University Press, 2006, Jagannath Sarkar, MANY STREAMS, Selected Essays by jagannath Sarkar & Reminiscing Sketches Compiled by Gautam Sarkar, Edited by Mitali Sarkar, Published by Gautam Sarkar on behalf of Jagannath Sarkar Felicitation Committee, Bangalore, 2010

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External links
bihargatha (http://www.bihargatha.in) Official website (http://www.biharonline.gov.in/) Profile at the Government of India website (http://goidirectory.nic.in/bihar.htm) Bihar CM official website (http://cm.bih.nic.in/default.htm) Bihar Community Portal (http://www.youbihar.com/) Bihar travel guide from Wikitravel

little known facts of Bihar (http://http;//www.bihargatha.in)

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Chhattisgarh
Chhattisgarh
State

Seal

Location of Chhattisgarh in India

Map of Chhattisgarh Coordinates (Raipur): 2116N 8136E Country Established Capital India 2000-11-01 Raipur

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Largest city Districts Government -Governor -ChiefMinister -Legislature Area -Total Area rank Population (2011) -Total -Rank -Density Time zone ISO 3166 code HDI HDI rank Literacy Official languages Website 25540196 17th 188.9/km2(489.3/sqmi) IST (UTC+05:30) IN-CT 0.516 (medium) 23rd (2005) 64.7% (23rd) Hindi, Chhattisgarhi chhattisgarh.nic.in [1] 135194km2(52198.7sqmi) 10th Shekhar Dutt Raman Singh Unicameral (90 seats) Raipur 18

Chhattisgarh (Chhattisgarhi/Hindi: , pronounced[tttis] ( listen)) is a state in central India, formed when the 16 Chhattisgarhi-speaking southeastern districts of Madhya Pradesh gained statehood on 1 November 2000. Raipur serves as its capital. It is the 10th-largest state in India by area of 52,199 sqmi (135,194km). Chhattisgarh borders Madhya Pradesh on the northwest, Maharashtra on the west, Andhra Pradesh on the south, Orissa on the east, Jharkhand on the northeast and Uttar Pradesh on the north. The Chhattisgarhi language, a dialect of eastern Hindi, is a predominant language in the state, recognized along with Hindi as the official language of the state. Many tribal and some Dravidian influenced dialects or languages are spoken in various parts of Chhattisgarh.

Etymology
Chhattisgarh takes its name from 36 princely states that constitute this region (chhattis means "36", and garh means "fort"). They are : 1- Ratanpur, 2- Vijaypur, 3- Kharound, 4- Maro, 5- Kautgarh, 6- Nawagarh, 7- Sondhi, 8- Aukhar, 9- Padarbhatta, 10- Semriya, 11- Champa, 12- Lafa, 13- Chhuri, 14- Kenda, 15- Matin, 16- Aparora, 17- Pendra, 18Kurkuti-kandri, 19- Raipur, 20- Patan, 21- Simaga, 22- Singarpur, 23- Lavan, 24- Omera, 25- Durg, 26- Saradha, 27Sirasa, 28- Menhadi, 29- Khallari, 30- Sirpur, 31- Figeswar, 32- Rajim, 33- Singhangarh, 34- Suvarmar, 35Tenganagarh and 36- Akaltara.

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Geography
The north and south parts of the state are hilly, while the central part is a fertile plain. Forests cover roughly 44% of the state. The north of the state lies on the edge of the great Indo-Gangetic plain: The Rihand River, a tributary of the Ganges, drains this area. The eastern end of the Satpura Range and the western edge of the Chota Nagpur Plateau form an east-west belt of hills that divide the Mahanadi River basin from the Indo-Gangetic plain. The central part of the state lies in the fertile upper basin of the Mahanadi and its tributaries, with extensive rice cultivation. The upper Mahanadi basin is separated from the upper Narmada basin to the west by the Maikal Hills, (part of the Satpuras), and from the plains of Orissa to the east by ranges of hills. The southern part of the state lies on the Deccan plateau, in the watershed of the Godavari River and its tributary the Indravati River. The Mahanadi is the chief river of the state. Other main rivers are Hasdo (a tributary of Mahanadi), Rihand, Indravati, Jonk and Arpa. It is situated in the east of Madhya Pradesh.

History
Chhattisgarh, carved out of Madhya Pradesh, came into being on 1 November 2000 as the 26th State of India. It fulfills the long-cherished demand of the people. In ancient times this region was known as Dakshin-Kausal. This finds mention in Ramayana and Mahabharata also. Between the sixth and twelfth centuries Sarabhpurias, Panduavanshi, Somvanshi, Kalchuri and Nagvanshi rulers dominated this region. Kalchuris ruled in Chhattisgarh from 980 to 1741 AD. Chhattisgarh was under Maratha rule (Bhonsales of Nagpur) from 1741 to 1845 AD. It came under British rule from 1845 to 1947. With the advent of the British in 1845, Raipur gained prominence instead of capital Ratanpur. In 1905 Sambalpur district was transferred to Orissa and estates of Sarguja were transferred from Bengal to Chhattisgarh.

Subdivisions
Districts
Chattisgarh state consists 18 districts:[2] [3] [4] [5] Bastar Bijapur Bilaspur Dantewada(South Bastar) Dhamtari Durg Janjgir-Champa Jashpur Kanker(North Bastar) Kabirdham(Kawardha) Korba Koriya(Korea) Mahasamund Narayanpur Raigarh Raipur

Rajnandgaon Surguja

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Municipal Corporations
Ambikapur Bhilai Bilaspur Chirmiri Durg Jagdalpur Janjgir Korba Raigarh Raipur Rajnandgaon

Demographics
Chhattisgarh is primarily a rural state with only 20% of population residing in urban areas. According to the report from Government of India,[6] at least 96% of Chhattisgarh population is either Shudra or scheduled tribes [ST]: 34% are Scheduled Tribes, 12% are Scheduled Castes and over 50% belong to official list of Other Backward Castes. Plain area is numerically dominated by castes such as Teli, Satnami and Kurmi; while forest area is mainly occupied by tribes such as Gond, Halba and Kamar/ Bujia and Oraon.
Adivasi woman and child, Chhattisgarh.

Language
Official language of the state is Hindi and used by almost entire population of the state. Chhattisgarhi a dialect of Hindi language (or a language in its own right) is spoken and understood by the majority of people in Chhattisgarh. Chhattisgarhi was also known as "Khaltahi" to surrounding Hill-people and as "Laria" to Sambalpuri and Oriya speakers. In Koria, Surajpur, Surguja and Jashpur, it appears as "Surgujia" sub-dialect. In Bastar, Gondi and other Tribal languages are spoken. Other major languages spoken in Chhattisgarh are Sambalpuri, Marathi and Oriya.

Status of women
Chhattisgarh has a high female-male sex ratio (990) compared to the rest of India, second only to that of Kerala; in rural populations the ratio is 1004.[7] Although this ratio is comparable to small areas in other states, it is unique in India for the size of Chhattisharh (the 10th-largest state in India and much larger than Tamil Nadu). Probably, such social composition also results in some customs and cultural practices that seem unique to Chhattisgarh: the regional variants are common in India's diverse cultural pattern. Rural women here, although poor, are more independent, hardy, better organized, more socially outspoken and command more power just like women in North-East India: so much so that they can choose and even end their marriage at will. Most of the old temples and shrines here are related to 'women power' (e.g., Shabari, Mahamaya, Danteshwari) and existence of these temples gives insight into historical and current social fabric of this state. Both women and men here generally marry at a young age, as is and was customary in most of India and the world before urbanized society. One study found that women aged 20 to 49 years had married at median age of 15.4 years, and 34% of girls aged 15 to 19 years are already married (according to Government).

Chhattisgarh There is widespread belief in witchcraft in Chhattisgarh. Women are believed to have access to supernatural forces, and accused of being witches (tonhi) often to settle personal scores. They are barbarically persecuted, particularly older women, widows, women with deformities or with abnormal facial features. As of 2010, they are still hounded out of villages on the basis of flimsy accusations by male village sorcerers paid to do so by villagers with personal agendas, such as property and goods acquisition. According to National Geographic Channels investigations, those accused are fortunate if they are only verbally bullied and shunned or exiled from their village. Humiliations are commonplace, such as being forced to eat human excreta and in recent years, 2,500 women accused of witchcraft were murdered by stoning, hanging and beheading by neighbours. The police and judicial authorities have done very little to protect women in this regard, and show only mild interest in bringing such persecution to an end. Today, with increasing contact with mainstream India, many of the cultural concomitants of female subservience common to mainstream India have started creeping in Chhattisgarh. The gender ratio (number females per 1000 males) has been steadily declining over the century in Chhattisgarh: 1046 in year 1901, 1032 in 1941, 996 in 1981 and 990 in 2001; but is better than the ratio for India overall: 972 in 1901, 945 in 1941, 934 in 1981 and 933 in 2001. Detailed information on various aspects of women status in Chhattisgarh can be found in the linked 103 page report [8] titled 'A situational analysis of women and girls in Chhattisgarh' prepared in 2004 by 'National Commission of Women', a statutory body belonging to government of India.

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Culture
The state hosts religious sects including "Satnami Panth", Kabirpanth, Ramnami Samaj, and others. Champaran (Chhattisgarh) is a small town with religious significance as the birth place of the Saint Vallabhacharya, increasingly important as a pilgrimage site for the Gujarati community. The Oriya culture is prominent in the eastern parts of Chhattisgarh bordering Orissa.

Crafts

Chattisgarh is known for "Kosa silk" and "lost wax art". Besides saris and salwar suits, the fabric is used to create lehengas, stoles, shawls and menswear including jackets, shirts, achkans and sherwanis.in Lost wax metal,International Sculptor Sushil Sakhuja's Dhokra Nandi is famous and available at Govt's SHABARI handicrafts emporium, Raipur.

A village cart usually pulled by a pair of water-buffalos and used for rural transport, from central Chhattisgarh

Dance
Panthi, Raut Nacha "Karma" and Soowa dance styles are popular in the region. Raut Nacha, the folk dance of cowherds, is a traditional folk dance of yadavs/yaduvanshis as symbol of worship to Krishna at the time of 'dev udhni ekadashi' (the awakening of the gods after a brief rest) according to the Hindu calendar. The dance closely resembles Krishna's dance with the gopis (milkmaids).

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Panthi, the folk dance of the Satnami community has religious overtones. Panthi is performed on Maghi Purnima, the anniversary of the birth of Guru Ghasidas. The dancers dance around a jaitkhamb set up for the occasion, to songs eulogizing their spiritual head. The songs reflect a view of Nirvana, conveying the spirit of their guru's renunciation and the teachings of saint poets like Kabir, Ramdas and Dadu. Dancers with bent torsos and swinging arms dance, carried away by their devotion. As the rhythm quickens, they perform acrobatics and form human pyramids.

A carving in 10th or 11th century Hindu temple of Malhar village. This area, 40 km from Bilaspur, was supposedly a major Buddhist center in ancient times.

Music
Chhattisgarh has rich traditional folk songs among which sohar, bihav & Pathoni songs are famous. Sohar songs are related to child birth. Bihav songs are related to marriage celebration. The main parts of Bihav songs are Chulmati, Telmati, Maymouri, Nahdouri, Parghani, Bhadoni and other songs related to Bhanver, Vidai songs. Pathoni songs are related to Gouna that is, the departure of a bride to the bridegroom's home. Pandavani is a well-known ballad musical narrative, essentially based on the stories in the epic Mahabharata, but with Bhima as hero. Teejan Bai is the internationally acclaimed Pandavani artist, who was awarded Padma Bhushan in 2003 for her contribution to Pandavani. "Ritu Verma" is also well known .[9]

Theatre
Theater is known as Gammat in Chhattisgarh. Pandavani is one of the lyrical forms of this theater. Several acclaimed plays of Habib Tanvir, such as Charandas Chor, are variations of Chhattisgarhi theater, and heavily use Chhatttisgarhi folk songs and music.

Traditional Food
The State of Chhattisgarh is known as rice bowl of India and follows a rich tradition of food culture .The Food preparation falls in different categories . Most of the traditional and tribe foods are made by rice and rice flour , curd(number of veg kadis) and variety of leaves like lal bhaji,chech bhaji ,kohda , bohar bhaji. Badi and Bijori are optional food categories also Gulgula ,pidiya ,dhoodh fara,balooshahi ,khurmi falls in sweet categories .

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Religion
Religion in Chhattisgarh Religion Hinduism Others Percent 96% 4%

Over 95% of the population of the state are Hindus. Several saints have their origin in Chattisgarh, including "Parsurama Ramnami" and Vallabha Acharya. Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, a noted Hindu leader and founder of the Transcendental Meditation was from Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh). There is a significant minority of Christians among several tribal groups in Chattisgarh, though there are few reliable statistics on their exact numbers.

Economy
Chhattisgarh's gross state domestic product for 2004 is estimated at 12 billion USD in current prices. After partition, this mineral-rich state produces 30% of the output of the old Madhya Pradesh state. The state's economy is further fuelled by the presence of Bhilai Steel Plant, SEC Railway Zone, BALCO Aluminium Plant (Korba), and National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) at Korba and Sipat (Bilaspur) and "South Eastern Coal Fields Limited" (SECL). Korba & Bilaspur are the power hubs of the state, from where electricity is supplied to several other Indian states. Chhattisgarh's southern area contains iron ore which NMDC is mining to meet iron demand in India as well as export. NMDC is located in Dantewara district. Recently ESSAR has started transporting iron ore through pipe lines to Vizag. Recently, three new power plant were proposed in Bhaiyathan and Premnagar of Surajpur District. Many private companies individually and together with the Chhattisgarh government have signed memorandum for installation of power plants. The state is also launching an ambitious plan to become biofuel self-sufficient by 2015 by planting crops of jatropha. The economy of Chhattisgarh has grown rapidly in recent years: GDP grew 7.35% from 2004-05 to 2008-09. More than 80% of the population depends on agriculture, and 43% of the land is cultivated. The main crops are paddy, wheat, maize, groundnut, pulses and oilseeds. Chhattisgarh is also called the "rice bowl of India". It has very good irrigation systems, with dams and canals on various rivers. Forests occupy 41.33% of the area (as per the latest report by the Indian Forest Service) and there are rich forest resources including wood, tandu leaves, honey and lac. Chhattisgarh is also rich in minerals. It produces 20% of the country's steel and cement. Iron-ore, limestone, dolomite, coal, bauxite are abundant. It is the only tin-ore producing state in the country. Other minerals include korandum, garnet, quartz, marble and diamonds. Industry is significant part of state's economy. State-owned industries include Bhilai Steel Plant and NTPC. Big private companies include Balco (sterlite industry), Lafarge and Jindal steel.

Issues of development and insurgency

Chhattisgarh State is rich in unused timber and mineral resources. There are disagreements between local indigenous peoples and the national government over the use of these resources. Also, an ongoing insurgency between Maoists and the central Government of India has produced much bloodshed. The controversy surrounding the arrest of Dr Binayak Sen is related to the insurgency. Maoist insurgency has been main source of instability, recently they ambushed to kill 40 policemen.

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Transport
The rail network in Chhattisgarh is centered around Bilaspur, which is zonal headquarters of South East Central Railway of Indian Railways. The other main railway junction is Raipur, followed by Durg Junction which is also a starting point of many long distance trains. These three junctions are well-connected to the major cities of India. The roadways infrastructure is also slowly picking up in the state. The National Highway 6 (Mumbai to Kolkata) passes through the state. The state also hosts National Highway 43 which starts from Raipur and goes up to Vishakhapatnam. National Highway 16 from Hyderabad ends at Bhopalpatnam in Dantewada district. National Highway 78 From Katni (MP) ends at Gumla (Jharkhand) pass through Koria, Surajpur, Sarguja, Jashpur District. The state has 11 National Highways (2,225 kilometres). The air infrastructure is minor. The sole commercially operating airport is in Raipur, the capital city. Of late, Raipur has shown low upsurge in passenger traffic. Raipur has links to top cities of the country i.e. Delhi (5 flights per day), Bombay (2 flight), Kolkata (2), Bhopal (2), Indore (2). It is also connected to Jaipur (1 flight a day), Nagpur (2 flights), Bhubaneshwar, Ahmedabad (2), Gwalior, Vizag , Hyderabad (2) and Bangalore(1).

Airports
Raipur Airport Bilaspur Airport Jagdalpur Airport

Other Airstrips
Nandini Airport, Bhilai Chakarbhata Airstrip,Bilaspur Baikunth Airstrip, Baikunth Kondatarai Airstrip, Raigarh JSPLs Airstrip, Raigarh Darima Airstrip, Ambikapur Korba Airstrip, Korba Agdih Airstrip, Jashpur Dondi Airstrip, Dondi, Durg

Some New airstrips have been proposed for more connectivity: Kanker Kabirdham Surajpur Dantewada Bijapur Korba Balrampur Rajnandgaon Raigarh

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Tourism
Chhattisgarh, situated in the heart of India, is endowed with a rich cultural heritage and attractive natural diversity. The State is full of ancient monuments, rare wildlife, exquisitely carved temples, Buddhist sites, palaces, water Panoramic View of Chitrakot Falls, Jagdalpur, Kudargarh Temple, Surajpur, Chhattisgarh falls, caves, rock paintings and hill plateaus. Most of these sites are untouched and unexplored, and offer a unique and alternate experience to tourists, compared to traditional destinations which have become overcrowded. For tourists who are tired of the crowds at major destinations will like the Bastar district, with its unique cultural and ecological identity. The Green State of Chhattisgarh has 41.33% of its area under forests, and is one of the richest bio-diversity areas in the country. Waterfalls Beautiful waterfalls in Chhattisgarh are Akuri Nala, Amrit Dhara waterfall, Gavar Ghat waterfall, Ramdaha waterfall in Koriya district, Tiger point waterfall at Mainpat in Sarguja district and Chitrakot waterfall, Tirathgarh waterfall in Bastar district. Hot spring A hot spring flows at Tata pani in Sarguja district. Caves Gadiya mountain in Kanker district, Kutumsar cave and Kailash Gufa in Bastar district , Ramgarh and Sita Bengra in Sarguja district and Singhanpur cave in Raigarh district with pre-historic paintings are very famous. National parks and Wildlife sanctuary Achanakmar wildlife sanctuary in Bilaspur district, Gamarda Reserve forest at Sarangarh in Raigarh district, Indravati National Park and Kanger valley national park in Bastar district and Barnawapara Wildlife Sanctuary in Mahasamund district are good places for eco-tourism. Archaeological sites Archaeological sites worth seeing are Barsoor in Dantewada district, Malhar and Ratanpur in Bilaspur district, Sirpur in Mahasamund district and Surguja in Surguja district. Temples Famous and ancient temples in Chhattisgarh are Bhoramdeo temple near kawardha in Kabirdham district, Rajivlochan temple at Rajim and Champaran in Raipur district, Chandrahasini Devi temple at Chandrapur, Vishnu temple at Janjgir, Damudhara (Rishab Tirth) and Sivarinarayana Laxminarayana temple in Janjgir-Champa district, Bambleshwari Temple at Dongrigarh in Rajnandgaon district, Danteshwari Temple in Dantewada district, Deorani-Jethani temple at Tala gram and Mahamaya temple at Ratanpur in Bilaspur district, Laxman temple at Sirpur in Mahasamund district, Uwasaggaharam Parshwa Teerth at Nagpura in Durg district, Pali with Lord Shiva temple and Kharod with Lakshmaneswar temple. Giraudhpuri, a religious place for the Satnamis. They are the follower of Satnam Panth. Sirpur is proposed world heritage site and Malhar, are of historical significance, as they were visited by 'Xuanzang', the Chinese historian. Dams -- Khudiya dam, Lormi & Khutaghat dam, Ratanpur.

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Education
In 1948, the first Government Science college was established as an intermediate college. In 1956, it was upgraded to the Post-graduate Science College status. In the same year "Government Engineering College" was established at Raipur, which was upgraded and renamed in 2006 as National Institute of Technology, Raipur. The Sanskrit College was also founded then. The area in Raipur that until early 1960s belonged to the University of Saugor, was given to the Pandit Ravishankar Shukla University when it was established by Mr. Babu Ram Saxena, a linguist, and the first vice chancellor of the university. Government VYTPG Autonomous College, Durg is the only college in Chhattisgarh which is declared by UGC, New Delhi as 'College with Potential for Excellence' in 2006. In 1956, the Ayurvedic School was upgraded to the status of a full college, until then it was awarding diploma and licenses for Ayurvedic Practice. Government High School, St Paul's High School and Madhav Rao Sapre High schools were the leading schools until the 1960s. Medical College, ranked 4th in Madhya Pradesh, was founded in 1962-1963. Educational institutions set up by the state government are the prevalent education providers in the state from elementary schools to degree colleges. In these institutions and schools (other than Engineering and Medical colleges) the dominant medium of education is Hindi.

Universities
Chhattisgarh has following government recognized universities: Guru Ghasidas Central University, Bilaspur Pandit Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur Surguja University, Ambikapur, Surguja Hidayatullah National Law University, Raipur Indira Gandhi Agricultural University, Raipur Indira Kala Sangeet University, Khairagarh Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University, Bhilai Kushabhau Thakre Patrakarita Awam Jansanchar University (KTUJM), Raipur Pt. Sundar lal Sharma Open University, Bilaspur Maharishi University of Management and Technology, Bilaspur

Engineering colleges
The renowned engineering colleges in the state are: National Institute of Technology, Raipur Government Engineering College, Raipur Government Engineering College, Bilaspur Government Engineering College, Jagdalpur, Bastar Bhilai Institute of Technology, Durg Kirodimal Institute of Technology, Raigarh Rungta College of Engineering and Technology, Bhilai Chhatrapati Shivaji Institute of Technology, Durg MP Christian college of Engg. and Technology, Bhilai Shri Shankaracharya College of Engineering and Technology, Bhilai O.P.Jindal Institute of Technology, Raigarh RAIPUR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Chhattisgarh Institute of Technology, Rajnandgaon Disha Institute of Managemnet & Technology, Raipur

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Medical colleges
The Institutes teaching Allopathic system of medicine includes Chhattisgarh Institute of Medical Sciences And Associated Sardar Patel Hospital, Bilaspur Government Medical College, Jagdalpur Pt. JNM Medical college And Associated Ambedkar Hospital, Raipur Most of the colleges in the state are affiliated to one of the Universities mentioned above. Chhattisgarh is having only one veterinary college situated at "Anjora" ln the district of Durg, affiliated with "Indira Gandhi Agriculture University", Raipur. The Union Cabinet on 28 August 2009 approved a proposal to set up an "Indian Institutes of Management" (IIM) at Raipur. The inauguration of the first batch of Post Graduate Programme of IIM, Raipur [10] was held on 11 October 2010 in the presence of major officials from the Chhattisgarh government including the Chief Minister Dr Raman Singh. Chhattisgarh also got an "All India Institute of Medical Sciences" (AIIMS), it will start within two years. Chhattisgarh has given a wonderful author, motivational trainer and educationist Ujjwal Patni who has written 6 Books in 12 languages on leadership, motivation and network marketing.His books are also a part of syllabus of various engineering and management colleges.

Notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] http:/ / www. chhattisgarh. nic. in "Electoral rolls" (http:/ / cg. nic. in/ voterlist/ index. htm). Office of the Chief Electoral Officer, Chhatisgarh. . Chhattisgarh at a glance-2002 (http:/ / www. chhattisgarh. nic. in/ statistics/ details. pdf) Govt. of Chhattisgarh ofiicial website. List of Chhattisgarh District Centres (http:/ / cg. nic. in/ addr_dic. php) at NIC, Chhatisgarh official Portal Mathew, K.M. (ed.). Manorama Yearbook 2008, Kottayam: Malayala Manorama, ISSN 0542-5778, p.518 "NCW Report, page 4" (http:/ / ncw. nic. in/ pdfreports/ Gender Profile-Chhattisgarh. pdf). National Commission of Women, Government of India. . Retrieved 2010-08-22. [7] Ilina, Sen. "A Situational Analysis of Women and Girls in Chhattisgarh" (http:/ / ncw. nic. in/ pdfreports/ Gender Profile-Chhattisgarh. pdf). National Commission for Women, New Delhi. . Retrieved 26 November 2010. [8] http:/ / ncw. nic. in/ pdfreports/ Gender%20Profile-Chhattisgarh. pdf [9] Pandavani (http:/ / deepblueink. com/ writing/ profiles/ pandavani. htm) [10] http:/ / www. iimraipur. ac. in/ (http:/ / www. iimraipur. ac. in)

References
Books on Chhattisgarh Deshbandhu Publication Division, " " Deshbandhu Publication Division, " " Deshbandhu Publication Division, "Chhattisgarh: Beautiful & Bountiful (Study in Biodiversity of Chhattisgarh)" Ramesh Dewangan & Sunil Tuteja, "Chhattisgarh Samagra" C.K. Chandrakar, "Chhattisgarhi Shabadkosh" .... C.K. Chandrakar, "Manak Chhattisgarhi Vyakaran" C.K. Chandrakar, "Chhattisgarhi Muhawara Kosh" Lawrence Babb, "The Divine Hierarchy: Popular Hinduism in Central India" Saurabh Dube, "Untouchable Pasts: Religion, Identity and Power among a Central Indian Community, 1780-1950" (on the Satnamis) Ramdas Lamb, "Rapt in the Name: Ramnamis, Ramnam and Untouchable Religion in Central India" Chad Bauman, "Identifying the Satnam: Hindu Satnamis, Indian Christians, and Dalit Religion in Colonial Chhattisgarh, India (18681947) (Ph.D. dissertation, Princeton Theological Seminary, 2005)

Chhattisgarh Books by Indologist Prof H. L. Shukla : "List of books by Prof H. L. Shukla" (http://www.dkagencies.com/doc/from/1023/to/21330/Author/ Shukla, H.L.(Hira Lal), 1939-/Books-By-Indian-Author.html) "Chhattisgarh Rediscoverd" on oral history of the state (https://www.vedamsbooks.com/no10609.htm), and "History of the People of Bastar" (http://bagchee.com/BookDisplay.aspx?Bkid=B8147) Folktales of Chhattisgarh (http://www.cgnet.in/Cult/folktales/index_html) "Tribal History of Central India" (https://www.vedamsbooks.com/no28592.htm) by R.K. Sharma and S.K. Tiwari, Other link (http://bagchee.com/BookDisplay.aspx?Bkid=B14673) (https://www.dimatindia.com)

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External links
Folk Song & Ballad of Chhattisgarh (http://cgsongs.wordpress.com/) Chhattisgarh Web Directory (http://www.chhattisgarhdirectory.com/) Chhattisgarh Classified & Online Directory (http://www.superlist.in/) Chhattisgarh Web Portal (http://www.helloraipur.com) Chhattisgarh Post (http://www.chhattisgarhpost.com) Tourism Website of Chhattisgarh (http://www.chhattisgarhtourism.net/) Chhattisgarh News Video (http://www.chhattisgarhnews.info) Chhattisgarh travel guide from Wikitravel Chhattisgarhi Film Music (http://www.helloraipur.com/listen.php) Chhattisgarhi Recipes/Food/Cuisine (http://chhattisgarh-recipes.jsbcom.com)

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Goa
Goa
State

Seal

Location of Goa in India

Map of Goa Coordinates (Panaji): 153347N 734905E Country Established India 30 May 1987

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Capital Largest city Districts Government -Governor -ChiefMinister -Legislature Area -Total Area rank Population (2011) -Total -Rank -Density Time zone ISO 3166 code HDI HDI rank Literacy Official languages Website 1457723 25th 393.8/km2(1019.9/sqmi) IST (UTC+05:30) IN-GA 0.779 (medium) 3rd (2005) 87% (3rd) Konkani goagovt.nic.in [1] 3702km2(1429.4sqmi) 28th Shivinder Singh Sidhu Digambar Kamat Unicameral (40 seats) Panaji Vasco da Gama 2

Konkani languageKonkani is the sole official language but Marathi languageMarathi is also allowed to be used for any or all official purposes. "Goa". Commissioner Linguistic Minorities, 42nd Report, July 2003 to June 2004. National Commissioner Linguistic Minorities. . Retrieved 17 July 2007. "Konkani is the official language of the state. There actually is no second official language. However, as per notification, Marathi will be used for the purpose of reply by the Government whenever communications are received in that language. In the Official Language Act, it is provided that "the Marathi, shall also be used for all or any of the official purposes". Further it is provided that "nothing contained in this sub section shall be deemed to affect the use of the Marathi language in educational, social or cultural fields"."UNI (30 May 2007). "Marathi vs Konkani debate continues in Goa". rediff.com (Rediff.com India Limited). . Retrieved 17 July 2007.

Goa ( /Goa.oggo./; Konkani: ) is India's smallest state by area and the fourth smallest by population. Located in South West India in the region known as the Konkan, it is bounded by the state of Maharashtra to the north, and by Karnataka to the east and south, while the Arabian Sea forms its western coast. Goa is India's richest state with a GDP per capita two and a half times that of the country as a whole.[4] It was ranked the best placed state by the Eleventh Finance Commission for its infrastructure and ranked on top for the best quality of life in India by the National Commission on Population based on the 12 Indicators.[4] Panaji is the state's capital, while Vasco da Gama is the largest city. The historic city of Margao still exhibits the cultural influence of the Portuguese, who first landed in the early 16th century as merchants, and conquered it soon thereafter. The Portuguese overseas territory of Portuguese India existed for about 450 years, until it was annexed by India in 1961.[5] [6] Renowned for its beaches, places of worship and world heritage architecture, Goa is visited by large numbers of international and domestic tourists each year. It also has rich flora and fauna, owing to its location on the Western Ghats range, which is classified as a biodiversity hotspot.

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Etymology
The name Goa came to European languages from the Portuguese, but its precise origin is unclear. In ancient literature, Goa was known by many names such as Gomanta, Gomanchala, Gopakapattam, Gopakapuri, Govapuri, Govem, and Gomantak.[7] The Indian epic Mahabharata refers to the area now known as Goa, as Goparashtra or Govarashtra which means a nation of cowherds. Gopakapuri or Gopakapattanam were used in some ancient Sanskrit texts, and these names were also mentioned in other sacred Hindu texts such as the Harivansa and the Skanda Purana. In the latter, Goa is also known as Gomanchala. Parashurambhoomi is a name that the region is referred to in certain inscriptions and texts such as the Puranas.[8] In the third century BCE, Goa was known as Aparantha, and is mentioned by the Greek geographer Ptolemy. The Greeks referred to Goa as Nelkinda in the 13th century. Some other historical names for Goa are Sindapur, Sandabur, and Mahassapatam.[9]

History
Goa's history stretches back to 8000-6000 BC. Early Paleolithic and Mesolithic rock art engravings have been found on the bank of river Kushavati at Usgalimal.[10] Petroglyphs,cones,stone-axe,choppers dating back 10,000 years back have been found in many places in Goa like Kazur,Mauxim and the Mandovi-Zuari basin.[11] Palaeolithic cave existence is seen at Dabolim, Adkon, Shigao, Fatorpa, Arli, Maulinguinim, Diwar, Sanguem, Pilerne, Aquem-Margaon etc. Difficulty in carbon dating the laterite rock compounds poses problems in determination of exact time period.[12] These discoveries have shed light on Goa's prehistory.

Rock cut engraving at Usgalimal

The Sumerians inhabited Goa around 2200 BC which was followed by several waves of Indo-Aryan people and the Dravidians from the Deccan. The early Goan society underwent radical changes when aboriginal locals and the migrants amalgamated, forming the base of early Goan culture.[13] In 3rd century BC, it formed part of the Mauryan Empire, ruled by the Buddhist emperor, Ashoka of Magadha. Buddhist Gold coins issued by the Kadamba king of Goa, Shivachitta Paramadideva. Circa 1147-1187 AD. monks laid the foundation of Buddhism in Goa. Between the 2nd century BCE and the 6th century CE, Goa was ruled by the Chutus of Karwar as feudatories of the Satavahanas of Kolhapur (2nd century BCE to the 2nd century CE), Western Kshatrapas (around 150 CE), the Abhiras of Western Maharashtra, Bhojas of the Yadav clans of Gujarat, and the Konkan Mauryas as feudatories of the Kalachuris.[14] The rule later passed on to

Goa the Chalukyas of Badami, who controlled it between 578 to 753, and later the Rashtrakutas of Malkhed from 753 to 963. However from 765 to 1015, the Southern Silharas of Konkan ruled Goa as the feudatories of the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas.[15] Over the next few centuries, Goa was successively ruled by the Kadambas as the feudatories of the Chalukyas of Kalyani. They patronised Jainism in Goa.[16] In 1312, Goa came under the governance of the Delhi Sultanate. However, the kingdom's grip on the region was weak, and by 1370 they were forced to surrender it to Harihara I of the Vijayanagara empire. The Vijayanagara monarchs held on to the territory until 1469, when it was appropriated by the Bahmani sultans of Gulbarga. After that dynasty crumbled, the area fell to the hands of the Adil Shahis of Bijapur who established as their auxiliary capital the city known under the Portuguese as Velha Goa. In 1510, the Portuguese defeated the ruling Bijapur kings with the help of a local ally, Timayya, leading to the establishment of a permanent settlement in Velha Goa (or Old Goa). In 1843 the capital was moved to Panjim from Velha Goa. By the mid-18th century the area under occupation had expanded to most of Goa's present day state limits. Simultaneously the Portuguese lost other possessions in India until their borders stabilised and formed the Estado da India Portuguesa, of which Goa was the largest territory.
The S Cathedral at Old Goa, an example of Portuguese influence

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After India gained independence from the British in 1947, Portugal refused to negotiate with India on the transfer of sovereignty of their Indian enclaves. On 12 December 1961, the Indian Army commenced with Operation Vijay resulting in the annexation of Goa, Daman and Diu into the Indian union. Goa, along with Daman and Diu was made into a centrally administered Union Territory of India. On 30 May 1987, the Union Territory was split, and Goa was made India's twenty-fifth state, with Daman and Diu remaining Union Territories.

Geography and climate

Coat of Arms of Goa as a Portuguese colony 19351961

Geography
Goa encompasses an area of 3,702km (1,430sq mile). It lies between the latitudes 145354 N and 154000 N and longitudes 734033 E and 742013 E. Most of Goa is a part of the coastal country known as the Konkan, which is an escarpment rising up to the Western Ghats range of mountains, which separate it from the Deccan Plateau. The highest point is the Sonsogor, with an altitude of 1,167meters (3,827feet). Goa has a coastline of 101km (63miles). Goa's main rivers are the Mandovi, the Zuari, the Terekhol, Chapora River and the Sal. The Mormugao harbour on the mouth of the River

Goa coastline

Goa Zuari is one of the best natural harbours in South Asia. The Zuari and the Mandovi are the lifelines of Goa, with their tributaries draining 69% of its geographic area. These rivers are some of the busiest rivers in India. Goa has more than forty estuarine, eight marine and about ninety riverine islands. The total navigable length of Goa's rivers is 253km (157miles). Goa has more than three hundred ancient tanks built during the rule of the Kadamba dynasty and over a hundred medicinal springs. Most of Goa's soil cover is made up of laterites which are rich in ferric aluminium oxides and reddish in colour. Further inland and along the riverbanks, the soil is mostly alluvial and loamy. The soil is rich in minerals and humus, thus conducive to plantation. Some of the oldest rocks in the Indian subcontinent are found in Goa between Molem and Anmod on Goa's border with Karnataka. The rocks are classified as Trondjemeitic Gneiss estimated to be 3,600 million years old, dated by the Rubidium isotope dating method. A specimen of the rock is exhibited in the Goa University.

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Climate
Goa features a tropical monsoon climate under the Koppen climate classification. Goa, being in the tropical zone and near the Arabian Sea, has a hot and humid climate for most of the year. The month of May is the hottest, seeing day temperatures of over 35 C (95 F) coupled with high humidity. The monsoon rains arrive by early June and provide a much needed respite from the heat. Most of Goa's annual rainfall is received through the monsoons which last till late September. Goa has a short winter season between mid-December and February. These months are marked by nights of around 21C (68F) and days of around 28C (84F) with moderate amounts of humidity. Further inland, due to altitudinal gradation, the nights are a few degrees cooler. During March 2008 Goa was lashed with heavy rain and strong winds. This was the first time in 29 years that Goa had seen rain during March.

Subdivisions
The state is divided into two districts: North Goa and South Goa. Panaji is the headquarters of the North Goa district and Margao of the south district. Each district is governed by a district collector, an administrator appointed by the Indian government. The districts are further divided into eleven talukas Talukas of North Goa are Bardez, Bicholim, Pernem, Ponda, Sattari and Tiswadi, the talukas of South Goa are Canacona, Mormugao, Quepem, Salcete and Sanguem. Headquarters of the respective talukas are Mapusa, Bicholim, Pernem, Ponda, Valpoy, Panjim, Chaudi, Vasco, Quepem, Margao and Sanguem. Goa's major cities include Mapusa, Margao, Mormugao, Panaji and Vasco . The region connecting the first four cities is considered a de facto conurbation, or a more or less continuous urban area.

Flora and fauna

Equatorial forest cover in Goa stands at 1424km2 (549.81sqmi),[7] most of which is owned by the government. Government owned forest is estimated at 1224.38km2 (472.74sqmi) whilst private is given as 200km2 (77.22sqmi). Most of the forests in the state are located in the interior eastern regions of the state. The Western Ghats, which form most of eastern Goa, have been internationally recognised as one of the biodiversity hotspots of the world. In the February 1999 issue of National Geographic Magazine, Goa was

Talukas of Goa. Talukas in purple shades belong to North Goa district, and orange denote South Goa.

Goa compared with the Amazon and Congo basins for its rich tropical biodiversity. Goa's wildlife sanctuaries boast of more than 1512 documented species of plants, over 275 species of birds, over 48 kinds of animals and over 60 genera of reptiles.[17] Rice is the main food crop with pulses, ragi and other food crops are also grown. Main cash crops are coconuts, cashewnuts, arecanuts, sugarcane and fruits like pineapples, mangos and bananas.[7] The State has a rich forest cover of more than 1,424km. Goa's state animal is the Gaur, the state bird is the Ruby Throated Yellow Bulbul, which is a variation of Black-crested Bulbul, and the state tree is the Asan. The important forests products are bamboo canes, Maratha barks, chillar barks and the bhirand. Coconut trees are ubiquitous and are present in almost all areas of Goa barring the elevated regions. A large number of deciduous vegetation consisting of teak, sal, cashew and mango trees are present. Fruits include jackfruits, mangos, pineapples and 'black-berry' ('podkoam' in konkani). Goa's forests are rich with medicinal plants. Foxes, wild boars and migrating birds are found in the jungles of Goa. The avifauna includes kingfishers, mynas and parrots. Numerous types Rice paddies are common in rural Goa. of fish are also caught off the coast of Goa and in its rivers. Crabs, lobsters, shrimps, jellyfish, oysters and catfish form some of the piscine catch. Goa also has a high snake population, which keeps the rodent population under control. Goa has many famous National Parks, including the renowned Salim Ali bird sanctuary. Other wildlife sanctuaries include the Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary, Molem Wildlife Sanctuary, Cotigao Wildlife Sanctuary, Madei Wildlife Sanctuary, Netravali Wildlife Sanctuary Mahaveer Wildlife Sanctuary and the Salim Ali Bird Sanctuary located on the island of Chorao. Goa has more than 33% of its geographic area under government forests (1224.38km) of which about 62% has been brought under Protected Areas (PA) of Wildlife Sanctuaries and National Park. Since there is a substantial area under private forests and a large tract under cashew, mango, coconut, etc. plantations, the total forest and tree cover constitutes 56.6% of the geographic area.

182

Economy
Gross State Domestic Product (in millions of Rupees) Year 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 3,980 6,550 12,570 33,190 76,980 GSDP
[18]

Goa

183 Goa's gross state domestic product for 2007 is estimated at $3 billion in current prices. Goa is one of India's richest states with the highest GDP per capita and two and a half times that of the country as a whole, and one of its fastest growth rates: 8.23% (yearly average 19902000).[19] Tourism is Goa's primary industry: it handles 12%[20] of all foreign tourist arrivals in India. Goa has two main tourist seasons: winter and summer. In the winter time, tourists from abroad (mainly Europe) come to Goa to enjoy the climate. In the summer time (which, in Goa, is the rainy season), tourists from across India come to spend the holidays. The land away from the coast is rich in minerals and ores and mining forms the second largest industry. Mining in Goa focuses on ores of iron, Bauxite, manganese, clays, limestone and silica. The Marmagao Port handled 31.69 million tonnes of cargo last year, and accounts for over 39% of India's Iron Ore exports. The leaders in the Goan Iron Ore industry include Sesa Goa (now owned by Vedanta Resources) and Dempo. Rampant mining in areas rich in Iron Ore and other minerals is now threatening the forest cover as well as posing a health hazard to the local population. Mining corporations are also indulging in illegal mining in some areas without proper permits.

Train carrying iron ore to Marmagao Port, Vasco

Commercial area in Panjim.

Agriculture, while of shrinking importance to the economy over the past four decades, offers part-time employment to a sizable portion of the populace. Rice is the main agricultural crop, followed by areca, cashew and coconut. The fishing industry provides employment for about forty thousand people, though recent official figures indicate a decline of the importance of this sector and also a fall in catch, perhaps coupled with the fact that traditional fishing has given way to large-scale mechanised trawling. Medium scale industries include the manufacturing of pesticides, fertilisers, tyres, tubes, footwear, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, wheat products, steel rolling, fruits and fish canning, cashew nuts, textiles, brewery products. The Goa government has recently decided to not allow any more special economic zones (SEZs) in Goa. This is in stark contrast to policy followed by other states of India. SEZs are known to bring tax revenues for the government and employment option for local citizens since industries flock there for lower tax rates as compared to other areas. Currently there are 16 planned SEZs in Goa. This decision was taken by state government after strong opposition to SEZs by political parties and Goa Catholic Church.[21] Goa is also notable for its low beer, wine and spirits prices due to its very low excise duty on alcohol. Another source of cash inflow into the state comes from many of its citizens who work abroad and remit money to their families.

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Transport
Air Goa's sole airport, the Dabolim Airport, is both a military and civilian airport catering to domestic and international airlines that stop en route to other Indian destinations. The airport also handles a large number of chartered flights. Goa receives international flights from Qatar, Most of Goa is well connected by roads. Dubai, Sharjah and Kuwait in the Middle East and from Britain, Germany, Netherlands and Russia during the charter flight tourist season. Dabolim Airport is serviced by the following carriers Air Arabia, Indian Airlines, Kingfisher Airlines, Go Air, SpiceJet, Jet Airways, Qatar Airways, besides charter flights from the UK, Netherlands, Russia, Germany operated by Thomas Cook, Condor, Arkefly, Monarch Airlines etc. Road Goa's public transport largely consists of privately operated buses linking the major towns to rural areas. Government-run buses, maintained by the Kadamba Transport Corporation, links both major routes (like the PanjimMargao route) and some remote parts of the state. In large towns such as Panjim and Margao, intra-city buses ply. However, public transport in Goa is less developed, and residents depend heavily on their own transport, usually motorised two-wheelers. Goa has two National Highways passing through it. NH-17 runs along India's west coast and links Goa to Mumbai in the north and Mangalore to the south. NH-4A running across the state connects the capital Panjim to Belgaum in east, linking Goa to cities in the Deccan. The NH-17A connects NH-17 to Mormugao Harbour from Cortalim, and the new NH-17B, is a four lane highway connecting Mormugao Harbour to NH-17 at another location, Verna, via Dabolim airport. Goa has a total of 224km (139mi) of National highway, 232km (144mi) of state highway and 815km of district highway. Hired forms of transport include unmetered taxis, and, in urban areas, auto rickshaws. A unique form of transport in Goa is the Motorcycle taxi, operated by drivers who are locally called "pilots". These vehicles transport a single pillion rider, at fares that are usually negotiated. River crossings in Goa are serviced by flat-bottomed ferry boats, operated by the river navigation departments. Rail Goa has two rail linesone run by the South Western Railway and the other by the Konkan Railway. The line run by the South Western Railway was built during the colonial era linking the port town of Vasco da Gama, Goa with Hubli, Karnataka via Margao. The Konkan Railway line, which was built during the 1990s, runs parallel to the coast connecting major cities on the western coast. Sea The Mormugao harbour near the city of Vasco handles mineral ore, petroleum, coal and international containers. Margao railwaystation Much of the shipments consist of minerals and ores from Goa's hinterland. Panjim, which is situated on the banks of the Mandovi, also has a minor port, which used to handle passenger steamers between Goa and Mumbai till the late 1980s. There was also a short-lived catamaran service linking Mumbai and Panaji operated by Damania Shipping in the 1990s.

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Demographics
A native of Goa is called a Goan in English, Goenkar () in Konkani, Govekar ( ) in Marathi, Gos (male) or Goesa (female) in Portuguese. Goa has a population of 1.344 million residents, making it India's fourth smallest (after Sikkim, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh). The population has a growth rate of 14.9% per decade.[24] There are 363 people for each square kilometre of the land.[23] Goa is the State with highest proportion of Urban Population with 49.76% of the population living in urban areas.[25] The literacy rate of Goa is over 87%.[26] The sex ratio is 968 females to 1000 males. The birth rate is 15.70 per 1,000 people in 2007.[27] Goa also is the State with lowest proportion of Scheduled Tribes at 0.04% in India.[28]

Hindu-Christianity Unity Memorial at Miramar Beach.

Religion in Goa Religion Hinduism Christianity Islam Others

[29]

Percent 65% 26% 6% 3%

Distribution of religions Includes Sikhs (0.07%), Buddhists (0.04%), Jains (0.06%) and Others (0.24%).

According to the 2001 census out of a total population of 1,343,998. 886,551 (65%) were Hindus, 359,568 (26%) were Christians, 92,210 (6%) were Muslims, 970 (0.07%) were Sikhs, 649 (0.04%) were Buddhists, 820 (0.06%) were Jains and 3530 (0.24%) belonged to other religious communities.[29]

Languages
The Goa, Daman and Diu Official Language Act, 1987 makes Konkani in the Devanagari script the sole official language of Goa, but provides that Marathi may also be used "for all or any of the official purposes". The Government also has a policy of replying in Marathi to correspondence received in Marathi.[30] Whilst there have been demands for according Marathi and Konkani in the Roman script co-equal status in the state, As of October 2008, Konkani remained the sole official language.[31] [32] Konkani is spoken as a native language by about 61.21% of the people in the state. Other linguistic minorities in the state as of 1991 are Marathi (27.12%), Kannada (3.41%), Urdu (2.81%), and Hindi (2.09%).[33] The Portuguese language, which was used during the colonial era, is less popular now.

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Tourism
Tourism is generally focused on the coastal areas of Goa, with decreased tourist activity inland. In 2010, there were more than two million tourists reported to have visited Goa, about 1.2 million of whom were from abroad.[34] Goa has two main tourist seasons: winter and summer. In the winter time, tourists from abroad (mainly Europe) come to Goa to enjoy the climate. In the summertime (which, in Goa, is the rainy season), tourists from across India come to spend the holidays. With the rule of the Portuguese for over 450 years and the consequential influence of Portuguese culture, Goa Taj Hotels Fort Aguada Beach Resort presents a somewhat different picture to the foreign visitor than other parts of the country. The state of Goa is famous for its excellent beaches, churches, and temples. The Bom Jesus Cathedral, Fort Aguada and a new wax museum on Indian history, culture and heritage in Old Goa are other tourism destinations.

Historic sites and neighbourhoods

Goa has two World Heritage Sites: the Bom Jesus Basilica[35] and a few designated convents. The Basilica holds the mortal remains of St. Francis Xavier, regarded by many Catholics as the patron saint of Goa (the patron of the Archdiocese of Goa is actually the Blessed Joseph Vaz). Once every twelve years, the body is taken down for veneration and for public viewing. The last such event was conducted in 2004. The Velhas Conquistas regions are also known for its Goa-Portuguese style architecture. There are many forts in Goa such as Tiracol, Chapora, Corjuem, Aguada, Gaspar Dias and Cabo de Rama.

Vagator Beach.

In many parts of Goa, mansions constructed in the Indo-Portuguese style architecture still stand, though in some villages, most of them are in a dilapidated condition. Fontainhas in Panaji has been declared a cultural quarter, showcasing the life, architecture and culture of Goa. Some influences from the Portuguese era are visible in some of Goa's temples, notably the Shanta Durga Temple, the Mangueshi Temple and the Mahalasa Temple, although after 1961, many of these were demolished and reconstructed in the indigenous Indian style.

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Museums and science center

Goa also has a few museums, the two important ones being Goa State Museum and the Naval Aviation Museum. The Aviation museum is the only one of its kind in the whole of India. Also, a place not well known to tourists is the Goa Science Center, which is located in Panjim.[36] The National Institute of Oceanography (NIO) is also located in Goa at Dona Paula.[37]

People and culture

The tableau of Goa showcases religious harmony by focusing on the Deepastambha, the Cross, Ghode Modni followed by a chariot. Western royal attire of kings and regional dances being performed depict the unique blend of different religions and cultures of the State. The festival of music and dance, Shigmo Mel or the Holi and Spring celebrations,signify unity in diversity.[38] Prominent local festivals are Chavoth, Diwali, Christmas, Easter, Shigmo, Samvatsar Padvo, Dasara etc.The Goan Carnival and new year celebration is known to attract a large number of tourists.

Shanta Durga temple at Kavlem.

Dance and music

Goan Hindus are very fond of Natak, Bhajan and Kirtan. Many famous Indian Classical singers hail from Goa, including Lata Mangeshkar, Asha Bhosle, Kishori Amonkar, Kesarbai Kerkar, Jitendra Abhisheki and Pandit Prabhakar Karekar. Some traditional Goan art forms are dekhnni, fugdi, corridinho, Mando and dulpod.

Theatre
Natak, Tiatr and Zagor are the chief forms of Goa's traditional performance arts. Other forms are Ranmale, Dashavatari, Kalo, Goulankala, Lalit, Kala and Rathkala. Stories from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata along with more modern social subjects are narrated with song and dance.[39] [40] The drummers, keyboard artists, and guitarists are part of the show and give the background score.

Food
Rice with fish curry (Xit kodi in Konkani) is the staple diet in Goa. Goan cuisine is famous for its rich variety of fish dishes cooked with elaborate recipes. Coconut and coconut oil are widely used in Goan cooking along with chili peppers, spices and vinegar giving the food a unique flavour. Pork dishes such as Vindaloo, Xacuti and Sorpotel are cooked for major occasions among the Goan Catholics. An exotic Goan vegetable stew, known as Khatkhate, is a very popular dish during the celebrations of festivals, Hindu and Christian alike. Khatkhate contains at least five vegetables, fresh coconut, and Fruitseller in Vasco Da Gama special Goan spices that add to the aroma. Sannas, Hitt are variants of idli and Polle,Amboli,Kailoleo are variants of dosa;are native to Goa. A rich egg-based multi-layered sweet dish known as bebinca is a favourite at Christmas. The most popular alcoholic beverage in Goa is feni;

Goa Cashew feni is made from the fermentation of the fruit of the cashew tree, while coconut feni is made from the sap of toddy palms.

188

Architecture
The architecture of Goa is a combination of Indian, Islamic and Portuguese styles. Since the Portuguese ruled for four centuries, many churches and houses bear a striking element of the Portuguese style of architecture. Goan Hindu houses do not show any Portuguese influence, though the modern temple architecture is a spectacular amalgam of original Goan temple style with Dravidian, Hemadpanthi, Islamic,and Portuguese architecture.[41] The original Goan temple architecture fell into disuse as the temples were demolished by the Portuguese and the Sthapati known as Thavayi in Konkani were converted to Christianity though the wooden work and the Kavi murals can still be seen. [42] (see:Goa:Hindu temples and deities by Rui Gomes Periera).

Goan-Portuguese villa

Sports
Football is the most popular sport in Goa and is embedded in Goan culture.[43] Its origins in the state are traced back to 1883 when the visiting Irish priest Fr. William Robert Lyons established the sport as part of a "Christian education".[43] [44] On 22 December 1959, the Associao de Futebol de Goa was formed, which continues to administer the game in the state under the new name, Goa Football Association.[43] Goa, along with West Bengal and Kerala.[43] is the locus of football in the country and is home to many football clubs in India's I-League. The state's football powerhouses include Salgaocar, Dempo, Churchill Brothers, Vasco Sports Club and Sporting Clube de Goa. The state's main football stadium, Fatorda (or Nehru stadium), is located at Margao and also hosts cricket matches.[45]

A number of Goans have represented India in football, and four of them, namely Brahmanand Sankhwalkar, Bruno Coutinho, Mauricio Afonso, and Roberto Fernandes have all captained the national team at one time or another.

Fontainhas is a protected area in Panjim for its old architecture. People living in the houses can only renovate the insides the outside look has to be left as it is.

In recent decades, a growing influence of cricket is visible. Goa now has its own cricket team. Dilip Sardesai remains the only Goan to date to play international cricket for India.[46]

Government and politics

In the Parliament of India, Goa has two seats in the Lok Sabha, one representing each district, and one seat in the Rajya Sabha. Goa's capital is Panaji, known as Panjim in English and earlier called Pangim in Portuguese times, and known in the local language as Ponnje is the administrative capital of Goa lying on the left bank of the Mandovi near Panaji. Goa's legislative assembly building is located in Porvorim the seat of the Goa assembly, which lies across the Mandovi River. The state's judicial hierarchy relates to Mumbai (formerly known as Bombay, which is the capital of Goa's neighbouring Maharashtra state), as the state comes under the Bombay High Court. A bench of the High Court is

Goa present in Panaji. Unlike other states, which follow the British Indian model of civil laws framed for individual religions, the Portuguese Uniform Civil Code, based on the Napoleonic code, has been retained by the Goa government. Goa has a unicameral legislature consisting of a forty member Legislative Assembly, headed by a Chief Minister who wields the executive power. The present Chief Minister of Goa is Mr. Digambar Kamat and the Leader of Opposition is Mr. Manohar Parrikar. The ruling government consists of the party or coalition garnering the most seats in the state elections and enjoying the support of a simple majority of the House. The governor is appointed by the President of India. The governor's role is largely ceremonial, but plays a crucial role when it comes to deciding who should form the next government or in suspending the legislature as has happened in the recent past. After having stable governance for nearly thirty years up to 1990, Goa is now notorious for its political instability having seen fourteen governments in the span of the fifteen years between 1990 and 2005.[47] In March 2005 the assembly was dissolved by the governor and President's Rule was declared, which suspended the legislature. A by-election in June 2005 saw the Congress coming back to power after winning three of the five seats that went to polls. The Congress party and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) are the two largest parties in the state. In the assembly poll of 2007, Congress-led coalition won and started ruling the state.[48] Other parties include the United Goans Democratic Party, the Nationalist Congress Party and the Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party.[49]

189

Media and communication

Goa is served by almost all television channels available in India. Channels are received through cable in most parts of Goa. In the interior regions, channels are received via satellite dishes. Doordarshan, the national television broadcaster, has two free terrestrial channels on air. DTH (Direct To Home) TV services are available from Dish TV, Tata Sky & DD Direct Plus. The All India Radio is the only radio channel in the state, broadcasting in both FM and AM bands. Two AM channels are broadcast, the primary channel at 1287kHz and the Vividh Bharati channel at 1539kHz. AIR's FM channel is called FM Rainbow and is broadcast at 105.4MHz. Private FM radio channels available are Big FM at 92.7MHz, Radio Mirchi at 98.3MHz, and Radio Indigo at 91.9MHz. There is also an educational radio channel, Gyan Vani, run by IGNOU broadcast from Panaji at 107.8MHz. In 2006, St Xavier's College, Mapusa, became the first college in the state to launch a campus community radio station 'Voice of Xavier's'. Major cellular service operators include Uninor, Reliance Infocomm, Tata Indicom, Vodafone (previously Hutch), Bharti Airtel, BSNL and Idea cellular. Local newspaper publications include the English language The Herald (Goa's oldest, once a Portuguese language paper known as O Heraldo), the Gomantak Times and the Navhind Times. In addition to these, The Times of India and the Indian Express are also received from Mumbai and Bangalore in the urban areas. The Times of India has recently started publication from Goa itself serving the local population news directly from the state capital. Among the list of officially-accredited newspapers are Sunaparant in Konkani (Devanagari script), The Navhind Times, The Herald Times and The Gomantak Times in English; and Gomantak, Tarun Bharat, Navprabha, Goa Times, Sanatan Prabhat, Govadoot (all in Marathi). All are dailies. Other publications in the state include Goa Today (English-language, monthly), Goan Observer (English, weekly), Vavraddeancho Ixtt (Roman-script Konkani, weekly) Goa Messenger, Gulab (Konkani, monthly), Bimb (Devanagari-script Konkani) .

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Education
According to the 2001 census, Goa has a literacy rate of 82% with 89% of males and 76% of females being literate.[50] Each taluka is made up of villages, each having a school run by the government. Due to the low levels of corruption and the quality of the government schools, private schools are less in demand, compared to the rest of the country. All schools come under the state SSC whose syllabus is prescribed by the state Education department. There are also a few schools run by the all-India ICSE board or NIOS board. Most students in Goa complete their high school using English as the medium of instruction. Primary Goa University schools, on the other hand are largely run in Konkani and marathi (in private, but government-aided schools). As is the case in most of India, enrollment for vernacular media has seen a fall in numbers in favour of English medium education. As per a report published in the times of India, 84% of Goan schools run without an administrative head.[51] After ten years of schooling, students join a Higher Secondary school, which offers courses in popular streams such as Science, Arts, Law and Commerce.A student may also opt for a course in vocational studies. Additionally, many join three year diploma courses. Two years of college is followed by a professional degree. Goa University is the sole university in the state located in Taleigao and all Goan colleges are affiliated to it. There are four engineering colleges and one medical college in the state. The Goa Engineering College and Goa Medical College are run by the state whereas the other three engineering colleges are run by private organisations. Among the best known schools in Goa include Vidya Prabhodini at Porvorim, K.B. Hedgewar High School, the Progress high school, Don Bosco High School, People's high school, Mushtifund high school in Panaji, A. J. De Almeida high school in Ponda,S.S.Samiti's I.V.B.D. High school in Dhawali-Ponda, Vidya Bharati, Mahila And Nutan English High School in Margao, Manovikas in Margao etc. Among the best known colleges in Goa include V.V.M's R.M.Salgaocar Higher Secondary School in Margao G.V.M's S.N.J.A higher secondary school, Don Bosco College, D.M's college of Arts Science and Commerce, St Xavier's College, Carmel College, Chowgule College, Dhempe College, Damodar College, MES College, etc. The private engineering colleges are Shree Rayeshwar Institute of Engineering and Information Technology, Shiroda, and Padre Conceicao College of Engineering, Verna. There are also colleges offering pharmacy, architecture and dentistry along with numerous private colleges offering law, arts, commerce and science. There is also two National Oceanographic Science related centres, NCAOR and the National Institute of Oceanography (NIO) in Vasco and Panjim. In 2004, BITS Pilani university started its Third Campus, BITS Pilani Goa Campus near Dabolim. In addition to the engineering colleges, there are quite a few polytechnic institutions such as the Father Agnel Polytechnic, Verna and the Institute of Shipbuilding Technology, Vasco da gama which impart technical and vocational training. Many residents, however, choose to take up courses in other states as the demand for a course in Goa is more than that available. Goa is also well-known in India for courses in marine engineering, fisheries, hotel management and cuisine. The State also hosts one of the best business school in the country the Goa Institute of Management which is autonomous and was founded in 1993 by Romuald D'Souza. Portuguese is taught as a part of the school curriculum, often as a third language in some schools. The Goa University also offers Bachelors and Masters degrees in Portuguese.

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Citations
[1] http:/ / goagovt. nic. in [2] "Goa" (http:/ / nclm. nic. in/ shared/ linkimages/ 35. htm). Commissioner Linguistic Minorities, 42nd Report, July 2003 to June 2004. National Commissioner Linguistic Minorities. . Retrieved 17 July 2007. "Konkani is the official language of the state. There actually is no second official language. However, as per notification, Marathi will be used for the purpose of reply by the Government whenever communications are received in that language. In the Official Language Act, it is provided that "the Marathi, shall also be used for all or any of the official purposes". Further it is provided that "nothing contained in this sub section shall be deemed to affect the use of the Marathi language in educational, social or cultural fields"." [3] UNI (30 May 2007). "Marathi vs Konkani debate continues in Goa" (http:/ / www. rediff. com/ news/ 2007/ may/ 30goa. htm). rediff.com (Rediff.com India Limited). . Retrieved 17 July 2007. [4] Reports of the finance commissions of India: First Finance Commission to the Twelfth Finance Commission : the complete report. India. Finance Commission. Academic Foundation. 2005. p.268. ISBN8171884741, 9788171884742. [5] "Liberation of Goa" (http:/ / gpp. nic. in/ Liberation. html). Government Polytechnic, Panaji. . Retrieved 17 July 2007. [6] Pillarisetti, Jagan. "The Liberation of Goa: an Overview" (http:/ / www. bharat-rakshak. com/ IAF/ History/ 1960s/ Goa01. html). The Liberation of Goa:1961. bharat-rakshak.com. . Retrieved 17 July 2007. [7] "Goa" (http:/ / www. india. gov. in/ knowindia/ st_goa. php). National Informatics Centre(NIC). . Retrieved 4 January 2009. [8] Press Information bureau. "Goa The Vibrant State on March" (http:/ / pib. nic. in/ release/ release. asp?relid=45884). Press release. . Retrieved 5 January 2009. [9] Sakshena 2003, p. 5 (http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=7kUE7TV3ZWEC& pg=PA5& dq=goa+ silharas& lr=#v=onepage& q=goa silharas& f=false) [10] Kalyan Kumar Chakravarty, Robert G. Bednarik, Indir Gndh Rshrya Mnava Sagrahlaya (1997). Indian rock art and its global context. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.,. pp.228 pages (see page 34). ISBN8120814649, 9788120814646. [11] C. R. Srinivasan, K. V. Ramesh, S. Subramonia Iyer (2004). r pupjali: recent researches in prehistory, protohistory, art, architecture, numismatics, iconography, and epigraphy : Dr. C.R. Srinivasan commemoration volume, Volume 1. Bharatiya Kala Prakashan,. pp.469 pages (see page4). ISBN8180900568, 9788180900563. [12] Sakhardande, Prajal. "7th National Conference on Marine Archaeology of Indian Ocean Countries : Session V" (http:/ / www. nio. org/ index. php?option=com_eventdisplay& task=view& tid=4& eid=32). Heritage and history of Goa. NIO Goa. . Retrieved 30 March 2011. [13] Dhume, Anant Ramkrishna (, 1986). The cultural history of Goa from 10000 B.C.-1352 A.D.. Ramesh Anant S. Dhume. pp.355 pages (see pages 100-150). [14] De Souza 1990, p. 9 (http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=dwYDPnEjTb4C& pg=PA9& dq=bhojas+ goa& lr=#v=onepage& q=bhojas goa& f=false) [15] De Souza 1990, p. 10 (http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=dwYDPnEjTb4C& pg=PA10& dq=bhojas+ goa& lr=#v=onepage& q=bhojas goa& f=false) [16] De Souza 1990, p. 11 (http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=dwYDPnEjTb4C& pg=PA11& dq=bhojas+ goa& lr=#v=onepage& q=bhojas goa& f=false) [17] "Wildlife Sanctuaries in Goa" (http:/ / www. goahub. com/ wildlife-sanctuaries-in-goa/ index. html). . Retrieved 18 July 2008. [18] "Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation" (http:/ / mospi. nic. in/ mospi_nad_main. htm). . Retrieved 7 September 2006. [19] Chandigarh's per capita income highest in India (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ Chandigarhs_per_capita_income_highest_in_India/ articleshow/ 3487128. cms) [20] Economy of Goa (http:/ / goenkar. com/ book/ print/ 112), from goenkar.com (http:/ / goenkar. com/ ) verified 2 April 2005. [21] "Goa not to have any more SEZs" (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ Business/ India_Business/ Goa_not_to_have_any_more_SEZs_Digamber_Kamat/ rssarticleshow/ 2538932. cms). The Times Of India. 13 November 2007. . Retrieved 13 November 2007. [22] "Census Population" (http:/ / indiabudget. nic. in/ es2006-07/ chapt2007/ tab97. pdf) (PDF, 40 KB). Census of India. Ministry of Finance India. . Retrieved 18 December 2008. [23] "Area and population" (http:/ / goagovt. nic. in/ gag/ arepop. htm). Government of Goa. . Retrieved 5 January 2009. [24] "Goa Population Policy (March 2007)" (http:/ / goagovt. nic. in/ GoaPPp. doc) (DOC, 156 KB). Government of Goa. . Retrieved 5 January 2009. [25] "Rural-Urban Distribution" (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Census_Data_2001/ India_at_glance/ rural. aspx). Census Department of India. . Retrieved 5 January 2009. [26] "Education" (http:/ / goagovt. nic. in/ gag/ educ. htm). Government of Goa. . Retrieved 5 January 2009. [27] "Demographic status of Goa" (http:/ / www. navhindtimes. com/ articles. php?Story_ID=053150). Navhind Times. . Retrieved 5 February 2009. [28] "Scheduled Casts & Scheduled Tribes Population" (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Census_Data_2001/ India_at_glance/ scst. aspx). Census Department of India. . Retrieved 5 January 2009. [29] "Population by religious communities" (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Census_Data_2001/ Census_data_finder/ C_Series/ Population_by_religious_communities. htm). Census department of India. . Retrieved 22 December 2008.

Goa
[30] Commissioner Linguistic Minorities. "42nd report: July 2003 June 2004" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071008113359/ http:/ / nclm. nic. in/ shared/ linkimages/ 35. htm). p. para 11.3. Archived from the original (http:/ / nclm. nic. in/ shared/ linkimages/ 35. htm) on October 8, 2007. . Retrieved 6 June 2007 [31] "Solving the Language Imbroglio" (http:/ / www. navhindtimes. com/ story. php?story=2008083147). Navhind Times. . Retrieved 15 October 2008. [32] "Konkani:The Tussule over the script" (http:/ / www. navhindtimes. com/ story. php?story=2008091733). Navhind Times. . Retrieved 18 October 2008. [33] A. R. Fatihi. "Urdu in Goa" (http:/ / www. languageinindia. com/ july2003/ urduingoa. html). Language in India, Volume 2: 2002-12-09. M. S. Thirumalai, Managing Editor, Language in India. . Retrieved 2010-01-29. [34] (http:/ / www. goatourism. gov. in/ About DOT/ tourist_arrivals. htm), Department of Tourism, Government of Goa website. Retrieved 2010-08-04. [35] "Basilica of Bom Jesus, Old Goa | Parish Ministry | Goa Jesuits" (http:/ / goajesuits. in/ bomjesus). www.goajesuits.in. . Retrieved 2010-07-18. [36] (http:/ / www. nehrusciencecentre. org/ GSCP/ gscp. htm), Nehru Science Centre website. Retrieved 2010-08-04. [37] (http:/ / www. nio. org/ index/ title/ HOME), NIO Website. Retrieved 2010-08-04. [38] Press Information Bureau. "Twenty eight tableaux to participate in year's Republic Day Parade" (http:/ / pib. nic. in/ archieve/ lreleng/ lyr2002/ rjan2002/ 21012002/ r210120025. html). Press release. . Retrieved 5 January 2009. [39] Tiatr folk drama of Goa http:/ / www. goablog. org/ posts/ tiatr-folk-drama-of-goa/ [40] Smitha Venkateswaran (14 Apr, 2007). "Konkan goes Tiatrical" (http:/ / economictimes. indiatimes. com/ articleshowarchive. cms?msid=1907414). The Economic Times. . Retrieved 14 December 2008. [41] Mankekar, Kamla (2004). Temples of Goa. Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India,. pp.99 pages(see pages 1-17). ISBN812301161X, 9788123011615. [42] Kamat, Krishnanand. Konkanyali Kavikala. Panaji: Goa Konkani Akademi. [43] Mills, James (Summer 2001). "Football in Goa: Sport, Politics and the Portuguese in India". Soccer & Society 2 (2): 7588. doi:10.1080/714004840. [44] "Goan football has little cause to look back" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070928191006/ http:/ / www. goa-fa. com/ node/ 45). Goa Football Association. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. goa-fa. com/ node/ 45) on September 28, 2007. . Retrieved 19 July 2007. [45] "Nehru stadium" (http:/ / content-www. cricinfo. com/ india/ content/ ground/ 58301. html). Cricinfo.com. . Retrieved 19 July 2007. [46] "[Goanet] Goa Govt. institutes award in memory of Dilip Sardesai" (http:/ / www. mail-archive. com/ goanet@lists. goanet. org/ msg15601. html). Mail-archive.com. 2007-08-08. . Retrieved 2010-07-18. [47] Odds stacked against Parrikar (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ 2005/ 01/ 31/ stories/ 2005013104051100. htm), Anil Sastry, The Hindu, 31 January 2005, verified 2 April 2005 [48] Banerjee, Sanjay (6 June 2007). "Congress set to rule Goa again" (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ articleshow/ 2101667. cms). indiatimes.com (Times Internet Limited). . Retrieved 5 August 2007. [49] North Goa District Website, Panaji Goa http:/ / northgoa. nic. in (http:/ / northgoa. nic. in/ ) [50] "District-specific Literates and Literacy Rates, 2001" (http:/ / educationforallinindia. com/ page157. html). Education for all in India. . Retrieved 18 July 2007. [51] Malkarnekar, Gauree (6 April 2009). "No Administrative head" (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ Cities/ 84-Goa-schools-without-heads/ articleshow/ 4363801. cms). Times of India. . Retrieved 6 April 2009.

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References
De Souza, Teotonio R. (1989). Essays in Goan history (http://books.google.com/?id=ruTu9oaUgUgC& printsec=frontcover&q=). Concept Publishing Company. ISBN9788170222637. Retrieved 24 August 2009 De Souza, Teotonio R. (1990). Goa Through the Ages: An economic history (http://books.google.com/ ?id=dwYDPnEjTb4C&printsec=frontcover&q=). Goa University publication. 2. Concept Publishing Company. ISBN9788170222590. Retrieved 25 August 2009 Sakshena, R.N. (2003). Goa: Into the Mainstream (http://books.google.com/?id=7kUE7TV3ZWEC& printsec=frontcover&q=). Abhinav Publications. ISBN9788170170051. Retrieved 24 August 2009 Isadora Tast: Mother India. Searching For a Place. Peperoni Books: Berlin 2009, ISBN 978-3-941825-00-0.

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Further reading
Andrada (undated). The Life of Dom John de Castro: The Fourth Vice Roy of India. Jacinto Freire de Andrada. Translated into English by Peter Wyche. (1664). Henry Herrington, New Exchange, London. Facsimilie edition (1994) AES Reprint, New Delhi. ISBN 81-206-0900-X.

External links
Goa travel guide from Wikitravel Government of Goa official website (http://goagovt.nic.in/) Goa (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/India/Goa//) at the Open Directory Project

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Gujarat
Gujarat
State

Clockwise from top: Gujarat High Court, Dwarka Beach, Laxmi Vilas Palace, Kankaria Lakefront, Gandhi Ashram, Salt Desert of Kutch

Seal

Location of Gujarat in India

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Map of Gujarat Coordinates (Gandhinagar): 231300N 724100E Country Established Capital Largest city Districts Government -Governor -ChiefMinister -Legislature -Chief Justice Area -Total Area rank Population (2011) -Total -Rank -Density Time zone ISO 3166 code HDI HDI rank Literacy Official languages Website 60,383,628 10th unknown operator: u','/km2(/sqmi) IST (UTC+05:30) IN-GJ 0.621 (medium) 14th (2005) 69.8% (6th) Gujarati,Hindi,English gujaratindia.com [1] 196077km2(75705.8sqmi) 7th Dr. Kamla Beniwal Narendra Modi Unicameral (182 seats) Hon'ble Mr. Justice S. J. Mukhopadhaya India 1 May 1960 Gandhinagar Ahmedabad 26 total

Gujarat Gujarat (Gujarati: , Hindi: , Gujrt, -[ud()at]( listen)) is a state in western India. It has an area of 75,686 sq mi (196,077km) with a coastline of 1,600km, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula, and a population in excess of 50 million. The state is bordered by Rajasthan to the north, Maharashtra to the south, Madhya Pradesh to the east and the Arabian Sea as well as the Pakistani province of Sindh on the west. Its capital is Gandhinagar, while its largest city is Ahmedabad. Gujarat is home to the Gujarati-speaking people of India. The state encompasses major sites of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, such as Lothal and Dholavira. Lothal is believed to be one of the world's first ports. Gujarat's coastal cities, chiefly Bharuch, served as ports and trading centers in the Maurya and Gupta empires. Mohandas Gandhi, considered India's "father of the nation", was a Gujarati who led the Indian Independence Movement against the British colonial rule.[2] Gujarat played an important role in the economic history of India throughout the history of India.[3] The state has the fastest growing economy in India.[4] [5] [6] It is also, one of the most industrialized states within the nation.[7] Thus, making it the richest state with a GDP per capita income twice that of the country as a whole.

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Etymology
Modern-day Gujarat is derived from Gurjaratra that is the land protected or ruled by the Gurjars, or from Gurjar-Rashtra, the Gujjar nation.[8] [9] [10] The origins of the Gujjars are uncertain. The Gujjar clan appeared in northern India about the time of the Huna invasions of northern India. The name of the tribe was Sanskritized to "Gurjara".[11] The Gurjars/Gujjars believe to have descended from Suryavanshi Kshatriyas (Sun Dynasty).[12] Historically, the Gurjars were Sun-worshipers and their copper-plate grants and seals also bear an emblem of the Sun.[13]

History
Ancient history
Historically, the state of Gujarat has been one of the main centers of the Indus Valley Civilization. It contains major ancient metropolitan cities from the Indus Valley such as Lothal, Dholavira, and Gola Dhoro. The ancient city of Lothal was where India's first port was established. Also, Dholavira, the ancient city, is one of the largest and most prominent archaeological sites in India, belonging to the Indus Valley Civilization. The most recent discovery was Gola Dhoro. All together, about 50 Indus Valley settlement ruins have been discovered in Gujarat.[14]

The ancient history of Gujarat was enriched by their commercial activities. There is a clear historical evidence of trade and commerce ties with Sumer in the Persian Gulf during the time period of 1000 to 750 BC.[14] There was a succession of Hindu/Buddhist states such as the Gupta Empire, Rashtrakuta Empire, Pala Empire and Gurjara-Pratihara Empire as well as local dynasties such as the Maitrakas and then the Solankis. The 11th century history of Gujarat saw the emergence of the Muslims in the political arena of the state. The first Muslim conqueror was Mahmud of Ghazni whose conquest of Somnath effectively ended the rule of the Solankis.[14]

Ancient Lothal as envisaged by the Archaeological Survey of India.

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1297 CE 1614 CE
From 1297 to 1300, Allauddin Khilji, Sultan of Delhi, destroyed Anhilwara and incorporated Gujarat into the Delhi Sultanate. After Timur's sacking of Delhi at the end of the fourteenth century weakened the Sultanate, Gujarat's Muslim Rajput governor Zafar Khan Muzaffar asserted his independence, and his son, Sultan Ahmed Shah (ruled 1411 to 1442), restructured Ahmedabad as the capital. Cambay eclipsed Bharuch as Gujarat's most important trade port. The Sultanate of Gujarat remained independent until 1576, when the Mughal emperor Akbar the Great conquered it and annexed it to the Mughal Empire. The port of Surat become the prominent and main port of India during Mughal rule. Gujarat remained a province of the Mughal empire until the Marathas occupied eastern and central Gujarat in the eighteenth century; Western Gujarat (Kathiawar and Kutch) were divided among numerous local rulers.

1614 CE 1947 CE
Portugal was the first European power to arrive in Gujarat, acquiring several enclaves along the Gujarati coast, including Daman and Diu as well as Dadra and Nagar Haveli. The British East India Company established a factory in Surat in 1614, which formed their first base in India, but it was eclipsed by Bombay after the English acquired it from Portugal in 1668. In late 17th century Chatrapati Shivaji the great Maratha leader attacked Surat between 1664 to 1679 and looted the city 3 times. This is marked as entry of Marathas in Gujarat. Later in 18th century, Gujarat came under control of the Maratha Empire who dominated the politics of India. Pilaji Gaekwad, first ruler of Gaekwad dynasty, established the control over Baroda and much of Gujarat. After Battle of Panipat 1761, all Maratha general established them self as autonomous government while keeping nominal authority of Peshwas of Pune and Chatrapati from Satara. The British East India Company wrested control of much of Gujarat from the Marathas during the Second Anglo-Maratha War. Many local rulers, notably the Maratha Gaekwads of Baroda (Vadodara), made a separate peace with the British and acknowledged British sovereignty in return for retaining local self-rule. Gujarat was placed under the political authority of the Bombay Presidency, with the exception of Baroda state, which had a direct relationship with the Governor-General of India. From 1818 to 1947, most of present-day Gujarat, including Kathiawar, Kutch, and northern and eastern Gujarat were divided into hundreds of princely states, but several districts in central and southern Gujarat, namely Ahmedabad, Broach (Bharuch), Kaira (Kheda), Panchmahal, and Surat, were ruled directly by British officials.
Bombay Presidency in 1909, northern portion

Bombay Presidency in 1909, southern portion

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Indian independence movement

Leaders like Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Morarji Desai, K.M. Munshi, Narhari Parikh, Mahadev Desai, Mohanlal Pandya, Bhulabhai Desai and Ravi Shankar Vyas all hailed from Gujarat. Also, Gujarati-speaking Mohammed Ali Jinnah's (Pakistan's first Governor-General) father was from an area which later became Gujarat. Gujarat was also the site of some of the most popular revolts, including the Satyagrahas in Kheda, Bardoli, Borsad and the Salt Satyagraha.

Post independence
After Indian independence and the partition of India in 1947, the new Indian government grouped the former princely states of Gujarat into three larger units; Saurashtra, which included the former princely states on the Kathiawad peninsula, Kutch, and Bombay state, which included Mahadev Desai (left) reading out a letter to the former British districts of Bombay Presidency together with most Mahatma Gandhi from the viceroy at Birla of Baroda state and the other former princely states of eastern Gujarat. House, Bombay, 7 April 1939. Bombay state was enlarged to include Kutch, Saurashtra, and parts of Hyderabad state and Madhya Pradesh in central India. The new state had a mostly Gujarati-speaking north and a Marathi-speaking south. Agitation by both Gujarati and Marathi nationalists for their own states led to the split of Bombay state on linguistic lines; on 1 May 1960, it became the new states of Gujarat and Maharashtra. The first capital of Gujarat was Ahmedabad; the capital was moved to Gandhinagar in 1970.

Geography
Gujarat borders with Pakistan to the north-west, bounded by the Arabian Sea to the southwest, the state of Rajasthan to the northeast, Madhya Pradesh to the east, and by Maharashtra, Union territories of Diu, Daman, Dadra and Nagar Haveli to the south. Historically, the North was known as Anarta, the Kathiawad peninsula, "Saurastra", and the South as "Lata".[15] Gujarat was also known as Pratichya and Varuna.[16] The Arabian Sea makes up the state's western coast. The capital, Gandhinagar is a planned city. Gujarat has an area of 75,686 sqmi (196,077km) with the longest coast line 1600km, dotted with 41 ports; 1 major, 11 intermediate and 29 minor ports.

Geography of Gujarat. Courtesy: NASA Earth Observatory

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Forests and Wildlife

As per the India State Of Forest Report 2009, Gujarat has 7.46 % of its total geographical area under forest cover. As per the districts, The Dangs has the largest area under forest cover. Gujarat has 4 National parks and 21 sanctuaries. Gujarat is the only home of Asiatic Lions. Outside Africa, Gujarat is the only present natural habitat of lions. Gir Forest National Park in the south-west part of the state covers only part of the lions' habitat. Besides lions, the other big cat that can be found in the state is the leopard. Leopards are spread across large plains of Saurashtra and mountains of South Gujarat.

Gir National Park

Male Asiatic lion

Other National parks include Vansda National Park, Blackbuck National Park, Velavadar and Marine National Park, Gulf of Kutch. Wildlife sanctuaries include: Wild Ass Wildlife Sanctuary, Nal Sarovar Bird Sanctuary, Porbandar Bird Sanctuary, Kutch Desert Wildlife Sanctuary, Kutch Bustard Sanctuary, Narayan Sarovar Sanctuary, Jessore Sloth Bear Sanctuary, Anjal, Balaram-Ambaji, Barda, Jambughoda, Khavda, Paniya, Purna, Rampura, Ratanmahal, and Surpaneshwar. Gujarat is one unique state where you can find major mountain-ranges Saputara of India. Aravalli, Sahyadri, Vindhya and Satpura are having their presence in Gujarat. Apart from this Gir hills, Barda, Jessore, Chotila etc. are situated in different parts of the Gujarat. Girnar is famous and tallest hill of Gujarat. Saputara is the only hill-station of the state.

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Major Rivers
Narmada is the biggest river of Gujarat followed by Tapi, although Sabarmati covers the longest area in the state. Sardar Sarovar Project is built on Narmada river. Narmada is one of the major rivers of peninsular India with a length of around 1312km. It is one of only three rivers in peninsular India that run from east to west the others being the Tapi River and the Mahi River. Alphabetically sorted list of other rivers are as follows:1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Aji Ambika Banas Bhadar Bhikda

Sardar Sarovar Project, Gujarat, partially completed (up to E.L.121.92 m)

6. Bhogavo 7. Daman Ganga 8. Dhadhar 9. Gautami 10. Ghelo 11. Kalubhar 12. Keri 13. Khari 14. Lilka 15. Lindio 16. Meshwo 17. Ootavali 18. Purna 19. Rangholi 20. Sabar 21. Sanosari 22. Shedhi 23. Shetrunji 24. Sonpari 25. Talaji 26. Vatrak 27. Vishvamitra

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Economy
Gujarat has some of the largest businesses in India. Major agricultural produce of the state include cotton, groundnuts (peanuts), dates, sugar cane, milk and milk products. Industrial products include cement and petrol. Gujarat's Contribution to India 17% of Fixed Capital Investment 16% of Industrial output 22% of India's exports 16% of Value of Output 12% of Net Manufacturing Value 10% of Factories 98% of Soda Ash production 80% of Diamond Export 78% of Salt production 62% of Petrochemical production 53% of Crude Oil (Onshore) 51% of Chemical products 37% of Groundnut production 35% of Cargo Handling 31% of Cotton production 30% of Natural Gas (Onshore) 10% of Mineral production 25% of Textile production 35% of Pharmaceutical products Longest shoreline 1670kilometres (1040mi)

Gandhinagar, the Capital of Gujarat State

Reliance Industries Limited founded by Dhirubhai Ambani, operates the oil refinery at Jamnagar, which is the world's largest grass-roots refineries. The world's largest shipbreaking yard is in Gujarat near Bhavnagar at Alang. Indias only Liquid Chemical Port Terminal at Dahej, developed by Gujarat Chemical Port Terminal Co Ltd. Gujarat has two of the three Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) terminals in the country (Dahej and Hazira). Two more LNG Terminals are proposed, at Pipavav and Mundra. Gujarat is the only state in India to have State Wide Gas Grid of 2,200km. 87.9% of the total roads in the state are asphalt surfaced. 98.86% village connectivity with allweather roads, the highest in India. 100% of Gujarat's 18,000 villages have electricity connection for 24hr power through the Jyotigram Yojana. Gujarat ranks first nationwide in gas-based thermal electricity generation with national market share of over 8% and second nationwide in nuclear electricity generation with national market share of over 1%. Gujarat has largest OFC network of more than 50,000km. The state owned Wide Area Network is the largest IP-based ICT network in Asia Pacific Region and second largest in the world, connecting 26 districts and 225 talukas through 12,000 nodes. There are more than 900,000 internet users and all villages are connected with broadband internet. The state registered 12.8% agriculture growth in the last five years against the national average of 2%.[17] Over 20% of the S&P CNX 500 conglomerates have corporate offices in Gujarat.[18] As per RBI report, in year 200607, 26% out of total bank finance in India was in Gujarat.

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Industrial growth
Gujarat's major cities include Ahmedabad, Surat, Vadodara, Rajkot, Jamnagar and Bhavnagar, Karamsad. In year 2010, Forbes list of world's fastest growing cities included Ahmedabad at number 3 after Chengdu and Chongqing from China. Surat is also one of the fastest growing city in India. Major resources produced by the state include cotton, groundnut, dates, sugarcane, and petrochemical products. The state is rich in calcite, gypsum, manganese, lignite, bauxite, limestone, agate, feldspar and quartz sand, and successful mining of these minerals is done in their specified areas. Gujarat produces about 98% of India's required amount of Soda Ash and gives the country about 78% of its national requirement of salt. It is one of India's most prosperous states, having a per-capita GDP significantly above India's average. Kalol, Khambhat and Ankleshwar are today known for their oil and natural gas production. Dhuvaran has a thermal power station, which uses coal, oil and gas. Also, on the Gulf of Khambhat, 50kilometres (31mi) southeast of Bhavnagar, is the Alang Ship Recycling Yard (the world's largest).General Motors manufactures its cars at Halol near Vadodara, Tata manufactures Nano from Sanand near Ahmedabad and AMW trucks are made near Bhuj. Surat, a city by the Gulf of Khambhat, is a hub of the global diamond trade. In 2003, 92% of the world's diamonds were cut and polished in Surat.[19] Gujarat passed an act for the SIRs and set up the first such hubPetroleum Chemical and Petrochemical Investment Region (PCPIR) spread across 453,000 square hectaresin Bharuch 2009. SIRs are special regions spread over a minimum 50,000 hectares where industries can buy lands directly from local owners. They are not offered concessions like tax benefits as in SEZs. However, the main benefit of SIRs is that they provide quality infrastructure and development even before units become operational. In every SIR, 55 per cent area is to be set aside for residential townships and other non-processing units.[20] During the period of 196090, Gujarat established itself as a leader in various industrial sectors including textiles, engineering, chemicals, petrochemicals, drugs and pharmaceuticals, dairy, cement and ceramics, and gems and jewelery, amongst others. A post-liberalization period saw Gujarat's State Domestic Product (SDP) rising at an average growth rate of 14% per annum in real terms (from 19942002). Gujarat achieved as much as 35% of augmentation in its power generation capacity during the periods 199596 and 200001. The producers (IPPs) have contributed significantly in this addition. Gujarat is one of the first few states in India to have encouraged private sector investment, some of which are already in operation. In addition, the liquid cargo (chemicals) handling port at Dahej is also set up in joint sector and made operational. At an investor's summit entitled "Vibrant Gujarat," arranged between 10 January 2007 to 13 January 2007, at Science City, Ahmedabad, the state government signed 104 Memoranda of Understandings for Special Economic Zones worth a total of 2.5 lakh crore.[21] However, most of the investment was from domestic industry.[22] In the fourth Vibrant Gujarat Global Investors' Summit held at Science City, Ahmedabad, in January 2009, there were 600 foreign delegates. In all, 8668 MOUs worth 12.5 lakh cr were signed, estimated to create 25 lakh new job opportunities in the state.[23] In 2011, Vibrant Gujarat Global Investors' Summit MOUs worth 21 trillion (US$ 463 billion) were signed. Gujarat government has a front runner in development of solar energy in the state. It has alloted 716 MW of Solar Power capacity to 34 national and international solar project developers in 2009; against the planned 500 MW capacity under its Solar Power Policy.[24] This is expected to bring in investments of INR 12000 crore and generate employment for 5,000 people. It's a also biggest industrial is ceramic business around Morbi, Himatanagar.

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Agriculture
Gujarat is the main producer of tobacco, cotton, and groundnuts in India. Other major food crops produced are rice, wheat, jowar, bajra, maize, Tur, and gram. Gujarat has an agricultural economy; the total crop area amounts to more than one-half of the total land area.[25] Animal husbandry and dairying have played a vital role in the rural economy of Gujarat. Dairy farming, primarily concerned with milk production, functions on a cooperative basis and has more than a million members. Gujarat is the largest producer of milk in India. Amul - Anand milk co-operative federation products are well known all over India, and it is Asia's biggest dairy.[26] Among livestock raised are buffalo and other cattle, sheep, and goats. As per the results of livestock census 1997, there were 209.70 lakh livestock in Gujarat State. As per the estimates of the survey of major livestock products, during the year 200203, the Gujarat produced 6.09 million tonnes of milk, 385 million eggs and 2.71 million kg of wool. Gujarat also contributes inputs to industries like textiles, oil, and soap. As in much of India, since the 1960s farmers in Gujarat have increasingly relied on extensive groundwater irrigation to maintain production. In recent years, however, experts have become increasingly alarmed at the rate of water depletion in the state. The water table in Gujarat has been falling steadily for the last 1520 years, leading to a risk of catastrophic, irreversible salt-water intrusion into the groundwater.[27] The problem is exacerbated by the fact that electricity for farmers is subsidized,leaving little incentive to conserve water. To address this issue, the government of Gujarat has begun working with NGOs and universities to create new incentives for water conservation and to promote the adoption of water-saving technologies.[28] [29]

Demographics
The population of the Gujarat State was 60,383,628 as per the 2011 census data. The density of population is 308/km2 (797.6/sq mi), a lower density compared to other states of the country. About 89.1% of the population of Gujarat are Hindu.[31] Muslims account for 9.1%, Jain 1.0% and Sikh 0.1% of the population.[31] Amongst Hindus, the deity of Krishna is famously worshiped in His form of Shrinathji throughout Gujarat. Gujarat, as a heavily industrialized state of India, attracts lots of outsiders from various parts of India.

Language
Gujarati ( Gujrt?) is an Indo-Aryan language evolved from Sanskrit, and part of the greater Indo-European language family. It is native to the Indian state of Gujarat, and is its chief language, as well as of the adjacent union territories of Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli. There are about 46.1 million speakers of Gujarati worldwide, making it the 26th most spoken native language in the world. Along with Romani and Sindhi, it is among the most western of Indo-Aryan languages. Gujarati was the first language of Mohandas K. Gandhi, the "father of India", Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel was popularly known as "Iron Man of India". and Owing to its apparent youth with respect to its written history, the Gujarati script follows the Nagari writing system. Nagari is a derivative of the Devanagari script, with one notable difference being that the horizontal line is not utilised. Gujarati script also has a few other variations in terms of certain consonants and employs a slightly different set of symbols for numbers. Gujarati has also been the language spoken by two of South Asia`s most prominent leaders: the Father of the Indian Nation, Mahatma Gandhi and the Founder of Pakistan, Muhammad Ali Jinnah. The majority of the population in state speak Gujarati, while people from Kutch region of Gujarat also speak in Kutchi language. Other native languages spoken in low proportions are Bhili and Gamit. Religion-wise, 71% of Hindus in Gujarat speak Gujarati while the other 29% speak Hindi. Almost 88% of the Muslims speak Gujarati while the other 12% speak Urdu. Almost all of the Jains speak Gujarati, a few speak Marwari as well. Parsi Zoroastrians also speak Gujarati as their native language. Marathi is spoken by a large number of people in Vadodara and Surat.

Gujarat Apart from this, English, Sindhi, Punjabi, Tamil, Telugu, Bengali, Kannada, Oriya, Malayalam, etc. is also spoken by a lower proportion.

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Government and politics

Gujarat state symbols Animal Dance Flower Lion Garba Galgota

Language Gujarati Song Sport Tree Jai Jai Garavi Gujarat Kabaddi Mango (Keri)

Gujarat is governed by a Legislative Assembly of 182 members. Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLA) are elected on the basis of adult suffrage from one of 182 constituencies, of which 13 are reserved for scheduled castes and 26 for scheduled tribes. The term of office for a member of the Legislative Assembly is five years. The Legislative Assembly elects a speaker who presides over the meetings of the legislature. A governor is appointed by the President of India, and is to address the state legislature after every general election and the commencement of each year's first session of the Legislative Assembly. The leader of the majority party or coalition in the legislature (Chief Minister) or his or her designee acts as the Leader of the Legislative Assembly. The administration of the state is led by the Chief Minister. After gaining independence in 1947, the Indian National Congress party (INC) ruled the Bombay state (which included present-day Gujarat and Maharashtra). Congress continued to govern Gujarat after the state's creation in 1960. During and after India's State of Emergency of 19751977, public support for the Congress Party eroded, but it continued to hold government until 1995. In the 1995 Assembly elections, the Congress lost to the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and Keshubhai Patel came to power. His government lasted only two years. The fall of that government was provoked by a split in the BJP led by Shankersinh Vaghela, who has won most of the subsequent polls. In 2001, following the loss of two assembly seats in by-elections, Keshubhai Patel resigned and yielded power to Narendra Modi. Political instability followed major riots in which rioters raided the homes of thousands of Hindus and Muslims, killing around one thousand people. The BJP retained a majority in the 2002 election, and Narendra Modi has since served as Chief Minister of the state. Modi has been denied visas to the United States for his alleged involvement in the ethnic cleansing in Gujarat.[32] On 1 June 2007, Narendra Modi became the longest serving Chief Minister of Gujarat.[33] [34] On 23 December 2007, the BJP won the state elections in Gujarat and Narendra Modi became the chief minister for the third time in a row. In the recent civic elections in 2010, even Muslims and Christians voted whole-heartedly for Mr. Modi and his development initiatvies resulting in the BJP getting 80% victories.

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Revenues of government
This is a chart of trend of own tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) of the Government of Gujarat assessed by the Finance Commissions from time to time with figures in millions of Indian rupees.
Year 2000 2005 Own tax revenues 104,818 138,964

Districts
On 1960-05-01, Gujarat was created out of the 17 northern districts of former State of Bombay. These districts were further subdivided later on. There are 26 administrative districts in the state (as of 2007).

Districts of Gujarat

Ahmedabad Amreli Anand Bharuch Bhavnagar Dahod

Dang Jamnagar Junagadh Kheda Kutch Mehsana

Narmada Navsari Patan Porbandar Rajkot Sabarkantha

Surat Surendranagar Tapi Vadodara Valsad

Gandhinagar

Panchmahal

Banaskantha

"Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel" was independent India's first Deputy Prime Minister and Home Minister; played a key role in political integration of India; conferred Bharat Ratna in 1991.

Culture of Gujarat
Hinduism
Gujarat was a part of the Harappan civilization. Gujarat is home to Hindu saints of all castes. Sant Dhudhalinath and Sant Girnari Velnathji were Adivasis, Sant Bhojo Nachabkha and Madhavagar were Shudras, Mahatma Gandhi and Lala Bhagat were Vaish, Sant Kilha was a Kshatriya,[35] and Lakulisa and Chakradhara were Brahmins. Many Hindu religious traditions developed in Gujarat. For example, Pasupata Saivism was established in Gujarat. Gujarat is the birth-place of Lord Shiva's Avatar, Lakulisa (Staff-God). He established the Pasupata Shaivite tradition (one of the six major schools of Shaivism) in 2 or 3 AD. According to some traditions, he was born in Kayarohana or Kayavatara in Saurashtra while other traditions hold that it was Karavana, in the modern-day town of Dabhoi Taluka near Baroda,[36] another that it was Ulkapuri (modern Avakhal)[37] and another that it was in Braoch or Bharuch.[38] From Gujarat it spread north to Kashmir,[39] South to Tamil Nadu,[40] East to Nepal[41] (where the Pashupatinath Temple stills exists popularly.) Bhakti movement

Gujarat The Bhakti movement was very popular in Gujarat where devotees of both Islam and Hinduism focused worship of God, trying to rid any separations based on faith in God. Swami Chakradhara was a major figure in the Bhakti movement, born in Gujarat in 1194,[42] and he is believed to be the avatar of Vishnu. Chakradhara Maharaja established the Manhubhava Vaishnavite sect, which spread to Maharashtra as well. The sect still exists today in Gujarat and Maharashtra. Sant Kilha was another Vaishnavite saint of Gujarat born to a Subedar (army man) father.[35] He was the disciple of Krishnasdas (of Jaipur) and became his successor at the seat of Galta Kilha's branch became known as the "Tapasa branch."[43] Besides Ram Bhakti (devotion to Lord Rama), he was also inclined towards yog-saghana and this is why he was made acharya of the Galta Gaddi.[44] He is said to be the founder of the Khati sect.[45] Jalaram, a devotee of Lord Rama is another popular figure. Jalaram's birthday is still celebrated by Gujarati people (in Gujarat and abroad) as Jalaram Jayanti.

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Jainism
Gujarat is a stronghold for the Jain community. Jainism preaches non-violence to all living creatures and vegetarianism. There are a large number of beautiful Jain temples in Gujarat. The Palitana temple (near Bhavnagar) is the biggest temple of Jain people. Some of the Jains have heavily influenced the cuisine of Gujarat with the famous Gujarati thali containing small vegetarian dishes. Morality in business is an important feature of Jain culture. The bania (traders) caste, predominant in Gujarat, comprises followers from both the Jain and Vaishnava traditions.

Islam
Gujarat, with a shoreline on the Arabian Sea, was one of the first regions in India where the Muslims migrated to after the founding of Islam. King Arjun of Gujarat permitted Muslim traders from Ormuz to build a mosque within his realm. The Sufi saints are very popular in Gujarat. Shaykh Makhu was a Sufi saint of the Shattari lineage.[46] "Since Gujarat is situated on the western border of India, there was a direct interaction with people of Arabia and Persia. Many Gujarati Saints and Sufis became famous. Among them names of Sheikh Ganjul Lim (1381), Syed Burhanuddin (1411) and Sheikh Wajihuddin Gujarati are well known."[47] The 'Khojas', Muslims of the Shi'a Nizari Ismaili Satpanth tradition are historically rooted in Gujarat since the 14th century, though the first Ismaili Muslim community in Gujarat dates back to the missionaries of the Fatimid Empire in 1067.

Zoroastrianism
Following the fall of the Sassanid Empire in 651, many Zoroastrians migrated, including several groups who settled in Gujarat. The descendants of those refugees are today known as the Parsis and Irani. The year of arrival on the subcontinent cannot be precisely established, and Parsi legend and tradition assigns various dates to the event. They originally settled along coastal Gujarat in villages like Sanjan in Valsad district, along the Gujarat-Maharashtra border. The Qissa-i Sanjan is a poem discussing the Zoroastrians' landing in Sanjan through the generosity of Rana Jada and being allowed to practice their customs. Parsis are generally more affluent than other Indians and are stereotypically viewed as among the most Anglicised and "Westernised" of the various minority groups.[48] They have also played an instrumental role in economic development with several of the best-known business conglomerates of India run by Parsi-Zoroastrians, including the Tata, Godrej, and Wadia families. Similarities with Hinduism is seen in Zoroastrianism in beliefs that the cow is very sacred. In the 9th chapter of the Vendidad of the Avesta, the purificatory power of cow urine is dilated upon.[49] It is declared to be a panacea for all bodily and moral evils. It is drunk as well as applied externally.[49] Urine of the bull, called "nirang" is brought to the

Gujarat house of an orthodox Parsi every morning and is (like cow milk) applied to the face, hands, and feet.[49] There were several Zoroastrian organizations formed to educate the Parsis on their heritage. Rahnumai Maznayasnam Sabha was established in 1851 by English-educated Parsis like Naoroji Furdunji with funds supplied by K.N.Kama. Much attention focused on the improved of women in society; the purdah was abolished, the age of marriage raised, and education promoted.[48] Religious traditions In Gujarat, there have been several great religious figures. Sant Dadu Dayal (15541603), a saint-poet and a major Bhakti figure from Ahmedabad treated equally both Rama and Allah as names of God and became popular in Northern India. He wrote, "The illusion of Allah and Rama has been dispelled by my mind; since I see Thee in all"[50] Gujarat is also the home of Mahatma Gandhi, who preached the unity between all religions and became a worldwide figure for peaceful struggle against tyranny. Religious sites Dwarakadheesh temple in Dwarka is one of the important temples dedicated to Krishna. On the tip of the Arabian Sea, it was home to Krishna. The Rann of Kutchch covers a large portion of western Gujarat, and is world-famous for its rare ecosystem, fossils, wildlife and terrain. Palitana Temples are a complex of Jain temples situated 51km south west of Bhavnagar. There are 863 temples from the base to the peak of the Shatrunjaya hill, where the Palitana temples are located. Somnath Temple located in the Prabhas Kshetra near Veraval in Saurashtra, on the western coast of Gujarat, India, is one of the twelve Jyotirlings (golden lingas) or symbols of the God Shiva. It is mentioned in the Rig Veda. Somnath means "The Protector of Moon God". The Somnath Temple is known as 'the Shrine Eternal', as the temple has been destroyed six times, but was rebuilt on each occasion. Modhera Sun Temple is famous for its rare position as specifically and uniquely designed for the worship of the Sun, Lord Surya. While the main temple is beautifully and intricately designed with complex architecture, painting, and sculptures, there is a central pond. Surrounding it stand 108 small temples for each of the Sun God's 108 names.
Modhera Sun Temple

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Somnath Temple

Shankheshwar Jain Temples are dedicated to the 23rd Tirthankar, Lord Parshvanath. It is believed that this idol was revealed by Lord Krishna himself, by the teachings of Neminath the 22nd Tirthankar. It is near Ahmedabad.

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Patan houses 84 magnificent Jain Temples built by Samrat Kumarpal, who was a staunch disciple of Acharya Hemachandra, a Jain monk and scholar. Girnar is an epitome of communal harmony & amicable relations among Jains and Hindus. This high-rising steep hill houses shrines of both major religions. One dedicated to Neminath or Arisht Nemi, the 22nd tirthankara, where he is believed to attain nirvana, and another dedicated to Guru Dattatreya, a Hindu deity. Ambaji: This temple is dedicated to goddess Ambaji. It is situated on the Arasur Hill and can be approached by Dwarkadheesh temple road from Abu Road in Rajasthan, as well as from all other important places in Gujarat. A folk drama called 'Bhavai' is performed in the courtyards of the temple. It is connected by bus services from all other major cities of Gujarat state. Dakor: This temple town dedicated to Lord Krishna is situated about 90km from Ahmedabad. The temple of Ranchodrai has the idol of Lord Krishna, which is believed to have been brought from Dwarka by a devotee named Bodana. Becharaji Temple: This temple is another important seat of Mother Goddess at Becharaji in Mehsana district. This temple is thronged by Hindu devotees, especially childless women. Chotila : This place is in Surendranagar district where there is a famous temple of Goddess Chamunda situated. Sidi Saiyyed Mosque: The Sidi Sayed Mosque in Ahmedabad is a famous and ancient mosque of the city. The mosque was built in the year 1411. The elegant mosque was built by Sidi Sayed, a slave of Sultan Ahmed Shah. The mosque is famous all over the country because of its fantastic architecture and exquisite jali work (perforated stone lattices). Rani Rupmati's Mosque: Rani Rupmati was the Hindu wife of Sultan Mehmed Beghara. Rani Rupmati mosque was built between 1430 to 1440, having three domes supported by pillars, with the central dome slightly elevated. It is located at Ahmedabad. The mosque has richly carved minarets, balcony windows, and jali. Its three domes are linked together by a flat roof. Muuk-Khana is a special attraction of this mosque. Kutbi Mazar: A colossal monument raised in the memory of Syedna Qutubuddin Shaheed, the high priest of the Dawoodi Bohra community. Shah Alam Roza: Shah Alam Roza is the mosque and tomb of Saint Shah Alam. Here the brass doors are set in carved marble frames. The floor is tiled of black and white marble. Its dome and minars shows great architectural work of the sultanate era. Pavagadh : Pavagadh is the place of worship for goddess Kalika. It is located on Pavagadh hills, near by Baroda. There is a rope way facility available for the visitors of the temple. Shamlaji : This temple is situated in Sabarkantha district. It is dedicated to Lord Krishna. Virpur : Virpur is devoted to Jalaram bapa. Followers and even non-followers of Jalaram bapa visit this place often in Gujarat state.

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Historic sites
Lothal is the site of the ancient ruins of the first Indian port, dating from the time of the Indus Valley Civilization. Dholavira, the ancient city, locally known as Kotada Timba, is one of the largest and most prominent archaeological sites in India belonging to the Indus Valley Civilization. It is located on the Khadir island in the Kutch district of Gujarat the island is surrounded by water in the monsoon season. The site was occupied from about 3000 BC for about a millennium, declining slowly after about 2100, briefly abandoned and then reoccupied, finally, by villagers among its Dholavira's sophisticated water reservoir. ruins, until about 1450. Gola Dhoro, dating from 25002000 BCE, was recently discovered near the village of Bagasra. Shell bangles, copper, and beads were found there.[51]

Fairs and festivals

Fairs Around more than 1000 festivals are celebrated in Gujaratthe state is known as the land of fairs and festivals. Some of these fairs and festivals are as follows: Bhavnath Mahadev Mela (February) The Bhavnath Mahadev Temple, situated at the foot of Mount Girnar in the city of Junagadh, is the site of the Bhavnath Mahadev fair held for five days in February, during the festival of Mahashivratri. The Mahapuja of Lord Shiva takes place at midnight in this temple on the 14th day of the dark half of the month of Magh. When the puja (prayer ceremony) starts, Naga Bavas (naked sages) living nearby move towards the fair seated on elephants, holding flags and blowing conch shells. It is firmly believed that Lord Shiva himself visits the shrine on this occasion. Visitors are served free meals by the organizers. Special stalls sell idols, rosaries, or holy beads (brought by vendors from Ayodhya and Mathura), utensils of brass and copper, sweets and fruits. The Bhavnath Mahadev Temple is surrounded by many equally ancient and holy places. Dangs Darbar (March) Dangs Darbar is the name of the annual fair held every year in Ahwa, the most important town in the Dangs a few days before Holi. The Dangs is one of the most delightful districts of Gujarat and is located high in the Saputara hills, the original home of the adivasis, the tribal population of Gujarat. The name "Darbar" dates back to the time of the British, when a darbar of Rajas and Naiks of neighbouring area used to assemble there. Today it is called Jamabandi Darbar, and the District Collector officiates at it. Thousands of tribal people flock to Ahwa from all over the district, dressed in bright colours, sounding the Shehnai, and beating their drums. Folk dances, dramas, and songs enliven the air during the festival. Chitra Vichitra Mela (March) This fair, one of the largest purely Adivasi (tribal) fairs, is attended by around 60,000 to 70,000 tribal people. It takes place every year in the village of Gunbhakhari in Sabarkantha district, very near the borders of Rajasthan. It is held a fortnight after Holi, the festival of colours. The site of the fair is attractive as the temple overlooks the rivers Sabarmati, Akul, and Vyakul. The name of the fair is derived from Chitravirya and Vichitraviraya, the sons of King Shantanu, who are believed to have lived there and been cured of diseases which afflicted them. The fair attracts large numbers of Bhils (tribals) who come from all the surrounding districts using every imaginable form of transport. The Garasis and Bhil tribals dress in their customary colourful costumes. The costume of the men generally consists of a blue shirt, dhoti, and a red or saffron turban. Women don ghaghras (embroidered skirts), which have a circumference of as much as 20yards (18m), and are covered from head to foot with ornate and heavy

Gujarat silver jewellery. They use liquid kumkum (vermilion) to colour their cheeks and lips a brilliant red, while their eyes are outlined with kajal (kohl). Every group that comes to the fair carries its own drum making the atmosphere come alive with the incessant beat of numerous drums. The women sing folk songs, and everyone dances. The dancing and drumming continue for hours until everyone is exhausted. Over a hundred stalls hold food and drink and sweets of various kinds. Silver ornaments can be bought, and household articles, as well. Here, as in other fairs, there is a giant wheel and a merry-go-round which never ceases to spin. Sanskruti kunj Fair The Sanskruti kunj Festival shows the different cultures of the states of India. It is organised in the winter sesion in the capital city, Gandhinagar. All the competitors of India come during this fair and show their state's culture & dance. Festivals Other than those festivals observed throughout India, there are festivities specific to Gujarat. Makar Sankranti and Kite Flying Festival (14 January) The Kite Flying Festival takes place in mid January and marks the time when the Suns direct rays reach the Tropic of Capricorn after the winter solstice. It is celebrated with lots of folk music and dance as well as kite flying. People of Gujarat gather on terraces to fly kites of various colours to celebrate Makar Sankranti or Uttrayana, the welcome to the sun after the cold winter months. Glass strengthened threads of the Indian fighter kites are matched against each other in the air the kite fighter who cuts the other Navaratri celebrations in Ahmedabad. thread is the victor. At night, kites with Chinese lanterns are flown and held aloft. Food such as Undhiya, sugar cane juice and local sweets is typically served to celebrate the day. Dance Festival Modhera (January) Resting on a knoll in the village of Modhera are the ruins of the 11th century Sun Temple. The outer walls of the temple are covered with sculptures in which the figures of Surya, the sun god, are prominent. The Sun Temple is the site of an annual festival of Indian classical dances organized by the Tourism Corporation of Gujarat. The idea is to present classical dance forms in an atmosphere they were originally presented in. The Kutch Mahotsav (FebruaryMarch) The Kutch Festival or the Rann festival is celebrated at the time of the Shiv Ratri in February/ March. The centre of the festival is Bhuj in Kutch. It has crafts, fairs and folk dances and music and cultural shows, all organized by the Gujarat Tourism. Tours are also conducted out to the ruins of Dhola Vera, a city that was once a part of the Indus Valley civilization. Bhadra Purnima (September) The full moon of Bhadrapad is one of the four most important festival days of the year when farmers and agriculturists come to Ambaji, a place that derives its name from Goddess Ambaji, whose shrine is located there. On this occasion, a large fair is organized on full moon days. In the evening, performances of Bhavai, the folk drama of the state, is held and Garba programmes are organized. The devout attend readings of the Saptashati, the seven hundred verses in praise of the goddess, and visit the temple for a darshan (worship) of her. The Ambaji shrine is the principal shrine of the goddess in Gujarat, and its origins are still unknown. The Temple of Ambaji is recognized as one of the original Shakti Pithas (religious texts) where, according to the ancient Scriptures, the heart of the goddess Ambaji fell to earth when her body was dismembered. A triangular Vishwa Yantra, inscribed with figures and the syllable 'Shree' in the centre, represents the deity. There is no idol, which testifies the temple's antiquity. Idol worship became popular much later.

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Major Cities
Ahmedabad, Surat, Vadodara and Rajkot are major cities of the Gujarat. Ahmedabad (Gujarati: Amdvd, Hindi: ) is the sixth largest metropolitan city in India and largest in Gujarat, with a population of approximately 6.2 million.[52] Located on the banks of the River Sabarmati, the city is the administrative centre of Ahmedabad district and was the capital of Gujarat from 1960 to 1970; the capital was shifted to Gandhinagar thereafter. In colloquial Gujarati, the city is commonly called Amdavad. Ahmedabad was founded in 1411 by Sultan Ahmed Shah to serve as the capital of the Gujarat Sultanate, and was named after him. Under the British rule, a military cantonment was established and the city infrastructure was modernized and expanded. Though incorporated into the Bombay Presidency during British rule, Ahmedabad remained the most important city in the Gujarat region. The city established itself as the home of a booming textile industry, which earned it the nickname the "Manchester of the East."[53] [54] The city was at the forefront of the Indian independence movement in the first half of the 20th century.[55] It was the centre of many campaigns of civil disobedience to promote workers' rights civil rights and political independence.

Ahmedabad Clockwise from top: Skyline at Ashram Road, Sidi Saiyyed ni Jali, Kankaria Lakefront, Ellis Bridge, Dilli Darwaja, Hatheesing Temple

With the creation of the state of Gujarat in 1960, Ahmedabad gained prominence as commercial capital of the state. The city is witnessing a major construction boom and population increase. A rising centre of education, information technology and scientific industries, Ahmedabad remains the cultural and commercial heart of Gujarat and much of western India. Karamsad is a city and a municipality in Anand district in the Indian state of Gujarat. It is part of the Chchagaam Gol (Circle of Six Villages). Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, one of India's greatest leaders in the Indian Independence Movement grew up in Karamsad. It was also the home of his elder brother Vithalbhai Patel, who was also an important political leader. The Patel brothers lived with their two elder brothers and one younger brother and sister, and parents Jhaverbhai and Ladba Patel in a mud-brick house adjacent to his family's farm holdings. This house is preserved to date as a memorial to Patel. Surat (Gujarati: , Hindi: ) formerly known as Suryapur, is the Commercial Capital City of Gujarat, also India's ninth largest metropolitan city. The city proper is the one of the most populous cities in the world. Surat is the administrative capital of Surat district and Surat Metropolitan Region.

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The city is situated on the left bank of the Tapti River, 14miles (23km) from its mouth. The Population of Surat with its twin city Navsari is above 6.2 million as of 2010. A moat divides the older parts of the city, with its narrow streets and handsome houses, and the newer suburbs. The city is largely recognized for its textile and diamond businesses. It is also known as the diamond capital of the world and the textile capital of India.[56] 92% of the world's diamonds are cut and polished in Surat.[56] Surat is also the Third cleanest city in India after Chandigarh and Mysore. Surat was once the largest city in India.[56] It has one of the Surat Fort highest GDP growth rates in India at 11.5% as of 2008.[56] Surat was the primary port of India during the Mughal period, a distinction it lost to Bombay during the British Raj.[56] Vadodara (Gujarati: Vaodr), formerly Baroda (Gujarati: Baro), is the third most-populated city in the Indian state of Gujarat after Ahmedabad and Surat. It is one of four cities in the state with a population of over 1 million,[57] the other being Rajkot and the two cities listed above, although it has a massive population of over 3 million. It is also known as the Sayaji Nagari (Sayaji's City after its famous ruler, Maharaja Sayajirao Gaekwad III) or Sanskari Nagari (The City of Culture, a reference to its status as the Cultural Capital of Gujarat). Vadodara or Baroda, formerly the capital city of the Gaekwar State, is situated on the banks of the Vishwamitri, a river whose name derived from the great saint Rishi Vishwamitra. It is located southeast of Ahmedabad. It is the administrative headquarters of Vadodara District. Vadodara is home to almost 1.6 million people[52] (as of 2005), the beautiful Lakshmi Vilas Palace and the Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda (M.S.U.) which is the largest university in Gujarat. Its famous for various faculties and departments, including the Fine Arts, Performing Arts, Technology, Management, Laxmi Vilas Palace at Vadodara Psychology, Social Work, Law and Medicine streams. It has a high literacy rate by Indian standards of 78% (2001). Major industries include petrochemicals, engineering, pharmaceuticals, plastics and Forex. Famous companies such as ABB, Reliance Industries, Larsen and Toubro, IPCL, ONGC and Sun Pharmaceuticals all have a strong presence in this city, also it has presence of IT multi-national companies. Rajkot (Gujarati: Rjkot (listen)) is the 4th largest city in the state of Gujarat, India. Rajkot is the 28th urban agglomeration in India, with a population more than 1.43 million as on 2008.[58] [59] Rajkot is ranked 22nd in The world's fastest growing cities and urban areas from 2006 to 2020.[60]

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Rajkot is a city of Gujarat state in India and administrative headquarters of the Rajkot District, located on the banks of the Aji River and Niari River. Rajkot was the capital of the then Saurashtra state from 15 April 1948 to 31 October 1956 before merging in bilingual Bombay State on 1 November 1956. Rajkot was merged into Gujarat State from bilingual Bombay state on 1 May 1960. Apart from this, Bhuj, Bhavnagar, Junagadh, Jamnagar are also cities with big urban population.
Watson Museum At Rajkot

Education
The Gujarat Secondary and Higher Secondary Education Board (GSHSEB) are in charge of the schools run by the Government of Gujarat. However, most of the private schools in Gujarat are affiliated to the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) and Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE) board. Gujarat has 13 universities and four agricultural universities. Gujarat is also known for many national Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad level institutions. The Space Applications Centre (SAC) is an institution for space research and satellite communication in Ahmedabad, India, under the aegis of the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO). Dr. Vikram Sarabhai, a renowned scientist, industrialist, and visionary Gujarati, played an important role in it. He also founded Physical Research Laboratory, a research institute encompasses Astrophysics, Solar System, and cosmic radiation. He also envisioned Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad, one of the internationally reputed management research institute that is located in Gujarat's commercial capital Ahmadabad and is the top ranked management institutes in the country.

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214 Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute has been established under Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Govt. of India at Bhavnagar. It was inaugurated by Late Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India on 10 April 1954, with a view to carry out research on marine salt, and salt from inland lakes and sub-soil brine. It is working on reverse osmosis, electro membrane process, salt and marine chemicals, analytical science, marine biotechnology, and other related fields.

B.K. School of Business Management is ranked 6th in terms of financial Management. K. S. School of Business Management is also an MBA College in Gujarat University providing a unique five year's integrated MBA Cource. The National Institute of Design (NID) in Gandhinagar is internationally acclaimed as one of the foremost multi-disciplinary institutions in the field of design education and research. In addition, Institute of Rural Management Anand (IRMA) is one of the leading sectoral institution in rural management. IRMA is a unique institution in the sense that it provides professional education to train managers for rural management. It is the only one of its kind in all Asia.
The clock tower in Gujarat University, Ahmedabad

Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology located in Surat is one of the best engineering colleges in India. It is one of the 20 National Institutes of Technology created by the central government and is a deemed university. It has students from all over India and some foreign students as well. Also, there is Nirma University ranked 14th in self-financed engineering colleges in India. Gujarat Science City,[61] is a government initiative to draw more students towards education in science, which hosts India's first IMAX 3D theatre, an energy park, a hall of science, an amphitheatre, and dancing musical fountains among others. Apart from that, Mudra Institute of Communication Ahmedabad (MICA) is one of the most famous institutes for mass communication and is well-renowned across India. IIT Indian institute of technology was established at Gandhinagar in the year 2008. IIT Gandhinagar is mentored by IIT Bombay. IIT'S first batch started on 1 August 2008, at a temporary building of government college, Chandkheda, Gandhinagar.The Institute of Seismological Research (ISR) has been established by the Science and Technology Department, Government of Gujarat in 2003 and is registered as a Society.ISR campus is at Raisan, Gandhinagar in a sprawling and picturesque area on the banks of Sabarmati river. Aims and objectives include assigning optimum seismic factors for buildings in different regions and long-term assessment of earthquake potential. The ISR is the only institute in India fully dedicated to seismological research and is planned to be developed into a premier International institute in few years time.

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Literature
Gujarati literature's history may be traced to 1000 AD.Since then literature has flourished till date. Well known laureates of Gujarati literature are Hemchandracharya, Narsinh Mehta, Mirabai, Akho, Premanand Bhatt, Shamal Bhatt, Dayaram, Dalpatram, Narmad, Govardhanram Tripathi, Gandhiji, K. M. Munshi, Umashankar Joshi, Suresh Joshi, Pannalal Patel and Rajendra Shah . Kavi Kant, Zaverchand Meghani and Kalapi are famous Gujarati poets. Gujarat Vidhya Sabha, Gujarat Sahitya Sabha, and Gujarati Sahitya Parishad are Ahmedabad based literary institutions promoting the spread of Gujarati literature. Saraswatichandra is a landmark novel by Govardhanram Tripathi. Writers like Kavi Nanalal, Sundaram, Aanand Shankar Dhruv, Khabardar, Balwantray Thakore, Suresh Dalal, Harindra Dave, Jyotindra Dave, Tarak Mehta, Harkisan Mehta, Chandrakant Bakshi, Ashvini Bhatt, Vinod Bhatt, Kanti Bhatt, Makarand Dave, Gunvant Shah and Varsha Adalja have influenced Gujarati thinkers.

Govardhanram Tripathi

A huge contribution to Gujarati language literature came from the Swaminarayan paramhanso, like Bramhanand, Premanand, with prose like Vachanamrut and poetry in the form of bhajans. Gujarati theatre owes a lot to Bhavai. Bhavai is a folk musical performance of stage plays. Ketan Mehta and Sanjay Leela Bhansali explored artistic use of bhavai in films such as Bhavni Bhavai, Oh Darling! Yeh Hai India and Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam. Dayro (gathering) involves singing and conversation reflecting on human nature.

Gujarati Films
Gujarati film industry is one of the largest regional and vernacular film industry of India.It all started in year 1932 when first Gujarati film "Narsinh Mehta" was released. "Bhavni Bhavai" released in the year 1980 was directed by Ketan Mehta. It boasted of superlative performances, fine camerawork and won awards like National Award for Best Feature Film on National Integration, National Film Award for Best Art Direction for Meera Lakhia and another award at the Nantes festival in France. In 1992," Hun Hunshi Hunshilal", directed by Sanjiv Shah was sought to be post-modern. Other notable films are "Lohi Ni Sagai", "Manvini Bhavai", "Meru Malan", etc. Gujarati cinema show times Recently "Little Zizou", a 2009 film in Hindi, Gujarati, and English, written and directed by Sooni Taraporevala won "Silver Lotus Award" or "Rajat Kamal" in 'National Film Award for Best Film on Family Welfare' category at 56th National Film Awards. Many famous actors have worked in Gujarati film industry like Sanjeev Kumar, Rajendra Kumar, Bindu (actress), Asha Parekh, Kiran Kumar, Upendra Trivedi, Arvind Trivedi, Aruna Irani, Mallika Sarabhai, Asrani, Naresh Kanodia, Sneh Lata, Jayshree T., Paresh Rawal, Niraj Vora, Dilip Joshi, Ayesha jhulka, Himesh Reshmiya etc.

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Museums
Gujarat's museums are run by the state's Department of Museums located at the principal state museum, Baroda Museum & Picture Gallery. Other famous museums include: "The Gandhi Smarak Sangrahalaya" The Gandhi Smarak Sangrahalaya in Ahmedabad is run by a public trust established in 1951. The museum's new premises were built in 1963. The museum's main objective was to house the personal memorabilia of Mahatma Gandhi. Consequently, the exhibits on view depict the vivid and historic events of Gandhiji's life. There are books, manuscripts, and photostat copies of his correspondence, photographs of Gandhiji with his wife Kasturba and other ashram associates, life size oil paintings, and actual relics like his writing desk. "Calico Museum of Textiles" The Calico Museum of Textiles at Ahmedabad, India, is the premier textile museum of the country, and one of the most celebrated institutions of its kind in the world for its distinguished and comprehensive collection of textiles and artifacts. Ahmedabad Tourism [62] "The Vadodara Museum" The Vadodara Museum in Vadodara, located in the popular Sayaji Bagh, the museum houses a collection which belonged to the former maharaja Sayaji Rao Gaekwad. Indian rulers during the Raj often collected all kinds of European art and other knick knacks. Largely being the personal collection of the maharaja, the exhibits span across centuries and continents, as well as diverse art forms. There are Greek and Roman sculpture with European paintings of earlier periods. The Asian section has items from Burma, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, China, and Japan made of wood, ivory, bronze and pottery. "Maharaja Fatehsingh Museum" The impressive Laxmi Vilas Palace, in the Indo Saracenic style of architecture, was once the residence of the Gaekwad family. Maharaja Fatehsingh Museum in Vadodara, located in the sprawling grounds of the palace complex, is a multi purpose museum and houses the Gaekwad family's rich collection of an treasures. "The Gandhi Museum" The Gandhi Museum in Bhavnagar showcases a rare collection of photographs relating to the life of Mahatma Gandhi are on view at the Gandhi Museum. These recreate the significant events of Gandhiji's life. Also displayed are documents, letters, and his personal relics. The collection of audio-visual material includes microfilms, a voice library, prayers, and lecture records. "The Watson Museum"

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The 'Watson Museum' in Rajkot, is a museum of human history and culture. Its collections precious objects of colonial period of India and History of Rajkot. It is amongst the largest and most comprehensive museum in State of Gujarat. Watson Museum is considered to be the finest amongst 7 such museums located across Saurashtra (region) and run by the State Government because it holds invaluable articles and state-of-the-art facilities like photography, guide service, reference library and sales counter of the museum's publication. "The Lakhota museum" The 'Lakhota Museum' in Jamnagar, is a museum of history and royalty of jamnagar. It was built in center of Lakhota Lake. It was built by Jam Ranjitsinh. Other museums include: Kite Museum in Ahmedabad, The Lady Wilson Museums Dharampur, Valsad. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Museum,Surat. SardarVallabhbhai Patel Museum Karamsad [63]
The statue of Queen Victoria, unveiled by the Lord Curzon in 1897 AD at Watson Museum

Transportation
Air
Gujarat has ten airports, the most of any Indian state as per the list of airports in India. All are domestic airports except Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel International Airport in Ahmedabad, which also offers international flights. International airport Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel International Airport (Ahmedabad) Many domestic as well as international flights operate from here. Domestic airports Bhavnagar Airport Bhavnagar Airport, 9km from the city of Bhavnagar. Bhuj Airport In the Bhuj city of Gujarat. This airport has been recently been named Shyamji Krishna Verma, Bhuj Airport. Jamnagar Airport 10km from the City of Jamnagar. Kandla Airport (Gandhidham) situated at Kandla, near Gandhidham, in Kutch district. Keshod Airport (Junagadh) Keshod Airport is found 3km from Keshod city in Junagadh District. Porbandar Airport is situated 5km from the city of Porbandar. Rajkot Airport 4km from the city of Rajkot. Surat Airport Recently inaugurated on Magdalla Road.
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel International Airport, Ahmedabad

Gujarat Vadodara Airport Integrated Terminal Building will be completed by 2010, enabling international fights to Vadodara. Mehsana Airport Meshana Airport is about 2km from Meshsana city. Future Airports Zalawad Airport Future airport for Surendranagar area. Fedara (Ahmedabad) Proposed International Airport near Fedara village of Bhl region. Ambaji (Danta) near Palanpur, Banaskantha

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Rail
Gujarat comes under the Western Railways zone of the Indian Railways. Vadodara Railway Station is the busiest railway station in Gujarat and the fourth busiest railway station in India.It is situated on the Mumbai Delhi Western Railway Mainline. Other important railway stations are Surat Railway Station, Ahmedabad Railway Station and Rajkot Railway Station. Indian Railways is planning DelhiMumbai dedicated rail freight route passing through the state. Work on Rs 1,100 crore (Rs 11 billion) first phase of the metro rail project in Ahmedabad-Gandhinagar will start by 2011 and the line is expected to be operational within 23 years. The first phase of the metro rail project will cover a distance of 32.65 kilometre in the north-south direction between Gandhinagar and Ahmedabad and 10.90 kilometre east-west corridor between Kalupur and Thaltej.[20]

Sea
Kandla Port is one of the largest ports serving Western India. Other important ports in Gujarat are the Port of Navlakhi, Port of Magdalla, Port of Pipavav, Port of Porbandar and the privately owned Mundra Port.

Road
Local transportation Bus Gujarat State Road Transport Corporation (GSRTC) is the primary body responsible for providing the bus services within the state of Gujarat and also with the neighboring states. It is a public transport corporation providing bus services and public transit within Gujarat and to the other states in India. Apart from this, there are a number of services provided by GSRTC. Mofussil Services It connects major cities, smaller towns and villages within Gujarat. Intercity Bus Services It also connects major cities Ahmedabad, Vadodara (Baroda) and Rajkot. Interstate Bus Services It connects various cities of Gujarat with the neighboring states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. City Services GSRTC also provides city bus services at Surat, Baroda, Gandhinagar and Ahmedabad, within the state of Gujarat. Parcel Services This service is used for transporting goods. Apart from this, the GSRTC provides special bus services for festivals, industrial zones, schools, colleges and pilgrim places.

Gujarat Auto rickshaws Auto rickshaw is an important and frequently used mode of transport in Gujarat. The Government of Gujarat is promoting Bicycles to reduce pollution.

219

References
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[5] GDP: The top 10 cities in India - Rediff.com Business (http:/ / business. rediff. com/ slide-show/ 2010/ apr/ 23/ slide-show-1-the-top-10-cities-in-india-by-gdp. htm) [6] Gujarat | DeshGujarat.Com Archives Surat:Indias Fastest Growing City, Ahmedabad 3rd(English Text) (http:/ / deshgujarat. com/ 2008/ 01/ 29/ surat-indias-fastest-growing-city-ahmedabad-3rdenglish-text/ ) [7] "The Hindu Business Line : Gujarat goes big on urban development" (http:/ / www. blonnet. com/ iw/ 2009/ 01/ 25/ stories/ 2009012551001500. htm). Blonnet.com. 25 January 2009. . Retrieved 16 July 2010. [8] Kumar Suresh Singh; Rajendra Behari Lal (2003). Anthropological Survey of India (http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=d8yFaNRcYcsC& pg=PR17& dq). Popular Prakashan. ISBN978-81-7991-104-4. . [9] Gujrat Government. "Gujrat state official site" (http:/ / www. gujaratindia. com/ about-gujarat/ history-1. htm). . "The State took its name from the Gujara, the land of the Gujjars, who ruled the area during the 700s and 800s." [10] Ramesh Chandra Majumdar; Bhratya Itihsa Samiti (1954). The History and Culture of the Indian People: The classical age (http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=8QhuAAAAMAAJ& q=gujar+ khan+ #search_anchor). G. Allen & Unwin. p.64. . "." [11] Bhandarkar, Devadatta Ramakrishna (1989). Some Aspects of Ancient Indian Culture. Asian Educational Services. p.64. ISBN8120604571. [12] Kamal Prashad Sharma; Surinder Mohan Sethi (1997). Costumes and ornaments of Chamba (http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=TQwKtSFn9FMC& pg=PA57& lpg). ISBN9788173870675. . [13] Llat Prasda Peya (1971). Sun-worship in ancient India. Motilal Banarasidass. p.245. [14] "History of Gujarat" (http:/ / www. mapsofindia. com/ gujarat/ history/ ). Mapsofindia.com. . Retrieved 16 July 2010. [15] P. Page xvii Historical and Cultural Chronology of Gujarat edited by Manjulal Ranchholdlal Majmudar [16] P. 391 The Hindu World: An Encyclopedic Survey of Hinduism By Benjamin Walker [17] "Gujarat Brand" (http:/ / www. business-standard. com/ india/ news/ modi-woos-investors-in-state-markets-brand-gujarat/ 415381/ ). . [18] "List of S&P CNX 500 conglomerates" (http:/ / www. nse-india. com/ content/ indices/ ind_cnx500list. csv). . [19] Adiga, Aravind (12 April 2004). "Uncommon Brilliance" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,501040419-610100,00. html). Time. . Retrieved 4 May 2010. [20] "Gujarat plans 12 giant industrial hubs" (http:/ / business. rediff. com/ slide-show/ 2010/ oct/ 21/ slide-show-1-gujarat-plans-12-giant-industrial-hubs. htm). business.rediff.com. . Retrieved 25 Oct 2010. [21] The Hindu Business Line : `Vibrant Gujarat' signs 104 MoUs worth [[Image:Indian Rupee symbol.svg|baseline|6px|link=Indian rupee|alt=Indian Rupee (http:/ / www. thehindubusinessline. com/ 2007/ 01/ 13/ stories/ 2007011301731900. htm)] 2.5 lakh cr] [22] Vibrant Gujarat sees one foreign investor, the Business Standard (http:/ / www. business-standard. com/ economy/ storypage. php?leftnm=3& subLeft=1& chklogin=N& autono=271739& tab=r) [23] "Gujarat aims at 15% industrial growth: Rediff.com Business" (http:/ / in. rediff. com/ money/ 2008/ mar/ 10guj. htm). In.rediff.com. 10 March 2008. . Retrieved 16 July 2010. [24] "Next-Gen Solar Energy Hub : Gujarat, India: Story of Capacity allotment of solar power projects in Gujarat" (http:/ / www. solarishi. com/ 2010/ 03/ story-of-capacity-allotment-of-solar. html). Solarishi.com. 19 March 2010. . Retrieved 16 July 2010. [25] "About Gujarat State Agriculture Marketing Board" (http:/ / agri. gujarat. gov. in/ gujarati/ boards_corporations/ gs-agri-mark-board/ agri_profile. htm). Agri.gujarat.gov.in. . Retrieved 16 July 2010. [26] "Amul to become world's largest liquid milk brand-Food-Cons. Products-News By Industry-News-The Economic Times" (http:/ / economictimes. indiatimes. com/ News/ News-By-Industry/ Cons-Products/ Food/ Amul-to-become-worlds-largest-liquid-milk-brand/ articleshow/ 1988793. cms). Economictimes.indiatimes.com. 14 September 2006. . Retrieved 16 July 2010. [27] "Incentives for Water Conservation in Gujarat." (http:/ / www. waterwideweb. org/ incentives-for-water-conservation-in-guajarat. html). waterwideweb.com. 31 December 2010. . Retrieved 14 January 2011. [28] "Gujarat, India." (http:/ / www. water. columbia. edu/ ?id=India& navid=Gujarat). Columbia Water Center. . Retrieved 14 January 2011.

Gujarat
[29] "The Worsening Water Crisis in Gujarat, India." (http:/ / blogs. ei. columbia. edu/ 2011/ 01/ 18/ the-worsening-water-crisis-in-gujarat-india/ ). Columbia Water Center. . Retrieved 18 January 2011. [30] "Census Population" (http:/ / indiabudget. nic. in/ es2006-07/ chapt2007/ tab97. pdf) (PDF). Census of India. Ministry of Finance India. . Retrieved 18 December 2008. [31] Indian Census (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ ) [32] "No entry for Modi into US: visa denied" (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ india/ No-entry-for-Modi-into-US-visa-denied/ articleshow/ 1055543. cms). The Times Of India. . [33] Modi becomes longest serving CM of Gujarat (http:/ / www. expressindia. com/ fullstory. php?newsid=87512) [34] (http:/ / in. news. yahoo. com/ 070606/ 43/ 6gpdc. html) [35] P. 78 The Aryan Path By Sophia Wadia, Indian Institute of World Culture [36] Dasgupta, P. 7, A History of Indian Philosophy [37] Dyczkowskihe P. 23 Canon of the Saivagama and the Kubjika Tantras of the Western Kaul Tradition [38] Farquhar, P. 146, An Outline of the Religious Literature of India [39] Bamzai, P. 202, Culture and Political History of Kashmir [40] Shah, P. xi, Studies in Jaina Art and Iconography and Allied Subjects in Honour of Dr. U [41] "Pashupata Saivism" (http:/ / www. hinduismtoday. com/ archives/ 1994/ 3/ 1994-3-09. shtml) Hinduism Today, March 1994 [42] P. 113 Social Life in Maharashtra Under the Peshwas By Sudha Vishwanath Desai [43] Encyclopaedia of Indian literature vol. 1 By Sahitya Akademi [44] P. 107 History of Rajasthani Literature By Hiralal Maheshwari [45] P. 453 The Modern Review By Ramananda Chatterjee [46] P. 306 Sufis & Saints' Bodies: Mysticism, Corporeality, & Sacred Power in Islam By Scott Kugle, Scott Alan Kugle [47] P. 169 Islam and Indian Culture By Mohammad Shujaat, Shujaat Muhammad [48] P. 282 A New Look at Modern Indian History By B.L. Grover, S. Grover [49] Bhandarkar, P. 72 Some Aspects of Ancient Indian Culture [50] P. 400 History of Medieval India By S. Chand [51] Gola Dhoro archaeological site (http:/ / www. harappa. com/ goladhoro/ ) [52] "Population Finder" (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Population_Finder/ Population_Finder. aspx?Name=Ahmadabad& Criteria=U). Census of India. . Retrieved 24 July 2008. [53] Engineer, Ashgar Ali (2003). The Gujarat Carnage. Orient Longman. p.196. ISBN8125024964. [54] "Profile of the City Ahmedabad" (http:/ / www. egovamc. com/ cdp/ AMC_CDP. pdf) (PDF). Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation Ahmedabad, Urban Development Authority and CEPT University, Ahmedabad. Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation. 2006. . Retrieved 22 July 2008. [55] A. Srivathsan (23 June 2006). "Manchester of the east" (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ yw/ 2006/ 06/ 23/ stories/ 2006062300300200. htm). Young World (Chennai, India: The Hindu). . Retrieved 30 July 2006. [56] Adiga, Aravind (12 April 2004). "Uncommon Brilliance" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,501040419-610100,00. html). Time Magazine. . Retrieved 17 October 2007. [57] "Urban Development, Gujarat" (http:/ / www. udd. gujarat. gov. in/ udd/ urb_scn. htm). Government of Gujarat. . Retrieved 14 June 2007. [58] "India: metropolitan areas" (http:/ / www. world-gazetteer. com/ wg. php?x=& men=gpro& lng=en& dat=80& geo=-104& srt=pnan& col=aohdq& msz=1500& pt=a& va=& geo=-1049253). World Gazetteer. . [59] World Gazetter: Largest cities in India (http:/ / www. world-gazetteer. com/ wg. php?x=& men=gcis& lng=en& dat=80& geo=-104& srt=pnan& col=aohdq& msz=1500& va=& pt=a), Retrieved on 4 January 2008 [60] City Mayors World's fastest growing urban areas (1) (http:/ / www. citymayors. com/ statistics/ urban_growth1. html), Retrieved on 13 December 2007 [61] "Gujarat Science City" (http:/ / www. scity. org/ ). Scity.org. 26 June 2010. . Retrieved 16 July 2010. [62] http:/ / www. ahmedabadtourism. com [63] http:/ / www. sardarpateltrust. org/ mianactivity. htm

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External links
Government of Gujarat official website (http://gujaratindia.com) (redirect from gujarat.gov.in (http://gujarat. gov.in)) Official information broadcasting platform of Government of Gujarat (http://gujaratinteractive.net) Aftermarket parts traders and dealer for Heavy earthmoving, mining & construction machinery in Gujarat (http:// www.semspares.com) Vibrant Gujarat Official Site (http://www.vibrantgujarat.com/) Basic Facts About Gujarat State (http://coolgomzy.com/ general-knowledge-basic-facts-about-gujarat-state-india/)

Gujarat Gujarat (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/India/Gujarat//) at the Open Directory Project Gujarat travel guide from Wikitravel

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Haryana
Haryana
State

Seal

Location of Haryana in India

Map of Haryana Coordinates (Chandigarh): 3044N 7647E

Haryana

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Country Established Capital Largest city Districts Government -Governor -ChiefMinister -Legislature Area -Total Area rank Population (2011) -Total -Rank -Density Time zone ISO 3166 code HDI HDI rank Literacy Official languages Website 25353081 16th 573.4/km2(1485.2/sqmi) IST (UTC+05:30) IN-HR 0.644 (medium) 11th (2005) 71.4% (17th) Haryanavi, Hindi, English haryana.gov.in [1] 44212km2(17070.3sqmi) 20th Shob G Bhupinder Singh Hooda Unicameral (90 seats)

India 1 November 1966 Chandigarh Faridabad 21

Haryana (Hindi: , pronounced[rjaa]; is a state in India. Historically, it has been a part of the Kuru region in North India.[2] [3] [4] The name Haryana is found mentioned in the 12th century AD by the apabhramsha writer Vibudh Shridhar (VS 1189-1230).[5] It is bordered by Punjab and Himachal Pradesh to the north, and by Rajasthan to the west and south. The river Yamuna defines its eastern border with Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh. Haryana also surrounds Delhi on three sides, forming the northern, western and southern borders of Delhi. Consequently, a large area of Haryana is included in the National Capital Region. The capital of the state is Chandigarh which is administered as a union territory and is also the capital of Punjab. The name Haryana means the Abode of God from Sanskrit Hari (the Hindu God Vishnu) and ayana (home), although it may also refer to the lush green landscape of the state (from Sanskrit harit meaning green).[6] Haryana was the cradle of the Indus Valley and Vedic Civilizations, both flourishing on the banks of the now lost Sarasvati River. Several decisive battles were fought in the area, which shaped much of the history of India. These include the epic battle of Mahabharata at Kurukshetra (including the recital of the Bhagavad Gita by Krishna), and the three battles of Panipat. Haryana was administered as part of the Punjab province of British India, and was carved out on linguistic lines as India's 17th state in 1966. Haryana is now a leading contributor to the country's production of foodgrain and milk. Agriculture is the leading occupation for the residents of the state, the flat arable land irrigated by submersible pumps and an extensive canal system. Haryana contributed heavily to the Green Revolution that made India self-sufficient in food production in the 1960s.

Haryana Haryana is one of the wealthiest states of India and has the third highest per capita income in the country at Rs. 67,891,[7] including the largest number of rural crorepatis in India.[8] Haryana is also one of the most economically developed regions in South Asia and its agricultural and manufacturing industry has experienced sustained growth since 1970s.[9] Haryana is India's largest manufacturer of passenger cars, two-wheelers, and tractors.[10] Since 2000, the state has emerged as the largest recipient of investment per capita in India.[11] The city of Gurgaon has rapidly emerged as a major hub for the information technology and automobile industries. Gurgaon is home to Maruti Udyog Limited, India's largest automobile manufacturer, and Hero Honda Limited, the world's largest manufacturer of two-wheelers. Yamunanagar, Panipat, Panchkula and Faridabad are also industrial hubs, with the Panipat Refinery being the second largest refinery in South Asia. There are also long established steel, plywood, paper and textile industries in the state. Major ethnic group in Haryana is of Jat people and Yaduvanshi Ahirs.[12] [13] [14] [15] Other ethnic groups are of Kambojs, Gujjars, Agarwals, Rors, Brahmins, Rajputs, Punjabis and Sainis.[15] Hindus are majority in Haryana and are about 90% of the population, Sikhs 6.2%, Muslims 4.05% and Christians 0.10%.[15]

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History
Ancient period
Haryana was the outermost location of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization with centers such as Banawali and Rakhigarhi. The most extensive center, Rakhigarhi, is now a village in Hisar District. The site is dated to be over 5,000 years old. Evidence of paved roads, drainage system, large rainwater collection, storage system, terracotta brick, statue production, and skilled metal working (in both bronze and precious metals) has been uncovered. Also the Vedic Civilization flourished on the banks of the now lost Sarasvati River. Several decisive battles were fought in the area, Manuscript illustration of the Battle of Kurukshetra. which shaped much of the history of India. These include the epic Battle of Kurukshetra described in the Mahabharata (including the recital of the Bhagavad Gita by Krishna) and the three battles of Panipat.

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History of name
Anthropologists came up with the view that Haryana[16] was known by this name because in the post- Mahabharata period here lived the Abhiras,[17] who developed special skills in the art of agriculture.[18] [19] [20] According to Pran Nath Chopra Haryana got it's name from Abhirayana=Ahirayana=Hirayana=Haryana.[21] [22] [23]

Medieval period
After ousting the Huns, king Harshavardhana established his capital at Thanesar near Kurukshetra in the 7th century AD. After his death, the kingdom of his clansmen, the Pratiharas continued to rule over a vast region for quite a while from Harsha's adopted capital of Kannauj. The region remained strategically important for the rulers of North India even though Thanesar was no more central than Kannauj. Prithviraj Chauhan established forts at Tarori and Hansi in the 12th century. Muhammad Ghori conquered this area in the Second Battle of Tarain. Following his death, the Delhi Sultanate was established that ruled much of India for several centuries. The earliest reference to 'Hariana' occurs in a Sanskrit inscription dated 1328 AD kept in Delhi Museum, which refers to this region as The heaven on earth, indicating that it was fertile and relatively peaceful at that time. Firoz Shah Tughlaq established a fort at Hisar in 1354 to further fortify the region, and also constructed canals or rajwahas as they were referred to in the Indo-Persian historical texts.

The three famous battles of Panipat took place near the modern town of Panipat in Haryana. The first battle took place in 1526, where Babur, the ruler of Kabul, defeated Ibrahim Lodi of the Delhi Sultanate, through the use of field artillery. In the second battle of Panipat (5 November 1556), Akbar's forces defeated Samrat Hem Chandra Vikramaditya popularly called Hemu, who belonged to Rewari in Haryana and who had earlier won 22 battles, from Punjab to Bengal including two against Akbar's forces during 1553-1556 before acceeding to Delhi throne and establishing 'Hindu Raj' in North India on 7 October 1556. The Third Battle of Panipat was fought in 1761 between the Afghan warlord Ahmad Shah Abdali and the Marathas under Sadashivrao Bhau of Pune. Ahmad Shah won decisively, on 13 January 1761.

A 16th century painting depicting the Second Battle of Panipat which established the Mughal Empire in India.

British period
During the Indian rebellion of 1857, several leaders from this region, including Rao Tula Ram, participated actively. People of Haryana took an active part in the Indian Independence movement.King Rao Tula Ram was one of the important leaders of the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Many battles were fought by the rulers of the states and by the farmers also, sometimes defeating the British army. Some most important fights were at Sonipat, Rohtak, Sirsa and Hissar. Later, leaders like Sir Chhotu Ram played an important role in the politics of the Punjab province.

Formation of Haryana
Haryana state was formed on 1 November 1966, on the recommendation of the Sardar Hukam Singh Parliamentary Committee. The formation of this committee was announced in the Parliament on 23 September 1965. On 23 April 1966, acting on the recommendation of the Hukam Singh Committee, the Indian government set up the Shah Commission under the chairmanship of Justice J. C. Shah, to divide and set up the boundaries of Punjab and Haryana giving consideration to the language spoken by the people. The commission gave its report on 31 May 1966. According to this report the then districts of Hissar, Mahendragarh, Gurgaon, Rohtak, and Karnal were to be a part of the new state of Haryana. Further, the tehsils of Jind (district Sangrur), Narwana (district Sangrur), Naraingarh,

Haryana Ambala and Jagadhri were also to be included. The commission recommended that Tehsil Kharar (including Chandigarh) should be a part of Haryana.[24] Pt.Bhagwat Dayal Sharma, MLA from Yamunanagar became first Chief Minister of Haryana. The city of Chandigarh, and a Punjabi-speaking area of district Rupnagar were made a Union Territory serving as the capital of both Punjab and Haryana. According to the Rajiv-Longowal Accord, Chandigarh was to be transferred to the state of Punjab in 1986, but the transfer was delayed and it has not been executed so far.

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Geography
Haryana is a landlocked state in northern India. It is located between 2737' to 3035' N latitude and between 7428' and 7736' E longitude. The altitude of Haryana varies between 700 to 3600ft (200 metres to 1200 metres) above sea level. An area of 1,553km2 is covered by forest. Haryana has four main geographical features. The Yamuna-Ghaggar plain forming the largest part of the state The Shivalik Hills to the northeast Semi-desert sandy plain to the southwest The Aravalli Range in the south
Yamuna River near the Haryana Border

Demographics
Religion in Haryana Religion Hinduism Sikhism Islam Others Distribution of religions Percent 89.7% 6.2% 4% 0.10%

The population of Haryana, according to the 2001 census, is 21,144,000, with 11,364,000 males and 9,781,000 females. The population density is 477 people/km2. Haryana, along with neighboring Punjab, has a skewed sex ratio at 861, with many more men than women. Selective abortion of female fetuses has a very high provenance, reflecting a widespread preference for the male child. Haryana's majority ethnic groups include the Jats, Ahirs and Sainis.[12] [13] [14] [25] Other ethnic groups include the Kambojs, Gujjars, Meenas, Banias, Brahmins, Rajputs, Rors, Dalits, Meos and Punjabis.[25] Hindus are majority in Haryana and are about 90% of the population, Sikhs 6.2%, Muslims 4.05% (mainly Meos) and Christians 0.10%.[25] Hindus make up about 18,655,925 of the population, Sikhs 1,170,662, Muslims 1,222,196, Jains 57,167, Christians 27,185, and Buddhists 7,140.[26] Muslims are mainly in the Mewat district and Yamunanagar district, while Sikhs are mostly in the districts adjoining Punjab, Hisar, Sirsa, Jind, Fatehabad, Kaithal, Kurukshetra, Ambala, and Panchkula. Agriculture and related industries have been the backbone of the local economy. These days the state is seeing a massive influx of immigrants from across the nation, primarily from Bihar, Bengal, Uttrakhand, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Nepal.

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Government and politics

Politics of Haryana is mainly dominated by Jats.[27] Like in all other states of India, Haryana is governed through a governor, a largely ceremonial position who is appointed by the President of India. The Chief Minister is the head of the Haryana state government and is vested with most of the executive powers. Haryanas legislature is unicameral; its one house, the Haryana Legislative Assembly, consists of 90 members. Haryana has five seats in the Rajya Sabha, the upper house of India's national parliament, and ten in the Lok Sabha, the lower house. The largest political parties in Haryana are the Indian National Lok Dal, Haryana Janhit Congress, Bhartiya Janata Party, Bahujan Samaj Party[28] and Indian National Congress. The present political scenario of the state is clear and it has a stable government under Bhupinder Singh Hooda who is presently the Chief Minister of the state. During his presidency American president Jimmy Carter visited Carterpuri village in Gurgaon.[29]

Culture
Haryana has a rich cultural heritage that goes way back to the Vedic times. The state is rich in folklore with the oldest extant romance being that of Sorath and Dhaj, Ror Kumar.[30] The people of Haryana have their own traditions. The age old customs of meditation, Yoga and chanting of Vedic Mantras, are still observed by the masses. Famous yoga guru Swami Ramdev is from Mahendragarh in Haryana.[31] Seasonal and religious festivals glorify the culture of this region. Dance is said to be the mother of all arts. Music and poetry exist in tune, painting and architecture in space. Dance is not just a form of recreation but something needed to release physical and emotional energy. Haryana has a variety of folk dances, which like other creative art, help in sublimating the performer's worries and cares. The people of Haryana have preserved their old religious and social traditions. They celebrate festivals with great enthusiasm and traditional fervor. Their culture and popular art are Saangs, dramas, ballads and songs in which they take great delight.

Swami Ramdev Yoga Guru (Ramkishen Yadav) born in Mahendragarh Haryana

Languages
Haryanavi has traditionally been the dominant language spoken by the martial people of Haryana. Post-1947, Punjabi is also spoken by a lot of people in Haryana especially by those Hindus and Sikhs who came over from Pakistan. Punjabi is second official language of Haryana.[32] Sanskrit is also taught in most of the schools in Haryana. In towns and cities, English is still to be adopted as the household lingo, but is spoken in a hazy mixture of Haryanvi. Other language is Ahirwati, it is an Indo-Aryan language, classified as a Rajasthani language,[33] and is spoken in the Mahendragarh, Rewari and Gurgaon districts of Haryana. According to famous historian Robert Vane Russell Ahirwati is language of Yaduvanshi Ahirs and spoken in Rohtak and Gurgaon Districts of Punjab (now Haryana) and Delhi. This is akin to Mewati , one of the forms of Rajasthani or the language of Rajputana.[34] The most striking feature of Haryana is its language itself; or rather, the manner in which it is spoken. Popularly known as Haryanavi, with Bangaru or Jatu (language of Jats) being the most widely spoken dialect, it is perhaps a bit crude, but full of earthy humor and straightforwardness. With rapid urbanization, and due to Haryana's close proximity to Delhi, the cultural aspects are now taking a more modern hue.

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Music
Raagni are very famous in Haryana and it is a part of folk music in Haryana. Haryana has not been able to popularize its music to large scale like neighboring states like Punjab.

Economy
The economy of Haryana relies on manufacturing, business process outsourcing, agriculture and retail. In 2006-07 Haryana received a foreign direct investment projects of over Rs 11,000 crore in the state and corporate sector and had a fiscal deficit of 0.6 per cent in financial year 2006-07.[35] Haryana also topped the list in terms of per capita investment in the fiscal year 2007 with an investment of Rs 1,86,045 crore.[36] [37] Haryana is also considered one of the most industrilised states in India with many SEZs. New plans for Sezs are of Reliance Industries which has plans to set up amulti-product special economic zone in Haryana.[38] At an investment of Rs 40,000 crore, the project will be India's largest SEZ spread over unknown operator: u','acres (unknown operator: u','km2).[38] [39] The state has a developed banking system with over 4500 bank branches. The two financial hubs of Haryana, Gurgaon and Faridabad lie on the south west of the state. The contribution of primary, secondary and tertiary sectors for the Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) in 2007-08 is Rs. 21,265.92 crore, Rs. 30,919.95 crore and Rs.49,133.55 crore respectively. Over 3% of the S&P CNX 500 conglomerates have corporate offices in Haryana.

The headquarters of DLF Limited, India's largest real estate company, in Gurgaon, Haryana.

Manufacturing
More than a thousand medium and large industries with a capital The main manufacturing plant of Maruti Suzuki, investment of Rs. 2000 billion or $ 40.4 billion have been India's largest automobile company, in Gurgaon, established in the state in mainly Gurgaon, Yamunanagar, Haryana. Panchkula, Panipat, Faridabad and Bahadurgarh. As a result, Haryana's share in national production is 50% of passenger cars, 50% of motorcycles, 30% of refrigerators, 25% of tractors, bicycles and sanitary ware, sugar and paper and 20% of the country's export of scientific instruments.[40] These include Honda Motorcycle & Scooter India Pvt. Ltd., Hindustan National Glass, Maruti Udyog Limited, Escorts, Hero Honda, Alcatel, Sony, BILT, Whirlpool India, Bharti Telecom, Liberty Shoes and Hindustan Machine Tools. In addition there are more than 80,000 small-scale industrial units in the state which cumulatively bring in a substantial income for the state and its people. Haryana has a large production of cars, motorcycles, tractors, sanitary ware, glass container industry, gas stoves and scientific instruments. Yamunanagar district is the largest industrial town wholly within in Haryana. It has Asia's largest paper mill BILT and Asia's largest Sugar Mill. Yamunanagar has Asia's largest timber industry, an HPGCL thermal power plant, a hydro power plant and India's largest Railway workshop. It is also famous for its old steel and brass industry. Faridabad is another big industrial part of Haryana.[41] It is home to hundreds of large scale companies like Orient Paper & Industries, JCB India Limited, Nirigemes, Agri Machinery Group (Escorts Limited), India Yamaha Motor

Haryana Pvt. Ltd., Whirlpool, ABB Group, Goodyear Tyres and Knorr Bremse India Pvt. Ltd. There are thousands of medium and small scale units as well, like Amrit Enterprises, McAma Industries. Panipat is a city of textiles and carpets. It is the biggest centre for cheap blankets and carpets in India and has a handloom weaving industry. The pickle "Pachranga International" is also well known. Panipat also has heavy industry, with ASIA's SECOND BIGGEST refinery of the Indian Oil Corporation, a National Thermal Power Corporation power plant, National Fertilizers Limited plant, [INDIA"s Biggest Naptha Cracker Plant]and PROPOSED [STYRENE BUTADINE RUBBER PLANT] Hissar is another big city where Jindal company has established. Jindal Steel now increasing their business and open new factory in other state also.

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Service industries
Gurgaon is considered the best city for setting up a software or BPO centre in India.[42] This is according to a research on Offshore Competitiveness conducted by neoIT, an offshoring consultancy. Gurgaon, has seen emergence of an active information technology industry in the recent years. With organisations like Tata Consultancy Services, IBM, NIIT, Hewitt Associates, Dell, Convergys, United Healthcare and The Boston Consulting Group setting up back offices or contact centers in Gurgaon. Haryana now ranks 3rd among states in software exports from India.[40] Establishment of Nano City at Panchkula[43] a joint venture between the Haryana State Industrial and Infrastructure Development Corporation (HSIIDC) and Nano Works Developers Private Ltd, a company promoted by Sabeer Bhatia, the creator of Hotmail will further boost the state position in this sector.

Agriculture
Despite recent industrial development, Haryana is primarily an agricultural state. About 70% of residents are engaged in agriculture Wheat and rice are the major crops. Haryana is self-sufficient in food production and the second largest contributor to India's central pool of food grains. The main crops of Haryana are wheat, rice, sugarcane, cotton, oilseeds, pulses, barley, maize, millet etc. There are two main types of crops in Haryana: Rabi and Kharif. The major Kharif crops of Haryana are rice, jowar, bajra, maize, cotton, jute, sugarcane, sesame and groundnut. For these crops the ground is prepared in April and May and the seeds are sown at the commencement of rains in June. The crops are ready for harvesting by the beginning of November. The major Rabi crops are wheat, tobacco, pulses, linseed, rapeseed and mustard. The ground is prepared by the end of October or the beginning of November and the crops are harvested by March. About 86% of the area is arable, and of that 96% is cultivated. About 75% of the area is irrigated, through tube wells and an extensive system of canals. Haryana contributed significantly to the Green Revolution in India in the 1970s that made the country self-sufficient in food production. The state has also significantly contributed to the field of agricultural education in the country. Asia's biggest agricultural University[44] - Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University is located at Hisar and it has made a significant contribution in ushering in the 'Green Revolution' in the state.

An agricultural area in Haryana. Haryanvi community

is largely agrarian. Dairy farming is also an essential part of the rural economy. [44] Haryana has a livestock population of 98.97 lakh. Milk and milk products form an essential part of the local diet. There is the saying Desaan main des Haryana, jit doodh dahi ka khaana, which means "Best among all the countries in the world is Haryana, where the staple food is milk and

Haryana yoghurt". Haryana, with 660grams of availability of milk per capita per day, ranks at number two in the country as against the national average of 232grams.[45] [46] There is a vast network of milk societies that support the dairy industry. The National Dairy Research Institute[47] at Karnal is Asia's largest and oldest dairy, and the Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes at Hisar are instrumental in development of new breeds of cattle and propagation of these breeds through embryo transfer technology. The Murrah breed of water buffalo from Haryana is world-famous for its milk production.

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Roads, aviation and infrastructure

Haryana is a trend setter in the field of passenger transport. It has a total road length of 23,684 kilometers. The remotest parts of the state are linked with metaled roads. Its modern bus fleet of 3,864 buses covers a distance of 1.15 million Kilometers per day. It was the first State in the country to introduce luxury video coaches.[48] Grand Trunk Road, commonly abbreviated to GT Road, is one of South Asia's oldest and longest major roads. It passes through the districts of Sonipat, Panipat, Karnal, Kurukshetra and Ambala in north Haryana where it enters Delhi and subsequently the industrial town of Faridabad on its way. The state government The 32 lane toll gate at National Highway 8 in proposes to construct Express highways and free ways for speedier Gurgaon is the largest in Asia and third largest in the vehicular traffic. The 135.6-km long Kundli-Manesar-Palwal world Expressway(KMP) will provide high-speed link to northern Haryana with its southern districts such as Sonepat, Jhajjar, Gurgaon and Faridabad. The work on the project has already started and is scheduled to be completed by July 2009.[49] Haryana is in close contact with the cosmopolitan world, being right next to Delhi. As a result, international and domestic airports, diplomatic and commercial complexes are located in close proximity to the state. Haryana and Delhi government has also constructed Delhi-Gurgaon Expressway which has the largest toll plaza in Asia and 3rd largest in the world. There is a proposal for a Badarpur Flyover and the widening of the Mathura Road passing thought Faridabad from 6 lane to 8 lanes. There is also a proposal to connect Chandigarh to Haryana without entering Punjab through a 4 lane highway via Yamunanagar and Panchkula. Haryana State has always given high priority to the expansion of electricity infrastructure, as it is one of the most important inputs for the development of the State. Haryana was the first State in the country to achieve 100% rural electrification in 1970, first in the country to link all villages with all-weather roads and first in the country to provide safe drinking water facilities throughout the state.[40] Haryana is well connected on the railway network as well. The main railway routes passing through Haryana are: Amritsar - Delhi, Rewari - Ahmedabad, Bhiwani - Rohtak - Delhi, Ambala - Ferozepur, Delhi Ferozepur, Kalka - Jodhpur, Kalka - Howrah, Amritsar - Howrah and Delhi Kalka-Shimla Two of the 16 airlines in India are based in Gurgaon which is just a few kilometers from the international airport in Delhi.

Chandigarh Monument

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Communication and media

Haryana has a state-wide network of highly efficient telecommunication facilities. Haryana Government has its own state-wide area network by which all government offices of 20 districts and 127 blocks across the state are connected with each other thus making it the first SWAN of the country.[50] [51] [52] Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL) and most of the leading private sector players (such as Reliance Infocom, Tata Teleservices, Bharti Telecom, Idea Vodafone Essar, Aircel, Uninor and Videocon) have operations in the state. Important areas around Delhi are also an integral part of the local Delhi Mobile Telecommunication System. This network system would easily cover major towns like Faridabad, Gurgaon, Bahadurgarh and Kundli. The major newspapers of Haryana areAaj Samaj, Dainik Tribune, Punjab Kesari, Jag Bani, Dainik Jagran, The Tribune, Amar Ujala, Hindustan Times, Dainik Bhaskar, The Times of India and Hari-Bhumi. Keeping pace with time, Haryana has its first 24x7 online news and Info portal Haryana Live fully dedicated to news and information from all around the state.[53] Government of Haryana has decided to provide plot areas in all four divisions for "Press Bhawan". Haryana Press Club has been authorised to build & operate those press bhawans, by Haryana government.

Administrative divisions
The state is divided into four divisions for administrative purpose - Ambala Division, Rohtak Division, Gurgaon Division and Hisar Division. There are 21 districts, 47 sub-divisions, 67 tehsils, 45 sub-tehsils and 116 blocks. Haryana has a total of 81 cities and towns and 6,759 villages.

Districts
Ambala Division Ambala District Kaithal District Kurukshetra District Panchkula District Yamuna Nagar District Gurgaon Division Faridabad District Palwal District Gurgaon District Mahendragarh District Mewat District Rewari District Hisar Division Bhiwani District Fatehabad District Hisar District Jind District Sirsa District Rohtak Division Jhajjar District Karnal District Panipat District Rohtak District Sonipat District

Education
The state of Haryana has made tremendous progress in the field of higher education since its inception. SCERT Haryana Gurgaon was established in April 1979. It was the conglomeration of State Institute of Education and State Institute of Science, to provide new dimensions to school education. It has been the endeavor of the government to make educational facilities available to the poorest of children. 32 primary schools, 69 middle schools and 101 high schools were upgraded to middle, high and senior secondary respectively during the year 2004-05. Now accessibility to schooling is available within the radius of 1.10km, 1.38km, 1.66km and 2.79km at the primary, middle, high and senior secondary levels respectively.[54] During 2001-02, there were 11,013 primary schools, 1,918 middle schools, 3,023 high schools and 1,301 senior secondary schools in the state.[55] Haryana Board of School Education, established in September 1969 and shifted to Bhiwani in 1981, conducts public examinations at middle, matriculation, and senior secondary levels twice a year. Over seven lac candidates attend annual examinations in February and March, and 150,000 attend supplementary examinations each November. The Board also conducts examinations for Haryana Open School at senior and senior secondary levels twice a year.[56] The Haryana government provides free education to women up to the Bachelor's Degree level. North Haryana is more developed in terms of education and agriculture because of more fertile land and water availability. People from South Haryana were mostly government employees, soldiers and politicians but agriculture

Haryana has picked up a lot in recent years as a result of efforts from the Haryana Agricultural University, Hissar. Leading institutes for Technical and Engineering Education in Haryana are NIT Kurukshetra, University Institute of Engineering & Technology, University Campus (UIET, Kurukshetra University Kurukshetra), Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science and Technology, YMCA Institute of Engineering, Manav Rachna College Of Engineering and the Technological Institute of Textile & Sciences, Bhiwani. Earlier NIT Kurukshetra was known by the name of Regional Engineering College, Kurukshetra. There are six universities in the state. Technical education and management studies are provided by Maharishi Dayanand University at Rohtak Pt. B.D. Sharma PGIMS Rohtak have a University Institute of Engineering & Technology, University Campus (UIET, Rohtak), Kurukshetra University at Kurukshetra, Guru Jambheshwar University of Science & Technology at Hisar and Chaudhary Devi Lal University at Sirsa. Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University at Hisar is one of the biggest agricultural universities in Asia. It is engaged in education, research and development related to agriculture. The Holy Land where the University stands was first transformed into a centre of learning in 1936 by Bhagat Phool Singh Ji when he started a Gurukul for girls. The Gurukul was opened after he opened a boys Gurukul in 1919 in Bhainswal Kalan which today is the South Campus of the University. The Gurukul, started with only three students grew in size, stature and reputation with time and in November 2006, the Haryana Legislative Assembly passed a Legislative Notification, vide no. 31/2006 making the Gurukul a full-fledged State University The National Dairy Research Institute at Karnal provides education in the field of dairy science. It has been upgraded to the level of a Deemed University. There are medical colleges in Rohtak, Mullana and Agroha. Pt. B.D. Sharma PGIMS Rohtak is a premier post-graduate medical institute in North India offering courses in major specialties and super specialties of medicine. There is also a Management Development Institute in Gurgaon.The Technological Institute of Textile & Sciences came into existence in 1947.

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Sports
Haryana is one of the leading states in sports and has produced some of the best Indian players in a variety of games. In 2010 Delhi Commonwealth Games 22 out of 38 Gold Medals came from Haryana.[57] During the 33rd National games held in Assam in 2007, Haryana stood 4th in the nation[58] with a medal tally of 80, including 30 Gold, 22 Silver and 28 Bronze medals. In team sports, Haryana is the national champion in men's volleyball and women's hockey. Haryana is a traditional powerhouse in games like Kabbadi, Kho-kho, Judo, Boxing, Volleyball and Wrestling. Sports in the state are managed by the Department of Sports & Youth Affairs, Haryana. Nahar Singh Stadium Vijender Singh Beniwal for international cricket was built in Faridabad in the year 1981. This ground has the born in Bhiwani district in [59] capacity to hold around 25,000 people as spectators. Tejli Sports Complex is an Haryana in Jat family. Ultra-Modern sports complex in Yamunanagar. The Tau Devi Lal Stadium in Panchkula is a multi-sport complex.[60] It came into prominence because of the Indian Cricket League's inaugural Twenty20 tournament. Astroturf hockey grounds in Nehru Stadium, Gurgaon and Shahbad, Kurukshetra. Haryana even have a dedicated sports school MNSS at Rai, Sonepat which is affiliated to Sports Authority of India.

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At the 2008 Olympics, Vijender Singh Beniwal won a middleweight (75kg) bronze medal and Vikas Krishan Yadav boxer from Bhiwani district won a gold medal in the 2010 Asian Games in the Lightweight category.[61] Manoj Kumar of village Rajound, Kaithal district won a gold medal in light welterweight ctegory at the 2010 Delhi Commonwealth Games. Haryana Sports Policy, 2009 Haryana has adopted a new sports policy on 21 August 2009, when Haryana Cabinet which met under the Chairmanship of Chief Minister, Mr Bhupinder Singh Hooda, approved the Sports Policy, 2009.[62] In the 2010 Commonwealth Games, most of India's male wrestlers were from Haryana.[63]
Volleyball player Balwant Singh Sagwal born in Kaithal district in Haryana in a Ror family

Health
Haryana Civil Medical Services (HCMS)[64] NRHM, National Rural Health Mission

References
[1] http:/ / haryana. gov. in [2] Kautilya describes them as martial and most heroic, while Panini includes among them the Kauravyas, the ancient warrior community of Haryana. It would thus appear that the main force of Chandragupta's liberation army was recruited from Haryana and Punjab. As Haryana or the ancient Kuru janapada....., Page 33, "Haryana, ancient and medieval" by H. A. Phadke, Publisher Harman Pub. House, 1990, ISBN 81-85151-34-2, 9788185151342 [3] Chapter Kuru Janapada (Pages 2, 3 & 7) of the book "Buddhist remains from Haryana", by Devendra Handa, Edition illustrated, Publisher Sundeep Prakashan, 2004 Original from the University of Michigan, Digitized 3 September 2008

If the Buddhist texts are to be relied upon, it may be said that Buddhism reached Haryana through the Buddha himself. (Page 3) Dipavamsa refers to Buddha's visit to a city in the Kuru country where he received alms on the banks of the Anotatta lake which he crossed. The city may have been Kurukshetra..... (Page 3) We shall see subsequently that Agroha was an important Buddhist centre of Haryana.....Buddhaghosha's candid confession that even a single monastery could not be set up in the Kuru country during the lifetime of Tathagata who was obliged to stay in the hermitage of a Brahmana.... (Page 7)
[4] The ancient Kuru janapada is said to have comprised Kurukshetra, Thanesar, Karnal, Panipat, Sonipat....., Page 115, "Buddhist sites and shrines in India: history, art and architecture", Volume 231 of Bibliotheca Indo-Buddhica by D. C. Ahir, Publisher Sri Satguru Publications, 2003, ISBN 81-7030-774-0, 9788170307747 [5] An Early Attestation of the Toponym hill, by Richard J. Cohen, Journal of the American Oriental Society, 1989, p. 513-519

, | , | , | Translation: There are countless villages in Haryana country. The villagers there work hard. They don't accept domination of others, and are experts in making the blood of their enemies flow. Indra himself praises this country. The capital of this country is Dhilli.
[6] Haryna - Britannica Online Encyclopedia (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ ebc/ article-9111200) [7] Haryana to construct 6000 rooms for games (http:/ / economictimes. indiatimes. com/ News/ News-By-Industry/ Services/ Property-Cstruction/ Haryana-to-construct-6000-rooms-for-games/ articleshow/ 4772557. cms) [8] Poor rural India? It's a richer place - International Herald Tribune (http:/ / www. iht. com/ articles/ 2005/ 10/ 18/ business/ rural. php) [9] Byres, T.J.. Rural labour relations in India. Taylor & Francis, 1999. ISBN071468046X, 9780714680460. [10] Government of India portal (http:/ / india. gov. in/ knowindia/ st_haryana. php) [11] IndianExpress.com :: Haryana Hurricane (http:/ / www. indianexpress. com/ story/ 218431. html) [12] Hukum Singh Pawar (Pauria):The Jats - Their Origin, Antiquity and Migration. 1993, ISBN 81-85253-22-8

Haryana
[13] Encyclopdia Britannica article on Punjab [14] Willuweit S., Roewer L. (2007), 'Y chromosome haplotype reference database (YHRD): Update', Forensic Science International: Genetics 1(2), 83-7. [15] Haryana-online.com (http:/ / www. haryana-online. com/ People/ people. htm), Haryana people. [16] Haryana: on high road to prosperity [17] http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?ei=NJSRTYbIMcKrcdvBtYkH& ct=result& id=0cgCAAAAMAAJ& dq=abhira+ name+ haryana& q=abhiras [18] http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=7d3rX5jr1WQC& pg=PA18& dq=abhira+ name+ haryana& hl=en& ei=WJKRTYD_EYL5caiZuIkH& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=2& ved=0CCwQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage& q& f=false [19] Tourism management: problems and prospects By Bijender K Punia [20] Bansi Lal, chief minister of Haryana By S. R. Bakshi, Sita Ram Sharma [21] Religions and communities of India [22] http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?ei=WJKRTYD_EYL5caiZuIkH& ct=result& id=ggtuAAAAMAAJ& dq=abhira+ name+ haryana& q=Abhirayana%3DAhirayana%3DHirayana%3D [23] Encyclopaedia of the Hindu world, Volume 1 By Gag Rm Garg [24] 1 November 1966 - Haryana Day - History - Haryana Online - North India (http:/ / www. haryana-online. com/ History/ history_1966-. htm) [25] Haryana-online.com :: Haryana people (http:/ / www. haryana-online. com/ People/ people. htm) [26] Census of India, Population by Religious Communities (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Census_Data_2001/ Census_data_finder/ C_Series/ Population_by_religious_communities. htm) [27] Book by Ghansyam Shah on cast and politics, Google book store (http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=2UX2-pnGoScC& pg=PA197& lpg=PA197. htm) [28] Haryana.bspindia.org (http:/ / haryana. bspindia. org) [29] http:/ / www. littleindia. com/ news/ 134/ ARTICLE/ 7823/ 2011-02-12. html [30] This is a book by a Jat author. Page 19, "Ror Itihaas ki Jhalak" (Hindi) by Dr. Raj Pal Singh, Pal Publications, Yamunanagar (1987) [31] Thecolorsofindia.com (http:/ / www. thecolorsofindia. com/ ramdev/ index. html) [32] Dnaindia.com (http:/ / www. dnaindia. com/ india/ report_punjabi-edges-out-tamil-in-haryana_1356124) [33] District History (http:/ / www. gurgaon. gov. in/ HISTORY. HTM) [34] Google Books (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=4lfhAAAAMAAJ& pg=PA19& dq=gujarati+ ahirs& hl=en& ei=16IATfHCGMG88ganhazcBw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=book-) [35] Haryana, Delhi top best states' list (http:/ / www. rediff. com/ money/ 2007/ oct/ 23hary. htm) [36] Haryana Tops The List In Terms Of Per Capita Investment | Top News (http:/ / www. topnews. in/ haryana-tops-list-terms-capita-investment-22133) [37] Haryana hurricane (http:/ / openlib. org/ home/ ila/ MEDIA/ 2007/ states_rank. html) [38] Reliance, Haryana finally ink SEZ pact (http:/ / www. financialexpress. com/ old/ fe_full_story. php?content_id=131174) [39] Reliance signs India's biggest SEZ deal with Haryana - Infrastructure - Economy - News (http:/ / economictimes. indiatimes. com/ articleshow/ 1661545. cms), Indiatimes.com [40] Haryanainvest.org (http:/ / www. haryanainvest. org/ general information. asp) [41] The Tribune, Chandigarh, India - Delhi and neighbourhood (http:/ / www. tribuneindia. com/ 2005/ 20051228/ delhi. htm#1) [42] Gurgaon best BPO spot in India! (http:/ / ushome. rediff. com/ money/ 2004/ nov/ 25bpo. htm) [43] "Nano City to come up" (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ 2006/ 09/ 01/ stories/ 2006090104860500. htm). The Hindu (Chennai, India). 1 September 2006. . [44] Haryana (http:/ / haryana. nic. in/ general/ agriculture. htm) [45] Haryana number two in milk production (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ articleshow/ 1678736. cms) The Times of India [46] Haryana 2nd in milk yield (http:/ / www. indianexpress. com/ res/ web/ pIe/ ie/ daily/ 19981013/ 28651694. html) [47] Telegraphindia.com (http:/ / www. telegraphindia. com/ 1041124/ asp/ careergraph/ story_4020763. asp) [48] Why Haryana? - Economic Infrastructure (http:/ / haryanaindustries. nic. in/ WhyHaryana/ Pages/ NewEconomicInfrastructure. aspx) [49] IndianExpress.com :: KMP Expressways to be completed by 2009 (http:/ / www. indianexpress. com/ story/ 20526. html) [50] Egovonline.net (http:/ / www. egovonline. net/ articles/ article-details. asp?Title=Tulip-IT-in-Haryana& ArticalID=1716& Type=INDUSTRY PERSPECTIVE) [51] Punjabnewsline.com (http:/ / www. punjabnewsline. com/ content/ view/ 7526/ 93/ ) [52] "The Tribune India" (http:/ / www. tribuneindia. com/ 2008/ 20080206/ haryana. htm). The Tribune. . Retrieved 2008-02-06. [53] Hr.abclive.in (http:/ / hr. abclive. in/ ) [54] Welcome to India in Business: Know India (http:/ / www. indiainbusiness. nic. in/ know-india/ states/ haryana. htm) [55] Education in Haryana - Universities - Colleges - Schools - Institutions - Engineering - Medical (http:/ / www. haryana-online. com/ education. htm) [56] Hbse.nic.in (http:/ / hbse. nic. in/ history. htm) [57] Mizoramexpress.com (http:/ / mizoramexpress. com/ index. php/ 2010/ 10/ 32-medal-winner-from-haryana-to-get-maruti-cars) [58] Official site for the 33rd National Games 2007, Guwahati (http:/ / www. 33rdnationalgames. nic. in/ medal_tally. htm) [59] Cricinfo - Grounds - Nahar Singh Stadium, Faridabad (http:/ / content-www. cricinfo. com/ ci/ content/ ground/ 58081. html)

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Haryana
[60] Cricinfo - Grounds - Tau Devi Lal Cricket Stadium, Panchkula, Chandigarh (http:/ / content-www. cricinfo. com/ icl/ content/ ground/ 321957. html) [61] Vikas Krishan Yadav [62] Hr.abclive.in (http:/ / hr. abclive. in/ haryana_sports/ haryana_sports_policy_2009. html) [63] Blake, Linda (6 October 2010). "Mud Wrestling Breeds Champions" (http:/ / blogs. wsj. com/ indiarealtime/ 2010/ 10/ 06/ mud-wrestling-in-india-breeds-champions/ ). The Wall Street Journal. . [64] Garyanahealtch.nic.in (http:/ / www. haryanahealth. nic. in)

234

External links
Haryana Government Website (http://haryana.nic.in) Haryana News (http://haryananews.org) Haryana (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/India/Haryana//) at the Open Directory Project Haryana Website (http://speed4haryana.com)

Himachal Pradesh
Himachal Pradesh
State

Seal

Location of Himachal Pradesh in India

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Map of Himachal Pradesh Coordinates (Shimla): 31612N 771020E Country Established Capital Largest city Districts Government -Governor -ChiefMinister -Legislature Area -Total Area rank Elevation Population (2011) -Total -Rank -Density Time zone ISO 3166 code HDI HDI rank Literacy Official languages Website 6,856,509 21st unknown operator: u','/km2(/sqmi) IST (UTC+05:30) IN-HP 0.681 (medium) 8th (2005) 83.78% Hindi [3] [4] 55673km2(21495.5sqmi) 17th 2319m (7608ft) Urmila Singh Prem Kumar Dhumal Unicameral [2] [1] India 25 January 1971 Shimla Shimla

(68 seats)

himachal.nic.in

Himachal Pradesh Himachal Pradesh (Hindi: Hindustani pronunciation:[matl prde] ( listen)) is a state in Northern [5] India. It is spread over 21,495 sqmi (55,673km), and is bordered by the Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir on the north, Punjab on the west and south-west, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh on the south, Uttarakhand on the south-east and by the Tibet Autonomous Region on the east. The literal meaning of Himachal Pradesh is Region of snowy mountains.[6] Himachal Pradesh was anciently known as Dev Bhumi (The Abode of Gods) and is abundance in natural beauty [7] After the Anglo Gorkha War, the British colonial government came into power. It was initially part of Punjab, except the Siba State of Punjab Hills which was under the rule of Maharaja Ranjit Singh until 1857.[8] In 1950 Himachal was declared as a union territory but after the State of Himachal Pradesh Act 1971, Himachal emerged as the 18th state of the Indian Union. Himachal has many prestigious boarding schools. Hima means snow in Sanskrit. It was named by one of the great Sanskrit scholars of Himachal Pradesh, Acharya Diwakar Datt Sharma Himachal Pradesh has one of the highest per capita incomes of any state in India. Due to the abundance of perennial rivers, Himachal also sells hydro electricity to other states such as Delhi, Punjab and Rajasthan.[9] The economy of the state is highly dependent on three sources: hydroelectric power, tourism and agriculture.[10] Hindus make up 95% of the state population, making it the most Hindu state (proportionally), in India. According to a 2005 Transparency International survey, Himachal Pradesh is ranked the second-least corrupt state in the country after Kerala.[11]

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History
The history of the area that now constitutes Himachal Pradesh dates back to the time when the Indus valley civilisation flourished between 2250 and 1750 BCE.[12] Tribes such as the Koilis, Halis, Dagis, Dhaugris, Dasa, Khasas, Kinnars and Kirats inhabited the region from pre-historic era. During the Vedic period, several small republics known as "Janapada" existed which were later conquered by the Gupta Empire.[13] After a brief period of supremacy by king Harshavardhana, the region was once again divided into several local powers headed by chieftains, including some Rajput principalities. These kingdoms that enjoyed a large degree of independence were devastated by Muslim invaders a number of times.[12] Mahmud Ghaznavi conquered Kangra at the beginning of the 10th century. Timur and Sikander Lodi also marched through the lower hills of the state and captured a number of forts and fought many battles.[12] Several hill states acknowledged Mughal suzerainty and paid regular tribute to the Mughals.[14]

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The Gorkhas, a martial tribe came to power in Nepal in the year 1768.[12] They consolidated their military power and began to expand their territory.[12] Gradually the Gorkhas annexed Sirmour and Shimla. With the leadership of Amar Singh Thapa, Gorkhas laid siege to Kangra. They managed to defeat Sansar Chand, the ruler of Kangra, in 1806 with the help of many provincial chiefs. However Gorkhas could not capture Kangra fort which came under Maharaja Ranjeet Singh in 1809. After the defeat the Gorkhas began to expand towards the south of the state. However, Raja Ram Singh, Raja of Siba State re-captured the fort of Siba from the army of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in Samvat 1846,[12] during the First Anglo-Sikh War. They came into direct conflict with the British along the tarai belt after which the British expelled them from the provinces of the Satluj.[12] Thus the British gradually emerged as the paramount powers.[12] The revolt of 1857 or first Indian war of independence resulted due to the building up of political, social, economic, religious and military Sansar Chand (c.17651823) grievances against the British government.[12] People of the hill states were not as politically active as the people in other parts of the country.[12] They remained more or less inactive and so did their rulers, with the exception of Bushahr.[12] Some of them even rendered help to the British government during the revolt. Among them were the rulers of Chamba, Bilaspur, Bhagal and Dhami. The rulers of Bushars rather acted in a manner hostile to the interests of British.[12] The British territories in the hill came under British Crown after Queen Victoria's proclamation of 1858. The states of Chamba, Mandi and Bilaspur made good progress in many fields during the British rule.[12] During World War I, virtually all rulers of the hill states remained loyal and contributed to the British war effort both in the form of men and materials. Amongst these were the states of Kangra, Jaswan, Datarpur, Guler, Nurpur, Chamba, Suket, Mandi and Bilaspur.[12] After independence the Chief Commissioner's Province of H.P. came into being on 15 April 1948 as a result of integration of 28 petty princely states (including feudatory princes and zaildars) in the promontories of the western Himalaya, known in full as the Simla Hills States & four Punjab southern hill States by issue of the Himachal Pradesh (Administration) Order, 1948 under Sections 3 & 4 of the Extra-Provincial Jurisdiction Act, 1947 (later renamed as the Foreign Jurisdiction Act, 1947 vide A.O. of 1950). The State of Bilaspur was merged in the Himachal Pradesh on 1 April 1954 by the Himachal Pradesh and Bilaspur (New State) Act, 1954. Himachal became a part C state on 26 January 1950 with the implementation of the Constitution of India and the Lt. Governor was appointed. Legislative Assembly was elected in 1952. Himachal Pradesh became a Union Territory on 1 November 1956.[12] Following area of Punjab State namely Simla, Kangra, Kulu and Lahul and Spiti Districts, Nalagarh tehsil of Ambala District, Lohara, Amb and Una kanungo circles, some area of Santokhgarh kanungo circle and some other specified area of Una tehsil of Hoshiarpur District besides some parts of Dhar Kalan Kanungo circle of Pathankot tehsil of Gurdaspur District; were merged with Himachal Pradesh on 1 November 1966 on enactment of Punjab Reorganisation Act, 1966 by the Parliament. On 18 December 1970, the State of Himachal Pradesh Act was passed by Parliament and the new state came into being on 25 January 1971. Thus Himachal emerged as the eighteenth state of the Indian Union.[12]

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Geography and climate

Dal Lake

A summer view of Khajjiar.

Climate
Temperature Avg. Winter 7C (45F)

Avg. Summer 28C (82F) Precipitation 1469mm (57.8in)

Himachal is situated in the western Himalayas. Covering an area of 55673kilometres (34594 mi),[5] Himachal Pradesh is a mountainous state with elevation ranging from about 350metres (1148ft) to 7000metres (22966 ft) above the sea level.[15] The drainage system of Himachal is composed both of rivers and glaciers. Himalayan rivers criss-cross the entire mountain chain. In fact the rivers are older than the mountain system.[16] Himachal Pradesh provides water to both the Indus and Ganges basins.[17] The drainage systems of the region are the Chandra Bhaga or the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas, the Sutlej and the Yamuna. These rivers are perennial and are fed by snow and rainfall. They are protected by an extensive cover of natural vegetation. [17]

Lahaul, Himachal Pradesh.

There is great variation in the climatic conditions of Himachal due to extreme variation in elevation. The climate varies from hot and sub-humid tropical in the southern tracts to cold, alpine and glacial in the northern and eastern mountain ranges with more elevation.[18] The state has areas like Dharamsala that receive very heavy rainfall, as well as those like Lahaul and Spiti that are cold and almost rainless. Broadly Himachal experience three seasons; hot weather season, cold weather season and rainy season. Summer

Himachal Pradesh lasts from mid April till the end of June and most parts become very hot (except in alpine zone which experience mild summer) with the average temperature ranging from 28C (82F) to 32C (90F). Winter lasts from late November till mid March. Snowfall is common in alpine tracts (generally above 2200metres (7218ft) i.e. in the Higher and Trans-Himalayan region).

239

Flora and fauna

According to 2003 Forest Survey of India report, legally defined forest areas constitute 66.52% of the area of Himachal Pradesh, although area under tree cover is only 25.78%.[19] Vegetation in the state is dictated by elevation and precipitation. The southern part of the state, which is at the lowest elevations, has both tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests and tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests.[19] These are represented by northwestern thorn scrub forests along the border with Haryana and Uttar Pradesh and by Upper Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests in the far southeast. Sal and shisham are found here. Rising into the hills, we find a mosaic of western Himalayan broadleaf forests and Himalayan subtropical pine forests. Various deciduous and evergreen oaks live in the broadleaf forests, while Chir pine dominates the pine forests. Western Himalayan subalpine conifer forests grow near treeline, with species that include East Himalayan Fir, West Himalayan Spruce, Deodar (State tree), and Blue pine. In the uppermost elevations we find western Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows in the northeast and northwestern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows in the northwest. Trees are sturdy with a vast network of roots. Alders, birches, rhododendrons and moist alpine shrubs are there as the regional vegetation. The rhododendrons can be seen along the hillsides around Shimla from March to May. The shrublands and meadows give way to rock and ice around the highest peaks.

Asian Paradise Flycatcher in Kullu

Himalyan Monal at Birds Park in Shimla

Himachal is also said to be the fruit bowl of the country with orchards scattered all over the place. Meadows and pastures are also seen clinging to steep slopes. After the winter season, the hillsides and orchards bloom with wild flowers, while gladiolas, carnations, marigolds,[20] roses, chrysanthemums, tulips and lilies are carefully cultivated. The state government is gearing up to make Himachal Pradesh as the flower basket of the world. Himachal Pradesh is a well known habitat to a variety of animals. There are around 1200 bird and 359 animal species in the state.[21] This includes the Leopard, Snow leopard (State animal), ghoral, musk deer and Western Tragopan. It has 12 major national parks and sanctuaries the largest number in the Himalayan region. The Great Himalayan National Park in Kullu district was created to conserve the flora and fauna of the main Himalayan range, while the Pin Valley National Park to conserve the flora and fauna of the cold desert.

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Subdivisions
Bilaspur Chamba Hamirpur Kangra Kinnaur Kullu Lahaul and Spiti Mandi Shimla Sirmaur Solan Una Himachal Pradesh is divided into 12 districts namely, Kangra, Hamirpur, Mandi, Bilaspur, Una, Chamba, Lahul and Spiti, Sirmaur, Kinnaur, Kullu, Solan and Shimla. The state capital is Shimla which was formerly British India's summer capital under the name Simla. A district of Himachal Pradesh is an administrative geographical unit, headed by a Deputy Commissioner or District Magistrate, an officer belonging to the Indian Administrative Service. The district magistrate or the deputy commissioner is assisted by a number of officers belonging to Himachal Administrative Service and other Himachal state services. Each district is subdivided into Sub-Divisions, governed by a sub-divisional magistrate, and again into Blocks. Blocks consists of panchayats (village councils) and town municipalities. A Superintendent of Police, an officer belonging to the Indian Police Service is entrusted with the responsibility of maintaining law and order and related issues of the district. He is assisted by the officers of the Himachal Police Service and other Himachal Police officials.

Government
The Legislative Assembly of Himachal Pradesh has no pre-Constitution history. The State itself is a post-Independence creation. It came into being as a centrally administered territory on 15 April 1948 from the integration of thirty erstwhile princely states.[22] Himachal Pradesh is governed through a parliamentary system of representative democracy, a feature the state shares with other Indian states. Universal suffrage is granted to residents. The legislature consists of elected members and special office bearers such as the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker who are elected by the

Town Hall in Shimla.

Himachal Pradesh members. Assembly meetings are presided over by the Speaker or the Deputy Speaker in the Speaker's absence. The judiciary is composed of the Himachal Pradesh High Court and a system of lower courts. Executive authority is vested in the Council of Ministers headed by the Chief Minister, although the titular head of government is the Governor. The Governor is the head of state appointed by the President of India. The leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the Legislative Assembly is appointed as the Chief Minister by the Governor, and the Council of Ministers are appointed by the Governor on the advice of the Chief Minister. The Council of Ministers reports to the Legislative Assembly. The Assembly is unicameral with 68 Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLA).[23] Terms of office run for 5 years, unless the Assembly is dissolved prior to the completion of the term. Auxiliary authorities known as panchayats, for which local body elections are regularly held, govern local affairs. Governments have seen alternates between Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and Indian National Congress (INC), no third front ever has become significant. In 2003, the state legislative assembly was won by the Indian National Congress and Virbhadra Singh was elected as the chief minister of the state. In the assembly elections held in December 2007, the BJP secured a landslide victory. The BJP won 41 of the 68 seats while the Congress won only 23 of the 68 seats. BJP's Prem Kumar Dhumal was sworn in as Chief Minister of Himachal Pradesh on 30 December 2007.

241

Chief Ministers of Himachal Pradesh

Yashwant Singh Parmar Thakur Ram Lal Shanta Kumar Virbhadra Singh Prem Kumar Dhumal

Economy
Gross State Domestic Product at Current Prices figures in millions of Indian Rupees Year 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2007 Gross State Domestic Product 7,940 13,720 28,150 66,980 135,900 230,240 254,350

The era of planning started in Himachal in 1948 along with the rest of India. The first five year plan allocated .5.27 crore to Himachal. More than 50% of this expenditure was incurred on road construction since it was felt that without proper transport facilities, the process of planning and development could not be carried to the people, who mostly lived an isolated existence in far away areas. Himachal now ranks fourth in respect of per capita income among the states of the Indian Union.[9] Agriculture contributes over 45% to the net state domestic product. It is the main source of income and employment in Himachal. Over 93% of the population in Himachal depend directly upon agriculture which provides direct employment to 71% of its people. The main cereals grown are wheat, maize, rice and barley. Himachal has a rich heritage of handicrafts. These include woolen and pashmina shawls, carpets, silver and metal ware, embroidered chappals, grass shoes, Kangra and Gompa style paintings, wood work, horse-hair bangles,

Himachal Pradesh wooden and metal utensils and various other house hold items. These aesthetic and tasteful handicrafts declined under competition from machine made goods and also because of lack of marketing facilities. But now the demand for handicrafts has increased within and outside the country. Himachal is extremely rich in hydro electric resources. The state has about 25% of the national potential in this respect. It has been estimated that about 20,300MW of hydro electric power can be generated in the State by constructing various major, medium, small and mini/micro hydel projects on the five river basins. The state is also the first state in India to achieve the goal of having a bank account for every family.[9] As per the current prices, the total GDP was estimated at 25,435 crore ( 254,350,000,000), as against 23,024 crore ( 230,240,000,000) in the year 200405, showing an increase of 10.5%.[24]

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Transport
Roads are the major mode of transport in the hilly terrains of Himachal Pradesh. The state has road network of 28208km (17528mi),[25] including eight national highways (NH) that constitute 1234km (767mi).[25] Some roads get closed during winter and monsoon seasons due to snowfall and landslides. Regular bus services connect Shimla with Chandigarh, Kullu, Manali, Delhi, Mandi, Pathankot, Ambala, Chail and Dehradun. Local taxis are the major local transport here. District Hamirpur has got the highest road density in the country.[26]

Kalka-Shimla Railway

Railway track is accessible only to a few places in Himachal Pradesh. The PathankotJogindernagar line connects Punjab with Himachal Pradesh. The other railway tracks pass through Shimla, Solan and Una. Shimla is connected with Kalka by a narrow gauge railway line, which in turn is connected with the major cities in India. Himachal has two narrow gauge rail tracks. The Kalka-Shimla Railway track has a length of 96 kilometres. It passes through 102 tunnels and crosses 864 bridges.[27] [28] There are three domestic airports in the stateShimla Airport, Bhuntar Airport serving Kullu and Manali, and Gaggal Airport serving Kangra and Dharamsala. The air routes connect the state with Delhi and Chandigarh. There are no international airports in Himachal Pradesh. Deccan, Air India, MDLR has flights from Delhi, Chandigarh to Kullu and back. Jagson Airlines has flights from Delhi to Shimla.[29]

Demographics

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Himachal Pradesh has a total population of 68,56,509 including 34,73892 males and 33,82,617 females as per the provisional results of the Census of India 2011, which is only 0.57 per cent of India's total population, placing the state at 21st position and recording a growth of 12.81 per cent. Himachal Pradesh has a literacy rate of 83.78 per cent and gender ratio at 974/1000, according to the 2011 Census figures. Census wise, the state is placed 21st on the population chart followed by Tripura at 22nd place. Kangra district was top ranked with a population strength of 1,507,223 Traditional home, Manali (21.98 %), Mandi district 999,518 (14.58 %), Shimla district 813,384 (11.86 %), Solan district 576,670 (8.41 %), Sirmaur district 530,164 (7.73 %), Una district 521,057 (7.60 %), Chamba district 518,844 (7.57 %), Hamirpur district 454, 293 (6.63 %), Kullu district 437,474 (6.38 %), Bilaspur district 382,056 (5.57 %), Kinnaur district 84,298 (1.23 %) and Lahaul Spiti 31,528 (0.46 %). The main communities are Brahmins, Gujjars, Rathis, Jats, Rajputs Gaddis, Ghirth(choudhary), Kanets, and Kolis.The Ghirth(choudhary)community is found in mainly distt.Kangra. Himachal also has a sizeable population of Tibetans[31] Himachal Pradesh has the highest proportion of Hindu population in India (95%). Other religions that form a small percentage are Buddhism and Sikhism. The Lahaulis of Lahaul and Spiti region are mainly Buddhists. Sikhs mostly live in towns and cities. For example they form 10% of the total population in Una District adjoining the state of Punjab and 17 % in Shimla,the state capital. The Buddhists are mainly natives and tribals from Lahaul and Spiti,where they form majority of 60% and Kinnaur where they form 40%, however the bulk are refugees from Tibet.[32] The major spoken languages include Hindi, Punjabi, Mahasui, Kulluyi, Lahauli, Kinnauri, Chambyali, Sirmauri, Gojri (by Gujjars), Bilaspuri, Pahari, Dogri, Kangri.[31] The life expectancy at birth in Himachal Pradesh is 62.8 years (higher than the national average of 57.7 years) for the period 19861990. The Infant mortality rate stood at 62 in 1999 and crude birth rate has declined from 37.3 in 1971 to 22.6 in 1998, below the national average of 26.5 in 1998. The crude death rate was 7.7 in 1998. Himachal Pradesh's literacy rate grew by 34.65% between the period 1981 and 2001.[33] Languages of the Sino-Tibetan languages spoken in Himachal Pradesh are the Sunam language 558 (1998), Gahri language 4,000 (1997), Jangshung language 1,990 (1998), Kanashi language 1,400 (2002 Chauhan), Kinnauri language 48,778, Kinnauri Bhoti language 6,000 (1998), Chitkuli language 1,060 (1998), Pattani language 11,000 (1997), Shumcho language 2,174 (1998) and the Tukpa language 723 (1998).[34]

Culture
Himachal was one of the few states that had remained largely untouched by external customs, largely due to its difficult terrain. With the technological advancements the state has changed very rapidly. It is a multireligional, multicultural as well as multilingual state like other Indian states. Some of the most commonly spoken languages includes Hindi, Pahari, Dogri, Mandialli Kangri, Gojri and Kinnauri.[31] The caste communities residing in Himachal include the Brahmins, Rajputs, Gujjars, Gaddis, "Grith (choudhary)," Kannets (come under RAJPUTS), Rathis and Kolis.[35] There are also tribal population in the state which mainly comprise , Kinnars,Pangawals, Sulehria, and Lahaulis.[36] The state is well known for its handicrafts. The carpets, leather works, shawls, metalware, woodwork and paintings

Himachal Pradesh are worth appreciating. Pashmina shawl is one of the product which is highly in demand not only in Himachal but all over the country. Himachali caps are also famous art work of the people. Extreme cold winters of Himachal necessitated wool weaving. Nearly every household in Himachal owns a pit-loom. Wool is also considered as pure and is used as a ritual cloth. The well known woven object is the shawl, ranging from fine pashmina to the coarse desar. Kullu is famous for its shawls with striking patterns and vibrant colours. Kangra and Dharamshala are famous for Kangra miniature paintings. Local music and dance reflects the cultural identity of the state. Through their dance and music, they entreat their gods during local festivals and other special occasions. Apart from the fairs and festivals that are celebrated all over India, there are number of other fairs and festivals also that are of great significance to Himachal Pradesh. Shimla, the state capital is home to Asia's only natural ice skating rink.[37] The day to day food of Himachalis is very similar to the rest of the north India. They too have lentil, broth, rice, vegetables and bread. Some of the specialities of Himachal include Pateer, Chouck, Bhagjery, jhoul, Patrode, Sidku, Beduan, Chutney, Madra, Khatti Dal, Khatta and Ambua, Madra, Pahari Aloo and Pahari Murgh. Famous people associated with Himachal include: Dalip Singh Rana, Anupam Kher, Amrish Puri (who studied here), Prem Chopra (brought up here) , Mohit Chauhan, Anand Sharma (Member of Rajya Sabha and Union Cabinet Minister for Commerce and Industry[38] of the Government of India), Third Supreme Court Chief-Justice and former Prime Minister of Kashmir in 1947 Mehr Chand Mahajan, economist and former vice-president of World Bank Shahid Javed Burki, NSG Commando, Pritam Singh, Bollywood actresses Preity Zinta, Kangna Ranaut, Hollywood actress Namrata Singh Gujral, Satyananda Stokes who introduced apple in the region, writer Idries Shah, ornithologist Allan Octavian Hume (had his home here), former general of Pakistan Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq and current President of Afghanistan Hamid Karzai who both studied here.

244

Education
Himachal Pradesh has one of the highest literacy rates in India next to Kerala.[39] Hamirpur District is among the top districts in the country for literacy.[39] Education rates among women are quite encouraging in the Indira Gandhi Medical College and Hospital at Shimla. state.[39] The standard of education in the state has reached to a considerably high level as compared to other states in India.[39] The state has several reputed educational institutes for higher studies. The Indian Institute of Technology Mandi, Himachal Pradesh University Shimla ,the National Institute of Technology Hamirpur,the Central University Kangra,the Jaypee University of Information Technology Waknaghat, The Chitkara University

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Solan are some of the pioneer Universities located in the state. CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishwavidyalya Palampur is one of the most renowned hill Agriculture Institutes in world. Dr. Yashwant Singh Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry has earned a unique distinction in India for imparting teaching, research and extension education in horticulture, forestry and allied disciplines.[39]

Indian Institute of Advanced Study at Shimla.

The government is working constantly to prepare various plans and projects in order to strengthen the education system of the state. Recently, the State Government has decided to start three nursing colleges to develop the health system in the state. There are over 10,000 primary schools, 1,000 secondary schools and more than 1,300 high schools in Himachal.[40] The state government has decided to start up with 3 major nursing colleges to develop the health system in the state.[39] In meeting the constitutional obligation to make primary education compulsory, Himachal has now became the first state in India to make elementary education accessible to every child in the state.[41] The State has got '''Solan Homoeopathic Medical College & Hospital''', Barog Bye-pass, KUMARHATTI, Distt. Solan, Indira Gandhi Medical College and Hospital. Besides that there is Himachal Dental College which is the first recognised Dental Institute in the State.[42] Himachal also has institutions to revive fading traditional skills such as those in art. The Chitera School of Art teaches the delicate style of Kangra Miniature Paintings.
[43]

Universities
Name Indian Institute of Technology Mandi National Institute of Technology, Hamirpur Central University of Himachal Pradesh Himachal Pradesh University Type Institute of National Importance Mandi Institute of National Importance Hamirpur Central University State University Dehra Gopipur and Dharamshala Shimla Nauni Palampur Waknaghat Baru Sahib Barotiwala Indora Solan Location

Dr. Yashwant Singh Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry State University CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishwavidyalya Jaypee University of Information Technology Eternal University Chitkara University Arni University Shoolini University of Biotechnology and Management Sciences State University Private University Private University Private University Private University Private University

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Private University Private University Private University Private University Private University Baddi Palampur Una Kumarhatti Solan

Baddi University of Emerging Sciences and Technology Sri Sai University Indus International University Manav Bharti University Bahara University

Media and communication

Though situated in a remote part of the country, Himachal Pradesh has an active community of journalists and publishers. Several newspapers and magazines are published in more than one language, and their reach extends to almost all the Hindi speaking states. Radio and TV have permeated significantly. Judging by the number of people writing to these media, there is a very large media-aware population in the state. The Telegraph, The Statesman, Asian Age, Hindustan Times, Punjab Kesari, Amar Ujala, Divya Himachal and The Times of India are the newspapers published here. Vernacular newspapers such as those in Hindi, Punjabi and Nepali VOICE of PRESS(www.voiceofpress.com) are also read by selected readership.A leading print electronic web and digital media Himachal's 1st PR and Promotion agency PRAGATI MEDIA SERVICES,a joint venture of 'Pen'(Print Electronic Network) running No.1 among the Hindi Monthly Magazine PEN NEWS www.crimewing.com Doordarshan is the state-owned television broadcaster. Multi system operators provide a mix of Nepali, Hindi, English, and international channels via cable. All India Radio is a public radio station. Private FM stations are also available in few cities like Shimla. BSNL, Reliance Infocomm, Tata Indicom, Tata Docomo , Aircel, S Tel, Vodafone, Idea Cellular and Airtel are available cellular phone operators. Broadband internet is available in select towns and cities and is provided by the state-run BSNL and by other private companies. Dial-up access is provided throughout the state by BSNL and other providers.

State Profile
State Symbols
State animal Snow leopard State bird State tree Jujurana Deodar

State flower Rhododendron

Source: Department of Information and Public Relations.[44]

Area Total Population Males Females Population Density Sex Ratio Rural Population Urban Population Scheduled Caste Population 55673km2 6,077,900 3,087,940 2,989,960 109 968 5,482,319 595,581 1,502,171

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244,587 77.13% 86.02% 68.08% 12 52 75 34 75 57 3,243 75 12 53 1 20 32 20,118 17,495 3,835 17,000 30,000km 8 20,787 MW in five rivers basins i.e. (Yamuna, Satluj, Beas, Ravi, Chenab and Himurja) 6353.12MW 16.69 lakh tonnes 9 lakh tonnes 6.95 lakh tonnes . 36,783 (20062007) Expected 237,250 Persons, Annual Expenditure: Over . 60 Crore . 27,380/- crore, Employment Opportunities: Over 337,391 80,000

Scheduled Tribe Population Literacy Rate Male Literacy Female Literacy Districts Sub-Division Tehsils Sub-Tehsils Developmental Block Towns Panchayats Panchayat Smities Zila Parishad Urban Local Bodies Nagar Nigam Nagar Parishad Nagar Panchayats Census Villages Inhabited Villages Health Institutions Educational Institutions Motorable Roads National Highways Identified Hydroelectric Potential Potential harnessed Food grain production Vegetable production Fruit Production Per Capita Income Social security Pension Investment in Industrial Area Employment generated in Government Sector

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Notes
[1] Chief Minister (http:/ / himachal. gov. in/ cm. htm), Himachal Pradesh [2] Himachal Pradesh Vidhan Sabha (http:/ / hpvidhansabha. nic. in/ ) [3] Himachal Pradesh adopted Hindi as the sole official language in 2008. Hindi to be official language of H.P. (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ 2008/ 08/ 21/ stories/ 2008082156920300. htm) [4] http:/ / www. himachal. nic. in/ [5] "Statistical Facts about India" (http:/ / www. indianmirror. com/ geography/ geo9. html). www.indianmirror.com. . Retrieved 2006-10-26. [6] "Literal meaning of Himachal Pradesh" (http:/ / www. himachalpradesh. us/ geography/ himalayas_in_himachal. php). www.himachalpradesh.us. . Retrieved 2007-05-20. [7] Singh (2000), p. 1. [8] "History section" (http:/ / www. webindia123. com/ himachal/ history/ history. htm). Suni system (P). . Retrieved 2007-04-28. [9] "Economy of Himachal Pradesh" (http:/ / www. webindia123. com/ himachal/ economy/ econodeve. htm). Suni System (P). . Retrieved 2006-04-28. [10] NEW ERA OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN HIMACHAL PRADESH OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES EXECUTIVE SUMMARY (http:/ / www. yesbank. in/ downloads/ KnowledgeBank_17Jan06/ YESBANK_Knowledge_ExecutiveSummary_Himachal. pdf) yesbank.in Retrieved on- April 2008 [11] "India Corruption Study 2005" (http:/ / www. transparency. org/ regional_pages/ asia_pacific/ newsroom/ news_archive__1/ india_corruption_study_2005). Transparency International. . Retrieved 2007-05-29. [12] "History of Himachal Pradesh" (http:/ / himachal. nic. in/ tour/ history. htm). National informatics center, Himachal Pradesh. . Retrieved 2008-03-31. [13] "History of Himachal Pradesh" (http:/ / www. himachalpradeshindia. com/ history. html). HimachalPradeshIndia.com. . Retrieved 2008-03-31. [14] Verma, V. "Historical Perspective" (http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=QpWloqN5LTAC& dq=himachal+ history& source=gbs_summary_s& cad=0). The Emergence of Himachal Pradesh: A Survey of Constitutional Developments. Himachal Pradesh (India): Indus Publishing. pp.2835. ISBN8173870357. . Retrieved 2008-03-31. [15] "Himachal at a glance" (http:/ / www. himachalpradesh. us/ himachal/ himachal_glance. php). www.himachalpradesh.us. . Retrieved 2007-05-20. [16] "Rivers in Himachal Pradesh" (http:/ / www. himachalpradesh. us/ geography/ himachal_rivers. php). www.himachalpradesh.us. . Retrieved 2006-10-26. [17] "Rivers in Himachal Pradesh" (http:/ / www. webindia123. com/ himachal/ land/ rivers. htm#R). Suni Systems (P). . Retrieved 2006-04-28. [18] "Climate of Himachal Pradesh" (http:/ / www. himachalpradesh. us/ geography/ himachal_climate. php). www.himachalpradesh.us. . Retrieved 2006-10-26. [19] Himachal Pradesh Forest Department. "The Forests" (http:/ / www. hpforest. nic. in/ frst2. htm). National Informatics Center, Himachal Pradesh. . Retrieved 2008-04-03. [20] In Himachal Pradesh Striking gold with marigold (http:/ / www. indianexpress. com/ oldStory/ 50139/ ) [21] "Fauna" (http:/ / www. himachalpradeshindia. com/ geographical_info. html). . Retrieved 2007-05-28. [22] "Himachal Pradesh (gov) Introduction" (http:/ / legislativebodiesinindia. gov. in/ States/ Himachal/ himachal_w. htm). National informatics center. Computer Centre, Lok Sabha Secretariat. . Retrieved 2007-05-03. [23] "Legislative Assembly" (http:/ / legislativebodiesinindia. gov. in/ ). Legislative Bodies in India. National Informatics Centre. . Retrieved 2006-10-28. [24] "Current GDP" (http:/ / www. tribuneindia. com/ 2007/ 20070306/ himachal. htm#6). H. K. Dua, The Tribune House. . Retrieved 2007-05-23. [25] "Himachal Pradesh: Infrastructure" (http:/ / www. pppinindia. com/ states_hp_infrastructure. asp). Public Private Partnerships in India. Ministry of Finance, Government of India. . Retrieved 2008-04-06. [26] "Hamirpur road density" (http:/ / www. tribuneindia. com/ 2002/ 20020518/ himachal. htm). Hari Jaisingh, Published from The Tribune House. . Retrieved 2007-05-22. [27] Hughes, H., (1994) Indian Locomotives Part 3, Narrow Gauge, 18631940. The Continental Railway Circle, Harrow, UK. ISBN 0-9521655-0-3 [28] "MapsOfIndia article on [[Kalka-Shimla Railway (http:/ / india. mapsofindia. com/ transportation/ special-trains/ kalka-shimla-railway. html)]"]. . Retrieved 2007-03-13. [29] "Transportation in Himachal Pradesh" (http:/ / www. himachalpradeshindia. com/ route. html). Himachal Transport Dep. Co.. . Retrieved 2007-01-31. [30] "Census Population" (http:/ / indiabudget. nic. in/ es2006-07/ chapt2007/ tab97. pdf) (PDF). Census of India. Ministry of Finance India. . Retrieved 2008-12-18. [31] "The people and tribes" (http:/ / 123himachal. com/ himachal/ info. htm). www.123himachal.com. . Retrieved 2007-05-20. [32] "Ethnic composition" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070615002344/ http:/ / www. censusindia. net/ religiondata/ Summary+ Hindus. pdf). The First Report on Religion : Census of India 2001. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ ) on 2007-06-15. . Retrieved 2007-01-31.

Himachal Pradesh
[33] "Highlights of Himachal Pradesh HDR (2002)" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070615002344/ http:/ / www. undp. org. in/ media/ HDRC/ shdr/ Himachal+ Pradesh/ Himachal+ Pradesh. pdf) (PDF). Government of Himachal Pradesh (2002), Himachal Pradesh Human Development Report 2002, Government of Himachal Pradesh, pp. 40. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. undp. org. in/ media/ HDRC/ shdr/ Himachal Pradesh/ Himachal Pradesh. pdf) on 2007-06-15. . Retrieved 2007-05-26. [34] "Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Himalayish, Tibeto-Kanauri, Western Himalayish, Kanauri." (http:/ / www. ethnologue. com/ show_family. asp?subid=90419). Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.), 2005. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International. . Retrieved 2007-07-09. [35] "Ethnicity" (http:/ / www. himachalpradeshindia. com/ culture-of-himachal-pradesh. html). . Retrieved 2007-05-24. [36] "Culture of Himachal Pradesh" (http:/ / www. indialine. com/ travel/ himachalpradesh/ culture. html). Indialine (2007). . Retrieved 2007-05-03. [37] "Ice-skating rink completes 100 sessions again" (http:/ / www. tribuneindia. com/ 2001/ 20010211/ himachal. htm#21). The Tribune, Chandigarh, India. . Retrieved 2001-02-11. [38] (http:/ / www. finland. org/ public/ default. aspx?contentid=188509& nodeid=40958& contentlan=2& culture=en-US) [39] "Educational Profile of Himachal Pradesh" (http:/ / www. himachaleducation. net/ EducationProfile/ ). General Overview of Education in Himachal. . Retrieved 2007-03-16. [40] Himachal Govt. Website "Factual source on Education in Himachal" (http:/ / himachal. nic. in/ educ/ ). Government of India. Himachal Govt. Website. Retrieved 2007-03-16. [41] Dua, H.K.. "Educational updates- Himachal" (http:/ / www. tribuneindia. com/ 2003/ 20030629/ himachal. htm). The Tribune Trust, 2006. The Tribune House. . Retrieved 2007-03-16. [42] Indira Gandhi Medical college (http:/ / www. igmcshimla. org/ about_IGMC. htm) Retrieved on- April 2008 [43] http:/ / www. kangraarts. org/ [44] Himachal At A Glance (http:/ / www. himachalpr. gov. in/ hpglance. asp)

249

References
Ahluwalia, M.S. (1998), Social, Cultural and Economic History of Himachal Pradesh (http://books.google.co. in/books?id=tG0fnF0VRk0C&dq=himachal+history&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0), Indus Publishing, ISBN8173870896, retrieved 2008-03-31 Batta, R.N. (2000), Tourism and the Environment: A Quest for Sustainability (http://books.google.co.in/ books?id=lDJrdjwM7qYC&dq=himachal&lr=&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0), Indus Publishing, ISBN8173871108, retrieved 2008-03-31 Singh, Mian Goverdhan (2000). Himachal Pradesh: History, Culture & Economy. 5th Edition. Extensively revised by C.L. Gupta & Kulbhushan Chandel. Minerva Publishers & Distributors, Shimla. Singh, Sarina (2005), India (http://books.google.co.in/books?id=Fk8FQa2ZSFQC&dq=himachal+history& lr=&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0), Lonely Planet, ISBN1740596943, retrieved 2008-03-31 Tiwari, A.K. (2000), Infrastructure and Economic Development in Himachal Pradesh (http://books.google.co. in/books?id=aaXQwI5j9-MC&dq=himachal&lr=&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0), Indus Publishing, ISBN8173871051, retrieved 2008-03-31 Verma, V. (1995), The Emergence of Himachal Pradesh: A Survey of Constitutional Developments (http:// books.google.co.in/books?id=QpWloqN5LTAC&dq=himachal+history&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0), Indus Publishing, ISBN8173870357, retrieved 2008-03-31 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (2002), Himachal Pradesh Human Development Report 2002 (http://www.undp.org.in/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=128&Itemid=216), Government of Himachal Pradesh, ISBN0195219155, retrieved 2008-03-31 Statistics and Data, Planning Department, Government of Himachal Pradesh (http://hpplanning.nic.in/ statistics&data.htm)

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External links
Himachal Pradesh travel guide from Wikitravel Official website of Himachal Pradesh Government (http://himachal.nic.in/) Himachal Pradesh Census 2001 (http://himachal.nic.in/tour/census.htm) Himachal tourism department Co. (http://www.hptdc.gov.in/) Himachal Tourism Website (http://www.himachaltourism.gov.in/) Himachal Pradesh Development Report (http://planningcommission.nic.in/plans/stateplan/stplsf.htm) Himachal NGO (http://www.myhimachal.com/) Wooden Temples in Himachal Pradesh (http://www.kamit.jp/06_himalaya/mala_eng.htm) Himachal Month/Day in USA (http://himachal.us/himachalday/) Birds of Himachal Pradesh (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Birds_of_Himachal_Pradesh) Butterflies of Himachal Pradesh (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ Category:Butterflies_of_Himachal_Pradesh) Landscapes of Himachal Pradesh (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ Category:Landscapes_of_Himachal_Pradesh)

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Jammu and Kashmir

Jammu and Kashmir
State under Indian control

Flag Seal

Location of Jammu and Kashmir in India

Map of Jammu and Kashmir Coordinates (Srinagar): 3327N 7614E Country Established India 1947-10-26

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Capital * Jammu (winter) Largest city Districts Government[*] -Governor -Chief Minister -Legislature Area -Total Area rank Population (2011) -Total -Rank -Density Time zone ISO 3166 code HDI HDI rank Literacy Official languages Website [] [1] 12548926 18th 56.5/km2(146.2/sqmi) IST (UTC+05:30) IN-JK 0.601 (medium) 17th (2005) 66.7% (21st) Urdu, Kashmiri, Dogri jammukashmir.nic.in [2] 222236km2(85805.8sqmi) 6th Narinder Nath Vohra Omar Abdullah Bicameral (89 + 36 seats) Srinagar (summer)

Srinagar 22

Jammu and Kashmir (Dogri: , Ladakhi: , Urdu: ) is the northernmost state of India. It is situated mostly in the Himalayan mountains. Jammu and Kashmir shares a border with the states of Himachal Pradesh and Punjab to the south and internationally with the People's Republic of China to the north and east and the Pakistan-administered territories of Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan, to the west and northwest respectively. Formerly a part of the erstwhile Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu, which governed the larger historic region of Kashmir, this territory is disputed among China, India and Pakistan. Jammu and Kashmir consists of three regions: Jammu, the Kashmir valley and Ladakh. Srinagar is the summer capital, and Jammu is the winter capital. While the Kashmir valley is famous for its beautiful mountainous landscape, Jammu's numerous shrines attract tens of thousands of Hindu pilgrims every year. Ladakh, also known as "Little Tibet", is renowned for its remote mountain beauty and Buddhist culture.

History
Hari Singh had ascended the throne of Kashmir in 1925 and was the reigning monarch at the conclusion of British rule in the subcontinent in 1947. As a part of the partition process, both countries had agreed that the rulers of princely states would be given the right to opt for either Pakistan or India or in special cases to remain independent. In 1947, Kashmir's population was 77% Muslim and it shared a boundary with Pakistan. On 20 October 1947, tribesmen backed by Pakistan invaded Kashmir.[3]

Jammu and Kashmir The Maharaja initially fought back but on 27 October appealed for assistance to the Governor-General Louis Mountbatten, who agreed on the condition that the ruler accede to India.[4] Once the papers of accession to India were signed, Indian soldiers entered Kashmir with orders to stop any further occupation, but they were not allowed to expel anyone from the state. India took the matter to the United Nations. The UN resolution asked both India and Pakistan to vacate the areas they have occupied and hold a referendum under UN observation. The holding of this plebiscite, which India initially supported, was dismissed by India because the 1952 elected Constituent Assembly of Jammu and Kashmir voted in favor of confirming the Kashmir region's accession to India.[5] Another reason for the abandonment of the referendum is because demographic changes, after 1947, have been effected in Pakistan-administered Kashmir, as generations of Pakistani individuals non-native to the region have been allowed to take residence in Pakistan-administered Kashmir.[5] [6] Furthermore, in Indian-administered Kashmir, the demographics of the Kashmir Valley have also been altered after separatist militants coerced 1/4 million Kashmiri Hindus to leave the region.[7] [8] Moreover, Pakistan failed to withdraw its troops from the Kashmir region as was required under the same U.N. resolution of August 13, 1948 which discussed the plebiscite.[5] Diplomatic relations between India and Pakistan soured for many other reasons,[4] and eventually resulted in three further wars in Kashmir the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, the Indo-Pakistan War of 1971 and the Kargil War in 1999. India has control of 60% of the area of the former Princely State of Jammu and Kashmir; Pakistan controls 30% of the region, known as Gilgit-Baltistan and Azad Kashmir. China has since occupied 10% of the state in 1962. The eastern region of the erstwhile princely state of Kashmir has also been beset with a boundary dispute. In the late 19th- and early 20th centuries, although some boundary agreements were signed between Great Britain, Tibet, Afghanistan and Russia over the northern borders of Kashmir, China never accepted these agreements, and the official Chinese position did not change with the communist takeover in 1949. By the mid-1950s the Chinese army had entered the north-east portion of Ladakh:[9] By 195657 they had completed a military road through the Aksai Chin area to provide better communication between Xinjiang and western Tibet. India's belated discovery of this road led to border clashes between the two countries that culminated in the Sino-Indian war of October 1962.[9] China has occupied Aksai Chin since 1962 and, in addition, an adjoining region, the Trans-Karakoram Tract was ceded by Pakistan to China in 1963. For intermittent periods between 1957, when the state approved its own Constitution,[10] to the death of Sheikh Abdullah in 1982, the state had alternating spells of stability and discontent. In the late 1980s however, simmering discontent over the high-handed policies of the Union Government[11] and allegations of the rigging of the 1987 assembly elections[11] triggered a violent uprising which was backed by Pakistan.[12] Since then, the region has seen a prolonged, bloody conflict between militants and the Indian Army, both of whom have have been accused of widespread human rights abuses, including abductions, massacres, rape and looting.[13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] The army has officially denied these allegations.[22] However, militancy in the state has been on the decline since 1996,also again in 2004 with the peace process with India and Pakistan.[23] Furthermore the situation has become increasingly peaceful in recent years.[24]

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Geography and climate

Jammu and Kashmir is home to several valleys such as the Kashmir Valley, Tawi Valley, Chenab Valley, Poonch Valley, Sind Valley and Lidder Valley. The main Kashmir valley is 100km (62mi) wide and 15520.3km2 (5992.4sqmi) in area. The Himalayas divide the Kashmir valley from Ladakh while the Pir Panjal range, which encloses the valley from the west and the south, separates it from the Great Plains of northern India. Along the northeastern flank of the Valley runs the main range of the Himalayas. This densely settled and beautiful valley has an average height of 1850metres (6070ft) above sea-level but the surrounding Pir Panjal range has an average elevation of 5000metres (16000ft). Because of Jammu and Kashmir's wide range of elevations, its biogeography is diverse. Northwestern thorn scrub forests and Himalayan subtropical pine forests are found in the low elevations of the far southwest. These give way

Jammu and Kashmir to a broad band of western Himalayan broadleaf forests running from northwest-southeast across the Kashmir Valley. Rising into the mountains, the broadleaf forests grade into western Himalayan subalpine conifer forests. Above treeline are found northwestern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows. Much of the northeast of the state is covered by the Karakoram-West Tibetan Plateau alpine steppe. Around the highest elevations, there is no vegetation, simply rock and ice. The Jhelum River is the only major Himalayan river which flows through the Kashmir valley. The Indus, Tawi, Ravi and Chenab are the major rivers flowing through the state. Jammu and Kashmir is home to several Himalayan glaciers. With an average altitude of 5753metres (18875ft) above sea-level, the Siachen Glacier is 70km (43mi) long making it the longest Himalayan glacier. The climate of Jammu and Kashmir varies greatly owing to its rugged topography. In the south around Jammu, the climate is typically monsoonal, though the region is sufficiently far west to average 40 to 50mm (1.6 to 2inches) of rain per months between January and March. In the hot season, Jammu city is very hot and can reach up to 40 C (104 F) whilst in July and August, very heavy though erratic rainfall occurs with monthly extremes of up to 650 millimetres (25.5inches). In September, rainfall declines, and by October conditions are hot but extremely dry, with minimal rainfall and temperatures of around 29 C (84 F). Across from the Pir Panjal range, the South Asian monsoon is no longer a factor and most precipitation falls in the spring from southwest cloudbands. Because of its closeness to the Arabian Sea, Srinagar receives as much as 25inches (635 millimetres) of rain from this source, with the wettest months being March to May with around 85 millimetres (3.3inches) per month. Across from the main Himalaya Range, even the southwest cloudbands break up and the climate of Ladakh and Zanskar is extremely dry and cold. Annual precipitation is only around 100mm (4inches) per year and humidity is very low. This region, almost all above 3,000 metres (9,750ft) above sea level and winters are extremely cold. In Zanskar, the average January temperature is 20 C (4 F) with extremes as low as 40 C (40 F). All the rivers freeze over and locals actually do river crossings during this period because their high levels from glacier melt in summer inhibits crossing. In summer in Ladakh and Zanskar, days are typically a warm 20 C (68 F) but with the low humidity and thin air nights can still be cold.

254

Lake Tso Moriri

Topographic map of J & K. Kashmir valley, Jammu region and Ladakh region are visible by altitude.

Ladakh

Nageen Lake

River rafting in the Zanskar subdistrict of Kargil.

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Divisions
Jammu and Kashmir consists of three divisions: Jammu, Kashmir Valley and Ladakh, and is further divided into 22 districts:[25] The Siachen Glacier, although under Indian military control, does not lie under the administration of the state of Jammu and Kashmir. Kishtwar, Ramban, Reasi, Samba, Bandipora, Ganderbal, Kulgam and Shopian are newly formed districts.[25]
Jammu region 1. Kashmir Valley region 1. Ladakh region 2. Anantnag District 2. Kargil District 1. Kathua District 3. Kulgam District 3. Leh District 2. Jammu District 4. Pulwama District 3. Samba District 4. Udhampur District 5. Shopian District 6. Budgam District 5. Reasi District 7. Srinagar District 6. Rajouri District 8. Ganderbal District 7. Poonch District 9. Bandipora District 8. Doda District 10. Baramulla District 9. Ramban District 10. Kishtwar District 11. Kupwara District

Claimed districts
Bagh Bhimber Hattian Haveli Kotli Mirpur Muzaffarabad Neelum Poonch Sudhnati Astore Diamer Ghanche Ghizer Gilgit Skardu

Demographics
Jammu and Kashmir has a Muslim majority population. It is not the only Muslim majority state or territory in India, but shares this characteristic with the tiny union territory of Lakshadweep (total area being 11 square miles).[28] Though Islam is practiced by about 67% of the population of the state and by 97% of the population of the Kashmir valley,[29] the state has large communities of Buddhists, Hindus (inclusive of Megh Bhagats) and Sikhs.[30] In Jammu, Hindus constitute 65% of the population, Muslims 31% and Sikhs, 4%; In Ladakh, Buddhists constitute about 46% of the population, the remaining being Muslims. The people of Ladakh are of Indo-Tibetan origin, while the southern area of Jammu includes many communities tracing their ancestry to the nearby Indian states of Haryana and Punjab, as well as the city of Delhi. In totality, the Muslims constitute 67% of the population, the Hindus about 30%, the Buddhists 1%, and the Sikhs 2% of the population.[30]
A mosque in Srinagar

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According to political scientist Alexander Evans, approximately 95% of the total population of 160,000170,000 of Kashmiri Brahmins, also called Kashmiri Pandits, (i.e. approximately 150,000 to 160,000) left the Kashmir Valley in 1990 as militancy engulfed the state.[31] According to an estimate by the Central Intelligence Agency, about 300,000 Kashmiri Pandits from the entire state of Jammu and Kashmir have been internally displaced due to the ongoing violence.[32]

Vaishno Devi temple located in the state is one of the holiest Hindu temples dedicated to Shakti.

Division Kashmir (53.9%) Jammu (43.7%) Ladakh (2.3%) Jammu & Kashmir

Population 5,476,970 4,430,191 236,539 10,143,700

% Muslim 97.16% 30.69% 47.40% 66.97%

% Hindu 1.84% 65.23% 6.22% 29.63%

[33]

% Sikh 0.88% 3.57% 2.03%

% Buddhist/Other 0.11% 0.51% 45.87% 1.36%

Statistics calculated from the 2001 Census India District Profiles [34] There are roughly 1.5 million refugees from Indian Administered Kashmir in Azad Kashmir and Pakistan. An estimated [35] [36] [32] [37] 50100,000 Kashmiri Muslims and 150300,000 Kashmiri Pandits have been internally displaced due to militancy.

In Jammu and Kashmir, the principal spoken languages are Kashmiri, Urdu, Dogri, Pahari, Balti, Ladakhi, Gojri, Shina and Pashto. However, Urdu written in the Persian script is the official language of the state. Many speakers of these languages use Hindi or English as a second language.[38]

Statehood
Kashmir Valley dominated by ethnic Kashmiris have largely driven the Azadi campaign. Non-Kashmiri Muslim ethnic groups (Paharis, Sheenas, Gujjars and Bakarwalas), who dominate areas along the Line of Control, have remained indifferent to the separatist campaign. Jammu province region has 70:30 Hindu-Muslim ratio. Parts of the region were militancy-hit, but violence there has ebbed along with the Valley after India and Pakistan started a peace process in 2004.[39] Dogras (67%) are the single largest group in the multi-ethnic region of Punjabis, Paharis, Bakerwals and Gujjars. Statehood is demand in Hindu-dominated districts. Ladakh is the largest region in the state with over two lakh people. Its two districts are Leh (77% Buddhist) and Kargil (80% Muslim population). Union territory status has been the key demand of Leh Buddhists for many years.[39]

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257

Politics and government

Jammu and Kashmir is the only state in India which enjoys special autonomy under Article 370 of the Constitution of India according to which, no law enacted by the Parliament of India, except for those in the field of defence, communication and foreign policy, will be extendable in Jammu and Kashmir unless it is ratified by the state legislature of Jammu and Kashmir. Subsequently, jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of India over Jammu and Kashmir has been extended.[40] Jammu and Kashmir is also the only Indian state that has its own flag and constitution, and Indians from other states cannot purchase land or property in the state.[41] Designed by the then ruling National Conference, the flag of Jammu and Kashmir features a plough on a red background symbolizing labour substituted the Maharaja's state flag. The three stripes represent the three distinct administrative divisions of the state, namely Jammu, Valley of Kashmir, and Ladakh.[42] Since 1990, the Armed Forces Act, which gives special powers to the Indian security forces, has been enforced in Jammu and Kashmir.[43] The decision to evoke this act was criticized by the Human Rights Watch.[44] Like all the states of India, Jammu and Kashmir has a multi-party democratic system of governance with a The three regions: Jammu, the Kashmir valley and Ladakh. bicameral legislature. At the time of drafting of the Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir, 100 seats were earmarked for direct elections from territorial constituencies. Of these, 25 seats were reserved for the areas of Jammu and Kashmir State that came under Pakistani occupation, which came down to 24 after the 12th amendment of the Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir: "The territory of the State shall comprise all the territories which on the fifteenth day of August 1947, were under the sovereignty or suzerainty of the Ruler of the State" and Section 48 therein states that, "Notwithstanding anything contained in section 47, until the area of the State under the occuptions of Pakistan ceases to so occupied and the people residing in that area elect their representatives (a) twenty-five seats in the Legislative Assembly shall remain vacant and shall not be taken into account for reckoning the total member-ship of the Assembly; and the said area shall be excluded in delimiting the territorial Constituencies Under Section 47".
[45]

A soldier guards the roadside checkpoint outside Srinagar International Airport. Jan 2009

After a delimitation in 1988, the total number of seats increased to 111, of which 87 were within Indian administered territory.[46] The Jammu & Kashmir Assembly is the only state in India to have a 6 year as against the norm of a 5 year term followed in every other state's Assembly.[47] There was indication from the previous INC Government to bring parity with the other states,[48] but this does not seem to have received the required support to pass into law. Influential political parties include the Jammu & Kashmir National Conference (NC), the Indian National Congress (INC), the Jammu and Kashmir People's Democratic Party (PDP), the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and other smaller

Jammu and Kashmir regional parties. After dominating Kashmir's politics for years, National Conference's influence waned in 2002, when INC and PDP formed a political alliance and rose to power.[49] Under the power sharing agreement, INC leader Ghulam Nabi Azad replaced PDP's Mufti Mohammad Sayeed as the Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir in late 2005. However, in 2008, PDP withdrew its support from the government on the issue of temporary diversion of nearly 40acres (16ha) of land to Sri Amarnath Shrine Board.[50] In the 2008 Kashmir Elections that were held from 17 November to 24 December, the National Conference party and the Congress party together won enough seats in the state assembly to form a ruling alliance.[51] Some Kashmiris, especially those residing in Kashmir valley, demand greater autonomy, sovereignty and even independence from India. Due to the economic integration of Jammu and Kashmir with the rest of India, separatist movements across Kashmir valley were on a decline.[52] However, following the unrest in 2008, which included more than 500,000 protesters at a rally on 18 August, secessionist movements gained a boost.[53] [54] The 2009 edition of the Freedom in the World (report) by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees rated Jammu and Kashmir to be partly free,[55] while in comparison Pakistan-administered Kashmir was rated to be not free.[56]

258

Economy
Jammu and Kashmir's economy is predominantly dependent on agriculture and allied activities.[58] The Kashmir valley is also known for its sericulture and cold-water fisheries. Wood from Kashmir is used to make high-quality cricket bats, popularly known as Kashmir Willow. Kashmiri saffron is also very famous and brings the state a handsome amount of foreign exchange. Agricultural exports from Jammu and Kashmir include apples, barley, cherries, corn, millet, oranges, rice, peaches, pears, saffron, sorghum, vegetables, and wheat, while manufactured exports include handicrafts, rugs, and shawls. Horticulture plays a vital role in the economic development of the state. With an annual turnover of over Rs. 300 crore, apart from foreign exchange of over Rs. 80 crore, this sector is the next biggest source of income in the states economy.[59] The region of Kashmir is known for its horticulture industry[60] and is the wealthiest region in the state.[61] Horticultural produce from the state includes apples, apricots, cherries, pears, plums, almonds and walnuts.[59] The Doda district has deposits of high-grade sapphire.[62] Though small, the manufacturing and services sector is growing rapidly, especially in the Jammu division. In recent years, several consumer goods companies have opened manufacturing units in the region. The Associated Chambers of Commerce
Jammu and Kashmir is one of the largest recipients of state-grants from the Government of India. Shown here is the $715 million [57] Kashmir Railway.

Tourism forms an integral part of the state's economy. Shown here is the Shalimar Gardens. In a famous incident, a Persian Emperor claimed it to be a paradise on Earth.

Jammu and Kashmir and Industry of India (ASSOCHAM) has identified several industrial sectors which can attract investment in the state, and accordingly, it is working with the union and the state government to set up industrial parks and special economic zones.[63] In the fiscal year 200506, exports from the state amounted to Rs. 1,150 crore.[64] However, industrial development in the state faces several major constraints including extreme mountainous landscape and power shortage.[65] The Government of India has been keen to economically integrate Jammu and Kashmir with the rest of India. The state is one of the largest recipients of grants from New Delhi, totaling $ 812 million per year.[66] It also has a mere 4% incidence of poverty, one of the lowest in the country.[66] In an attempt to improve the infrastructure in the state, the Indian government has commenced work on the ambitious Kashmir Railway project which is being constructed by Konkan Railway Corporation and IRCON at a cost of more than US$2.5 billion.[67] The Jammu & Kashmir Bank, which is listed as a S&P CNX 500 conglomerate, is based in the state. It reported a net profit of Rs. 598 million in 2008.[68] Before insurgency intensified in 1989, tourism formed an important part of the Kashmiri economy. The tourism economy in the Kashmir valley was worst hit. However, the holy shrines of Jammu and the Buddhist monasteries of Ladakh continue to remain popular pilgrimage and tourism destinations. Every year, thousands of Hindu pilgrims visit holy shrines of Vaishno Devi and Amarnath which has had significant impact on the state's economy.[69] The Vaishno Devi yatra alone contributes Rs. 475 crore to the local economy annually.[70] Tourism in the Kashmir valley has rebounded in recent years and in 2009, the state became one of the top tourist destinations of India.[71] Gulmarg, one of the most popular ski resort destinations in India, is also home to the world's highest green golf course.[72] However with the decrease in violence in the state has boosted the states economy specifically tourism.[73]
Year 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2006 Gross State Domestic Product (in million INR) 11,860 22,560 36,140 80,970 147,500 539,850

259

Jammu and Kashmir

260

Culture
Ladakh is famous for its unique Indo-Tibetan culture. Chanting in Sanskrit and Tibetan language forms an integral part of Ladakh's Buddhist lifestyle. Annual masked dance festivals, weaving and archery are an important part of traditional life in Ladakh. Ladakhi food has much in common with Tibetan food, the most prominent foods being thukpa, noodle soup; and tsampa, known in Ladakhi as Ngampe, roasted barley flour. Typical garb includes gonchas of velvet, elaborately embroidered waistcoats and boots, and gonads or hats. People, adorned with gold and silver ornaments and turquoise headgears throng the streets during various Ladakhi festivals.

Buddhism is an integral part of Ladakh's culture. Shown here is a statue of Buddha in a monastery in Likir.

The Dumhal is a famous dance in the Kashmir valley, performed by men of the Wattal region. The women perform the Rouff, another traditional folk dance. Kashmir has been noted for its fine arts for centuries, including poetry and handicrafts. Shikaras, traditional small wooden boats, and houseboats are a common feature in various lakes and rivers across the Valley. The Constitution of India does not allow people from regions other than Jammu and Kashmir to purchase land in the state. As a consequence, houseboats became popular among those who were unable to purchase land in the Valley and has now become an integral part of the Kashmiri lifestyle.

Shikaras are a common feature in lakes and rivers across the Kashmir valley.

Kawa, traditional green tea with spices and almond, is consumed all through the day in the chilled winter climate of Kashmir. Most of the buildings in the Valley and Ladakh are made from softwood and is influenced by Indian, Tibetan, and Islamic architecture. Jammu's Dogra culture and tradition is much similar to that of neighbouring Punjab and Himachal Pradesh. Traditional Punjabi festivals such as Lohri and Vaisakhi are celebrated with great zeal and enthusiasm throughout the region, along with Accession Day, an annual holiday which commemorates the accession of Jammu & Kashmir to the Dominion of India.[74] After Dogras, Gujjars form the second-largest ethnic group in Jammu. Known for their semi-nomadic lifestyle, Gujjars are also found in large numbers in the Kashmir valley. Similar to Gujjars, Gaddis are primarily herdsmen who hail from the Chamba region in Himachal Pradesh. Gaddis are generally associated with emotive music played on the flute. The Bakkarwalas found both in Jammu and the Vale of Kashmir are wholly nomadic pastoral people who move along the Himalayan slopes in search for pastures for their huge flocks of goats and sheep.

Jammu and Kashmir

261

Education
In 1970, the state government of Jammu and Kashmir established its own education board and university. Education in the state is divided into primary, middle, high secondary, college and university level. Jammu and Kashmir follows 10+2 pattern for education of children. This is handled by Jammu and Kashmir State Board of School Education (abbreviated as JKBOSE). Various private and public schools are recognized by the board to impart education to students. Board examinations are conducted for students in class VIII, X and XII. In addition there are various Kendriya Vidyalayas (run by the Government of India) and Indian Army schools that also impart secondary school education. These schools follow the Central Board of Secondary Education pattern. Notable higher education or research institutes in Jammu and Kashmir include Sher-e-Kashmir Institute of Medical Sciences Soura Srinagar, National Institute of Technology Srinagar, Government College of Engineering and Technology, Jammu and the Government Medical College of Jammu. University-level education is provided by University of Jammu, University of Kashmir, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Jammu, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir, Shri Mata Vaishno Devi University, Islamic University of Science & Technology, Baba Ghulam Shah Badhshah University, Institution of Technicians and Engineers (Kashmir), and Government Degree College Kathua.

Notes
[1] "Reference Tables, C-series : Population density" (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ 2011-prov-results/ prov_data_products. html). Census of India 2011. . Retrieved 6 April 2011. [2] http:/ / jammukashmir. nic. in [3] "Quick guide: Kashmir dispute" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ south_asia/ 5030514. stm). BBC News. 29 June 2006. . Retrieved 14 June 2009. [4] Stein, Burton. 1998. A History of India. Oxford University Press. 432 pages. ISBN 0-19-565446-3. Page 368. [5] "With Friends Like These...": Human Rights Violations in Azad Kashmir (http:/ / www. unhcr. org/ refworld/ country,,HRW,COUNTRYREP,PAK,,4517b1a14,0. html). United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. . Retrieved 2007-12-31. "In January 1949, the United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP) was deployed to supervise the ceasefire between India and Pakistan. UNMOGIP's functions were to investigate complaints of ceasefire violations and submit finding to each party and to the U.N. secretary-general. Under the terms of the ceasefire, it was decided that both armies would withdraw and a plebiscite would be held in Kashmir to give Kashmiris the right to self-determination. The primary argument for the continuing debate over the ownership of Kashmir is that India did not hold the promised plebiscite. In fact, neither side has adhered to the U.N. resolution of August 13, 1948; while India chose not to hold the plebiscite, Pakistan also failed to withdraw its troops from Kashmir as was required under the resolution.19 Instead, India cites the 1952 elected Constituent Assembly of Jammu and Kashmir, which voted in favor of confirming accession to India. New Delhi also says that since Kashmiris have voted in successive national elections in India, there is no need for a plebiscite. The 1948-49 U.N. resolutions can no longer be applied, according to India, because of changes in the original territory, with some parts "having been handed over to China by Pakistan and demographic changes having been effected in Azad Kashmir and the Northern Areas."" [6] From Jinnah to Jihad: Pakistan's Kashmir quest and the limits of realism (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=iaYPyVAjHH8C& pg=PA4& dq=demographics+ pakistan+ altered+ kashmir#v=onepage& q& f=false). Atlantic Publishers and Distributors (P) Ltd.. 2007. ISBN9788126907212. . Retrieved 2007-12-31. "While India had agreed to a plebiscite initially, it reneged, arguing that Pakistan had refused to withdraw its tropps, had integrated parts of Kashmir with the rest of the country and had altered their demographic system." [7] Kaul, Shyam; Kachru, Onkar (1998-01-01). Jammu, Kashmir, Ladakh: ringside views (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=QDYhj5IQJrsC& pg=PA35& dq=Pakistan+ kashmir+ demographics#v=onepage& q=Pakistan kashmir demographics& f=false). ISBN9788185495514. . Retrieved 2007-12-31. "Demographics (1947-48) considered for this UN resolution have changed, most recently with the exodus of a 1/4 million Hindus from Kashmir." [8] Kaul, Shyam; Kachru, Onkar (1998-01-01). Jammu, Kashmir, Ladakh: ringside views (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=QDYhj5IQJrsC& pg=PA35& dq=Pakistan+ kashmir+ demographics#v=onepage& q=Pakistan kashmir demographics& f=false). ISBN9788185495514. . Retrieved 2007-12-31. "Indians are free to migrate as anyone else in democracy. Yet, as a large group, non of the post partition (1947) minorities have relocated to India or migrated to Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, or anywhere else in the world under the threat of persecution of insecurity. Ironically, it was those 1/4 million Hindus of Kashmir that experienced an exodus within India from Kashmir due to the hostile environment created by the militancy in Kashmir." [9] Kashmir. (2007). In Encyclopdia Britannica. Retrieved 27 March 2007, from Encyclopdia Britannica Online (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-214222). [10] Schofield 2003, p.94 [11] Schofield 2003, p.137

Jammu and Kashmir

[12] Schofield 2003, p.210 [13] "India: "Everyone Lives in Fear": Patterns of Impunity in Jammu and Kashmir: I. Summary" (http:/ / hrw. org/ reports/ 2006/ india0906/ 2. htm#_Toc144362271). Human Rights Watch. . Retrieved 2 June 2008. [14] "India and Human Rights in Kashmir The Myth India Together" (http:/ / www. indiatogether. org/ peace/ kashmir/ articles/ indhr. htm). . Retrieved 2 June 2008. [15] Schofield 2003, pp.148, 158 [16] "India: "Everyone Lives in Fear": Patterns of Impunity in Jammu and Kashmir: VI. Militant Abuses" (http:/ / hrw. org/ reports/ 2006/ india0906/ 7. htm#_Toc144362296). . Retrieved 2 June 2008. [17] "Kashmir troops held after rape" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ world/ south_asia/ 1940088. stm). BBC News. 19 April 2002. . Retrieved 2 June 2008. [18] "219 Kashmiri Pandits killed by militants since 1989" (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ 2010/ 03/ 24/ stories/ 2010032461230900. htm). The Hindu (Chennai, India). . Retrieved 2007-12-31. "The Jammu and Kashmir government on Tuesday said 219 Kashmiri Pandits were killed by militants since 1989 while 24,202 families were among the total 38,119 families which migrated out of the Valley due to turmoil" [19] "Not myth, but the truth of migration" (http:/ / greaterkashmir. com/ news/ 2010/ Nov/ 12/ not-myth-but-the-truth-of-migration-23. asp). . Retrieved 2007-12-31. "The Pandits have preserved the threat letters sent to them. They have the Audio and Video evidence to show what happened. They have preserved the local Dalies through which they were warned to leave the Valley within 48 hours. These evidences also include still photographs of Pandits killed by militants and the desecrated temples." [20] "Pregnant woman in Doda accuses Lashkar militants of gang raping her repeatedly" (http:/ / www. thaindian. com/ newsportal/ india-news/ pregnant-woman-in-doda-accuses-lashkar-militants-of-gang-raping-her-repeatedly_100151075. html). The Indian News. . Retrieved 2007-12-31. "A 31-year-old pregnant Gujjar woman has told police at the Baderwah Police Station in Jammu and Kashmirs Doda District that she was repeatedly gang raped by Lashkar-e-Toiba militants for two months." [21] "19/01/90: When Kashmiri Pandits fled Islamic terror" (http:/ / www. rediff. com/ news/ 2005/ jan/ 19kanch. htm). Rediff. . Retrieved 2007-12-31. "Notices are pasted on doors of Pandit houses, peremptorily asking the occupants to leave Kashmir within 24 hours or face death and worse...In the preceding months, 300 Hindu men and women, nearly all of them Kashmiri Pandits, had been slaughtered ever since the brutal murder of Pandit Tika Lal Taploo, noted lawyer and BJP national executive member, by the JKLF in Srinagar on September 14, 1989. Soon after that, Justice N K Ganju of the Srinagar high court was shot dead. Pandit Sarwanand Premi, 80-year-old poet, and his son were kidnapped, tortured, their eyes gouged out, and hanged to death. A Kashmiri Pandit nurse working at the Soura Medical College Hospital in Srinagar was gang-raped and then beaten to death. Another woman was abducted, raped and sliced into bits and pieces at a sawmill." [22] "95% HR violation cases against Army in J&K false" (http:/ / www. zeenews. com/ news663426. html). zeenews. . [23] "2 Militants Killed After 22-Hour Standoff in India Kashmir | Asia | English" (http:/ / www1. voanews. com/ english/ news/ asia/ 2-Militants-Killed-After-22-Hour-Standoff-in-India-Kashmir-80887197. html). .voanews.com. 7 January 2010. . Retrieved 18 July 2010. [24] "Towards Peace and Normalcy" (http:/ / jammukashmir. nic. in/ govt/ peace. htm). Official webpage of the Government of Jammu and Kashmir. . Retrieved 29 March 2009. [25] "Ministry of Home Affairs:: Department of Jammu & Kashmir Affairs" (http:/ / mha. nic. in/ uniquepage. asp?Id_Pk=306). . Retrieved 28 August 2008. [26] "Reference Tables, A-series : Population" (http:/ / censusindia. gov. in/ Census_Data_2001/ Census_data_finder/ A_Series/ Total_population. htm). Census of India 2001. . Retrieved 17 April 2009. [27] "Census Population" (http:/ / indiabudget. nic. in/ es2006-07/ chapt2007/ tab97. pdf) (PDF). Census of India. Ministry of Finance India. . Retrieved 18 December 2008. [28] "Lakshadweep-PEOPLE (Koyas, Malmis and Malacheris,Manikfans, Thakurs and Raveries), religion,language" (http:/ / www. webindia123. com/ territories/ lakshadweep/ people/ people. htm#re). Webindia123.com. 3 October 2007. . Retrieved 18 July 2010. [29] Calculated from the 2001 Census India District Profiles (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Tables_Published/ Basic_Data_Sheet. aspx) [30] 2001 Census India: Data by Religious Communities (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Census_Data_2001/ Census_data_finder/ C_Series/ Population_by_religious_communities. htm) [31] Evans, Alexander. 2002. "A departure from history: Kashmiri Pandits, 19902001" (http:/ / taylorandfrancis. metapress. com/ content/ 0nvv0dtreww897ax/ ) Contemporary South Asia, 11(1):1937. [32] CIA The World Factbook (https:/ / cia. gov/ cia/ publications/ factbook/ geos/ in. html) [33] http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Tables_Published/ Basic_Data_Sheet. aspx [34] Freedom in the World 2008 Kashmir (Pakistan) (http:/ / www. unhcr. org/ refworld/ topic,463af2212,469f2dcf2,487ca21a2a,0. html), United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2 July 2008 [35] (http:/ / www. amnesty. org. ru/ library/ Index/ ENGASA010021997?open& of=ENG-BTN) [36] "University of Hawaii-Manoa Ka Leo O Hawaii: UH Manoa Student College Newspaper & Media Kashmir: The Predicament" (http:/ / media. www. kaleo. org/ media/ storage/ paper872/ news/ 2008/ 11/ 20/ Commentary/ Kashmir. The. Predicament-3554202. shtml). Media.www.kaleo.org. . Retrieved 18 July 2010. [37] Evans, Alexander. "A departure from history: Kashmiri Pandits, 19902001" (http:/ / www. informaworld. com/ smpp/ content~content=a713658676~db=all). Contemporary South Asia 2002(11):1. [38] "Kashmiri: A language of India" (http:/ / www. ethnologue. com/ show_language. asp?code=kas). Ethnologue. . Retrieved 16 September 2007. [39] http:/ / epaper. timesofindia. com/ Repository/ ml. asp?Ref=VE9JTS8yMDEwLzA5LzE2I0FyMDE0MDA%3D

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[40] States: Jammu & Kashmir: Repeating History:By Harinder Baweja (3 July 2000)India Today (http:/ / www. indiatodaygroup. com/ itoday/ 20000703/ states. html) [41] "Sorry" (http:/ / www. indianexpress. com/ oldstory. php?storyid=46240). Indianexpress.com. . Retrieved 18 July 2010. [42] The Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir (http:/ / jkgad. nic. in/ statutory/ Rules-Costitution-of-J& K. pdf) [43] (PDF) The Armed Forces (Jammu and Kashmir) Special Powers Act, 1990 (http:/ / mha. nic. in/ pdfs/ Armed forces _J& K_ Spl. powers act, 1990. pdf) Indian Ministry of Law and Justice Published by the Authority of New Deli [44] India: Repeal Armed Forces Special Powers Act (http:/ / hrw. org/ english/ docs/ 2008/ 08/ 18/ india19628. htm) Human Rights Watch. Retrieved 11 September 2008. [45] Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir Section 4 Read with Section 48(a) (http:/ / www. kashmir-information. com/ LegalDocs/ 140. html) [46] Luv Puri (24 October 2002). "The vacant seats" (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ 2002/ 10/ 24/ stories/ 2002102403261300. htm). Online edition of The Hindu, dated 24 October 2002 (Chennai, India). . Retrieved 9 April 2009. [47] Rasheeda Bhagat. "It is introspection time for Congress in J&K" (http:/ / www. thehindubusinessline. com/ 2005/ 10/ 27/ stories/ 2005102700451000. htm). Online edition of The Hindu Businessline, dated 27 October 2005. . Retrieved 9 April 2009. [48] "Govt plans to reduce J&K Assemblys term to 5 years" (http:/ / www. tribuneindia. com/ 2005/ 20051119/ j& k. htm#3). Online edition of The Tribune, dated 19 November 2005. . Retrieved 28 January 2009. 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Online edition of The Times of India, dated 17 August 2008. . Retrieved 28 January 2009. [54] Thottam, Jyoti (4 September 2008). "Valley of Tears" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,1838586,00. html). Time. . Retrieved 5 May 2010. [55] "Freedom in the World 2009 Kashmir (India)" (http:/ / www. unhcr. org/ refworld/ docid/ 4a6452aa2d. html). Freedom House. 16 July 2009. . Retrieved 10 December 2009. [56] "Freedom in the World 2009 Kashmir (Pakistan)" (http:/ / www. unhcr. org/ refworld/ docid/ 4a6452aa11. html). Freedom House. 16 July 2009. . Retrieved 10 December 2009. [57] Indian leader opens Kashmir railway (http:/ / www. theaustralian. com. au/ news/ indian-leader-opens-kashmir-railway/ story-e6frg6t6-1111117741121) [58] "CHAPTER III : Socio-Economic and Administrative Development" (http:/ / planningcommission. nic. in/ plans/ stateplan/ sdr_jandk/ sdr_jkch3a. pdf). Jammu & Kashmir Development Report. State Plan Division, Planning Commission, Government of India. . Retrieved 5 August 2009. [59] "CHAPTER IV : Potential Sectors of State Economy" (http:/ / planningcommission. nic. in/ plans/ stateplan/ sdr_jandk/ sdr_jkch4. pdf). Jammu & Kashmir Development Report. State Plan Division, Planning Commission, Government of India. . Retrieved 5 August 2009. [60] "India: Jammu registers 10,000 MTs increase in fruit production in 2 years" (http:/ / www. greaterkashmir. com/ full_story. asp?Date=5_10_2007& ItemID=26& cat=5). GreaterKashmir.com. 5 October 2007. . Retrieved 25 January 2009. [61] PTI (10 February 2008). "Demand for Mercedes in Jammu going up: Merc dealer" (http:/ / economictimes. indiatimes. com/ articleshow/ msid-2771649,prtpage-1. cms). The Economic Times. . Retrieved 25 January 2009. [62] Haroon Mirani (20 June 2008). "Sapphire-rich Kashmir" (http:/ / www. thehindubusinessline. com/ life/ 2008/ 06/ 20/ stories/ 2008062050010100. htm). The Hindu Business Line. . 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[70] Vaishno Devi yatra injects Rs 475 cr to Katra economy annually(CJ: Rattan Sharma , 27 Aug 2007) (http:/ / www. merinews. com/ catFull. jsp?articleID=126009) [71] "Foreign tourists flock Kashmir" (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ thehindu/ holnus/ 004200903181221. htm). Online edition of The Hindu, dated 18 March 2009 (Chennai, India). 18 March 2009. . Retrieved 18 March 2009. [72] Fairway to Heaven WSJ.com (http:/ / online. wsj. com/ article/ SB119332713217271534. html?mod=googlenews_wsj) [73] Tourists arrival gives boost to J-K economy (http:/ / sify. com/ news/ Tourists-arrival-gives-boost-to-J-K-economy-news-jm3v4cihjai. html) [74] "J-K Accession Day to be celebrated as Diwali: BJP" (http:/ / www. indianexpress. com/ news/ jk-accession-day-to-be-celebrated-as-diwali-bjp/ 702249/ ). Rediff. . Retrieved 2007-12-31.

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References
Schofield, Victoria (2003). Kashmir in Conflict (http://books.google.com/?id=jVXANgu-YCcC). I.B.Tauris. ISBN1860648983. Retrieved 25 January 2009.

External links
Jammu and Kashmir travel guide from Wikitravel Jammu and Kashmir (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/India/Jammu_and_Kashmir//) at the Open Directory Project Government of Jammu and Kashmir, India (http://jammukashmir.nic.in/) Letter of Baroness Nicholson which refers to the 1909 map of Kashmir (http://www.iakf.org/main/files/ uplink/2007_05_22_Letter_to_Ambassador_Khalid.pdf) Excerpts of telegram dated 26 October 1947 from Jawaharlal Nehru to the British Prime Minister, Clement Attlee (http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kasnehru.htm) EU passes Emma Nicholson's Kashmir report with an overwhelming Majority (http://www.hvk.org/articles/ 0507/109.html)

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Jharkhand
Jharkhand
State

Seal

Location of Jharkhand in India

Map of Jharkhand Coordinates (Ranchi): 2321N 8520E Country Established Capital India 16 November 2000 Ranchi

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Largest city Government -Governor -ChiefMinister -Legislature Area -Total Area rank Population (2011) -Total -Rank -Density Time zone ISO 3166 code HDI HDI rank Literacy Official languages Website 32966238 13th 441.5/km2(1143.4/sqmi) IST (UTC+05:30) IN-JH 0.513 (medium) 24th (2005) 67.63% (27th) Hindi [1] 74677km2(28833sqmi) 15th M.O. Hasan Farook Maricar Arjun Munda Unicameral (81 seats) Jamshedpur

Jharkhand (Hindi: , pronounced Hindustani pronunciation:[dark] ( listen)) is a state in eastern India. It was carved out of the southern part of Bihar on 15 November 2000. Jharkhand shares its border with the states of Bihar to the north, Uttar Pradesh and Chhattisgarh to the west, Orissa to the south, and West Bengal to the east. It has an area of 28,833 sqmi (74,677km). The industrial city of Ranchi is its capital and Dumka is sub capital while Jamshedpur is the largest city of the state. Some of the other major cities and industrial centres are Dhanbad, Bokaro and Hazaribagh. The name "Jharkhand" means "The Land of Forests".

History
According to some writers like Gautam Kumar Bera,[2] there was already a distinct geo-political, cultural entity called Jharkhand even before the period of Magadha Empire. Bera's book (page 33) also refers to the Hindu Mythological book Bhavishya Purana (around 1200 AD), where the reference of Jharkhand is found. The tribal rulers, some of whom continue to thrive till today were known as the Munda Rajas,[3] who basically had ownership rights to large farmlands.[4] During the Mughal period, the Jharkhand area was known as Kukara.

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British Rule
After the year 1765, it came under the control of the British Empire and became formally known under its present title, "Jharkhand" the Land of "Jungles" (forests) and "Jharis" (bushes). Located on Chhota Nagpur Plateau and Santhal Parganas, the place has evergreen forests, rolling hills and rocky plateaus with many places of keen beauty like Lodh Falls. The subjugation and colonization of Jharkhand region by the British East India Company resulted in spontaneous resistance from the local people. Almost one hundred years before Indian Rebellion of 1857, adivasis of Jharkhand were already beginning what would become a series of repeated revolts against the British colonial rule: The period of revolts of the Adivasis to protect their Jharkhand land took place from 1771 to 1900 AD. The first ever revolt against the landlords and the British government was led by Tilka Manjhi,[5] a valiant Santhal leader in Santal tribal belt in 1771. He wanted to liberate his people from the clutches of the unscrupulous landlords and restore the lands of their ancestors. The British government sent its troops and crushed the uprisings of Tilka Manjhi. Soon after in 1779, the Bhumij tribes rose in arms against the British rule in Manbhum, now in West Bengal. This was followed by the Chero tribes unrest in Palamau. They revolted against the British Rule in 1800 AD. Hardly seven years later in 1807, the Oraons in Barway murdered their big landlord of Srinagar west of Gumla. Soon the uprisings spread around Gumla. The tribal uprisings spread eastward to neighbouring Tamar areas of the Munda tribes. They too rose in revolt in 1811 and 1813. The Hos in Singhbhum were growing restless and came out in open revolt in 1820 and fought against the landlords and the British troops for two years. This is called the Larka Kol Risings 18201821. Then came the great Kol Risings of 1832. This was the first biggest tribal revolt that greatly upset the British administration in Jharkhand. It was caused by an attempt by the Zamindars to oust the tribal peasants from their hereditary possessions. The Santhal rebellion broke out in 1855 under the leadership of two brothers Sidhu and Kanhu. They fought bitterly against the British troops but finally they too were crashed down. Other notable Adivasi warriors are Jabra Paharia, Veer Budhu Bhagat, Poto Sardar, Telenga Kharia, Phulo-Jhano, Maki Munda, Gaya Munda. Then Birsa Munda revolt,[6] broke out in 1895 and lasted till 1900. The revolt though mainly concentrated in the Munda belt of Khunti, Tamar, Sarwada and Bandgaon, pulled its supporters from Oraon belt of Lohardaga, Sisai and even Barway. It was the longest and the greatest tribal revolt in Jharkhand. It was also the last tribal revolt in Jharkhand. All of these uprisings were quelled by the British through massive deployment of troops across the region. British Government faced a lot of tribal revolt in Chhota Nagpur Division. Wherever resistance to British rule existed they tried to divide them. The policy of Divide and rule was made effective by Lord Curzon, when he was Governor General of India. He carried out Partition of Bengal in 1905, when the Princely states of Gangpur and Bonai of Chota Nagpur States were transferred from the control of Commissioner of Chhota Nagpur Division to Orissa division and Princely states of Jashpur, Surguja, Udaipur, Chang Bhakar and Koriya were transferred from Chhota Nagpur Division to Chhattisgarh Division of Central Provinces, leading to shrinkage of Chhota Nagpur Division. Due to popular resistance to Partition of Bengal, the two Bengals were united in 1912 by Governor General Harding and the province of Bihar Orissa was created by taking out of Bengal the Bihar division, Chhota Nagpur Division and Orissa division. During this creation Midnapur, Purulia and Bankura remained with Bengal. Thus, whenever there was reorganization of Provinces, Chhota Nagpur Division lost some area. Thus during British rule, tribal areas, although geographically continuous, were put under different administrations. As a result of this, when India gained independence in 1947 and after the Princely states acceded to Government of India in 1948, the Princely states of Gangpur and Bonai were put under Orissa province, Princely states of Jashpur, Surguja, Udaipur, Chang Bhakar and Koriya were put under Madhya Pradesh and Midnapur, Purulia and Bankura were put under West Bengal. Princely states of Gangpur and Bonai were combined to form Sundergarh District. Princely states of Surguja and Udaipur were combined to form Surguja District and Chang bhakar and Koriya were combined to form Koriya district.

Jharkhand The 20th century Jharkhand movement may also be seen as moderate movement as compared to the bloody revolts of the 19th century. Having the Chhotanagpur Tenancy Act 1908 to protect their lands, the tribal leaders now turned to socio-economic development of the people. In 1914 Jatra Oraon started what is called the Tana Movement. Later this movement joined the Satyagrah Movement of Mahatma Gandhi in 1920 and stopped giving land tax to the Government. In 1915 the Chhotanagpur Unnati Samaj was started for the socio-economic development of the tribals. This organisation had also political objectives in mind. When the Simon Commission came to Patna in 1928, the Chhotanagpur Unnati Samaj sent its delegation and placed its demand for a separate Jharkhand State for self-rule by the tribals. The Simon Commission however did not accede to the demand for a separate Jharkhand State. Thereafter Theble Oraon organised Kishan Sabha in 1931. In 1935 the Chhotanagpur Unnati Samaj and the Kishan Sabha were merged with a view to acquire political power.

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Jharkhand Movement- post-Indian independence

For almost six decades the movement had been changing colour and strategy to gain a foothold. Gradually, the Jharkhand Party grew politically stronger but the various Commissions examining the demands for a separate Jharkhand State rejected it one after another. In August 1947 the Thakkar Commission rejected it saying that it would not be beneficial for the Adivasis. In 1948 Dar Commission also examined the demand for a separate Jharkhand state but rejected it on linguistic grounds. Despite these reports of these Commissions going negative in nature, Jharkhand Party never lost sight of its ultimate target a separate state of Jharkhand. Jharkhand Party contested the 1952 elections with a declared aim of strengthening the demand of a tribal homeland and won 32 seats in the Bihar Assembly. In the second General Election in 1957 too Jharkhand Party won 32 seats and for two terms the party remained the leading opposition party. In 1955 the Report of the State Reorganisation Commission came out. Here too the demand for a separate Jharkhand state was rejected. In the third general election in 1962 the party could win only 23 seats in the Bihar Assembly. Personal interests of the Jharkhand leaders started playing upper hands. The following year Jharkhand Party aligned with Congress and Jaipal Singh became a minister in Vinodanand Jha's government in Bihar. With this, the demand for the Tribal Homeland was put into cold storage for nearly a decade. In the 4th General Election held in 1967 the party had a very poor show. It could win only 8 Assembly seats. The party was soon split into several splinter groups each claiming to be the genuine Jharkhand party. These were the All India Jharkhand Party led by Bagun Sumroi, the Jharkhand Party led by N.E. Horo, the Hul Jharkhand Party led by Justin Richard which got further fragmented and came to be called the Bihar Progressive Hul Jharkhand Party and it was led by Shibu Soren. The movement was infused with a new radicalism when Santhal leader Shibu Soren formed the Jharkhand Mukti Morcha (JMM) in league with the Marxist co-ordination Committee in 1972. In its early years, the JMM under Soren's leadership, brought industrial and mining workers mainly non-tribals belonging to Dalit and Backward communities such as Surdis, Doms, Dusadh and Kurmi-Mahtos, into its fold. However Soren's association with the late congress M.P. Gyanranjan brought him close to then prime minister of India, Indira Gandhi, in New Delhi. He won the Dumka Lok Sabha seat in 1972. Irked by Soren's association with the Congress, a few of the younger members of the JMM banded together in Jamshedpur and set up the All Jharkhand Students' Union (AJSU). This did nothing to stunt the growth of the JMM in the 1991 Lok Sabha election where the JMM won six seats. That year saw the emergence of another foreign educated scholar, Ram Dayal Munda, who reignited the movement by unifying splinter groups among the tribals. Under his guidance the Jharkahnd Coordination Committee was constituted in June 1987, comprising 48 organizations and group including the JMM factions. Due to Munda, Soren, Mandal and AJSU leaders like Surya Singh Besra and Prabhakar Tirkey briefly shared a political platform. But the JMM pulled out of JCC as it felt that 'the collective leadership was a farce'. The JMM/AJSU and JPP successfully orchestrated bandhs,economic blockades in 1988-89. In the interim, BJP came out with its demand for a separate "Vananchal" state comprising 18 districts of Bihar, arguing that demand for a greater Jharkhand is 'not practical'.

Jharkhand In response, Buta Singh, the then Home minister, asked Ram Dayal Munda, the then Ranchi University vice chancellor , to prepare a report on Jharkhand. Munda handed his report in September 1988, advising the Home Ministry to grant 'autonomy' to 'Greater Jharkhand'. In August 1989, the Union Home Ministry formed a committee on Jharkhand Matters (CoJM) to look into the issue. In September 1989 the COJM submitted its report proposing the alternatives to the formation of a greater Jharkhand, a Union Territory or a Jharkhand general council. In 1995 the Jharkhand Area Autonomous Council(JAAC) was set up after a tripartite agreement was signed by the Union government represented by the then minister of State for Home Rajesh Pilot, the Bihar government represented by the then chief minister Lalu Prasad Yadav and Jharkhand leaders like Soren, Munda, Mandal, Besra and Tirkey. Horo did not sign this agreement. He dubbed the JAAC as the 'fraud' and stuck to his demand for Tribal Homeland. So did the AJSU and JPP. In July 1997, Shibu Soren offered support to minority government of Mr. Laloo Prasad Yadav with a condition of a separate Jharkhand bill in the assembly. On 2 August 2000, the bill to create a separate state of Jharkhand to be carved out of Bihar was passed in Lok Sabha by voice vote with two key allies of ruling NDA strongly opposing the measure and the opposition Rashtriya Janta Dal and the CPI-M demanding it to be referred to a parliamentary committee. The long cherished demand of people of the region was fulfilled, the celebration was on through out the Jharkhand region. On 11 August,the Parliament approved the formation of Jharkhand, when the Rajya Sabha passed the Bihar reorganisation bill 2000 by voice vote, to carve out the new state out of Bihar's southern region. On 25 August,the then President Mr. K.R. Narayanan approved the Bihar reorganisation bill 2000. On 12 October 2000, the Center issued the gazette notification stating 15 November 2000 to be the appointed date for the formation of new Jharkhand Government.

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Jharkhand a separate state

The state of Jharkhand became a functioning reality on 15 November 2000 after almost half a century of people's movements around Jharkhandi identity, which disadvantaged societal groups articulated in order to augment political resources and influence the policy process in their favour. The Jharkhandi identity and the demand for autonomy was not premised solely on the uniqueness of its tribal cultural heritage, but was essentially a fallout of the failure of development policy to intervene in socio-economic conditions of both the adivasis and non-adivasis in the region. Jharkhand state was created on 15 November 2000 by carving out 18 districts of Bihar but the dream of Greater Jharkhand still remained unfulfilled. Tribal dominated districts of Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar, Sundargarh and Deogarh of Orissa state and Purulia,Bankura and Midnapore districts of West Bengal and the districts of Jashpur, Surguja, Koriya of Chhattisgarh state are still not part of Jharkhand. The dynamics of resources and the politics of development still influence the socio-economic structures in Jharkhand, which was carved out of the relatively 'backward' southern part of Bihar. According to the 1991 census, the state has a population of over 20 million out of which 28% is tribal while 12% of the people belong to scheduled castes. Jharkhand has 24 districts, 211 blocks and 32, 620 villages out of which only 45% are electrified while only 8,484 are connected by roads. Jharkhand is the leading producer of mineral wealth in the country, endowed as it is with vast variety of minerals like iron ore, coal, copper ore, mica, bauxite, graphite, limestone, and uranium. Jharkhand is also known for its vast forest resources. This paradoxical development profile of Jharkhand is combined with the fact that distortions in distribution and access to resources have made little difference to lives of ordinary people. However, the people of the region are politically mobilized and self-conscious and are actively seeking better bargains for the state. The people in Jharkhand have the advantage of being culturally vibrant, as reflected in the diversity of languages spoken, festivals celebrated, and variety of folk music, dances, and other traditions of performing arts.

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Geography and climate

Most of the state lies on the Chota Nagpur Plateau, which is the source of the Koel, Damodar, Brahmani, Kharkai, and Subarnarekha rivers, whose upper watersheds lie within Jharkhand. Much of the state is still covered by forest. Forest preserves support populations of tigers and Asian Elephants. Soil content of Jharkhand state mainly consist of soil formed from disintegration of rocks and stones, and soil composition is further divided into: 1. Red soil, found mostly in the Damodar valley, and Rajmahal area 2. Micacious soil (containing particles of mica), found in Koderma, Jhumeritilaiya, Barkagaon, and areas around the Mandar hill 3. Sandy soil, generally found in Hazaribagh and Dhanbad 4. Black soil, found in Rajmahal area 5. Laterite soil, found in western part of Ranchi, Palamu, and parts of Santhal Parganas and Singhbhum

Flora and fauna

Jharkhand has a rich variety of flora and fauna. The National Parks and the Zoological Gardens located in the state of Jharkhand present a panorama of this variety. Betla National Park in the Latehar district, located 8km away from Barwadih, covers an area of about 250square kilometers (96.5sqmi). The national park has a large variety of wildlife, including tigers, elephants, bisons (which are locally known as gaurs), sambhars, wild boar, and pythons (up to 20feet (6.1m) long), spotted deers (chitals), rabbits andfoxes. The mammalian fauna to be seen at Betla National Park also include langurs, rhesus monkeys, blue bulls and wild boars. The lesser mammals are the porcupines, hares, wild cats, honey badgers, Malabar giant squirrels, mongooses, wolves, antelopes etc. In 1974, the park was declared a Project Tiger Reserve. Part of the reason for the variety and diversity of flora and fauna found in Jharkhand state may be accredited to the Palamau Tiger Reserves under the Project Tiger. This reserve is abode to hundreds of species of flora and fauna,[7] as indicated within brackets: mammals (39), snakes (8), lizards (4), fish (6), insects (21), birds (170), seed bearing plants and trees (97), shrubs and herbs (46), climbers, parasites and semi-parasites (25), and grasses and bamboos (17). The Hazaribag Wildlife Sanctuary, with scenic beauties, 135km (84mi) away from Ranchi, is set in an ecosystem very similar to Betla National Park of Palamu. Jawaharlal Nehru Zoological Garden in Bokaro Steel City is the biggest Zoological Garden in Jharkhand. It has many animal and bird species, spread over 200acres (0.81km2), including an artificial waterpark with boating facilities. Another zoo is also located about 16km from Ranchi, and a number of mammalian fauna have been collected there for visitors.

Demographics
Jharkhand has a population of 32.96 million, consisting of 16.93 million males and 16.03 million females. The sex ratio is 947 females to 1000 males. The population consists of 28% tribals, 12% Scheduled Castes and 60% others. The population density of the state is 413 persons per square kilometre of land, However, it varies from as low as 148 per square kilometre in Gumla district to as high as 1167 per square kilometre in Dhanbad district. Around 10% of the population is Bengali, 10% speaks Oriya and 70% speak various dialects of Hindi.[9] Hinduism is the majority religion in the state, with 68.5% of the population practising the faith. Islam is followed by 13.8% of the population and the Animisitic Sarna religion is practised by 13% of the population. Christianity with 4.1% of the population is the fourth largest religious community in Jharkhand. Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism are all practiced making few less than 1%.[10]

Jharkhand Jharkhand has 32 tribal groups. These are the Asur, Baiga, Banjara, Bathudi, Bedia, Binjhia, Birhor, Birjia, Chero, Chick-Baraik, Gond, Gorait, Ho, Karmali, Kharia, Kharwar, Khond, Kisan, Kora, Korwa, Lohra, Mahli, Mal-Paharia, Munda, Oraon, Parhaiya, Santal, Sauria-Paharia, Savar, Bhumij, Kol and Kanwar. In some of the districts of Jharkhand, the tribal population is predominate. Hindi is the State Language. The people of Jharkhand speak a number of languages belonging to three major language families: the Munda languages which include Santhali, Mundari, Ho, Kharia, Bhumij and Kurmali; the Dravidian languages which include Oraon (Kurukh), Korwa, and Paharia (Malto) and the Indo-Aryan languages which include Magahi, Nagpuri, Sadri, Khortha, Angika, Hindi, Bengali and Oriya.

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Culture
Cuisine
Since the state is populated by people from all over India, food that is found in the state is varied. Native inhabitants have a cuisine in which spices are rarely used and rice is the staple. Natives prepare different dishes of rice like different types of Rotis,Pittha, Dhuska, Dudhauri, etc. Dhuska is a famous dish of Jharkhand cooked with mashed rice and pulses and served with either aaloo dum or mutton curry. Tribals and Sadan use different types of flowers as vegetables, such as the flower of drum-stick, august and Jhirool. Use of Sag, i.e. leaves of different shrubs and other small plants, is perhaps another peculiarity of Jharkhandi food. Commonly used sags are Palak, Beng, Kataei, Gendhari, Konar, methi, bhatua and chana. Local alcoholic drinks include rice beer, originally known as Handiya, named after the vessel (earthen pot) used to make it. indeed handiya or rice beer is culturally associated with native i.e. Tribals as well as Sadan as this drink consumed by both men and women, on social occasions like marriage and other festivals. Another common liquor is called Mahu, made from a fruit called "Mahua". There are many foods that are a part of the traditional cuisine that are also known for their medicinal values, like Kurthi, which is used like a kind of pulses and is considered a cure for kidney stones. Fruits such as Jackfruit, Blackberry, Mango, and Litchi are found in abundance. Sattu is also major part of cuisine.

Administrative districts
The state was formed with 18 districts, which were formerly part of south Bihar. Some of these districts were reorganized to form 6 new districts, namely, Latehar, Saraikela Kharsawan, Jamtara, Sahebganj, Khunti and Ramgarh. Presently, the state has 24 districts:Ranchi, Lohardaga, Gumla, Simdega, Palamu, Latehar, Garhwa, West Singhbhum, Seraikela Kharsawan, East Singhbhum, Dumka, Jamtara, Sahebganj, Pakur, Godda, Hazaribagh, Chatra, Koderma, Giridih, Dhanbad, Bokaro, Deoghar, Khunti and Ramgarh.

Government and politics

The state is headed by a Governor, who is appointed by the President of India. However, the real executive power rests with the Chief Minister, Shri. Arjun Munda and the cabinet. The political party or the coalition of political parties having majority in the Legislative Assembly forms the Government. The administrative head of the State is called Chief Secretary, under whose jurisdiction a hierarchy of officials drawn from the Indian Administrative Service / State Civil Services function. The judiciary is headed by a Chief Justice and Jharkhand has a separate High Court, located in Ranchi. Jharkand is one of the thirteen states in which the Naxalite rebels have considerable influence.

Jharkhand On 5 March 2007, Sunil Mahato, a member of the national parliament was shot dead by Naxalite rebels while watching a football match on the Hindu festival of Holi near Kishanpur, some 160km (100 miles) east of state capital, Ranchi.[11] Jharkhand Mukti Morcha (JMM) candidate Mrs Suman Mahato, wife of slain JMM MP Sunil Mahato, won the Jamshedpur Lok Sabha by-poll in Sep 2007. Mrs Mahato defeated her nearest rival Dr Dinesh Sarangi of the BJP by a margin of 58,816 votes. Ministry The Centre imposed President's rule in Jharkhand on 1 june 2009 to 11 September 2010, when JMM chief Shibu Soren resigned as CM after he lost the Tamar Assembly by-election to "Jharkhand Party" candidate Gopal Krishna Patar (alias Raja Peter) by more than 9,200 votes. The president's rule followed the Union cabinet's recommendation based on Jharkhand governor Syed Sibtey Razi's report to the Centre. Razi wrote that following the resignation of Soren as CM on 12 January, no political alliance was in a position to form an alternative government. On Wednesday, 23 December 2009, Jharkhand headed towards a hung assembly, with indications that no political group or combine was likely to get a majority in the 81-member house. But now on 11th-Sept.-2010 Sri Arjun Munda of the BJP became the Chief Minister of the state. People of jharkhand are facing unstable government and this is one of the biggest hurdles in the inclusive development of the state.

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Naxal insurgency
Jharkand has been at the centre of the Naxalite-Maoist insurgency. Since the uprising of the Naxalites in 1967, 6,000 people have been killed in fighting between the Naxalites and counter-insurgency operations by the Police, and its paramilitary groups such as the Salwa Judum.[12] Despite having a presence in almost 7.80% of India's geographical area[13] (home to 5.50% of India's population), the state of Jharkand is part of the "Naxal Belt" comprising 92,000 square kilometres,[13] where the highest concentrations of the groups estimated 20,000 combatants[14] fight. Part of this is due to the fact that the state harbors a rich abundance of natural resources, while its people live in abject poverty and destitution.[15] The impoverished state provides ample recruits for the communist insurgents, who argue that they are fighting on behalf of the landless poor that see few benefits from the resource extractions.[15] As the federal government holds a monopoly on sub-surface resources in the state, the tribal population is prevented from staking any claim on the resources extracted from their land.[15] In response, the insurgents have recently begun a campaign of targeting infrastructure related to the extraction of resources vital for Indian energy needs, such as coal.[13] In response to the growing influence of the insurgents, the Indian government has recently enacted a scheme by which free mobile phones would be handed out in exchange for villagers' cooperation with security forces although intelligence officials express concern at the possibility of misinformation, and the difficulty in determining villagers from rebels[12]

Chief Ministers of Jharkhand

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Name

Party

From

To

Babulal Marandi Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) Arjun Munda Sibu Soren Arjun Munda Madhu Koda Shibu Soren Shibu Soren President's rule Arjun Munda BJP

20 November 2000 18 March 2003 18 March 2003 2 March 2005 12 March 2005 18 September 2006

Jharkhand Mukti Morcha (JMM) 2 March 2005 BJP Independent - with INC support JMM JMM BJP 12 March 2005

18 September 2006 26 August 2008 27 August 2008 13 January 2009

30 December 2009 30 May 2010 1 June 2010 10 September 2010

11 September 2010 -

Economy
Jharkhand's gross state domestic product for 2004 is estimated at $14 billion at current prices. Born out of partition from old Bihar state in 2000, Jharkhand produces about 70% of the output of the old Bihar state. Since it is rich in minerals, the state per capita income is likely to increase in the coming years. Jharkhand has a concentration of some of the countrys highly industrialized cities such as Jamshedpur, Ranchi, Bokaro Steel City andDhanbad. It also has several firsts in India, including: Largest fertilizer factory of its time in India (since shut down) at Sindri, Dhanbad First Iron & steel factory at Jamshedpur Largest Steel plant in Asia, Bokaro steel plant, Bokaro. Biggest explosives factory at Gomia, Bokaro. First methane gas well at Parbatpur, Bokaro.

Major industrial units

Bokaro Steel Plant, Bokaro. Tata Steel Plant, Jamshedpur. Tata Motors, Jamshedpur. Tata Cummins, Jamshedpur. TRF Limited, Jmahsedpur Lafarge Cement, Jmashedpur TELCON, Jmashedpur BOC Gases, Jamshedpur Praxair, Jamshedpur Tinplate, Jamshedpur Heavy Engineering Corporation, Ranchi. Patratu Thermal Power Station, Ramgarh. Chandrapura Thermal Power Station, Bokaro. Bokaro Thermal Power Station. Tenughat Thermal/Hydro Power Station, Bokaro.

Bokaro Steel Plant

Jindal Steel Plant, Patratu. Electrosteel Plant, Bokaro. Usha Martin, Ranchi.

Jharkhand Central Coalfields Limited. Bharat Coaking Coal Limited. Eastern Coalfields Limited.

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Upcoming mega projects

Jharkhand has several towns and innumerable villages with civic amenities. Urbanization ratio is 22.25% and the per capita annual income is US$ 1,490. Jharkhand also has immense mineral resources: minerals ranging from (ranking in the country within bracket) from iron ore (1st), coal(3rd), copper ore (1st), mica (1st), bauxite (3rd), Manganese, limestone, china clay, fire clay, graphite (8th), kainite (1st), chromite (2nd), asbestos (1st), thorium (3rd), sillimanite, uranium (Jaduguda mines, Narwa Pahar) (1st) and even gold (Rakha Mines) (6th) and silver and several other minerals. Large deposits of coal and iron ore support concentration of industry, in centers like Jamshedpur, Bokaro and Ranchi. Tata Steel, a S&P CNX 500 conglomerate has its corporate office in Jharkhand. It reported a gross income of . 204,910 million for 2005. NTPC will start coal production from its captive mine in state in 2011-12, for which the company will be investing about Rs 1,800 crore.[16]

Education
The literacy rate in Jharkhand is 67.63% (2011). As per the 2011 census conducted by Government of India the official literacy rate for the state was 67.63% (Male: 78.45%; Female: 56.21%) with 9 districts above the average literacy rate:[17] [18] 1. Ranchi: 77.13% (Male: 85.53%; Female: 68.20%) 2. Purvi Singhbhum: 76.13% (Male: 84.51%; Female: 67.33%) 3. Dhanbad: 75.71% (Male: 85.68%; Female: 64.70%) 4. Ramgarh: 73.92% (Male: 83.51%; Female: 63.49%) 5. Bokaro: 73.48% (Male: 84.50%; Female: 61.46%) 6. Hazaribagh: 70.48% (Male: 81.15%; Female: Children going to school, Jharkhand 59.25%) 7. Saraikela Khasawan: 68.85% (Male: 81.01%; Female: 56.19%) 8. Kodarma: 68.35% (Male: 81.25%; Female: 54.77%) 9. Lohardaga: 68.29% (Male: 78.62%; Female: 57.86%) Jharkhand has a network of government and privately run schools, although standards of teaching vary considerably from place to place, as also from school to school. After formation of new state, Jharkhand Education Project Council (JEPC) has been implementing four projects for spread of elementary education namely DPEP, SSA, NPEGEL, KGBV. Hence works have been accomplished in the state towards achieving the goal of UEE but due to slow pace, the target of hundred percent enrolment and retention of children in schools is not yet attained.[19] Jharkhand has made primary education so accessible that 95% of children of ages 611 are enrolled in school, as opposed to 56% in 199394, so this will likely to improve literacy a great deal. Some of the better known schools which operate chain of school nationally and regionally are Oxford Public School, Delhi Public School, De Nobili School, Kendriya Vidyalaya, Chinmaya Public School,Loyola school,Sacred Heart School, St.Xavier's, Shishu Mandir,Surendranath centenary School, etc. Students from Jharkhand have proved themselves on national as well as international level. Students from the state have always ranked well in almost all the national level competitive exams.[20]

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Schools
The medium of instruction in schools is Hindi/ English with English/ Hindi/ Sanskrit/ Urdu/ Bangla/ Oriya as second language. After 10 years of schooling, students can join 2 years of Intermediate course (or +2 courses) in Arts, Science and Commerce. This is followed by 3 years of degree courses (graduation)or 4 years of Engineering/Agriculture/Medicine degree. On May 2008, Jharkhand became the first in India to introduce freehaircuts for poor students. 40,000 barbers will be employed with a monthly salary of 1000 rupees (25 US dollars) which will cost the state government 40 million rupees (1 million US dollars).[21]

Universities
A number of non-technical colleges are located in bigger cities and in small towns. Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs) offer popular three-year diploma courses. Jamshedpur is home to one of the best business school in India, the Xavier Labour Relations Institute,(XLRI). It has been consistently ranked among the best private business school in India. A recent development, the Government of India has set up an Indian Institute of Management IIM at Ranchi under the mentorship of IIM Calcutta. The State Government has allocated land for the same near Birsa Agricultural University,Kanke.

Institute Main Building, BIT Mesra

Jharkhand has five universities: Ranchi University and Birsa Agricultural University at Ranchi, Sido Kanhu Murmu University at Dumka, Kolhan University at Chaibasa and Vinoba Bhave University in Hazaribagh. Each of these has constituent and affiliated colleges located in other cities and towns, the best of which offer post-graduate and PhD programs.and one more university is Nilambar Pitambar university at medininagar,palamau. Jharkhand has a number of engineering colleges: National Institute of Technology, Jamshedpur, Birla Institute of Technology, Ranchi, Birsa Institute of Technology Sindri, Dhanbad, Indian School of Mines University, Dhanbad, and the National Institute of Foundry and Forge Technology (NIFFT). Among which BIT mesra, NIT Jamshedpur and ISM Dhanbad are among top 15 technical colleges in the country. There are three medical colleges in Jharkhand namely M.G.M Medical College at Jamshedpur, Rajendra Institute of Medical Sciences (RIMS) at Ranchi and Patliputra Medical College And Hospital (PMCH) at Dhanbad. Xavier Institute of Social Service (XISS) at Ranchi is also one of oldest B school well known for its Personnel management and Rural Development courses.[22] XISS ranked 6th in East and 31st in all India Outlook MDRA B-Schools Ranking 2010 and Business Today in 2010 ranked XISS on 36th position in all India.

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Health
On account of salubrious climate, Jharkhand, particularly its capital Ranchi, has been like a health resort. As far back as 1918, facilities were set up for treatment of mentally challenged Central Institute of Psychiatry [23], Ranchi. In certain areas of Jharkhand, poverty and consequent malnutrition have given rise to diseases like tuberculosis (TB). In fact, TB has assumed epidemic proportions in certain areas of the state. For management and treatment of such diseases, organizations like Ramakrishna Missionthrough Ramakrishna Mission Tuberculosis Sanatorium[24] (set up in 1948), Ranchi, has been doing exemplary work, and supplementing the efforts of the Government and other agencies. Likewise, in the field of treatment of cancer, Tata Main Hospital, Jamshedpur,[25] is rendering pioneering work. In the same way Bokaro General Hospital equipped with modern facilities for the treatment Cancer and heart related problems with capacity of 1100 beds one of the largest in eastern India. Although several public and private health facilities are available in the state, overall infrastructure for dispensing health related services require improvements. An exception is the famous Tata Motors Hospital which is an example of a ISO 14001 and 18001 certified hospital with DNB teaching facilities. Fluoride in groundwater presents a public health problem in Jharkhand. A recent survey led by the Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi in collaboration with UNICEF in the northwest districts of Palamau and Garhwa found fluoride levels above the drinking WHO drinking water guidelines.[26] Fluoride in drinking water leads to dental fluorosis, prevalent bone fractures, and skeletal fluorosis, an irreversible disabling condition.[27] [28] Some work has focused on combating fluorosis through increased calcium intake by consuming local plants.[29] Researchers at Princeton University and the Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi are currently investigating defluoridation options, while performing an epidemiological survey to assess the extent of fluoride linked health problems and the impact of future interventions.[30] [31] Almost 80% of Jharkhand's people are farmers, although it contains 40% of India's mineral reserves it has some of India's poorest people, in Summer 2009 the state was threatened by drought, with people criticising the government for not providing food aid or assistance.[32]

Veterinary
Jharkhand has a diverse domestic animal population, including local and crossbred cattle, black bengal goat, chhotanagpuri sheep, murrah and local buffalo, broilers and ducks of many varieties. The state Veterinary department runs Veterinary Dispensaries located throughout Jharkhand and posts Touring Veterinary officers, Block Animal Husbandary Officers, Touring Veterinary officers (mobile), Assistant Poultry Officers and Veterinary Surgeons to support the agricultural industry. The state has a Veterinary College located at Kanke, Ranchi.

Sports
Hockey, football and cricket are popular games with the people of Jharkhand. Jharkhand has given some brilliant players like Jaipal Singh, a former Indian hockey captain and Olympian and Manohar Topno, Vimal Lakra, currently playing for the Indian Hockey team but the most famous is Mahendra Singh Dhoni who is the captain of Indian cricket team and the best wicket keeper batsman for India till date and lead the Indian Cricket Team to ICC Cricket World Cup Glory on 2nd April, 2011 eanding a 28 year wait to repeat the feat achieved by former Indian captain Kapil Dev in 1983 at Lords, England. Another rising sun from jharkhand is now well known by world " Saurabh Sunil Tiwary of Jamshedpur" an another left hand hitter batsman Of India and represented Mumbai Indians from the 2008 Indian Premier League.He was one of the key batsmen in the Indian team that won the 2008 U/19 Cricket World Cup in Malaysia. Jaipal Singh was the captain of the hockey team that won the first gold medal for India in Olympic games 1928 at Amsterdam.

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Media
Electronic media ETV Bihar/Jharkhand broadcasts Jharkhand-related news on a popular program called Johar Jharkhand at 7:30 am and 7:30 pm. Print media include the Hindi newspapers Prabhat Khabar, Hindustan and Dainik Jagran,Dainik Bhaskar published from the state capital, Ranchi and available in almost all parts of the state. English newspapers like Times of India &Hindustan Times are published from Ranchi and are available across Jharkhand. Other important Indian newspapers in Hindi, English and local languages are also available in bigger cities by the afternoon and after a days delay in smaller towns. Most of the national magazines in Hindi and English are regularly available in bigger cities and at other places where supply may be arranged through newspaper vendors. The internet media like [www.jharkhandmirror.org jharkhandmirror] and [www.newswings.com newswings] are also available. "Johar Disum Khabar" [33] is only fortnightly newspaper published in local tribal & regional language from Ranchi. A monthly magazine "Johar Sahiya" [34] is also published in the state's popular regional language Nagpuri-Sadri."Jharkhandi Bhasha Sahitya Sanskriti Akhra" [35] also a multilingual quarterly magazine in tribal & Regional languages of Jharkhand. Ranchi and Jamshedpur have around five radio stations and All India Radio is available throughout the state. In 2007, private FM Channels have also started operation in the state. Doordarshan, the national television broadcaster, is also available in almost all parts of the state. Bigger cities in Jharkhand are served by all television channels available in India and channels are received through cable. In some interior regions, channels are received via satellite dishes. Landline telephone connectivity is provided by BSNL, Tata Indicom and Reliance Communications and covers almost all parts of the state. Cellular service, covering all major centres of the state, is provided by Vodafone, Airtel (GSM Service), Aircel, BSNL, Idea Cellular and Reliance Communications and also by Tata Indicom and Reliance Infocomm (CDMA Service).Internet connectivity is available in all the districts.

References
[1] http:/ / jharkhand. nic. in [2] Gautam Kumar Bera (2008). The unrest axle: ethno-social movements in Eastern India (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=9qrmTdshzKQC& pg=PA31& dq=distinct+ geo-political+ Jharkhand& q=distinct geo-political Jharkhand). Mittal Publications. pp.3235. ISBN9788183241458. . [3] P K Mohanty (2006). "4: Tribes of Jharkhand" (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=u-yM6OYrIEcC& pg=PA105& dq=kukara,+ jharkhand& q=kukara, jharkhand). Encyclopaedia Scheduled Tribes In India. Gyan Publishing House. p.105. ISBN9788182050525. . [4] J.B. Hoffmann (1984). A missionary social worker in India (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=bL3ISWm-tOYC& pg=PA54& lpg=PA54& dq=munda+ raja& q=munda raja). Editrice Pontificia Universit Gregoriana. p.54. ISBN9788876525391. . [5] "Freedom Struggle" (http:/ / wesanthals. tripod. com/ id50. html). Wesanthals.tripod.com. 2000-11-14. . Retrieved 2010-07-18. [6] Birsa Munda and His Movement 1874-1901: A Study of a Millenarian Movement in Chotanagpur, by Kumar Suresh Singh. Oxford University Press, 1983 [7] "Birds and animals found in the forest of the Palamau district" (http:/ / palamu. nic. in/ forestchap4. htm). Official website of the Palamau district. . Retrieved 2009-04-05. [8] "Census Population" (http:/ / indiabudget. nic. in/ es2006-07/ chapt2007/ tab97. pdf) (PDF). Census of India. Ministry of Finance India. . Retrieved 2008-12-18. [9] National Network of Education (2007-10-24). "Jharkhand demand second language status for Santhali, Bengali, Jharkhand News" (http:/ / www. indiaedunews. net/ Jharkhand/ Jharkhand_demand_second_language_status_for_Santhali,_Bengali_2305/ ). Indiaedunews.net. . Retrieved 2010-07-18. [10] (http:/ / demotemp257. nic. in/ httpdoc/ Census_Data_2001/ Census_data_finder/ C_Series/ Population_by_religious_communities. htm) [11] "South Asia | 'Maoist rebels' shoot Indian MP" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ south_asia/ 6418271. stm). BBC News. 2007-03-05. . Retrieved 2010-07-18. [12] Bhaumik, Subir (5 February 2009). "Cell phones to fight India rebels" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ south_asia/ 7871976. stm). BBC News. . Retrieved 6 May 2010. [13] "Rising Maoists Insurgency in India" (http:/ / globalpolitician. com/ 22790-india). Global Politician. 2007-01-15. . Retrieved 2010-07-18. [14] Maoists who menace India (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2006/ 04/ 17/ opinion/ 17iht-edbowring. html), New York Times, April 17, 2006]

Jharkhand
[15] Aug 9, 2006 (2006-08-09). "Asia Times Online :: South Asia news Hidden civil war drains India's energy" (http:/ / www. atimes. com/ atimes/ South_Asia/ HH09Df01. html). Atimes.com. . Retrieved 2010-07-18. [16] "NTPC eyes 20K crore thermal plant in MP" (http:/ / business. rediff. com/ report/ 2010/ oct/ 26/ ntpc-eyes-thermal-plant-in-mp. htm). business.rediff.com. . Retrieved 27 Oct 2010. [17] District-specific Literates and Literacy Rates, 2001 (http:/ / www. educationforallinindia. com/ page157. html) [18] "National Family Health Survey, 199899: Fact Sheet, Jharkhand, Section: Basic Socio-Demographic Features of Jharkhand" (http:/ / www. nfhsindia. org/ data/ jh/ jhfctsum. pdf). p. 3. . [19] Sanjay Pandey (2007-10-16). "The poor state of girl child education in Jharkhand State" (http:/ / www. mynews. in/ fullstory. aspx?storyid=89). MyNews.in. . [20] Sanjiv Shekhar (26 May 2009). "Many clear IIT-JEE in Jharkhand" (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ Cities/ Ranchi/ Many-clear-IIT-JEE-in-Jharkhand/ articleshow/ 4577536. cms). TNN. . [21] Free haircut (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ south_asia/ 7397602. stm) [22] Xavier Institute of Social Service, Ranchi 834001, Jharkhand, India (http:/ / www. xiss. ac. in) [23] http:/ / www. cipranchi. nic. in/ [24] "de beste bron van informatie over rkm tbs. Deze website is te koop!" (http:/ / www. rkmtbs. org/ main. htm). rkmtbs.org. . Retrieved 2010-07-18. [25] "Welcome to Tata Memorial Centre" (http:/ / www. tatamemorialcentre. com/ index. htm). Tatamemorialcentre.com. 2004-01-01. . Retrieved 2010-07-18. [26] "Fluoride alert for groundwater" (http:/ / www. telegraphindia. com/ 1080111/ jsp/ jharkhand/ story_8768921. jsp) The Telegraph, Calcutta, Friday 11 January 2008 [27] Alarcon-Herrera, M.T., et al. (2001). "Well water fluoride, dental fluorosis, and bone fractures in the Guadiana Valley of Mexico" (http:/ / www. fluoride-journal. com/ 01-34-2/ 342-139. pdf). Fluoride 34 (2): 139149. . [28] Khandare, AL; Harikumar, R; Sivakumar, B (2005). "Severe bone deformities in young children from vitamin D deficiency and fluorosis in Bihar-India.". Calcified tissue international 76 (6): 4128. doi:10.1007/s00223-005-0233-2. PMID15895280. [29] "Fluoride Toxicity in Jharkhand State of India," Disability News India (http:/ / www. disabled-world. com/ news/ india/ fluoride-toxicity-8758. shtml) [30] "Fluoride alert for groundwater," The Telegraph, Calcutta, Friday 11 January 2008. (http:/ / www. telegraphindia. com/ 1080111/ jsp/ jharkhand/ story_8768921. jsp) [31] MacDonald, L. "Water and Health: An effective, sustainable treatment strategy to halt the fluorosis endemic in rural villages of Jharkhand State, India" (http:/ / www. princeton. edu/ ~lmacdona/ water-health. html) [32] Jharkhand farmers despair at drought (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ south_asia/ 8178636. stm) [33] Johar Disum Khabar (http:/ / www. johardisum. in/ ) [34] http:/ / www. joharsahiya. in/ [35] Jharkhandi Bhasha Sahitya Sanskriti Akhra (http:/ / www. akhra. org. in/ )

278

"Official State Website" (http://www.jharkhand.nic.in/). Retrieved 2007-04-13. The World Bank publication on Jharkhand (http://siteresources.worldbank.org/SOUTHASIAEXT/Resources/ 223546-1181699473021/3876782-1181699502708/summary.pdf)

External links
Jharkhand travel guide from Wikitravel Jharkhand State Government Official website (http://jharkhand.nic.in) Tourism guide of jharkhand state (http://traveljharkhand.com/) Jharkhand-Chamber (Business Unlimited) (http://www.jharkhand-chamber.org)

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Karnataka
Karnataka
State

Seal

Location of Karnataka in India

Map of Karnataka Coordinates (Bangalore): 125813N 773337E Country Established Capital India 1956-11-01 Bangalore

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Largest city Districts Government -Governor -ChiefMinister -Legislature Area [1] 191791km2(74050.9sqmi) 8th [2] 52850562 9th 275.6/km2(713.7/sqmi) IST (UTC+05:30) IN-KA 0.600 (medium) 25th (2005) 69.3% (18th) Kannada, English, Hindi karunadu.gov.in listen)), [3] Hansraj Bhardwaj B. S. Yeddyurappa(BJP) Bicameral (224 + 75 seats) Bangalore 30

-Total Area rank Population (2001) -Total -Rank -Density Time zone ISO 3166 code HDI HDI rank Literacy Official languages Website

Karnataka (Kannada: [knk](

the land of the Kannadigas, is a state in South West India.

It was created on 1 November 1956, with the passing of the States Reorganisation Act. Originally known as the State of Mysore, it was renamed Karnataka in 1973. Karnataka is bordered by the Arabian Sea to the west, Goa to the northwest, Maharashtra to the north, Andhra Pradesh to the east, Tamil Nadu to the southeast, and Kerala to the southwest. The state covers an area of 191976square kilometres (74122 sqmi), or 5.83% of the total geographical area of India. It is the eighth largest Indian state by area, the ninth largest by population and comprises 30 districts. Kannada is the official and most widely spoken language. The two main river systems of the state are Krishna and its tributaries (Bhima, Ghataprabha, Vedavati, Malaprabha, and Tungabhadra) in the north, and the Cauvery and its tributaries (Hemavati, Shimsha, Arkavathi, Lakshmana Thirtha and Kabini) in the south. Both these rivers flow eastward and fall into the Bay of Bengal. Though several etymologies have been suggested for the name Karnataka, the generally accepted one is that Karnataka is derived from the Kannada words karu and ndu, meaning elevated land. Karu nadu may also be read as Karu (black) and nadu (region), as a reference to the black cotton soil found in the Bayaluseeme region of Karnataka. The British used the word Carnatic (sometimes Karnatak) to describe both sides of peninsular India, south of the Krishna River.[4] With an antiquity that dates to the paleolithic, Karnataka has also been home to some of the most powerful empires of ancient and medieval India. The philosophers and musical bards patronised by these empires launched socio-religious and literary movements which have endured to the present day. Karnataka has contributed significantly to both forms of Indian classical music, the Carnatic (Karnataka Music) and Hindustani traditions.

Karnataka Writers in the Kannada language have received the most number of Jnanpith awards in India. Bangalore is the capital city of the state and is at the forefront of the rapid economic and technological development that India is experiencing.

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History
Karnatakan pre-history goes back to a paleolithic hand-axe culture evidenced by discoveries of, among other things, hand axes and cleavers in the region. Evidence of neolithic and megalithic cultures have also been found in the state. Gold discovered in Harappa was found to be imported from mines in Karnataka, prompting scholars to hypothesize about contacts between ancient Karnataka and the Indus Valley Civilization ca. 3000 BCE.[5] [6] Prior to the third century BCE, most of Karnataka formed part of the Nanda Empire before coming under the Mauryan empire of Emperor Ashoka. Four centuries of Satavahana rule Mallikarjuna temple and Kashi Vishwanatha followed, allowing them to control large areas of Karnataka. The decline temple at Pattadakal, North Karnataka built of Satavahana power led to the rise of the earliest native kingdoms, the successively by the Chalukya Empire and Rashtrakuta Empire are UNESCO World Kadambas and the Western Gangas, marking the region's emergence as Heritage Site. an independent political entity. The Kadamba Dynasty, founded by Mayurasharma, had its capital at Banavasi;[7] [8] the Western Ganga Dynasty was formed with Talakad as its capital.[9] [10] These were also the first kingdoms to use Kannada in administration, as evidenced by the Halmidi inscription and a fifth-century copper coin discovered at Banavasi.[11] [12] These dynasties were followed by imperial Kannada empires such as the Badami Chalukyas,[13] [14] the Rashtrakuta Empire of Manyakheta[15] [16] and the Western Chalukya Empire,[17] [18] which ruled over large parts of the Deccan and had their capitals in what is now Karnataka. The Western Chalukyas patronised a unique style of architecture and Kannada literature which became a precursor to the Hoysala art of 12th century.[19] [20] Parts of modern-day Karnataka were occupied by the Chola Empire between 990-1210 AD.[21] This process started under Rajaraja Chola I (985-1014) and continued under his son Rajendra Chola I (10141044).[21] Initially "Gangapadi, Nolambapadi and Tadigaipadi' all parts of modern Mysore, were conquered and annexed' under Raja Hoysala Empire sculptural articulation in Belur Raja Chola I. Rajendra Chola I "marched up to Donur, he also captured Banvasi, a good part of the Raichur doab and sacked Manyakheta" itself, which was the Western Chalukyan capital.[21] During the time of the Chalukya ruler Jayasimha after his defeat by Rajendra Chola I, the Tungabhadra river was recognized tacitly as the boundary between the two kingdoms.[21] During the rule of Rajadhiraja Chola I (10421056), Dannada, Kulpak, Koppam, the fortress of Kampili, Pundur, Yetagiri and the Chalukyan capital Kalyani were sacked.[21] In 1053, Rajendra Chola II after defeating the Chalukyans in war advanced to Kollapura where he erected a pillar of victory before returning to his capital at Gangaikondacholapuram.[22] In 1066, the Western Chalukya ruler Somesvara's forces were defeated by the next Chola ruler Virarajendra, who then again defeated the Western Chalukyas at Kudalasangama, and set up a pillar of victory on the banks of the Tungabhadra.[23] In AD 1075 Kulottunga Chola I won a victory against Vikramaditya VI

Karnataka at Nangili in Kolar district and made himself the master of Gangavadi.[24] The Cholas eventually lost Gangavadi in 1116 to the Hoysalas under Vishnuvardhana.[21] At the turn of the first millennium, the Hoysalas gained power in the region. Literature flourished during this time, which led to the distinctive Kannada literary metres and the construction of temples and sculptures adhering to the Vesara style of architecture.[25] [26] [27] [28] The expansion of the Hoysala Empire brought minor parts of modern Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu under its rule. In the early 14th century, Harihara and Bukka Raya established the Vijayanagara empire with its capital, Hosapattana (later named Vijayanagara), on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in the modern Bellary district. The empire rose as a bulwark against Muslim advances into South India, which it completely controlled for over two centuries.[29] [30] In 1565, Karnataka and the rest of South India experienced a major geopolitical shift when the Vijayanagara Empire fell to a confederation Statue of Ugranarasimha at Hampi (a World of Islamic sultanates in the Battle of Talikota.[31] The Bijapur Sultanate, Heritage Site), located within the ruins of which had risen after the demise of the Bahmani Sultanate of Bidar, Vijayanagara, the former capital of the soon took control of the Deccan; it was defeated by the Moghuls in the Vijayanagara Empire late 17th century.[32] [33] The Bahamani and Bijapur rulers encouraged Urdu and Persian literature and Indo-Saracenic architecture, the Gol Gumbaz being one of the high points of this style.[34] During the sixteenth century, Konkani Hindus migrated to Karnataka, mostly from Salcette, Goa,[35] while during the seventeenth and eighteenth century, the Mangalorean Catholics migrated to South Canara, in Karnataka, especially from Bardes, Goa, as a result of food shortages, epidemics and heavy taxation imposed by the Portuguese.[36] In the period that followed, parts of northern Karnataka were ruled by the Nizam of Hyderabad, the British, and other powers. In the south, the Mysore Kingdom, former vassals of the Vijayanagara Empire, was briefly independent.[37] With the death of Krishnaraja Wodeyar II, Haidar Ali, the commander-in-chief of the Mysore army, gained control of the region. After his death, the kingdom was inherited by his son Tippu Sultan.[38] To contain European expansion in South India, Haidar Ali and later Tippu Sultan fought four significant Anglo-Mysore Wars, the last of which resulted in Tippu Sultan's death and the incorporation of Mysore into the British Raj in 1799.[39] The Kingdom of Mysore was restored to the Wodeyars and Mysore remained a princely state under the British Raj.

282

Inside Badami cave temple

As the "doctrine of lapse" gave way to dissent and resistance from princely states across the country, Kittur Chennamma, Sangolli Rayanna and others spearheaded rebellions in Karnataka in 1830, nearly three decades before the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Other uprisings followed, such as the ones at Supa, Bagalkot, Shorapur, Nargund and Dandeli. These rebellions - which coincided with the 1857 war of independence - were led by Mundargi Bhimarao, Bhaskar Rao Bhave, the Halagali Bedas, Raja Venkatappa Nayaka and others. By the late 19th century, the freedom movement had gained momentum; Karnad Sadashiva Rao, Aluru Venkata Raya, S. Nijalingappa, Kengal Hanumanthaiah, Nittoor Srinivasa Rau and others carried on the struggle into the early 20th century.[40]

Karnataka

283 After India's independence, the Maharaja, Jayachamarajendra Wodeyar, allowed his kingdom's accession to India. In 1950, Mysore became an Indian state of the same name; the former Maharaja served as its Rajpramukh (head of state) until 1975. Following the long-standing demand of the Ekikarana Movement, Kodagu- and Kannada-speaking regions from the adjoining states of Madras, Hyderabad and Bombay were incorporated into the Mysore state, under the States Reorganization Act of 1956. The thus expanded state was renamed Karnataka, seventeen years later, in 1973.[41] In the early 1900s through the post-independence era, industrial visionaries such as Sir Mokshagundam Visvesvarayya born in Muddenahalli, near Kanivenarayanapura, Chikballapur District played an important role in the development of Karnataka's strong manufacturing and industrial base.

An inveterate enemy of the British, Tipu Sultan of Mysore Kingdom was one of the most powerful rulers in India before the advent of the British Raj.

Historical image showing the then Chief minister Dr.Devaraja Urs announcing the declaration of Karnataka name to the Mysore state

Geography
The state has three principal geographical zones: 1. the coastal region of Karavali 2. the hilly Malenadu region comprising the Western Ghats 3. the Bayaluseeme region comprising the plains of the Deccan plateau The bulk of the state is in the Bayaluseeme region, the northern part of which is the second-largest arid region in India.[42] The highest point in Karnataka is the Mullayanagiri hills in Chickmagalur district which has an altitude of 1929metres (6329ft). Some of the important rivers in Karnataka are Kaveri, Tungabhadra, Krishna, Malaprabha and the Sharavathi.

Jog Falls are the highest plunge waterfalls in India, formed by Sharavathi River.

Karnataka consists of four main types of geological formations[43] the Archean complex made up of Dharwad schists and granitic gneisses, the Proterozoic non-fossiliferous sedimentary formations of the Kaladgi and Bhima series, the Deccan trappean and intertrappean deposits and the tertiary and recent laterites and alluvial deposits. Significantly, about 60% of the state is composed of the Archean complex which consist of gneisses, granites and

Karnataka charnockite rocks. Laterite cappings that are found in many districts over the Deccan Traps were formed after the cessation of volcanic activity in the early tertiary period. Eleven groups of soil orders are found in Karnataka, viz. Entisols, Inceptisols, Mollisols, Spodosols, Alfisols, Ultisols, Oxisols, Aridisols, Vertisols, Andisols and Histosols.[43] Depending on the agricultural capability of the soil, the soil types are divided into six types, viz. Red, lateritic, black, alluvio-colluvial, forest and coastal soils. Karnataka experiences four seasons. The winter in January and February is followed by summer between March and May, the monsoon season between June and September and the post-monsoon season from October till December. Meteorologically, Karnataka is divided into three zones coastal, north interior and south interior. Of these, the coastal zone receives the heaviest rainfall with an average rainfall of about 3638.5mm (143in) per annum, far in excess of the state average of 1139mm (45in). Agumbe in the Shivamogga district receives the second highest annual rainfall in India.[44] The highest recorded temperature was 45.6C (114F) at Raichur and the lowest recorded temperature was 2.8C (37F) at Bidar. About 38724km2 (14951sqmi) of Karnataka (i.e. 20% of the state's geographic area) is covered by forests. The forests are classified as reserved, protected, unclosed, village and private forests. The percentage of forested area is slightly less than the all-India average of about 23%, and significantly less than the 33% prescribed in the National Forest Policy.[45]

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Sub-divisions
There are 30 districts in KarnatakaBagalkote, Bangalore Rural, Bangalore Urban, Belgaum, Bellary, Bidar, Bijapur, Chamarajanagar, Chikkaballapur,[46] Chikkamagaluru, Chitradurga, Dakshina Kannada, Davanagere, Dharwad, Gadag, Gulbarga, Hassan, Haveri, Kodagu, Kolar, Koppal, Mandya, Mysore, Raichur, Ramanagara,[46] Shimoga, Tumkur, Udupi, Uttara Kannada and Yadgir. Each district is governed by a district commissioner or district magistrate. The districts are further divided into sub-divisions, which are governed by sub-divisional magistrates; sub-divisions comprise blocks containing panchayats (village councils) and town municipalities. As per the 2001 census, Karnataka's six largest cities sorted in order of decreasing population were, Bangalore, Hubli-Dharwad, Mysore, Gulbarga, Belgaum and Mangalore. Bangalore is the only city with a Districts of Karnataka population of more than one million. Bangalore Urban, Belgaum and Gulbarga are the most populous districts, each of them having a population of more than three million. Gadag, Chamarajanagar and Kodagu districts have a population of less than one million.[47]

Demographics
According to the 2001 census of India, the total population of Karnataka is 52,850,562, of which 26,898,918 (50.9%) are male and 25,951,644 (49.1%) are female, or 1000 males for every 964 females. This represents a 17.3% increase over the population in 1991. The population density is 275.6 per km and 34.0% of the people live in urban areas. The literacy rate is 66.6% with 76.1% of males and 56.9% of females being literate.[2] 83% of the population are Hindu, 11% are Muslim, 4% are Christian, 0.8% are Jains, 0.7% are Buddhist, and with the remainder belonging to other religions.[49] Kannada is the official language of Karnataka and spoken as a native language by about 64.8% of the people. Other linguistic minorities in the state as of 1991 are Urdu (9.7%), Telugu (8.3%), Tamil (3.8%), Marathi (4.0%), Tulu

Karnataka (3.4%), Hindi (1.9%), Konkani (1.8%), Malayalam (1.7%) and Kodava Takk (0.3%).[50] The state has a birth rate of 2.2%, a death rate of 0.7%, an infant mortality rate of 5.5% and a maternal mortality rate of 0.2%. The total fertility rate is 2.2.[51] In the field of super-specialty health care, Karnataka's private sector competes with the best in the world.[52] Karnataka has also established a modicum of public health services having a better record of health care and child care than most other states of India. In spite of these advances, some parts of the state still leave much to be desired when it comes to primary health care.[53]

285

Government and administration

Karnataka, like other Indian states, has a parliamentary system of government with two democratically elected houses, the Legislative Assembly and the Legislative Council. The Legislative Assembly consists of 224 members who are elected for five-year terms.[54] The Legislative Council is a permanent body of 75 members with one-third (25 members) retiring every two years.[54] The government of Karnataka is headed by the Chief Minister who is chosen by the ruling party members of the Legislative Assembly. The Vidhana Soudha in Bangalore (seat of the Chief Minister, along with the council of ministers, drives the Legislative Assembly) legislative agenda and exercises most of the executive powers.[55] However, the constitutional and formal head of the state is the Governor who is appointed for a five-year term by the President of India on the advice of the Union government.[56] The people of Karnataka also elect 28 members to the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Indian Parliament.[57] The members of the state Legislative Assembly elect 12 members to the Rajya Sabha, the upper house of the Indian Parliament. For administrative purposes, Karnataka has been divided into four revenue divisions, 49 sub-divisions, 29 districts, 175 taluks and 745 hoblies/revenue circles.[58] The administration in each district is headed by a Deputy Commissioner who belongs to the Indian Administrative Service and is assisted by a number of officers belonging to Karnataka state services. The Deputy Commissioner of Police, an officer belonging to the Indian Police Service and assisted by the officers of the Karnataka Police Service, is entrusted with the responsibility of maintaining law and order and related issues in each district. The Deputy Conservator of Forests, an officer belonging to the Indian Forest Service, also serves the government. Sectoral development in the districts is looked after by the district head of each development department such as Public Works Department, Health, Education, Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, etc. The judiciary in the state consists of the Karnataka High Court (Attara Kacheri) in Bangalore, district and session courts in each district and lower courts and judges at the taluk level. Politics in Karnataka has been dominated by three political parties, the Indian National Congress, the Janata Dal (Secular) and the Bharatiya Janata Party.[59] Politicians from Karnataka have played prominent roles in federal government of India with some of them having held the high positions of Prime Minister and Vice President. Three cabinet levels ministers in the current United Progressive Alliance government are from Karnataka. Notable among these is Former Chief Minister and Honorable Union Minister for Law, Justice and Company Affairs, Veerappa Moily. Border disputes involving Karnataka's claim on the Kasaragod[60] and Sholapur[61] districts and Maharashtra's claim on Belgaum are ongoing since the states reorganisation.[62] The official emblem of Karnataka has a Ganda Berunda in the centre. Surmounting this are four lions facing the four directions, taken from the Lion Capital of Asoka at Sarnath. The emblem also carries two Sharabhas with the head of an elephant and the body of a lion.

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Economy
Karnataka, which had an estimated GSDP (Gross State Domestic Product) of about US$ 58.23 billion in 2008-09 fiscal year. Karnataka recorded the highest growth rates in terms of GDP and per capita GDP in the last decade compared to other states.[63] The state registered a GSDP growth rate of 7% for the year 2007-2008.[64] Karnataka's contribution to India's GDP in the year 2004-05 was 5.2%.[65] Karnataka was the fastest growing state over the past decade in terms of GDP and per capita GDP. With GDP growth of GSDP Growth of the Karnatakan Economy over the previous years 56.2% and per capita GDP growth of 43.9%, Karnataka now has the [66] sixth highest per-capita GDP of all states. Till September 2006 Karnataka received a Foreign Direct Investment of 78.097 billion ($ 1.7255 billion) for the fiscal year 2006-07, placing it third among the states of India.[67] At the end of 2004, the unemployment rate in Karnataka was 4.94% compared to the national rate of 5.99%.[68] For the fiscal year 2006-07, the inflation rate in Karnataka was 4.4%, compared to the national average of 4.7%.[69] As of 2004-05, Karnataka had an estimated poverty ratio of 17%, less than the national ratio of 27.5%.[70] Nearly 56% of the workforce in Karnataka is engaged in agriculture and related activities.[71] A total of 12.31 million hectares of land, or 64.6% of the state's total area, is cultivated.[72] Much of the agricultural output is dependent on the southwest monsoon as only 26.5% of the sown area is irrigated.[72] Karnataka is the manufacturing hub for some of the largest public sector industries in India, including Hindustan Aeronautics Limited, National Aerospace Laboratories, Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, Indian Telephone Industries, Bharat Earth Movers Limited and Hindustan Machine Tools, which are based in Bangalore. Many of India's premier science and technology research centers, such as Indian Space Research Organization, Central Power Research Institute, Bharat Electronics Limited and the Central Food Technological Research Institute, are also headquartered in Karnataka. Mangalore Refinery and Petrochemicals Limited is an oil refinery located in Mangalore. Since the 1980s, Karnataka has emerged as the pan-Indian leader in the field of IT (information technology). As of 2007, there were nearly 2,000 firms operating out of Karnataka. Many of them, including two of India's biggest software firms, Infosys and Wipro are also headquartered in the state.[73] Exports from these firms exceeded 50,000 crores ($12.5 billion) in 2006-07, accounting for nearly 38% of all IT exports from India.[73] The Nandi Hills area in the outskirts of Devanahalli is the site of the upcoming $22 Billion, 50 square kilometer BIAL IT Investment Region, one the largest infrastructure projects in the history of Karnataka.[74] All this has earned the state capital, Bangalore, the sobriquet Silicon Valley of India.[75] Karnataka also leads the nation in biotechnology. It is home to India's largest biocluster, with 158 of the country's 320 biotechnology firms being based here.[76] The state also accounts for 75% of India's floriculture, an upcoming industry which supplies flowers and ornamental plants worldwide.[77] Seven of India's leading banks, Canara Bank, Syndicate Bank, Corporation Bank, Vijaya Bank, Karnataka Bank, Vysya Bank and the Contribution to economy by sector State Bank of Mysore originated in this state.[78] The coastal districts of Udupi and Dakshina Kannada have a branch for every 500 personsthe best distribution of banks in India.[79] As of March 2002, Karnataka had 4767 branches of different banks with each branch serving 11,000 persons, which is lower than the national average of 16,000.[80] A majority of the 3500 crore silk industry in India is headquartered in Karnataka State, particularly in the North Bangalore regions of Muddenahalli, Kanivenarayanapura, and Doddaballapura the upcoming sites of a 70 crore "Silk

Karnataka City".[81] [82]

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Transport
Air transport in Karnataka, as in the rest of the country, is still a fledgling but fast expanding sector. Karnataka has airports at Bangalore, Mangalore, Hubli, Belgaum, Hampi, Bellary and Mysore with international operations from Bangalore and Mangalore airports.[83] Major airlines such as Kingfisher Airlines and Kingfisher red are based in Bangalore. Karnataka has a railway network with a total length of approximately 3089kilometres (1919mi). Until the creation of the Kingfisher Airlines is based in Bangalore. South Western Zone headquartered at Hubli in 2003, the railway network in the state was in the Southern and Western railway zones. Several parts of the state now come under the South Western Zone, with the remainder under the Southern Railways. Coastal Karnataka is covered under the Konkan railway network which was considered India's biggest railway project of the century.[84] Bangalore is extensively connected with inter-state destinations while other important cities and towns in the state are not so well-connected.[85] [86] Karnataka has 11 ports, including the New Mangalore Port, a major port and ten other minor ports.[87] The New Mangalore port was incorporated as the ninth major port in India on 4 May 1974. This port handled 32.04 million tonnes of traffic in the fiscal year 2006-07 with 17.92 million tonnes of imports and 14.12 million tonnes of exports. The port also handled 1015 vessels including 18 cruise vessels during the year 2006-07. The inland water transport within the state is not well developed. The total lengths of National Highways and state highways in Karnataka are 3973kilometres (2469mi) and 9829kilometres (6107mi), respectively. The KSRTC, the state public transport corporation, transports an average of 2.2 million passengers daily and employs about 25,000 people.[88] In the late nineties, KSRTC was split into three corporations, viz., The Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation, The North-West Karnataka Road Transport Corporation and The North-East Karnataka Road Transport Corporation with their headquarters in Bangalore, Hubli and Gulbarga respectively.[88]

Culture
The diverse linguistic and religious ethnicities that are native to Karnataka combined with their long histories have contributed immensely to the varied cultural heritage of the state. Apart from Kannadigas, Karnataka is home to Tuluvas, Kodavas and Konkanis. Minor populations of Tibetan Buddhists and tribes like the Soligas, Yeravas, Todas and Siddhis also live in Karnataka. The traditional folk arts cover the entire gamut of music, dance, drama, storytelling by itinerant troupes, etc. Yakshagana of Malnad and coastal Karnataka, a The Kannada flag is widely used in Karnataka classical dance drama, is one of the major theatrical forms of even though it is not an official flag. Karnataka. Contemporary theatre culture in Karnataka remains vibrant with organizations like Ninasam, Ranga Shankara, Rangayana and Prabhat Kalavidaru continuing to build on the foundations laid by Gubbi Veeranna, T. P. Kailasam, B. V. Karanth, K V Subbanna,

Karnataka Prasanna and others.[89] Veeragase, Kamsale, Kolata and Dollu Kunitha are popular dance forms. The Mysore style of Bharatanatya nurtured and popularised by the likes of the legendary Jatti Tayamma continues to hold sway in Karnataka and Bangalore also enjoys an eminent place as one of the foremost centers of Bharatanatya.[90] Karnataka also has a special place in the world of Indian classical music with both Karnataka[91] (Carnatic) and Hindustani styles finding place in the state and Karnataka has produced a number of stalwarts in both styles. While referring to music the word 'Karnataka', the original name given to the South Indian classical music does not mean the state of Karnataka. The Haridasa movement of the sixteenth century contributed seminally to the development of Karnataka (Carnatic) music as a performing art form. Purandara Dasa, one of the most revered Haridasas, is known as the Karnataka Sangeeta Pitamaha ('Father of Karnataka a.k.a.Carnatic music').[92] Celebrated Hindustani musicians like Gangubai Hangal, Mallikarjun Mansur, Bhimsen Joshi, Basavaraja Rajaguru, Sawai Gandharva and several others hail from Karnataka and some of them have been recipients of the Kalidas Samman, Padma Bhushan and Padma Vibhushan awards.

288

A Yakshagana artist

Gamaka is another classical music genre based on Carnatic music that is practiced in Karnataka. Kannada Bhavageete is a genre of popular music that draws inspiration from the expressionist poetry of modern poets. The Mysore school of painting has produced painters like Sundarayya, Tanjavur Kondayya, B. Venkatappa and Keshavayya.[93] Chitrakala Parishat is an organisation in Karnataka dedicated to promoting painting, mainly in the Mysore painting style. Saree is the traditional dress of women in Karnataka. Women in Kodagu have a distinct style of wearing the saree, different from the [94] rest of Karnataka. Dhoti, known as Panche in Karnataka is the traditional attire of men. Shirt, Trousers and Salwar kameez are widely worn in Urban areas. Mysore peta is the traditional headgear of southern Karnataka, while the pagadi or pataga (similar to the Rajasthani turban) is preferred in the northern areas of the state.
Dharwad pedha

Rice (Kannada: ) and Ragi form the staple food in South Karnataka, whereas Jolada rotti, Sorghum is staple to North Karnataka. Bisi bele bath, Jolada rotti, Ragi mudde, Uppittu, Masala Dose and Maddur Vade are some of the popular food items in Karnataka. Among sweets, Mysore Pak, Belgaavi Kunda, Gokak karadantu, and Dharwad pedha are popular. Apart from this, coastal Karnataka and Kodagu have distinctive cuisines of their own. Udupi cuisine of coastal Karnataka is popular all over India.

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Religion
Adi Shankaracharya chose Sringeri in Karnataka to establish the first of his four mathas. Shri Madhvacharya (Kannada: , r Madhvcrya) (12381317) was the chief proponent of Tattvavda (Philosophy of Reality), popularly known as Dvaita or Dualistic school of Hindu philosophy - one of the three most influential Vednta philosophies. Madhva was one of the important philosophers during the Bhakti movement. He was a pioneer in many ways, going against standard conventions and norms. According to tradition, Madhvcrya is believed to be the third incarnation of Vyu (Mukhyapra), after Hanumn and Bhma.The Haridasa (Kannada: ) devotional movement is considered as one of the turning points in the cultural history of India. Over a span of nearly six centuries, several saints and mystics helped shape the culture, philosophy and art of South India and Karnataka in particular by exerting considerable spiritual influence over the masses and kingdoms that ruled South India.[1] This movement was ushered in by the Haridasas (Kannada: , literally meaning 'servants of Lord Hari') and took shape in the 13th century - 14th century CE, period, prior to and during the early rule of the Vijayanagara empire. The main objective of this

The Gomateswara (982983) monolith at Shravanabelagola is one of the foremost centers of Jain pilgrimage today.

movement was to propagate the Dvaita philosophy of Madhvacharya (Madhva Siddhanta) to the masses through a literary medium known as Dasa Sahitya (literature of the servants of the Lord. Purandaradasa often called "Pithamaha" of Carnatic Music for his immense contribution in simplifying carnatic music, he was the "Guru" of Swamy Haridas (Tansen's guru)who pioneered Hindustani music in North India. ) Ramanujacharya, the leading expounder of Viidvaita, spent many years in Melkote. He came to Karnataka in 1098 AD and lived here until 1122 AD. He first lived in Tondanur and then moved to Melkote where the Cheluvanarayana Temple and a well organised Matha were built. He was patronized by the Hoysala king, Vishnuvardhana.[95] In the twelfth century, Veerashaivism emerged in northern Karnataka as a protest against the rigidity of the prevailing social and caste system. Leading figures of this movement were Basava, Akka Mahadevi and Allama Prabhu, who established the Anubhava Mantapa which was the center of all religious and philosophical thoughts and discussions pertaining to Ligayats. These three social reformers did so by the literary means of 'Vachana Sahitya' which is very famous for its simple, straight forward and easily understandable Kannada language. Lingayatism preached women equalism by letting women wear Linga i.e. god around their neck which was prohibited in those days. Basava shunned the sharp hierarchical divisions that existed and sought to remove all distinctions between the hierarchially superior master class and the subordinate, servile class. He also supported intercaste marriages and Kaayaka Tatva of Basavanna bases itself on Karma Siddhanta (Philosophy of Karma). This was the basis of the Lingayat faith which today counts millions among its followers.[96] The Jain philosophy and literature have contributed immensely to the religious and cultural landscape of Karnataka. Islam, which had an early presence on the west coast of India as early as the tenth century, gained a foothold in Karnataka with the rise of the Bahamani and Bijapur sultanates that ruled parts of Karnataka.[97] Christianity reached Karnataka in the sixteenth century with the arrival of the Portuguese and St. Francis Xavier in 1545.[98] Buddhism was popular in Karnataka during the first millennium in places such as Gulbarga and Banavasi. A chance discovery of edicts and several Mauryan relics at Sannati in Gulbarga district in 1986 has proven that the Krishna River basin was once home to both Mahayana and Hinayana Buddhism.

Karnataka Mysore Dasara is celebrated as the Nada habba (state festival) and this is marked by major festivities at Mysore.[99] Ugadi (Kannada New Year), Makara Sankranti (the harvest festival), Ganesh Chaturthi, Nagapanchami, Basava Jayanthi, Deepavali, and Ramzan are the other major festivals of Karnataka.

290

Language
The Kannada language is the official language of the state, the native language of approximately 65% of its population and one of the classical languages of India.[100] [101] Kannada played a crucial role in the creation of Karnataka: linguistic demographics played a major role in defining the new state in 1956. Tulu, Kodava Takk and Konkani are other major native languages that share a long history in the state. Urdu is spoken widely by the Muslim population. Less widely spoken languages include Beary bashe and certain dialects such as Sankethi. Kannada features a rich and ancient body of literature covering topics as diverse as Jainism, Vachanas, Haridasa Sahitya and modern literature. Evidence from edicts during the time of Ashoka the Great suggest that the Kannada script and its literature were influenced by Buddhist literature. The Halmidi inscription, the earliest attested full-length inscription in the Kannada language and script, is dated to 450 CE while the earliest available literary work, the Kavirajamarga, has been dated to 850 CE. References made in the Kavirajamarga, however, prove that Kannada literature flourished in the Chattana, Beddande and Melvadu metres during earlier centuries.[102]

Halmidi inscription (450 CE) is the earliest attested inscription in Kannada language.

Kuvempu, the renowned Kannada poet and writer who wrote Jaya Bharata Jananiya Tanujate, the state anthem of Karnataka[103] was the first recipient of the "Karnataka Ratna" award, the highest civilian award bestowed by the Government of Karnataka. Contemporary Kannada literature is well recognized in the arena of Indian literature, with seven Kannada writers winning India's highest literary honour, the Jnanpith award, which is the highest for any language in India.[104] Tulu is spoken mainly in the coastal districts of Udupi and Dakshina Kannada. Tulu Mahabharato, written by Arunabja in Tulu script, is the oldest surviving Tulu text.[105] The Tulu language now uses the Kannada script due to the gradual decline of the Tulu script, which was in use until a few centuries ago. The Kodavas who mainly reside in the Kodagu district, speak Kodava Takk. Two regional variations of the language exist, the northern Mendale Takka and the southern Kiggaati Takka.[106] Konkani is mostly spoken in the Uttara Kannada district and in some parts of the Udupi and Dakshina Kannada districts. Both Kodava Takk and Konkani use the Kannada script for writing. English is the medium of education in many schools and widely used for business communication in technology-related companies and BPOs.

Rashtrakavi Kuvempu, a doyen of 20th century Kannada literature

All of the state's languages are patronised and promoted by governmental and quasi-governmental bodies. The Kannada Sahitya Parishat and the Kannada Sahitya Akademi are responsible for the promotion of Kannada while the

Karnataka Karnataka Konkani Sahitya Akademi,[107] The Tulu Sahitya Akademi and the Kodava Sahitya Akademi promote their respective languages. Karnataka being a multilingual state, various linguistic groups have been demanding for separate states based on language in the regions where those languages are spoken by the majority. Tuluvas and Kodavas are major ethnic groups which aspire to form separate states.

291

Education
As per the 2001 census, Karnataka had a literacy rate of 67.04%, with 76.29% of males and 57.45% of females in the state being literate.[108] The state is home to some of the premier educational and research institutions of India such as the Indian Institute of Science, the Indian Institute of Management, the National Institute of Technology Karnataka and the National Law School of India University. As of March 2006, Karnataka had 54,529 primary schools with 252,875 teachers and 8.495 million students,[109] and 9498 secondary schools with 92,287 teachers and 1.384 million students.[109] There are Indian Institute of Science is one of the premier three kinds of schools in the state, viz., government-run, private aided institutes of India located in Bangalore. (financial aid is provided by the government) and private unaided (no financial aid is provided). The primary languages of instruction in most schools are Kannada and English. The syllabus taught in the schools is either of the CBSE, the ICSE or the state syllabus (SSLC) defined by the Department of Public Instruction of the Government of Karnataka. However, some schools follows NIOS syllabus. The State has one Sainik School in Bijapur also. In order to maximize attendance in schools, the Karnataka Government has launched a mid-day meal scheme in government and aided schools in which free lunch is provided to the students.[110] Statewide board examinations are conducted at the end of the period of secondary education and students who qualify are allowed to pursue a two-year pre-university course; after which students become eligible to pursue under-graduate degrees. There are 481 degree colleges affiliated with one of the universities in the state, viz. Bangalore University, Gulbarga University, Karnatak University, Kuvempu University, Mangalore University and Mysore University.[111] In 1998, the engineering colleges in the state were brought under the newly formed Visvesvaraya Technological University headquartered at Belgaum, whereas the medical colleges are run under the jurisdiction of the Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences. Some of these baccalaureate colleges are accredited with the status of a deemed university. There are 123 engineering, 35 medical and 40 dental colleges in the state.[112] Udupi, Sringeri, Gokarna and Melkote are well-known places of Sanskrit and Vedic learning. An Indian Institute of Technology Muddenahalli has been approved by the central government as part of the 11th 5 year plan. This will be the first IIT in Karnataka State.[113] In addition, a 600 crore Visvesvaraya Institute of Advanced Technology (VIAT) is being constructed in Muddenahalli-Kanivenarayanapura.[114] Tulu Language is taught as an optional subject in the twin districts of South Canara and Udupi.[115]

Media
The era of Kannada newspapers started in the year 1843 when Hermann Mgling, a missionary from Basel Mission, published the first Kannada newspaper called Mangalooru Samachara in Mangalore. The first Kannada periodical, Mysuru Vrittanta Bodhini was started by Bhashyam Bhashyacharya in Mysore. Shortly after Indian independence in 1948, K. N. Guruswamy founded The Printers (Mysore) Private Limited and began publishing two newspapers, the Deccan Herald and Prajavani. Presently the Times of India and Vijaya Karnataka are the largest-selling English and Kannada newspapers respectively.[116] [117] A vast number of weekly, biweekly and monthly magazines are under

Karnataka publication in both Kannada and English. Udayavani, Kannadaprabha, Samyukta Karnataka, Vaartha Bharathi, Sanjevani, Eesanje, Hosa digantha, Karavali Ale are also some popular dailies published from Karnataka. Doordarshan is the broadcaster of the Government of India and its channel DD Chandana is dedicated to Kannada. Prominent Kannada channels include ETV Kannada, Zee Kannada, Udaya TV, U2, TV 9, Asianet Suvarna and Kasturi TV.[118] Karnataka occupies a special place in the history of Indian radio. In 1935, Aakashvani, the first private radio station in India, was started by Prof. M.V. Gopalaswamy at Mysore.[119] The popular radio station was taken over by the local municipality and later by All India Radio (AIR) and moved to Bangalore in 1955. Later in 1957, AIR adopted the original name of the radio station, Aakashavani as its own. Some of the popular programs aired by AIR Bangalore included Nisarga Sampada and Sasya Sanjeevini which were programs that taught science through songs, plays and stories. These two programs became so popular that they were translated and broadcasted in 18 different languages and the entire series was recorded on cassettes by the Government of Karnataka and distributed to thousands of schools across the state.[119] Karnataka has witnessed a growth in FM radio channels mainly in the cities of Bangalore, Mangalore and Mysore which has become hugely popular.[120] [121]

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Sports
Karnataka's smallest district, Kodagu, is a major contributor to Indian field hockey, producing numerous players who have represented India at the international level.[122] The annual Kodava Hockey Festival is the largest hockey tournament in the world.[123] Bangalore has hosted a WTA tennis event and, in 1997, it hosted the fourth National Games of India.[124] The Sports Authority of India, the premier sports institute in the country, and the Nike Tennis Academy are also situated in Bangalore. Karnataka has been referred to as the cradle of Indian swimming because of its high standards in comparison to other states.[125] One of the most popular sports in Karnataka is cricket. The state cricket team has won the Ranji Trophy six times, second only to Mumbai in terms of success.[126] Chinnaswamy Stadium in Bangalore regularly hosts international matches and is also the home of the National Cricket Academy, which was opened in 2000 to nurture potential international players. Many cricketers have represented India and in one international match held in the 1990s; players from Karnataka composed the majority of the national team.[127] [128]

The Karnataka Premier League, an inter-regional Twenty20 cricket tournament is a cricket tournament played in the state. The Royal Challengers Bangalore, an Indian Premier League franchise, is based in Bangalore.

Anil Kumble, former captain of the Indian Test team, is the highest wicket-taker for India in international cricket.

Sports like kho kho, kabaddi, chinni daandu and goli (marbles) are played mostly in Karnataka's rural areas. Notable sportsmen from Karnataka include Prakash Padukone who won the All England Badminton Championships in 1980 and Pankaj Advani who has won three world titles in cue sports by the age of 20 including the amateur World Snooker Championship in 2003 and the World Billiards Championship in 2005.[129] [130] Cycling talent of Karnataka needs a special mention. Off late Bijapur district has produced some of the best known Road Cyclists in the national circuit. Premalata Sureban was part of the Indian contingent at the Perlis Open '99 in Malaysia. In recognition of the talent of cyclists in the district, the State Government has already laid a cycling track at the B.R. Ambedkar Stadium here, spending . 40 lakh.[131]

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Flora and fauna

Karnataka has a rich diversity of flora and fauna. It has a recorded forest area of 38720km2 (14950sqmi) which constitutes 20.19% of the total geographical area of the state. These forests support 25% of the elephant and 10% of the tiger population of India. Many regions of Karnataka are as yet unexplored, so new species of flora and fauna are found periodically. The Western Ghats, a biodiversity hotspot, includes the western region of Karnataka. Two sub-clusters in the Western Ghats, viz. Talacauvery and Kudremukh, both in Karnataka, are on the tentative list of World Heritage Sites of UNESCO.[132] The Bandipur and Nagarahole National Parks, which fall outside these subclusters, were included in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve in 1986, a UNESCO designation.[133] The Indian roller and the Indian elephant are recognized as the state bird and animal while sandalwood and the lotus are recognized as the state tree and flower respectively. Karnataka has five national parks: Anshi, Bandipur, Bannerghatta, Kudremukh and Nagarhole.[134] It also has 25 wildlife sanctuaries of which seven are bird sanctuaries.[134]

The state bird, Indian Roller

Wild animals that are found in Karnataka include the elephant, the tiger, the leopard, the gaur, the sambar deer, the chital or spotted deer, the muntjac, the bonnet macaque, the slender loris, the common palm civet, the small Indian civet, the sloth bear, the dhole, the striped hyena and the golden jackal. Some of the birds found here are the Great Hornbill, the Malabar Pied Hornbill, the Ceylon frogmouth, herons, ducks, kites, eagles, falcons, quails, partridges, lapwings, sandpipers, pigeons, doves, parakeets, cuckoos, owls, nightjars, swifts, kingfishers, bee-eaters and munias.[134] Some species of trees found in Karnataka are Callophyllum tomentosa, Callophyllum wightianum, Garcina cambogia, Garcina morealla, Alstonia scholaris, Flacourtia montana, Artocarpus hirsutus, Artocarpus lacoocha, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Grewia tilaefolia, Santalum album, Shorea talura, Emblica officinalis, Vitex altissima and Wrightia tinctoria. Wildlife in Karnataka is threatened by poaching, habitat destruction, human-wildlife conflict and pollution.[134]

Tourism
By virtue of its varied geography and long history, Karnataka hosts numerous spots of interest for tourists. There is an array of ancient sculptured temples, modern cities, scenic hill ranges, unexplored forests and endless beaches. Karnataka has been ranked as the fourth most popular destination for tourism among the states of India.[135] Karnataka has the second highest number of nationally protected monuments in India, second only to Uttar Pradesh,[136] in addition to 752 monuments protected by the State Directorate of Archaeology and Museums. Another 25,000 monuments are yet to receive protection.[137] [138]

Keshava temple, Somanathapura

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The districts of the Western ghats and the southern districts of the state have popular eco-tourism locations including Kudremukh, Madikeri and Agumbe. Karnataka has 25 wildlife sanctuaries and five national parks. Popular among them are Bandipur National Park, Bannerghatta National Park and Nagarhole National Park. The ruins of the Vijayanagara Empire at Hampi and the monuments of Pattadakal are on the list of UNESCO's World Heritage Sites. The cave temples at Badami and the rock-cut temples at Aihole representing the Badami Chalukyan style of architecture are also popular tourist destinations. The Hoysala Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur, has the second largest temples at Belur and Halebidu, which were built with Chloritic pre-modern dome in the world after the Byzantine schist (soap stone) are proposed UNESCO World Heritage Hagia Sophia. sites.[139] The Gol Gumbaz and Ibrahim Rauza are famous examples of the Deccan Sultanate style of architecture. The monolith of Gomateshwara at Shravanabelagola is the tallest sculpted monolith in the world, attracting tens of thousands of pilgrims during the Mahamastakabhisheka festival.[140] The waterfalls of Karnataka and Kudremukh National Park are listed as must-see places and among the "1001 Natural Wonders of the World".[141] Jog Falls is India's tallest single-tiered waterfall with Gokak Falls, Unchalli Falls, Magod Falls, Abbey Falls and Shivanasamudra Falls among other popular waterfalls. Several popular beaches dot the coastline including Murudeshwara, Gokarna and Karwar. In addition, Karnataka is home to several places of religious importance. Several Hindu temples including the famous Udupi Krishna Temple, the Mysore Palace at Night, Mysore, Karnataka. Marikamba Temple at Sirsi, the Sri Manjunatha Temple at Dharmasthala, Sri Subramanya Temple at Kukke and Sharadamba Temple at Sringeri attract pilgrims from all over India. Most of the holy sites of Lingayats, like Kudalasangama and Basavana Bagewadi, are found in northern parts of the state. Shravanabelagola, Mudabidri and Karkala are famous for Jain history and monuments. The Jaina faith had a stronghold in Karnataka in the early medieval period with Shravanabelagola as its most important center. Recently Karnataka has emerged as a hot spot for health care tourism. Karnataka has the highest number of approved health systems and alternative therapies in India. Along with some ISO certified government-owned hospitals, private institutions which provide international-quality services have caused the health care industry to grow by 30% during 2004-05. Hospitals in Karnataka treat around 8,000 health tourists every year.[142]

Notes

Painting of Mysore style

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"Setting new standards" (http:/ / www. hinduonnet. com/ tss/ tss3008/ stories/ 20070224009103300. htm). Online Edition of The Sportstar, Vol.30:No.08, dated 2007-02-24. The Hindu. . Retrieved 2007-07-16. [126] "Ranji Trophy winners" (http:/ / www. cricinfo. com/ link_to_database/ NATIONAL/ IND/ RANJI_WINNERS. html). Cricinfo. . Retrieved 2007-06-05. [127] Sujith Somasunder, Rahul Dravid, Javagal Srinath, Sunil Joshi, Anil Kumble and Venkatesh Prasad, all from Karnataka played in this match: "ODI no. 1127, Titan Cup - 1st Match India v South Africa 1996/97 season" (http:/ / content-ind. cricinfo. com/ ci/ engine/ match/ 63848. html). Cricinfo. . Retrieved 2007-06-05. [128] Vijay Bharadwaj, Rahul Dravid, Javagal Srinath, Sunil Joshi, Anil Kumble and Venkatesh Prasad, all from Karnataka played in this match: "Test no. 1462 New Zealand in India Test Series - 1st Test India v New Zealand 1999/00 season" (http:/ / content-ind. cricinfo. com/ ci/ engine/ match/ 66059. html). Cricinfo. . Retrieved 2007-06-05. [129] "Faculty" (http:/ / www. tatapadukoneacademy. com/ faculty. asp). Online Webpage of the Tata Prakash Padukone Badminton Academy. 2007 TATA Padukone Badminton Academy. . Retrieved 2007-06-05. [130] "Pankaj Advani is a phenomenon: Savur" (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ 2005/ 07/ 12/ stories/ 2005071204242000. htm). Chennai, India: The Hindu. 2005-07-12. . Retrieved 2007-06-05.

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[131] "Front Page News : Friday, July 16, 2010" (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ 2009/ 05/ 26/ stories/ 2009052651250300. htm). Chennai, India: The Hindu. 2009-05-26. . Retrieved 2010-07-16. [132] "Western Ghats (sub cluster nomination)" (http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ tentativelists/ 2103/ ). Online webpage of UNESCO World Heritage Centre. 1992-2007 UNESCO World Heritage Centre. . Retrieved 2007-05-08. [133] "Seville 5, Internal Meeting of Experts, Proceedings, Pamplona, Spain, 2327 October 2000" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070609231736/ http:/ / www. unesco. org. uy/ mab/ documentospdf/ sevilla5. pdf) (PDF). UNESCO. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. unesco. org. uy/ mab/ documentospdf/ sevilla5. pdf) on 2007-06-09. . Retrieved 2007-11-01. [134] A Walk on the Wild Side, An Information Guide to National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries of Karnataka, Compiled and Edited by Dr. Nima Manjrekar, Karnataka Forest Department, Wildlife Wing, October 2000 [135] "Karnataka to turn on tourism charms" (http:/ / www. blonnet. com/ 2002/ 02/ 15/ stories/ 2002021500501200. htm). Online Edition of The Hindu Business Line, dated 2002-02-15. The Hindu Business Line.. . Retrieved 2007-06-29. [136] "Alphabetical list of Monuments" (http:/ / asi. nic. in/ asi_monu_alphalist_karnataka. asp). Protected Monuments. Archaeological Survey of India. . Retrieved 2007-06-13. [137] "Plan to conserve heritage monuments, museums" (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ 2007/ 01/ 06/ stories/ 2007010606360500. htm). The Hindu (Chennai, India: Online Edition of The Hindu, dated 2007-01-06). 2007-01-06. . Retrieved 2007-06-13. [138] R. Krishna Kumar (2007-08-17). "Mysore Palace beats Taj Mahal in popularity" (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ 2007/ 08/ 17/ stories/ 2007081755371000. htm). Online Edition of The Hindu, dated 2007-08-17 (Chennai, India). . Retrieved 2007-10-31. [139] "Belur for World Heritage Status" (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ 2004/ 07/ 25/ stories/ 2004072501490300. htm). Online Edition of The Hindu, dated 2004-07-25 (Chennai, India: The Hindu). 2004-07-25. . Retrieved 2006-11-17. [140] Keay (2000), p. 324. [141] Michael Bright, 1001 Natural Wonders of the World by Barrons Educational Series Inc., published by Quinted Inc., 2005. [142] "Karnataka bets big on healthcare tourism" (http:/ / www. blonnet. com/ 2004/ 11/ 24/ stories/ 2004112402271700. htm). Online webpage of the Hindu Business Line, dated 2004-11-23. 2004, The Hindu. . Retrieved 2007-06-21.

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References
John Keay, India: A History, 2000, Grove publications, New York, ISBN 0-8021-3797-0 Dr. Suryanath U. Kamath, Concise history of Karnataka, 2001, MCC, Bangalore (Reprinted 2002) OCLC7796041 Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1955). A History of South India, From Prehistoric times to fall of Vijayanagar, OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002) ISBN 0-19-560686-8. R. Narasimhacharya, History of Kannada Literature, 1988, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, Madras, 1988, ISBN 81-206-0303-6. K.V. Ramesh, Chalukyas of Vtpi, 1984, Agam Kala Prakashan, Delhi. ISBN 3987-10333. OCLC13869730. Malini Adiga (2006), The Making of Southern Karnataka: Society, Polity and Culture in the early medieval period, AD 4001030, Orient Longman, Chennai, ISBN 81-250-2912-5 Altekar, Anant Sadashiv (1934) [1934]. The Rashtrakutas And Their Times; being a political, administrative, religious, social, economic and literary history of the Deccan during C. 750 A.D. to C. 1000 A.D. Poona: Oriental Book Agency. OCLC3793499. Masica, Colin P. (1991) [1991]. The Indo-Aryan Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-29944-6. Cousens, Henry (1996) [1926]. The Chalukyan Architecture of Kanarese District. New Delhi: Archeological Survey of India. OCLC37526233. Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund, A History of India, fourth edition, Routledge, 2004, ISBN 0-415-32919-1 Foekema, Gerard [2003] (2003). Architecture decorated with architecture: Later medieval temples of Karnataka, 10001300 AD. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 81-215-1089-9.

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External links
Official website of the Government of Karnataka (http://www.karnataka.gov.in/) Karnataka Government Information Department (http://www.karnatakainformation.org/) Karnataka (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/India/Karnataka//) at the Open Directory Project

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Kerala
Keralam
State

Seal Nickname(s): God's Own Country

Location of Kerala in India

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Map of Kerala Coordinates (Thiruvananthapuram): 83027N 765819E Country Region Established Capital Largest city Largest metro Districts Government -Governor -ChiefMinister -Legislature R. S. Gavai V S Achuthanandan Unicameral (141 Area -Total Area rank Population (2011) -Total -Rank -Density Time zone ISO 3166 code HDI HDI rank Literacy Official languages [1] 33387677 12th 859.1/km2(2225.1/sqmi) IST (UTC+05:30) IN-KL 0.814 (high) 1st (2005) 94.59% [2] [3] (1st) 38863km2(15005.1sqmi) 21st seats) India South India 1 November 1956 Thiruvananthapuram (Trivandrum) Thiruvananthapuram Kochi 14 total

Malayalam

Kerala
[4]

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Website 140 elected, 1 nominated

kerala.gov.in

Kerala or Keralam (Malayalam: , Kraam) is an Indian state, located south most on its west coast. It was created on 1 November 1956, by the States Reorganisation Act, combining various Malayalam speaking regions. The state has an area of 38863km2 (15005sqmi) and is bordered by Karnataka to the north and northeast, Tamil Nadu to the south and southeast and the Arabian Sea[note] towards the west. Thiruvananthapuram is the capital city. Kochi and Kozhikode are other major cities. Kerala is also known for its many small towns that are scattered across the state, thus creating a higher density of population. Stone age carving in Edakkal Caves had pictorial writings believed to be dating to at least 5000 BC, from the Neolithic man, indicating the presence of a prehistoric civilization or settlement in this region.[5] From as early as 3000 BC, Kerala had established itself as a major spice trade center. Kerala had direct contact across the Arabian Sea with all the major Red Sea ports and the Mediterranean ports as well as extending to ports in the Far East. The spice trade between Kerala and much of the world was one of the main drivers of the world economy. For much of history, ports in Kerala were the busiest (Muziris) among all trade and travel routes in the history of the world. During the classical Sangam period the region was ruled by the Chera Dynasty, which traded with the Greeks, Romans and Arabs. The Tamil Chera dynasty, Ays and the Pandyan Empire were the traditional rulers of Kerala whose patriarchal dynasties ruled until the 14th century.[6] [7] The Cheras collapsed after repeated attacks from the neighboring Chola Empire and Rashtrakuta Empire. Feudal Namboothiri Brahmin and Nair city-states subsequently gained control of the region.[8] Contact with Europeans after the arrival of the Portuguese explorer Vasco Da Gama in 1498 gave way to struggles between colonial and native interests. In 1795, the area was under the control of the British East India Company. From 1858, the power was shifted from the Company to the British, with the area being under the British Raj. After independence in 1947, the state of Kerala was created in 1956 from the former state of Travancore-Cochin, the Malabar district of the Madras State, and the Kasaragod taluk of Dakshina Kannada.[9] Kerala is a popular tourist destination famous for its backwaters, Ayurvedic treatments[10] and tropical greenery. Kerala has the highest Human Development Index of all Indian states.[11] [12] The state has a literacy rate of 94.59 percent,[2] also the highest in India. A survey conducted in 2005 by Transparency International ranked Kerala as the least corrupt state in the country.[13] Kerala has witnessed significant migration of its people, especially to the Persian Gulf countries during the Kerala Gulf boom, and is heavily dependent on remittances from its large Malayali expatriate community.[14] [15] [16] [17]

Etymology
Natives of Kerala, known as Malayalis, refer to their land as Keralam.[18] Scholars agree, that Kerala is the word of the Classical Tamil Cheralam ("Land of the Cheras") or chera-alam ("declivity of a hill or a mountain slope/range"). The country was anciently called Cheralam and Cherala Nadu.[19] [20] [21] A 3rd-century-BC rock inscription by emperor Asoka the Great references Kerala as Keralaputra.[22] Similarly, the Roman trade map Periplus Maris Erythraei references the Chera territory as Cerobothra.

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History
The spices from Malabar coast may have landed initially at Gulf of Aden and they eventually were transported to the East African trading ports in and around the city known in Grecian-Roman literature as Rhapta. Merchants then moved the commodities northward along the coast. In Roman times, they traveled to Muza in Yemen and finally to Berenice in Egypt. From Egypt they made their way to all the markets of Europe and West Asia. The beginning of the trade is hinted at in Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions during the New Kingdom period about 3,600 years ago. The Pharaohs of Egypt opened up special relationships with the kingdom of Punt to the south. Although the Egyptians knew of Punt long before this period, it was during the New Kingdom that we really start hearing of important trade missions to that country that included large cargoes of spices. Particularly noteworthy are the marvelous reliefs depicting the trade mission of Queen Hatshepsut of the 18th Dynasty. Findings of the earliest times of Kerala include Dolmens from the Marayur town area, which belong to the Neolithic period, dating back 10.000 years.[23] Rockpainting was also prevalent during these ages. The most famous ones were found in the Edakkal Caves in Wayanad. These carvings date back to the early Stone Age period of 5000 B.C.[24] [25] [26] A more recent finding is an Indus script symbol, which appears also in the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilization. The prominent Indus script expert Iravatham Mahadevan said, that these findings were very significant and he called it a "major discovery".[27] A cave near the Edakkal Caves in Thovarimala Ezhuthupara, Wayanad district, known locally as "Ezhuthupara" also carries pre-historic carvings dating back many millennia. Kerala finds mention in the annals of international trade from as early as 3000 BC, having established itself as the major spice trade centre of the world and traded with Sumer.[28] [29] Kerala and Tamil Nadu once shared a common language and culture; this common area was known as Tamilakam.[30] During the 1st century BC the region was ruled by the Chera Dynasty established by the Dravidian tribe Villavar, whose mother tongue and court language was the ancient Tamil.[31] The capital of Cheras was Vanchi. The southern Kerala was ruled by the Pandyan Kingdom with their capital at Nelcynda.[6] [7] The merchants from China, West Asia and Roman Empire had trade links with Cheras. The Sangam literature from the period has descriptions of the Roman ships coming to Muziris, laden with gold as exchange for pepper.[32] Kerala is represented as the eastern tip of the known world in Tabula Peutingeriana, the only known surviving map of the Roman cursus Political map of Kerala and Tamil Nadu during the Sangam period at publicus.[33] :192195, 303307 The west Asian-semitic ca. 210 BCE [34] [34] Jewish, Christian, and Muslim immigrants established Juda Mappila, Nasrani Mappila, and Muslim Jonakan Mappila communities.[34] [35] The Jews first arrived in Kerala in 573 BC.[36] [37] The works of scholars and Eastern Christian writings state that Thomas the Apostle visited Muziris in Kerala in 52 CE to proselytize amongst Kerala's Jewish settlements and convert them to Christianity. However, the exact year of his arrival is disputed.[38] [39] Muslim merchants led by Malik ibn Dinar settled in Kerala by the 8th century CE and introduced Islam.

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The Later Chera Kingdomwas returned to power (c. 8001102) with the help of Arab spice Merchants, also called the Kulasekhara dynasty, was founded by Kulasekhara Varman who was also a Vaishnavaite saint. Ay kings ruled southern Kerala, but by the 10th century the Ay kingdom declined and became a part of the Chera Kingdom.[40] A Keralite identity, distinct from the Tamils became linguistically separate during this period.[41] The Kulasekhara dynasty came to an end by twelfth century, weakened due to the invasions by Pandyas and Cholas.[32] In the absence of a strong central power, the state became divided under small principalities governed by Nair Cheftains. The kingdoms of Kochi, Venad, Kolathiri and Kozhikode Samuthiri emerged powerful.

This figure illustrates the path of Vasco da Gama heading for the first time to India (black line)

The Colonial Era

After Vasco Da Gama's arrival in Kappad Kozhikode in 1498, the Portuguese began to gain control of the lucrative pepper trade which was revived in the Thirteen century AD to some extend.[42] [43] [44] On 25 March 1505, Francisco de Almeida was appointed the Viceroy of India with his headquarters at Kochi. The period from 1500 to 1571 saw constant battles by the Saamoothiri and his navarch Kunjali Marakkar against the Portuguese until the latter were defeated and their fort destroyed by the Zamorin's forces at Chaliyam. The fall of Chaliyam fort marked the beginning of the end for the Portuguese in the great game of the East. Elsewhere, the Portuguese had established forts at Kannur, Cochin and Kollam.

St. Thomas Church (Palayur) is one of the oldest churches in India

The Dutch East India Company like the Portuguese before them took advantage of the conflicts between Kozhikode and Kochi and ousted the Portuguese to Dutch commander De Lannoy surrenders to Marthanda gain control of the trade. However, the Dutch were Varma at the Battle of Colachel. Depiction at weakened by constant battles with Marthanda Varma of Padmanabhapuram Palace the Travancore Royal Family, the most prominent of them the Battle of Colachel in 1741. The Dutch finally surrendered to the British on 20 Oct 1795 when the latter marched from Calicut as part of the larger Napoleonic Wars between Holland and England in Europe. In 1766, Hyder Ali, the ruler of Mysore invaded northern Kerala. In the late 18th century, Tipu Sultan, Alis son and successor, launched campaigns

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against the expanding British East India Company, resulting in two of the four Anglo-Mysore Wars. He ultimately ceded Malabar District and South Kanara to the Company in the 1790s. The Company forged tributary alliances with Kochi in 1791 and Travancore in 1795. Malabar and South Kanara became part of the Madras Presidency.[45] The major revolts that occurred before independence were the 1946 Punnapra-Vayalar uprising in Travancore and the 1921 Malabar Rebellion in Malabar which was under British rule. The Dewan of Travancore Velayudan Thampi Dalava, and Pazhassi Raja in Malabar, among others, vied for greater autonomy or independence.[46] Many actions, spurred by such leaders as Vaikunda Swami,[47] Sree Narayana Guru and Chattampi Swamikal, instead protested such conditions as untouchability; notable was the 1924 Vaikom Satyagraham, which resulted, Chitra A nineteenth-century map of Madras Province in Thirunal Bala Rama Varma of Travancore issuing in 1936, the British India. After independence,Kerala was formed Temple Entry Proclamation that opened Hindu temples to all by merging Malabar, Cochin, Travancore and the castes; Malabar soon did likewise. But Cochin did not do the South Kanara district Temple entry proclamation (1948) until after India's independence. The 1921 Moplah Rebellion involved Mappila Muslims rioting against Hindu zamindars Zamindari system and the British Raj.[48]

Post Independence
After India gained her independence in 1947, Travancore and Cochin were merged to form Travancore-Cochin on 1 July 1949. On 1 January 1950 (Republic Day), Travancore-Cochin was recognised as a state. The Madras Presidency was organised to form Madras State in 1947.

Formation of the State of Kerala and beyond

On 1 November 1956, the state of Kerala was formed by the States Reorganisation Act merging the Malabar district, Travancore-Cochin (excluding four southern taluks, which were merged with Tamil Nadu), and the taluk of Kasargod, South Kanara.[49] Elections for the new Kerala Legislative Assembly were held in 1957; this resulted in the formation of a communist-led government[49] headed by E.M.S. Namboodiripad. Radical reforms introduced by the E. M. S. Namboodiripad's government in favour of farmers and labourers helped change, to a great extent, the iniquitous social order that had prevailed in the land for a long time. To International sensations, the Communist government in 2006 banned the production and sale of Coca Cola and Pepsi after large amounts of pesticides were found in the drinks, later the decision was lifted by a court in the same year.[50] International Herald Tribune: Indian state lifts cola ban [51] In addition, the Government once openly said to the distribution of free software and against Microsoft whom they referred as a monopolist.

Scriptural References
The Matsya Purana mentions the Malaya Mountains in Kerala as the setting for the story of the Matsya Avatara of Lord Vishnu and King Manu (King Satyavrata).[52] [53] [54] [55] The Vamana Purana also mentions King Mahabali as the righteous and virtuous ruler that has his capital in Kerala. Kerala has been referenced in puranas as created by Parashurama by throwing his axe into the sea. The Aitareya Aranyaka is the earliest Sanskrit work that specifically mentions Kerala.[2]

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Geography and climate

Kerala is wedged between the Lakshadweep sea and the Western Ghats. Lying between north latitudes 818' and 1248' and east longitudes 7452' and 7722',[56] [57] Kerala experiences the humid equatorial tropic climate. The state has a coast of length 590km (367mi)[58] and the width of the state varies between 35 and 120km (2275 miles). Geographically, Kerala can be divided into three climatically distinct regions: the eastern highlands (rugged and cool mountainous terrain), the central midlands (rolling hills), and the Munnar hill station, Kerala western lowlands (coastal plains). Located at the extreme southern tip of the Indian subcontinent, Kerala lies near the centre of the Indian tectonic plate; hence, most of the state is subject to comparatively little seismic and volcanic activity.[59] Pre-Cambrian and Pleistocene geological formations compose the bulk of Keralas terrain. The eastern Kerala region consists of high mountains, gorges and deep-cut valleys immediately west of the Western Ghats' rain shadow. Forty-one of Keralas west-flowing rivers, and three of its east-flowing ones originate in this region. The Western Ghats form a wall of mountains interrupted only near Palakkad, where the Palakkad Gap breaks through to provide access to the rest of India. The Western Ghats rises on average to 1,500m (4920ft) above sea level, while the highest peaks may reach to 2,500m (8200ft). Anamudi is the highest peak at an elevation of 2,695 metres (8,130ft). Just west of the mountains lie the midland plains comprising central Kerala, dominated by rolling hills and valleys.[56] Generally ranging between elevations of 2501,000m (8203300ft), the eastern portions of the Nilgiri and Palni Hills include such formations as Agastya Mala and Anamala. Keralas western coastal belt is relatively flat, and is criss-crossed by a network of interconnected brackish canals, lakes, estuaries, and rivers known as the Kerala Backwaters. Lake VembanadKeralas largest body of water dominates the Backwaters; it lies between Alappuzha and Kochi and is more than 200km in area. Around 8% of India's waterways (measured by length) are found in Kerala.[60] The most important of Keralas forty-four rivers include the Periyar (244km), the Bharathapuzha (209km), the Pamba (176km), the Chaliyar (169km), the Kadalundipuzha River (130km), the Valapattanam (129km) and the Achankovil (128km). The average length of the rivers of Kerala is 64km. Many of the rivers are small and entirely fed by monsoon rains.[56] These conditions result in the nearly year-round water logging of such western regions as Kuttanad, 500km of which lies below sea level. As Kerala's rivers are small and lack deltas, they are more prone to environmental factors. The rivers also face problems such as sand mining and pollution.[61] The state experiences several natural hazards such as landslides, floods, lightning and droughts. The state was also affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami. A catastrophic flood occurred in Kerala in 1341 AD that drastically modified the terrain and consequently affected the history.[62] The flood resulted in changing the course of the river Periyar, recession of Arabian Sea by several miles downwards making the Kuttanad region cultivable, closure of the Muziris (Kodungalloor) harbour and creation of a new harbour at Kochi.[63] [64] With 120140 rainy days per year, Kerala has a wet and maritime tropical climate influenced by the seasonal heavy rains of the southwest summer monsoon.[65] :80 In eastern Kerala, a drier tropical wet and dry climate prevails. Kerala's rainfall averages 3,107mm annually. Some of Kerala's drier lowland regions average only 1,250mm; the mountains of eastern Idukki district receive more than 5,000mm of orographic precipitation, the highest in the state. During summer, Kerala is prone to gale force winds, storm surges, cyclone-related torrential downpours, occasional droughts, and rises in sea level.[66] :26, 46, 52 The mean daily temperatures range from 19.8C to 36.7C.[56] Mean annual temperatures range from 25.027.5C in the coastal lowlands to 20.022.5C in the eastern highlands.[66] :65

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Flora and fauna

Much of Kerala's notable biodiversity is concentrated and protected in the Western Ghats. Almost a fourth of India's 10,000 plant species are found in the state. Among the almost 4,000 flowering plant species (1,272 of which are endemic to Kerala and 159 threatened) are 900 species of medicinal plants.[67] [68] :11 Its 9,400km of forests include tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (lower and middle elevations3,470km), tropical moist and dry deciduous forests (mid-elevations4,100km and 100km, respectively), and montane subtropical and temperate (shola) forests (highest elevations100km). Altogether, 24% of Kerala is forested.[68] :12 Two of the worlds Ramsar Convention listed wetlandsLake Sasthamkotta and the Vembanad-Kol wetlandsare in Kerala, as well as 1455.4km of the vast Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Subjected to extensive clearing for cultivation in the 20th century,[69] :67 much of the remaining forest cover is now protected from clearfelling. Kerala's fauna are notable for their diversity and high rates of endemism: 102 species of mammals (56 of which are endemic), 453 species of birds, 202 species of freshwater fishes, 169 species of reptiles (139 of them endemic), and 89 species of amphibians (86 endemic).[67] These are threatened by extensive habitat destruction, including soil erosion, landslides, salinization, and resource extraction.[70]

Haliastur indus in Kerala

A blue tiger (Tirumala limniace) butterfly in Chalakudy

Eastern Keralas windward mountains shelter tropical moist forests and tropical dry forests, which are common in the Western Ghats. Here, sonokeling (Dalbergia latifolia), anjili, mullumurikku (Erythrina), and Cassia number among the more than 1,000 species of trees in Kerala. Other plants include bamboo, wild black pepper, wild cardamom, the calamus rattan palm (a type of climbing palm), and aromatic vetiver grass (Vetiveria zizanioides).[68] :12 Living among them are such fauna as Indian Elephant (Elephas maximus indicus), Bengal Tiger, Indian Leopard (Panthera pardus fusca), Nilgiri Tahr, Common Palm Petals of the gloriosa lily (Gloriosa superba) flower Civet, and Grizzled Giant Squirrel.[68] :12, 174175 Reptiles include curve upward into a claw-like shape; below, its the King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah), viper, python, and stamens grow radially outwards. Mugger Crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) . Kerala's birds are legionMalabar Trogon, the Great Hornbill, Kerala Laughingthrush, Darter, and Southern Hill Myna are several emblematic species. In lakes, wetlands, and waterways, fish such as kadu (stinging catfish) and Choottachi (Orange chromideEtroplus maculatus) are found.[68] :163165

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A fulvous forest skimmer (Neurothemis fulvia) in Chalakudy, near Thrissur

Population density map of Kerala graded from darkest shading (most dense) to lightest (least dense)

The Kerala Legislative Assembly Building in Thiruvananthapuram

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Subdivisions
Kerala's fourteen districts are distributed among Kerala's six historical regions: North Malabar (Far-north Kerala), Malabar (northern Kerala), Kochi (central Kerala), Northern Travancore, Central Travancore (southern Kerala) and Southern Travancore (Far-south Kerala). Kerala's modern-day districts (listed in order from north to south) correspond to them as follows: North Malabar: Kasaragod, Kannur, Mananthavady Taluk of Wayanad, Koyilandy and Vadakara Taluks of Kozhikode Malabar: Wayanad except Mananthavady Taluk, Kozhikode except Vadakara and Koyilandy Taluks, Malappuram, Palakkad District except Chittur Taluk and a part of Thrissur Kochi: A part of Ernakulam, Chittur Taluk of Palakkad, and a part of Thrissur.
Cassia Fistula, (Malayalam: , Kani Konna), is the state flower of Kerala.

Northern Travancore: Part of Ernakulam, and Idukki.

Central Travancore: Southern part of Idukki, Kottayam, Alappuzha, Pathanamthitta and northern part of Kollam. Southern Travancore: Southern part of Kollam, Thiruvananthapuram. (traditionally, Nanchinad in Kanyakumary, which is part of Tamil Nadu now) Kerala's 14 districts, which serve as the administrative regions for taxation purposes, are further subdivided into 63 taluks; these have fiscal and administrative powers over settlements within their borders, including maintenance of local land records.Taluks of kerala are further divided into 1453 revenue villages and 1007 Gram panchayats. Mah, a part of the Indian union territory of Puducherry (Pondicherry), is a coastal exclave surrounded by Kerala on all of its landward approaches.

Destinations of Kerala
Main tourist destinations of Kerala include Alappuzha, Bekal, Bharananganam, Guruvayur, Idukki, Kannur, Kochi, Kottayam, Kovalam, Kozhikode, Kumarakom, Malayattoor, Munnar, Parumala, Peermade, Sabarimala, Thekkady, Thiruvananthapuram, Thrissur, Varkala Wayanad and Sasthamkotta

Government
Government of Kerala is setup according to rules and regulations by Government of India. State is governed via a parliamentary system of representative democracy; universal suffrage is granted to state residents. There are three branches of government. The unicameral legislature, the Kerala Legislative Assembly, comprises elected members and special office bearers (the Speaker and Deputy Speaker) elected by the members from among themselves. Assembly meetings are presided over by the Speaker and in the Speaker's absence, by the Deputy Speaker. Kerala has 140 Assembly constituencies.[71] The state sends 20 members to the Lok Sabha and 9 to the Rajya Sabha, the Indian Parliament's upper house.[72] The Governor of Kerala is the constitutional head of state, and is appointed by the President of India.[73] [74] The executive authority is headed by the Chief Minister of Kerala, who is the de facto head of state and is vested with extensive executive powers; the Legislative Assembly's majority party leader is appointed to this position by the Governor. The Council of Ministers, which answers to the Legislative Assembly, has its members appointed by the Governor on advice of the Chief Minister. Auxiliary authorities known as panchayats, for which local body elections

Kerala are regularly held, govern local affairs.[75] The judiciary comprises the Kerala High Court (Located at Ernakulam has a Chief Justice combined with 26 permanent and two additional (pro tempore) justices) as the apex court in the state and a system of lower courts. Kerala High Court also hears cases from the Union Territory of Lakshadweep. The state's 20052006 budget was 219billionINR.[76] The state government's tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) amounted to 111,248millionINR in 2005, up from 63,599million in 2000. Its non-tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) of the Government of Kerala as assessed by the Indian Finance Commissions reached 10,809millionINR in 2005, nearly double the 6,847millionINR revenues of 2000.[77] However, Kerala's high ratio of taxation to gross state domestic product (GSDP) has not alleviated chronic budget deficits and unsustainable levels of government debt, impacting social services.[78] Kerala hosts two major political alliances: the United Democratic Front (UDFled by the Indian National Congress)and the Left Democratic Front (LDFled by the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)). At present, the LDF is the ruling coalition in government; V.S. Achuthanandan of the CPI(M) is the Chief Minister of Kerala and Oommen Chandy of the UDF is the Chief Opposition leader. Strikes, protests and marches are ubiquitous in Kerala due to the comparatively strong presence of labour unions.[79] [80]

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Economy
Since independence, Kerala was managed as a democratic socialist welfare economy. Since the 1990s, liberalisation of the mixed economy allowed onerous Licence Raj restrictions against capitalism and foreign direct investment to be lightened, leading to economic expansion and job creation. In fiscal year 2007-2008, nominal gross state domestic product (GSDP) was 162414.79 crore (US$36.06 billion).[81] Recent GSDP growth (9.2% in 20042005 and 7.4% in 20032004) has been robust compared to historical averages (2.3% annually in the 1980s and between The interior of a building at 5.1%[82] :8 and 5.99%[83] in the 1990s).[82] :8 The state clocked Technopark.Thiruvananthapuram . Technopark 8.93% growth in enterprises from 1998 to 2005 compared with accounts for nearly 70% of the state's IT exports. 4.80% nationally.[84] Relatively few such enterprises are major corporations or manufacturers.[66] Kerala's Human Development Index rating is the highest in India.[85] This apparently paradoxical "Kerala phenomenon" or "Kerala model of development" of high human and low economic development results from the strong service sector.[66] :48[86] :1 Kerala's economy depends on emigrants working in foreign countries (mainly in the Persian Gulf countries such as United Arab Emirates or Saudi Arabia) and remittances annually contribute more than a fifth of GSDP.[14] [15] [16] As of 2008, the Gulf countries altogether have a Keralite population of more than 2.5 million, who send home annually a sum of USD 6.81 billion,[87] which is more than 15.13% of Remittance to India in 2008.

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The service sector (including tourism, public administration, banking and finance, transportation, and communications63.8% of GSDP in 20022003) and the agricultural and fishing industries (together 17.2% of GSDP) dominate the economy.[83] [88] Nearly half of Kerala's people are dependent on agriculture alone for income.[89] Some 600 varieties[68] :5 of rice (Kerala's most important staple food and cereal crop)[90] :5 are harvested from 3105.21km (a decline from 5883.4km in 1990)[90] :5 of paddy fields; 688,859tonnes are produced per annum.[89] Other key crops include coconut (899,198ha), tea, coffee (23% of Indian production,[91] :13 or 57,000tonnes[91] :67), rubber, cashews, and spicesincluding pepper, cardamom, vanilla, cinnamon, and nutmeg. Around 1.050million fishermen haul an annual catch of 668,000 tonnes (19992000 estimate); 222 fishing villages are strung along the 590km coast. Another 113 fishing villages dot the hinterland.

A building in the Infosys-Thiruvananthapuram campus

Traditional industries manufacturing such items as coir, handlooms, and handicrafts employ around one million people. Around 180,000 small-scale industries employ around 909,859 Keralites; 511 medium and large scale manufacturing firms are located in Kerala. A small mining sector (0.3% of GSDP)[88] involves extraction of ilmenite, kaolin, bauxite, silica, quartz, rutile, zircon, and sillimanite.[89] Home gardens and animal husbandry also provide work for hundreds of thousands of people. Other major sectors are tourism, manufacturing, and business process outsourcing. As of March 2002, Kerala's banking sector comprised 3341 local branches; each branch served 10,000 Rural women processing coir threads persons, lower than the national average of 16,000; the state has the [92] third-highest bank penetration among Indian states. Unemployment in 2007 was estimated at 9.4%;[93] underemployment, low employability of youths, and a 13.5% female participation rate are chronic issues.[94] :5, 13[95] Poverty rate figures range from 12.71%[96] to as high as 36%.[97] More than 45,000 residents live in slum conditions.[98] The state treasury has suffered loss of thousands of millions of rupees thanks to the state staging over 100 hartals annually in recent times. A record total of 223 hartals were observed in 2006, resulting in a revenue loss of over 2000 crore.[99] Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC), a major space research centre of the Indian Space Research Organisation(ISRO) is located in Thiruvananthapuram. A second missile making unit of BrahMos Aerospace Private Limited named BrahMos Aerospace Thiruvananthapuram Ltd is also in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala.[100]

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Transport
Roads in Kerala
Kerala has 145704kilometers (90536mi) of roads (4.2% of India's total). This translates to about 4.62kilometers (2.87mi) of road per thousand population, compared to an all India average of 2.59kilometers (1.61mi). Virtually all of Kerala's villages are connected by road. Roads in Kerala includes 1,524km of National highway (2.6% of nation's total), 4006km of state highway and 23,702km of district roads.[101] Most of Kerala's west coast is accessible through two national highways, NH 47, and NH 17 and eastern side is accessible through various State Highways. There is also a Hill Highway (Kerala) proposed, to make easy access to eastern hills.

Trivandrum Central Railway Station Building

NH 17 connects Edapally (Kochi) to Panavel (near Mumbai) and is the longest stretch of national highway through the state. The other major national highway passing through the state is National Highway 47 which connects Salem to Kanyakumari and passes through the major towns and cities like Palakkad, Thrissur, Kochi, Alappuzha, Kollam and Thiruvananthapuram. The Salem-Kochi stretch of this highway is a part of North-South Corridor of the Indian highway system. The length of the National Highway 47 (India) through Kerala is 416.8km.[102] NH 49 (Kochi Dhanushkodi), NH 208 (Kollam - Thirumangalam), NH 212 (Kozhikode - Mysore), NH 213 (Kozhikode - Palakkad), NH 220 (Kollam - theni) are the other national highways serving the state of Kerala.[103]

A road in Kerala

The Kerala State Transport Project (KSTP), which includes the GIS-based Road Information and Management Project (RIMS), is responsible for maintaining and expanding the state highways system; it also oversees major district roads.[104] [105] Traffic in Kerala has been growing at a rate of 1011% every year, resulting in high traffic and pressure on the roads. Kerala's road density is nearly four times the national average, reflecting the state's high population density. Kerala's annual total of road accidents is among the nation's highest.[106]

Railway
The Indian Railways' Southern Railway line runs throughout the state, connecting all major towns and cities except those in the highland districts of Idukki and Wayanad. Trivandrum Railway Division and Palakkad Railway Division are the two railway divisions in the state. Kerala's major railway stations are Kasaragod, Kannur, Kozhikode, Shornur Junction, Palakkad Junction, Thrissur, Aluva, Ernakulam Town, Ernakulam Junction, Alappuzha, Kottayam, Chengannur, Kollam Junction, Kochuveli and Thiruvananthapuram Central.

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Water ways
The backwaters traversing the state are an important mode of inland navigation. National Waterway 3 traverse through the state.

Airports
The state has three major international airports at Thiruvananthapuram, Kochi, and Kozhikode. The Trivandrum International Airport is the first International airport in a non-metro city in India. The Cochin International Airport (COK) was the first Indian airport incorporated as a public limited company and is funded by nearly 10,000 Non Resident Indians from 30 countries.[107] A fourth international airport is proposed at Kannur.[108]

Demographics
The 31.8million[109] Keralites are predominantly of Malayali descent, while the rest is mostly made up of Jewish and Arab elements in both culture and ancestry. Kerala's 321,000 indigenous tribal Adivasis, 1.10% of the population, are concentrated in the east.[110] :1012 Malayalam is Kerala's official language; Tamil, Tulu, Kannada, Hindi and various Adivasi (Tribal) languages are also spoken by ethnic minorities especially in the south-western region. Kerala is home to 3.44% of India's population; at 819 persons per km, its land is nearly three times as densely settled as the rest of India, which is at a population density of 325 persons per km.[113] Kerala's rate of population growth is India's lowest,[114] and Kerala's decadal growth (9.42% in 2001) is less than half the all-India average of 21.34%.[115] Whereas Kerala's population more than doubled between 1951 and 1991 by adding 15.6million people to reach 29.1million residents in 1991, the population stood at less than 32million by 2001. Kerala's coastal regions are the most densely settled, leaving the eastern hills and mountains comparatively sparsely populated.[56] Females comprise 51.42% of the population; males form the remaining 48.58% of the population.[116] :26 Kerala's principal religions are Hinduism (56.2%), Islam (24.70%), and Christianity (19.00%).[117] In comparison with the rest of India, Kerala experiences relatively little sectarianism.[118] According to 2001 Census of India figures, 56% of Kerala's residents are Hindus, 24% are Muslims, 19% are Christians, and the remaining 1% follows other religions.[117] The major Hindu castes are Nambudiri, Nairs, Ezhavas and Dalits. Notably, steps taken by many progressive and tolerant Hindu kings[119] over the A fisherman in rural Kerala years and movements like Narayana Gurus, movement for social reform and tolerance helped to establish Kerala as one of the most socially progressive states in India. The Abrahamic religions attest to Kerala's prominence as a major trade centre. Islam and Judaism arrived in Kerala through Arab traders.[120] A significant Jewish community existed in Kerala until the 20th century when most of them migrated to Israel leaving only a handful of families.[121] The Paradesi Synagogue at Kochi is the oldest synagogue in the Commonwealth. Christianity is believed to have reached the shores of Kerala in 52 AD with the arrival of St Thomas, one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus Christ[122] [123] [124] [125] [126] The major Christian denominations are Catholic, Oriental Orthodox and Protestant.

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Religion in Kerala Religion Hinduism Islam Christianity Others

[117]

Percent 56.2% 24.7% 19.0% 1.1%

Jainism has a considerable following in the Wayanad district. Buddhism was dominant at the time of Ashoka the Great but vanished by the 8th century AD.[127] Kerala has witnessed significant migration of its people, especially to the Persian Gulf countries, starting with the Kerala Gulf boom, and is uniquely dependent on remittances from its large Malayali expatriate community.[14] [15]
[16]

Kerala government states gender relations are among the most equitable in India ,[128] despite discrepancies among low caste men and women.[129] :1 Certain Hindu communities such as the Nairs, some Ezhavas and the Muslims around North Malabar used to follow a traditional matrilineal system known as marumakkathayam, although this practice ended in the years after Indian independence. Other Muslims, Christians, and some Hindu castes such as the Namboothiris and the Ezhavas follow makkathayam, a patrilineal system.[130] Owing to the former matrilineal system, women in Kerala enjoy a high social status.[131] Kerala's human development indices primary level education, health care and elimination of povertyare among the best in India. According to a 2005-2006 national survey, Kerala has one of the highest literacy rates (94.59%) among Indian states[2] and life expectancy (73 years) was among the highest in India in 2001.[132] Kerala's rural poverty rate fell from 69% (19701971) to 19% (19931994); the overall (urban and rural) rate fell 36% between the 1970s and 1980s.[133] By 19992000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6% respectively.[134] These changes stem largely from efforts begun in the late 19th century by the kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore to boost social welfare.[135] [136] This focus was maintained by Kerala's post-independence government.[66] [85] :48 Kerala has the highest life expectancy in the country which is nearly 75 years and 78 years respectively for males and females. The life expectancy of Kerala is similar to developed nations in the world that shows the facilities for treatment and health. Kerala's healthcare system has garnered international acclaim. The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and the World Health Organisation designated Kerala the world's first "baby-friendly state" because of its effective promotion of breast-feeding over formulas[137] For example, more than 95% of Keralite births are hospital-delivered.[138] :6 Aside from ayurveda (both elite and popular forms),[139] :13 siddha, and many endangered and endemic modes of traditional medicine, including kalari, marmachikitsa>:17 and vishavaidyam, are practiced. These propagate via gurukula discipleship,[139] :56 and comprise a fusion of both medicinal and supernatural treatments,[139] :15 and are partly responsible for drawing increasing numbers of medical tourists. A steadily aging population (11.2% of Keralites are over age 60[85] ) and low birthrate[140] (18 per 1,000)[141] make Kerala one of the few regions in the developing world to have undergone the "demographic transition" characteristic of such developed nations as Canada, Japan, and Norway.[86] :1 In 1991, Kerala's total fertility rate (children born per women) was the lowest in India. Hindus had a TFR of 1.66, Christians 1.78, and Muslims 2.97.[142] Kerala's female-to-male ratio (1.058) is significantly higher than that of the rest of India.[86] [143] :2 sub-replacement fertility level and infant mortality rate is lower compared to other states (estimated at 12[66] [141] :49 to 14[144] :5 deaths per 1,000 live births). However, Kerala's morbidity rate is higher than that of any other Indian state118 (rural Keralites) and 88 (urban) per 1,000 people. The corresponding all India figures are 55 and 54 per 1,000, respectively.[144] :5 Kerala's 13.3%

Kerala prevalence of low birth weight is substantially higher than that of First World nations.[141] Outbreaks of water-borne diseases such as diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis, and typhoid among the more than 50% of Keralites who rely on 3million water wells is a problem worsened by the widespread lack of sewers.[145] :57

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Education
Kerala has highest literacy among the states of India. State topped the Education Development Index (EDI) among 21 major states in India in year 2006-2007.[146] More than 94% of the rural population has access to primary school within 1km, while 98% of population benefits one school within a distance of 2km. An upper primary school within a distance of 3km is available for more than 96% of the people, whose 98% benefit the facility for secondary education within 8km.The access for rural students to higher educational institutions in cities is facilitated by widely subsidised transport fares. Kerala's educational system has been developed by institutions owned or aided by the government.In the educational system prevailed in the state schooling is for 10 years which is subdivided into lower primary, upper primary and high school, After 10 years of secondary schooling, students typically enroll in Higher Secondary Schooling in one of the three major streamsliberal arts, commerce or science. Upon completing the required coursework, students can enroll in general or professional under graduate programmes. Schools and colleges are run by the government, private trusts, or individuals. Many of the schools owned by private sector are aided The University of Kerala's administrative building in by government. Most of the public schools are affiliated to Kerala Thiruvananthapuram. State Education Board. Other familiar educational boards are Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE), the Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE), or the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS). English is the language of instruction in most self financing schools, while government and government aided schools offer English or Malayalam. No fees(or a nominal fees) are required in schools run by or aided by government. Fees concerning the higher and technical education are very low; the ratio of recovery of government's revenue expenditure was 2.6% in 2006-2007.[147] However, the lacking of fees or low fees does not imply low educational cost, as the students incur other costs of several types (examination fees, special fees, material costs, clothing travelling, private tuition...). In fact, according to the 61st round of National Sample Survey (20042005), per capita spending on education by the rural households resulted to be more than twice the national average ( 41 for Kerala, 18 for India). Urban India spending, on the contrary, resulted to be greater than Kerala's ( 74 for India, 66 for Kerala). However, the survey reveals that the rural-urban difference in expenditure on education by households was much less in Kerala than in the rest of India.[148] The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics is flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries. In attempting to solve astronomical problems, the Kerala school independently created a number of important mathematics concepts including resultsseries expansion for trigonometric functions.

Children lining up for school in Kochi

Kerala The universities in kerala are Kannur University, Mahatma Gandhi University, University of Calicut, University of Kerala, Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala Agricultural University, Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit.[149] Premiere educational institutions in kerala are IIMK, one of the seven Indian Institutes of Management, National Institute of Technology Calicut (NITC), Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST)

317

Culture
Kerala's culture is derived from both a Tamil-heritage region known as Tamilakam and southern coastal Karnataka. Later, Kerala's culture was elaborated upon through centuries of contact with neighboring and overseas cultures.[150] Native performing arts include koodiyattom (a 2000-year-old Sanskrit theatre tradition, officially recognised by UNESCO as a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity[151] ), kathakalifrom katha ("story") and kali ("performance")and its offshoot Kerala natanam, Kaliyattam -(North Malabar special), koothu (akin to stand-up comedy), mohiniaattam ("dance of the enchantress"), Theyyam, thullal NS padayani. Kathakali and Mohiniattam are widely recognized Indian Classical Dance traditions from Kerala. Other forms of art are more religious or tribal in nature. These include chavittu nadakom, oppana (originally from Malabar), which combines dance, rhythmic hand clapping, and ishal vocalisations. Margam Kali is one of the ancient round group dance practiced by Syrian Christians of Kerala. However, many of these art forms are largely performed for tourists or at youth festivals, and are not as popular among most Keralites. Contemporary art and performance styles including those employing mimicry and parody are more popular. Kerala's music also has ancient roots. Carnatic music dominates Keralite traditional music. This was the result of Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma's popularisation of the genre in the 19th century.[152] [153] Raga-based renditions known as sopanam accompany kathakali performances. Melam (including the paandi and panchari variants) is a more percussive style of music; it is performed at Kshetram centered festivals using the chenda. Melam ensembles comprise up to 150 musicians, and performances may last up to four hours. Panchavadyam is a different form of percussion ensemble, in which up to 100 artists use five types of percussion instrument. Kerala has various styles of folk and tribal music. The popular music of Kerala is dominated by the filmi music of Indian cinema. Kerala's visual arts range from traditional murals to the works of Raja Ravi Varma, the state's most renowned painter. Kolla Varsham or Malayalam Era, which is assumed to have been established by King Udaya Marthanda Varma in 825 AD, serves as the official calendar of Kerala.[154] The Malayalam calendar is used to plan agricultural and religious activities. Kerala's most popular dish is Rice and curry. The sadhya (feast) is traditionally served on green banana leaves. Such dishes as idli, payasam, pulisherry, puttukadala, or PuttuPayarPappadam, puzhukku, rasam, and sambar are typical. Keralitesboth men and women aliketraditionally don flowing and unstitched garments. These include the mundu, a loose piece of cloth wrapped around men's waists. Women typically wear the sari, a long and elaborately wrapped banner of cloth, wearable in various styles. Presently, North Indian dresses such as Salwar kameez are also popular amongst women in Kerala. Elephants are an integral part of daily life in Kerala. Indian elephants are loved, revered, groomed and given a prestigious place in the state's culture. They are often referred to as the 'sons of the sahya.' The ana (elephant) is the state animal of Kerala and is featured on the emblem of the Government of Kerala. Malayalam literature is medieval in origin and includes such figures as the 14th century Niranam poets (Madhava Panikkar, Sankara Panikkar and Rama Panikkar), and the 17th century poet Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan whose works mark the dawn of both modern Malayalam language and indigenous Keralite poetry. Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar and Kerala Varma Valiakoi Thampuran are noted for their contribution to Malayalam prose. The "triumvirate of poets" (Kavithrayam), Kumaran Asan, Vallathol Narayana Menon, and Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer, are recognised for moving Keralite poetry away from archaic sophistry and metaphysics, and towards a more lyrical mode. In the second half of the 20th century, Jnanpith awardees like G. Sankara Kurup, S. K. Pottekkatt, Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai, M. T. Vasudevan Nair and O. N. V. Kurup have made valuable contributions to the Malayalam

Kerala literature. Later, such Keralite writers as O. V. Vijayan, Kamaladas, M. Mukundan, and Booker Prize winner Arundhati Roy, whose 1996 semi-autobiographical bestseller[155] The God of Small Things is set in the Kottayam town of Ayemenem, have gained international recognition.[156] [157] Malayalam cinema carved a niche for itself in the Indian film industry. It has been producing both parallel and mainstream cinema of great acclaim for years. Directors like Adoor Gopalakrishnan, John Abraham, G. Aravindan have been some of the great names in the Indian parallel cinema. Kerala has also given birth to numerous acclaimed actors such as Bharat Gopy, Prem Nazir, Mammotty, Mohanlal, Suresh Gopi, Murali and Oduvil Unnikrishnan.

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Media
The National Family Health Survey - 3, conducted in 2007 ranked Kerala as a state with the highest media exposure in India. Dozens of newspapers are published in Kerala, in nine major languages,[158] but principally Malayalam and English. The most widely circulating Malayalam-language newspapers are Malayala Manorama, Mathrubhumi, Madhyamam, Mangalam,Chandrika, Deepika, Kerala Kaumudi and Deshabhimani. Major Malayalam periodicals include Mathrubhumi, India Today Malayalam, Madhyamam weekly, Grihalakshmi, Vanitha, Chithrabhumi, and Bhashaposhini. Doordarshan is the state-owned television broadcaster. Multi system operators provide a mix of Malayalam, English and international channels via cable television. There are 17 Malayalam TV channels like Asianet, Indiavision, Surya TV, Kairali TV, Manorama News, Amrita TV, Jeevan TV and JaiHind TV broadcast along with the major national channels. All India Radio, the national radio service, reaches much of Kerala via its Thiruvananthapuram, Kochi, Thrissur, Alappuzha , Kozhikode and Kannur Malayalam-language broadcasts. Television serials, reality shows and the Internet have become a major source of entertainment and information for the people of Kerala. A Malayalam version of Google News was launched in September 2008.[159] Regardless, Keralites maintain high rates of newspaper and magazine subscriptions. A sizeable "people's science" movement has taken root in the state, and such activities as writers' cooperatives are becoming increasingly common.[86] [160] :2 BSNL, Reliance Infocomm, Tata Docomo, Vodafone, Aircel, Idea and Airtel compete to provide cell phone services. Broadband internet is available in most of the towns and cities and is provided by different agencies like the state-run Kerala Telecommunications (which is run by BSNL) and by other private companies like Asianet Satellite communications, VSNL. BSNL provides broadband service in most of the villages. Malayalam films are known for their realistic portrayal of characters and being socially oriented without giving a lot of importance to glitz and glamour. Movies produced in Hindi, Tamil and English (Hollywood) popular among Keralites. Late Malayalam actor Prem Nazir holds the world record for having acted as the protagonist of over 720 movies.[161] Nowadays Malayalam movies are dominated mainly by two actors; Mammootty and Mohanlal who have been in the Malayalam movie industry for over 25 years. They have won several National and State awards and are considered among the greatest actors in India[162] [163]

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Sports
Several ancient ritualised arts are Keralite in origin. These include kalaripayattukalari ("place", "threshing floor", or "battlefield") and payattu ("exercise" or "practice"). Among the world's oldest martial arts, oral tradition attributes kalaripayattu's emergence to Parasurama.[164] Other ritual arts include theyyam and poorakkali. Cricket and football are the most popular sports in the state.[165] Kochi Tuskers Kerala is the franchise cricket team that plays in the Indian Premier League (IPL). Two Kerala Ranji Trophy players gained test selection in The Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium in Kochi is one of the largest recent years. Sreesanth, born in Kothamangalam, has multi-use stadiums in India represented India since 2005.[166] Among other Keralite cricketers is Tinu Yohannan, son of Olympic long jumper T. C. Yohannan.[167] [168] [169] Notable Kerala footballers include I. M. Vijayan, C. V. Pappachan, V. P. Sathyan, and Jo Paul Ancheri.[170] [171] Other popular sports include badminton, volleyball and kabaddi. Among Kerala athletes are P. T. Usha, T. C. Yohannan, Suresh Babu, Shiny Wilson, K. M. Beenamol, M. D. Valsamma and Anju Bobby George. Volleyball is another popular sport and is often played on makeshift courts on sandy beaches along the coast. Jimmy George, born in Peravoor, Kannur, was a notable Indian volleyball player, rated in his prime as among the world's ten best players.[172]

Tourism
Kerala, situated on the lush and tropical Malabar Coast, is one of the most popular tourist destinations in India. Named as one of the "ten paradises of the world" and "50 places of a lifetime" by the National Geographic Traveler magazine, Kerala is especially known for its ecotourism initiatives.[173] [174] Its unique culture and traditions, coupled with its varied demographics, has made Kerala one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world. Growing at a rate of 13.31%, the state's tourism industry is a major contributor to the state's economy.[175] Until the early 1980s, Kerala was a relatively unknown destination;[176] most tourist The official logo of Kerala Tourism circuits focused on North India. Aggressive marketing campaigns launched by the Kerala Tourism Development Corporation, the government agency that oversees tourism prospects of the state, laid the foundation for the growth of the tourism industry. In the decades that followed, Kerala's tourism industry was able to transform the state into one of the niche holiday destinations in India. The tagline Kerala- God's Own Country has been widely used in Kerala's tourism promotions and soon became synonymous with the state. In 2006, Kerala attracted 8.5million tourist arrivals, an increase of 23.68% over the previous year, making the state one of the fastest-growing destinations in the world.[177]

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Popular attractions in the state include the beaches at Kovalam, Cherai, Varkala, Kappad, Muzhappilangad and Bekal; the hill stations of Munnar, Wayanada, Wagamon, Peermade, Nelliampathi and Ponmudi; and national parks and wildlife sanctuaries at Periyar, Muthanga Wildlife Sanctuary and Eravikulam National Park. The "backwaters" region, which comprises an extensive network of interlocking rivers, lakes, and canals that centre on Alleppey, Kollam, Kumarakom, and Punnamada (where the annual Nehru Trophy Boat Race is held in August), also see heavy tourist traffic. Heritage sites, such as the Padmanabhapuram Palace and the Mattancherry Palace, are also visited. Cities such as Kochi and Thiruvananthapuram are popular centres for their shopping and traditional theatrical performances respectively. During early summer, the Thrissur Pooram is conducted, attracting foreign tourists who are largely drawn by the festival's elephants and celebrants.[178] The main pilgrim tourist spots of Kerala are Sabarimala Temple, Padmanabhaswamy Temple (Thiruvananthapuram), Padanilam Parabrahma Temple(Mavelikkara), Chettikulangara Temple, Vadakumnathan Temple, Guruvayoor Temple, Sarkara Devi Temple, Malayattor Church and Parumala Church.

Kovalam beach, Trivandrum

Sunset at Varkala Beach

Gallery

Thiruvathirakali: a dance performed by women in Kerala during Onam festival

Paddy fields of Kerala

Oppana, a dance form among the Mappila community in Kerala

A house boat on the backwaters near Alleppey in Kerala

Resorts dot the length and breadth of Kerala.

Munnar in Idukki district

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Notes
The International Hydrographic Organisation defines the border between Lakshadweep Sea and Arabian sea by a line running from Sadashivgad Lt. on West Coast of India (1448N 7407E) to Corah Divh (1342N 7210E) and thence down the West side of the Lakshadweep and Maldive Archipelagos to the most Southerly point of Addu Atoll in the Maldives.[179] However, the official website of Government of Kerala [180] and Government of India [181] states that Kerala is boardered on the west by Arabian Sea. ^:Around the 9th century, the Cheras fell from power. Several small kingdoms (swaroopams) formed under the leadership of chieftains, filling the resulting political vacuum.[44]

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External links
Government Official entry portal (http://www.kerala.gov.in/) of the Government of Kerala Department of Tourism, Government of Kerala (http://www.keralatourism.org/) Directorate of Census Operations (http://www.censuskerala.org/) of Kerala Other Kerala travel guide from Wikitravel Kerala (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/India/Kerala/) at the Open Directory Project*

Madhya Pradesh

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Madhya Pradesh
Madhya Pradesh
State

Seal

Location of Madhya Pradesh in India Coordinates (Bhopal): 2225N 7232E Country Established Capital Largest city Districts Government -Governor -ChiefMinister -ChiefSecretary Rameshwar Thakur Shivraj Singh Chouhan Shri Avani Vaishya India 1956-11-01 Bhopal Bhopal 50

-leader of opposition Ajay Singh -Legislature Area -Total Area rank Population (2011) -Total 75,697,565 308252km2(119016.8sqmi) 2nd Unicameral (230 seats)

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-Rank -Density Time zone ISO 3166 code HDI HDI rank Literacy Official languages Website 6th unknown operator: u','/km2(/sqmi) IST (UTC+05:30) IN-MP 0.488 (low) 26th (2005) 76.5% (8th) Hindi mp.gov.in [1]

Madhya Pradesh (Hind: , pronounced Hindustani pronunciation:[mdj prde] ( listen) "Central Province"; abbreviated MP), often called the Heart of India, is a state in central India. Its capital is Bhopal. Indore is the largest city of the state in terms of population and second largest city in terms of area after Bhopal and is the commercial capital of state while Jabalpur and Gwalior are the third and fourth largest cities respectively. Madhya Pradesh is the 2nd largest state by area and 6th largest state by population . It borders the states Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Rajasthan.

History
Ancient
Legend has it that Lord Rama bequeathed the fort to his brother Laxmana, hence the name Bandhavgarh (Bandhavgarh National Park) which means "brother's fort". The Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh exhibit the earliest traces of human life in India; its stone-age rock paintings are approximately 9,000 years old. The city of Ujjain (also known as Avanti) arose as a major center in the second wave of Indian urbanization in the sixth century BC, and served as the chief city of the kingdom of Malwa or Avanti. Further east, the The Sanchi stupa in Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh built by Emperor Ashoka the Great in the third century BC. kingdom of Chedi lie in Bundelkhand. Chandragupta Maurya united northern India c. 320 BC, establishing the Maurya empire (321 to 185 BC), which included all of modern-day Madhya Pradesh. King Ashoka's wife was said to come from Vidisha- a town north of today's Bhopal. The Maurya empire went into decline after the death of Asoka the Great, and Central India was contested among the Sakas, Kushanas, and local dynasties during the 3rd to 1st centuries BCE. Ujjain emerged as the predominant commercial center of western India from the first century BCE, located on the trade routes between the Ganges plain and India's Arabian Sea ports. It was also an important Hindu and Buddhist center.

Madhya Pradesh

331 The Satavahana dynasty of the northern Deccan and the Saka dynasty of the Western Satraps fought for the control of Madhya Pradesh during the 1st to 3rd centuries CE. Northern India was conquered by the Gupta empire in the 4th and 5th centuries, which became known as India's "classical age". The Vakataka dynasty were the southern neighbors of the Guptas, ruling the northern Deccan plateau from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal. These empires collapsed towards the end of the 5th century.

Western Satraps

Medieval
The attacks of the Hephthalites or White Huns brought about the collapse of the Gupta empire, and India broke up into smaller states. A king Yasodharman of Malwa defeated the Huns in 528, ending their expansion. King Harsha of Thanesar reunited northern India for a few decades before his death in 647. The Medieval period saw the rise of the Rajput clans, including the Paramaras of Malwa and the Chandelas of Bundelkhand. The Paramara king Bhoj (c. 10101060) was a brilliant polymath and prolific writer. The Chandelas created the temple city of Khajuraho between c. 950 and c. 1050. Gond kingdoms emerged in Gondwana and Mahakoshal. Northern Madhya Pradesh was conquered by the Muslim Delhi Sultanate in the 13th century. After the collapse of the Delhi Sultanate at the end of the 14th century, independent regional kingdoms reemerged, including the Tomara Rajput kingdom of Gwalior and the Muslim Sultanate of Malwa, with its capital at Mandu. The Malwa Sultanate was conquered by the Sultanate of Gujarat in 1531. Sher Shah Suri, the Afghan king took the reigns of the area in 1540 after defeating Humanyun. Hemu, the Hindu General of Afghans shifted the capital of Afghans from Delhi to Gwalior in 1552. Islam Shah, the son of Sher shah Suri appointed Hemu, as the Prime Minister-cum-Chief of Army of his regime in the

Khajuraho the cultural capital of Chandela Rajputs

Gwalior Fort and Hemu launched several attacks from Gwalior fort on the Afghan rebels. In all Hemu won 22 battles throughout North India in between 1553-56. Hemu also launched an attack on Akbar's forces in Agra and Delhi and

Madhya Pradesh defeated his army, thus winning Delhi and established native Vedic Sanskriti oriented 'Hindu Raj' in North India. He was bestowed with the title of 'Vikramaditya' king on his victory in Delhi over Akbar at his 'Rajyabhishake' or coronation ceremony in Purana Quila in Delhi. Hemu lost his life in the Second Battle of Panipat in Nov. 1556 to Akbar, and most of Madhya Pradesh came under Mughal rule during the reign of the emperor Akbar (15561605). Gondwana and Mahakoshal remained under the control of Gond kings, who acknowledged Mughal supremacy but enjoyed virtual autonomy. After the death of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in 1707 Mughal control began to weaken, and the Marathas began to expand from their base in central Maharashtra. Between 1720 and 1760 the Marathas took control of most of Madhya Pradesh, and Maratha clans were established semi-autonomous states under the nominal control of the Maratha Peshwa. The Holkars of Indore ruled much of Malwa, and the Bhonsles of Nagpur dominated Mahakoshal and Gondwana as well as Vidarbha in Maharashtra. Jhansi was founded by a Maratha general. Bhopal was ruled by a Muslim dynasty descended from Dost Mohammed Khan, an Afghan General in the Mughal army. Maratha expansion was checked at the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761.

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Modern
The British were expanding their Indian dominions from bases in Bengal, Bombay, and Madras, and the three Anglo-Maratha Wars were fought between 1775 and 1818. The Third Anglo-Maratha War left the British supreme in India. Most of Madhya Pradesh, including the large states of Indore, Bhopal, Nagpur, Rewa, and dozens of smaller states, became princely states of British India, and the Mahakoshal region became a British province, the Saugor and Nerbudda Territories. In 1853 the British annexed the state of Nagpur, which included southeastern Madhya Pradesh, eastern Maharashtra and most of Chhattisgarh, which were combined with the Saugor and Nerbudda Territories to form the Central Provinces in 1861. The princely states of northern Madhya Pradesh were governed by the Central India Agency. Guru Radha Kishan one of the youngest Swatantrata Sangram Senani from Madhya Bharat (Central India) was born in Madhya Pradesh. He was a man of principles who even refused to accept any pension for his service to the nation and never applied for the same. It was only after being declared as Samman Nidhi he accepted any recognition from the government. There are many respected names from the state who participated in the Indian freedom struggle but his simplicity, selflessness and complete insulation from material desire sets him apart from many others who held high offices in Independent India. MP Chief Minister Prakash Chandra Sethi when requested him to accept the Freedom Fighter Pension he strongly denied and never accepted any pension for his participation in freedom struggle. Guru Radha Kishan spent months in prison after being under grounded for more than two years in Indore. His colleagues from Madhya Pradesh includes Gandhian Prof. Mahesh Dutt Mishr, eminent lawyer Homi F Dazi and Ram Chandra Sarvate. After independence he went to Delhi and took up a fast unto death for underprivileged classes which lasted for 24 days.

After Indian independence

Madhya Pradesh was created in 1950 from the former British Central Provinces and Berar and the princely states of Makrai and Chhattisgarh, with Nagpur as the capital of the state. The new states of Madhya Bharat, Vindhya Pradesh, and Bhopal were formed out of the Central India Agency. In 1956, the states of Madhya Bharat, Vindhya Pradesh, and Bhopal were merged into Madhya Pradesh, and the Marathi-speaking southern region Vidarbha, which included Nagpur, was ceded to Bombay state.Jabalpur was selected to be the capital but due to some political pressure Bhopal, a tehsil of Sehore District was made the capital just at the last moment. Thus, Bhopal became the new capital of the state. Madhya Pradesh, in its present form, came into existence on 1 November 2000, following its bifurcation to create a new state of Chhattisgarh. The undivided Madhya Pradesh was founded on 1 November 1956. Madhya Pradesh, because of its central location in India, has remained a crucible of historical currents from North, South, East and West.

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Government and politics

The constitutional head of the state is the governor, appointed by the President of India. The current governor is Dr. Rameshwar Thakur. Madhya Pradesh has a 230-seat state Legislative Assembly. The state also sends 40 members to the Parliament of India: 29 are elected to the Lok Sabha (Lower House) and 11 to the Rajya Sabha (Upper House). The dominant political parties in the state are the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and the Indian National Congress. Unlike many of its neighbours, Madhya Pradesh has largely a two-party system with small or regional parties not having had much success in recent elections.

The Vidhan Sabha is the seat of Madhya Pradesh's Legislative assembly

In the November 2008 state elections, the BJP won an absolute majority of 143 seats, defeating Congress who won just 71 seats. Other parties in the state legislature include the Bahujan Samaj Party with seven seats. The current chief minister is Shivraj Singh Chouhan, who succeeded Babulal Gaur and Uma Bharti. Before the BJP won in 2003, the longtime Congress Chief Minister was Digvijay Singh. In the 2004 General Election the BJP swept the state by winning 25 of the 29 seats, while the Congress won the remaining four. For a historical list of previous chief ministers see List of Chief Ministers of Madhya Pradesh

Geography
Madhya Pradesh in Hindi can be translated to Central Province, and it is located in the geographic heart of India. The state straddles the Narmada River, which runs east and west between the Vindhya and Satpura ranges; these ranges and the Narmada are the traditional boundary between the north and south of India. The state is bordered on the west by Gujarat, on the northwest by Rajasthan, on the northeast by Uttar Pradesh, on the east by Chhattisgarh, and on the south by Maharashtra. Madhya Pradesh comprises several linguistically and culturally distinct regions, including:
Satpura Range at Pachmarhi

Malwa: a plateau region in the northwest of the state, north of the Vindhya Range, with its distinct language and culture. Indore is the major city of the region, while Bhopal lies on the edge of Bundelkhand region. Ujjain is a town of historical importance. Nimar (Nemar): the western portion of the Narmada River valley, lying south of the Vindhyas in the southwest portion of the state. Bundelkhand: a region of rolling hills and fertile valleys in the northern part of the state, which slopes down toward the Indo-Gangetic plain to the north. Sagar is a historic center of the region. Chambal: the north-western region. A mountainous region rich in red, soft, and fragile sandstone. The climate is harsh, and the area is known for bandits who were active until the 1980s (see Phoolan Devi). Baghelkhand: a hilly region in the northeast of the state, which includes the eastern end of the Vindhya Range.

Madhya Pradesh Mahakoshal (Mahakaushal): the southeastern portion of the state, which includes the eastern end of the Narmada river valley and the eastern Satpuras. Jabalpur is the most important and the only well developed city in the region. Central Vindhya and Satpura region. Which has most of the central Narmada river valley and watershed, and has the highest point in the state Dhupgarh in Pachmarhi.

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Rivers
Madhya Pradesh represents great river basins and the watershed of a number of rivers. Catchments of many rivers of India lie in Madhya Pradesh. The Narmada (originating from Amarkantak) and Tapti (originating from Multai of Betul District) rivers and their basins divide the state in two, with the northern part draining largely into the Ganges basin and the southern part into the Godavari and Mahanadi systems. The Vindhyas form the southern boundary of the Ganges basin, with the western part of the Ganges basin draining into the The Bansagar Dam on Sone River Yamuna and the eastern part directly into the Ganges itself. All the rivers, which drain into the Ganges, flow from south to north, with the Chambal, Shipra, Kali Sindh, Parbati, Kuno, Sind, Betwa, Dhasan and Ken rivers being the main tributaries of the Yamuna. The land drained by these rivers is agriculturally rich, with the natural vegetation largely consisting of grass and dry deciduous forest types, largely thorny. The eastern part of the Ganges basin consists of the Son, the Tons and the Rihand Rivers, with the Son being the major tributary. This is also the junction point of the Satpura and the Vindhya ranges, with the Maikal and Kaimur Hills being the fulcrum. The forests here are much richer than the thorn forests of the northwestern part of Madhya Pradesh. The View from Sharda Temple Maihar Son is of great significance in that it is the largest tributary going into the Ganges on the south bank and arising out of the hills of Madhya Pradesh rather than from the Himalayas. This river and its tributaries contribute the bulk of the monsoon flow into the Ganges, because the north bank tributaries are all snow fed. The major tributary of the Ganges, the Son, arises in one of the most important watersheds in India, the Maikal hills around Amarkantak. Three of the great rivers of India, Narmada, Mahanadi and Son, are given birth to by these hills. This is also one of the few ranges in the State having a north south configuration. The Mahanadi itself, together with its tributaries such as Hasdeo, Mand and Kharun flows southeast into Orissa and converts that State into a green rice bowl. The upper Mahanadi catchment contains some of the finest forests in the State, ranging from mixed deciduous to teak, bamboo and sal. Just as the Mahanadi flows east from the Maikal hills and the Son flows north, the mighty Narmada charts a westerly course from these very hills. The Narmada flows through a rift valley, with the Vindhyas marching along its northern bank and the Satpuras along the southern. Its tributaries include the Banjar, the Tawa, the Machna, the Denwa and the Sonbhardra rivers. Taken in combination with its parallel sister river, the Tapi, which also flows through a rift valley, the NarmadaTapi systems carry and enormous volume of water and provide drainage for almost a quarter of the land area of Madhya Pradesh. The Satpuras (Pansemal), in the Gawilgarh and Mahadeo Hills, also contain a watershed, which is south facing. The Indrawati, the Wainganga, the Wardha, the Pench, the Kanhan and Penganga rivers, discharge an enormous volume of water into the Godavari system. The Godavari is the lifeline of Andhra Pradesh, but the water which feeds it is a gift of the Central India watershed. Some of the finest sub-tropical, semi moist forests in India are to be found in the Godavari basin, mainly in the valley of the Indrawati. There are very few virgin forests left in the country, but very

Madhya Pradesh fine examples of these are to be found in Bastar area along the Indrawati and in the Kanger valley in Chhattisgarh. The importance of Central India watershed was first noted by Captain Forsyth and remarked upon in his book, "The Highlands of Central India", first published in 1889. This is what he has to state in the introductory chapter to his book, "Yet in the very center of India there exists a considerable region to which the term highlands is strictly applicable; and in which are enormous peaks and ranges, for which the term mountain would, in any other country, be used. Several of the great rivers of India have their first source in this elevated region. And pour their water into the sea on either side of the peninsula to the north the Son commingling with the Ganges, to the east the Mahanadi, flowing independently to the Bay of Bengal, to the south some of the principal feeders of the Godavari, and to the west the Narmada and the Tapi, Basli Dam Gohad (Bhind) taking parallel courses to the Arabian Sea. There are many important multi-state irrigation projects in development, including Godavari River Basin Irrigation Projects.

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Climate
Madhya Pradesh has a subtropical climate. Like most of north India, it has a hot dry summer(AprilJune) followed by monsoon rains (JulySeptember) and a cool and relatively dry winter. The average rainfall is about 1370mm (53.9in). It decreases from east to west. The south-eastern districts have the heaviest rainfall, some places receiving as much as 2150mm (84.6in), while the western and north-western districts receive 1000mm (39.4in) or less.

Flora and fauna

Forest
Madhya Pradesh is endowed with rich and diverse forest resources. Lying between lat. 2104'N and long. 7402' and 8249' E, it is a reservoir of biodiversity. The geographical area of the state is 308144 km2 ( sqmi) which constitutes 9.38% of the land area of the country. The forest area of the state is 95221km2 (36765 sqmi) constituting 31% of the geographical area of the state and 12.44% of the forest area of the country. Legally this area has been classified into "Reserved Forest, Protected Forest and Unclassified Forest", which constitute Mixed forests at Amarkantak 61.7%, 37.4% and 0.9% of the forest area respectively. Per capita forest area is 2400m2 (0.59acre) as against the national average of 700m2 (0.17acre). Central, eastern and southern parts of the state are rich, whereas northern and western parts are deficient in forest. Variability in climatic and edaphic conditions brings about significant difference in the forest types of the state. There are four important forest types viz. Tropical Moist, Tropical Dry, Tropical Thorn, Subtropical broadleaved Hill forests. The forest area can also be classified based on the composition of forest and terrain of the area. Based on composition, there are three important forest formations namely teak, sal and miscellaneous forests. Bamboo-bearing areas are widely distributed in the state. To obviate pressure on the natural forests, plantations have been undertaken in forest and non forest areas to supplement the availability of fuel wood, small timber, fodder, etc. MP lost a good amount of forest recently when Chattisgarh was carved out of it, as that region was the richest reserve of forests in

Madhya Pradesh MP. The total growing stock (volume of timber wood) is 50,000,000m3 valued worth 2.5 lakh Crores.

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Natural areas
Madhya Pradesh is home to 9 National Parks, including Bandhavgarh National Park, Kanha National Park, Satpura National Park, Sanjay National Park, Madhav National Park, Van Vihar National Park, Mandla Plant Fossils National Park, Panna National Park, and Pench National Park, Madhya Pradesh. There are also a number of natural preserves, including Amarkantak, Bagh Caves, Balaghat, Bori Natural Reserve, Ken Gharial, Ghatigaon, Kuno Palpur, Narwar, Chambal, Kukdeshwar, Narsinghgarh, Nora Dehi, Pachmarhi, Panpatha, Shikarganj, Patalkot and Tamia.

Bandhavgarh National Park

Economy
Between 1999 and 2008, the annualized growth rate was very low 3.5%.[2] According to the India State Hunger Index compiled by the International Food Policy Research Institute, the malnutrition situation in Madhya Pradesh is "extremely alarming", receiving a severity rating between Ethiopia and Chad.[3] Madhya Pradesh's gross state domestic product for 2004 is estimated at $32 billion in current prices. After partition, the new Madhya Pradesh state produces about 70% of the output of the old Madhya Pradesh state the rest is produced by Chattisgarh. Between 1980 and 2000 the gross domestic product grew from 77,880 million rupees to 737,150 million rupees. MFP from the forests, such as Tendu leaves used to roll bidi, Sal seed, teak seed, and lak are major contributors to the rural economy of the state.

Divisions
Districts
Madhya Pradesh state is made up of 50 districts, which are grouped into 10 divisions: Bhopal, Jabalpur, Indore, Chambal, Gwalior, Rewa, Sagar, Ujjain, Shahdol and Hoshangabad. Districts: Anuppur, Alirajpur, Ashoknagar, Balaghat, Barwani, Betul, Bhind, Bhopal, Burhanpur, Chhatarpur, Chhindwara, Damoh, Datia, Dewas, Dhar, Dindori, Guna, Gwalior, Harda, Hoshangabad, Indore, Jabalpur, Jhabua, Katni, Khandwa, Khargone, Mandla, Mandsaur, Morena, Narsinghpur, Neemuch, Panna, Raisen, Rajgarh, Ratlam, Rewa, Sagar, Satna, Sehore, Seoni, Shahdol, Shajapur, Sheopur, Shivpuri, Sidhi, Singrauli, Tikamgarh, Ujjain, Umaria, Vidisha.

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Agro-climatic zones
Madhya Pradesh is divided into following agro-climatic zones: Kaimur Plateau and Satpura Hills Vindhyan Plateau (Hills) Narmada valley Wainganga valley Gird (Gwalior) Region Bundelkhand Region Satpura Plateau (Hills) Malwa Plateau Nimar Plateau Jhabua Hills

MAJOR CROPS - wheat ,rice,pulses,soyabean mustard. black soil of malwa region is best suited for cotton cultivation, textile mills are there.

Major cities
Bhopal,Indore,Gwalior and Jabalpur are considered as the metro cities of the state. The cities mentioned are the largest and economically important cities of Madhya Pradesh: Indore Gwalior Jabalpur Bhopal Ujjain Dewas Burhanpur Rewa Satna Sagar Guna Ratlam Khandwa

Transport
Madhya Pradesh, being surrounded by land, has both Land and Air transport facilities. Extensive rail network criss cross the state, with Jabalpur serving as headquarter for West Central Railway Zone of Indian Railways.The state has a total of 20 major railway junctions. Buses and trains cover most of Madhya Pradesh. Extensive road network is also being developed. Madhya Pradesh leads in nation in implementing Gramin Sadak Nirman Pariyojna, a central government aided programme to provide road networks to villages. Gwalior, Indore and Bhopal have inter-state bus terminus. More than 2000 bus are conducted in a day from these three cities. The state has five domestic airports located at Indore, Bhopal, Jabalpur, Gwalior and Khajuraho. Air strips are located at Ujjain, Khandwa and Satna. Indore, Bhopal, Gwalior and Jabalpur are the only airports which have regular air-connectivity.

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Demographics
Madhya Pradesh is a medley of ethnic groups and tribes, castes and communities. The population of Madhya Pradesh includes indigenous people and migrants from other states. According to census of 2000, 91.1% followed Hindu religion while others are Muslim (6.40%), Jain (0.9%), Christians (0.30%), Buddhists (0.30%), and Sikhs (0.20%).[5] The scheduled castes and scheduled tribes constitute a significant portion of the population of the State. The scheduled castes are 13.14% while scheduled tribes were 20.63%.[6] Tribals in Madhya Pradesh include Baiga, Bhariya, Bhils, Gondi people, Halba, Kaul, Korku, Malto people, Mariya, and Sahariya.

Children in Raisen district, Bhil tribe

Religion in Madhya Pradesh Religion Hinduism Others Percent 91.15% 8.85%

Tribals
Madhya Pradesh is dominated by the Tribal population. The differences in the tribal community, spread over in various parts of the state, is clearly seen not only on the basis of their heredity, lifestyle and cultural traditions, but also from their social, economic structure, religious beliefs and their language and speech. Due to the different linguistic, cultural and geographical environment, and its peculiar complications, the diverse tribal world of Madhya Pradesh has been largely cut-off from the mainstream of development.

Bhil tribal girls in Jhabua

The population of Tribals in Madhya Pradesh is 122.33 lakh constituting 20.27% of the total population of Madhya Pradesh (603.85 Lakh), according to the 2001 census. There were 46 recognized Scheduled Tribes and three of them have been identified as "Special Primitive Tribal Groups" in the State.[7] The main tribal groups in Madhya Pradesh are Gond, Bhil, Baiga, Korku, Bhadia, Halba, Kaul, Mariya, and Sahariya. Dhar, Jhabua and Mandla districts have more than 50 percent tribal population. In Khargone, Chhindwara, Seoni, Sidhi and Shahdol districts 30 to 50 percent population is of tribes. Maximum population is that of Gond tribes.

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Languages
The predominant language of the region is Hindi. In addition to standard Hindi, several regional variants are spoken, which are considered by some to be dialects of Hindi, and by others to be distinct but related languages. Among these languages are Malvi in Malwa, Nimadi in Nimar, Bundeli in Bundelkhand, and Bagheli in Bagelkhand and the southeast. Each of these languages or dialects has dialects of its own. Other languages include Bhilodi (Bhili), Gondi, Korku, Kalto (Nahali), and Nihali (Nahali), all spoken by tribal groups. Due to rule of Marathas, Marathi is spoken by a substantial number of people.

A family from Baiga tribal, the third largest tribal in the state.

In addition, Saraiki and Pashto are spoken by the large number of immigrants from Afghanistan and North-West Frontier Province, Pakistan.

Culture
Heritage and architecture
Several cities in Madhya Pradesh are extraordinary for their architecture and or scenic beauty. Three sites in Madhya Pradesh have been declared World Heritage Sites by UNESCO: the Khajuraho Group of Monuments (1986) including Devi Jagadambi temple, Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi (1989) and the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka (2003). Other architecturally significant or scenic sites include Ajaigarh, Amarkantak, Asirgarh, Bandhavgarh, Bawangaja, A man playing flute in Orchha, with a white tilak Bhopal, Chanderi, Chitrakuta, Dhar, Gwalior, Indore, Burhanpur, on his forehead, and holy saffron-coloured Maheshwar, Mandleshwar, Mandu, Omkareshwar, Orchha, Pachmarhi, clothes. Shivpuri, Sonagiri, Mandla and Ujjain. MP being very large geographically, and the history being spread over several millennia, developing a comprehensive picture of heritage and architecture is a monumental task.

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Music
In Hindustani music, a gharn is a system of social organization linking musicians or dancers by lineage and/or apprenticeship, and by adherence to a particular musical style. A gharana also indicates a comprehensive musicological ideology. This ideology sometimes changes substantially from one gharana to another. It directly affects the thinking, teaching, performance and appreciation of music. Madhya Pradesh has a prominent role in classical music.

Gwalior gharana
The Gwalior Gharana is one of the oldest Khayal Gharanas and one to which most classical Indian musicians can trace the origin of their style. The rise of the Gwalior Gharana started with the reign of the great Mughal emperor Akbar (15421605). The favorite singers of this patron of the arts, such as Miyan Tansen, first amongst the vocalists at the court, came from the town of Gwalior. Gwalior has an important role in the journey of music in India, so that every year Tansen Festival is celebrated at the tomb of Tansen in Gwalior.

Dhrupad
Dhrupad (Hindi: ) is a vocal genre in Hindustani classical music, said to be the oldest still in use in that musical tradition.Its name is derived from the words "dhruva" (fixed) and "pada" (words). The term may denote both the verse form of the poetry and the style in which it is sung. Raja Man Singh Tomar The king of Gwalior [during 1486 A.D.-1516 A.D.]was parton of Dhrupad.

Education
According to the 2001 census, Madhya Pradesh had a literacy rate of 70.53%. The state is home to some of the premier educational and research institutions of India such as the Indian Institute of Technology Indore, school of planning and architecture (spa-b) Bhopal,urban planner Ashish kumar Chauhan, Indian Institute of Management Indore, Indian Institute of Information Technology and Management, Gwalior, National Law Institute University (NLIU) Bhopal, Indian Institute of Forest Management, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology Bhopal (MANIT-BHOPAL/NIT-B)know for its department of urban planning -urban planners Pratiarpan Kumar, Gobinda Sonowal, Rohit Singh Chouhan, Nishant Maloo, Prakhar Tomar and Anshul loya , Indian Institute of Soil Science, Indian Institute of Hotel Management Bhopal, Lakshmibai National Institute of Physical Education (LNIPE) Gwalior, Shri Govindram Seksaria Institute of Technology and Science Indore, Pandit Dwarika Prasad Mishra Indian Institute of Information Technology, Design and Management (Deemed University), Jabalpur. Lakshmibai National University of Physical Education (Deemed

National Law Institute University, one of the premier Law institutes of India located in Bhopal.

Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, in Bhopal.

Madhya Pradesh University),Gwalior. Madhya Pradesh also has a University of music, Raja Mansingh Tomar Sangeet Vishvavidyalaya, Gwalior. There are 500 degree colleges affiliated with one of the universities in the state, viz. Jawaharlal Nehru Agriculture University, Madhya Pradesh Veterinary Sciences University, Madhya Pradesh Medical University, Rajiv Gandhi Technical University, Barkatullah University, Devi Ahilya University, Rani Durgavati University, Vikram University, Jiwaji University Gwalior, etc. The Indian Institute of Management Indore is a state-funded management institute in Indore. Instituted in 1998, IIM Indore is the sixth addition to the prestigious IIM family. Known as "Prabandh Shikhar" School children at a primary school in a village in Madhya Pradesh. or "Peak of Management", the scenic 193 acre (781,000 m) campus is located atop a small hill on the outskirts of Indore. It is about 20 kilometres from the Railway station and almost 25 Kilometres from the airport.It is among the top ten B-schools of India. The Indian Institute of Forest Management (IIFM) (founded 1982) is an autonomous institution located at Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh, established by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India with financial assistance from the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA) and course assistance from the Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad.It is the only Forest Management Institute in India. The Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Bhopal (IISERB) is an autonomous institute of higher education for research and education in science established by the federal Ministry of Human Resource Development in 2008. Professor Vinod K Singh is the founder Director of IISER Bhopal. Defence Research and Development Establishment,Gwalior (DRDE) is an Indian defense laboratory of the Defence Research and Development Organisation. Located in Gwalior, it is primarily involved in the research and development of detection and protection against toxic chemical and biological agents. The Indian Institute of Technology, Indore, established in 2009, is part of this mega-project that envisages India as a Global Technology Leader.

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Media
Nava Bharat, Raj Express, BPN Times, Nai Duniya, Patrika, Rajsthan Patrika, Dainik Bhaskar, Dainik Jagran and Mahakaushal Samay Chakra are the leading Hindi Newspapers. It is first ever news paper exclusively for Youth of MP, Akbar Times are prominent Hindi newspapers. Various other local newspapers are also published in various cities. In English, Times of India, Hindustan Times, Central Chronicle and Free Press have editions from Bhopal. Urdu journals is common in Bhopal. Nadeem, the oldest Urdu newspaper of the state, is published from Bhopal. Urdu Action and Haq-o-Insaf are also published. Farz, a Sindhi daily is published from Bhopal is the only Sindhi newspaper in State. The Madhya Pradesh government has gone live with its MPOnline portal having urban planner Ashish kumar Chauhan SPA-Bhopal, a joint venture with Tata Consultancy Services. The State has tied up with Bajaj Allianz, Tata Aig and LIC, to enable their customers to payinsurance premiums online. Citizens can also recharge their mobile prepaid accounts online for Airtel, Tata Docomo, Tata Indicom and Bsnl Phones. They can also book private tours of state national parks like Kanha and Bandavgarh online.Victims of Bhopal gas tragedy can apply for free medical facilities, state incentives online.[8]

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Sports
Cricket is commonly played game. Soccer, basketball, volleyball, cycling, swimming, tracking, badminton, table tennis, lawn tennis are common games.There are two International cricket stadiums in state. Capt Roop singh Stadium Gwalior & Usha Raje stadium Indore. Also some traditional games are played in rural areas: 1. Kho kho 2. Gulli Danda 3. Pittu MP government has declared Malkhambh is the state game of mp in 2008. Various awards in MP to honour the sportspersons are: 1. Vikram Award 2. Vishwamitra Award 3. Eklavya Award

References
[1] http:/ / www. mp. gov. in [2] A special report on India: Ruled by Lakshmi 11 Dec 2008 from The Economist print edition (http:/ / www. economist. com/ surveys/ displaystory. cfm?story_id=12749719& fsrc=rss) [3] "Hunger in India states 'alarming'" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ south_asia/ 7669152. stm). BBC. 14 October 2008. . Retrieved 12 May 2010. [4] "Census Population" (http:/ / indiabudget. nic. in/ es2006-07/ chapt2007/ tab97. pdf) (PDF). Census of India. Ministry of Finance India. . Retrieved 18 December 2008. [5] 2001 Indian Census Data (http:/ / www. censusindia. net/ religiondata/ ) [6] Encyclopedia of India and her States, V.Grover and R. Arora(Eds), Vol 6, D&D Publishers, New Delhi, 1996. [7] Scheduled Castes & Scheduled Tribe Welfare Department, Government of Madhya Pradesh (http:/ / www. mp. gov. in/ tribal/ ) [8] Harsimran Julka (Jun 30, 2010). "All government services to be at your mouse-tip soon" (http:/ / economictimes. indiatimes. com/ articleshow/ 6109024. cms). The Times Of India. .

Further reading
Gyanendra Singh. Farm Mechanization in Madhya Pradesh. Bhopal: Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, 2000. Madhya Pradesh (India). The Madhya Pradesh Human Development Report 2002: Using the Power of Democracy for Development. [Bhopal: Govt. of Madhya Pradesh, 2002]. Parmar, Shyam. Folk Tales of Madhya Pradesh. Folk tales of India series, 12". New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 1973. Rag, Pankaj, and O. P. Misra. Masterpieces of Madhya Pradesh. Bhopal: Directorate of Archaeology, Archives & Museums, Government of Madhya Pradesh, 2005. Rag, Pankaj. Vintage, Madhya Pradesh: A Collection of Old Photographs. Bhopal: Madhya Pradesh Madhyam jointly with the Directorate of Archaeology, Archives, and Museums, 2005. ISBN 81-902702-7-3 Sampath, M. D., H. V. Trivedi, and Mandan Trivedi. Epigraphs of Madhya Pradesh. New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 2001. Sati, Vishwambhar Prasad. Madhya Pradesh, a Geo-Economic Appraisal. Delhi: Abhijeet, 2004. ISBN 81-88683-43-4 Shah, Shampa, and Aashi Manohar. Tribal Arts and Crafts of Madhya Pradesh. Living traditions of India. Ahmedabad: Mapin Pub./in Association with Vanya Prakashan, Bhopal, 1996. ISBN 0-944142-71-0 Shrivastava, Divya. The Development of Scheduled Tribes in Madhya Pradesh. New Delhi: Gyan Pub. House, 2000. ISBN 81-212-0698-7

Madhya Pradesh Singh, R. V. Dairy Co-Operatives and Development: A Study of Tribal Dairy Co-Operatives in Madhya Pradesh. Delhi: Kalpaz Publications, 2006. ISBN 81-7835-331-8 Chishti, Rta Kapur, Martand Singh, and Amba Sanyal. Saris of India: Madhya Pradesh. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern & Amr Vastra Kosh, 1989.ISBN 81-224-0187-2

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External links
Centralchronicle.com (http://www.centralchronicle.com) MP Government Portal (http://www.mp.gov.in) MP Capital City (http://www.wowbhopal.com) M P FOrest (http://www.mpforest.org/) MP Ecotourism Development Board (http://www.mpecotourism.org) MP Tourism (http://www.mptourism.com) MP Police (http://www.mppolice.gov.in) MP Transport (http://www.mptransport.org) Madhya Pradesh News Portal (http://www.mp-news.com/) MP Info (http://www.mpinfo.org) A Panorama of Madhya Pradesh (http://www.madhyabharat.in)

Madhya Pradesh The Heart of India (http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/mp.html) Investment Industry / MP Industry (http://www.destinationmadhyapradesh.com) Madhya Pradesh News Website (http://www.mpnewsflash.com) News From Madhya Pradesh (http://www.mpnewsonline.com) MP Online Portal (https://www.mponline.gov.in) PIN Code Search of All Districts/Post Offices of Madhya Pradesh (http://pincode.net.in/ MADHYA_PRADESH) Madhya Pradesh travel guide from Wikitravel

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Maharashtra
Maharashtra
State

From Top-left in clockwise direction: The Gateway of India, The Ajanta Caves, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj and a statue of Lord Ganesha

Seal

Location of Maharashtra in India

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Map of Maharashtra Coordinates (Mumbai): 1858N 7249E Country Established Capital Largest city Districts Government -Body -Governor -ChiefMinister -Deputy Chief Minister -Legislature -Parliamentary constituency Area [1] 307713km2(118808.7sqmi) 3rd [2] 112,372,972 2nd unknown operator: u','/km2(/sqmi) IST (UTC+05:30) IN-MH 0.689 (medium) 12th (2005) 82.9% (6th) Marathi [3] [4] Government of India, Government of Maharashtra K. Sankaranarayanan Prithviraj Chavan Ajit Pawar Bicameral (288+78 seats) Maharashtra India 1 May 1960 (Maharashtra Day) Mumbai Mumbai by population, Pune by area 35 total

-Total Area rank Population (2011) -Total -Rank -Density Time zone ISO 3166 code HDI HDI rank Literacy Official languages

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Website

maharashtra.gov.in

Maharashtra (Marathi: mahrra, pronounced[mharar]( listen)) is a state located in India. The word Maharashtra is derived from the Sanskrit words Maha meaning Great and Rashtra meaning Nation, thus rendering the name Maharashtra (Great Nation). It is the second most populous after Uttar Pradesh and third largest state by area in India. It is the richest state in India, contributing to 15% of the country's industrial output and 13.2% of its GDP in 2005-06.[6] [7] [8] [9] Maharashtra is bordered by the Arabian Sea to the west, Gujarat and the Union territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli to the northwest, Madhya Pradesh to the northeast, Chhattisgarh to the east, Karnataka to the south, Andhra Pradesh to the southeast, and Goa to the southwest. The state covers an area of 307731 km2 ( sqmi) or 9.84% of the total geographical area of India. Mumbai, the capital city of the state, is India's largest city and the financial capital of the nation. Marathi is the language of Maharashtra. In the 17th century, the Marathas rose under the leadership of Chhatrapati Shivaji against the Mughals who were ruling a large part of India. By 1760, Maratha power had reached its zenith with a territory of over 250 million acres (1 million km) or one-third of the Indian sub-continent. After the third Anglo-Maratha war, the empire ended and most of Maharashtra became part of Bombay state under a British Raj. After Indian independence, Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti demanded unification of all Marathi speaking regions under one state. At that time Bharat Ratna Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar was of opinion that linguistic reorganizaion of states should be done with - "One state One language" principle and not with "One language - One state" principle. He submitted a memorandum to the reorganization commission stating that, " Single Government can not administer such a huge state as United Maharashtra".[10] The first state reorganization committee created the current Maharashtra state on 1 May 1960 (known as Maharashtra Day). The Marathi-speaking areas of Bombay state, Deccan states and Vidarbha (which was part of Central Provinces and Berar) united, under the agreement known as Nagpur Pact, to form the current state.

History
The Nasik Gazetteer states that in 246 BC Maharashtra is mentioned as one of the places to which mauryan emperor Asoka sent an embassy, and Maharashtraka is recorded in a Chalukyan inscription of 580 CE as including three provinces and 99,000 villages.[11] [12] The name Maharashtra also appeared in a 7th century inscription and in the account of a Chinese traveler, Hiuen-Tsang. In 90 AD Vedishri,[13] son of the Satavahana king Satakarni, the "Lord of Dakshinapatha, wielder of the unchecked wheel of Sovereignty", made Junnar, thirty miles north of Pune, the capital of his kingdom. In the early 14th century the Yadava dynasty was overthrown by the northern Muslim powers. Then on, the region was administered by various kingdoms called Deccan Sultanates.[14]
Painting from the Ajanta Caves in Aurangabad, Maharashtra, sixth century.

Pre-Medieval history

Maharashtra With the disintegration of the Mauryan Empire, a local Satavahanas who was Maratha came into prominence in Maharashtra between 230 BCE and 225 CE The period saw the biggest cultural development of Maharashtra. The Satavahana's official language was Maharashtri, which later developed into Marathi. The great ruler Gautamiputra Satkarni (also known as "Shalivahan") ruled around 78 CE He started the Shalivahana era, a new calendar, still used by Maharashtrian populace and as the Indian national calendar. The empire gradually disintegrated in the 3rd century. During (250 CE 525 CE), Vidarbha, the eastern region of Maharashtra, came under the rule of Vakatakas. During this period, development of arts, religion and technology flourished. Later, in 753 CE, the region was governed by the Rashtrakutas, an empire that spread over most of India. In 973 CE, the Chalukyas of Badami expelled the Rashtrakutas, then the region came under the Yadavas of Devagiri, who are credited for patronizing Marathi as a court language.

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Islamic rule
Maharashtra came under Islamic influence for the first time after the Delhi Sultanate rulers Ala-ud-din Khalji, and later Muhammad bin Tughluq conquered parts of the Deccan in the 13th century. Muhammad bin Tughluq temporarily shifted his capital from Delhi to Daulatabad in Maharashtra. After the collapse of the Tughlaqs in 1347, the local Bahmani Sultanate of Gulbarga took over, governing the region for the next 150 years. After the breakup of the Bahamani sultanate, Bibi Ka Maqbara. in 1518, Maharashtra split into and was ruled by five Shahdoms: namely Nizamshah of Ahmednagar, Adilshah of Bijapur,Qutubshah of Govalkonda, Bidarshah of Bidar and Imadshah of Berar. These shahis often fought amongst each other. United, they decisively defeated the Vijayanagara Empire of the south in 1565. Aurangabad founded by Malik Amber in the 17th century had a rigorous water supply system and often challenged the might of the Mughals.

Rise of the Marathas

By the early 17th century, the Maratha Empire began to take root. Shahaji Bhosale, an ambitious local general in the employ of the Mughals and Adil Shah of Bijapur, at various times attempted to establish his independent rule. The attempts succeeded through his son Shivaji Bhosale. Marathas were led by Chhatrapati Shivaji Raje Bhosale, who was crowned king in 1674. Shivaji constantly battled with the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb and Adil Shah of Bijapur. By the time of his death in 1680, Shivaji had created a kingdom covering most of Maharashtra and nearly half of India today (except the Aurangabad district which was part of the Nizam's territory) and Gujarat in very small life span. Shivaji's and Saibai's son Chhatrapatti Sambhaji Bhosale became the ruler of the Maratha kingdom in 1680. He was captured, tortured and brutally put to death by Aurangzeb.
The Maratha Empire in 1760. The last Hindu empire of India.

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Peshwas
The Peshwas (prime ministers) played an important role in expanding the Maratha Empire in Northern and Central India. They were also decisive in many battles, like Moropant Pingale in 1670s Dindori battle against the Mughals, Ramchandra Amatya in 1690s Satara Battle against the Mughals and, the Pant Pratinidhi Peshwa. By 1760, the Maratha Empire spread across parts of Punjab (in today's Pakistan), Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh and Karnataka. Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath, of the Bhat family, and his son, Baji Shaniwar Wada. Rao I, bureaucratised the Maratha state. They systematised the practice of tribute gathering from Mughal territories, under the heads of sardesmukhi and chauth (the two terms corresponding to the proportion of revenue collected). They also consolidated Mughal-derived methods of assessment and collection of land revenue and other taxes. Much of the revenue terminology used in Peshwa documents derives from Persian, suggesting a far greater continuity between Mughal and Maratha revenue practice than may be politically palatable in the present day. At the same time, the maritime Angre clan controlled a fleet of vessels based in Kolaba and other centres of the west coast. These ships posed a threat not only to the new English settlement of Mumbai, but to the Portuguese at Goa, Bassein, and Daman. On the other hand, there emerged a far larger domain of activity away from the original heartland of the Marathas, which was given over to subordinate chiefs as fiefs. Gwalior was given to Scindia/Shinde, Indore to Holkar, Baroda to Gaekwad and Dhar to Pawar. Bhonsles remained in power in Nagpur even after loss of Marathas at Panipat in 1818, till 1853. Nagpur Kingdom was the last of the Kingdoms or Princely States in entire India to be annexed to British India in 1853. After suffering a stinging defeat at the hands of Afghan chieftain Ahmad Shah Abdali, in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761, the Maratha Confederacy broke into regional kingdoms. Post-Panipat, the Peshwa's ex-generals looked after the regional kingdoms they had earned and carved out for themselves in the service of Peshwas covering north-central and Deccan regions of India. Pune continued to be ruled by what was left of the Peshwa family.

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British rule and post-independence

With the arrival and subsequent involvement of the British East India Company in Indian politics, the Marathas and the British fought the three Anglo-Maratha wars between 1777 and 1818, culminating in the annexation of Peshwa-ruled territory in Maharashtra in 1819, which heralded the end of the Maratha empire. The British governed the region as part of the Bombay Presidency, which spanned an area from Karachi in Pakistan to most of the northern Deccan. A number of the Maratha states persisted as princely states, retaining local autonomy in return for acknowledging British sovereignty. The largest princely states in the territory of present-day Maharashtra were Nagpur, Satara and Kolhapur; Satara was annexed to Bombay Presidency in 1848, and Nagpur was annexed in 1853 to become Nagpur Bal Gangadhar Tilak, the "Father Province, later part of the Central Provinces. Berar, which had been part of the of the Indian unrest and Hindu [15] Nizam of Hyderabad's kingdom, was occupied by the British in 1853 and annexed nationalism." to the Central Provinces in 1903. A large part of present day Maharashtra called Marathwada remained part of the Nizam's Hyderabad state during British rule. The British rule was marked by social reforms and an improvement in infrastructure as well as revolts due to their discriminatory policies. At the beginning of the 20th century, the struggle for independence took shape led by Bal Gangadhar Tilak and the moderates like Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, Pherozeshah Mehta and Dadabhai Naoroji. In 1942, the Quit India Movement was called by Gandhi which was marked by a non-violent civil disobedience movement and strikes. After India's independence in 1947, the princely states were integrated into the Indian Union, and the Deccan States including Kolhapur were integrated into Bombay State, which was created from the former Bombay Presidency in 1950. In 1956, the States Reorganisation Act reorganized the Indian states along linguistic lines, and Bombay Presidency State was enlarged by the addition of the predominantly Marathi-speaking regions of Marathwada (Aurangabad Division) from erstwhile Hyderabad state and Vidarbha region (Amravati and Nagpur divisions) from Madhya Pradesh (formerly the Central Provinces and Berar). On 1 May 1960, following mass protests for the creation of a separate Marathi-speaking state and the subsequent deaths of 105 protesters, Maharashtra came into existence when Bombay Presidency State was split into the new linguistic states of Maharashtra and Gujarat. Yashwantrao Chavan became the first Chief Minister of Maharashtra.

Geography
Maharashtra encompasses an area of 308,000km (119,000mi), and is the third largest state in India. It is bordered by the states of Madhya Pradesh to the north, Chhattisgarh to the east, Andhra Pradesh to the southeast, Karnataka to the south, and Goa to the southwest. The state of Gujarat lies to the northwest, with the Union territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli sandwiched in between. The Arabian Sea makes up Maharashtra's west coast. The Western Ghats better known as Sahyadri, are a hilly range running Pune is located at the confluence of the Mula and parallel to the coast, at an average elevation of 1,200metres (4,000ft). Mutha rivers. Kalsubai, a peak in the Sahyadris,near Nashik City is the highest elevated point in Maharashtra. To the west of these hills lie the Konkan coastal plains, 5080kilometres in width. To the east of the Ghats lies

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the flat Deccan Plateau. The Western Ghats form one of the three watersheds of India, from which many South Indian rivers originate, notable among them being Godavari River, and Krishna, which flow eastward into the Bay of Bengal, forming one of the greatest river basins in India. The Ghats are also the source of numerous small rivers which flow westwards, emptying into the Arabian Sea. To the east are major rivers like Vainganga, which flow to the south and eventually into the Bay of Bengal.

The Arabian Sea in Mahad

There are many multi-state irrigation projects in development, including Godavari River Basin Irrigation Projects. The plateau is composed of black basalt soil, rich in humus. This soil is well suited for cultivating cotton, and hence is often called black cotton soil. Northern maharashtra boosts for the production of bananas. Jalgaon district is the largest producer of bananas in India. Western Maharashtra, which includes the districts of Nashik, Ahmadnagar, Pune, Satara, Solapur, Sangli and Kolhapur, is a prosperous belt famous for its sugar factories. Farmers in the region are economically well off due to fertile land and good irrigation.

Hill stations of Maharashtra

Maharashtra has several breathtaking hill views and hill stations. Most of these were established during the British colonial rule, as a retreat from the scorching summer heat. These hill stations attract domestic and foreign tourists in large numbers. Some popular hill stations are Matheran, Lonavla, Khandala, Mahabaleshwar, Panchgani, Bhandardara, Malshej Ghat, Amboli, Chikhaldara, Panhala, Sawantvadi, Toranmal, Jawhar, etc.

Places of scientific significance

A crater lake is situated on the outskirts of Lonar town in district Buldhana, Maharashtra. The impact of a huge meteor that descended on earth from space carved out a bowl roughly 1.8 kilometre in diameter believed to be formed 50,000 years ago. The size and age make it the largest and oldest meteoric crater in the world. It precedes its nearest rival, the Canyon Diablo in Arizona in the United States, by a clear 2.30 centuries. Today, Lonar Lake is the third largest natural salt-water lake in the world. The peculiarity about the Lonar crater is that it is almost perfectly circular in shape. Apart from scientific significance Lonar also occupies a place of prominence in ancient Indian scripts. According to Sanskrit literature, Lonar was called Viraj Kshetra in ancient times.

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Protected areas of Maharashtra

Several wildlife sanctuaries, national parks and Project Tiger reserves have been created in Maharashtra, with the aim of conserving the rich bio-diversity of the region. As of May 2004, India has 92 national parks, of which five are located in Maharashtra. A large percentage of Maharashtra's forests and wildlife lie in the Zadipranta (Forest rich region) of far eastern Maharashtra OR eastern Vidarbha. Navegaon National Park, located near Gondia in the eastern region of Vidarbha is home to many species of birds, deer, bears and leopards. Nagzira wildlife sanctuary lies in Tirora Range of Bhandara Forest Division, in Gondia district of Vidarbha region. The sanctuary is enclosed in the arms of the nature and adorned with exquisite landscape. The sanctuary consists of a range of hills with small lakes within its boundary. These lakes not only guarantee a source of water to wildlife throughout the year, but also greatly heighten the beauty of the landscape.

Lions at the Sanjay Gandhi National Park, the world's largest national park within city limits.

Tadoba Andhari Tiger Project, a prominent tiger reserve near Chandrapur in Vidarbha. It is 40km away from Chandrapur. Pench National Park, in Nagpur district, extends into Madhya Pradesh as well. It has now been upgraded into a Tiger project. Chandoli National Park, located in Sangli district has a vast variety of flora and fauna. The famous Prachitgad Fort and Chandoli dam and scenic water falls can be found around Chandoli National Park. Gugamal National Park, also known as Melghat Tiger Reserve is located in Amravati district. It is 80km away from Amravati. Sanjay Gandhi National Park, also known as Borivali National Park is located in Mumbai and is the world's largest national park within city limits.This park is the most beautiful park in the State of Maharashtra. Sagareshwar Wildlife Sanctuary, a man made wildlife sanctuary situated 30km from Sangli. Ancient temples of Lord Shiva and Jain Temple of Parshwanath located in Sagareshwar are a major attraction. Maldhok Sanctuary, situated in Solapur district. Some of its part is in Ahmednagar district. The sanctuary is for a bird which is sometimes known as The Great Indian Bustard. Apart from these, Maharashtra has 35 wildlife sanctuaries spread all over the state, listed here.[16] Phansad Wildlife Sanctuary, and the Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary are the important ones. Apart from the above, Matheran, a Hill station near Mumbai has been declared an eco-sensitive zone (protected area) by the Government of India.

Economy

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Year Gross Domestic Product (millions of ) 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 166,310 296,160 664,330 15,78,180 2,386,720 3,759,150
[17]

Favourable economic policies in the 1970s led to Maharashtra becoming India's leading industrial state in the last quarter of 20th century. Over 41% of the S&P CNX 500 conglomerates have corporate offices in Maharashtra. However, regions within Maharashtra show wide disparity in development. Mumbai, Pune, Nasik, Aurangabad and western Maharashtra are the most developed. These areas also dominate the politics and bureaucracy of the state. This has led to resentment among less developed regions like Vidarbha, Marathwada, Konkan and Khandesh .

Nariman Point, in Mumbai, is a prime financial district in Maharashtra.

Maharashtra's gross state domestic product for 2008 is forecast to be at 673700 crore (US$149.56 billion) at current market prices. The state's debt was estimated at 36 per cent of GDP in 2005.[18] In 2007 Maharashtra reported a revenue surplus of 810 crore (US$179.82 million).[19] Maharashtra is the second most urbanised state with urban population of 42% of whole population. Maharashtra is India's leading industrial state contributing 15% of national industrial output and over 40% of India's national revenue.[20] 64.14% of the people are employed in agriculture and allied activities. Almost 46% of the GSDP is contributed by industry. Major industries in Maharashtra include chemical and allied products, electrical and non-electrical machinery, textiles, petroleum and allied products. Other important industries include metal products, wine, jewellery, pharmaceuticals, engineering goods, machine tools, steel and iron castings and plastic wares. Food crops include mangoes, grapes, bananas, oranges, wheat, rice, jowar, bajra, and pulses. Cash crops include groundnut, cotton, sugarcane, turmeric, and tobacco. The net irrigated area totals 33,500square kilometres. Mumbai, the capital of Maharashtra and the financial capital of India, houses the headquarters of all major banks, financial institutions, insurance companies in India. India's largest stock exchange Bombay Stock Exchange, the oldest in Asia, is also located in the city. After successes in the information technology in the neighboring states, Maharashtra has set up software parks in Pune, Mumbai, Navi Mumbai, Aurangabad, Nagpur and Nashik, Now Maharashtra is the second largest exporter of software with annual exports of 18000 crore (US$4 billion) and accounts for more than 30 per cent of the country's software exports, with over 1,200 software units based in the state.[21] Jawaharlal Nehru Port Trust in Navi Mumbai is the busiest port in India. Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport in Mumbai is the busiest airport in South Asia as per passenger volume.[22] The coast of Maharashtra has been a shipbuilding center for many centuries. The expertise and the manpower available in the local area make this business more attractive.This is reflected by the number of companies operating shipyards in the state such as Bharati Shipyard at Ratnagiri and the upcoming Rajapur Shipyards at Rajapur, apart from the state owned Mazagon Dock Limited at Mumbai. Mumbai is the home for the world's largest film industry- Bollywood, Hindi filmmaking industry. Maharashtra ranks first nationwide in coal-based thermal electricity as well as nuclear electricity generation with national market shares of over 13% and 17% respectively. Maharashtra is also introducing Jatropha cultivation and has started a project for

Maharashtra the identification of suitable sites for Jatropha plantations.[23] Ralegan Siddhi is a village in Ahmednagar District that is considered a model of environmental conservation.[24] An international cargo hub (Multi-modal International Cargo Hub and Airport at Nagpur, MIHAN) is being developed at Nagpur.[25] [26] MIHAN will be used for handling heavy cargo coming from South-East Asia and Middle-East Asia. Project will also include 10000 crore (US$2.22 billion) Special Economic Zone (SEZ)[27] for Information Technology (IT) companies. This will be the biggest development project in India so far.[28] Prominent Indian and foreign automobile makers such as Tata Motors, Mahindra & Mahindra, Mercedes-Benz, Audi, Skoda Auto, Fiat and Volkswagen are also either based in or have a manufacturing presence in Maharashtra.

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Government
Like all states in India, the nominal head of state is the governor, appointed by the Union Government. The Governor's post is largely ceremonial. The Chief Minister is the head of government and is vested with most of the executive powers. Maharashtra's legislature is bicameral, one of the few states in India to have a bicameral type. The Vidhan Sabha (Legislative Assembly) is the lower house consisting of directly elected members. The Chief Minister is chosen by the members of the Vidhan Sabha. The Vidhan Parishad (Legislative Council) is the upper house, whose members are indirectly voted through an electoral college. Maharashtra is allocated nineteen seats in the Rajya Sabha and forty-eight in the Lok Sabha, India's national parliament.

Maharashtra Vidhan Sabha election results since 1990

The capital city Mumbai is home to the Vidhan Sabha the state assembly and Mantralaya, the administrative offices of the government. The legislature convenes its budget and monsoon sessions in Mumbai, and the winter session in Nagpur, which was designated as the state's auxiliary capital. After India's independence, most of Maharashtra's political history was dominated by the Indian National Congress. Maharashtra became a bastion of the Congress party producing stalwarts such as Y.B. Chavan, one of its most prominent Chief Ministers. The party enjoyed near unchallenged dominance of the political landscape until 1995 when the right wing Shiv Sena and Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) secured an overwhelming majority in the state to form a coalition. After a split in the Congress party, former chief minister Sharad Pawar formed the Nationalist Congress Party (NCP), but formed a coalition with the Congress to keep out the BJP-SS combine. The 2004 elections saw the NCP gaining the largest number of seats to become the state's largest party, eroding much of the Shiv Sena's base. Under a pre-poll power sharing agreement, the Chief Minister would be from the Congress while the deputy Chief Minister would be from the NCP. Prithviraj Chavan is the current Chief Minister and Ajit Pawar is the Deputy Chief Minister. Now new parties emerging in Maharashtra's politics specially Maharashtra Navnirman Sena (MNS)(Marathi: ) based regional political party operating on the motto of "Sons (of)for the Soil"[29] founded on the March 9, 2006 in Mumbai by Raj Thackeray after he left the Shiv Sena . The 2009 elections saw the Congress-NCP alliance winning with clean sweep to the BJP-Shivsena alliance.

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Revenues of government
This is a chart of trend of own tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) of the Government of Maharashtra assessed by the Finance Commissions from time to time with figures in millions of Indian Rupees ( ).[30]
Year 2000 2005 Own Tax Revenues 198,821 332,476

This is a chart of trend of own non-tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) of the Government of Maharashtra assessed by the Finance Commissions from time to time with figures in millions of Indian Rupees ( ).[30]
Year 2000 2005 Own Non-tax Revenues 26,030 30,536

Judiciary
Mumbai is also home to the Bombay High Court which has jurisdiction over the states of Maharashtra, Goa, and the Union Territories of Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli, with the benches being at Nagpur and Aurangabad in Maharashtra and Panaji, Goa. The Bar Council of Maharashtra and Goa enrolled approximately 90,000 advocates on its roll (2009 data). The Bar Council is represented by 25 elected members from the above territory; the Advocate General of each state is an ex-officio member of the Council. This Bar Council elects one representative to the Bar Council of India as its member and also elects a chairman and vice-chairman for the council. The tenure of the entire Council is five years.

The Bombay High Court, Mumbai

Education and social development

Maharashtra has good human resource development infrastructure in terms of educational institutions301 engineering/diploma colleges, 616 industrial training institutes and 24 universities[31] with a turnout of 160,000 technocrats every year.[32] It is home to institutions like Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC) which developed India's supercomputer, Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay,Sardar Patel College of Engineering, Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology (VNIT), Veermata Jijabai Technological Institute (VJTI), University Department of Chemical Technology, College of Engineering-Pune (COEP), Government College of Engineering Aurangabad, Government College

School children, Mumbai

of Engineering Karad, Walchand College of Engineering-Sangli (WCES), Shri Guru Gobind Singhji Institute of Engineering and Technology Nanded (SGGSIE&T) and top management institutions.[32] 50,000 youth trained to

Maharashtra take up self-employment ventures every year by the Maharashtra Centre for Entrepreneurship Development (MCED), Aurangabad. The literacy rate is well above the national average at 77.27%.[32] University of Mumbai, one of the largest universities in the world in terms of the number of graduates.[33] The Indian Institute of Technology (Bombay),[34] Veermata Jijabai Technological Institute (VJTI),[35] and University Institute of Chemical Technology (UICT),[36] which are India's premier engineering and technology schools, and SNDT Women's University are the other autonomous universities in Mumbai.[37] Mumbai is home to Narsee Monjee Institute of Management Studies (NMIMS),National Institute of Industrial Engineering (NITIE), Jamnalal Bajaj Institute of Management Studies (JBIMS), S P Jain Institute of Management and Research, K J Somaiya Institute of Management Studies and Research (SIMSR) and several other management schools.[38] Government Law College and Sydenham College, respectively the oldest law and commerce colleges in India, are based in Mumbai.[39] [40] The Sir J. J. School of Art is Mumbai's oldest art institution.[41] College of Engineering-Pune, established in 1854 is the third oldest college in Asia. Mumbai is home to two prominent research institutions: the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) and the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC).[42] The BARC operates CIRUS, a 40MW nuclear research reactor at their facility in Trombay.[43] The University of Pune, the National Defence Academy, Film and Television Institute of India, National Film Archives, Armed IIT Bombay Main Building Forces Medical College and National Chemical Laboratory were established in Pune after the independence of India. ILS Law College, established by the Indian Law Society is one of the top ten law schools in India. Established medical schools such as the Armed Forces Medical College and Byramjee Jeejeebhoy Medical College train students from all over Maharashtra and India and are amongst the top medical colleges in India. Military Nursing College (affiliated to the AFMC) ranks among the top nursing colleges in the world.[44] University of Nagpur, established in 1923, one of the oldest universities in India, manages more than 24 engineering colleges, 43 science colleges and many colleges in the Arts and Commerce faculties. Nagpur is the home for Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology (VNIT) (also referred to as NIT, Nagpur, formerly known as Visvesvaraya Regional College of Engineering (VRCE), Nagpur) is one of the first six Regional Engineering Colleges established under the scheme sponsored by Government of India and the Maharashtra State Government and is one of the Institutes of National Importance. The geographical center of India lies at Nagpur, known as Zero Mile Stone. Nagpur is the headquarter for Hindu nationalist organisation Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and an important location for the Dalit Buddhist movement. Nagpur is also the home for National Fire Institution, Rashtrabhasha Prachar Samiti (promotion of and for spreading the national language, Hindi) and National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC-Western zone). Maharashtra in total, has 40% India's Internet users and 35% of PC penetration in the country.[21] [45]

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Rajabai Clock Tower at the University of Mumbai

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Demographics
As per the 2001 census, Maharashtra has a population of 96,752,247 inhabitants making it the second most populous state in India, and the second most populous country subdivision in existence, and third ever after the Russian SFSR of the former Soviet Union. The Marathi-speaking population of Maharashtra numbers 62,481,681 according to the 2001 census. This is a reflection of the cosmopolitan nature of the state. Only eleven countries of the world have a population greater than Maharashtra. Its density is 322.5 inhabitants per square kilometre. Males constitute 50.3 million and females, 46.4 million. Maharashtra's urban population stands at 42.4%. Its sex ratio is 922 females to 1000 males. 77.27% of its population is literate, broken into 86.2% males and 67.5% females. Its growth rate between 19912001 was pegged at 22.57%. Marathi is the official state language. In Mumbai and suburban areas, apart from the native Marathi and English, other languages are also spoken. In the northwest portion of Maharashtra, a dialect Ahirani is spoken by 2.5 million people. In south Konkan, a dialect known as Malvani is spoken by most of the people. In the Desh (inland) region of the Deccan, a dialect called Deshi is spoken , while in Vidarbha, a dialect known as Varhadi is spoken by most of the people. The Total Fertility Rate in 2001 was 2.23. Hindus - 2.09, Muslims - 2.49, Christians - 1.41, Jains - 1.41, Sikh - 1.57, Buddhist - 2.24, Others -2.25, Tribals - 3.14.[47]

Religions
The majority of Marathi people are Hindus form 80.2% of total population and Hinduism plays important role in Maharashtrian people in there day-to-day life. Krishna in the form of Vithal is the most popular deity amongst Marathi Hindus, they also worship the Shiva Family deities such as Shankar & Parvati under various names and also Ganesh. The Warkari tradition holds strong grip on local Hindus of Maharastra. The public Ganesh festival started by Lokmanya Tilak in the late 19th century is very popular. Marathi Hindus also revere Bhakti saints of all castes, such as Dnyaneshwar (Deshastha Brahmin), Savata Mali (Mali), Tukaram (Moray Maratahi-Kunbi), Namdev (Shimpi-Artsian,Vaishya) and Chokhamela (Mahar). Jainists are a mayor group in Maharashtra. Jain community census for 2001 in Maharashtra area was 1.301.843. Cultural roots on Maharashtra for Jainism explain this numbers, as this more than 5.000 year old religion has some ancient temples in Maharashtra. Christians account for 31.049 of Maharashtra's population. Most of the Christians are Catholics whilst some adhere to Protestantism. There are also significant number of Goan, Mangalorean, Malayalam and Tamil Christians in the urban pockets of Mumbai and Pune. There are Two ethnic Christian Community in Maharashtra one is East Indians & concentrated in and around Mumbai, for example in Konkan districts of Thane and Raigad. Portuguese missionaries brought Catholicism to this area during 13th century. Second is Marathi Christians who are Protestants and found some Parts of Maharashtra, especially in Ahmednagar & Solapur. Protestantism was brought to these areas by American and Anglican Missionaries during 18th century. Marathi Christian have largely retained their pre-Christian practices. Most Marathi Buddhists are followers of Babasaheb Ambedkar and .Buddhist accounts nearly 10% in Maharastra's total population. Muslims belong mostly to the Sufi tradition. Visiting the tombs of Sufi saints is very important to this community. Hindus also visit these tombs in great numbers, especially during the annual Urs. Zoroastrians also called Parsi, are mainly found in Mumbai. According to tradition, the present-day Parsis descend from a group of Iranian Zoroastrians who immigrated to Western India during 10th century AD, due to persecution by Muslims in Iran. The long presence in the region distinguishes the Parsis from the Iranis, who are more recent arrivals, and who represent the smaller of the two Indian-Zoroastrian communities. There is also a 3000 strong community of Marathi Jews, popularly known as Bene Israel Most of them have migrated to Israel. Before the migration this community numbered at least 90,000.

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Festivals
Lord Ganesha's devotion is celebrated by Ganesh Chaturthi (Ganesh's birthday) in AugustSeptember of every year.[48] Town of Pen in Raigad district is famous for Ganesh Idols. Lalbaugcha Raja, Shri Siddhivinayak Temple, Shri Ashtavinayaka's are the major holy places for Maharashtrians. Popular forms of God are Shiva, Krishna and Ganesha. Lord Shiva's devotion is celebrated by taking part in Maha Shivaratri (Night of Shiva) festival. In modern times, the Elephanta island in Mumbai, Lord's Shiva island in local mythology, originated the Elephant Festival. Lord Krishna's devotions are celebrated in the state-wide Gokul Ashtami (or Krishna Janmashtami, Krishna's birthday) whereby many devotees fast on the entire day until midnight. The Dahi-Handi (Matki-fod) is also observed on this day at many places.[49] Lord Krishna's devotion are also celebrated at Kaartik Aamawasya (or Diwali) and at Narak Chaturdashi as returning of Lord Shri Rama. The other festivals celebrated on the large scale are Vijayadashami or Dasara (Marathi: ), Navaratri, Holi, Diwali, Eid (Ramzan Eid). Simollanghan is a ritual performed on Dasara or Viajaya Dashami day in Maharashtra. Simollanghan is crossing the border or frontier of a village or a place. In ancient times, kings used to cross the frontier of their kingdom to fight against their rivals or neighbor kingdoms. They used to perform Ayudha Puja on Dasara and begin the war season. On Dasara, people cross the borders of their places (Seemollanghan) and collect the leaves of Apta tree ( ) and exchange among their friends and relatives as gold ( ).[50] People worship Shami tree and its leaves ( ) on this day. On Vijayadashami or Dasara 14 October 1956 Dr. B. R. Ambedkar embraced Buddhism along with his 2-3 lakh followers at Nagpur. And since then Buddhist people observe it as a 'Dhammachakra Pravartan Day' (Marathi: ).Buddha purnima(vaishakh purnima i.e. fullmoon of may month) and bhim jayanti(14 April) are festivals which is celebrated by Buddhists people of Maharashtra with joy.
Ganesha during Ganesh Chaturthi Festival, a popular festival in the state.

Saints (Sant)
Maharashtra has produced or been closely associated with many saints throughout its history. These have risen from all across the several castes. Some of the very revered examples of Bhakti saints are Dnyaneshwar, Tukaram, Namdev, sant Gora Kumbhar, Samarth Ramdas, Chokhamela, and Savta Mali. There have also been several other Harijan saints such as Sant Banka Mahar, Sant Bhagu, Sant Damaji panth, Sant Kanhopatra, Sant Karmamelam, Sant Nirmala, Sant Sadna, Sant Sakhubai, Sant Satyakam Jabali, Sant Soyarabai, and Sant Eknath. It has also been the birthplace and home of world-reputed saints like Sai Baba of Shirdi, Gajanan Maharaj, Swami Shukadas Maharaj and Swami Samarth Maharaj. Maharashtra is also equally famous for ardent devotees (or Bhaktas). For example, Namdev Mahar and his wife Bhagubai from Kharagpur[51] are both devotees of Shirdi Sai Baba. The Sai Baba template in Shirdi is the second richest one in the country,[52] a close second after the Lord Tirupati temples at Tirumala, Andhra Pradesh.

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Languages
Marathi is the Official language of Maharashtra. According to 2001 census, it is Mother tongue of 68.89 % of the population. Other languages which are Mother tongue by more than one percent of the people are as follows[53]
Language Marathi Hindi Marwadi Kannada Gujarati Tamil Telugu Percentage in state 68.89 15.06 8.81 2.50 2.39 1.31 1.04

Divisions and regions

Maharashtra is divided into six revenue divisions, which are further divided into thirty-five districts.[54] These thirty-five districts are further divided into 109 sub-divisions of the districts and 357 talukas.[55]

Divisions
The six administrative divisions in Maharashtra state are Amravati Division, Aurangabad Division, Konkan Division, Nagpur Division, Nashik Division,Pune Division.
Divisions of Maharashtra

Division Mumbai (Konkan) Pune Nashik Aurangabad Amravati Nagpur

Districts Mumbai, Mumbai Suburban (Mumbai Upanagar), Thane, Raigad, Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg Pune, Satara, Sangli, Solapur and Kolhapur Nashik, Dhule, Jalgaon, Ahmednagar and Nandurbar Aurangabad, Jalna, Latur/Lattalur, Nanded, Osmanabad, Parbhani, Hingoli and Beed Amravati, Akola, Washim, Buldhana and Yavatmal Nagpur, Chandrapur, Wardha, Bhandara, Gondia and Gadchiroli

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Regions
Geographically, historically and according to political sentiments, Maharashtra has five main regions: Vidarbha Region - (Nagpur and Amravati divisions) - (Central Provinces and Old Berar Region) Marathwada Region - (Aurangabad division) Khandesh and Northern Maharashtra Region - (Nashik Division) Desh or Western Maharashtra Region - (Pune division) and Konkan Region - (Konkan Division) - (including, Mumbai City and Mumbai Suburban Area).

The state capital Mumbai City and Mumbai Suburban Area are the parts of the Konkan Division

Border dispute
Maharashtra has a border dispute with neighbouring state of Karnataka over the district of Belgaum. Belgaum was incorporated into the newly formed Mysore state (now Karnataka) with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act (1956), which reorganised India's states along linguistic lines despite having about three-fourths of the total population.[56] speaking Marathi. Since then, Maharashtra has continued to claim the district. The case is currently awaiting a verdict in Supreme Court of India.

Principal urban agglomerations

Maharashtra has one of the highest level of urbanization of all Indian states.[57] The mountainous topography and soil are not as suitable for intensive agriculture as the plains of North India; therefore, the proportion of the urban population (42.4 per cent) contrasts starkly with the national averageveloping metro and many large towns.[58] Mumbai is the state capital with a population of approximately 15.2 million people. The other large cities are Pune, Nagpur, Nasik, Navi Mumbai, Thane, Amravati, Aurangabad, Kolhapur, Sangli and Solapur. Mumbai: Mumbai (including Thane and Navi Mumbai in its metropolitan area) is the financial and commercial capital of India and is the Administrative Capital of Maharashtra. It has the largest proportion of taxpayers in India and its share markets transact almost 70 per cent of the countrys stocks. It offers a lifestyle that is rich, cosmopolitan and diverse, with a variety of food, entertainment and nightlife. Chhatrapati Shivaji Mumbai, the Administrative Capital of Maharashtra, is International Airport (CSIA) in Mumbai is the biggest and the also the largest city in India. second busiest airport in India. The new airport, Navi Mumbai International Airport coming up at Panvel, Navi Mumbai will be the all modern and state of art facility airport in India. The city is India's link to the world of telecommunications and the Internet. VSNL (Now Tata Communications Limited) is the terminal point in India for all telephone and internet traffic. Mumbai is India's flagship port destination. It is also home to the Indian Navy's Western Command (INS).

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Pune: Pune, the second largest city by population and largest by area in Maharashtra and the seventh largest in India, is the state's cultural and heritage capital with a population of 4.5 million people. About 170km from Mumbai by road, Pune was the bastion of the Maratha empire. Under the reign of the Peshwas, Pune blossomed into a centre of art and learning. Several far reaching revenue and judicial reforms were also initiated in the city. Shaniwarwada, Saras baug, Aga Khan Palace, Parvati Temple, Khadakwasla Dam, Sinhgad are the most visited places by tourists in Pune. 'Ganeshotsav', a festival of Lord Ganesh is celebrated in Pune with lot of enthusiasm and worship. Pune is connected to Mumbai by the Mumbai-Pune Expressway. Pune also has very important military cantonments as well as the HQ of the Southern Command, the National Defence Academy, the Armed Forces Medical College, Pune, CME, and the Indian Air Force base at Lohegaon too. Pune is a major Information Technology hub of India as well as a foremost destination for Automobile manufacturing and component industry City.

Pune is the second largest city in the state.

Nagpur: It is the third largest city in Maharashtra and 13th largest in India. The erstwhile capital of the Nagpur Province since 1853 in British India , which was in 1861 made the capital of Central Province , then in 1903, it was made capital of CP & Berar , then in 1935 it was made capital of a provincial assembly, with same name Central Provinces & Berar providing for an election by, Government of India Act , passed by British parliament. After independence, the CP & Berar was kept a separate entity with Nagpur as capital. In 1950 Nagpur became the capital of Madhya Pradesh. Nagpur was "Zero Mile Stone" located at Nagpur. recommended capital of Vidarbha state by Hon. Fazal Ali commission for reorganisation of states. Nagpur was described by the first prime minister of India Mr. Jawaharlal Nehru, as " Heart of India". Nagpur is the nerve centre of Vidarbha (eastern Maharashtra), Nagpur - the Orange City as it is known - is located in the centre of the country and is also a geographical center of India, with a population of about 2.4 million people (2.1 Million as per census 2001). It is also Second Administrative Capital of Maharashtra. Nagpur is a growing industrial centre and the home of several industries, ranging from food products and chemicals to electrical and transports equipment. Service and software industry is rapidly increasing in Nagpur. An international cargo airport, MIHAN is coming up in the outskirts of the Nagpur city hich will house number of service industries in its SEZ. The Maintenance Command of Indian Air Force is located in Nagpur. The "Zero Mile Stone" or the geographical center of India is located in Nagpur. Deekshabhoomi, Sitabardi Fort, Ambazari Lake, Seminary Hills, Futala Lake, Dragon Palace Temple, Ramtek Temple, Khindsi Lake, Pench National Park are some of the tourist attractions in and around Nagpur.

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Nashik: It is fourth largest and highly industrialised cities in the Maharashtra and 15th largest city in India. One of the holy cities of the Hindu tradition, Nashik lies on the banks of the sacred river Godavari and has a population of about 1.6 million people. It is believed that Lord Rama, hero of the great Indian epic, the Ramayana, spent a major part of his exile here.Nashik is one of the Kumbhmela places. Nashik is also a temple town, with over 200 temples.Nashik is th wine capital of India. It has an Internatioal status in the winary business. It is also called as Napa Valley of India due to its pleasant environment. Due to Nashik is known for its pleasant climate co-existing proximity to Mumbai and large number of natural resources with fast development. like land and water Nashik is growing fastly and becoming a best option for Mumbai and Pune.Nashik today is rapidly developing in ITs, industries, Pharmaceuticals and westernisation. Nashik is also an educational hub and Educational and Cultural capital of North Maharashtra. Nowadays International institutes like Cambridge and MET are approaching Nashik. Also it state's unique health science university Maharashtra University of Health Sciences and open university Yashvantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open University; It also leads in Agriculture Business. Nashik is Asia's leading market for Onions, Grapes, and Tomatoes.[59] Aurangabad: The city means "built by the throne", named after Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb), is a city in Aurangabad district, Maharashtra, India. The city is a tourist hub, surrounded with many historical monuments, including the Ajanta Caves and Ellora Caves, which are UNESCO World Heritage Sites, as well as Bibi Ka Maqbara. The administrative headquarters of the Aurangabad Division or Marathwada region, Aurangabad is said to be a 'City of Gates', as one can not miss the strong presence of these as one drives through the city. Aurangabad is also one of the fastest growing cities in the world.[60] Sangli: The Turmeric city of India is the largest trade centre for turmeric in the country. Situated on the banks of river Krishna, Sangli-Miraj twin cities form the largest urban agglomeration in South Maharashtra. Sangli is famous for its grapes and Wine industry. Miraj is known for Indian classical musical instruments Aurangabad is a popular tourist destination. exported all over the world. Ganapati Temple of Sangli and its Ganesh Festival attract tourists from all over India. Sangli houses some renowned engineering and medical institutions. Density of hospitals in Sangli-Miraj twin cities is the highest in India. Sangli is now coming up as a major wind power generation hub. Sangli is well known for its sugar factories and dairy farms. Recently, large textile units are coming up around Sangli which is also witnessing developments in IT/ITES sector.

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Transport
Maharashtra has the largest road network in India at 267452[61] kilometers. The length of National Highways in Maharashtra is 3688 kilometers [62] The Indian Railways covers most of the Maharashtra and is the preferred mode of transport over long distances. Almost the entire state comes under the Central Railways branch which is headquartered in Mumbai. Most of the coast south of Mumbai comes under the Konkan Railway. The Maharashtra State Road Transport Corporation (MSRTC) runs buses, popularly called ST for State Transport, linking most of the towns and villages in and around the state with a large network of operation. These buses, run by the state government are the preferred mode of transport for much of the populace. In addition to the government run buses, private run luxury buses are also a popular mode of transport between major towns.

Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport

Mumbai's Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport is the busiest airport in India as per passengers handled with another coming up at Navi Mumbai for a whopping 9000 crore (US$2 billion). Pune has a civilian enclave international airport with flights to Dubai, Frankfurt and Singapore, with plans on for a brand new greenfield International The Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, is a key Airport. Nagpur has an international airport. Other large cities such as railway station and a UNESCO World Heritage Nasik ,Aurangabad, Nanded, Latur,Kolhapur and Solapurare served by Site. domestic airlines. Nashik has many flights To Mumbai and Soon Other Metros will be added after the construction of a new Airport at Nashik. Ferry services also operate near Mumbai, linking the city to neighbouring coastal towns. Other modes of public transport, such as a seven-seater tempo have gained popularity in semi-urban areas. Maharashtra has a large highway network. The Yeshwantrao Chavan Mumbai-Pune Expressway, the first access controlled tolled road project in India also exists within the state. Maharashtra has three major ports at Mumbai (operated by the Mumbai Port Trust), the JNPT lying across the Mumbai harbour in Navi Mumbai, and in Ratnagiri, which handles the export of ores mined in the Maharastra hinterland.

Culture
Marathi is the official language of Maharashtra. Maharashtrians take great pride in their language and history, particularly the Maratha Empire, its founder Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj is considered a folk hero across India. About 60% of Maharashtrians are Hindu, and there are significant Muslim, Christian and Buddhist minorities. There are many temples in Maharashtra some of them being hundreds of years old. These temples are constructed in a fusion of architectural styles borrowed from North and South India. The temples also blend themes from Hindu, Buddhist and Jain cultures. A National Geographic[63] edition reads, "The flow between faiths was such that for hundreds of years, almost all Buddhist temples, including the ones at Ajanta, were built under the rule and patronage of Hindu

Kailash Temple in Ellora Caves.

kings."

The

temple

of

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363 Vitthal at Pandharpur is the most important temple for the Varkari sect. Other important religious places are the Ashtavinayaka temples of Lord Ganesha, Bhimashankar which is one of the Jyotirling (12 important Shiva temples). Ajanta and Ellora caves near Aurangabad as well as Elephanta Caves near Mumbai are UNESCO World Heritage Sites and famous tourist attractions. Mughal architecture can be seen is the tomb of the wife of Aurangzeb called Bibi Ka Maqbara located at Aurangabad.
Ajanta Caves

In 1708, the year following the death of Aurangzeb, Guru Gobind Singh the tenth spiritual leader of the Sikhs came over to Nanded, his permanent abode. He proclaimed himself the last living Guru and established the Guru Granth Sahib as the eternal Guru of the Sikhs. This elevates the reverence of Granth to that of a living Guru. A monument has been constructed at place where he breathed his last. Maharaja Ranjit Singh's endowment saw the construction of a beautiful Gurudwara at Nanded around 1835 AD. The Gurudwara features an imposing golden dome with intricate carvings and a breathtakingly beautiful artwork. It is known as Shri Huzur Abchalnagar Sachkhand Gurudwara.

Maharashtra has a large number of hill, land and sea forts. Forts have played an important role in the history of Maharashtra since the time of the Peshwas. Some of the important forts in Maharashtra are Raigad, Vijaydurg, Pratapgad, Sinhagad. Majority of the forts in Maharashtra are found along the coastal region of Konkan. Maharashtra, like other states of India, has its own folk music. The folk music viz. Gondhal Lavani, Bharud and Powada are popular especially in rural areas, while the common forms of music from the Hindi and Marathi film industry are favoured in urban areas. The earliest instances of Marathi literature is by Sant Jnyaneshwar with his Bhawarthadeepika (popularly known as Jnyaneshwari). The compositions written during this period are spiritually inclined. The other compositions are by Sant Tukaram, Sant Namdev, and Sant Gora Kumbhar. The compositions are mostly in poetic form, which are Bollywood is based in Mumbai called bhajans. These bhajans by saints are popular and part of day to day life. The modern Marathi literature has been enriched by famous poets and authors like P. L. Deshpande, Kusumagraj, Prahlad Keshav Atre and Vyankatesh Madgulkar. This literature has been passed on to the next generations through the medium of large numbers of books that are published every year in Marathi. The world famous film industry Bollywood is in Maharashtra, located in the economic capital of India, Mumbai. The Marathi film industry was once placed in Kolhapur but now is spread out through Mumbai too. The pioneer of Indian movie industry, Bharat Ratna Shri Dadasaheb Phalke, producer & director V. Shantaram, B.R. Chopra, Shakti Samanta, Raj Kapoor, form a few names of the Hindi film fraternity, while writer, director, and actor P. L. Deshpande, actor Ashok Saraf, actor Laxmikant Berde, actor & producer, Sachin Pilgaonkar, Mahesh Kothare belong to the Marathi film industry. The early period of Marathi theatre was dominated by playwrights like Kolhatkar, Khadilkar, Deval, Gadkari and Kirloskar who enriched the Marathi theatre for about half a century with excellent musical plays known as Sangeet Naatak. The genre of music used in such plays is known as Natyasangeet.

Elephanta Caves

Maharashtra It is during this era of the Marathi theatre that great singer-actors like Bal Gandharva, Keshavrao Bhosle, Bhaurao Kolhatkar and Deenanath Mangeshkar thrived. Some of the popular Marathi television news channels are IBN Lokmat,Star Majha, Zee Talkies,Zee Chovis Taas and entertainment channels areMi Marathi, DD Sahyadri, Zee Marathi, Zee Talkies, ETV Marathi,Star pravah and Saam Marathi which host shows ranging from soap operas, cooking and travel to political satire and game shows. The cuisine of Maharashtra varies according to the region of Maharashtra. The people of the Konkan region have a chiefly rice based diet with fish being a major component, due the close proximity to the sea. In eastern Maharashtra, the diet is based more on wheat, jowar and bajra. Puran Poli, Bakarwadi, plain simple Varan Bhat (a dish cooked with plain rice and curry),Modak and chivada are a few dishes to name. Chicken and mutton are also widely used for a variety of cuisines. Kolhapuri Mutton is a dish famous for its peculiar spicy nature. Women traditionally wear a nine yard or five yard sari and men a dhoti or pajama with a shirt. This, however, is changing with women in urban Maharashtra wearing Punjabi dresses, consisting of a Salwar and a Kurta while men wear trousers and a shirt. The cricket craze can be seen throughout Maharashtra, as it is the most widely followed and played sport. Kabaddi and hockey are also played with fervor. Childrens games include Viti-Dandu (Gilli-danda in Hindi) and Pakada-pakadi (tag). Hindus in Maharashtra follow the Shalivahana Saka era calendar. Gudi Padwa, Diwali, Rangapanchami, Gokulashtami and Ganeshotsav are some of the festivals that are celebrated in Maharashtra. Ganeshotsav is one of the biggest festival of Maharashtra which is celebrated with much reverence and festivity throughout the state and has since some time become popular all over the country. The festival which continues over ten days is in honour of Ganesha, the deva (like guardian angel ) of learning and knowledge under the one supreme lord . A large number of people walk hundreds of kilometers to Pandharpur for the annual pilgrimage in the month of Ashadh.
DY Patil Stadium in Navi Mumbai

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Dances of Maharashtra Maharshtra, is a land of culture and traditions, where religious festivals are great occasions of social entertainment. Various folk dances are performed during festive or special occasions, representing rich its cultural heritage. Lavni Lavani is a combination of traditional song and dance, which particularly performed to the enchanting beats of 'Dholak', an drum like instrument. This dance is performed by attractive women wearing nine-yard saris. The women gyrate on the pulsating beats of traditional music. The word Lavani originates from "Lavanya", meaning beauty. Earlier, this art form dealt with different and varied subject matters such as society, religion, politics, romance, etc. Lavani was used as a form of entertainment and morale booster to the tired soldiers during the 18th and 19th century Maratha battle. Many famous Marathi poets like Honaji Bala, Ramjoshi, Prabhakar, etc. contributed to the popularity of Lavani. ''Dhangari Gaja This particular dance form is performed by Dhangars or shepherds of Sholapur district of Maharashtra. The Dhangars earn their living by rearing sheep and goats. Their poetry is mainly inspired by the evergreen trees all around. The poetry is in a form called 'Ovi' which is made up of couplets. These poems also contain tales of the birth of their God "Biruba", in simple and basic lines. The Dhangari Gaja Dance is performed to please their God for his blessings. The traditional Marathi dresses that Dhangar dancers wear are, Dhoti, Angarakha, Pheta and a colorful handkerchiefs. The group of dancers surround the drum players and move at the rhythm.

Maharashtra Povadas Povadas are Marathi ballads, describing the events in the life of the great Maharashtrian leader, Shri Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. He holds a highly respected position in the hearts the people of Maharashtra. Through these ballads they remember Shivaji, a great hero of his time. Koli Koli is one of the most popular dance form of Maharashtra that derives its name from the fisher folk of Maharashtra - Kolis. These fishermen are famous for their distinct identity and lively dances. Their dances consists elements from their occupation that is fishing. This dance form is performed by both men and women, who are divided in groups of two. These fishermen portray the movement of the rowing of a boat in this dance form. The dancers also portray the movements of waves and the casting of nets to catch the fish. Tamasha Tamasha is one of the most important form of folk theater of Maharashtra. The word Tamasha is Persian and means fun or entertainment. This form is a blend of several different influences. Some scholars believe that this form of theater has been inspired by two forms of Sanskrit drama - the "Prahsana" and the "Bhana". This dance form developed in 16th century. The love songs ('Lavanis') are the heart of Tamasha and are very popular. Instruments used are the Dholki drum, 'Tuntuni' (a single string instrument), 'Manjeera' cymbals, 'Daf' (a tambourine-like instrument with a single leather surface), 'Halgi' (smaller Daf), the metal triangle called 'Kade', the 'Lejim' (an instrument with a jangling sound), the Harmonium and 'Ghunghroos' (ankle bells). Tamasha is associated with two of the communities of Maharashtra, they are Kolhati and Mahar. Religious & Festive Folk Dance Folk dances generally evolve from the rural areas. In Maharashtra different folk dances are performed during festive occasions that represent their culture and merry-making. Dindi Dindi is a folk dance of Maharashtra that is usually performed during Ekadashi day in the month of Kartik. This religious devotional dance describes the playful attitude of Lord Krishna. Dindi is a small drum, like a 'Tamate'. The dancers dance to the rhythm by surrounding the musicians, providing the essential musical background. Kala Kala is another folk dance form that describes the playful attitude of Lord Krishna. This dance form features a pot symbolizing fertility. The main attraction of this dance is the beat and the rhythm.

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[43] "CIRUS reactor" (http:/ / www. barc. ernet. in/ webpages/ reactors/ cirus. html). Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC). . Retrieved 2009-05-12. [44] http:/ / www. indiaeducation. ernet. in/ insitutions/ PROFILENEW. ASP?no=U00565 [45] "Is Maharashtra still numero uno? - Karnataka - Infrastructure Special - Express Computer India" (http:/ / www. expresscomputeronline. com/ 20030428/ infra03. shtml). Expresscomputeronline.com. 2003-04-28. . Retrieved 2010-09-28. [46] "Mahapopulation" (http:/ / www. maharashtra. gov. in/ english/ ecoSurvey/ ataglanc. pdf) (in Marathi) (PDF). Census of India. www.maharashtra.gov.in. . Retrieved 2008-06-04. [47] (http:/ / www. maharashtra. gov. in/ english/ ecoSurvey/ ecoSurvey2005-06/ eng/ cha_3e. p) [48] "Ganesh Chaturthi - Ganpati Festival 2010. Ganesh Chaturthi History" (http:/ / festivals. tajonline. com/ ganesh-chaturthi. php). Festivals.tajonline.com. 2007-04-06. . Retrieved 2010-07-16. [49] "Ceremony of Dahi Handi,Krishna Janmashtami Festival,Dahi Handi Celebrations" (http:/ / www. krishnajanmashtami. com/ ceremony-dahi-handi. html). Krishnajanmashtami.com. . Retrieved 2010-07-16. [50] FAQ - All about Dasara in Maharashtra (http:/ / sanatanhindudharma. blogspot. com/ 2008/ 10/ blog-post_06. html) [51] Shepherd, P. 111 Gurus Rediscovered: [52] . http:/ / us. asiancorrespondent. com/ Indianomics/ 2009/ 01/ 10/ shirdi-sai-baba-beats-credit-crunch-to-become-the-2nd-richest-temple-in-the-country. . http:/ / news. zakhas. com/ 2009/ 01/ shirdi-sai-baba-temple-second-richest-in-country/ . [53] "2001 Census" (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Census_Data_2001/ Census_Data_Online/ Language/ Statement3. htm). Ministry of Home Affairs, GOI. . Retrieved 2008-10-31. [54] List of districts and divisions (http:/ / www. maharashtra. gov. in/ english/ mahInfo/ ) [55] Maharashtra - Facts and Figures (http:/ / www. maharashtra. gov. in/ english/ mahInfo/ state. php) [56] Jaishankar Jayaramiah (21 November 2005). "Karnataka caught in language web" (http:/ / www. financialexpress. com/ fe_full_story. php?content_id=109230). The Financial express. . Retrieved 2006-11-01. [57] Level of Urbanisation (http:/ / www. urbanindia. nic. in/ moud/ urbanscene/ levelofurbanisation/ main. htm) [58] "Major Cities of Maharashtra" (http:/ / www. maharashtraweb. com/ majorcities. asp). Maharashtraweb.com. . Retrieved 2010-07-16. [59] All towns and agglomerations in Maharashtra of more than 20,000 inhabitants. (http:/ / www. citypopulation. de/ India-Maharashtra. html#Stadt_agglo) [60] 11 Indian cities among worlds fastest growing. (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ news/ india/ 11-Indian-cities-among-worlds-fastest-growing/ articleshow/ 2481744. cms) [61] "Table No 2" (http:/ / morth. nic. in/ writereaddata/ sublinkimages/ 251. html). Morth.nic.in. 1996-03-31. . Retrieved 2010-07-16. [62] "Statistics" (http:/ / www. mahapwd. com/ statistics/ default. html). Mahapwd.com. 2000-03-31. . Retrieved 2010-07-16. [63] January 2008, VOL. 213, #1

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External links
Pincodes Directory Of Maharashtra (http://www.pincodesofindia.com/maharashtra/index.html) Maharashtra State Blood Transfusion Council (http://mahasbtc.aarogya.com/index.php) Government of Maharashtra (http://www.maharashtra.gov.in/index.php) Public Works Department Maharashtra State Official Website (http://www.mahapwd.com/) Maharashtra travel guide from Wikitravel (https://sites.google.com/site/maharashtrakarnatakaborder/)

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Manipur
Manipur
State

Seal

Location of Manipur in India

Map of Manipur Coordinates (Imphal): 244901N 935700E Country Established India 21 January 1972

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Capital Largest city Districts Government -Governor -ChiefMinister -Legislature Area -Total Area rank Population (2011) -Total -Rank -Density Time zone ISO 3166 code HDI HDI rank Literacy Official languages Website 2721756 22nd 121.8/km2(315.4/sqmi) IST (UTC+05:30) IN-MN 0.707 (medium) 5th (2005) 79.85% (2011 Census) Meiteilon Manipur Official Website [1] 22347km2(8628.2sqmi) 23rd Gurbachan Jagat Okram Ibobi Singh Unicameral (60 seats) Imphal Imphal 9

Manipur pronunciation (Meitei: maipur) is a state in northeastern India, with the city of Imphal as its capital. Manipur is bounded by the Indian states of Nagaland to the north, Mizoram to the south and Assam to the west; it also borders Myanmar to the east. It covers an area of 22347square kilometres (8628sqmi). Geographically, it falls under the Southeast Asia region. The Meiteis (Meeteis), who live primarily in the state's valley region, form the primary ethnic group. Their language, Meiteilon (Meeteilon), (also known as Manipuri), is also the lingua franca in the state, and was recognized as one of the national languages of India in 1992. The Muslims (Meitei-Pangal) also live in the valley; the Kukis, Nagas and Hmars live in the hills of the state. Manipur is considered a sensitive border state. Foreigners entering Manipur (including foreign citizens born in Manipur) must possess a Restricted Area Permit, which can be obtained from the Foreigners' Regional Registration Office in the "metros" (Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai) or certain other state government offices. Permits are valid for only 10 days, and visitors must travel only on tours arranged by authorised travel agents, in groups of four. Furthermore, they may come to Imphal only by air and are not permitted to travel outside the capital.

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History
Manipur came under British rule as a princely state in 1891 and existed until 1947, when it acceded to the newly independent Union of India. During the Second World War, Manipur was the scene of many fierce battles between the Japanese and the Allied forces. The Japanese were beaten back before they could enter Imphal, and this proved to be one of the turning points of the war. After the War, the Manipur Constitution Act of 1947 established a democratic form of government with the Maharaja as the Executive Head and an elected legislature. In 1949, Maharaja Budhachandra was summoned to Shillong, capital of the then Indian province of Assam. The legislative assembly was dissolved on the controversial annexation of the state with the republic of India in October 1949. Manipur was a union territory from 1956 and later became a full-fledged state in 1972. Manipur became a Union Territory in 1956 and later, in 1972, a full-fledged state of India with Muhammad Alimuddin becoming the first statehood Chief Minister (197274). There has been a separatist movement in Manipur since 1964 with the establishment of United National Liberation Front, with several violent groups desirous of a sovereign Manipur.[2] Special permission must also be obtained for those who wish to enter Manipur, as it is considered a "sensitive area" on account of its political troubles and geographical location.[3]

The Kangla Sha, the state emblem

The Kangla Gate (west entrance to the Kangla Fort

Geography, vegetation and climate

Geography
Manipur is one of the seven states of Northeast India, and one of the Seven Sister States. The state is bounded by Nagaland in the north, by Mizoram in the south, by Assam in the west, and by the borders of the country Myanmar in the east as well as in the south. The state capital of Manipur is Imphal. The state lies at latitude of 2383N 2568N and longitude of 9303E 9478E. The total area covered by the state is 22,347km. The capital lies in an oval-shaped valley of approximately 700square miles (2000km2) surrounded by blue mountains and is at an elevation of 790 metres above the sea level.[4] The slope of the valley is from north to south. The presence of the mountain ranges not only prevents the cold winds from the north from reaching the valley but also acts as a barrier to the cyclonic storms originating from the Bay of Bengal.

Singda-The place where the Highest Mud Dam in India is located

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There are four major river basins in Manipur State, the Barak River Basin (Barak Valley) to the west, the Manipur River Basin in central Manipur, the Yu River Basin in the east, and a portion of the Lanye River Basin in the north.[5] The total water resources of Barak and Manipur river basins are about 1.8487 Mham. The overall water balance of the state amounts to 0.7236 Mham in the annual water budget.[6] (By way of comparison, India receives 400 Mham (million hectare meters) of rain annually[7] ) The Barak river, the largest river of Manipur, originates in the Manipur Hills and is joined by a number of Barak River in its upper course in Manipur tributaries such as the Irang, Maku, and Tuivai. After its junction with the Tuivai, the Barak River turns north and forms the border with Assam State, and then enters the Cachar Assam just above Lakhipur. The Manipur river basin has eight major rivers: the Manipur, Imphal, Iril, Nambul, Sekmai, Chakpi, Thoubal and Khuga. All these rivers originate from the surrounding hills. Almost all the rivers in the valley area are in the mature stage and, therefore, deposit their sediment load in the Loktak lake.[4] The rivers draining the Manipur Hills are comparatively young, due to the hilly terrain through which they flow. These rivers are corrosive in nature and assume turbulent form in the rainy season. Important rivers draining the western area include the Maku, Barak, Jiri, Irang and Leimatak. Rivers draining the eastern part of the state, the Yu River Basin, include the Chamu, Khunou and other short streams. Physiographically, Manipur may be characterised in two distinct physical regions an outlying area of rugged hills and narrow valleys, and the inner area of flat plain, with all associated land forms. These two areas are not only distinct in respect of physical features but are also conspicuous with regard to various flora and fauna. The valley region would have been a monotonous, featureless plain but for a number of hills and mounds rising above the flat surface. The Loktak lake is an important feature of the central plain. The total area occupied by all the lakes is about 600km. The altitude ranges from 40 m at Jiribam to 2,994 m at Mt. Iso Peak near Mao Songsong. The soil cover can be divided into two broad types, viz. the red ferruginous soil in the hill area and the alluvium in the valley. The valley soils generally contain loam, small rock fragments, sand and sandy clay, and are quite varied. On the plains, especially flood plains and deltas, the soil is quite thick. The top soil on the steep slopes is very thin. Soil on the steep hill slopes is subject to high erosion, resulting in gullies and barren rock slopes. The normal pH value ranges from 5.4 to 6.8.[8] The climate of the State is salubrious with approximate average annual rainfall varying from 933mm at Imphal to 2593mm at Tamenglong. The temperature ranges from sub-zero to 36C.

Districts
Manipur has currently nine administrative districts.
District Bishnupur Churachandpur Chandel Imphal East Imphal West Senapati Tamenglong Thoubal Area 496 4570 3313 709 519 3271 4391 514 Population 208,368 227,905 118,327 394,876 444,382 283,621 111,499 364,140 Headquarters Bishnupur Churachandpur Chandel Porompat Lamphelpat Senapati Tamenglong Thoubal

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Ukhrul 4544 140,778 Ukhrul

Vegetation
The natural vegetation occupies an area of about 14,365km which is nearly 64% of the total geographical area of the state. The vegetation consists of a large variety of plants ranging from short and tall grasses, reeds and bamboos to trees of various species. Broadly, there are four types of forests: Tropical Semi-evergreen. Dry Temperate Forest Sub-Tropical Pine Tropical Moist Deciduous Teak, pine, oak, uningthou, leihao, bamboo, cane, etc. are important forest resources growing in plenty. In addition, rubber, tea, coffee, orange, and cardamom are grown in hill areas. Rice is a staple food for Manipuris. Rice and cash crops make up the main vegetation cover in the valley.

Flowers lining up the Foothills

A tree standing alone amidst the wilderness

Climate
The climate of Manipur is largely influenced by the topography of this hilly region which defines the geography of Manipur. Lying 790 meters above sea level, Manipur is wedged between hills on all sides. This northeastern corner of India enjoys a generally amiable climate, though the winters can be a little chilly. The maximum temperature in the summer months is 32 degree C. In winter the temperature often falls below zero, bringing frost. Snow sometimes falls in some hilly regions due to the Western Disturbance. The coldest month is January, and the warmest July. The ideal time for tourism in the state, in terms of climate, is from October to February, when the weather remains bright and sunny without the sun being too hot.

The Dzuko Valley lying on the border of Manipur and Nagaland has a temperate climate

The state is drenched in rains from May until mid-October. It receives an average annual rainfall of 1467.5mm. However, the rain distribution varies from 933mm in Imphal to 2593mm in Tamenglong. The precipitation ranges from light drizzles to heavy downpour. The normal rainfall of Manipur enriches the soil and helps

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in agricultural processes and irrigation. The South Westerly Monsoon picks up moisture from the Bay of Bengal and heads toward Manipur, hits the eastern Himalaya ranges and produces a massive amount of rain in the state.

Population
Manipur has a population of 2,388,634. Of this total, 58.9% live in the valley and the remaining 41.1% in the hilly region. The hills are Monsoon clouds in Manipur inhabited mainly by the Nagas, Kukis (Chin-Mizos) and smaller tribal communities and the valley mainly by the Meiteis, Pangal, and "Bhamons" who are literally non-Meiteis). Some Naga,Kuki and Hmar settlements are also found in the valley region. Racially, Manipuri people are far more similar to Southeast Asians than to mainland Indians.[10] The distribution of area, population and density, literacy rate, etc. as per the 2001 Census provisional figures are as below:

Language
The official languages of the state are Manipuri and English.

Manipuri language (Meiteilon)

Meiteilon, the official language of Manipur, has a long history. Courses on Manipuri Language and Literature are offered as a subject up to M.A. level in both Central and State Universities. It is the main language of communication among all different tribes and people inhabiting Manipur. English is also slowly gaining ground as a common language of communication.Hindi is also in use by the migrants from northern India. Meitei has been recognized as the Manipuri language by the Indian Union and has been included in the list of scheduled languages (included in the 8th schedule by the 71st amendment of the constitution in 1992). Meitei is taught as a subject up to postgraduate level (Ph.D.) in Indian universities, apart from being a medium of instruction up to the undergraduate level in Manipur.

Meitei Mayek (Manipuri script)

Meitei Mayek is a script, commonly referred as Mayek, which has been used since ancient times. Though out of vogue for a certain period, in the recent past it has gained popularity.

Languages of hill people

There are 29 different dialects spoken in Manipur. Six main hill dialects recognised by Government of Manipur for medium of instruction & examination up to class XII are : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Thadou-Kuki, dialect of Kuki people, the second language in the state after Meiteilon during Colonial Period. Tangkhul, dialect of Tangkhul people Hmar, dialect of Hmar people Paite, dialect of Paite people Mao, dialect of Mao People Rongmei dialect of Rongmei people

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Transportation
Tulihal Airport, the airport of Imphal, connects the state capital with Delhi, Kolkata Guwahati and Agartala. National Highway NH-39 links Manipur with the rest of the country through the railway stations at Dimapur in Nagaland at a distance of 215km (134mi) from Imphal. National Highway 53 (India) connects Manipur with another railway station at Silchar in Assam, which is 269km (167mi) away from Imphal. The road network of Manipur, with a length of 7170km (4460mi) connects all the important towns and distant villages. On April 9, 2010, Union Minister of India, Shashi Tharoor announced that the central government is considering a rail link from Manipur to Vietnam.[11]

Religion
Hinduism and Sanamahi
The people of Manipur follow several faiths and religions which can be traced down to its unique historical past. Sanamahism is an ancient indigenous religion, rich in mythology and colorful in ritual. The Sanamahi worship is concentrated around the Sun God/Sanamahi. Early Manipuris were the devotees of a Supreme deity "Lainingthou Soralel" following the footprint of their Godly ancestors. That particular kind of ancestor worship and animism, with the central focus of worship on Umang Lai that is, ethnic governing deities Pakhangba worshipped in sacred groves. Some of the gods(Lais) Manipuris worship are Atiya Sidaba, Pakhangba, Sanamahi, Leimaren, Oknarel, Panganba, Thangjing, Marjing, Wangbaren, Koubru. The religious life of the people, even when they adopted non-mainstream Hinduism, retained many characteristics inherited from their prehistoric ancestors. The essentials of this religion remain recognizable to the present day. Hinduism has an ancient presence in Manipur,[12] but did not win widespread adoption until relative recent history. It was in the 15th century that a particular form of Vaisnavism was adopted and spread under the reign of King Kyamba through to King Khagemba in the 19th century. Towards the end of the 19th century and at the advent of the 20th century, a great force of Gaudiya Vaishnavism came and spread in Manipur. Over the last couple of decades there has been a revival of Sanamahi religion and this was evident in the significant growth of the "non-mainstream" religion category in the 2001 census which amounted to 17% of the population. Due to the revival of demographic profile of the state, Sanamahism will now be included in the next Government of India population census in 2011.[13] According to the 2001 census Hinduism is identified with 47% of the population.

Christianity
Christianity in Manipur started to spread in the 19th century onwards by missionaries. The 20th century saw the establishment of a few Christian schools which then introduced Western-type education in this remote part of the world. Some of the finest schools in Manipur are Little Flower School in Imphal, Don Bosco High School in Imphal, St. Joseph's Convent, Nirmalabas High School. These schools have produced achievers in various professions such as medicine, engineering, and other branches of science. A sizeable Meitei population have joined Christianity. Christianity constitutes 34% of the population.

St.Joseph's Cathedral at Imphal

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Islam
Muslims numbering 190,939 form about 8.32% of the state population as per 2001 census. Influence of religious preceptors- Shaikh Shah Jalal Yemeni who came to Sylhet in 1303 AD and Azan Fakir Baghdadi in 1690 AD in Assam is also felt among Manipuri Muslims. There are Arab, Turani, Bengali and Mughal or Chaghtai Turk sections among Manipuri Muslims.

Culture
Theatre and society in Manipur are intimately linked, as in many parts of the world. Manipuris are a culturally enthusiastic people. Cultural spirit has never been allowed to be blown out despite the area's remoteness from the outside world. This is why it still thrives in the Manipur valley. Theatre has always been part of the Laiharaoba festivals since time immemorial. Theatre in Manipur today can be broadly divided, based on the texts, into religious and secular. The former is the adaptation of religious epics or some episodes from them, performed mainly in the The Chorus Repertory Theater, Imphal, founded sacred sphere such as temples. Within this Gauralila (the story of the by Ratan Thiyam childhood days of Caitanya Mahaprabhu), Sanjenba (an episode from the play between Krishna and his cows and his Gopis), and Udukhol (an episode from Krishna's childhood days) can be incorporated. They are seasonal performances commanding spiritual devotions among the audience. Secular theatre is mostly confined to themes that are not religious and is performed in the secular or profane spheres. Within these are Shumang lila and Phampak lila (stage drama). Though the religious genre is loved profoundly by the audience, the torch of theatre is being held aloft by the secular ones. Among the latter also Shumang lila commands a very wide rustic popularity among the audience though the stage drama still does not lack its serene and dignified position mostly because of its community-based themes and styles. Etymologically Shumang lila is the combination of "Shumang" (courtyard) and "Lila" (play or performance). It is performed in an area of 13/13ft in the centre of any open space, in a very simple style without a raised stage or any set design or heavy props such as curtains, background scenery, visual effects, etc. It uses only one table and two chairs, kept on one side of the performance space. Its claim to be the theatre of the masses is underlined by the way it is performed in the middle of an audience that surrounds it, leaving only one passage as both entrance and exit. Shumang lila is performed by a touring band of 12-13 professional artists on invitation basis. These troupes may be exclusively female (Nupi Shumang Lila) or exclusively male (Nupa Shumang lila). Though the male characters are played by the female artists in the case of the former, what is most intriguing is the acting of the female roles by the male artists or nupishabis (male actresses). They are feminine in their looks, bodily gestures and facial expressions guised in masculine souls. Historically the seed of Shumang lila was sown in Phagee lila (farce), performed during the reign of Ningthourel Chandrakirti (18501886), though traces of it were already present in the episode of Tangkhul-Nurabi Loutaba of Laiharaoba festival. Then it was succeeded by such plays as Ramlila, Sabha parba, Kabul lila, etc. But the real Shumang lila with various rasas (sentiments) was ushered in with the epic play Harishchandra (1918). Then it was followed by others such as Meiraba charan, Thok lila, etc. One of the most successful of this era was Moirang parba, an epic play based on the legendary lovers Khamba and Thoibi of Moirang. On the other hand, the world of Phampak lila (stage drama) performed in the proscenium theatre is similar, in form, to the Western theatrical model and Indian Natyasastra model though its contents are indigenous. The so-called modern theatre descended on Manipuri theatre culture with the performance of Pravas Milan (1902) under the enthusiastic patronage of Sir Churchand Maharaj (18911941). The pace of theatrical movement was geared up with

Manipur the institution of various groups such as Manipur Dramatic Union (MDU) (1930), Arian Theatre (1935), Chitrangada Natya Mandir (1936), Society Theatre (1937), Rupmahal (1942), Cosmopolitan Dramatic Union (1968), and the Chorus Repertory Theatre of Ratan Thiyam (1976). These groups started experimenting with various types of plays apart from historical and pauranic ones. Today Manipuri theatre is well respected because of various excellent productions shown in various parts of the country and abroad. Manipuri plays, both Shumang lila and stage lila, have been a regular feature in the annual festival of the National School of Drama, New Delhi.

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Manipuri dance (Ras Lila)

A classical form of Manipuri dance based and inspired by the theme of Lord Krishna and his beloved Radha's love story and the devotion of the Gopis (companions) toward Lord Krishna. This graceful and slow movement of the dance makes it one of the most acclaimed classical dances of India. The costume is elegant, as there are nicely embroidered clothes that give luster to the beauty of the art.This dance is very exciting dance.

Ras Lila

Chorus Repertory Theater

The auditorium of the theater is situated on the outskirts of Imphal and the campus stretches for about 2acres (8100m2). It has housing and working quarters to accommodate a self-sufficiency of life. The theater association has churned out internationally acclaimed plays like Chakravyuha and Uttarpriyadashi. Its 25 years of existence in theater had disciplined its performers to a world of excellence. Chakravyuha taken from the Mahabharat epic had won Fringe Firsts Award, 1987 at the Edinburgh International Theater Festival. Chakravyuha deals with the story of Abhimanyu (son of Arjun) of his last battle and approaching death whereas Uttarpriyadashi is an 80-minute exposition of Emperor Ashoka's redemption.

The Shrine the main theater

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Indigenous games
The indigenous games of Manipur can be classified as Outdoor and Indoor.

Outdoor
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Mukna Mukna Kangjei (Khong Kangjei) Sagol Kangjei (Polo) Yubi lakpi (Coconut Rugby) Oo-Laobi Hiyang-Tannaba Arambai Hunba

Mukna (Manipuri wrestling) Mukna is a popular form of wrestling. It has fundamental rules agreed by all Mukna organizations and with Royal Consent. Traditionally the game is controlled and organised by Pana Loisang of the Ruler of the state and village organizations. There are four, Panas-Ahallup, Naharup, Khabam and Laipham, who control all fixtures and times for the games and the State Meet in which the Final is invariably graced by the ruler, who presents the title of Jatra (Champion) for the year along with reward of Thum Nama (A full bag of salt) and Ngabong Phi (hand made cloth of cotton yarn), exemption of all state duties and Ningham Samjin dress (traditional). The game has two categories (1) Takhatnabi (League), (2) Naitom (Knockout). The young talents work and play all the year round with dedication for the title of 'Jatra' (Champion) of Mukna of Manipur. Mukna Kangjei (Khong Kangjei)
Mukna is a popular sport in Manipur Mukna Kangjei is a game which combines the arts of mukna (wrestling) and Kangjei (Cane Stick) to play the ball made of seasoned bamboo roots. The origin of the game goes back well to Aniconic worship. People celebrate Lai Haraoba (festival to please traditional deities) and include this item to mark the end of the festival. It was believed that Khagemba Ningthou (King, 15971652) patronised this game. In later generations, the game is organised in the villages. Presently, associations are formed in Panas with rules and regulations of Mukna Kangjei. The game is played by two teams of seven players each. All players hold a natural cane stick with root, gradually increasing the size of the root, to the length of about seven inches to play the ball made out of seasoned bamboo roots of approximately a diameter of four inches (102mm). The players put on Mukna Kisi Phijet (dress of cloth knot) to secure protection and holding each other. At present a short pant is added below Kisi (like cloth belt with knots). The game starts by throwing the ball in front of the panjenbas (leaders) of the two teams standing face to face to each other on the line. If possible they can pick up the ball and run. The process of running and obstructing each other to put the ball on the goal line of the ground is allowed, Pun onba (change of side) and end of the game is given by the command of the umpire. The rules for the game are known as Kangjei lon. It has improved a lot and was demonstrated during the Fifth National Games 1999 at Imphal.

Manipur Sagol Kangjei (Polo) To Manipuris according to Chaitharol-Kumbaba, a Royal Chronicle of Manipur King Kangba who ruled Manipur much earlier than Nongda Lairen Pakhangba (33 AD) introduced Sagol Kangjei (Kangjei on horse back). Further regular playing of this game commenced in 1605 during the reign of King Khagemba under newly framed rules of the game. The game requires perfect control of the pony, the stick and the ball with proficiency of riding. The sense of 'fair Play' was the main guided factor of this game. This is played between two teams of Seven players a side. During the time of the late Sir Chandrakirti Singh, K.C.S.I Maharaja of Manipur introduced regular game at Mapal Kangjeibung (now near Tikendrajit Park) on the ground of Sana-Lamjei (length 160 and 80 width in dimension) being one Lamjei equal to 6ft (1.8m) The game can be played in smaller ground also if occasion demands. Earlier, there was no definite rules for foul in traditional Sagol Kangjei.Manipur has produced players of outstanding calibres like Jubaraj Bir Tikendraji (Senapati of Manipur Army) as legendary player described by Mrs. Grimhood (188790). After 1891, Manipur produced outstanding players like (L) Ojha Tombi and Shyamjai Sharma who never had the chance to play in international tournament. From the history it is an established fact and accepted that Manipur is the birthplace of Polo of the World. Yubi lakpi Yubi lakpi is a traditional football game played in Manipur, India, using a coconut, which has some notable similarities to rugby. Despite these similarities, the name is not related to the game of rugby or Rugby School in England, it is in fact of Manipuri origin, and means literally "coconut snatching". Oolaobi Oolaobi (Woo-Laobi) is an outdoor game mainly played by females. Meitei mythology believes that UmangLai Heloi-Taret (seven deitiesseven fairies) played this game on the Courtyard of the temple of Umang Lai Lairembi. The number of participants is not fixed but are divided into two groups (size as per agreement). Players are divided as into Raiders (Attackers) or Defenders (Avoiders). The Raiders say "oo" without stopping as long as they can continue and try to touch the Avoiders. If a Raider touches an Avoider is out, the Avoider is out. This process goes on till Avoiders are out or surrender. If a raider fails to say "oo" or is out of breath, the Raider is out. Points are counted on the elimination of Raiders/Defenders. If Raiders are tired they declare for change and a time limit is decided on. The principles of Oolaobi are very similar to Kabaddi in India. The ground (court) is not marked; normally the open space in the premises of the house or temple is used for the game. Oolaobi is very popular with girls and a source of talent in Kabaddi. Hiyang Tannaba Hiyang Tannaba (Boat Race) : Hiyang tannaba (Hi Yangba Tannaba) is a traditional function of the Panas. This is held during the month of November. This was introduced during the time of Ningthourel Khunjaoba, the second son of King Khagemba, who dug the Kangla Moat around the Palace to make it impregnable in the year of 1660 after he ascended the throne in 1652.In the traditional function two boats "Tanahi" (Race Boat) are detailed for leaders known as "Tengmai Lappa". In each boat forty Hiroys (Boatsman) operate the boat. The boat which reaches the finishing line is the winner and all boatsman raise their (Now) oars high in the air as a sign of reaching the finishing line first and thus the winner of the race is declared. The leader pays his respect to the deity and the King of Manipur.

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Hiyang Tannaba in progress

Manipur Arambai Hunba People of Manipur are very fond of riding horses specially those who are in the village near the breeding areas. Since the ponies are easily available , the young boys get the chance of riding ponies without saddle on horse back. Sometimes they ride horse using a rope in place of regular bridle throwing branches of small trees in place of Arambai. This practice helped the Manipur Arambai force as a martial art which was very much required during the advance and withdrawal of forces. This art was very popular as an indigenous game of the youth of Manipur. This game is displayed even now , during the festival "Kwak Jatra" after Durga Puja. Apart from these games, some outdoor games, which are played by children, are in a position of extinction. The games like Khutlokpi, Phibul Thomba, Chaphu Thugaibi etc. are very popular game in Cambodia. Such games are played especially during the Khmer New Year.[14]

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Indoor Indigenous Games

Kang Kang is played by both male and female Meities of Manipur. Manipuris believe Kang is a game played by deity " Panthoibi". It is also believed that Manipuris began to play this game well before Vaishnavism came to Manipur. It is culturally a fine game of Manipur specially of Meiteis. It is played under a shed of building on an earth ground (court) smoothly levelled to suit the course of the 'Kang' the target on the court. It is well marked for the respective positions of the players of both to hit the target on the court. It has rules and regulations Kang game formed by the associations to suit the occasions of the games either for tournaments or Friendly. The dignitaries of the Palace, even Queen and King also participated on social functions. In olden days 'Kang' was played during summer, starting from Cheiraoba (Manipur New Year) to Kang Chingba. Presently the game is played in several tournaments throughout the year, organised by the Associations. Rules and regulations have been modified to suit the improved process of the game.

Festivals
The various festivals of Manipur are Lui-ngai-niNingol Chakouba, Yaoshang, Ramjan ID, Kut, Gan-ngai, Chumpha, Christmas, Cheiraoba, Kang and Heikru Hidongba. Most of these festivals are usually celebrated on the basis of lunar calendar. Almost every festival celebrated in other states is observed here and it makes Manipur a mini metropolis.

Ningol Chakouba (November)

A social festival of the Meiteis and many communities of Manipur where the married women (Ningol) are invited (Chakouba-literally calling to a meal;for dinner or lunch) to a feast at their parental house along with their children. Besides the feast, gifts are given to the women/invitees and to their children. It is the festival that binds and revives the family relations between the girls married away and the parental family. Nowadays, other communities have also started celebrating this kind of a family-bonding festival. It is held every year mostly during the month of November. Sometimes it falls in October. "Ningol" can mean a family's woman or a girl child and is not necessarily married.

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Yaoshang (February/March)
Yaoshang is one of the colourful festival of Manipur similar to holy festival. Another feature of this premiere festival is the Thabal Chongba (Dancing in the Moonlight). The boys from various places will come to the site of the festival and dance with the girls by holding on to their hands and moving in circles. It is celebrated for five days starting from the full moon of Phalguna (February/March).

Christmas (December)
The Hill dwellers consisting of various tribes (Kuki,Naga,Hmar etc)in Manipur are Christians and celebrate Christmas for two days with prayers, reading of gospels, eating, singing of hymns, lectures on Christ, sports etc. It is usually observed on 24 December and 25. The Kuki are the second largest people in terms of population, next to the Meitei people. Few of them living in the plain area but most of them living in the hill area from generation to generation. Nowadays, one can find a small but rapidly expanding Meitei Christian population both in the urban and rural areas.

Kut (Post Harvest festival) (November)

A post harvest festival predominantly celebrated by Kuki-Chin tribes in Manipur has become one of the leading festivals of the state. Kut is not restricted to a particular community or tribe but the whole state populace participate in merriments. On 1st November of every year the a state declared holiday for Kut celebration. The festival is marked by various cultural events such as traditional dances, songs, sports and the most popular Miss Kut contest. It is a festival of peace and thanksgiving to the Almighty for the harvests.

Gaan-Ngai
Gaan-Ngai is the greatest festival of the Zeliangrong people. Its a 5 day long festival and is usually performed on the 13th day of the Meitei month of Wakching as per the Meitei Calendar of the lunar year.really in this festival Zeliangrong people enjoys a lot

Ramjan Id
The Manipuri Muslims observed this festival in the very spirits of joy and festivities as in other Muslim world. During this month the Muslims practice self denial by taking a fast, abstaining from smoke and drink from pre-dawn till sunset. After the second day of shawwal, when the new moon is visible they break fast which is also popularly known as Id-Ul-Fitre. They offer prayers at the mosques, have delicious dishes, exchange greetings and call on the friends and relatives. Ramjan is the ninth month of the Hijri year.

Cheiraoba (New Year of Manipur (Sajibugi Nongma Panba), March/April)

People of Manipur clean and decorate their houses and make a sumptuous variety of dishes to feast upon after offering food to the deity on this day. This is the first date of the Meitei Lunar calendar. After the feast, as a part of the rituals, people climb the nearest hill tops or the "CHEIRAOCHING" located in Chingmeirong; in the belief that it would excel them to greater heights in their worldly life. It is observed during the month of March/April.

Cheiraoching Kaba

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Separatist insurgency
A separatist insurgency began in 1964, although momentum to a more violent phase did not occur until 1978.[15] The Separatists demand a sovereign state separate from the Union of India, a claimed lack of development, plundering of local resources, and a general discontent is part of their argument.[15] [16] [16] The international Human Rights Watch, argues that human rights violations by Indian Security Forces have only fuelled the insurgency.[17] [17] It adds that the Indian Army have at times acted with impunity as anti-terrorism laws in the state make prosecution of human rights violators difficult.[10] [18] [19] [20] There are currently 34 groups, including non-violent ones, that demand independence from India.[15] In 1999, some of these groups coalesced into an alliance organization called the "Manipur People's Liberation Front." Of these, the three most prominent are the United National Liberation Front (UNLF), Peoples Revolutionary Party of Kangleipak (PREPAK), and PLA of Manipur. The UNLF is estimated to have 2500 active militants, the PREPAK with 1500, and PLA with 3000.[15] The Indian news organization, Rediff, contends: As of today, Manipur is the worst case scenario in the north-east as far as militancy is concerned. Apart from the fact that there are more militant groups in the state than anywhere else -- at least seven prominent groups operate in Manipur -- the rivalries between these outfits often leads to greater violence.[21] The Kuki insurgent groups want a separate state for the Kukis to be carved out from the present state of Manipur. The Kuki insurgent groups are under two umbrella organisation, Kuki National Organisation (KNO) and United Peoples Forum.[22] The situation is further complicated because insurgent groups are not united in the same cause. The Nagas wish to annex part of Manipur and merge with a greater Nagaland or Nagalim, which is in conflict with Meitei insurgent demands for the integrity of their vision of an independent state.[15] There were many tensions between the different tribes and have witnessed numerous clashes between Naga and Kukis, Meiteis and Muslims.

Tourism
Manipur, as the name suggests, is a land of jewels. Its rich culture excels in every aspects as in martial arts, dance, theater and sculpture. The charm of the place is the greenery with the moderate climate making it a tourists' heaven. The beautiful and seasonal Shirui Lily at Ukhrul (district), Sangai (Brow antlered deer) and the floating islands at Loktak Lake are few of the rare things found in Manipur. Polo, which can be called a royal game, also originated from Manipur. Some of the main tourist attractions are:

Imphal (Capital)
The city is mainly inhabited by the Meitei with a large migrant population from Bihar, UP, Rajasthan, West Bengal, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, etc. and it is just 7km (4.3mi) from the airport of Manipur (Tulihal Airport). The district is divided into East and West and the recently constructed sports complex (Khuman Lampak Sports Complex) for the 1997 National Games is also one of the attractions consisting of every thing from a cyclists velodrome to the main stadium. Most of the imported goods are sold here at its Paona Bazar, Gam-bir Sing Shopping Complex, Ningthibi Collections and Leima Plaza.

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Shree Govindajee Temple

This temple in Manipur diplomatically adjoins the palaces of the former rulers of the then kingdom, dull in design with gold domes, a paved court and a large, raised congregation hall. The deity in the center has other idols of Radha Govinda, Balaram and Krishna and Jagannath, Balabhadra and Subhadra on either side of it.

Shree Shree Govindajee Temple

Keibul Lamjao National Park

Keibul Lamjao National Park, 48km (30mi) away from Imphal is an abode of, rare and endangered species of Brow Antlered deer (also known as Sangai). This ecosystem is home to 17 rare species of mammals. The greenery of the place and the moderate temperature makes a pleasant experience to visit.[4] It is the only floating national park of the world.

Loktak Lake
Loktak Lake is a freshwater lake where most of the people of Manipur get their share of fish. The special treat to watch are the floating islands popularly known as Phumdi which is made out of the tangle of watery weeds and other plants. With a nominal fee, people can hire small boats and see the fascinating way of life on these floating islands. The wetland is swampy and is favourable for a number of species to thrive on. It is in the district of Moirang. Etymology of Loktak is "Lok = stream and tak= the end" (End of the Streams).[4]
Sangai at Keibul Lamjao National Park

Churachandpur
Churachandpur is the second largest town in Manipur. The town is thriving business centre in the Khuga Valley. The main attraction of the district is the Khuga Dam, which is some 7km south of the proper town.

Moreh
Moreh is a small border town in the Indo-Myanmar border. It is inhabited mainly by the Kukis and some other ethnic communities like the Meiteis, Nagas, Nepalis, Sikhs, Bengalis, Biharis, Rajasthanis, Tamils, Nepalese, etc. There is a thriving trade between India and Myanmar through this town. With the legal trade there also exist thrives illegal trade, mostly opium, going on through this town. To control this town there was a huge tussle between the militant groups, KNA of the Kukis and NSCN(IM) of the Nagas, which resulted in ethnic conflict between the two resulting in the loss of thousands of lives in the early 1990s. Of late, the Kukis want to benefit largely from this thriving border trade and increasing their livelihood.[23] 1. More on Places of Interest In manipur [24]

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Other places of interest

War cemeteries
Commemorating the memories of the British and Indian soldiers who died during the Second World War, these cemeteries are managed by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission. Serene and well maintained, the graves carry small stone markers and bronze plaques.

Khonghampat Orchidarium
7km (4.3mi) from Imphal, on National Highway 39 (India) is the Central Orchidarium, which covers 200acres (0.81km2) and houses over 110 rare varieties of orchids, which include almost a dozen endemic species. The peak blooming season is March April.

Manipur Zoological Gardens

6km (3.7mi) to the west of Imphal, at the foot of the pine growing hillocks at Iroisemba on the Imphal-Kangchup Road are the Zoological Gardens. Not to be missed is an opportunity to see the graceful brow antlered deer (Sangai) one of the rarest species in the world, in sylvan surroundings.

Moirang
45km (28mi) from Imphal, the town is one of the main centres of early Meitei folk culture with the ancient temple of the pre-Hindu deity Lord Thangjing, situated here. In the month of May, men and women, dressed in colourful traditional costumes, sing and dance in honour of the Lord at the Moirang "Lai Haraoba" which is a ritual dance festival held each year. The town also has a special place in the history of the Indian freedom struggle. It was at Moirang that the flag of the Indian National Army was first unfurled on 14 April 1944.

Loktak Lake and Sendra Island

48km (30mi) from Imphal, lies the largest fresh water lake in the North East India, the Loktak Lake, a veritable miniature inland sea. From the Tourist Bungalow set atop Sendra Island, visitors get a bird's eye view of life on the Lake-small islands that are actually floating weed on which live the Lake people, the shimmering blue waters of the Lake, labyrinthine boat routes and colourful water plants. The Sendra Tourist Home with an attached cafeteria in the middle of the lake is an ideal tourist spot.

Bird's eye view of Floating Cafe' on Loktak Lake from Sendra Hill

Kaina
It is a hillock about 921 metres above sea level and a sacred place of the Manipuri Hindus. So goes the story that one night, Shri Govindajee appeared in the dream of his devotee, Shri Jai Singh Maharaja and asked the saintly king to install in a temple, an image of Shri Govindajee. It was to be carved out of a jack fruit tree, which was then growing at Kaina. The scenery in this place is charming and the hill shrubs and natural surroundings give the place a religious atmosphere. It is only 29km (18mi) from Imphal.

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Khongjom
36km (22mi) on the Indo-Myanmar road, a war broke out between Manipur and British India in 1891. It is here that Major General Paona Brajabashi, one of the great warriors of Manipur proved his valor against the superior force of the invading British Army in 1891. A War Memorial has been constructed on the top of the Kheba Hill. 23 April is celebrated as Khongjom Day every year and is a state holiday.

Tengnoupal
69km (43mi) from Imphal. The highest point on the Indo-Myanmar Road, from here, you can have a full view of the valley of Myanmar.

Ukhrul
83km (52mi) to the east of Imphal, this district headquarters of Manipur East is the highest hill station of the state. A centre of the colourful warrior tribe Tangkhul Nagas, it is well developed and famous for its peculiar type of land-lily, the Shirui, grown in the Shirui hills. Shirui Hills and Khangkhui Lime Caves are interesting places for excursions.

Manipur State Museum

The interesting museum near the Polo Ground in the heart of Imphal has a fairly good display of Manipur's Tribal heritage and a collection of portraits of Manipur's former rulers.

Maibam Lotpa Ching

It is a hillock about 16km (9.9mi) from Imphal on Tiddim Road. It is a thrilling spot where a fierce battle took place between the British and the Japanese force in World War II and regarded as a holy place. There is also a monument in memory of the Japanese Martyrs who sacrificed their lives in this fierce battle.

Willong Khullen & Yangkhullen

Willong Khullen is a village located some 37km (23mi) from National Highway 39 (India) (Maram) on the Maram-Peren Road. It is home to a stone erection very similar to Stonehenge. Some of the tallest stones are seven meters tall and one meter thick. The village of Yangkhullen is built on a steep slope on the hills.

Sadu Waterfall
A popular tourist and picnic spot in Sadu(near Ichum Keirap Stone Erections of Willong Khullen village [25])27km (17mi) from Imphal, in the Sadar hill area, Senapati district. Hundreds of tourist flocks to this place to enjoy the view of this waterfall and the natural beauty surrounding it. Consisting of three falls with the first fall about thirty meters high. On the side of it, a newly park or garden-'Agape park' is situated. It is owned and managed by Kamlun Telien of Ichum Keirap.

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Entry to Manipur
Until recently, entry to Manipur was controlled by the central government, for both foreigners and citizens of India. The state government as per directives from the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA), Government of India on 9 November, relaxed existing guidelines of the ministry's circular No. 249 under letter no. 15011/7/95-F.I dated 29/6/1998 and delegated powers to issue Protected Area Permits (PAP): To visiting foreign tourists in a group of two or more persons with a recognized travel agent who would act as an escort of the group up to a maximum period of 30 days. Foreigners married to Indian nationals belonging to Manipur can visit the state on tourist visa for a maximum period of 90 days. IO/OCI card holder hailing from Manipur, visiting foreign nationals engaged in development/welfare project would continue to require prior permission of MHA after examining proposal in consultation with security agencies, MHA may consider issue of PAP to such visits of foreign nationals initially for a period up to 180 days. The official order of state Home department also mentioned the permitted areas of foreigners to be visit in the state including, Loktak Lake, Imphal, INA Memorial Moirang, Keibul Lamjao Deer Sanctuary, Waithou Lake, Imphal-Bishnupur-Phubala-Moirang-sendra-Keibul Lamjao-Imphal, Imphal _Moirang Lake-Keibul Lamjao-Churachandpur-Khuga River-Imphal, Imphal-Litan-Ukhrul-Shiroy-Sangshak-Imphal, Imphal-ThoubalWaithou LakeKhongjom-KakchingThongjao-Waikhong-Sugunu-Imphal, Imphal-Khonghampat-Kanglatombi-Kangpokpi-Senapati-Karong-Mao gate-Imphal and Imphal Noneh-Khongsang-Nungba-Jiribam-Imphal. The official order further mentioned whereas until now foreigners were required to travel by air from Calcutta to Imphal, henceforth, foreign tourists will also be allowed to enter by road along with NH-39 and NH-53. This circuit would be Dimapur-Kohima-Imphal-Jiribam-Silchar, the official order mentioned.

Media
Radio
1. All India Radio, Akashvani Imphal (On AM). 2. All India Radio, Akashvani Imphal (On FM). 3. All India Radio, Akashvani Churachandpur(On FM)

Television
1. Doordarshan, DD Imphal.

Cable Tv Network
ISTV Imphal. [26]

Newspapers
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Poknapham Daily (Manipuri Daily).[27] Poknapham Daily (Silchar Edition) (now defunct). The Sangai Express (Manipuri Daily).[28] Hueiyen Lanpao (Manipuri Daily).[29] Ireibak (Manipuri Daily).[30] GoManipur (English web portal).[31] Naharolgi Thoudang (Manipuri Daily).[32]

8. E-Pao (English web).[33] 9. Kanglaonline (English web).[34]

Manipur 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. Imphal Free Press (English Daily).[35] The Goesem (Thadou/Kuki Language Daily) Zlen Banner (Thadou/Kuki Language Weekly News) AJA (Tangkhul Daily).[36] Manipur Express (Paite Language Daily) Lamka Post (Paite Language Daily) Zogam dot com (Bilingual website).[37] Hmasawnnathar(Hmar language daily)[38]

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Economy
Macro-economic trends
This is a chart of trends of gross state domestic product of Manipur at market prices estimated by Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation with figures in ten millions of Indian Rupees.[39]
Period Gross State Domestic Product (in Rupees, Crores***)

19992000 3260 20002001 3112 20012002 3369 20022003 3506 20032004 3979 20042005 4568 20052006 5066 20062007 5403 20072008 5848 20082009 6344

References
[1] http:/ / manipur. gov. in [2] Prabhakara, M.S. (September 9, 2006). "Degrees of separatism" (http:/ / www. hinduonnet. com/ fline/ fl2318/ stories/ 20060922002604200. htm). The Hindu. . Retrieved November 4, 2010. [3] http:/ / www. manipur. we. bs/ [4] Fate of Loktak Lake (http:/ / www. e-pao. net/ epSubPageExtractor. asp?src=education. Scientific_Papers. fate_of_loktak_lake) [5] Haokip, Shri Ngamthang (2007) "Basine Delineation Map of Manipur" Profile on State of Environment Report of Manipur, 2006-07 Ministry of Environment and Forests, Manipur, p. 4 (http:/ / www. manenvis. nic. in/ stateprofile1. pdf) [6] Govt. of Manipur. "Irrigation And Water Management" (http:/ / www. manipur. nic. in/ planning/ DraftMSDR/ Draft_SDR_pdf/ Chapter 7_irrigation. pdf). . Retrieved October 31, 2010. [7] Centre for Science and Environment (India). "The Arithmetic of Water in India" (http:/ / www. rainwaterharvesting. org/ Solution/ Water-Arithmetic. htm). . Retrieved October 31, 2010. [8] Director of Commerce and Industries, Manipur. ""Soil and Climate of Manipur"" (http:/ / investinmanipur. nic. in/ gp_soil. htm). . Retrieved October 31, 2010. [9] "Census Population" (http:/ / indiabudget. nic. in/ es2006-07/ chapt2007/ tab97. pdf) (PDF). Census of India. Ministry of Finance India. . Retrieved 2008-12-18. [10] Datta, Tanya (8 August 2007). "India's 'forgotten' war" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ programmes/ crossing_continents/ 6935673. stm). BBC News. . Retrieved 12 May 2010. [11] "Rail link from Manipur to Vietnam on cards: Tharoor - Times Of India" (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ india/ Rail-link-from-Manipur-to-Vietnam-on-cards-Tharoor/ articleshow/ 5778641. cms). The Times Of India. .

Manipur
[12] macks nigombam. "A Brief history of the Meiteis of Manipur" (http:/ / themanipurpage. tripod. com/ history/ puwarimeitei. html). Themanipurpage.tripod.com. . Retrieved 2010-07-18. [13] Indian Census (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ ) [14] Singh, Atom Sunil; Borderless Connectivity on Indigenous Games between Cambodia and Manipur, The Sangai Express, 4 June 2008. (http:/ / thesangaiexpress. manipur. us/ 2008/ 06/ 04/ Others/ Articles. htm) [15] chandru. "MANIPUR- in a strange whirlpool of Cross-Current Insurgency" (http:/ / www. southasiaanalysis. org/ papers13/ paper1210. html). Southasiaanalysis.org. . Retrieved 2010-07-18. [16] "Insurgency In Manipur :: KanglaOnline ~ Your Gateway" (http:/ / www. kanglaonline. com/ index. php?template=kshow& kid=834). Kanglaonline.com. . Retrieved 2010-07-18. [17] "India: Army Killings Fuel Insurgency in Manipur | Human Rights Watch" (http:/ / www. hrw. org/ en/ news/ 2008/ 09/ 14/ india-army-killings-fuel-insurgency-manipur). Hrw.org. 2008-09-15. . Retrieved 2010-07-18. [18] ibid [19] Manipur (http:/ / www. hinduonnet. com/ thehindu/ thscrip/ print. pl?file=2009083050140300. htm& date=2009/ 08/ 30/ & prd=mag& ), The Hindu, 30 August 2009 [20] "India's Independent Weekly News Magazine" (http:/ / www. tehelka. com/ story_main42. asp?filename=Ne080809murder_in. asp). Tehelka. . Retrieved 2010-07-18. [21] "'Insurgency is biggest business in northeast'" (http:/ / www. rediff. com/ news/ 2004/ oct/ 04spec1. htm). Rediff.com. 1986-10-03. . Retrieved 2010-07-18. [22] www.kukination.net [23] Thongkholal Haokip, Looking East via Moreh: Prospects and Challenges for the Kukis, in The Kuki Society: Past, Present and Future New Delhi: Maxford Publishers, 2011, pp. 190-202 [24] http:/ / www. gomanipur. com/ your-story/ itemlist/ category/ 5-places-of-interest [25] http:/ / ichumkeirap. blogspot. com [26] http:/ / istvimphal. com [27] Manipur News | Manipur Daily | Poknapham - Manipuri News! (http:/ / www. poknapham. in) [28] # The Sangai Express (English) The Sangai Express - Largest Circulated News Paper In Manipur (http:/ / www. thesangaiexpress. com) [29] Hueiyen Lanpao - Breaking News, Current News, North East India, Manipur News, News Online (http:/ / www. hueiyenlanpao. com) [30] http:/ / ireibak. com [31] GoManipur | Virtual info gate way to manipur (http:/ / www. gomanipur. com) [32] Naharolgi Thoudang - Sunday, March 27, 2011 Naharolgi Thoudang celebrates 15th Anniversary. We are very thankful to all our esteem readers for being with us (http:/ / naharolgithoudang. com/ ) [33] Manipur - E-Pao! :: Complete e-platform for Manipuris (http:/ / www. e-Pao. net) [34] Kanglaonline | Your Gateway to Manipur, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Mizoram, Tripura, Meghalaya (http:/ / www. kanglaonline. com/ ) [35] http:/ / ifp. co. in [36] Reclaiming our past - Tangkhul.com (http:/ / www. tangkhul. com/ ) [37] ZOGAM.COM - Bridging The Zomis (http:/ / zogam. com/ ) [38] http:/ / hmasawnnathar. blogspot. com [39] Statement: Gross State Domestic Product at current prices (http:/ / mospi. gov. in/ State-wise_SDP_1999-2000_20nov09. pdf) Government of India, Ministry of Statistics retrieved: 16 December 2009

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External links
Manipur Government Official Website (http://manipur.gov.in) Manipur youth portal (http://gomanipur.com)

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Meghalaya
Meghalaya
State

Seal

Location of Meghalaya in India

Map of Meghalaya Coordinates (Shillong): 2534N 9153E Country Established Capital Largest city India 21 January 1972 Shillong Shillong

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Districts Government -Governor -ChiefMinister -Legislature Area -Total Area rank Population (2011) -Total -Rank -Density Time zone ISO 3166 code HDI HDI rank Literacy Official languages Website 2964007 23rd 130.5/km2(337.9/sqmi) IST (UTC+05:30) IN-ML 0.585 (medium) 19th (2005) 72.1% (15th) Khasi, Pnar, Garo, Hindi, English meghalaya.nic.in [1] 22720km2(8772.2sqmi) 22nd Ranjit Shekhar Mooshahary Mukul Sangma Unicameral (60 seats) 7

Meghalaya (pronounced Hindustani pronunciation:[mealj]) is a state in north-eastern India. The word "Meghalaya" literally means The Abode of Clouds in Sanskrit and other Indic languages. Meghalaya is a hilly strip in the eastern part of the country about 300km long (east-west) and 100km wide, with a total area of about 8,700 sqmi (22,720 km). The population numbered 2,175,000 in 2000. The state is bounded on the north by Assam and by Bangladesh on the south. The capital is Shillong also known as the Scotland of the East, which has a population of 260,000. About one third of the state is forested. The Meghalaya subtropical forests ecoregion encompasses the state; its mountain forests are distinct from the lowland tropical forests to the north and south. The forests of Meghalaya are notable for their biodiversity of mammals, birds, and plants. Meghalaya, a hilly strip in eastern India, covers a total area of just 22,429km2. It was previously part of Assam, but on 21 January 1972, the districts of Khasi, Garo and Jaintia hills became the new state of Meghalaya. Meghalaya is also notorious for illegal mining that is creating havoc in the state. Balpakram National Park located in South Garo Hills District is constantly being encroached as forest areas are cleared for coal mining. The Garo Hills Anti-Mining and Conservation Forum are constantly shutting these illegal mines which the government has so far simply ignored. In Jaintia Hills District illegal mining has poison all its rivers except for Myntang River and Umngot River. Illegal mining is a well kept secret of the state but is slowly being exposed. Recently France 24 a tv channel exposed the used of child labor in these illegal coal mines. Local newspapers have also started to expose this dark secret of Meghalaya. Meghalaya is predominantly an agrarian economy. The important crops of the state are potato, rice, maize, pineapple, banana etc. The service sector is made up of real estate and insurance companies. Meghalaya's gross state domestic product for 2004 is estimated at $1.6 billion in current prices.

Meghalaya Shillong, the capital of the state, is a popular hill station. There are several falls in and around Shillong. The Shillong peak is highest in the state and is good for trekking. It is also known as the "abode of the gods" and has excellent views. If one is not in a mood for camping, the state also offers many good hotels and lodging facilities.

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History
Meghalaya was formed by carving out two districts from the state of Assam: the United Khasi Hills and Jaintia Hills, and the Garo Hills on 21 January 1972. Prior to attaining full statehood, Meghalaya was given a semi-autonomous status in 1970. The Khasi, Garo, and Jaintia tribes each had their own kingdoms until they came under the British administration in the 19th century. Later, the British incorporated Meghalaya into Assam in 1835. The region enjoyed semi-independent status by virtue of a treaty relationship with the British Crown. When Bengal was partitioned on 16 October 1905 by Lord Curzon, Meghalaya became a part of the new province of "Eastern Bengal and Assam." However, when the partition was reversed in 1912, Meghalaya became a part of the province of Assam. On 3 January 1921 in pursuance of Section 52A of the Government of India Act of 1919, the Governor-General-in-Council declared the areas now in Meghalaya, other than the Khasi States, as "backward tracts." Subsequently however, the Government of India Act of 1935 regrouped the backward tracts into two categories, namely, "excluded" and "partially excluded" areas in place of backward tracts. At the time of Independence of the country in 1947, the present day Meghalaya constituted two districts of Assam and enjoyed limited autonomy within the state of Assam. The Assam Reorganisation (Meghalaya) Act, 1969 accorded an autonomous status to the state of Meghalaya. The Act came into effect on 2 April 1970, and an Autonomous State of Meghalaya was created within the State of Assam. The Autonomous state had a Legislature in accordance with the Sixth schedule to the Constitution. The Legislature had 37 members. In 1971, the Parliament passed the North-Eastern Areas (Reorganization) Act, 1971, which conferred full statehood on the Autonomous State of Meghalaya. Meghalaya attained statehood on 21 January 1972, with a Legislative Assembly of its own.

Demographics

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391 Tribal people make up the majority of Meghalaya's population. The Khasis are the largest group, followed by the Garos. These were among those known to the British as "hill tribes". Other groups include the Jaintias, the Koch, the related Rajbongshi, the Boro, Hajong, Dimasa, Hmar, Kuki, Lakhar, Mikir, Rabha and Nepali. In Meghalaya state there are approximately 60,000 Nepali population spreading in all districts. East Khasi Hills and Jayantia Hills are Nepali belts. Agriculture and cattle rearing are the main occupation. A large number of retired persons of Indian Army (Gorkha) are living in Shillong. Nepalese of Shillong and Tura generally inclined towards business. Majority of Nepalese are Hindus though some Christians are also there.

Meghalaya is one of three states in India to have a Christian majority with 70.3% of the population practicing Christianity;[3] the other two (Nagaland and Mizoram) are also in the north-east of India. Hinduism is the next A Khasi man sizeable faith in the region with 13.3% of the population practicing it.[3] A sizeable minority, 11.5% of the population, follow traditional animist religions (classified as other on the census).[3] Muslims make up 4.3% of the population.[3] In 1991 when Christians made up 65% of the population of Meghalaya the 1.1 million (11 lakh) Christians made it the state in North-east India with the most Christians.[4] At that point more Christians lived in Meghalaya than there were people in Mizoram. As per the census of India 2001, the sex ratio in the state was 975 females per thousand males which was far higher than the national average of 933. It has grown steadily from a 1981 level of 954. Traditionally the sex ratio in the rural areas has been higher than that in the urban areas. However, as per the census figures for 2001, the urban sex ratio of 985 was higher than the rural sex ratio of 972. This has often been attributed to the belief that, unlike most other parts of India, there is no special preference for male children in Meghalaya.

Languages
The principal languages in Meghalaya are Khasi and Garo with English as the official language of the State.[5] Khasi is one of the chief languages of Meghalaya. Khasi, which is also spelled Khasia, Khassee, Cossyah and Kyi, is a branch of the Mon-Khmer family of the Austroasiatic stock; and is spoken by about 900,000 people residing in Meghalaya. Many words in the Khasi language are supposed to have been borrowed from Indo-Aryan languages such as Nepali, Bengali and Assamese. Moreover, the Khasi language had no script of its own in its onset. The Khasi language is believed to be one of the very few surviving dialects of the Mon-khmer family of languages in India today. The Garo language has a close affinity with the Koch and Bodo language. Garo, spoken by the majority of the population, is spoken in many dialects such as Abeng or Ambeng,[6] Atong, Akawe (or Awe), Matchi Dual, Chibok, Chisak Megam or Lyngngam, Ruga, Gara-Ganching and Matabeng. Another language of Meghalaya is the language spoken by the people of the Jaintia hills. This language, as a matter of fact, is a dialect of the standard Khasi language. The Jaintia language is spoken, along with the Khasi language, by the tribal groups, viz. Khynriam, Bhoi, Pnar and War.

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Culture and society

The main tribes in Meghalaya are the Jaintias, the Khasis and the Garos. One of the unique features of the State is that a majority of the tribal population in Meghalaya follows a matrilineal system where lineage and inheritance are traced through women. The Khasi and Jaintia tribesmen follow the traditional matrilineal norm, wherein the "Kha Khadduh" (or the youngest daughter) inherits all the property and acts as the caretaker of aged parents and any unmarried siblings. However, the male line, particularly the mothers brother, may indirectly control the ancestral property since he may be involved in important decisions relating to property including its sale and disposal. In the Garo lineage system, the youngest daughter inherits the family property by default; unless another daughter is so named by the parents. She then becomes designated as 'nokna' meaning 'for the house or home'.In case there are no daughters, then a chosen daughter-in -law (bohari) or an adopted child (deragata)comes to stay in the house as well as inherits the property. The tribal people of Meghalaya are therefore a part of what may be the world's largest surviving matrilineal culture.[7] According to India's National Family Health Survey, Meghalaya is the state where parents have shown the least interest to have a male child73% less than the national average.[8]

Spirituality
According to legend, from the 13th century, a Shivalinga (called "Hatakeswarat") has existed in the Jaintia Hills under the reign of Ranee Singa.[9] Several members of the Jaintia tribe even participate in the Hindu festival of Shivratri (Night of Lord Shiva).[10] The ancient Meghalayans mixed their spiritual beliefs of Animism and ancestor-worship with Hinduism.[11] In caves, the images of Shiva and Durga are visible.[12]

Geography
Meghalaya is one of the Seven Sister States of India. The State of Meghalaya is also known as the "Meghalaya Plateau". It consists mainly of Archean rock formations. These rock formations contain rich deposits of valuable minerals like coal, limestone, uranium and sillimanite. Meghalaya has many rivers. Most of these are rainfed and are therefore seasonal. The important rivers in the Garo Hills Region are Daring, Sanda, Bandra, Bhogai, Dareng, Simsang, Nitai and the Bhupai. In the central and eastern section of the plateau, the important rivers are Umkhri, The Umiam Lake near Shillong Digaru, Umiam, Kynchiang (Jadukata), Mawpa, Umiew or Barapani, Myngot and Myntdu. In the southern Khasi Hills Region, these rivers have created deep gorges and several beautiful waterfalls. The elevation of the plateau ranges between 150 m to 1961 m. The central part of the plateau comprising the Khasi Hills has the highest elevations, followed by the eastern section comprising the Jaintia Hills Region. The highest point in Meghalaya is Shillong Peak, which is also a prominent IAF station in the Khasi Hills overlooking the city of Shillong. It has an altitude of 1961 m. The Garo Hills Region in the western section of the plateau is nearly plain. The highest point in the Garo hills is the Nokrek Peak with an altitude of 1515 m.

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Districts
Meghalaya currently has 7 districts. These are: East Garo Hills, East Khasi Hills, Jaintia Hills, Ri-Bhoi, South Garo Hills, West Garo Hills and the West Khasi Hills. The East Garo Hills district was formed in 1976 and has a population of 247,555 as per the 2001 census. It covers an area of 2603square kilometres (1005sqmi). The District Headquarters are located at Williamnagar, earlier known as Simsangiri.Nongalbibra,a town in this district has a large number of coal mines. The coals are transported to Goalpara and Jogighopa via NH62. The East Khasi Hills district was carved out of the Khasi Hills on Workers outside a coalmine in the Jaintia Hills 28 October 1976. The district has covers an area of 2748square kilometres (1061sqmi) and has a population of 660,923 as per the 2001 census. The headquarters of East Khasi Hills are located in Shillong. The Jaintia Hills district was created on 22 February 1972. It has a total geographical area of 3819square kilometres (1475sqmi) and a population of 295,692 as per the 2001 census. The district headquarters are located at Jowai. Jaintia Hills district is the largest producer of coal in the state. Coal mines can be seen all over the district. Limestone producing in the state is also increasing, as there is high demand from cement industries. The Ri-Bhoi district was formed by further division of East Khasi Hills district on 4 June 1992. It has an area of 2448square kilometres (945sqmi). The total population of the district was 192,795 as per the 2001 census. The district headquarters are located at Nongpoh. It has a hilly terrain and a large part of the area is covered with forests. The Ri-Bhoi district is famous for its pineapples and is the largest producer of pineapples in the state. The South Garo Hills district came into existence on 18 June 1992 after the division of the West Garo Hills district. The total geographical area of the district is 1850square kilometres (710sqmi). As per the 2001 census the district has a population of 99,100. The district headquarters are located at Baghmara. The West Garo Hills district lies in the western part of the state and covers a geographical area of 3714square kilometres (1434sqmi). The population of the district is 515,813 as per the 2001 census. The district headquarters are located at Tura. The West Khasi Hills district is the largest district in the state with a geographical area of 5247square kilometres (2026sqmi). The district was carved out of Khasi Hills District on 28 October 1976. The district headquarters are located at Nongstoin.

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Climate
With average annual rainfall as high as 1200cm in some areas, Meghalaya is the wettest place on earth. The western part of the plateau, comprising the Garo Hills Region with lower elevations, experiences high temperatures for most of the year. The Shillong area, with the highest elevations, experiences generally low temperatures. The maximum temperature in this region rarely goes beyond 28C (82F), whereas winters temperatures of sub-zero degrees are common. The town of Cherrapunji in the Khasi Hills south of capital Shillong holds the world record for most rain in a calendar month, while the village of Mawsynram, near the town of Cherrapunji, holds the distinction of seeing the heaviest yearly rains. The best time to visit Meghalaya is during the months of March to July. The British and Assam Tea Estate owners would shift here during the summer months to escape the heat of the Indian Plains.

Economy

A sign board in Cherrapunji

Meghalaya is predominantly an agrarian economy. Agriculture and allied activities engage nearly two-thirds of the total work force in Meghalaya. However, the contribution of this sector to the States NSDP is only about one-third. Agriculture in the state is characterized by low productivity and unsustainable farm practices, giving rise to a high incidence of rural poverty. As a result, despite the large percentage of population engaged in agriculture, the state is still dependent upon imports from other states for most food items such as meat, eggs, food grains etc. Infrastructural constraints have also prevented the economy of the state from growing at a pace commensurate with that of the rest of the country. Meghalaya is considered to have a rich base of natural resources. These include minerals such as coal, limestone, sillimanite, Kaolin and granite among others. Meghalaya also has a large forest cover, rich biodiversity and numerous water bodies. The low level of industrialization and the relatively poor infrastructure base in the state acts as an impediment to the exploitation of these natural resources in the interest of the state's economy. However, in recent years two large cement manufacturing plants with production capacity more than 900 MTD have come up in Jantia Hills district and several more are in pipeline to utilise the rich deposit of very high quality limestone available in this district. Meghalaya also has much natural beauty and the State government has been trying to exploit this for promoting tourism in the State. However, infrastructural constraints and security concerns have hampered the growth of tourism in the state.

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Macro-economic trends
This is a chart of trends in the gross state domestic product of Meghalaya at market prices estimated [17] by Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation with figures in millions of Indian Rupees.

View of MCL Cement plant, Thangskai, P.O. Lumshnong, Jaintia Hills

Year 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Gross State Domestic Product 2,000 3,930 8,900 19,950 37,280

Meghalaya's gross state domestic product for 2004 is estimated at $1.6 billion in current prices.

Incidence of poverty
Planning Commission, the apex planning body under the Government of India, has estimated the percentage of population below poverty line in Meghalaya at nearly one-third the total population of the state in 2000. The incidence of poverty in rural areas at about 55% is almost double the percentage of poverty in the urban areas.

Agriculture
Nearly 10% of the total geographical area of Meghalaya is under cultivation. Agriculture in the state is characterized by limited use of modern techniques and low productivity. As a result, despite the vast majority of the population engaged in agriculture, the contribution of agricultural production to the states GDP is low and most of the population engaged in agriculture remains poor. A substantial portion of the cultivated area is under the traditional shifting agriculture known locally as Jhum cultivation. Food grains are the most important crop in Meghalaya. These are grown in over 1,330km, nearly 60% of the states cultivated area. The production of food grains is over 230 thousand tonnes. Rice is the dominant food grain crop accounting for over 80% of the food grain production in the state. Other important food grain crops are maize, wheat and a few other cereals and pulses. Oilseeds such as rape and mustard, linseed, soybean, castor and sesame are grown on nearly 100km. Rape and mustard are the most important oilseeds accounting for well over two-thirds of the oilseed production of nearly 6.5 thousand tonnes. Fibre crops such as cotton, jute and Mesta had traditionally been among the only cash crops in Meghalaya, grown almost exclusively in Garo Hills. These have been losing popularity in recent years as indicated by their declining

Meghalaya yield and area under cultivation. Climatic conditions in Meghalaya also permit a large variety of horticulture crops including fruits, vegetables, flowers, spices and medicinal plants. These are considered to be higher value crops but traditional values and food security concerns have prevented farmers at large from embracing these crops. The important fruits currently grown in the state include citrus fruits, pineapple, papaya, banana etc. The mandarin orange grown in Meghalaya is considered to be of very high quality. In addition to this, a large variety of vegetables are grown in the state including cauliflower, cabbage and radish. Areca nut plantations can be seen all over the state, especially around the road from Guwahati to Shillong. Other plantation crops like tea, coffee and cashew have been introduced lately and are becoming popular. A large variety of spices, flowers, medicinal plants and mushrooms are also grown in the State.

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Transportation
The partition of the country has created severe infrastructure constraints for the Northeastern region, with merely 2% of the perimeter of the region adjoining the rest of the country. A narrow strip of land, often called the Siliguri Corridor, or the Chicken's Neck connects the region with the State of West Bengal. Meghalaya is a land locked state with a large number of small settlements in remote areas. Road is the only means of transport within the state. While the capital Shillong is relatively well connected, road connectivity in most other parts of the state is relatively poor. A significant portion of the roads in the state are still un-metalled. Most of the arrivals into the Meghalaya take place through Guwahati in neighboring Assam, which is nearly 103km away. Assam has a major railhead as well as an airport with regular train and air services to the rest of the country. The State still has a large number of old timber bridges. Meghalaya does not have any railhead. It has a small airport at Umroi, about 40km from Shillong on the Guwahati-Shillong highway. The small size of the airport does not allow the operations of large aircraft and only small aircraft operate from Kolkata and Agartala, the capital of the neighboring state of Tripura.

Flora and fauna

As per the State of Forest Report 2003, published by the Forest Survey of India, Meghalaya has a forest cover of 9,496km, which is 42.34% of the total geographical area of the state. The Meghalayan subtropical forests have been considered among the richest botanical habitats of Asia. These forests receive abundant rainfall and support a vast variety of floral and faunal biodiversity. A small portion of the forest area in Meghalaya is under what is known as sacred groves (see Sacred groves of India). These are small pockets of ancient forest that have been preserved by the communities for hundreds of years due to religious and cultural beliefs. These forests are reserved for religious rituals and generally remain protected from any exploitation. These sacred groves harbour many rare plant and animal species. The Nokrek biosphere reserve in the West Garo Hills and the Balaphakram National Park in the South Garo Hills are considered to be the most biodiversity rich sites in the Meghalaya. In addition, Meghalaya has three Wildlife Sanctuaries. These are the Nongkhyllem Wildlife Sanctuary, the Siju Sanctuary and the Bhagmara Sanctuary, which is also the home of the insect eating pitcher plant Nepenthes khasiana.

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397 Due to the diverse climatic and topographic conditions, Meghalayan forests support a vast floral diversity, including a large variety of Parasites and Epiphytes, Succulent plants and Shrubs. Two of the most important tree varieties include: Shorea robusta (sal tree) and Tectona grandis (teak). Meghalaya is also the home to a large variety of fruits, vegetables, spices and medicinal plants. Meghalayan is also famous for its large variety of orchids nearly 325 of them. Of these the largest variety is found in Mawsmi, Mawmluh and Sohrarim forests in the Khasi hills.
Nepenthes khasiana

Animal

Meghalaya also has a large variety of mammals, birds, reptiles and insects. The important mammal species include elephants, bear, civets, mongooses, weasels, rodents, gaur, wild buffalo, deer, wild boar and a number of primates. Meghalaya also has a large variety of bats. The limestone caves in Meghalaya, such as the Siju cave are home to some of the rarest bat species. The prominent bird species in Meghalaya include the Magpie-Robin, the Red-vented Bulbul, the Hill Myna is usually found in pairs or in flocks in the hill forests of Meghalaya, the Large Pied Hornbill and the Great Indian, which is the largest bird in Meghalaya. Other birds include the Peacock Pheasant, the Large Indian Parakeet, the Common Green Pigeon and the Blue Jay. Meghalaya is also home to over 250 species of butterflies, nearly a quarter of all the species found in India. The common reptile varieties in Meghalaya are lizards, crocodiles and tortoises. Meghalaya also has a number of snakes including the python, the Copperhead, the Green Tree Racer, the Indian Cobra the King Cobra, the Coral Snake and Vipers.

Education
There are lots of good schools and colleges in Shillong. As part of developmental program in north eastern states, ministry of human resource development opened the seventh Indian Institute of Management in Shillong which is named as Rajiv Gandhi Indian Institute of Management. This institute started admissions from the academic year 2008. Recently National Institute of Fashion Technology Shillong and NEIGRIHMS opened in Shillong. Shillong is fast turning up as the center of learning in the North Eastern region. Apart from Shillong, Good school and colleges are available in Jowai and Tura
IIM Shillong

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Tourism
Earlier, foreign tourists required special permits to enter the areas that now constitute the state of Meghalaya. However, the restrictions were removed in 1955. Meghalaya is considered to be one of the most picturesque states in the country. It has enough tourism content to attract tourists of many different interests.

Tourism content
Meghalaya has some of the thickest surviving forests in the country and therefore constitutes one of the most important ecotourism circuits in the country today. The Meghalayan subtropical forests support a vast variety of flora and fauna. Meghalaya has 2 National Parks and 3 Wildlife Sanctuaries. Meghalaya also offers many adventure tourism opportunities in the form of mountaineering, rock climbing, trekking and hiking, water sports etc. The state offers several trekking routes some of which also afford and opportunity to encounter some rare animals such as the slow loris, assorted deer and bear. The Umiam Lake has a water sports complex with facilities such as rowboats, paddleboats, sailing boats, cruise-boats, water-scooters and speedboats. Meghalaya has an estimated 500 natural limestone and sandstone caves spread over the entire state including most Shillong Golf Course, one of the oldest golf courses of India. of the longest and deepest caves in the sub-continent. Krem Liat Prah is the longest cave and Synrang Pamiang is the deepest cave, both located in the Jaintia Hills. Cavers from United Kingdom, Germany, Austria, Ireland and the US have been visiting Meghalaya for over a decade exploring these caves. Not many of these have however been developed or promoted adequately for major tourist destinations.

Shillong from Shillong peak.

Important tourist spots

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Cherrapunjee is one of the most popular tourist spots in North East of India. It lies to the south of the capital Shillong. The town is very well known and needs little publicity. A rather scenic, 50 kilometer long road, connects Cherrapunjee with Shillong. The popular waterfalls in the state are the Elephant Falls, Shadthum Falls, Weinia falls, Bishop Falls, Nohkalikai Falls, Langshiang falls and Sweet Falls. The hot springs at Jakrem near Mawsynram are believed to have curative and medicinal properties. Meghalaya also has many natural and manmade lakes. The Umiam Lake (popularly known as Bara Pani meaning Big water) on the Guwahati-Shillong road is a major tourism attraction for tourist. Meghalaya has several parks; Thangkharang Park, the Eco-park, the Botanical Garden and Lady Hydari Park to name a few. Dawki, which is located at about 96 Kilometres from Shillong is the gateway to Bangladesh and affords a scenic view of some of the tallest mountain ranges in Meghalaya and the Bangladesh border lands.
Nohkalikai Falls

Problems and constraints

Standing stones, (Maw bin nah) below Cherrapunji. The state has a relatively poor road and communication network specially NH 62. While some of the major circuits such as Shillong-Jowai, Shillong-Tura and Shillong-Sohra are well developed; the internal road networks are rather poor and inadequately maintained. There are few markets outside the state capital Shillong. Banking facilities are also limited and only a few establishments in the state accept credit cards. The Garo Hills region which has some of the most important tourist spots is not well connected with the rest of the state.

Tourism in the North East in general has also suffered on account of years of insurgency and the resulting security concerns. Many governments had in the past issued advisories against traveling to the Northeast of India, worsening the security perception. It may however be mentioned that Meghalaya is perhaps the least affected by insurgency in the Northeast region. The current ground scenario for Shillong is one in which tourists are welcome to come and enjoy the beauty of Meghalaya.

Government and politics

State government
Like most other states in India, Meghalaya has a unicameral legislature. The Meghalaya Legislative Assembly has 60 members at present. Meghalaya has two representatives in the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Parliament of India; one each from Shillong and Tura. It also has one representative in the Rajya Sabha, the upper house of the Parliament. The ceremonial head of the State is the Governor appointed by the Government of India. However, the real executive powers are held by the Chief Minister. Meghalaya does not have a high court of its own. The Gauhati High Court has jurisdiction in Meghalaya. A Circuit Bench of the Guwahati High Court has been functioning at Shillong since 1974. See also List of political parties in the state

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Autonomous district councils

In order to provide local self governance machinery to the rural population of the country, provisions were made in the Constitution of India and accordingly the Panchayati Raj institutions were set up. However, on account of the distinct customs and traditions prevailing in erstwhile state of Assam (of which Meghalaya and most of the Northeast was a part), it was felt necessary to have a separate political and administrative structure in Assam. Moreover, some of the tribal communities in the region also had their own traditional political systems and it was felt that Panchayati Raj institutions may come into conflict with these traditional systems. To provide a simple and inexpensive form of local self governance to the tribal population, the Sixth Schedule was appended to the Constitution on the recommendations of a sub committee formed under the leadership of Gopinath Bordoloi. The Sixth Schedule provided for the constitution of Autonomous District Councils (ADCs) in certain rural areas of the Northeast including some areas that now fall in Meghalaya. The Sixth Schedule carries detailed provisions for the constitution and management of Autonomous District Councils (ADCs) and laid down the powers of the ADCs. At present Meghalaya has three ADCs, viz., Khasi Hills Autonomous District Council, Garo Hills Autonomous District Council and the Jaintia Hills Autonomous District Council.

Traditional political institutions

All the three major ethnic tribal groups, namely, the Khasis, Jaintias and the Garos also have their own traditional political institutions that have existed for hundreds of years. These political institutions were fairly well developed and functioned at various tiers, such as the village level, clan level and state level. In the traditional political system of the Khasis each clan had its own council known as the Durbar Kur, which was presided over by the clan headman. The council or the Durbar managed the internal affairs of the clan. Similarly, every village had a local assembly known as the Durbar Shnong, i.e. village Durbar or council, which was presided over by the village headman. These councils or Durbars played an administrative role in issues of common interest, such as sanitation, water supply, health, roads, education and conflict resolution. However, the inter-village issues were dealt with through a political unit comprising adjacent Khasi Villages. This political unit was known as the raid. The raid had its own council the Raid Durbar, which was presided over by the elected headman known as Basans, Lyngdohs or Sirdars. Above the Raid was a the supreme political authority known as the Syiemship. The Syiemship was the congregation of several raids and was headed an elected chief known as the Syiem (or the king). The Syiem ruled the Khasi state through the State Assembly, known as the Durbar Hima. Most of the elections were through adult male suffrage. No male is allowed to enter the Durbar (Assembly) without a mustache which is the rule of Khasi traditional. The Jaintias also had a three tier political system somewhat similar to the Khasis. The supreme political authority was the Syiem. The second tier of this structure was the congregation of Jaintia villages known as Raids. These were headed by Dolois, who were responsible for performing the executive, magisterial, religious and ceremonial functions at the Raid level. At the lowest level were the village headmen. Each administrative tier had its own councils or durbars. Most elections were through adult male suffrage. In the traditional political system of the Garos a group of Garo villages comprised the Aking. The Aking functioned under the supervision of the Nokmas, which was perhaps the only political and administrative authority in the political institution of the Garos. The Nokma performed both judicial and legislative functions. The Nokmas also congregated to address inter-Aking issues. There were no well-organized councils or durbars among the Garos. Frankenstein Momin, Billy Kid Sangma and Adolf Lu Hitler Marak were three men among dozens of others with equally colorful names who competed for legislative seats in Meghalaya, a remote northeast Indian state, on 3 March 2008. There were about 60 seats up for grabs, 331 candidates vying, and no shortage of unusual names it was reported on 25 February 2008. Hitler, Frankenstein battle for votes in India [13]

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Facts and figures

Area: 22,429km Population: 2,175,000 (2000) Ethnic groups: Khasi: 49% Garo: 34% Bengali: 2.5% Nepali: 4% Shaikh: 2.3% Koch: 2.8% Hajong: 1.8% Other: 6.4% Religion:[14] Christian: 70.3% Animist: 11.5% Hindu: 13.3% Muslim: 4.3% Capital: Shillong (population 260,000)

References
[1] http:/ / meghalaya. nic. in [2] "Census Population" (http:/ / indiabudget. nic. in/ es2006-07/ chapt2007/ tab97. pdf) (PDF). Census of India. Ministry of Finance India. . Retrieved 2008-12-18. [3] Indian Census (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ ) [4] Amrit Kumar Goldsmith. Christianity in North-east India in a Historical Perspective [5] "Department of Tourism, Government of Meghalaya -About Meghalaya" (http:/ / megtourism. gov. in/ aboutmeghalaya. html). Megtourism.gov.in. 1972-01-21. . Retrieved 2010-07-18. [6] "The People" (http:/ / www. westgarohills. gov. in/ people. htm). Westgarohills.gov.in. . Retrieved 2010-07-18. [7] Laird, Thomas (1995). "A woman's world Meghalaya, India; matrilineal culture | Whole Earth Review | Find Articles at BNET" (http:/ / www. findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_m1510/ is_n88/ ai_17922322). Findarticles.com. . Retrieved 2010-07-18. [8] "National Family Health Survey" (http:/ / www. nfhsindia. org/ ). Nfhsindia.org. . Retrieved 2010-07-18. [9] Roy, p. 139 [10] Roy, p. 132 [11] Roy, p. 25 [12] Roy, p. 169 [13] http:/ / edition. cnn. com/ 2008/ WORLD/ asiapcf/ 02/ 25/ india. names/ index. html [14] Census GIS HouseHold (http:/ / www. censusindiamaps. net/ page/ Religion_WhizMap1/ housemap. htm)

Bibliography
Hira Lal Deb Roy A Tribe in Transition Cosmo, 1981

External links
Tourism of Meghalaya (http://megtourism.gov.in/)

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Mizoram
Mizoram
State

Aizawl

Seal

Location of Mizoram in India Coordinates (Aizawl): 2322N 9200E Country Established Capital Largest city Districts Government -Governor M M Lakhera India 20 February 1987 Aizawl Aizawl 8

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-ChiefMinister -Legislature Area -Total Area rank Population (2011) -Total -Rank -Density Time zone ISO 3166 code HDI HDI rank Literacy Official languages Website 1091014 27th 51.8/km2(134/sqmi) IST (UTC+05:30) IN-MZ 0.790 (medium) 2nd (2005) 89.9% (2nd) Mizo, English mizoram.gov.in [1] 21081km2(8139.4sqmi) 24th Pu Lalthanhawla Unicameral (40 seats)

Mizoram ("land of the Mizo people") is one of the Seven Sister States in North Eastern India, sharing borders with the states of Tripura, Assam, Manipur and with the neighbouring countries of Bangladesh and Myanmar. Mizoram became the 23rd state of India on 20 February 1987. Its capital is Aizawl.

Climate
Mizoram has a mild climate, comfortable in summer 20C to 29C (68F to 84F) and never freezing during winter, with temperatures from 11C to 21C (52F to 70F). The region is influenced by monsoons, raining heavily from May to September with little rain in the dry (cold) season. The average state rainfall is 254cm (100 in.), per annum. In the capital, Aizawl rainfall is about 208 centimetres (82 in.) and in Lunglei another major center about 350 centimetres (138 in.)

Geography
Mizoram is a land of rolling hills, valleys, rivers and lakes. As many as 21 major hills ranges or peaks of different heights run through the length and breadth of the state, with plains scattered here and there. The average height of the hills to the west of the state are about 1,000 metres (3,281 feet). These gradually rise up to 1,300 metres (4,265 feet) to the east. Some areas, however, have higher ranges which go up to a height of over 2,000 metres (6,562 feet). Phawngpui Tlang also known as the Blue Mountain, situated in the south-eastern part of the state, is the highest peak in Mizoram at 2,210 metres (7,251 feet). The biggest river in Mizoram is Chhimtuipui, also known as Kaladan. It originates in Chin State in Burma and passes through Saiha and Lawngtlai districts in the Southern tip of Mizoram, goes back to Burma's Rakhine state, and finally enters the Bay of Bengal at Akyab, which is a very popular port in Sittwe, Burma. The Indian government has invested millions of rupees to set up inland water ways along this river to trade with Burma. The project is known as the Kaladan Multipurpose project. Although many more rivers and streams drain the hill ranges, the most important and useful rivers are the Tlawng, Tut, Tuirial and Tuivawl which flow through the northern territory and eventually join the Barak River in Cachar District. The Chhimtuipui which originates in Burma, is an

Mizoram important river in the south of Mizoram. It has four tributaries and the river is in patches. The western part is drained by (Khawthlang tuipui) and its tributaries. A number of important towns, including Chittagong in Bangladesh, are situated at the mouth of the river. Before Independence, access to other parts of the country was only possible through the river routes via Cachar in the north, and via Chittagong in the south. Entry through the latter was cut off when the subcontinent was partitioned and ceded to East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) in 1947. The Palak lake, the biggest in Mizoram is situated in Saiha District which is part of southern Mizoram covering 30 hectares (74 acres). It is believed that the lake was created as a result of an earthquake or a flood. The local people believe that a village which was submerged still remains intact deep under the waters. The Tamdil lake is a natural lake situated 85km (53mi) from Aizawl. Legend has it that a huge mustard plant once stood in this place. When the plant was cut down, jets of water sprayed from the plant and created a pool of water, thus the lake was named amdil which means of 'Lake of Mustard Plant'. Today the lake is an important tourist attraction and a holiday resort. The most significant lake in Mizo history Rih Dil is ironically located in Burma, a few kilometres from the India-Burma border. It was believed that the departed souls pass through this lake before making their way to Pialral or heaven.

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Geology and minerals

The folded structure of the Mizoram ranges are at the junction of two moving tectonic plates. (Indian and Burmese Desi Kachar 1974) The folded hilly or mountainous North South belts, with perpendicular faults, comprise sediments of the Surma, Barail, Tipam groups and Aluvium in river beds consisting of deposits of argillaceous and arenaceous sandstones, shale, siltstones and mudstones and greywacke. The rock system is weak, unstable, weathered and prone to seismic and weather influence producing landslides. The soft, black to grey rock is used locally for building materials and for low trafficked road construction work. There are no useful minerals of economic significance apart from clays in the River Tlawng beds. Typical soils are sandy loam, clay loam that have been heavily leached due to the high slopes leaving it porous and lacking in minerals or humus. A number of oil and gas exploration activities have taken place due the geological condition with which Mizoram has been formed, leading to the possibilities and high expectation that reserves would be confirmed. France, Russia and Cyprus as well as several Indian companies have already signed a 12% oil and 10% gas royalty arrangement with proceeds going direct to Mizoram state on any production (April 2009)

History
The origin of the Mizos, like those of many other tribes in the northeastern India, is shrouded in mystery. The generally accepted view is that they are of Mongolide descents and were part of a great wave of migration from China and later moved out to India to their present habitat. It is possible that the Mizos came from Sinlung or Chhinlungsan located on the banks of the Yalung River in China, first settled in the Shan State and moved on in the middle of the 16th century to Kabaw Valley, Khampat, Tahan and the Chin Hills. The earliest Mizos who migrated to India were known as Kukis. Mizo history in the 18th and 19th century is marked by many instances of tribal raids and head hunting led by the village chieftains. The Lushai Hills Autonomous District Council was formed in 1952 and it led to the abolition of chieftainship.The autonomy however only partially met the aspirations of the Mizo people so representatives of the District Council and the Mizo Union pleaded with the States Reorganization Commission (SRC) in 1954 for integrating the Mizo-dominated areas of Tripura and Manipur with the District Council in Assam. The tribal leaders in the northeast were unhappy with the final SRC recommendations and met in Aizawl in 1955 to form a new political party, Eastern India Tribal Union (EITU). This group raised their demand for a separate state comprising all the hill districts of Assam. The demand for a separate Hill state by EITU was kept in abeyance.

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Independence movement
There was little development in the state and many people were in hardship including food shortages. The Mizo National Famine Front dropped the word 'famine' and a new political organization, the Mizo National Front (MNF) was born on 22 October 1961 under the leadership of Laldenga with the specified goal of achieving sovereign independence of Mizoram. Large scale insurgency broke out on 28 February 1966 at the government installations at Aizawl, Lunglei, Chawngte, Chhimluang and other places and the Government of India responded militarily. This was the first time that India had used its air force to quell a movement of any kind among its citizens.In the afternoon of 4 March 1966, jet fighters attacked Aizawl. The next day, a more excessive bombing took place for several hours which left most houses in Dawrpui and Chhinga veng area in ashes, recollected 62-year-old Rothangpuia in Aizawl.[2] The Mizo National Front was outlawed in 1967 and the demand for statehood increased. The Mizo District Council delegation met prime minister Indira Gandhi in May 1971 and demanded full fledged statehood for Mizoram. The Indian government offered to convert the Mizo Hills into a Union Territory (U.T.) in July 1971. The Mizo leaders accepted on the condition that Statehood occurred sooner rather than later.

Founding of Mizoram state

Rajiv Gandhi's election to power following his mother's death signaled the beginning of a new era in Indian politics. Laldenga met the prime minister on 15 February 1985. Some contentious issues which could not be resolved during previous talks were referred to him for his advice. With Pakistan having lost control of Bangladesh and no support from Pakistan, the Mizo National Front which had evolved from the Mizo National Famine Front after the great famine of 1958 used the opportunity that had now presented itself. New Delhi felt that the Mizo issue had been dragging on for a long time, while the Mizo National Front was convinced that disarming, to live as respectable Indian citizens, was the only way of achieving peace and development. Statehood was a prerequisite to the implementation of the accord signed between the Mizo National Front and the Union Government on 30 June 1986. The document was signed by Pu Laldenga on behalf of the Mizo National Front, and the Union Home Secretary R.D. Pradhan on behalf of the government. Lalkhama, Chief Secretary of Mizoram, also signed the agreement. The formalization of the state of Mizoram took place on 20 February 1987. Chief Secretary Lalkhama read out the proclamation of statehood at a public meeting organized at Aizawl's parade ground. Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi flew in to Aizawl to inaugurate the new state. Hiteshwar Saikia was appointed as Governor of Mizoram.

Demographics
Details are shown in the figures.

Sociology
The great majority of Mizoram's population is several ethnic tribes who are either culturally or linguistically linked. These ethnic groups are collectively known as Mizos (Mi= People, Zo= Hill). One should note that 'Mizo' is a generic term which denotes a particular group of hillmen who are closely linked culturally and linguistically. Moreover these group of people of hillmen share close physical similarities. There is an increasing unity among Mizo tribes who are spread throughout the northeastern states of India, Burma and Bangladesh. The Mizos are divided into numerous tribes, however, to name a particular tribe as the largest woul be an unreliable task as no concrete census has ever been undertaken till date. In order to better understand the Mizos, a substantial knowledge and understanding of the various Mizo Tribes (Tribes who fall under the term Mizo) is a requirement. The Mizos include Hmar, Lushei, Paite, Lai, Mara etc. and a few among others. These tribes are divided into numerous clans within themselves, and these clans are further sub-divided into sub-clans, for example the Hmars are divided into Thiek, Lungtau, Darngawn, Khawbung, Zote etc. These clans sometimes have slight liguistics differences. The Riang, a sub-tribe of Tripuri and the Chakma of Arakanese origin, are a non-Mizo tribe living in Mizoram. The Mizo people usually suffix their descriptive given names with their tribe.

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Music
Mizo traditional tunes are very soft and gentle, with locals claiming that they can be sung the whole night without the slightest fatigue. The guitar is a popular instrument and Mizos enjoy country style music. Within the church at services drums, are commonly used known locally as "khuang". They are made from wood and animal hide and are often beaten enough to instigate a trance like state with worshipers as they dance in a circular fashion. Mizos enjoy singing and even without musical instruments, they enthusiastically sing together, clapping hands or by using other rhythmic methods. Informal instruments are called chhepchher. The early Mizos were close to nature and music is still an essential part of cultural life. Whilst gospel music remains an integral part of Mizo culture, Western influence is evident from the contemporary music scene as young people experiment with rock, metal, rap, pop and hip-hop types.

Festivals
Young Mizos are leaving traditional customs and adopting new ways of life which are greatly influenced by Western culture. Christmas is probably the biggest festival and local communities contribute towards large feasts, typically organised by nearby churches, where many hundreds in a local community would eat together. Traditional Mizo social gatherings revolve around the agricultural calendar.

Mim Kut
The Mim Kut festival is usually celebrated during the months of August and September, after the harvest of maize. Mim Kut is celebrated with great fanfare by (illegally) drinking rice-beer, singing, dancing, and feasting. Samples of the year's harvests are consecrated to the departed souls of the community.

Chapchar Kut
Chapchar Kut is another festival celebrated during March after completion of their most arduous task of Jhum operation i.e., jungle-clearing (clearing of the remnants of burning). This is a spring festival celebrated with great fervour and gaiety.

Pawl Kut
Pawl means Straw hence pawl kut means a straw harvest festival. It is typically celebrated in December and is another important festival.

Dances
Cheraw
The most colourful and distinctive dance of the Mizo is called Cheraw. Long bamboo staves are a feature of this dance and it is known to many as the Bamboo Dance. Originally, the dance was performed to wish a safe passage and victorious entry into the abode of the dead (Pialral) for the soul of a mother who had died in childbirth. To dance Cheraw takes great skill and alertness. On March 12, 2010 Mizoram also sets Guinness World Records with a 10-minute performance of its famous Cheraw "Bamboo Dance", featuring 10,736 participants in 671 groups.

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Khuallam
Khuallam was originally a dance performed by honoured guests while entering into the village arena where a community feast was held. To attain a position of distinction, a Mizo traditionally underwent a series of ceremonies and performed the dance before the guests. Khuallam is a group dance performed in colourful dress to the tune of gongs and drums.

Chheih Lam
Chheih Lam is the dance done over a round of rice-beer in the cool of the evening. The lyrics in triplets are usually spontaneous compositions, recounting their heroic deeds and escapades and also praising the honoured guests present in their midst.

Mizo life
The fabric of social life in the Mizo society has undergone tremendous change over the last few years. Previously the village and the clan formed units of Mizo society. The Mizo code of ethics or dharma focused on "Tlawmngaihna", an untranslatable term meaning that it was the obligation of all members of society to be hospitable, kind, unselfish, and helpful to others. Tlawmngaihna to a Mizo stands for that compelling moral force which finds expression in self-sacrifice for the service of others. The old belief, Pathian, is still used to mean God. Mizos often gather together to help in disaster management like landslides or famine. Mizos are a close-knit society with no class distinction and no sexual discrimination. 90% of them are cultivators and the village functions as a large family. Birth, marriage, and death in the village are important occasions and the whole village would typically become involved. In time of death, the whole local community, as well as all family members of the deceased, mourn together, in the residence of the deceased. This particular process of mourning together lasts anywhere from a few weeks to over 3 months. There are a few community establishments in urban centres that frequently arrange various social events including such varieties as: "Mizoram Supermodel Competition", the first one organized by the now defunct 'Frontiers Club', musical concerts, comedy shows, reality TV shows such as Mizo Idol, discussion groups, "Mr Mizoram" (body building show) and scientific or technological conferences. However, generally speaking the region is lacking in Western-style social meeting establishments. Much of the social life often revolves around church. An active church life is perhaps one of the reasons why Mizos are such a tight-knit community.

Media and communication

Mizorams media is growing quickly. Internet access is average, and private television cable channels are popular the big players in the cable market being ACE Net, LPS (Laldailova Pachuau & Sons) & Zonet from Aizawl and smaller operators are JB cable Networks, LDF Cable, Eldo Zenith Links from Lunglei. Other major media players are the press, All India Radio, Doordarshan and local cable TV operators. A Broadband internet is also available. Cyber Cafe: Dazzlechips Cyber Cafe, Opposite Hrangbana College, Chanmari, Aizawl, Mizoram.

Languages
Mizo is the official language but English is widely used in Mizoram being important for education, administration, formalities and governance.The Mizo community is an amalgam of several indigenous tribes who have unique identities and distinctive dialects. The Duhlian dialect, also known as the Lusei was the first language of Mizoram and it continues to evolve. The Lusei language is mixed with other dialects like the Mara, Lai and Hmar. Christian missionaries developed the Mizo script. Writing is a combination of the Roman script and Hunterian transliteration methodology with prominent traces of a phonetics based spelling system. Mizo is an official language of India. 8th

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Religion
The majority (90.5%) of Mizos are Christian.[4] in various denominations, predominantly Presbyterian and the church forms an important part of Mizo culture. Migrated Hindus form a small minority (3.6%) and there are also around 8.3% Buddhists according to the 2001 census, mostly made up from Chakma settlers of Arakan origin.[4] Muslims make up about 1.1%.

Christianity
The major Christian denominations are Presbyterian. The Mizoram Presbyterian Church was established by a Welsh Missionary named Rev. D.E. Jones and is one of the constituted bodies of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church of India, which has its headquarters at Shillong in Meghalaya (India). The administration of the Presbyterian Church is highly centralized. The Synod, with its headquarters at Aizawl, is the highest decision making body of the church with considerable influence. The financial operation, personnel (including selection of missionaries), administration, management and operation of the church are directly or indirectly controlled by the Synod Headquarters. Other Christian churches include the Baptist Church of Mizoram, United Pentecostal Church, the Salvation Army, the Seventh-day Adventist Church, Kohhran Thianghlim, Roman Catholic, Lairam Jesus Christ Baptist Church(LIKBK), and the Evangelical Church of Maraland, Independent Church of India (ICI) and Evangelical Free Church of India (EFCI).There also exist a church in the capital, located in mission veng,named ENGLISH CONGREGATION CHURCH which is conducted in ENGLISH and where people belonging to different parts of India as well as the world come to praise the lord. It was established in 1978 and is still considered as one of the reputed churches of mizoram. There are also a few number of Mizos who practice Judaism.

Tribal Status
All indigenous Mizos are scheduled as tribal. Chakma's and Tuikuk (Riang/Brus) form a minority.

Education
Until 1894, when the missionaries introduced elementary education, Mizos were illiterate without any written language. The first primary school was set up in 1898 at Aizawl. In 1901 it was thought that literacy was only 0.9% but by 2005 census had reached 89%. Today Mizoram is second only to Kerala for literacy in India at 95%. There are several educational establishments under the umbrella of the Ministry of Education, including universities, colleges and other institutions. Within Mizoram University, there are 29 undergraduate colleges including 2 professional institutions affiliated with the university. The total enrollment in these institutions is approximately 5200 students. The National Institute of Technology for Mizoram is currently operating under NIT Nagpur and is expected to function in Mizoram soon. Indian Institute of Mass Communication has also plans to start a campus. ICFAI Mizoram University also offers Business studies in Aizawl. Plans are underway to start a Medical College by the Mizoram Government. The College of Veterinary Sciences & Animal Husbandry, Selesih, Aizawl, Mizoram[5] is the premier institute of Veterinary Medicine catering the needs of north-eastern states of India.

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Politics
Originally land tenure was invested with the head of the tribe or chief assisted by a council that ruled locally. After annexation by the British in the 1890s, Mizoram was administered as the Lushai Hills district of Assam. The colonial power introduced inner line regulation, restricting access to any outsiders. It was renamed as the district of Mizo Hills within Assam State in 1954 and in the same year the Young Mizo association was formed which is still an important institution in Mizoram. In order to protect ethno cultural identity, and with various political differences, friction developed with mainland India and insurgency started with an armed revolt in 1966. The region was subsequently declared Mizoram after the insurgency, receiving status as a Union territory in 1972. It became a State of India in 1986, formalized the following year.

Administration
After the 1986 signing of the Historic Memorandum of Settlement between the Government of India and the Mizo National Front, Mizoram was granted Statehood on 20 February 1987 (as per the Statehood Act of 1986). Mizoram became the 23rd State of the Indian Union. As in other Indian states, the ceremonial head of the state government is a governor appointed by the Union Government. The appointment is largely ceremonial. The Chief Minister, who holds executive power in the state, is the elected head. The governor appoints the cabinet ministers on the advice of the Chief Minister. Mizoram has a unicameral legislature like most other Indian states. The Lais, Maras and Chakmas have separate autonomous District Councils. The present Chief Minister of Mizoram is Pu Lalthanhawla Assembly election results of Mizoram The Mizoram State Legislative Assembly has 40 seats and the Village Councils are the grassroots of democracy and leadership in Mizoram. Mizoram is divided into 8 districts: Aizawl Lunglei Kolasib Mamit Serchhip Saiha Champhai Lawngtlai

Distrists of Mizoram

There are three Autonomous District Councils (ADC) for ethnic tribes in Mizoram, namely Chakma Autonomous District Council (CADC) for ethnic Chakmas in South-western Mizoram bordering Bangladesh, Mara Autonomous District Council (MADC) for Mara people in the Southern-most corner and Lai Autonomous District Council (LADC) for Lai people in South-eastern part of the state.

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Economy
Mizoram lags behind economically within India with little development due to the geographical lack of markets and raw materials. Cottage industry and other small-scale industries play an important role in the economy. Forest products are being encouraged (see bamboo below) and the 9th Five Year Plan (19972002) gives priority to "agro-based industries." Around 70% of the population is engaged in agriculture. The Industry Department actively promotes the following: Zoram Industrial Development Corporation. (ZIDCO) Mizoram Khadi and Village Industry Board. (MKVIB) Zoram Handloom and Handicraft Corporation Limited. (ZOHANCO) Mizoram Food and Allied Industries Corporation Limited. (MIFCO) Zoram Electronics Development Corporation. (ZENICS)

Macro-economic trend
Below is a chart of trends in gross state product of Mizoram at market prices estimated[6] by Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation with figures in millions of Indian rupees.
Year 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 Gross State Domestic Product 680 1,810 3,410 9,370 17,690

Mizoram's gross domestic state product for 2004 is estimated at $685 million in current prices.

Bamboo industry
There are at least 20 identifiable species of bamboo indigenous to mizoram. Some 30% of the state is covered with wild bamboo forests, many of which are largely unexploited. Mizoram harvests 40% of India's 80 million-ton annual bamboo crop. The current state administration wishes to increase revenue streams from bamboo and aside from uses as a substitute for timber, there is research underway to utilize bamboo more widely such as using bamboo chippings for paper mills, bamboo charcoal for fuel, fertiliser and the manufacture of pressed wall panels. Bamboo flowering, rats and famine Mizoram has always suffered from famine known locally as 'mautam' or 'thingtam' every few decades. The problem is caused by the synchronous flowering of bamboo species which naturally flower and then die at regular intervals. When bamboo has flowered it produces many seeds and fruit causing rodent feeding frenzies. The mautam always leads to dramatic increases in local rat populations as well as producing swarms of insects, which then spread to the human food storage areas after the natural harvest is expired - destroying stocks and food crops. Historically it led to death by starvation (102 in 1859) and even today presents much hardship to many rural communities whose very survival depends on a successful harvest. The famines are called after the name of the bamboo that flowers. Meloccana baccifera is called "Mautak" in mizo and the famine that is caused by its flowering is named "Mautam". When Bambusa Tulda flowers, called "Rawthing" in mizo, the consequent famine is known as "Thingtam". The first Thingtam famine in 1739 was followed by a Mautam in 1769. A Mautam famine occurs 30 years after a Thingtam famine and the latter occurs 18 years after a Mautam. This gives a cycle of around 48 years. There was a Mautam famine in 2006- 2007 and so a Thingtam is

Mizoram expected in 2025. The next more severe Mautam famine is expected in 2055. It was in October 2005 that the initial heavy flowering of the bamboo was first noticed at Chawngtlai bamboo forest in the southern district of Champhai. It then spread rapidly in 2006 - 2007 throughout the state. After the Mautam, desperate to control the rising rat population, the state government announced a reward of one rupee for every rat-tail taken. During 2006 alone more than 221,636 rats were killed. The famines have played their part in Mizoram's history. The famine in 1958 led to the formation of the Mizo National Famine Front which lobbied for and set up relief to villagers by mobilising the youth to distribute rice and provisions. The MNFF later changed its name to the MNF and operated as a political unit to fight for the rights of Mizo people. Under the then Chief Minister Laldenga together with his supporters including the ex Chief Minister Zoramthanga, the group fought a bitter separatist struggle for twenty years against the Indian Army for self rule.

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Agriculture
The agro-climatic conditions of Mizoram having both temperate and semi tropical climates with tropic and temperate zones,is conducive to a wide variety of crops. Mizoram has well-distributed rainfall of 1900mm to 3000mm (75 to 118inches) spread over eight to ten months in the year and agriculture is the mainstay of the Mizos. More than 70% of the total population is engaged in some form of agriculture. The age-old practice of Jhum cultivation is conducted by most people living in rural areas. Recently, Godrej Agrovet Limited [7] has entered into a new venture wherein Oil Palm and Jatropha cultivation, for biofuels is being promoted. A low calorie sugar substitute, Stevia rebaudiana, known as 'sweetleaf', has also recently been grown to improve economical agricultural diversity.

Food processing
Attempts to add value in food processing are ongoing and MIFCO have canned local bamboo shoots and also the tasty edible spadix of Alocasia fornicata , known as Baibing . The total production of fruits, vegetables, and spices increase yearly but attempts to wean local farmers away from shifting cultivation known locally as Jhum cultivation have been met with mixed success.

Handicrafts
Mizo women use hand loom to make clothing and cloth handicrafts.The local products are even fused with other materials to give them a fashionable and stylish designs. Mizos are fond of colourful hand woven wrap-around skirt called puan chei, and a matching beautiful top called Kawr chei. A multi colour Mizo traditional bag called Khiang kawi, which is creatively knitted out of bright colored wools, is a welcome possession. A typical Mizo blanket known as Pawnpui is also used. Basket weaving is also common. Baskets known as Em, are used and Thlangra - a plate for cleaning rice etc. are made from bamboos. In fact,a typical Mizo house is crafted out of bamboos, dry grasses, mud and wood. A traditional Mizo village has been reconstructed at Reiek - a few kilometres away from Aizawl. Though modern houses made with bricks, concrete and tin sheets are now the norm.

Tourism
Mizoram is considered by many as a beautiful place due to its dramatic landscape and pleasant climate. There have been many attempts to increase revenue through tourism but many potential tourists find the lack of amenities to be a hurdle. However the State continues to promote itself and many projects have been initiated. The tourism ministry continues to maintain or upgrade its tourist lodges throughout the state. Foreign tourists are required to obtain an 'inner line permit' under the special permit before visiting. The permit can be obtained from Indian missions abroad for a limited number of days or direct from Mizoram Government authorities within India.

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Medicine
Mizoram urban centers are well equipped with clinics, hospitals, dentists etc. and most medicines are available off the shelf without prescription. However, the rural communities use local herbal medicines gathered from the wild. In line with the growing use of all herbal medicines gathered internationally, many local species are now becoming rare. Attempts to sustainably promote and harvest local medicines have met with limited success.

Energy sector
Mizoram is not self sufficient in power. Despite having a rich potential in hydropower, it is yet to be developed. Some communities use solar power - at least for light. There are 22 diesel power stations for power backup (26.14 MW)and 9 mini/micro hydel (hydroelectric) plants producing 8.25 MW. As per the 16th Electric Power Survey of India under CEA, Government of India, the restricted peak load demand of the state during the 20022003 year is 102 MW.

Transport infrastructure
Mizoram has a road network of around 4000km (2,486 miles) or minor or village roads and a small number of national highways. The village roads are primarily single lane or unmetalled tracks that are typically lightly trafficked. The State is connected to the Indian network through National Highway 54. Another highway, NH-150 connects the state with Seling Mizoram to Imphal Manipur and NH-40A links the State with Tripura.A road between Champhai and Tiddim in Burma has been proposed but the Burmese authorities are unwilling to complete the link.

Airport
Mizoram has an airport, Lengpui Airport, near Aizawl and this is linked from Kolkata - a 40 minute flight. Inclement weather conditions mean that at certain times the flights are unreliable. Mizoram can also be reached from Kolkata via Silchar Airport, which is about 200km. (124 miles, around 6 hours) from Aizawl.

Railway
There is a rail link at Bairabi rail station but it is primarily for goods traffic. The nearest practical station to Mizoram is at Silchar in Assam - some 6 hours drive from Aizawl. Bairabi is about 110km (68 miles), and Silchar is about 180km. (112 miles) from the state capital. Plans are underway to link Bairabi with Aizawl.

Water ways
Mizoram is in the process of developing water ways with the port of Akyab Sittwe in Burma along Chhimtuipui River. India is investing $103 million to develop the Sittwe port on Burma's northern coast, about 160km (99 miles) from Mizoram. Military government of Burma has committed $10 million for the venture, which is part of the Kaladan Multipurpose project.[8] Though the connection is arguably of limited use.

Alcohol prohibition
In 1996 the Synod totally banned liquor under the Mizoram Liquor Total Prohibition (MLTP) Act. The church leaders or Mizoram Kohhran Hruaitute Committee continue to insists that state government keeps the state free of alcohol. Critics are of the opinion that the Liquor Ban Act, imposed in the Christian-dominated state from 1996, has totally failed and has only proliferated bootlegging of poor quality liquor, resulting in fatalities and increased prices of smuggled liquor. "If a law fails, it is either to be lifted or amended. We have experimented with the Liquor Ban Act for more than ten years, and witnessed that it has failed to stop what it is meant to stop. It only made Mizoram the wettest dry state. One can find plenty of liquor, only the prices are extraordinarily high," said former Mizoram

Mizoram chief secretary M. Lalmanzuala.[9] The retired IAS officer further blamed the wrong teaching of the European missionaries for the Church's negative attitude towards liquor which he claimed had never been a problem, but part of religious rituals before the Missionary era. The missionaries instruction, he said in his research paper, was compounded by the war-like confrontation between the well-to-dos and the poor in the pre-Christian Mizo society. "Only the well-to-dos afforded Zu or rice beer which was brewed from surplus rice. The poor people who did not afford the Zu were the first to adopt Christianity and these people started hating the Zu which was a status symbol of the well-to-do people," he said in his research paper Mizo Culture and Liquor. Some have argued that the complete ban on alcohol has led young people to search for other stimulants resulting in a growing drug abuse problem in the state. Although locally made alcohol is available and often in poor quality and taste, prohibition has checked the movement of liquor. Early missionaries had directly attacked liquor and converts felt that liquor consumption ravaged the community, occupying an unwelcome position in Mizo society. Many Mizos, especially the church elders, support the idea of prohibition though there is increasing discontent.

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References
[1] http:/ / mizoram. gov. in [2] http:/ / www. newslink. in/ 2007/ 03/ 06/ memories-of-inferno-still-remain-fresh [3] "Census Population" (http:/ / indiabudget. nic. in/ es2006-07/ chapt2007/ tab97. pdf) (PDF). Census of India. Ministry of Finance India. . Retrieved 2008-12-18. [4] THE SCHEDULED TRIBES Census of India 2001 (http:/ / censusindia. gov. in/ Tables_Published/ SCST/ dh_st_mizoram. pdf), p. 4 [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] (http:/ / www. vetcolcau. org) National Accounts Division : Press Release and statements, M/O Statistics & PI (http:/ / mospi. nic. in/ mospi_nad_main. htm) Godrej Agrovet Limited (GAVL) - Top Diversified Agribusiness Company (http:/ / godrejagrovet. com) Govt to spend $100 million on linking Mizoram-Myanmar (http:/ / www. financialexpress. com/ fe_full_story. php?content_id=153748) Mizoram Church no to liquor ban Act amendment (http:/ / news. webindia123. com/ news/ articles/ India/ 20090606/ 1269373. html)

Sources
"The Lost Tribes of Israel", Tudor Parfitt, Phoenix, 2002. ISBN 1-84212-665-2 Mizoram Government Website (http://mizoram.gov.in/) Detailed information on Mizoram Mizoram Government Portal (http://mizoram.nic.in/)

External links
Directorate of Information & Public Relations, Govt. of Mizoram (http://dipr.mizoram.gov.in) Tourism of Mizoram (http://mizotourism.nic.in/) Mizoram English News Portal (http://mizoramexpress.com/) Mizoram travel guide from Wikitravel

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Nagaland
Nagaland
State

Seal

Location of Nagaland in India

Map of Nagaland Coordinates (Kohima): 2540N 9407E Country Established Capital Largest city India 1 December 1963 Kohima Dimapur

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Districts Government -Governor -ChiefMinister -Legislature Area -Total Area rank Population (2011) -Total -Rank -Density Time zone ISO 3166 code HDI HDI rank Literacy Official languages Website 1980602 24th 119.5/km2(309.4/sqmi) IST (UTC+05:30) IN-NL 0.770 (medium) 4th (2005) 63.7% (22nd) English nagaland.nic.in [1] 16579km2(6401.2sqmi) 25th Nikhil Kumar Neiphiu Rio Unicameral (60 seats) 11

Nagaland is a state in the far north-eastern part of India. It borders the state of Assam to the west, Arunachal Pradesh and part of Assam to the north, Myanmar to the east and Manipur to the south. The state capital is Kohima, and the largest city is Dimapur. The State of Nagaland has an area of 16,579 sq kms with a population of 19,88,636 as per the 2001 census making it one of the smallest states of India. The State is mostly mountainous except those areas bordering Assam valley. Mount Saramati is the highest peak in Nagaland with a height of 3,840 metres and its range forms a natural barrier between Nagaland and Myanmar. It lies between the parallels of 98 degree and 96 degree East Longitude and 26.6 degree and 27.4 degree latitude North of the Equator. Nagaland, the 16th State of the Indian Union, was established on 1 December 1963. It is divided into eleven districts: Kohima, Phek, Mokokchung, Wokha, Zunheboto, Tuensang, Mon, Dimapur, Kiphire, Longleng and Peren. It is a largely mountainous state. Agriculture is the most important economic activity in Nagaland. Principal crops include rice, corn, millets, pulses, tobacco, oilseeds, sugarcane, potatoes and fibres. Other economy boosters are forestry, cottage industries, insurance, real estate and tourism.

History
The early history of the Nagas is the story of the customs and economic activities of the Naga tribes. The people were originally referred to as Naka in Burmese languages, which means 'people with pierced ears'.It is also said that the word "Naga" was given by the British which actually means "Naked"(in Hindi "nanga" means naked).The British broadly classified the tribes of Manipur into "Nagas" and "Kukis".The Naga tribes had socio-economic and political links with tribes in Assam and Burma (Myanmar); even today a large population of Naga inhabits Assam. Following an invasion in 1816, the area, along with Assam, came under direct rule of Burma. This period was noted for oppressive rule and turmoil in Assam and Naga Hills. When the British East India Company took control of Assam in 1826, Britain steadily expanded its domain over modern Naga Hills. By 1892, all of the Naga Hills except the

Nagaland Tuensang area in the northeast was governed by the British. It was politically amalgamated into Assam. Missionaries played an important part in converting Nagaland's Naga tribes to Christianity.[2] Not much is known about the history before the Burmese invasion or before the Naga people were converted to Christianity.

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Road to statehood
During World War I, the British recruited several hundred Nagas and sent them to France to work as aides at the front. While in Europe, the Naga, who had always been fractured by tribal differences, began to think that they should work towards becoming unified in order to protect their common interests. On their return to their homeland in 1918, they organized, and thus began the Naga nationalist movement.[3] After the independence of India in 1947, the area remained a part of the province of Assam. Nationalist activities arose amongst a section of the Nagas, whose Naga National Council demanded a political union of their ancestral and native groups, damaged government and civil infrastructure and attacked government officials and civilians from other states of India. The Union government sent the Indian Army in 1955, to restore order. In 1957, the government began diplomatic talks with representatives of Naga tribes, and the Naga Hills district of Assam and the Tuensang frontier were united in a single political entity that became a Union territory, directly administered by the Central government with a large degree of autonomy. This was not satisfactory to the tribes, however, and soon agitation and violence increased across the stateincluded attacks on Army and government institutions, as well as civil disobedience and non-payment of taxes. In July 1960, a further political accord was reached at the Naga People's Convention to wit: that Nagaland should become a constituent and self-governing state in the Indian union. Statehood was officially granted in 1963.

Latter day unrest

The governments initiative was vehemently condemned by the NNC which pointed out that these are measures to divide the Naga people. A Peace Mission was formed which resulted in the signing of an Agreement for Suspension of Operation (AGSOP) with the insurgents on 6 September 1964. But violence continued and six rounds of talks between the Centre and insurgents failed. The Peace Mission broke in 1967. In November 1966, a 300-strong contingent of Naga rebels led by Thinusilie and Muivah was in China for training of weapons and with huge quantities of arms and equipment, the it returned in January 1968 and established a huge camp in the Jotsoma jungles. Indian forces recovered Chinese weapons and incriminating documents in June.[4] . The Government of India banned the NNC in 1972 under the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act of 1967 and launched a massive counter-insurgency operation. On 11 November 1975, the Shillong Accord was signed between NNC and the Government of India where the NNC cadres accepted without condition, the Constitution of India. However, a section of the NNC rebelled against the accord and formed the National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN) in 1980. Tribal differences led to a split in the NSCN in 1988 leading to the birth of Isak-Muivah faction (NSCN-IM) and the Khaplang faction (NSCN-K). Both these outfits continued their movement with an avowed objective of establishing a Nagalim (greater Nagaland) comprising Naga inhabited areas of Nagaland, Assam, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh and neighbouring Myanmar. Insurgencies were quelled in the early 1990s. Violence had re-erupted and there was conflict between rebel group factions till the early 1990s. On 25 July 1997, Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee announced that the Government after talks with Isaac group of the Nationalist Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN) declared a cease-fire or cessation of operations.On 1 August 1997, the NSCN-IM and the Union government entered into a ceasefire agreement and have since held more than 60 rounds of dialogue (until mid-2009) to resolve the conflict. A similar ceasefire agreement was signed between the NSCN-K and the government in April 2001, though both sides are yet to start a process of dialogue. The ceasefire agreements with both the outfits have been periodically extended.

Nagaland The militant groups have been continuously collecting tax from the people and business establishments. This money is collected from all sources, including from Government departments and the extortion network spreads over not only the cities like Dimapur, Kohima and various District headquarters and townships but also over almost all the 1317 villages of the state. Tax is also collected from commercial vehicles plying on National Highway 39, en route, to Manipur. Neither the Central nor the state Government is taking any action against this tax collection by the militants. The ceasefire rules, which stipulate that the militants stay in designated camps, ban their movement in uniform and with arms and prohibit extortion, are also not followed by the militants. The cadres of the militant outfits move freely with their arms out in open and carry out all sorts of extortion activities. The police, Army and Central Para-Military forces were unable to take any significant steps in this regard for quite sometime but things appear to have been brought under control by 2009. In spite of the twelve year old ceasefire with the NSCN-IM and the eight year old ceasefire with the rival Khaplang faction (NSCN-K), the situation in Nagaland is still volatile. With the birth of NSCN-U, the situation turned murkier. Insurgency-related fatalities have been on a rise during the last few years in the state. Between 1992 and 2009 (till July), at least 2330 insurgency related fatalities have been recorded in Nagaland. The number of fatalities in insurgency-related activities increased from 154 in 2007 to 201 in 2008. Most of the fatalities are a result of clashes between the various factions of the militant groups, as there have been very few incidents of militant-security force standoffs.

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Obstacles to reconciliation
Extending the existing ceasefire with both the outfits remains central to the governments conflict management policy in Nagaland. Representatives of the NSCN-IM and the government continue to meet periodically to carry forward the negotiations. By far, however, little success has been achieved to break the deadlock over the outfits demand of integrating the Naga-inhabited areas of Assam, Manipur and Arunachal Pradesh with Nagaland. Both the government and the NSCN-IM, however, on 31 July 2007, following a round of dialogue in Dimapur, took a decision to extend the ceasefire indefinitely. A few more round of talks have taken place since then in Delhi, but there were no concrete outcome of the talks. Recently, the Central Government has decided to change the Chief Interlocutor, K. Padmanabhaiah, who had been holding the post for the last 10 years. The NSCN-IM has expressed strong reservations against this move of the Government. The NSCN-K has also, now, expressed its interest in holding peace talks with the Central Government. The government in New Delhi has done little in terms of stopping the internecine clashes between the outfits. It insists that the clashes between the insurgent outfits are a law and order problem, to be handled by the state government. The Nagaland state government, on the contrary, has always been a marginal player in contributing to the peace process.The internecine war has claimed more than 500 lives during 2004-2008 and it still remains the biggest obstacle in establishing peace in the state. Since 2004, the Central government, the State government and the NSCN (IM) have been raising at intervals about the talk of an interim solution to the Naga question but even in 2009 the idea of an interim solution remains fruitless. A round of talks start at Zurich in Switzerland by end of March 2009, the interim proposals are still being discussed and reworked, and the stage for a possible confrontation has been set by the declaration by NSCN (I-M) leader Isak Chisi Swu that any relationship within the ambit of the Indian Constitution will be unacceptable.

Peace efforts
Civil society movements in Nagaland have been traditionally effective. The Church has been an important player in peace making among the insurgents, almost all of whom are Christian, since the beginning of the conflict. The Baptist Church Council of Nagaland played a prominent part in the formation of the Peace Mission in 1964. In July 1997, the Baptist Church organised the Atlanta Peace meet where the NSCN leadership accepted initiatives to start an unconditional dialogue process. In the first week of November 2007, a group of Church workers from the United Kingdom arrived in Nagaland to push for reconciliation between the NSCN-IM and the NSCN-K. A team from the

Nagaland North American Baptist Church too is involved in brokering peace between both the factions. Organisations like the Naga Hoho and the Naga Mothers Association (NMA) have worked towards reconciliation among the warring factions. Even the tribal councils belonging to the different tribes in the state including the Ao Senden, the Sumi Hoho have tried to establish unity among the NSCN-IM and NSCN-K, albeit without much success. Organisations like the Naga Peoples Movement for Human Rights (NPMHR) that periodically highlights the alleged abuses by the security forces, are seen as placating the interests of the NSCN-IM and have no influence on either the NSCN-K or the NNC. Some leaders of the NSCN-IM and the NSCN-K met in Niuland, near Dimapur on 23 November 2007 to declare the cessation of hostility between the outfits. However, the agreement was soon repudiated by both the outfits and the clashes have continued. The citizens of the state are also now taking initiatives for bringing peace in the state. On 20 May 2008, peace rallies were organized in all the 11 district headquarter towns by the gaon buras (village chiefs) and dubashis (chiefs of Naga customary courts), asking the warring Naga factions to stop violence. In June 2008, a reconciliation meeting of the Naga factions, mass-based Naga organisations and tribal Hohos was organised by the Naga Reconciliation Forum, headed by Baptist clergyman Wati Aier, Baptist World Alliance and a UK-based Quaker group, at Chiang Mai in Thailand. But, the NSCN-K rejected the offer made by the rival NSCN-IM for a dialogue outside the country and the move failed. The civil society organizations in Nagaland such as the Forum for Naga Reconciliation, the Naga Hoho and many other womens and students organizations have played an important role in laying the groundwork for the emergence of lasting peace in the region. These are the actors who are working as a bridge between the various regions which comprises Nagalim, in Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur and parts of Myanmar; and without any substantial political overtones. They have been successful in reaching out to communities, both Naga and other ethnic tribes, and promoting dialogue and understanding at the civil society level between contesting aspirations of communities in the region, which the political outfits engaged in talks have not been able to do. They have joined efforts to talk to top rebel leaders to stop fratricidal killings among Naga insurgent factions and extortions and threats, and to include more women in the peace talks. The marginalization of civil society organizations creates conditions for increased factionalism and violence, as demonstrated by the emergence of NSCN (U) (Unification) and the resultant increase in fratricidal killings. The Forum for Naga Reconciliation recently called for turning swords into ploughshares, and for working creatively towards ensuring enduring peace and a lasting solution to the Naga question.

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Geography and climate

Nagaland is largely a mountainous state. The Naga Hills rise from the Brahmaputra Valley in Assam to about 2000feet (610m) and rise further to the southeast, as high as 6000feet (1800m). Mount Saramati at an elevation of 12552feet (3826m) is the state's highest peak; this is where the Naga Hills merge with the Patkai Range in Burma. Rivers such as the Doyang and Diphu to the north, the Barak river in the southwest and the Chindwin river of Burma in the southeast, dissect the entire state. Nagaland is rich in flora and fauna. About one-sixth of Nagaland is under the cover of tropical and sub-tropical evergreen forestsincluding palms, bamboo, and rattan as well as timber and mahogany forests. While some forest areas have been cleared for jhum (cultivation), many scrub forests, high grass, reeds, and secondary dogs, pangolins, porcupines, elephants, leopards, bears, many species of monkeys, sambar, harts, oxen, and buffaloes thrive across the state's forests. The Great Indian Hornbill is one of the most famous birds found in the state. Nagaland has a largely monsoon climate with high humidity levels. Annual rainfall averages around 70100 inches (18002500 mm), concentrated in the months of May to September. Temperatures range from 70F (21C) to 104F (40C). In winter, temperatures do not generally drop below 39F (4C), but frost is common at high elevations.

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Culture and religion

The (14) tribes of Nagaland are Angami Naga, Ao, Chakhesang, Chang, Khiamniungan, Konyak, Lotha, Phom, Pochury, Rengma, Sangtam, Sumi, Yimchungr, and Zeliang, of which the Konyaks, Angamis, Aos, Lothas, and Sumis are the largest Naga tribes. Tribe and clan traditions and loyalties play an important part in the life of Nagas. Weaving is a traditional art handed down through generations in Nagaland. Each of the tribe has its own unique designs and colours, producing shawls, shoulder bags, decorative spears, table mats, wood carvings, and bamboo works. Naga Tribal dances of the Nagas give an insight into the inborn Naga reticence of the Naga people. War dances and other dances belonging to distinctive Naga tribes are a major art form in Nagaland. Some of these are Moatsu, Sekrenyi, Tuluni, Tokhu Emong,and Gan-ngai.Majority of the Nagas are Christian. Christianity is the predominant religion of Nagaland. The state's population is 1.988 million, out of which 90.02% are Christians.[5] The census of 2001 recorded the state's Christian population at 1,790,349, making it, with Meghalaya and Mizoram, one of the three Christian-majority states in India and the only state where Christians form 90% of the population. The state has a very high church attendance rate in both urban and rural areas. Huge churches dominate the skylines of Kohima, Dimapur, and Mokokchung. Nagaland is known as "the only predominantly Baptist state in the world."[6] Among Christians, Baptists are the predominant group constituting more than 75% of the state's population, thus making it more Baptist (on a percentage basis) than Mississippi in the southern United States, where 52% of its population is Baptist. Roman Catholics, Revivalists, and Pentecostals are the other Christian denomination numbers. Catholics are found in significant numbers in parts of Wokha district as also in the urban areas of Kohima and Dimapur. Hinduism and Islam are minority religions in state, at 7.7% and 1.8% of the population respectively.[5] A small minority, less than 0.3%, still practice the traditional religions, and are mainly concentrated in Peren and the eastern districts.

Languages
Every tribe of Nagaland have their own unique language. Nagas speak 60 different dialects belonging to the Sino-Tibetan family of languages. The traditional languages do not have any script of their own. The Christian missionaries used Roman script for these languages. In 1967, the Nagaland Assembly proclaimed English as the official language of Nagaland and is the medium for education in Nagaland. Nagamese, a creole language form of Indo-Aryan Assamese and local dialects is the most widely spoken market language. Every tribe has its own mother tongue but communicates with other tribes in Nagamese. As such Nagamese is not a mother tongue of any of the tribes; nor is it written.

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Demography
The population of Nagaland is nearly two and half million people.

Administration
The Governor of Nagaland is the constitutional head of state, representative of the President of India.He possesses largely ceremonial responsibilities apart from law and order responsibilities.The Governor of Nagaland is Nikhil Kumar.A 60-member Vidhan Sabha is the state of ministers, led by a Chief ministerall elected members of legislatureforms the government executive. Unlike most Indian states, Nagaland has been granted a great degree of state autonomy, as well as special powers and autonomy for Naga tribes to conduct their own affairs. Each tribe has a hierarchy of councils at the village, range, and tribal levels dealing with local disputes. There is a special regional council for the Tuensang district, elected by the tribes of the area. The state is divided into eleven districts: Districts - District Headquarters Dimapur District - Dimapur-Chumukedima Kiphire District - Kiphire Kohima District - Greater Kohima Longleng District - Longleng Mokokchung District - Mokokchung Mon District - Mon Peren District - Peren Phek District - Phek Tuensang District - Tuensang Wokha District - Greater Wokha Zunheboto District - Zunheboto

District map of Nagaland

Urban centres
Greater cities and towns
Dimapur, Kohima, Mokokchung, Tuensang, Wokha, Mon, Zunheboto

Urban agglomerations
There are four urban agglomeration areas with population of more than 40,000 in the state:

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Rank 1 2 3 4

Metropolitan/Agglomeration Area Dimapur-Chumukedima Greater Kohima Mokokchung Metropolitan Area Greater Wokha

District Dimapur District Kohima District Mokokchung District Wokha District

2001 Census 230,106 99,795 60,161 43,089

Greater (non-district headquarter) towns

Tuli town, Naganimora, Changtongya, Tizit, Tseminyu, Bhandari, Akuluto, Pfutsero

Economy
Macro-economic trend
This is a chart of trend of gross state domestic product of Nagaland at market prices estimated by Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation with figures in millions of Indian rupees.[8]
Year 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 M 1,027 2,730 6,550 18,140 36,790

Nagaland's gross state domestic product for 2004 is estimated at $1.4 billion in current prices. Agriculture is the most important economic activity in Nagaland, with more than 90% of the population employed in agriculture. Crops include rice, corn, millets, pulses, tobacco, oilseeds, sugarcane, potatoes, and threads. However, Nagaland still depends on the import of food supplies from other states. The widespread practice of jhum, tilling, has led to soil erosion and loss of fertility, particularly in the eastern districts. Only the Angami and Chakesang tribes in the Kohima and Phek districts use terracing techniques. And most of the Aos, Lothas, and Zeliangs in Mokokchung, Wokha, and Peren districts respectively till in the many valleys of the district. Forestry is also an important source of income. Cottage industries such as weaving, woodwork, and pottery are also an important source of revenue. Tourism is important, but largely limited due to insurgency since the last five decades.

Transportation
The railway network in the state is minimal. Broad gauge lines run 7.98miles (12.84km), National Highway roads 227.0miles (365.3km), and state roads 680.1miles (1094.5km). There is one airport in Dimapur and another is being planned for Kohima, the state capital.

Railways
Railway: North East Frontier Railway Broad gauge: 7.98miles (12.84km) Total: 7.98miles (12.84km) [Data Source: N. F. Railway, CME Office, Guwahati-781011]

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Highways and towns served

National highways: 227.0miles (365.3km) NH 61: Kohima, Wokha, Tseminyu, Wokha, Mokokchung, Changtongya, Tuli NH 39: Dimapur-Kohima-Mao-Imphal (134.2mi/216.0km) NH 36: Dimapur-Doboka-Nagonan (105.6mi/169.9km) NH 150: Kohima-Jessami via Chakhabama-Pfutsero (74.6mi/120.1km) NH 155: Mokukchung-Jessami via Tuesang-Kiphire (206.9mi/333.0km)

State highways: 680.1miles (1094.5km) Chakabama-Mokokchung Via Chazuba and Zunheboto Kohima-Meluri via Chakhabama Mokokchung-Mariani Mokokchung-Tuensang Namtola-Mon Tuensang-Mon-Naginimora Tuensang-Kiphire-Meluri Wokha-Merapani Road

[Source: Office of The Chief Engineer, P.W.D., Kohima, Nagaland] Airways Dimapur: 43.5miles (70.0km) from the capital

Newspapers
Nagaland Post [9] Morung Express [10] Nagaland Page [11] Eastern Mirror [12] [NE-INDIA,regional social network,http://www.ne-india.ning.com/]

References
[1] http:/ / nagaland. nic. in [2] Tezenlo Thong, Thy Kingdom Come: The Impact of Colonization and Proselytization on Religion among the Nagas, Journal of Asian and African Studies, no. 45, 6: 595-609 [3] The Naga Story - Then and Now (http:/ / www. combatlaw. org/ information. php?article_id=7& issue_id=1) [4] http:/ / www. outlookindia. com/ article. aspx?270225 [5] Indian Census (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ ) [6] Olson, C. Gordon. What in the World is God Doing. Global Gospel Publishers: Cedar Knolls, NJ. 2003. [7] "Census Population" (http:/ / indiabudget. nic. in/ es2006-07/ chapt2007/ tab97. pdf) (PDF). Census of India. Ministry of Finance India. . Retrieved 2008-12-18. [8] Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation estimates (http:/ / mospi. nic. in/ mospi_nad_main. htm) [9] http:/ / nagalandpost. com/ [10] http:/ / www. morungexpress. com [11] http:/ / nagalandpage. co. in/ [12] http:/ / easternmirrornagaland. com/

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Further reading
Stirn, Aglaja & Peter van Ham. The Hidden world of the Naga: Living Traditions in Northeast India. London: Prestel. Oppitz, Michael, Thomas Kaiser, Alban von Stockhausen & Marion Wettstein. 2008. Naga Identities: Changing Local Cultures in the Northeast of India. Gent: Snoeck Publishers. Kunz, Richard & Vibha Joshi. 2008. Naga A Forgotten Mountain Region Rediscovered. Basel: Merian. Glancey, Jonathan. 2011. Nagaland: a Journey to India's Forgotten Frontier. London: Faber

External links
Government of Nagaland official website (http://nagaland.nic.in/) Department of IT & Technical Education (http://itngl.nic.in/) Department of Forest, Ecology, Environment and Wildlife (http://nagaforest.nic.in/) Horticulture Department (http://hortingl.nic.in/) Naga Music (http://www.nagamusiconline.com/) Naga Community Website (http://www.nagas.co.uk/) A photojournalist in Nagaland (http://humanplanet.com/timothyallen/2010/12/nagaland/)

Nagaland photo gallery (http://photo.lacina.net/photos-220-india-nagaland.html) Official Site of Nagaland Handloom and Handicrafts Development Corporation Limited (http://nhhdcltd.com/)

Orissa

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Orissa
Odisha
State

Seal

Location of Orissa in India

Map of Orissa Coordinates (Bhubaneswar): 2009N 8530E Country Established India 1 April 1936 Kanika Palace, Cuttack

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Capital Largest city Districts Government -Governor -ChiefMinister -Legislature Area -Total Area rank Population (2011) -Total -Rank -Density Time zone ISO 3166 code HDI HDI rank Literacy Official languages Website 41947358 11th 269.2/km2(697.2/sqmi) IST (UTC+05:30) IN-OR 0.452 (low) 27th (2005) 73.45% Odia orissa.gov.in [1] 155820km2(60162.4sqmi) 9th Murlidhar Chandrakant Bhandare Naveen Patnaik Unicameral (147 seats) Bhubaneswar Bhubaneswar 30

Odisha (Odia: , IPA:[oisa]), also known as Orissa, is a state of India, located on the east coast of India, by the Bay of Bengal. It is the modern name of the ancient nation of Kalinga, which was invaded by the Maurya Emperor Ashoka in 261BC. The modern state of Odisha was established on 1 April 1936 at Kanika Palace, Cuttack, as a province in India,[2] and consists predominantly of Odia speakers.[3] 1 April is therefore celebrated as Utkal Divas (Odisha Day). Odisha is the ninth largest state by area in India, and the eleventh largest by population. Odia is the official and most widely spoken language with 93.33% Odia speakers according to linguistic survey. Odisha has a relatively unindented coastline[4] (about 480 km long[5] ) and lacks good ports,[4] except for the deepwater facility at Paradip. The narrow, level coastal strip, including the Mahanadi River delta supports the bulk of the population.[6] The interior of the state is mountainous and sparsely populated.[6] Deomali at 1672m is the highest point of the state. Odisha is subject to intense cyclones. The most intense one, in October 1999, Tropical Cyclone 05B caused severe damage and some 10,000 deaths. Odisha is home to the Hirakud Dam, near Sambalpur the longest earthen dam in the world.[7] [8] Odisha has several popular tourist destinations. Puri, Konark & Bhubaneswar are known as Golden triangle of eastern India. Puri, with the Jagannath temple near the sea (famous for Rath Yatra or the Car Festival), and Konark, with the Sun Temple, are visited by thousands of tourists every year. The Jagannath Temple of Puri, the Konark Sun Temple, the Lingaraj Temple, Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, Dhauligiri of Bhubaneshwar, Ashoka's famous Rock Edict at Jaugada near Berhampur city and the Barabati Fort of Cuttack are important in the archaeological history of India.

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History
Origin of the name of the State
Orissa was renamed as Odisha and Oriya language was renamed as Odia on November 9, 2010[9] by Parliament of India. The name Odisha is derived from the modified form of ancient words Ora (Ura) or Odra Desa or Sumera or Odra bisaya The earliest epigraphic reference to Odras is found in the Soro copper plate grant of Somadatta from which it is clear that Uttara Tosali with its visaya Sarepahara identified with Soro of Baleswar district was part of Odra Visaya. [10] Both Pali and Sanskrit Literatures mention the Odra people as Oddaka and Odrah, respectively. Ancient writers like Pliny the Elder and Ptolemy described the Odra people as Oretes. In the Mahabharata the Odras are mentioned along with the Paundras, Utkals, Mekalas, Kalingas and Andhras, while according to Manu the Odras are associated with the Paundrakas, Dravidas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Sakas, Paradas, Pallavas, Chinas, Kiratas and Khasas. The location of the Odra territory has been given in the Natural History of Pliny in which it is mentioned that the Oretes were inhabiting the country where stood the Mount Maleus. The Greek Oretes is probably the Sanskrit Odra and the Mount Maleus has been identified with Malayagiri near Pala Lahara. Pliny associates the Mount Maleus with the people called Monedes and Sharis who were probably the same as the Mundas and the Savaras respectively inhabiting the upland regions of Odisha. The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen-Tsang who visited Odisha in about 636 A.D. gives an account of the territory named Wu-Che which is very likely the same as Odra. The pilgrim states that the Wu-Cha (Wu-tu) country was above 7,000 li in circuit and its capital was above 20 li in circuit. The area of the territory, which was 7,000 li or (2,253km) in circuit, was very extensive. General Cunningham who calls this territory as Odra or Odra Desa writes as follows: The ancient province of Odra desa or Or-desa was limited to the valley of the Mahanadi and to the lower course of the Subarnarekha river. It comprised the whole of the present districts of Cuttack and Sambalpur and a portion of Midnapore. It was bounded on the West by Gondwana, on the North by the wild hill states of Jashpur and Singhbhum, on the East by the sea and on the South by Ganjam. These also must have been the limits in the time of Hiuen-Tsang as the measured circuit agrees with his estimate. The Muslim geographer lbn Khurdadhbin who wrote his geography in 846AD refers to a territory called Ursfin which is identified by the Russian scholar V. Minorsky with Odra Desa. In another Persian geography called Hudad-al Alam written towards the close of the 10 th century A.D. mention has been made of a territory called Urshin (Odra Desa) which has been associated with the territories called N. Myas, Harkand, Smnder and Andhras which were more or less contiguous. The territory called N. Myas may be Mahismati and Harkand is suggested to be Akarakhand (eastern Malwa). Urshin may be the same as Odra Desa and Smnder may be the territory bordering the sea. Andhras is without doubt the same as Andhra Desa. Alberuni has referred to a territory called Udra Vishau located 50 forsakhs towards the sea in the south from the Tree of Prayaga. Fifty forsakhs is equal to about 200miles or 321.86km. So Udra Vishau may be the same as Odra Desa. In the mediaeval Muslim chronicles like Tabaquat-I-Nasiri, Tabaquat-I-Akbari, Riyadus-Salatin, Tarkh-I-Firuzsahi, etc., the Odra territory has been referred to as Jajnagar probably after the capital Yayatinagar or Jajatinagar. The territory of Jajnagar very probably denotes to the Ganga empire during the period from Chodagangadeva to Anangabhimdeva III when Jajatinagar (modern Jagati on the Mahanadi) was the capital of that empire. It was Anangabhimadeva III who transferred the capital from Jajatinagar to Baranasi Kataka. Even after the change of capital some Muslim chroniclers continued to call this territory as Jajnagar. Shams-I-Seraj-Afif called this territory as Jajnagar-Udisa with its capital city Banaras on the right bank of the Mahanadi. The word Udisa added to Jajnagar appears very significant. It is a developed form of the word Ursfin or Urshin used by earlier Muslim writers of the 9 th and 10 th centuries A.D. In Buddhist literature this word is expressed as Odivisa or Udivisa as found in the works of Lama Taranath and the author of Pag-Sam-Jon-Zang. In the Tantric literature of the mediaeval period the word

Orissa Udisa has been frequently used and in Tantrasara, Jagannath has been referred to as Udisanatha. Poet Sarala Das mentions both the words Odra Rastra and Odisa in his famous treatise Mahabharata while Gajapati Kapileswaradeva (14351467AD) in his proclamation inscribed on the temple walls of Jagannath calls his territory as Odisha Rajya or Odisha Rastra. Thus from the 15 th century AD onward the land of the Odia people was called Odisha.

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Odisha in pre-historic age

Since prehistoric days the land of Odisha has been inhabited by various people. The earliest settlers of Odisha were primitive hill tribes. Although prehistoric communities cannot be identified, it is well known that Odisha had been inhabited by tribes like Saora or Sabar from the Mahabharata days. Saora in the hills and the Sahara and Sabar of the plains continue to be an important tribe distributed almost all over Odisha. Most of the tribal people have been influenced by Hindus and have adopted Hindu manners, customs and rituals. Bonda Parajas of Koraput district are the best example of these tribes.

Pre-historic painting from Gudahandi, Kalahandi

Several pre-historic sites have been excavated in Odisha since the arrival of Britishers. Kaliakata of Angul, Kuchai & Kuliana of Mayurbhanj, Vikramkhol near Jharsuguda, Gudahandi and Yogimath of Kalahandi, Ushakothi of Sambalpur, Similikhol near Bargarh etc.

History of Ancient Odisha

Odisha has a history spanning a period of over 5,000 years. Before Kalinga it was named as Udra or "Odra Desa". The Ancient Odra desa or Ordesa was limited to the valley of Mahanadi and to the lower course of Subarnarekha River. It comprised the whole of the present districts of Cuttack and Sambalpur and a portion of Midnapur. Bounded on the west by Gondwana, on the north by the wild hill states of Jaspur and Singhbhum, on the east by the sea and on the South by Ganjam, Odisha has a legendary history.[11] The name Odia originated from Odra or Udra tribes that inhabited the central coastal belt (Khordha District and Nayagarh District) of modern Odisha. Odisha has also been the home of the Kalinga, Utkal, Mahakantara/Kantara and Kosal that played a particularly prominent role in the region's history, and one of the earliest references to the ancient Kalingas appears in the writings of Vedic chroniclers.[12] In the 6th century BC, Vedic Sutrakara Baudhayana mentions Kalinga as being beyond the Vedic fold, indicating that Brahminical influences had not yet touched the land.[12] Unlike some other parts of India, tribal customs and traditions played a significant role in shaping political structures and cultural practices right up to the 15th century,[12] when Brahminical influences triumphed over competing traditions and caste differentiation began to inhibit social mobility and erode what had survived of the ancient republican tradition.

Orissa A major turning point in world history took place in Odisha.[12] The Kalinga War that led emperor Ashoka to embrace non-violence and the teachings of Buddha was fought here in 261BC. Ashoka's military campaign against Kalinga was one of the bloodiest in Mauryan history on account of the fearless and heroic resistance offered by the Kalingas to the mighty armies of the expanding Mauryan empire. Perhaps on account of their unexpected bravery, emperor Ashoka was compelled to issue two edicts specifically calling for a just and benign administration in Kalinga. Later on, Ashoka was instrumental in spreading Buddhist philosophy all over Asia. However, Ativ Land (South Western Odisha) was unconquered by Ashoka.

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View of the banks of the Daya river from atop Dhauli hills, the presumed venue of the Kalinga war.

Tel river civilization put light towards a great civilization existing in Kalahandi, Balangir, Koraput (KBK) region in the past that is recently getting explored.[13] The discovered archaeological wealth of Tel Valley suggest a well civilized, urbanized, cultured people inhabited on this land mass around 2000 years ago[14] and Asurgarh was its capital. Kalahandi along with Koraput and Bastar was part of Kantara referred in Ramayana and Mahabharata.[15] In 4th century B.C. this region was known as Indravana from where precious gem-stones and diamond were collected for the imperial Maurya treasury.[16] During the period of Maurya emperor Ashoka, Kalahandi along with Koraput and Bastar region was called Atavi Land.[17] This land was unconquered as per Ashokan record.[18] In the beginning of Chrisitan era probably it was known as Mahavana.[19] In 4th Century A.D. Vyaghraraja was ruling over Mahakantara comprising Kalahandi, undivided Koraput and Bastar region.[20] Asurgarh was capital of Mahakantara.[21] On the other hand in the third century BC, in the eastern part of Odisha Kalinga flourished as a powerful empire under the Jaina emperor, Kharavela.[22] He ruled all the way down south to include parts of the Tamil country. He built the superb monastic caves at Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves. Subsequently, the region was ruled under various monarchs, such as Samudragupta and Shashanka. It also was a part of Harsha's empire. In 795AD, the king Yayati Kesari I of Kesari or Soma dynasty of Kosala united Kosala and Utkala into a single empire. He is also supposed to have built the first Jagannath Temple at Puri,[23] although the Hatigumpha Inscription of Emperor Kharavela, current structure of the temple is entirely different and was built by Udaygiri Kings Choda Gangadeva and Ananga Bhimadeva of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty in the 12th century. The famous Lingaraja temple in Bhubaneshwar was started by Keshari dynasty king Yayati Keshari III and completed by his son Lalatendu Keshari in the 10th century. King Narasimha Dev is reputed to have built the magnificent Konark Sun Temple. Although now largely in ruins, the temple may have once rivaled the Taj Mahal in splendour. The Mughals conquered Coastal Odisha in 1576.[24] The last Hindu Emperor of Odisha, Gajapati Mukunda Deva, was defeated and was killed in the battle of Gohiratikiri. The coastal plain of

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Odisha from Medinipur to Rajahmundry came under Mughal rule, which was broadly divided into six parts as Jaleswar Sarkar, Bhadrak Sarkar, Cuttack Sarkar, Chicacole (Srikakulam) Sarkar, Kalinga Dandapat and Rajamundry Sarkar or Godavari Province. Odisha's Central, Northern, Western and Southern hilly areas were ruled independently by Hindu kings. The Nizam of Hyderabad occupied the area between Rajahmundry to Srikakulam in 16th century. Medinipur was attached to Bengal province in 18th century. The remaining parts of Coastal Odisha, were subsequently ceded to the Maratha Empire in 1751. The British occupied the Northern Circars comprising the southern coast of Odisha as a result of the Carnatic Wars in the early 1760s and incorporated them into the Madras Presidency gradually.[25] In Konark Sun Temple built by the Eastern Ganga 1803, the British under the British East India Company annexed dynasty is one of the most well renowned temples in the Maratha province of Odisha after the Second Anglo-Maratha India and is a World Heritage Site. War. The northern and western districts of Odisha were incorporated into Bengal Presidency. Following famine and floods in 1866, large scale irrigation projects were undertaken in the last half of the 19th century. The coastal section was separated from Bengal and made into the Province of Bihar and Odisha in 1912, in response to local agitation for a separate state for the Odia-speaking people. In 1936, Bihar and Odisha were split into separate provinces. Thus after a long period of struggle the Odia people got re-united after centuries of political separation. On 1 April 1936, the new province of Odisha came into existence on linguistic basis during the British rule in India with Sir Jhon Austin Hubbak as the first Governor. A long cherished dream of Odia people and their leaders like Madhusudan Das, Maharaja Krushna Chnadra Gajapati, Pandit Nilakantha Das, Bhubanananda Das and many other came true. The district of Ganjam was transferred from Madras Presidency to the new province of Odisha on 1 April 1936. From that time onwards people of Odisha celebrate the day 1 April as Utkal Divas or Odisha Day. Following Indian independence, the area of Odisha was almost doubled and the population was increased by a third by the addition of 24 former princely states. In 1950, Odisha became a constituent state in the Union of India.

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Sub-divisions
There are 30 districts in OdishaAngul, Boudh, Bhadrak, Bolangir, Bargarh, Balasore, Cuttack (Kataka), Debagarh, Dhenkanal, Ganjam, Gajapati, Jharsuguda, Jajapur, Jagatsinghpur, Khordha, Keonjhar, Kalahandi, Kandhamal, Koraput, Kendrapara, Malkangiri, Mayurbhanj, Nabarangpur, Nuapada, Nayagarh, Puri, Rayagada, Sambalpur, Subarnapur, Sundargarh. Each district is governed by a district collector or district magistrate, appointed either by the Indian Administrative Service or the Odisha Administrative Service. Each district is subdivided into Sub-Divisions, governed by a sub-divisional magistrate, and again into Blocks. Blocks consists of panchayats (village councils) and town municipalities. The capital and largest city of the state is Bhubaneswar and its another name is temple city. Other major cities in Odisha are Cuttack, Brahmapur, Rourkela, Sambalpur, Bolangir, Balasore & Puri.

Geography
Huma The Leaning Temple

[26]

Bhubaneswar is the capital of Odisha. It is famed for its magnificent temples, numbering around a thousand. Cuttack, the former capital of Odisha, is 22km from Bhubaneswar. With the rapid expansion of two cities and better road connectivity, the two cities are now almost conjoined and considered as twin cities. The city of Puri is about 60kilometers from Bhubaneswar and lies on the coast of the Bay of Bengal. Puri is considered a holy city and the abode of the deity Lord Jagannath. It is one of the Char Dhams (Four holy places) of Hinduism. The world-famous "car festival" (rath yatra) is celebrated every year in the Hindu month of Ashadha (Mid June to Mid July) in Puri. The Chota Nagpur plateau occupies the western and northern portions of the state, while along the coast are fertile alluvial plains and the valleys of the Mahanadi, Brahmani, and Baitarani rivers, which fall into the Bay of Bengal. These alluvial plains are home to intensive rice cultivation. The Central Rice Research Institute (CRRI), Asia's largest rice research Institute is situated along the bank of Mahanadi in Cuttack. One of the major nesting ground for the Olive Ridley sea turtles can be found in the Beaches of Odisha; in Devi, Gahirmatha and Rushikulya, which are known to be the nesting sites for the L. olivacea Indian Ocean population. In 2007, around 130,000 turtles nested on the beaches of Gahirmatha. The shore line also acts as their mating site and have attracted various scientific communities for research and studies. Although most of Odisha's forest cover has been denuded lately, one of the greatest attractions of Odisha is its still vast expanses of unspoiled natural landscape that offer a protected yet natural habitat to the states incredible wildlife. There are many wildlife sanctuaries in Odisha. The Simlipal National Park Tiger Reserve is a huge expanse of lush green forest with waterfalls, inhabited by tigers, elephants, and other wildlife. The Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary has been protecting estuarine crocodiles since 1975.

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Chilka Lake, a brackish water coastal lake on the Bay of Bengal, south of the mouth of the Mahanadi River, is the largest coastal lake in India and the second largest in the world. It is the largest wintering ground for migratory birds on the Indian sub-continent. It is protected by the Chilka Lake Bird Sanctuary, which harbors over 160 migratory and resident species of birds. Birds from as far as the Caspian Sea, Lake Baikal, Aral Sea and other remote parts of Russia, Kirghiz steppes of Mongolia, Central and southeast Asia, Ladakh and Himalayas come here. It also has the small area of Satpada which is a safe sanctuary for the lesser known and endangered Irrawaddy Dolphins.

Map of lake Chilka with near-by settlement of Puri.

The highest mountain peak in the state is Deomali (1672m), which is situated in Koraput district in southern Odisha. It is also the tallest peak of the Eastern Ghats. It is part of the Chandragiri-Pottangi mountain system. Location: 1840'3"N 8258'59"E (Deomali on Wikimapia [27]).

Physiography
On the basis of homogeneity, continuity and physiographical characteristics, Odisha has been divided into five major morphological regions : 1) the Odisha Coastal Plain in the east, 2) the Middle Mountainous and Highlands Region, 3) the Central plateaus, 4) the western rolling uplands and 5) the major flood plains.

Odisha Coastal Plains

The Odisha Coastal Plains or Utkal Plains are the depositional landforms of recent origin and geologically belong to the Post-Tertiary Period. The 75metre contourline delimits their western boundary and differentiates them from the Middle Mountainous Region. This region stretches from the West Bengal border, i.e. from the River Subarnarekha in the north to the River Rushikulya in the south. This region is the combination of several deltas of varied sizes and shapes formed by the major rivers of Odisha, such as the Subarnarekha, the Budhabalanga, the Baitarani, the Brahmani, the Mahanadi, and the Rushikulya. Therefore, the coastal plain of Odisha is called the "Hexadeltaic region" or the "Gift of Six Rivers". It stretches along the coast of the Bay of Bengal having the maximum width in the Middle Coastal Plain (the Mahanadi Delta), narrow in the Northern Coastal Plain (Balasore Plain) and narrowest in the Southern Coastal Plain (Ganjam Plain). The North Coastal Plain comprises the deltas of the Subarnarekha and the Budhabalanga rivers and bears evidences of marine transgressions. The Middle Coastal Plain comprises the compound deltas of the Baitarani, Brahmani and Mahanadi rivers and bears evidences of past 'back bays' and present lakes. The South Coastal Plain comprises the laccustrine plain of Chilika lake and the smaller delta of the Rushikulya River.

Middle Mountainous and Highlands Region

The region covers about three-fourth of the entire State. Geologically it is a part of the Indian Peninsula which as a part of the ancient landmass of the Gondwanaland. The major rivers of Odisha with their tributaries have cut deep and narrow valleys. This region mostly comprises the hills and mountains of the Eastern Ghats which rise abruptly and steeply in the east and slope gently to a dissected plateau in the west running from north-west (Mayurbhanj) to south-west (Malkangirig). This region is well marked by a number of interfluves or watersheds. The Eastern Ghats is interrupted by a number of broad and narrow river valleys and flood plains. The average beight of this region is about 900metres above the mean seal level. The highest peak is Deomali

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Central Plateaus
The plateaus are mostly eroded plateaus forming the western slopes of the Eastern Ghats with elevation varying from 305610metres. There are two broad plateaus in Odisha : (i) the Panposh Keonjhar -Pallahara plateau comprises the Upper Baitarani catchment basin, and (ii) the Nabrangpur Jeypore plateau comprises the Sabari basin.

Western Rolling Uplands

These are lower in elevation than the plateaus having heights varying from 153metres to 305metres.[28]

Rivers
There are four groups of rivers which flow through Odisha into the Bay of Bengal (Table-2). They are : (i) Rivers that have a source outside the State (the Subarnarekha, the Brahmani the IB and the Mahanadi). (ii) Rivers having a source inside the State (the Budhabalanga, the Baitarani, the Salandi, and the Rushikulya). (iii) Rivers having a source inside the Odisha, but flow through other states (the Bahuda, the Vamsadhara River, and the Nagavali River).
Mahanadi River

(iv) Rivers having a source inside Odisha, but tributary to rivers which flow through other states (the Machkund, the Sileru River,

the Kolab, and the Indravati River). River Mahanadi: It is the major river of Odisha and the sixth largest river in India. It originates from the Amarkantak hills of the Bastar Plateau in Raipur district of [Chhattishgarh]. It is about 857km Long (494km in Odisha) and its catchment area spreads over 141,600km2. (65,580km.) in Odisha. The river carries on an average about 92,600 million m of water. River Kathajodi: Around Naraj Bridge which is approx. 10K.M. from Cuttack City there are following villages:- Naraja Marthapur (Local Railway Station), Godi Sahi, Sandhapur, Bidyadharapur, Nua Sahi & Ratagarh. All these villages are rich in ancient heritage. Ratagarh, there is an ancient Shiva Temple of Chola Dynasty. It is 15 K.M. (approx.) distance from the City of Bhubaneswar & 6 K.M. (approx.) from Nandan Kanan, the Zoological Park. A canal arises from the Main Mahanadi River at Naraj Bridge is running besides which is the main source of water system.In Ratagarh there are 3-4 small hills which connects to the Chandaka-Damapada elephant reservoir. The main cultivation of the people of these villages are paddy besides vegetales also. The railway line running between the above villages connects Bhubaneswar with Talcher, the thermal power station, Sambalpur, Athagarh and then run into the states of Madhya Pradesh. The Brahmani: It is the second largest river in Odisha. It originates as two major rivers like the Sankh and the Koel from the Chota Nagpur Plateau of Bihar and both join at Veda Vyasa near Rourkela of Sundargarh district of Odisha forming the major River Brahmani. It flows through the Eastern Ghats in Sundargarh, Deogarh, Kendujhar, Dhenkanal, Cuttack and Jajpur districts into the Coastal Plains and enters into the Bay of Bengal along with a combined mouth with the Mahanadi known as the Dhamara. The Brahmani is 799km long (541km In Odisha) and its catchment area spreads over 39,033km2. in Odisha). The Baitarani: It originates from the Gonasika hills of the Kendujhar district. It is 365km long and its catchment area spread over 12,790km2. It entres into the Bay of Bengal after joining of the Brahmani at Dhamara mouth near Chandbali, Bhadrak.

Orissa The Subarnarekha: It originates from the Chhotanagpur plateau of Bihar. It is 433km (70km in Odisha) and has a catchment area of 19,500km (3,200km in Odisha) with a mean annual flow of 7,900 million. The Budhabalanga: It originates from the easterns slops of the Similipal massif. It is about 175km long having a total catchment area of 4840km2 with an annual flow of 2177 million. It is major tributaries are the Sone, the Gangadhar, the Catra etc. The Rushikulya: It originates from the Rushyamala hills of the Eastern Ghats in Kandhamal district. It is 165km long with 8900km2 of catchment areas. Its tributaries are the Baghua the Dhanei Badanadi etc. It has no delta at its mouth. The Bahuda: It originates from the Ramgiri hills of the Eastern Ghats in Gajapati districts and joins the Bay of Bengal in Andhra Pradesh. Its length 73km having a catchment area of 1250km2. The Vanshadhara: It originates from the Flanks of the Durgakangar hills (Lingaraj hills) of the Eastern Ghats in Kalahandi districts. It is 230km long out of which only 150km in Odisha. It entres in to the Bay of Bengal at Kalingapatnam in Andhra Pradesh. It has a catchment area of 11500km2. The Nagavali: It originates from the Bijipur Hills of the Eastern Ghats near Lanji Garah. It is 210km long out of which 100km is in Odisha. It has a total catchment area of about 9410km2. The Salandi: It originates from the Meghasani Hills of the Similipal Massif in Keonjhar district. It is 144km long with a catchment areas of 1793km2. The Indravati: It originates from the Eastern Ghats in Kalahandi districts. It is 530km long with a catchment area of 41700km2 as a tributary it flows into the Godavari river. The Kolab: It originates from the Sinkaran hills of the Eastern Ghats in Koraput districts. It has catchment areas of 20400km2. Tel River: It is one of the largest river of Odisha originating in Nabaramgpur district and touching Chhattisgarh, Kalahandi, Balangir, Sonepur districts of Odisha and finally falling in Mahanadi.

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Springs
There are a number of Mountain springs and hotspring in Odisha. The Badaghagara and Sanaghagara in Keonjhar districts Saptasajya in Denkanal districts the Chandikhole in Cuttack distrcts the Barunei in Khorda districts, the Narayani and Nirmalajhar in Ganjam district, the Patalaganga in Kalahandi districts, the Nursinghanath in Bargarh distrcts and the Harisankar in Bolangir distrcts.

Waterfalls
Most of the rivers, either at the point of origin or over the mountainous bed, have waterfalls. The Barehipani and Joranda (Similipal) in Mayurbhanja districts, Sanaghagara and Badaghagara in Keonjhar district, Pradhanpat in Deogarh district, khandadhar (Banei) in Sundargarh district, Koilighugar in Jharsuguda district, Phurlijharan, Khandabaladhar, and Rabandhara in Kalahandi district, Kentamari and Putudi in Boudh and Phulbani district Duduma in Malkangiri district and Bogra in Koraput district are some of the major waterfalls of Odisha.

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Lakes
The Chilika Lake is brackish water lagoon located in the southern part of the Odisha coastal plane. It areas varies 780km2 and 144km2; during the two monsson months it is 71km long and 32km wide. It salinity decleans to a minimum during the monsson. However in winter, due to the overflow of the tidal water through the narrow opening from the Bay of Bengal, it is maximum. Anshupa is a sweet water lake located in Athagarh of Cuttack district. It is 3km long and 1.5km wide. Sara is another sweet water lake located near Puri. It is 5km long and 3km wide. Kanjia is another sweet water lake with about 134acres (0.54km2) of area located in Nandankanan of Cuttack district near Bhubaneswar.[29] Pata is another sweet water lake located alongside the town of Chatrapur. It is 4km long and 0.5km wide. Hirakud Dam: Artificial Lake in Sambalpur and Jharsuguda largest in Asia. Indravati Dam: Artificial Lake in Kalahandi [30] and Nabarangpur Kolab Dam: Artificial Lake in Koraput

Economy
Macro-economic trend
This is a chart of trend of gross state domestic product of Odisha at market prices estimated Statistics and Programme Implementation with figures in millions of Indian Rupees.
Year 1985 1987 1990 1995 2000 2005 Gross State Domestic Product 37,080 68,230 109,040 271,180 387,280 670,900 [31] [17]

by Ministry of

The state's debt is estimated at almost 59 per cent of its GDP in 2005.[32]

Industrial growth
Odisha has abundant natural resources and a large coastline. It contains a fifth of India's coal, a quarter of its iron ore, a third of its bauxite reserves and most of the chromite. Rourkela Steel Plant[33] was the first integrated steel plant in the Public Sector in India. It receives unprecedented investments in steel, aluminium, power, refineries and ports. India's topmost IT consulting firms, including Mahindra Satyam, TCS (Tata Consultancy Services), MindTree Consulting, PricewaterhouseCoopers and Infosys have large branches in Odisha. IBM, Syntel and Wipro are setting up development centers in Odisha. So far, two of the S&P CNX 500 conglomerates have corporate offices in Odisha, for example, National Aluminium (2005 gross income .51,162 million) and Tata Sponge Iron (2005 gross income .2,044 million). Odisha is notable as one of the first Indian states to have tackled its structural problems during the post-1994 Indian economic reforms. Odisha was also the first state in India to begin to privatise its electricity transmission and distribution businesses. Over the period between 1994 and 2000 Odisha's former state electricity board (SEB) was restructured to form Gridco. This corporation was then divided into Transco and a collection of distribution companies. Attempts were then made to sell the distribution companies to the private sector. Like many other states, in 1996 Odisha was losing over 50% of the electricity it was delivered. The scale and importance of these reforms is notable and an important milestone in India's dramatic economic development.

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Recently the number of companies who have signed Memoranda of Understanding (MoUs) to set up steel plants in the state has gone up to 50, including POSCO of South Korea which has agreed to construct a mammoth $12 billion steel plant near Paradip port. It would be the largest single investment in India's history. Arcelor-Mittal has also announced plans to invest in another mega steel project amounting to $10 billion. Russian major Magnitogorsk Iron and Steel Company (MMK) plans to set up a 10 MT steel plant in Odisha too. The state is attracting an unprecedented amount of investment in aluminum, coal-based power plants, petrochemicals, and information technology as well. In power generation, Reliance Power (Anil Ambani Group) is putting up the world's largest power plant with an investment of US $13 billion at Hirma in Jharsuguda district. Vedanta Resources 1.4 million tonne alumina project in Kalahandi district Performance of Indian states in providing basic social services like education, healthcare, etc., in 2001. is the largest investment in aluminium. Vedanta has also Darker states have done better. announced a $3.2 billion dollar huge private University project on the lines of the Ivy League Universities, which is unprecedented in the history of education in India. Bandhabahal is a major area which consist of Open Cast Coal Mines. The Central Government has agreed to accord SEZ (Special Economic Zone) status to eight sites in Odisha, among which are Infocity at Bhubaneshwar and Paradip. But all these plans are facing massive resistance from the people of the state who mainly depend on agriculture for livelihood. In the year 2009 Odisha was second top Domestic Investment destination with Gujarat first and Andhra Pradesh in third place according to an analysis of ASSOCHAM Investment Meter (AIM) Study on Corporate Investments. Odisha's share was 12.6 percent in total investment in the country. It received investment proposal worth . 2,00,846 crore during the last year. Steel and power were among the sectors which attracted maximum investments in the state.[34] Flood and cyclone are the major hurdles in Odisha's development as the important districts are situated near to the Bay of Bengal. In the five-year period between 200405 and 200809, Odisha's GDP has grown by a stunning 8.74% way beyond the definition of 7% growth. It should be noted that the all-India growth during this period was 8.49%.In this period, Odisha is the fourth fastest growing state, just behind Gujarat, Bihar, Uttarakhand.

Infrastructure development
Although Paradip is home to Odisha's only large port, the coastal towns of Dhamra and Gopalpur are also undergoing major port development. The government of India has selected the coastal region of Odisha, stretching from Paradip in the north to Gopalpur in the south, to be developed into one of five or six Special Economic Regions (SERs) of the country. The government of India and the state government of Odisha are working together to erect world-class infrastructure in this region to match that of Rotterdam, Houston, and Pudong. This is aimed at further private investment in petrochemicals, steel, and manufacturing. A recent Morgan Stanley report forecasts that Odisha would be flooded with massive investments for manufacturing related activities in the same manner that Bangalore had attracted software investment in the 1990s. The scale of the investments in Odisha would, however, be much higher. As of July 2006, total planned investment in the state is $90 billion. This includes investment in research, education, hospitals, roads, ports, airports, and hotels. There are many multi-state irrigation projects in development, including the Godavari River Basin Irrigation Projects. 14 locations have been identified on Odisha coast to be developed as port. These locations are Gopalpur (Ganjam district), Bahuda Muhan (Sonepur) in Ganjam district, Palur (Ganjam), Bali Harchandi (Puri), Astaranga (Puri), Jatadhari Muhan (Jagatsinghpur), Barunei Muhan

Orissa (Kendrapara), Dhamra (Bhadrak), Chudamani (Bhadrak), Inchuri (Balasore), Chandipur (Balasore), Bahabalpur (Balasore), Subarnarekha mouth (Kirtania) in Balasore district and Talsara (Balasore). Most of the locations among them already been developing as port in the public private partnership (PPP).[35] [36] [37]

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Media
Odisha has a strong media field, one of the best known among other states. The print newspapers like Samaja, Dharitri, Sambad, Samaya, Anupam Bharat, Prajatantra updates daily the Odisha people with the news. Other major dalies are Sambad Kalika, Amari Katha, Pragatibadi, Dinalipi, Odisha Bhaskar, Khabara etc. Some prominent weekly and fortnighty news papers like Loka Samachar, Sarkar, Bartta, Saburi Katha, Neta etc. are providing space for people's aspirations and awareness in the state. Odisha has a strong team of journalists and media group. The key web portals (news) based in Bhubaneswar include Breaking News Online, Orissa Diary, Odisha News Today and Tathya News Agency.

Transportation
Odisha is connected to India through roads, railways, airports, and seaports. Bhubaneshwar is well connected by air, rail and road with the rest of India. The Biju Patnaik airport is being expanded to accommodate wide bodied aircraft. Few highways are getting four lanned.[38]

Regular airports
Biju Patnaik Airport Jharsuguda Airport under proposal by AAI Berhampur Airport (Rangeilunda)

Air strips
Barbil, Keonjhar by State Govt. Baripada (Rajabasa), Mayurbhanj by Ex-Maharaja Birsal, Dhenkanal by State Govt. Hirakud (Jamadarpalli), Sambalpur by State Govt. Jeypore, Koraput by State Govt. Jharsuguda, Jharsuguda by AAI Raisuan, Keonjhar by State Govt. Nuapada (Gotma), Nuapada by State Govt. Padampur (Sativata), Bargarh by State Govt. Phulbani (Gudari), Kandhamal by State Govt. Rairangpur (Dandbose), Mayurbhanj by State Govt. Rangeilunda (Gopalpur), Ganjam by State Govt. Rourkela, Sundergarh by SAIL Therubali, Rayagada by IMFA Tusura, Bolangir by State Govt. Utkela, Kalahandi by State Govt. Amarda Road, Mayurbhanj by Defence

Orissa

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Seaports
Port of Paradip Port of Dhamara[39] Port of Gopalpur (Commenced Operation From January 2007 As Seasonal Port) Dists of Odisha 1:Balasore 2:Bhadrakh 3:Anugul 4:Baragarh 5:Bauda 6:Cuttack 7:Deogarh 8:Dhenkanal 9:Gajapati 10:Ganjam 11:Jagatsinghapur 12:Jajapur 13:Jharsuguda 14:Kalahandi 15:Kandhamal 16:Kendrapara 17:Kendujhar 18:Khordha 19:koraput 20:Malkangiri 21:Mayurbhanj 22:Nabarangpur 23:Nayagarh 24:Nuapara 25:Puri 26:Rayagada 27:Sonepur 28:Sundergarh 29:Balangir 30:Sambalpur

Demographics
Religion in Odisha Religion Hinduism Christianity Islam Others
[40]

Percent 94.35% 2.44% 2.07% 1.14%

According to the 2001 census of India, the total population of Odisha is 36,706,920, of which 18,612,340 (50.89%) are male and 18,094,580 (49.11%) are female, or 972 females per 1000 males. This represents a 16.25% increase over the population in 1991. The population density is 236 per km and 85.01% of the people live in rural areas and 14.99% live in urban areas. The dominant ethnic group are the Odia people and Odia (Odia) is the official language of Odisha and spoken as a native language by about 73% of the people.[41] Other linguistic minorities in the state are Bengali, Hindi, Telugu, Santali. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes form 16.53% and 22.13% of the state population, constituting 38.66% of the State population. Some of the important tribes are Santhal, Bonda, Munda, Oraon, Kora and Mahali. The literacy rate is 63.61% with 75.95% of males and 50.97% of females being literate. The proportion of people living below the poverty line in 19992000 was 47.15% which is nearly double the all India average of 26.10%. Data of 19962001 showed the life expectancy in the state was 61.64 years, higher than the national value of years. The state has a birth rate of 23.2 per 1,000 people per year, a death rate of 9.1 per 1,000 people per year, an infant mortality rate of 65 per 1000 live birth and a maternal mortality rate of 358 per 1,000,000 live births. Odisha has a Human Development Index of 0.579 in 2004.

Literature
The history of Odia Literature has been mapped by historians and linguists along the following stages, Old Odia (9001300AD), Early Middle Odia (13001500AD), Middle Odia (15001700AD), Late Middle Odia (1700AD 1850AD) and Modern Odia (from 1850AD till the present). But this rude categorization could not skillfully draw the real picture on account of development and growth of Odia Literature. Here, we split the total periods in different stages such as: Age of Charya Literature, Age of Sarala Das, Age of Panchasakha, Age of Upendra Bhanja, Age of Radhanath, Age of Satyabadi, Age of Marxism or Pragati yuga, Age of Romanticism or Sabuja Yuga, Post Independent Age.

Orissa The beginnings of Odia poetry coincide with the development of Charya Sahitya, the literature thus started by Mahayana Buddhist poets.[42] This literature was written in a specific metaphor named "Sandhya Bhasha" and the poets like Luipa, Kanhupa are from the territory of Odisha. The language of Charya was considered as Prakrita. The first great poet of Odisha is the famous Sarala-Das who wrote the Mahabharata, not an exact translation from the Sanskrit original, rather an imitation of the same. Among many of his poems and epics, he is best remembered for his Mahabharata. Chandi Purana and the Vilanka Ramayana are also two of his famous creations. Arjuna Das, a contemporary to Sarala Dasa, wrote Rama-Bibha, a significant long poem in Odia. Towards the 16th century, five poets emerged, though there are hundreds year gap in between them. But they are known as Panchashakhas as they believed to same school of thought, Utkaliya Vaishnavism. The poets are: Balaram Das, Jagannath Das, Achyutananada Das, Ananta Das and Jasobanta Das. The Panchasakhas are very much Vaishnavas by thought. In 1509 Chaitanya Mahaprabhu came to Odisha with his Vaishnava message of love. Before him Jaydev had prepared the ground by heralding the cult of Vaishnavism through his Geetagovinda. Chaitanyas path of devotion was known as Raganuga Bhakti Marga, but the Panchasakhas differed from Chaitanyas and believed in Gyana Mishra Bhakti Marga, which has similarities with the Buddhist philosophy of Charya Literature stated above. The Panchashakhas, however, are the direct disciples of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. Along with another seer Shri Arakhsita Das, they are called also as sada-goswami (six Lords). These five saints primarily believed in Vaishnavism and also additionally cultured and developed Gyana Mishra Bhakti Marga as stated earlier (beliefs about the body, the mind, the soul, and the Parambrahm). They have composed numerous manuscripts, mlikas, devotional poems, Sadhana descriptions, and other religious scriptures. Also, many prophecies are described by these seers in there numerous literature. Most of the literature were written in hand on palm-leaves using the Devanagari or the Odia script. The two prime works from the five writers are the Bhgavata by Jagannath Das and the Jagamohana Rmyana by Balarm Das. Till today Jagannath Dass Bhgavata is the most valued book in Odia literature. Besides this great work he (Jagannath Das) also composed Artha Koili, Darubrahma Geet, Shunya Bhgabata, Dhruba Stuti etc. Balaram Das, apart from Jagamohana Rmyana, has also composed various works such as the Lakshmi Purna, Vendntasra Guptagit, Nma-mhatmya, Bhva samudra, Sisu Veda, Kamalalochana Chautis, Knta Koili. Shri Ananta Das, also known as Shishu Ananta Das has composed various devotional literature, e.g., Chumbaka malik, Nilagiri charita, Hetu Udaya Bhgabata, Artha Treni Prasnottara, Ankra Samhit, Bhaktimuktipradyaka Geet. Similarly, Shri Jasovanta Das composed Shiba Shirodaya, Premabhaktibrahma Geet, tmaparatey Geet, Gobindachandra. Acyutananda was the most prolific writer of the Panchasakhas and has written numerous books (called as pothi's), believed not in one life but in many successive lives. He is known as the Mahapurusha, which means - a great man. A few works of him are: Shunya Samhita, Chaurashi Yantra, Gurubhakti Geeta, Khila Haribamsa, Gupta Bhagabata, Kaivarta Geeta, Kaala Nirghanta, Tera Janma Sharana, Brahma Ekahshara Geeta, Gopala Ogla, Bhava Samudra, Garuda Geeta, Brahma Shankuli, Ananta Bata Geeta, Kali Kalkpa Geeta, Asta Gujjari, Gujjari Raasa, Brahma Kundali, Mahagupta Padmakalpa, Chausathi Patala, Chayalisha Patala, Chabisa Patala, Dasa Patala, Neetya Raasa, Manmatha Chandrika, Shiva Kalpa, Achyutananda Janma Sharana, Chitta Bodha, Raasa Maala, and Panchasakhaa Bhajana. The Shunya Samhita dealt with spiritual knowledge as well as physical sciences like solar science, atomic and molecular concepts, and aerospace concepts. The term Chauraashi Yantra describes '84 yantras' embedded within the human body, the later itself is ~84 fingers in length and each Yantra is located for each finger-length space. However, the most popular one seems to be an "Oracle of Prophecies" named as Bhavishya Malika. Among prophecies also are Aagata bhabishya lekhanaa and Bhavishya Paraardha. About the Identification of his disciple and the primary devotees, he had composed the Jaiphula Malika. Also his copper oracle (Tamrapothi) which appears to mysteriously read the mind and provide suitable answers is still available today, operated by a priest in Kakatpur. Shri Arakhsita Das, the seer of Olasuni, had written the Mahimandala Geeta, the Bhakti Tikaa, the Saptaanga

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Orissa Abadhuta Samhita, and the Tatvasara Geeta. At the end of age of Panchasakha, the prominent poets are Dinakrushna Das, Upendra Bhanja and Abhimanyu Samanta Simhar. Verbal jugglery, obscenity and eroticism as the characteristics of Shringara Kavyas, became the trend of this period to which Upendra Bhanja took a leading role. His creations were Baidehisha Bilasa, Koti Brahmanda Sundari, Lavanyabati were proved landmark in Odia Literature. Upendra Bhanja was conferred with the title Kabi Samrat of Odia literature for the aesthetic poetic sense and verbal jugglery proficiency. Dinakrushna Dass Rasokallola and Abhimanyu Samanta Simharas Bidagdha Chintamani are prominent kavyas of this time. The first Odia printing typeset was cast in 1836 by the Christian missionaries which made a great revolution in Odia literature. Instead of palm leaf inscription, the books were being printed and the periodicals and journals were published. The first Odia Magazine of 'Bodha Dayini' was published from Balasore in 1861. The main object of this magazine was to promote Odia literature and to draw attention to the lapses in government policy. The first Odia paper, 'The Utkal Deepika' made its appearance in 1866 under the editorship of late Gouri Sankar Ray with the help of late Bichitrananda. The publication of these papers during the last part of the 19th century encouraged the modern literature and acted as a media to provide a wide readers range for the writers, The educated intellectuals came in contact with the English literature and got influenced. Radhanath Ray (18491908) is the prime figure, who tried to write his poems with the influence of Western literature. He wrote Chandrabhaga, Nandikeshwari, Usha, Mahajatra, Darbar and Chilika wee the long poems or Kavyas. Fakir Mohan Senapati (18431918), the prime figure of modern Odia Fiction Prose is the product of that generation. He was considered the Vyasakabi or founder poet of Odia language. Fakir Mohan Senapati is well known for his novel Chha Maana Atha Guntha. It is the first Indian novel to deal with the exploitations of landless peasants by the feudal Lord. It was written much before the October revolution of Russia or much before the emerging of Marxist ideas in India. With rise of freedom movement, a literary though was emerged with the influence of Gandhiji and idealistic trend of Nationalism formed as a new trend in Odia Literature. Much respected personality of Odisha culture and history, Utkalmani Gopabandhu Dash (18771928) has founded a school at avillage Satyabadi near Sakshigopal of Odisha and an idealstic literary movement influenced the writers of this age. Godabarisha Mohapatra, Kuntala-Kumari Sabat the other renowned name of this age. With the emergence of Soviet Russia in 1935, a Communist party was formed in Odisha and a periodical named "Adhunika" was published by the party. Bhagawati Charan Panigrahi and Sachidananda Routray were the founder members and writer/poets of the party. Bhagwati turned to fiction writing and though Sachidananda Routray (who is better known as "Sachi Routra" or Sachi Babu) has written some short stories is actually remembered for his poems. Influenced by the romantic thoughts of Rabindranath Tagore, during the thirties when the progressive Marxist movements was in full flow in Odia Literature, Kalindi Charan Panigrahi, the brother of Bhagabati Charan Panigrahi, the founder of Marxist trend in Odisha, formed a group circa 1920 called "Sabuja Samiti." Mayadhar Mansingh was a renowned poet of that time though he was considered as a romantic poet, but he kept the distance away from the influence of Rabindranath successfully. As the successor of Sachi Babu, two poets Guruprasad Mohanty (popularly known as Guru Prasad) (19242004) and Bhanuji Rao came with T.S. Eliot and published their co-authored poetry book "Nutan Kabita". Later, Ramakanta Rath modified the ideas. Sitakanta Mohapatra, Soubhagya Kumar Mishra, Rajendra Kihore Panda, Brajanath Rath, Jayanta Mahapatra, Kamalakant Lenka, J.P. Das, Brahmotri Mohanty, Mamata Dash, Amaresh Patnaik, Hrushikesh Mallick, Sunil Kumar Prusty, Sucheta Mishra, Aparna Mohanty, Pritidhara Samal, Basudev Sunani, Gajanan Mishra, Bharat Majhi are some poets of this contemporary age. In the Post-Independence Era Odia fiction assumed a new direction. The trend which Fakir Mohan has started actually developed more after 50s of last century. Gopinath Mohanty (19141991), Surendra Mohanty and Manoj Das are considered as three jewels of this time. The other significant fiction writers are Chandrasekhar Rath, Dr Jagannath Prasad Das, Shantanu Acharya, Mohapatra Nilamani Sahoo, Rabi Patnaik, Debraj Lenka, Tarun Kanti Mishra, Krushna Prasad Mishra, Akhil Mohan Patnaik, Jagadish Mohanty, Kanheilal Das.

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Orissa Satya Mishra, Ramchandra Behera, Padmaja Pal, Binapani Mohanty, Prativa Ray, Yashodhara mishra and Sarojini Sahoo are a few writers whose writings have created a new age in the field of fiction. Jayanti Ratha, Susmita Bagchi. Paramita Satpathy, Hiranmayee Mishra, Chirashree IndraSingh Supriya Panda, Gayatri Saraf, Mamata Chowdhry are few fiction writerw in this period. In the field of drama, the traditional Odia theatre is the folk opera, or Jatra, which flourishes in the rural areas of Odisha. Modern theatre is no longer commercially viable. But in the 1960, experimental theatre made a mark through the works of Manoranjan Das, who pioneered the new theatre movement with his brand of experimentalism. Bijay Mishra, Biswajit Das, Kartik Rath, Ramesh Chandra Panigrahi, Ratnakar Chaini, Ranjit Patnaik continued the tradition. As a whole, Odia literature is a strong wing of Indian Literature to represent in world forum. Literary magazine: Jhankar, Nabarabi, Apurba, Galpa, Kahani, Kadambini, Istahara, Udbhasa, Amrutayana, Nabalipi, Pratibeshi, Paschima, Bijaya, Bartika, Chitra, Bishwamukti, Ama Samaya, Sananda, Godhuli Lagna, Bigyan Diganta (Science), and pourusha.

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Culture
The language spoken by the majority of the people is Odia. English is widely used for official purpose and Odia is used as regional language. Odia belongs to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European language family, and is closely related to Bengali and Assamese. A few tribal languages belonging to the Dravidian and Munda language families are spoken by the Adivasis (original inhabitants) of the state. The state has a very opulent cultural heritage, one of the richest in India. The capital city of Bhubaneshwar is known for the exquisite temples that dot its landscape. The famous classical dance form, Odissi originated in Odisha. Contemporary Odisha has a proud cultural heritage that arose due to the intermingling of three great religious traditions Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. The culture of the Adivasis is an integral part of modern Odia heritage.

Dance
Odissi or Orissi dance and music is classified as a classical music of India. Odissi is the oldest surviving dance form in India on the basis of archaeological evidence.[43] [44] Odissi has a long, unbroken tradition of 2,000 years, and finds mention in the Natyashastra of Bharatamuni, possibly written circa 200BC. However, the dance form nearly went extinct during the British period, only to be revived after India's independence by a few Gurus, such as Guru Deba Prasad Das, Guru Mayadhar Raut, Guru Pankaj Charan Das, Guru Mahadev Rout, Guru Raghu Dutta, and Guru Kelu Charan Mahapatra. Odissi classical dance is about the love of Krishna and his supposed consort Radha, mostly drawn from compositions by the notable Odia poet Jayadeva, who lived in the twelfth century AD. Ghumura Dance (or Ghumra Dance) is one of the most sought and leading folk dance form in Odisha. It is classified as folk dance as the dress code of Ghumura resembles more like a tribal dance, but recent researchers argue different mudra and dance form present in Ghumura bear more resemblance with other classical dance form of India.[45] The timeline of Ghumura dance is not clear. Many researchers claim it was a War dance in ancient India and used by Ravana in Ramayana. Ghumura dance is depicted in Konark Sun Temple confirming this dance form is since the medieval period. In the Madhya Parba of Sarala Mhabharata Ghumura has been mentioned as: "Dhola

Ghumura Dance

Madala Gadi je Ghumura Bajai Ghumura je Ghumu Ghumu Hoi Garajai" In Chandi Purana mentions: "Biratwara Biradhola Daundi Ghumura Kadamardala Bajanti Mari Galatura" Ghumura was also used as a Darbari dance in the

Orissa princely state of Kalahandi and played by the earstwhile Kalahandi state during war times.[45] The typical mixed sound that comes out of the musical instruments like Ghumura, Nishan, Dhol, Taal, Madal etc. and the expressions and movements of the artists make this dance to be a Heroic Dance.[46] Since thousands of years Ghumura dance has evolved from a war dance to a dance form for cultural and social activities. The dance is associated with social entertainment, relaxation, love, devotion and friendly brotherhood among all class, creed and religion in the present days. Traditionally this dance is also associated with Nuakhai and Dasahara celebration in Kalahandi and large parts of South Western Odisha. Ghumura dance is still hidden in the village level in South Western Odisha and some parts of bordering Andhra Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. Kalahandi region has taken a leading rule in popularizing and retaining its unique identity of Ghumura dance. Kalahandi is mainly known as land of Ghumura.[46] Ghumura dance has got the opportunity to represent the nation in various international events Delhi, Moscow, Kolkata, and various other cities in India. Ghumura dance is also one of the most researched folk dance form in Odisha. Kau dance (or Chau dance) is a form of tribal martial dance attributed to origins in Mayurbhanj princly state of Odisha and seen in the Indian states of West Bengal, Jharkhand and Odisha. There are three subtypes of the dance, based on the original places where the subtypes were developed. Seraikella Chau was developed in Seraikella, the administrative head of the Seraikela Kharsawan district of Jharkhand, Purulia Chau in Purulia district of West Bengal and Mayurbhanj Chau in Mayurbhanj district of Odisha. Mahari Dance is one of the important dance forms of Odisha and originated in the temples of Odisha. History of Odisha provides evidence of the 'Devadasi' cult in Odisha. Devadasis were dancing girls who were dedicated to the temples of Odisha. The Devadasis in Odisha were known as 'Maharis' and the dance performed by them came to be known as Mahari Dance. It was during the reign of Chodagangadeva, Maharis were employed in the temples of Puri. After Chodagangadeva's death, Ananabhimadeva built Natyamandapa in the Jagannath temple for the dance performances inside the temple. Moreover, in those days, the Mahari dancers belonged to different categories namely, the 'Nachunis' (dancers), the Bahara Gauni, the Bhitara Gauni and the Gaudasanis. The Mahari Dancers of Odisha are supposed to follow certain restrictions, such as: They cannot enjoy. They should dance on the ceremonies connected to Jagannath. They should adhere to the specifications made by the Sastras. They must always wear clean cloths. The dancer cannot be physically handicapped. At the time of the performances, the dancers are not supposed to look at the audience. The Maharis are married to the Lord at the age of nine. Before their performances, the Mahari dancers pay their obeisance to the Lord.

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In Odisha, one can also come across another type of Mahari dancers, who are known as 'Samarpada Niyoga'. The duty of the 'Samarpada Niyoga' is to dance during the ceremonial procession of the deities. These dancers perform during the Ratha Yatra, Jhulana Yatra, Dola Yatra, etc. The Western Odisha has also great variety of dance forms unique to Odisha culture. The children's verses are known as "Chhiollai", "Humobauli" and "Dauligit", the adolescent poems are "Sajani", "Chhata", "Daika", "Bhekani" : the eternal youth composes "Rasarkeli", "Jaiphul", "Maila Jada", "Bayamana", "Gunchikuta" and "Dalkhai". The work-man's poetry comprises "Karma" and "Jhumer" pertaining to Vishwakarma and the "Karamashani" deities. The professional entertainers perform Dand, Danggada, Mudgada, Ghumra, Sadhana, Sabar Sabaren, Disdigo, Nachina Bajnia, Samparda and Sanchar. They are for all occasions, for all time with varieties of rhythm and rhyme. Pala is a unique form of balladry in Odisha, which artistically combines elements of theatre, classical Odissi music, highly refined Odia and Sanskrit poetry, wit, and humour. The literal meaning of pala is turn. It is more sophisticated than the other Odia ballad tradition, Daskathia. Pala is presented in three ways. The names can be mentioned as baithaki or `seated`, in which the performers sit on the ground throughout. The other one is thia or `standing`. This is

Orissa more popular and aesthetically more satisfying, in which they stand. Badi is a kind of thia in which two groups vie for excellence. This is the most entertaining, as there is an element of competition. Gotipua dance is another form of dance in Odisha. In Odia colloquial language Gotipua means single boy. The dance performance done by a single boy is known as Gotipua dance. When decadence and declination came in to Devadasi or mahari tradition due to various reasons this Gotipua dance tradition evolved as sequel as these performance were practiced to please the gods. It is totally unknown that when exactly this danced form came in to practice. Still some historians say that this dance tradition appears to have originated during the region of Prataprudradev (1497AD to 1540AD) and gained popularity in the subsequent Muslim Rule. Ray Remananda the famous Vaishnavite Minister of King Pratapruda and ardent follower of Sri Chitanya is the originator of this boy dancing tradition. As Vasishnavs were not approving of the females in to dance practices so it possible that the dance tradition must have come after Sri Chaitanya came to Odisha. The Gotipua Dance Tradition is now seen in the village Raghurajpur situated 10km away from Puri town, situated on the banks of river Bhargabi. It is otherwise known as the Crafts Village as various Odia handicrafts craftsmen reside in this village contributing their expertise in Patta Painting and other handukrafts. Prince Dance Group, a dance group based in Berhampur, Odisha, India led by Krishna Mohan Reddy. It has won a reality show India's Got Talent on an Indian TV channel "Colors". The group is unique that the members are from a remote part of India and most of them are from disadvantaged sections of different parts of Ganjam district. Two of them, Padmanabha Sahu (24) and Telu Tarini (13) are physically challenged. They have won the hearts of all Odias, including chief minister Naveen Patnaik, and even outsiders with their performance in the programme "India's Got Talent". The group, comprising 26 artistes held the audience and the judges engrossed with their act from the mythological Mahabharata and Vande Mataram.

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Music
Sixteenth century witnessed the compilation of literature on music. The four important treatises written during that time are Sangitamava Chandrika, Natya Manorama, Sangita Kalalata and Gita Prakasha. Odissi music is a combination of four distinctive kinds of music, namely, Chitrapada, Dhruvapada, Panchal and Chitrakala. When music uses artwork, it is known as Chitikala. A unique feature of Odia music is the Padi, which consists of singing of words in fast beat. Being a part of the rich culture of Odisha, its music is also as much charming and colorful. Odissi music is more than two thousand five hundred years old and comprises a number of categories. Of these, the five broad ones are Tribal Music, Folk Music, Light Music, Light-Classical Music and Classical Music. Anyone who is trying to understand the culture of Odisha must take into account its music, which essentially forms a part of its legacy. In the ancient times, there were poets who wrote the lyrics of poems and songs that were sung to rouse the religious feelings of people. It was by the eleventh century that the music of Odisha, in the form of Triswari, Chatuhswari, and Panchaswari, underwent transformation and was converted into the classical style. Folk music like Jhumar, yogi gita, kendara gita, dhuduki badya, prahallad natak, palla, sankirtan, mogal tamasa, gitinatya, kandhei nacha, kela nacha, ghoda nacha, danda nacha and daskathia are popular in Odisha. Almost every tribal group has their own distinct song and dance style.

Structural art
Other cultural attractions include the Jagannatha Temple in Puri, known for its annual Rath Yatra or Car Festival, the unique and beautiful applique artwork of Pipili, silver filigree ornamental works from Cuttack, the Patta chitras (palm leaf paintings), famous stone utensils of Nilgiri (Balasore) and various tribal influenced cultures. The Sun temple at Konark is famous for its architectural splendour and erotic sculpture, while the 'Sambalpuri textiles' equals it in its artistic grandeur. The sari of Odisha is much in demand throughout the entire world. The different colors and varieties of sarees in Odisha make them very popular among the women of the state. The handloom sarees available in Odisha can be of four major types; these are Ikat, Bandha, Bomkai and Pasapalli. Odisha sarees are also available

Orissa in other colors like cream, maroon, brown and rust. The tie-and-dye technique used by the weavers of Odisha to create motifs on these sarees is unique to this region. This technique also gives the sarees of Odisha an identity of their own.

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Sand art
A unique type of art form was developed at Puri, but it has spread all over the world. To carve a sand sculpture, the raw material is clean and fine-grained sand mixed with water. With the help of this type of sand and by the magic of fingers, an artist can carve a beautiful and attractive sculpture on the beach. Sudarshana Pattanaik is one of the major world-class artists in this sculpture. Although not historically proved, there is a story in the Odia myths regarding the origin of sand sculpture: "Poet Balaram Das, the author of Dandi Ramayan was a great devotee of Jagannath. Once during Ratha Yatra (Car Festival), he tried to climb the chariot of Jagannath to offer his prayer. He wasn't allowed by the priests of the chariot to climb it and was also insulted by them. With great frustration and humiliation he came to the beach (Mahodadhi) and carved statues of Jagannath, Balabhadra and Devi Subhadra on the golden sand.

Religion
The majority (over 94%[40] of people in the state of Odisha are Hindu and there is a also rich cultural heritage in the state. For example, Odisha is home to several Hindu figures. Sant Bhima Bhoi was a leader of the Mahima sect movement. Sarala Dasa, an adivasi, was the translator of the epic Mahabharata in Odia. Chaitanya Dasa was a Buddhistic-Vaishnava and writer of the Nirguna Mahatmya. Jayadeva was the author of the Gita Govinda. The Odisha Temple Authorisation Act of 1948 empowered the Government of Odisha to have Hindu temples open for all Hindus including the Harijans.[47]

Gita Govinda manuscript

Perhaps the oldest scripture of Odisha is the Madala Panji from the Puri Temple believed from 1042AD. Famous Hindu Odian scripture includes the 16th century Bhagabata of Jagannatha Dasa.[48] In the modern times Madhusudan Rao was a major Odia writer, who was a Brahmo Samajist and shaped modern Odia literature at the turn of the 20th century.[49] About 2.4% of the population is Christian and 2.1% is Muslim.[40]

Cinema
The Odia film production in the initial years was very slow. After first Odia film Sita Bibaha in 1936, only two films were produced till 1951. A joint consortium of landlords and businessmen who collected funds after 1948 produced those two movies. The first film 'Sita Bibaha' was directed by Mohan Sunder Dev Goswami and was released in Laxmi Theatre, Puri. The 1951 production Roles to Eight was the first Odia film having an English name. It was released after 15 years of the first Odia film Sita Bibaha. It was the fourth Odia film produced by Ratikanta Padhi. The eleventh Odia film Sri Lokenath was the first Odia film, which got National Award in 1960 directed by Prafulla Sengupta. The same year, Prasant Nanda won a National Award as best actor for the film Nua Bou with his debut film. The name of Prasantha Nanda would always come while dealing with Odia Film Industry. He was present in Odia films since 1939, but he became active only after 1976. Nanda served Odia Film Industry as an actor, director, screenplay writer, and lyricist and even as a playback singer. Such a versatile genius is quite rare in Indian cinema history.

Orissa Nanda alone carried Odia films into the national honor list by winning National Awards three times in 1960, 1966 and 1969 for his acting in Nua Bou, Matira Manisha and Adina Megha. Uttam Mohanty, whose debut film Abhiman won accolades all over, is now the veteran actor of the Odia Film Industry. His wife Aparajita Mohanty is also a renowned actress. Sarat Chandra Pujari was one of the most popular actor of the 60S era. His popular films are Nua Bou, Jeevan Sathi, Sadhana, Manika Jodi, Naba Janma, Matira Manisa, Arundhati, Ghara Sansara, Bhookha, etc. His films portrayed the general condition of the state of Odisha with a strong social message. Sarat Chandra Pujari is a prominent figure till now. Apart from being an actor he was also a successful director and an academician. He still continues to act in a few selected films. Currently he is enjoying his retired life and writes columns in the newspapers as his hobby. Raju Mishra is another rising star in Odia film industry. He is an international award wining photographer, director, choreographer and lyricist of Odia film industry. Other well known actors are Bijaya Mohanty, Uttam Mohanty, Sidhharth, Sriram Panda, Maheswata, Tandra Ray and others.

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Cuisine
Odisha has culinary tradition spanning centuries if not millennia. The kitchen of the famous Jagannath temple in Puri is reputed to be the largest in the world, with a thousand chefs, working around 752 wood-burning clay hearths called chulas, to feed over 10,000 people each day. The famous Indian sweet "rasogolla" has its origin from this state. Salepur Rasogolla is famous and it is mainly prepared by Kar and Brothers (Bikalananda Kar) of salepur. Its branches are also present in Cuttack and Bhubaneswar. Pahala, located on the Cuttack-Bhubaneshwar road, is famous for its variety of Rasgullas. The well-known rice pudding, kheeri (kheer) that is relished all over India, also originated in Puri two thousand years ago. Chhenapoda is also a major Odisha sweet cuisine originated in Nayagarh, it is made by caramelizing cottage cheese with sugar, cardamom and other ingredients and then burning it over a chula (wood-burning clay hearths). Chenna Jheeli and malpua are other famous sweet deserts. One of the most famous delicacies of Odisha is Kakara Peetha (made of sooji or finely grained wheat) especially with coconut filling sauteed with pepper, cardamom, sugar and ghee and sometimes cottage cheese (chena). Its one of the major delicacy during the festival occasions. Arisha is another delicacy. The sweet aroma of powdered rice and Gud being deep fried in Ghee is mesmerizing. Poda Pitha, Haladi Patra Pitha, Manda Pitha, Chitou Pitha are more examples of Odia specialitites. Mudhi (puffed rice) is an integral part of every Odia household. Bariapada is famous for its Mudhi. Mudhi serves the purpose of an instant snacks. It perfectly blends with any thing. Be it Chenachur (mix salty fried snacks), milk, tea, curries, peanuts or mango pulp. Pakhala, a dish made of rice, water, and yoghurt, that is fermented overnight, is very popular in summer, particularly in the rural areas. Odias are very fond of sweets and no Odia repast is considered complete without some dessert at the end. A typical

Rasagollas from Salepur. Rasagollas have become popular throughout India.

Chhenapoda is a major cuisine.

Orissa meal in Odisha consists of a main course and dessert. Typically breads are served as the main course for breakfast, whereas rice is eaten with lentils (dals) during lunch and dinner. The main course also includes one or more curries, vegetables and pickles. Given the fondness for sweet foods, the dessert course may include generous portions of more than a single item. Odia desserts are made from a variety of ingredients, with milk, chhenna (a form of ricotta cheese), coconut, rice, and wheat flour being the most common. Also one of the most famous veg dishes are Dalma (made of lentils and vegetables boiled together and then fried with other spices) and Santula. Even the former Indian President Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam introduced these into the Rashtrapati Bhavan Menu. Ghanta and Posta curries are also some of the signature dishes. Odisha food habit is pretty balanced between the non-vegetarian and vegetarian habits. Due to its vast shoreline and number of rivers flowing across, fish is a very important part of the diet. Odisha also expertises in sea food cuisines like Prawn and Crab. The famous Chilika Lake is particularly famous for offering best sea food cuisines that are one of a lifetime experience. Odisha's food habit is actually the horizon between the South Indian food habit and the North Indian food habits. One can easily find Dosas, Vadas and idlis being served as breakfast and snacks which are typically south Indian food and also can find Poori- Chole, Samosa's (locally called Singada), and other north Indian delicacies in the menu. One of the best combination of both the North and South of India is Dahibara-Aludum-Gugguni especially in the city of Cuttack. Dahibara (vadaa dipped and soaked in curd), aludum (a spicy curry made from potato) and Guuguni (chickpea curry) really go well together and is one of the best fusion of the Indian recipes.

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Education
The ruins of a major ancient university and center of Buddhist learning, Ratnagiri, were recently discovered in the Jajpur district of Odisha. Scholars from far away lands, such as Greece, Persia and China used to study philosophy, astronomy, mathematics and science at this famed university. Taxila, Nalanda and Ratnagiri are amongst the oldest universities in the world. The ruins of Ratnagiri University have not been fully excavated yet. The modern higher education system in Odisha is the legacy of the British Raj. There are twelve recognized universities or deemed universities viz. 1)Ravenshaw Ratnagiri University University at Cuttack, 2)Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla, 3)Sambalpur (formerly University College of Engineering, Burla), 4)Utkal University (at Bhubaneshwar), Sambalpur University at Sambalpur, 4)Berhampur University at Berhampur, North Odisha University at Baripada, 5)Fakir Mohan University at Balasore, 6)Odisha University of Agricultural Technology (OUAT) at Bhubaneshwar, 7)Utkal University of Culture at Bhubaneshwar, 8)Biju Patnaik University of Technology at Rourkela, 9)Siksha O Anusandhan [50] University at Bhubaneshwar, 10)Sri Jagannatha Sanskrit University Puri 11)Sadashiva Kendriya Vidyapeetha Deemed (Sanskrit) University at Puri and 12)KIIT University in Bhubaneshwar. Many of these universities have numerous constituent colleges some of which are autonomous such as BJB College at Bhubaneshwar, SCS College at Puri, N.C. College at Jajpur, G.M. College at Sambalpur, Khalikote college at Berhampur, F.M. College at Balasore, Vikram Deb college at Jeypore among others. Entry to various institutes of higher education especially into engineering degrees is through a centralised Joint Entrance Examination, conducted by the Biju Patnaik University of Technology (BPUT), Rourkela [51] where seats

Orissa are provided according to order of merit.[52] Berhampur university is located in the center of Odisha in the city Berhampur way to Gopalpur.[53] One of the prestigious institutions of India, NIT Rourkela, National Institute of Technology was upgraded from Regional Engineering College and is an Institute of National Importance. Another premier college of Odisha is the Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla, which is the first engineering college in Odisha and is famous for its excellent infrastructure and state-of-art teaching methodology. Odisha is also home to one of the two Indian Institute of Mass Communication IIMC situated in Dhenkanal. This is a premier institute for mass communication and journalism. The Xavier Institute of Management, Bhubaneswar (XIMB) is a premier business school of national and international significance located in the state capital. The National Institute of Science Education and Research, Bhubaneswar (NISER) is another premier educational cum research institution that is being set up. It will be built along the lines of the reputed IISc, Bangalore. The government of Odisha has provided 935acres (3.78km2) of land at Arugul near Jatni Railway Station for IIT Bhubaneshwar. Classes have already started from 2008 Xavier Institute of Management, Bhubaneshwar batch.IIT BBSR [54] The plans of setting up of an AIIMS is also in advanced stages. Meanwhile Vedanta University Project, a not-for-profit initiative by the Anil Agarwal Foundation, is an epoch-making dream to have a world class centre for learning and research on the picturesque Puri-Konark marine drive in Odisha. It will have about 100,000 students with an international mix of students pursuing around 95 diverse streams of learning in a sprawling campus of around 56000000 sqft ( m2) built up area supported by state of the art, IT and Communications systems. Even more recently, Reliance industries has expressed its intention of establishing a new Dhirubhai Ambani Institute of Information and Communication Technology (DA-IICT), as well as a health city for medical education and research in Bhubaneshwar. Some of the research institutes of Odisha includes Institute of Physics at Bhubaneshwar, Institute of Life Sciences at Bhubaneshwar, Central Rice Research Institute at Cuttack, Central Institute of Fresh water Aquaculture (CIFA)at Bhubaneshwar, Regional Medical Research centre at Bhubaneshwar, Institute of Minerals and Material Technology at Bhubaneshwar and Regional Plant Resource Centre at Bhubaneshwar. As of now, Odisha receives the lowest per capita investment of all 28 states from the central government towards human resource development. Odisha also boasts of many renowned medical Colleges such as SCB Medical College, Cuttack, Veer Surendra Sai Medical College, Burla and MKCG Medical College, Berhampur. These colleges have been able to produce excellent doctors who have gone on to head various top posts in the Union Medical Departments. Kalinga Institute of Medical Sciences, Bhubaneshwar and Hi-tech Medical College, Bhubaneshwar are some of the private world-class medical colleges and hospitals serving the state of Odisha. Many students from the neighboring state of Jharkhand, Bihar and Chattisgarh come to Odisha for better education and expertise. Various International and National Universities have signed MoUs with top colleges for various seminars and workshop to be conducted within the campuses. The elite IIT have started its classes in Bhubaneshwar and for which the plans have already been laid out and is already taking shape.[55]

446

Orissa

447

Tourism
The landscape of Odisha is dotted with a large number of temples. The temples of Odisha conform to the Indo Aryan Nagara style of architecture, with distinctive features specific to this region. The best known of these are the Lingaraja temple at Bhubaneshwar, Jagannath Temple at Puri and the Sun Temple at Konark. The temples of Odisha exhibit a majestic grandeur. An Odia temple (deula) usually consists of a sanctum, one or several front porches (jagamohana) usually with pyramidal roofs, a dancing hall (nata mandir) and a hall of offerings (bhog mandir). 'The Lingaraj temple at Bhubaneshwar boasts of a 150-foot (46m) high deul while the Jagannath Temple at Puri is about 200feet (61m) high and it dominates the skyline of the town. Only a portion of the Sun Temple at Konark, the largest of the temples of the Golden triangle exists today, and it is still staggering in size. It stands out as a masterpiece in Odisha architecture. Odisha is also well known as a Buddhist and Jain pilgrimage destination. North-east of Cuttack, about 10km from Bhubaneshwar, there are Buddhist relics and ruins at the three hilltop complexes of Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, which still bear witness to Buddhism's fruitful tryst with this region until well into the 13th century.
Konark Sun Temple built by the Eastern Ganga dynasty is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Odisha's varying topography from the wooded Eastern Ghats to the fertile river basin has proven ideal for evolution of compact and unique ecosystems. Thereby creating such treasure troves of flora and fauna that even seem inviting to many migratory species of birds and reptiles. Bhitar Kanika National Park is famous for its second largest mangrove ecosystem. The bird sanctuary in Chilika (Asia's biggest brackish water lake) and the tiger reserve and waterfalls in Simlipal National Park are integral part of any eco tours in Odisha, arranged by Tourism of Odisha.[56] The Gharial Sanctuary at Tikarpada and the Olive Ridley Sea Turtles in Gahirmatha turtle sanctuary also feature on the list of avid nature watchers. The city wildlife sanctuaries of Chandaka and Nandan Kanan are a must visit for the lessons they teach is conservation and revitalization of species from the brink of extinction. Odisha is blessed with around 500km long coastline and has some of the most beautiful beaches in the world. Chilika, Asia's largest brackish water lake, not only provides a haven for millions of birds, but is also one of the few places in India where one can view dolphins. The lush green forest cover of Odisha plays host to a wide variety of flora and fauna, including the famed Royal Bengal Tiger. Amidst the picturesque hills and valleys nestle a number of breathtaking waterfalls and rivulets that attract visitors from all over. Odisha beaches include Puri, Gopalpur-on-Sea, Chandipur, Ramachandi Beach, Balighai Beach, Astarang Beach, Paradeep Beach. The famous Shiva Temple is near Dhenkanal. [57]

Ranigumpha part of Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves

Orissa

448

References
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[38] " NH 42" (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5upzkPfns). Orissalinks.com. 2004-06-16. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. orissalinks. com/ orissagrowth/ topics/ tnc-all/ roads-and-highways-infrastructure-in-orissa/ national-highways/ nh-42) on 2010-12-08. . Retrieved 2010-07-18. [39] http:/ / www. dhamraport. com/ [40] "Census of India - Socio-cultural aspects" (http:/ / censusindia. gov. in/ Census_Data_2001/ Census_Data_Online/ Social_and_cultural/ Religion. aspx). Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs. . Retrieved 2011-03-02. [41] "Odia Introduction" (http:/ / www. everyculture. com/ wc/ Germany-to-Jamaica/ Oriya. html). . Retrieved 2009-03-22. [42] Mukherjee, Prabhat. The History of medieval Vaishnavism in Odisha. Chapter: The Sidhacharyas in OdishaPage: 55. [43] "Odissi Kala Kendra" (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5upzmZyh2). Odissi.itgo.com. Archived from the original (http:/ / odissi. itgo. com/ ) on 2010-12-08. . Retrieved 2010-07-18. [44] "Odissi Mardala theory" (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5upznRfJl). mardala.com. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. mardala. com/ theory/ terms/ ) on 2010-12-08. . Retrieved 2010-07-18. [45] Loka Nutrya Ghumura, Edited by Parameswar Mund, Mahabir Sanskrutika Anusthan, June 2002 [46] The Heroic Dance Ghumura, Edited by Sanjay Kumar, Mahabir Sanskrutika, 2002 [47] P. 63 Case studies on human rights and fundamental freedoms: a world survey, Volume 4 By Willem Adriaan Veenhoven [48] P. 77 Encyclopedia Americana, Volume 30 By Scholastic Library Publishing [49] Madhusudan Rao By Jatindra Mohan Mohanty, Sahitya Akademi [50] http:/ / soauniversity. ac. in/ [51] http:/ / www. bput. ac. in/ [52] "NIT Rourkela" (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5upzq24tV). Nitrkl.ac.in. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. nitrkl. ac. in/ default. asp) on 2010-12-08. . Retrieved 2010-07-18. [53] "Biju Patnaik University of Technology" (http:/ / www. bput. org/ ). Bput.org. . Retrieved 2010-07-18. [54] http:/ / www. iitbbs. ac. in/ [55] Indian Institute of Technology Bhubaneswar (http:/ / www. iitbbs. ac. in) [56] "MTN 82:9-10 Olive ridley tagged in Odisha recovered in the coastal waters of eastern Sri Lanka" (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5upzsnK1S). Seaturtle.org. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. seaturtle. org/ mtn/ archives/ mtn82/ mtn82p9b. shtml) on 2010-12-08. . Retrieved 2010-07-18. [57] Orissa's new name is Odisha - Times Of India (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ india/ Orissas-new-name-is-Odisha/ articleshow/ 7780712. cms)

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External links
Official Website of the State Government of Odisha (http://www.orissa.gov.in) Official Website of Odisha State Tourism (http://www.orissatourism.gov.in) Odisha's Largest Information Portal (http://www.dreamodisha.com) Orissa travel guide from Wikitravel

Punjab, India

450

Punjab, India
Punjab
State

Clockwise from top: Harmandir Sahib, Quila Mubarak, Gandhi Bhavan, Wagah Border, Jallianwala Bagh Memorial

Seal Nickname(s): Land of Five Rivers

Location of Punjab in India

Punjab, India

451

Map of Punjab Coordinates (Chandigarh): 3047N 7647E Country Established Capital Largest city Districts Government -Governor -ChiefMinister -Legislature Area -Total Area rank Population (2011) -Total -Density Time zone ISO 3166 code HDI HDI rank Literacy Official languages Website [2] 27704236 550.1/km2(1424.8/sqmi) IST (UTC+05:30) IN-PB 0.679 (medium) 9th (2005) 76.68% Punjabi punjabgovt.nic.in listen); [3] 50362km2(19444.9sqmi) 19th Shivraj Patil [1] India 1966-11-01 Chandigarh Ludhiana 20

Parkash Singh Badal Unicameral (117 seats)

Punjab (pronounced /pndb/(

Punjabi: (Gurmukhi) is a state in the northwest of the Republic of

India, forming part of the larger Punjab region. The state is bordered by the Indian states of Himachal Pradesh and

Punjab, India Chandigarh to the east, Haryana to the south and southeast and Rajasthan to the southwest as well as the Pakistani province of Punjab to the west, it is also bounded to the north by Jammu and Kashmir. The state capital is Chandigarh, which is administered separately as a Union Territory because it is also the capital of Haryana. Major cities of Punjab includes Mohali, Ludhiana, Amritsar, Bathinda, Barnala, Patiala and Jalandhar. After the partition of India in 1947, the Punjab province of British India was divided between India and Pakistan. The Indian Punjab was divided in 1966 with the formation of the new states of Haryana and Himachal Pradesh as well as the current state of Punjab. Punjab is the only state in India with a majority Sikh population.[4] Agriculture is the largest industry in Punjab, it is the largest single provider of wheat to India. Other major industries include the manufacturing of scientific instruments, water meter, electrical goods, financial services, machine tools, textiles, sewing machines, sports goods, starch, tourism, fertilizers, bicycles, garments, and the processing of pine oil and sugar. Punjab also has the largest number of Steel Rolling Mill Plants in India which are located in Steel Town Mandi Gobindgarh, District Fatehgarh Sahib.

452

Etymology
The word Punjab is a combination of the Indo-Iranian words Punj (five) and b (water), and thus the (land of) five rivers.[5] The five rivers are the Beas, Sutlej, Ravi River, Chenab River and Jhelum River. Sometimes, in English, there can be a definite article before the name i.e. the Doaba.[6] The name is also sometimes spelled as Duoab or Douaab or Doaab.

Geography
The geographical area of Punjab is 50,362km2, in North-west of India. Its average elevation is 300 m from the sea level. Most of the Punjab is a fertile, alluvial plain with many rivers and an extensive irrigation canal system.[7] The southwest of the state is semi-arid, eventually merging into the Thar Desert. The Siwalik Hills extends along the northeastern part of the state at the foot of the Himalayas. The soil characteristics are influenced to a limited extent by the topography, vegetation and parent rock. The variation in soil profile characteristics are much more pronounced because of the regional climatic differences. Punjab is divided into three distinct regions on the basis of soil types; southwestern, central, and eastern. Punjab falls under seismic zones II, III, and IV. Zones II and III are referred to as Low Damage Risk Zone while zone IV referred to as high damage risk zone.[8]

Location
Punjab extends from the latitudes 29.30 North to 32.32 North and longitudes 73.55 East to 76.50 East. It is bounded on the west by Pakistan, on the north by Jammu and Kashmir, on the northeast by Himachal Pradesh and on the south by Haryana and Rajasthan. Due to the presence of a large number of rivers, most of the Punjab is a fertile plain. A belt of undulating hills extends along the northeastern part of the state at the foot of the Himalayas.

Climate and Temperature

Punjab is situated in the North-Western part of India. The Punjab Climate is determined by the extreme hot and extreme cold conditions. The region lying near the foot hills of Himalayas receive heavy rainfall whereas the region lying at a distant from the hills, the rainfall is scanty and the temperature is high. Punjabs climate comprises three seasons. They are the summer months that spans from mid April to the end of June. The rainy season in Punjab is from the months of early July to end of September. The winter season in Punjab is experienced during the months of early December to the end of February. The transitional Seasons in Punjab are the post monsoon season and the post winter season.

Punjab, India The temperature range in Punjab is from 2 to 40 C (min/max), but can reach 47 C (117 F) in summer and 4 C in winter. Climatically, Punjab has three major seasons as under:[7] Hot weather (April to June) when temperature rises as high as 110 F. Rainy season (July to September). Average rainfall annual ranges between 960mm sub-mountain region and 460mm in the plains. Cold weather (October to March). Temperature goes down as low as 40 F.

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Wildlife
The Sivalik area is the richest area of Punjab in terms of floral and faunal diversity and has been identified as one of the micro-endemic zones of India. Amongst the Angiosperms, about 355 species of herbs, 70 tree species, 70 species of shrubs or under shrubs, 19 of climbers and 21 species of twiners have been recorded from the area. Apart from angiosperms, 31 species of Pteridophytes, 27 of bryophytes and one species of gymnosperms (Pinus roxburghii) have also been recorded. The area is also rich in faunal diversity including 396 species of birds, 214 species of Lepidoptera, 55 species of fish, 20 species of reptiles, and 19 species of mammals.[9]

Male and female Blackbucks

There are no natural forests in the plains; extensive tracts occur covered only with grass, shrubs and bushes. The mango fruit is largely cultivated in the south-east of the Punjab and attains a high degree of perfection about Multan and Hoshiarpur. Cultivated fruit trees, such as orange, pomegranate, apple, peach, fig, mulberry, quince, apricot, almond, and plum are abundant in the region.[10] There are a number of wetlands, bird sanctuaries and zoological parks across Punjab. These include the Hari-Ke-Pattan National Wetland and Wildlife Sanctuary at Harike in Firozepur District, the Kanjli Wetland, the Kapurthala Sutlej Water Body Wetland, the Ropar Zoological Park, Chhatbir, Bansar Garden, Sangrur, the Aam Khas Bagh, Sirhind, the Ram Bagh Garden Amritsar, the Shalimar Garden, Kapurthala and the Baradari Garden at Patiala.[11] Alligators are also commonly found in local rivers. The silkworm is reared with great skill and industry, and bees produce abundant wax and honey. Camels thrive in the hot southern plains, and herds of buffaloes on the grazing lands adjoining the rivers. Horses are reared in the north-east part of the Punjab.[10] Among poisonous snakes there are the cobra and the sangehur, the bite of which causes instant death. Other mammals like the smooth-coated otter, hog deer, wild boar, flying fox, wildcat, squirrel, fruitbat, and mongoose can be seen in the wild and in reserves. The state bird of Punjab is the Baz (Eastern Goshawk)[12] (Melierax poliopterus), the state animal is the Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), and the state tree is the Shisham (Dalbergia sissoo).[7]

History
Ancient History
Punjab during Mahabharata times was known as Panchanada.[13] [14] Indus Valley Civilization spanned around much of the Punjab region with cities such as Harrapa (modern-day Punjab, Pakistan) and Ropar (modern-day Punjab, India). The arrival of the Indo-Aryans led to the flourishing of the Vedic Civilization along the length of the Indus River to cover most of Northern India. This civilization shaped subsequent cultures in the Indian Subcontinent and Afghanistan. Punjab was part of the great ancient empires including the Gandhara Mahajanapadas, Nandas, Mauryas, Sungas, Kushans, Guptas, Palas, Gurjara-Pratiharas and Hindu Shahis. Agriculture flourished and trading

Punjab, India cities (such as Jalandhar and Ludhiana) grew in wealth. Due to its location, the Punjab region came under constant attack and influence from the west. Punjab faced invasions by the Persians, Greeks, Scythians, Turks, and Afghans. This resulted in the Punjab witnessing centuries of bitter bloodshed. Its legacy is a unique culture that combines Zorastrian, Hindu, Buddhist, Persian, Central Asian, Islamic, Afghan, Sikh and British elements. The city of Taxila, founded by son of Taksh the son Bharat who was the brother of Ram. It was reputed to house the oldest university in the world, Takshashila University, one of the teachers was the great Vedic thinker and politician Chanakya. Taxila was a great centre of learning and intellectual discussion during the Maurya Empire. It is a UN World Heritage site. those of Alexander the Great, Chengiz Khan and Tamerlane. Of particular importance were the periods of contact between Punjab and various Persian Empires when the parts of it either became integrated with the empire itself, or was an autonomous region which paid taxes to the Persian King. In later centuries, when Persian was the language of the Mughal government, Persian architecture, poetry, art and music was an integral part of the region's culture. The official language of Punjab remained Persian until the arrival of the British in the mid 19th century, where it was finally abolished and the administrative language was changed over to English.

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Mughal Rule of Punjab

The Mughals controlled the region from 1524 until 1739 and would also lavish the province with building projects such as the Shalimar Gardens and the Badshahi Mosque, both situated in Lahore. Muslim soldiers, traders, architects, theologians and Sufis flocked from the rest of the Muslim world to the Islamic Sultanate in South Asia and some may have settled in the Punjab. Following the decline of the Mughals, the Shah of Iran and founder of the Afsharid dynasty in Persia, Nader Shah crossed the Indus and sacked the province in 1739. Later, the Afghan conqueror Ahmad Shah Durrani, incidentally born in Panjab, in the city of Multan made the Punjab a part of his Durrani Empire lasting until 1762. The religion of Sikhism began at the time of the Conquest of Northern India by Babur. His grandson, Akbar supported religious freedom and after visiting the langar of Guru Amar Das had a favorable impression of Sikhism. As a result of his visit he donated land to the langar and had a positive relationship with the Sikh Gurus until his death in 1605.[15] His successor, Jahangir, saw the Sikhs as a political threat. He arrested Guru Arjun Dev because of Sikh support for Khusrau Mirza[16] and ordered him to be put to death by torture. Guru Arjan Dev's Martyrdom led to the sixth Guru, Guru Har Gobind, declaring Sikh sovereignty in the creation of the Akal Takht and the establishment of a fort to defend Amritsar.[17] Jahangir attempted to assert authority over the Sikhs by jailing Guru Har Gobind at Gwalior and released him after a number of years when he no longer felt threatened. Sikhism did not have any further issues with the Mughal Empire until the death of Jahangir in 1627. His successor, Shah Jahan "took offense" at Guru Har Gobind's sovereignty and after a series of assaults on Amritsar forced the Sikhs to retreat to the Sivalik Hills.[17] Guru Har Gobind's successor, Guru Har Rai maintained the guruship in the Sivalik Hills by defeating local attempts to seize Sikh land and taking a neutral role in the power struggle between Aurangzeb and Dara Shikoh for control of the Timurid dynasty. The ninth Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur, moved the Sikh community to Anandpur and traveled extensively to visit and preach in Sikh communities in defiance Aurangzeb, who attempted to install Ram Rai to the guruship. He aided Kashmiri Brahmins in avoiding conversion to Islam and was arrested and confronted by Aurangzeb. When offered a choice between conversion or death, he chose to die rather than compromise his principles and was executed.[18] Guru Gobind Singh, assumed the guruship in 1675 and to avoid battles with Sivalik Hill Rajas moved the gurship to Paunta. He built a large fort to protect the city and garrisoned an army to protect it. The growing power of the Sikh community alarmed Sivalik Hill Rajas who attempted to attack the city but the Guru's forces routed them at the Battle of Bhangani. He moved on to Anandpur and established the Khalsa, a collective army of baptized Sikhs, on March 30, 1699. The establishment of the Khalsa united the Sikh community against various Mughal-backed claimants to the guruship.[19] In 1701, a combined army composed of the

Punjab, India Sivalik Hill Rajas and the Mughal army under Wazir Khan attacked Anandpur and, following a retreat by the Khalsa, were defeated by the Khalsa at the Battle of Mukstar. In 1707, Guru Gobind Singh accepted an invitation by Bahadur Shah I, Aurangzeb's successor to meet in southern India. When he arrived in Nanded in 1708, he was assassinated by agents of Wazir Khan, the governor of Sirhind.

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Banda Singh Bahadur

Banda Singh Bahadur was an ascetic who converted to Sikhism after meeting Guru Gobind Singh at Nanded. A short time before his death, Guru Gobind Singh ordered him to reconquer Punjab and gave him a letter that commanded all Sikhs to join him. After two years of gaining supporters, Banda Singh Bahadur initiated an agrarian uprising by breaking up the large estates of Zamindar families and distributing the land to the poor Sikh, Hindu,and Muslim peasants who farmed the land.[20] Banda Singh Bahadur started his rebellion with the defeat of Mughal armies at Samana and Sadhaura and the rebellion culminated in the defeat of Sirhind. During the rebellion, Banda Singh Bahadur made a point of destroying the cities in which Mughals had been cruel to Sikhs, including executing Wazir Khan in revenge for the deaths of Guru Gobind Singh's sons, Baba Zorawar Singh and baba Fateh Singh after the Sikh victory at Sirhind.[21] He ruled the territory between the Sutlej river and the Yamuna river established a capital in the Himalayas at Lohgarh and struck coinage in the names of Guru Nanak and Guru Gobind Singh.[20] In 1716, his army was defeated by the Mughals after he attempted to defend his fort at Gurdas Nangal. He was captured along with 700 of his men and sent to Delhi where he was tortured and executed after refusing to convert to Islam.

Sikh Misls
The period from 1716 to 1799 was a highly turbulent time politically and militarily in the Punjab. This was caused by the overall decline of the Mughal Empire.[22] This left a power vacuum that was eventually filled by the Sikhs in the late 18th century, after fighting off local Mughal remnants and allied Rajput leaders, Afghans, and occasionally hostile Punjabi Muslims who sided with other Muslim forces. Sikh warlords eventually formed their own independent Sikh administrative regions (misls), which were united in large part by Ranjit Singh.

Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1829

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The Sikh Empire

At the beginning of the fifteenth century, the religion of Sikhism was born, and during the Mughal period gradually emerged as a formidable military force until subjugated and assimilated by the later rising and expanding Sikh Empire. After fighting Ahmad Shah Durrani, the Sikhs wrested control of the Punjab from his descendants and ruled in a confederacy, which later became the Sikh Empire of the Punjab under Maharaja Ranjit Singh. A denizen of the city of Gujranwala, the capital of Ranjit Singh's empire was Lahore.[23] The Sikh Empire (18011849) was formed on the foundations of the Punjabi Army by Maharaja Ranjit Singh. The empire extended from the Khyber Pass in Sikh Empire the west, to Kashmir in the north, to Sindh in the south, and Tibet in the east. The main geographical footprint of the empire was the Punjab region. The religious demography of the Sikh Empire was Muslim (80%), Sikh (10%), Hindu (10%).[24] The foundations of the Sikh Empire could be defined as early as 1707, starting from the death of Aurangzeb and the downfall of the Mughal Empire. The fall of the Mughal Empire provided opportunities for the army, known as the Dal Khalsa, to lead expeditions against the Mughals and Afghans. This led to a growth of the army, which was split into different Punjabi armies and then semi-independent "misls". Each of these component armies were known as a misl, each controlling different areas and cities. However, in the period from 17621799, Sikh rulers of their misls appeared to be coming into their own. The formal start of the Sikh Empire began with the disbandment of the Punjab Army by the time of coronation of Ranjit Singh in 1801, creating a unified political state. All the misl leaders who were affiliated with the Army were nobility with usually long and prestigious family histories in Punjab's history.[25]
[26]

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After Ranjit Singh's death in 1839, the empire was severely weakened by internal divisions and political mismanagement. This opportunity was used by the British Empire to launch the Anglo-Sikh Wars. A series of events of the Sikhs being betrayed by some prominent leaders in the army led to its downfall. Maharaja Gulab Singh and Raja Dhian Singh, were Hindu Rajput Dogras from Jammu, and top Generals of the army.[27] [28] The Sikh Empire was finally dissolved after a series of wars with the British at the end of the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849 into separate princely states and the British province of Punjab, which were granted statehood. Eventually, a Lieutenant Governorship was formed in Lahore as a direct representative of the British Crown.

The British in Punjab

By 1845 the British had moved 32,000 troops to the Sutlej frontier, to secure their northernmost possessions against the succession struggles in the Punjab. In late 1845, British and Sikh troops engaged near Ferozepur, beginning the First Anglo-Sikh War. The war ended the following year, and the territory between the Sutlej and the Beas was ceded to Great Britain, along with Kashmir, which was sold to Gulab Singh of Jammu, who ruled Kashmir as a British vassal. The Maharaja's death in the summer of 1839 brought political chaos and the subsequent battles of succession and the bloody infighting between the factions at court weakened the state. Relationships with neighbouring British territories then broke down, starting the First Anglo-Sikh War; this led to a British official being resident in Lahore and the annexation of territory south of the Satluj to British India. Sikhs were the first people of the Punjab to rule their own land since Prithviraj Chauhan's defeat. As a condition of the peace treaty, some British troops, along with a resident political agent and other officials, were left in the Punjab to oversee the regency of Maharaja Dhalip Singh, a minor. The Sikh army was reduced greatly in size. In 1848, out-of-work Sikh troops in Multan revolted, and a British official was killed. Within a few months, the unrest had spread throughout the Punjab, The golden throne of Maharaja Ranjit Singh and British troops once again invaded. The British prevailed in the Second Anglo-Sikh War, and under the Treaty of Lahore in 1849, the Punjab was annexed by the British East India Company, and Dhalip Singh was pensioned off. The Punjab became a province of British India, although a number of small states, most notably Patiala, retained local rulers who recognized British sovereignty. In every way, the Punjab was one of Great Britain's most important assets in colonial India. Its political and geographic predominance gave Britain a base from which to project its power over more than 500 princely states that made up India. Lahore was a center of learning and culture under British rule, and Rawalpindi became an important

Dalip Singh, the last Maharaja of Punjab.

Punjab, India Army installation. The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre of 1919 occurred in Amritsar. In 1930, the Indian National Congress proclaimed independence from Lahore. The 1940 Lahore Resolution of the Muslim League to work for Pakistan, made Punjab the centerstage of a different, bloodier and dirtier struggle. In 1946, massive communal tensions and violence erupted between the majority Muslims of Punjab, and the Hindu and Sikh minorities. The Muslim League attacked the government of Unionist Punjabi Muslims, Sikh Akalis and the Congress, and led to its downfall. Unwilling to be cowed down, Sikhs and Hindus counter-attacked and the resulting bloodshed left the province in great disorder. Both Congress and League leaders agreed to partition Punjab upon religious lines, a precursor to the wider partition of the country. The British Punjab province, which includes present-day Punjab province of Pakistan, and the Indian states of Punjab, Haryana, Himachal pradesh was partitioned in 1947 prior to the independence of Pakistan and subsequently, India.

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Independence and its aftermath

In 1947 the Punjab province of British India was divided along religious lines into West Punjab and East Punjab. The western Punjab was assimilated into new country of Pakistan while the east Punjab stayed in India. This led to massive rioting as both sides committed atrocities against fleeing refugees. The Partition of India in 1947 split the former Raj province of Punjab; the mostly Muslim western part became the Pakistani province of West Punjab and the mostly Sikh and Hindu eastern part became the Indian province of Punjab. Many Sikhs and Hindus lived in the west, and many Muslims lived in the east, and so partition saw many people displaced and much intercommunal violence. Several British Punjab Province,before 1947 small Punjabi princely states, including Patiala, also became part of India. The undivided Punjab, of which Punjab (Pakistan) forms a major region today, was home to a large minority population of Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus unto 1947 apart from the Muslim majority.[29] At the time of independence in 1947 and due to the ensuing horrendous exchange of populations, the Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus migrated to India.[30] Punjabi Muslims were uprooted similarly from their homes in East Punjab which now forms part of India.[31] Approximately 7 million plus who moved to Pakistan, over 6 million settled in Punjab. In 1950, two new states were created; the former Raj province became the state of Punjab, while the princely states were combined into the Patiala and East Punjab States Union (PEPSU). Himachal Pradesh was created as a union territory from several princely states and Kangra district. In 1956, PEPSU was merged into Punjab state, and several northern districts of Punjab in the Himalayas were transferred to Himachal Pradesh.

Formation of current Punjab

The capital of the undivided Province of Punjab, Lahore, ended up in Pakistan after partition, so a new capital for Indian Punjab was built at Chandigarh. After years of struggle by the Akali leadership(Punjabi Suba Movement) and detention of thousands of Sikhs and loss of many lives Punjab was divided on a linguistic basis. On 1 November 1966, the majority Hindi-speaking southern half of Punjab became a separate state, Haryana. Chandigarh was on the border between the two states, and became a separate union territory but serves as the capital of both Punjab and Haryana. During the 1970s, the Green Revolution brought increased economic prosperity for the Punjab, mainly due to the late Pratap Singh Kairon. However, a growing polarisation between the Indian National Congress led central government and the main Sikh

Punjab, India political party, the Shiromani Akali Dal, began to widen during the 1970s. Hostility and bitterness arose from what was widely seen by the Akali Dal as increasing alienation, centralization and discriminatory attitudes towards Punjab by the Government of India. This prompted the Shiromani Akali Dal to pass the Anandpur Sahib Resolution which asked for granting maximum autonomy to the region of Punjab and other states and limited role and powers of the Central Government.

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Demographics
Religion "PUNJAB" Religion Total population Sikhs Hindus Muslims Christians Buddhists Jains Others [32] % of total No. of people 24358999 [33] 100% 63.60% 34.00% 1.57 % 1.20 % 0.17 % 0.16 % 0.04 %

16,656,345 7,997,942 382,045 292,800 41,487 39,276 8,594

The Indian state of Punjab is 66% Sikh and 31% Hindu. There is a small Muslim population still living there, especially in Malerkotla.[32] In recent times, there is growing concern in the state about the immigration of labourers from other Indian states such as Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Around 15-20% of Punjab's population is now made up of migrants from other states. The literacy rate in Punjab is 75%, male literacy being 80.23% and female literacy is 68.36%. Being an agricultural state, a large part of the population lives in the rural area. Approx. 66% of people live in rural areas while the rest 34% is urban resident. The state has a very skewed sex ratio, according to the 2001 census there are 876 females per 1000 males in Punjab.

Religion
Sikhism is the predominant faiths in Punjab. More than 66% of the people in the state are Sikhs. The holiest of Sikh shrines, the Sri Harmandir Sahib (or Golden Temple), is in the city of Amritsar. The Sri Akal Takht Sahib which resides within the Golden temple complex is the temporal seat of Sikhs. Of the five Takhts (Temporal Seats of religious authority) of Sikhism, three are in Punjab. These are Sri Akal Takht Sahib, Damdama Sahib and Anandpur Sahib. Anandpur Sahib is where Guru Gobind Singh created the Khalsa in 1699 on the day of Sikh Flag- The Nishan Sahib Vaisakhi. During major holidays on the Sikh calendar (such as Vaisakhi, Hola Mohalla, Gurpurb and Diwali), many Sikhs gather and march in religious processions through virtually every city, town and village in Punjab. Sikhism is in fact so common that at least one Sikh Gurdwara can be found in almost every village in the state beside towns and cities (in various architectural styles and sizes). Hinduism is the second most practiced faith in Punjab. A large segment of Punjabis who are now categorized as Hindus or who identify themselves as Punjabi Hindus, continue to live out heterogeneous religious practice that includes spiritual kinship with Sikhism. This not only includes veneration of the Sikh Gurus in private practice, but also visit to Sikh Gurdwaras along with hindu temples. This is evident from

Punjab, India the continuing propensity to conduct important life cycle ceremonies such as on marriage or death by any of the Hindu or Sikh rites. This is especially true for the Khatri and Arora communities, and even more so among the Kukhran tribe . Other religions like Islam(1.5%) and Christianity(1.2%) are also followed by few people in the state,beside Buddhism(0.2%) and Jainism(0.2%).

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Language
The Punjabi language, written in the Gurmukhi script, is the only official and most commonly used language in the state.[36] The language is now popular across India and the wider world due to large scale migration of Punjabis[37] and the rich Punjabi music.Punjabi has always been an integral part of Indian Bollywood cinema. In recent years a trend of Bollywood songs written totally in Punjabi can be observed. Punjabi is also the most spoken language in Pakistan and is the provincial language of Punjab (Pakistan), the second largest and the most populous province of Pakistan.

Station sign at Southall, London, England, in the Latin and Gurmukhi scripts

Apart from India and Pakistan, Punjabi is the second most spoken language in England[38] and fourth most spoken language in Canada according to official census.[39] Among the world languages, Punjabi is the 11th most spoken language in the world.[40] The major dialects of Punjabi spoken in Punjab are Majhi, Malwi, Pwadhi and Doabi.[40] Other languages common in Punjab are Hindi, English, Urdu (mainly in Malerkotla) and Bihari languages.[41]

Education
Punjab is served by several institutions of higher education, which provide undergraduate and postgraduate courses in all the major arts, humanities, science, engineering, law, medicine, veterinary science, and business courses. Punjab Agricultural University is a leading institution globally for the study of agriculture, and played a significant role in Punjab's Green Revolution in the 1960s-70s. Among the alumni of the Panjab University, Chandigarh include Manmohan Singh, the current Prime Minister of India, and Har Gobind Khorana, a biochemistry nobel laureate. One of the oldest institutions of higher education is the Christian Medical College, Ludhiana which has existed since 1894.[42] Aryabhatta group of institutes, Barnala Adesh Institute of Engineering and Technology, Faridkot Central University of Punjab, Bathinda Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar Punjabi University, Patiala Panjab University, Chandigarh Punjab Engineering College, Chandigarh Chitkara Institute Of Engineering And Technology, Rajpura Lala Lajpat Rai Institute of Engineering and Technology(LLRIET), Moga Giani Zail Singh College of Engineering and Technology, Bathinda

The National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research

Punjab, India Shaheed Bhagat Singh College of Engineering and Technology, Ferozepur Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana Punjab Technical University, Jalandhar Desh Bhagat Institute of Engineering and Management, Moga Swami Vivekanand Institute of Engineering and Technology, SVIET, Rajpura Baba Farid University of Health Sciences, Faridkot Regional Institute of Management and Technology, Fatehgarh Sahib Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Mohali Dr B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar Thapar University, Patiala Rajiv Gandhi National University of Law, Patiala Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology, Sangrur Indian Institute of Technology Ropar, Rupnagar Lovely Professional University, Phagwara
Guru Gobind Singh Bhawan at Punjabi University The Ranjit Singh Block at Guru Nanak Dev University

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Economy
According to the India State Hunger Index 2008, Punjab has the lowest level of hunger in India. .[43] According to India Today, Leading magazine in India, Punjab has been awarded best overall state since, 2003 and has been able to retain the top position every year. It also affords best quality of life to its residents.[44] Punjab has the best infrastructure in all of India[45] [46] Although it has a huge shortage of electricity due to high demand, all major cities in Punjab benefit from this and have some of the PCA Stadium under lights lowest tariffs in India. All of Punjab's villages have been provided electricity and connected to the state electrical power grid since 1974. Punjab (Land of the five rivers) is one of the most fertile regions on earth. The region is ideal for

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wheat-growing. Rice, sugar cane, fruits and vegetables are also grown. Indian Punjab is called the "Granary of India" or "India's bread-basket".[47] It produces 14% of India's cotton, 20% of India's wheat, and 9% of India's rice.The Firozpur District is the largest producer of wheat and rice in the state. In worldwide terms, Indian Punjab produces 2% of the world's cotton, 2% of its wheat and 1% of the world's rice.[47] The largest grown crop is wheat. Other important crops are rice, cotton, sugarcane, pearl millet, maize, barley and fruit. In Punjab per hectare consumption of fertilizer is 177kg Quark, Mohali as compared to 90kg at national level. Also Punjab State has been awarded National Productivity Award for agriculture extension services for consecutively ten years from 1991-92 to 1998-99 and 2001 to 2003-04. In recent years a drop in productivity has been observed mainly due to falling fertility of the soil. This is believed to be due to excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides over the years. Also a big worry is the rapidly falling water table on which almost 90% of the agriculture depends, which has witnessed alarming drops in recent years. By some estimates, groundwater is falling by a meter or more per year.[48] [49] Excluding agriculture other major industries include the manufacture of scientific instruments, electrical goods, machine tools, textiles, tourism, sewing machines, sports goods, starch, fertilizers, bicycles, and the processing of pine oil and sugar.

Government and politics

Each of the states of India possesses a parliamentary system of government, with a ceremonial state Governor, appointed by the President of India on the advice of the central government. The head of government is an indirectly-elected Chief Minister who is vested with most of the executive powers. The state legislature is the unicameral Punjab Legislative Assembly, with 117 members elected from single-seat constituencies. The capital of Punjab is Chandigarh which also serves as the capital of Haryana, and is thus administered separately as a Union Territory of India. The judicial branch of the state government is provided by the Punjab and Haryana High Court in Chandigarh.[50] The state of Punjab is divided into four administrative divisions and twenty districts:

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Regions and Districts

The area of Punjab can be divided into: Malwa is a region of Punjab and parts of Haryana between the Sutlej and Yamuna rivers. People of Malwa are known for being great fighters, and warriors. The Malwa area makes up majority of the Punjab region consisting 11 districts. Cities such as Ludhiana, Patiala, Bhatinda and Mohali located in the Malwa region. Majha is a historical region of the Indian Punjab comprising the modern districts of Amritsar, Gurdaspur and Tarn Taran. It lies between two of the five great rivers Districts of Punjab along with their headquarters of the Punjab: the Ravi and the Sutlej. This region is also celebrated as being the 'Cradle of Sikhism'. Doaba is the region of Indian Punjab surrounded by the rivers Beas and Sutlej. The name "Doaba" literally translates to "land of two rivers" ("Do" two, "Ab" river; Punjabi). It is one of the most fertile regions of the world, and was the centre of the Green Revolution in India. To this day, it remains one of the largest per capita producers of wheat in the world. The biggest cities in Doaba are Jalandhar, Hoshiarpur,Dasua, Adampur, Nawansher and Phagwara.

Administrative divisions
The Indian state of Punjab is divided as follows: Amritsar Division Faridkot Division Ludhiana Division Each division contains several districts. The state of Punjab has 20 districts which comprise of sub-divisions, tehsils & blocks. Punjab has 20 districts:
Districts: Amritsar Barnala Bathinda Firozpur Fatehgarh Sahib Faridkot Gurdaspur Hoshiarpur Jalandhar Kapurthala Ludhiana Mansa Moga Mohali Muktsar Patiala Rupnagar Sangrur Shahid Bhagat Singh Nagar Tarn Taran

The state capital of Punjab is Chandigarh. There are 14 cities and 157 towns in Punjab. Punjab has some very valuable historical, colorful great cities .The major cities in Punjab are Ludhiana, Jalandhar, Amritsar, Patiala, Mohali, Bathinda. The State of Punjab in western India is one of the most fertile regions of the earth. The cities have rich culture of self dependence, self reliance and hard work.

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Tourism
Tourism in Indian Punjab centres around the historic palaces, battle sites, great Sikh architecture of the state and the surrounding region. Examples include various sites of the Indus Valley Civilization, the ancient fort of Bathinda, the architectural monuments of Kapurthala, Patiala, and Chandigarh, the modern capital designed by Le Corbusier.[51] The Golden Temple in Amritsar is one of the major tourist destination of Punjab and indeed India, attracting more visitors than the Taj Mahal, Lonely Planet Bluelist 2008 has voted the Harmandir Sahib as one of the worlds best spiritual sites.[52] Moreover, there is a rapidly expanding array of international hotels in the holy city that can be booked for overnight stays.

Moti Bagh Palace in Patiala

Transport
Infrastructure of Punjab has been rated the best in India. Public transport in Punjab is provided by buses, auto rickshaws and Indian railways.The state has a large network of multimodal transportation system: Air Punjab has six airports . Domestic airports are at Ludhiana, Patiala, Pathankot, Mohali. International airport, Sri Guru Ram Dass Jee International Airport in Amritsar is the largest and most important airport in the state and is also the second busiest in North India after Delhi Airport. Prominent Airports in Punjab are: Sri Guru Ram Dass Jee International Airport Sahnewal Airport Pathankot Airport Patiala Airport Chandigarh Airport
Harmandir Sahib in Amritsar is a major tourist destination in Punjab

Rail Almost all the major as well as smaller cities of the state are linked through railways. Amritsar is the largest railway station having trains connecting to all major cities. Shatabdi Express connects Amritsar to Delhi. The railway junction in Bhatinda is the largest in Asia.

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Road All the cities ans towns of Punjab are connected with four lane roads, National Highway. The Grand Trunk Road also called as NH1 connect Calcutta to Peshawar passing through Jalandhar and Amritsar. Another major National Highway connect Punjab to Jammu passing through Hoshiarpur and Pathankot. The state road conditions are the finest in India. The national Highways passing through the state is ranked the best in the country with road networks widely spread,covering isolated towns as well as border region. The following National Highways connect major towns, cities and villages: National Highway 1 (India) National Highway 10 (India) National Highway 15 (India) National Highway 1A (India) National Highway 20 (India) National Highway 21 (India) National Highway 22 (India) National Highway 64 (India) National Highway 70 (India) National Highway 71 (India) National Highway 95 (India)

A DMU Train in Ludhiana

Digital Library of Panjab

Launched in 2003 under Nanakshahi Trust, the Panjab Digital Library was a result of the early phase of the digital revolution in Panjab. While most saw the Nanakshahi as a small digitization organization, or as an assemblage of some unknown youth working towards capturing some manuscripts on their digital cameras, its founders saw it as a cornerstone of a fundamentally new approach to preserving Panjabs heritage for future generations. In the shadow of search engines, a Semantic Web approach thought of in the early 2003 reached maturity in 2006. This was when the organization planned to expand its operations from a mere three employee organization to one of the leading NGOs working in the field of digital preservation all over India. Digitized collections include manuscripts held by the Punjab Languages Department, items from the Government Museum and Art Gallery Chandigarh, Chief Khalsa Diwan, SGPC, DSGMC and manuscripts in the Jawahr Lal Nehru Library of Kurukshetra University. It also include hundreds of personal collections. With over 5 million pages digitized it is the biggest repository of digital data on Panjab.

Culture
The culture of the Punjab comprises many elements including music such as bhangra, an extensive religious and non-religious dance tradition, a long history of poetry in the Punjabi language, a significant film industry which dates back to before Partition, a vast range of cuisine which has become widely popular abroad, and a number of seasonal and harvest festivals such as Lohri,[53] Basant, Baisakhi and Teej, all of which are celebrated in addition to the religious festivals of India. A kissa is a Punjabi language oral story-telling tradition that has a mixture of origins ranging from the Arabian peninsula to Iran and Afghanistan.[54] Punjabi wedding traditions and ceremonies are a strong reflection of Punjabi culture. Marriage ceremonies are known for their rich rituals, songs, dances, food and dresses, which have evolved over many centuries.

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Bhangra
Bhangra (Punjabi:
(Gurmukhi),;

pronounced

[p]) is a form of dance and music that originated in the Punjab region.[55] Bhangra dance began as a folk dance conducted by Punjabi Sikh farmers to celebrate the coming of the harvest season. The specific moves of Bhangra reflect the manner in which villagers farmed their land. This hybrid dance became Bhangra. The folk dance has been popularised in the western world by Punjabi Sikhs in England, UK[56] and is seen in the West as an expression of South Asian culture as a whole.[57] Today, Bhangra dance survives in different forms and styles all over the globe including pop music, film soundtracks, collegiate competitions and cultural shows.

Bhangra concert

Punjabi Folklore
The folk heritage of the Punjab is the traditional urge of thousands of years of its history. While Majhi is considered the standard dialect of Punjabi language, there are a number of local dialects through which the people communicate. These include Majhi, Malwi, Doabi, and Pwadhi. The songs, ballads, epics and romances are generally written and sung in these dialects. There are a number of folk tales that are popular in different parts of the Punjab. These are the folk tales of Mirza Sahiban, Heer Ranjha, Sohni Mahiwal, Dulla Bhatti, and Sassi Punnun. The mystic folk songs includes the Shalooks of Gurbani by Guru Nanak, Baba Farid and others. They also include Baits, Dohas, Lohris, Sehra, and Jugni.[58] The most famous of the romantic love songs are Mayhiah, Dhola and Boliyan. Punjabi romantic dances include Dhamaal, Bhangra, Giddha, Dhola, and Sammi.

References
[1] Narayanan appointed as WB Governor, Patil gets Punjab (http:/ / www. hindustantimes. com/ Narayanan-appointed-as-West-Bengal-Governor-Patil-gets-Punjab/ H1-Article1-498140. aspx), Hindustan Times, January 16, 2010 [2] Census of India (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ ), 2011. Census Data Online, Population. [3] http:/ / www. punjabgovt. nic. in [4] Adherents.com: Sikhs (http:/ / www. adherents. com/ largecom/ com_sikh. html) [5] Singh, Pritam (2008). Federalism, Nationalism and Development: India and the Punjab Economy (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=mQLDcjhNoJwC& printsec=frontcover#v=onepage& q& f=false). London; New York: Routledge. pp.3. ISBN0415456665. . [6] "How to obtain a police certificate - India" (http:/ / www. cic. gc. ca/ english/ information/ security/ police-cert/ asia-pacific/ india. asp). Cic.gc.ca. 2009-11-09. . Retrieved 2010-07-18. [7] "Welcome to Official Web site of Punjab, India" (http:/ / punjabgovt. nic. in/ punjabataglance/ SomeFacts. htm). Punjabgovt.nic.in. . Retrieved 2010-07-18. [8] Pragati Infosoft Pvt. Ltd.. "Punjab Geography, Geography of Punjab, Punjab Location, Punjab Climate" (http:/ / punjabonline. in/ Profile/ Geography/ ). Punjabonline.in. . Retrieved 2010-07-18. [9] Jerath, Neelima, Puja & Jatinder Chadha (Editors), 2006. Biodiversity in the Shivalik Ecosystem of Punjab. Punjab State Council for Science and Technology, Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun. [10] "Climate And Resources In Punjab" (http:/ / www. sadapunjab. com/ cv/ Literature_On_Punjab/ PUNJAB/ Climate_And_Resources_In_Punjab/ index0. html). Sadapunjab.com. . Retrieved 2010-07-18. [11] "Indian States : Punjab :: Flora And Fauna" (http:/ / www. india-travel-information. com/ india-information/ Indian-States/ Punjab/ 333-Flora-And-Fauna. html). India Travel Information. . Retrieved 2010-07-18. [12] "Panjab Tourism, General Information" (http:/ / www. punjabtourism. in/ geninfo. html). . Retrieved 2010-11-09. [13] Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency ... - Google Books (http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?ei=uG2RTb3xCYXQcZeeuUA& ct=result& id=0bkMAAAAIAAJ& dq=abhira+ yadav& q=abhiras)

Punjab, India
[14] Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency ..., Volume 1, Part 1-page-11 [15] Kalsi 2005, pp.106107 [16] Markovits 2004, p.98 [17] Jestice 2004, pp.345346 [18] Johar 1975, pp.192210 [19] Jestice 2004, pp.312313 [20] Singh 2008, pp.2526 [21] Nesbitt 2005, p.61 [22] "Sikh Period - National Fund for Cultural Heritage" (http:/ / www. heritage. gov. pk/ html_Pages/ sikh. htm). Heritage.gov.pk. 1947-08-14. . Retrieved 2009-08-09. [23] "Sikh Period - Government of Pakistan" (http:/ / www. heritage. gov. pk/ html_Pages/ sikh. htm). . [24] "Ranjit Singh: A Secular Sikh Sovereign by K.S. Duggal. ''(Date:1989. ISBN 81-7017-244-6'')" (http:/ / www. exoticindiaart. com/ book/ details/ IDE822/ ). Exoticindiaart.com. 2009-02-01. . Retrieved 2009-08-09. [25] Encyclopdia Britannica Eleventh Edition, (Edition: Volume V22, Date: 1910-1911), Page 892. [26] "MAHARAJAH RANJIT SINGH ... - Online Information article about MAHARAJA RANJIT SINGH" (http:/ / encyclopedia. jrank. org/ PYR_RAY/ RANJIT_SINGH_MAHARAJA_178o_1839. html). Encyclopedia.jrank.org. . Retrieved 2009-08-09. [27] J. S. Grewal (1998). The Sikhs of the Punjab. Cambridge University Press. [28] Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the last to lay arms, (Duggal,p.136-138) [29] The Punjab in 1920s A Case study of Muslims, Zarina Salamat, Royal Book Company, Karachi, 1997. table 45, pp. 136. ISBN 969-407-230-1 [30] Panel 33 (http:/ / www. sasnet. lu. se/ panelabstracts/ 33. html) European Association for South Asian Studies [31] Pakistan: a modern history, Ian Talbot, St. Martin's Press, 1999. ISBN 0-312-21606-8 [32] Census of India, 2001: population of Punjab by religion (http:/ / censusindia. gov. in/ Census_Data_2001/ Census_data_finder/ C_Series/ Population_by_religious_communities. htm) [33] Census of India, 2001 (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ population_finder/ State_Master. aspx?State_Code=03) [34] "Demographic Trends" (http:/ / www. punenvis. nic. in/ demo_trends. htm). Census of India. www.punenvis.nic.in. . Retrieved 2008-06-04. [35] "Census Population" (http:/ / indiabudget. nic. in/ es2006-07/ chapt2007/ tab97. pdf) (PDF). Census of India. Ministry of Finance India. . Retrieved 2008-12-18. [36] Punjabi Language,official Language of Punjab,Regional Languages of Punjab (http:/ / www. indiasite. com/ language/ punjabi. html) [37] Punjabi in North America (http:/ / www. apnaorg. com/ articles/ articledawn/ ) [38] House of Commons Hansard Debates for 7 Mar 2000 (pt 2) (http:/ / www. publications. parliament. uk/ pa/ cm199900/ cmhansrd/ vo000307/ halltext/ 00307h02. htm) [39] "Punjabi is 4th most spoken language in Canada - Times Of India" (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ Punjabi_is_Canadas_4th_most_top_language/ articleshow/ 2782138. cms). The Times Of India. . [40] Punjabi Language, Gurmukhi , Punjabi Literature, History Of Punjabi Language, State Language Of Punjab (http:/ / languages. iloveindia. com/ punjabi. html) [41] Bihar Today Online :Bihar Today: Punjab now a land of Bihari Sardars (http:/ / www. bihartodayonline. com/ 2007/ 11/ punjab-now-land-of-bihari-sardars. html) [42] An Indian doctors triumph (http:/ / www. telegraphindia. com/ 1050815/ asp/ knowhow/ story_5105265. asp) The Telegraph, August 15, 2005 [43] "India fares badly on global hunger index" (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ India/ India_fares_badly_on_global_hunger_index/ rssarticleshow/ 3596818. cms). Times of India. 2008-10-15. . [44] Arvind Chhabra (2009-09-18). "Punjab: Progressive by nature: India Today" (http:/ / indiatoday. intoday. in/ site/ Story/ 62342/ Cover Story/ Punjab:+ Progressive+ by+ nature. html). Indiatoday.intoday.in. . Retrieved 2010-07-18. [45] Welcome to Official Web site of Punjab, India (http:/ / punjabgovt. nic. in/ ECONOMY/ Transport. htm) [46] Welcome to Official Web site of Punjab, India (http:/ / punjabgovt. nic. in/ INDUSTRY/ BestInfrastructure. htm) [47] Welcome to Official Web site of Punjab, India (http:/ / punjabgovt. nic. in/ punjabataglance/ LeadingbyExample. htm) [48] J. Carl Ganter. "Q&A: Upmanu Lall on Indias Nexus of Energy, Food and Water" (http:/ / www. circleofblue. org/ waternews/ 2010/ world/ qa-upmanu-lall-gives-insight-to-indias-nexus-of-energy-food-and-water/ ). Circle of Blue. . Retrieved 2010-06-04. [49] Upmanu Lall. "Punjab: A tale of prosperity and decline" (http:/ / blogs. ei. columbia. edu/ 2009/ 07/ 28/ punjab-a-tale-of-prosperity-and-decline/ ). Columbia Water Center. . Retrieved 2009-09-11. [50] "Jurisdiction and Seats of Indian High Courts" (http:/ / www. ebc-india. com/ lawyer/ hcourts. htm). Eastern Book Company. . Retrieved 2008-05-12. [51] Punjab (http:/ / www. mapsofindia. com/ stateprofiles/ punjab/ ) [52] http:/ / www. ptinews. com/ pti/ ptisite. nsf/ 0/ 03d3a18aa4bdceae6525738e00199bff?OpenDocument [53] "Harvest Festival of Punjab,Harvest Festival Lohri,Cultural Festival of India,Harvest Festival in India" (http:/ / www. lohrifestival. org/ harvest-festival-of-punjab. html). Lohrifestival.org. . Retrieved 2010-07-18. [54] Mir, Farina. "Representations of Piety and Community in Late-nineteenth-century Punjabi Qisse" (http:/ / www. unc. edu/ depts/ cdeisi/ abstracts. html). Columbia University. . Retrieved 2008-07-04.

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[55] Pakistan almanac, Volumes 20012002 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=rRYZAQAAIAAJ& q=bhangra+ pakistan& dq=bhangra+ pakistan& lr=& cd=1). Royal Book Company. . Retrieved 2007-11-03. "Bhangra refers to both a traditional dance and a form of music invented in the 1980s. Bhangra, the punjabi folk dance that has become popular all over the world. Panjabi folk songs have been integral part of fertile provinces" [56] http:/ / www. bhangra. org/ about/ bhangra-history/ Bhangra History [57] Social control and deviance: a South Asian community in Scotland (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=sMnZAAAAMAAJ& q=bhangra+ pakistan& dq=bhangra+ pakistan& lr=& cd=12). Ashgate. . Retrieved 2007-11-03. "The whole institution of the Bhangra and its related processes are clearly an expression of Indian/Pakistan culture in a Western setting." [58] at Punjabilok.com (http:/ / www. punjabilok. com/ pakistan/ pak_punjab. htm)

468

External links
Official website (http://http://punjabgovt.nic.in) Punjab, India travel guide from Wikitravel

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Rajasthan
Rajasthan
State

Seal

Location of Rajasthan in India

Map of Rajasthan Coordinates (Jaipur): 263422N 735020E Country Established Capital India 1 November 1956 Jaipur

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Largest city Districts Government -Governor -ChiefMinister -Legislature Area -Total Area rank Population (2011) -Total -Rank -Density Time zone ISO 3166 code HDI HDI rank Literacy Official languages Website 68621012 8th 200.5/km2(519.3/sqmi) IST (UTC+05:30) IN-RJ 0.537 (medium) 21st (2005) 68% (20th) Rajasthani, Hindi rajasthan.gov.in [1] 342269km2(132150.8sqmi) 1st Dr. Shivraj Patil Ashok Gehlot Unicameral (200 seats) Jaipur 33 total

Rjasthn (Rajasthani: , pronounced[radstan] ( listen)) the land of Rajasthanis, ("the land of kings"[2] or "the land of colours"[3] ), is the largest state of the Republic of India by area. It encompasses most of the area of the large, inhospitable Great Indian Desert (Thar Desert), which has an edge paralleling the Sutlej-Indus river valley along its border with Pakistan. The state is bordered by Pakistan to the west, Gujarat to the southwest, Madhya Pradesh to the southeast, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana to the northeast and Punjab to the north. Rajasthan covers an area of 132,150 sqmi or 342,239km. The proportion of the state's total area to the total area of the country is 10.41 per cent. Jaipur is the capital and the largest city of the state. Geographical features include the Thar Desert along north-western Rajasthan and the termination of the Ghaggar River near the archaeological ruins at Kalibanga of the Indus Valley Civilization, which are the oldest in the Indian subcontinent discovered so far. One of the world's oldest mountain ranges, the Aravalli Range, cradles the only hill station of Rajasthan, Mount Abu, famous for Dilwara Temples, a sacred pilgrimage for Jains. Eastern Rajasthan has the world famous Keoladeo National Park[4] near Bharatpur, famous for its bird life and is a World Heritage Site and two famous national tiger reserves, Ranthambore and Sariska Tiger Reserve. Rajasthan was formed on 30 March 1949, when all erstwhile princely states ruled by Rajputs, known as Rajputana, merged into the Dominion of India.

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Etymology
Rajasthan was essentially the country of the Gurjars.[5] Historian R. C. Majumdar explained that the region was long known as Gurjaratra (Country protected by the Gurjars or Gurjar nation), early form of Gujarat, before it came to be called Rajputana, around the 12th century.[6] The historian John Keay in his book, India: A History stated that, Rajputana name was given by Britishers and the word even achieved a retrospective authenticity, in 1829 translation of Ferishta's history of early Islamic India, John Briggs discarded the phrase Indian princes, as rendered in Dow's earlier version, and substituted Rajpoot princes.[7] The only difference between erstwhile Rajputana and Rajasthan is that certain portions of what had been British India, in the former province of Ajmer-Merwara, were included. Portions lying geographically outside of Rajputana such as the Sumel-Tappa area were included in Madhya Pradesh.[8]

History
The Indus Valley Civilization, one of the world's first and oldest civilizations, was located in parts of what is now Rajasthan. Kalibangan in Hanumangarh district, Rajasthan was a major provincial capital of the Indus Valley Civilization.[9] It is believed that Western Kshatrapas (35405 BC) were Saka rulers of the western part of India (Saurashtra and Malwa: modern Gujarat, Southern Sindh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan). They were successors to the Indo-Scythians, and were contemporaneous with the Kushans who ruled the northern part of the Indian subcontinent. The Indo-Scythians invaded the area of Ujjain and establish the Saka era (with Saka calendar), marking the beginning of the long-lived Saka Western Satraps state.[10] Traditionally the Meenas, Rajputs, Yadavs, Jats, Bhils, Gurjars, Bishnois and other tribes made a great contribution in building the state of Rajasthan. All these tribes suffered great difficulties in protecting their culture and the land. Millions[11] of them were martyred trying to protect their land.Gurjars had been exterminated in Bhinmal and Ajmer areas fighting with the invaders. Bhils once ruled Kota.[11] Meenas were rulers of Bundi and Dhundhar region. Gurjars ruled many dynasties in this part of the country. In fact this region was long known as Gurjaratra.[6] Up to the tenth century almost the whole of North India, excepting Bengal, owned supremacy of Gurjars with their seat of power at Kannauj.[12] Gurjar Pratihar Empire acted as barrier for Arab invaders from 6th to 11th century. The chief credit of Gurjara Pratihara empire lies in its successfully resistance to the foreign invasions from the west, from the days of Junaid. Historian Majumdar, say that this was frankly recognized by The Chittorgarh Fort is one of the largest forts in the Arab writers themselves. He further clears that historians of India Asia. have wondered at the slow progress of Muslim invaders in India, as compared with their rapid advance in other parts of the world. Now, there can be little doubt that it was the power of the Gurjara Pratihara army that effectively barred the progress of the Muslims beyond the confines of Sindh, their first conquest for nearly three hundred years.[13]

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The earlier contributions of warriors and protectors of the land Vishnois, Ahirs, Gurjars, Jats, Bhils and Meenas were neglected and lost in history due to stories of valour shown by certain specific clans in later years graining more prominence over older acts of bravery.[14] Rajasthan means the Land of the Kings. Modern Rajasthan includes most of Rajputana, which comprises mainly the erstwhile Rajput kingdoms as well as two Jat kingdoms and a Muslim kingdom. Marwar (Jodhpur), Bikaner, Mewar (Udaipur), Alwar and Dhundhar (Jaipur) were some of the main Rajput states. The Jats were rulers in Bharatpur The iconic Mehrangarh Fort built by Rao Jodha and Dholpur. Tonk was ruled by a Muslim Nawab. Rajput families in 1459. rose to prominence in the 6th century CE. The Rajputs put a very valiant resistance to the Islamic invasions and protected this land with their warfare and chivalry for more than 500 years. They also resisted Mughal incursions into India, but contributed to the slower than anticipated access to the Indian Subcontinent. Later the Mughals, with a technique based on a combination of treachery and skilled warfare were able to set firm a grip on northern India, including Rajasthan. The fighter spirit and valour of Rajputs impressed the Mughals to such an extent that even after defeating the Rajputs, the Mughals held their valour and value in the highest esteem. Mewar led other kingdoms in its resistance to outside rule. Most notably Rana Sanga fought the Battle of Khanua against Babur, the founder of the Mughal empire. Samrat Hem Chandra Vikramaditya, the Hindu Emperor, also known as Hemu in the history of India was born in the village of Machheri in Alwar District in the year 1501. He had won 22 battles against Afghans, from Punjab to Bengal and had defeated Akbar's forces twice at Agra and Delhi in 1556,[15] before acceeding to the throne of Delhi and establishing 'Hindu Raj' in North India, albeit for a short duration, from Purana Quila in Delhi. He was killed in the Second Battle of Panipat. Maharana Pratap of Mewar resisted Akbar in the famous Battle of Haldighati and later operated from hilly areas of his kingdom. Bhils were Maharana's main allies during these wars. Most of these attacks were evenly met as the Mughal forces outnumbered Mewar Rajputs in all the wars fought between them. The Haldighati war was fought between 10,000 Mewaris and a 100,000 strong Mughal force (including many Rajputs like Kachwahas from Dhundhar). Over the years the Mughals began to have internal disputes which took their concentration away at times. They also had to fight off Pathan warriors from neighbouring Afghanistan and the newer enemy, the British Empire which consisted of large numbers of natives whilst engaging against various other regional powers such as the Persians. The Mughal Empire eventually weakened to which several groups across their kingdom (including Sikhs) saw opportunities to establish their power whilst the army was fighting somewhere else. The Rajputs saw this as an opportunity to reassert their independence. With the decline of the Mughal Empire in the 18th century, Rajputana came under attack by Maharana Pratap Singh, legendary sixteenth the Marathas and Pindaris, and the Maratha general Scindia captured century Rajput ruler of Rajasthan. Ajmer. The Rajput kings following a rapid defeat, concluded treaties with the British in the early 19th century, accepting British sovereignty in return for local autonomy. Following the Mughal tradition as well as

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its strategic location Ajmer became a province of British India, while the autonomous Rajput states, the Muslim state Tonk, and the Jat states (Bharatpur and Dholpur) were organized into the Rajputana Agency. The Marwaris (people from Marwar) and Rajasthan's formerly independent kingdom created a rich architectural and cultural heritage, seen even today in their numerous forts and palaces (Mahals and Havelis) which are enriched by features of Muslim and Jain architecture. The development of the frescos in Rajasthan is linked with the history of the Marwaris, who have also played a crucial role in the economic development of the region. Many wealthy families throughout Indian history have links to Marwar. These families include the legendary Birla, Bhandari, Bajaj, Mittal and Mirza families.

Hawa Mahal or "Palace of Winds" in Jaipur.

Geography
The main geographic features of Rajasthan are the Thar Desert and the Aravalli Range, which runs through the state from southwest to northeast, almost from one end to the other, for more than 850km. Mount Abu is at the southwestern end of the range, separated from the main ranges by the West Banas River, although a series of broken ridges continues into Haryana in the direction of Delhi where it can be seen as outcrops in the form of the Raisina Hill and the ridges farther north. About three-fifths of Rajasthan lies northwest of the Aravallis, leaving two-fifths on the east and south. The northwestern portion of Rajasthan is generally sandy and dry. Most of the region is covered by the Thar Desert, which extends into adjoining portions of Pakistan. The Aravalli Range does not intercept the moisture-giving southwest monsoon winds off the Arabian Sea, as it lies in a direction parallel to that of the coming monsoon winds, leaving the northwestern region in a rain shadow. The Thar Desert is thinly populated; the town of Bikaner is the largest city in the desert. The Northwestern thorn scrub forests lie in a band around the Thar Desert, between the desert and the Aravallis. This region receives less than 400mm of rain in an average year. Temperatures can exceed 45 C in the summer months and drop below freezing in the winter. The Godwar, Marwar, and Shekhawati regions lie in the thorn scrub forest zone, along with the city of Jodhpur. The Luni River and its tributaries are the major river system of Godwar and Marwar regions, draining the western slopes of the Aravallis and emptying southwest into the great Rann of Kutch wetland in neighboring Gujarat. This river is saline in the lower reaches and remains potable only up to Balotara in Barmer district. The Ghaggar River, which originates in Haryana, is an intermittent stream that disappears into the sands of the Thar Desert in the northern corner of the state and is seen as a remnant of the primitive Saraswati river.

The Aravalli Range adds diversity to the landscape of Rajasthan.

The Thar Desert

The hills around Jaipur.

Rajasthan The Aravalli Range and the lands to the east and southeast of the range are generally more fertile and better watered. This region is home to the Kathiarbar-Gir dry deciduous forests ecoregion, with tropical dry broadleaf forests that include teak, Acacia, and other trees. The hilly Vagad region lies in southernmost Rajasthan, on the border with Gujarat. With the exception of Mount Abu, Vagad is the wettest region in Rajasthan, and the most heavily forested. North of Vagad lies the Mewar region, home to the cities of Udaipur and Chittaurgarh. The Hadoti region lies to the southeast, on the border with Madhya Pradesh. North of Hadoti and Mewar is the Dhundhar region, home to the state capital of Jaipur. Mewat, the easternmost region of Rajasthan, borders Haryana and Uttar Pradesh. Eastern and southeastern Rajasthan is drained by the Banas and Chambal rivers, tributaries of the Ganges. The Aravali Range runs across the state from the southwest peak Guru Shikhar (Mount Abu), which is 1,722 m in height, to Khetri in the northeast. This divides the state into 60% in the northwest of the range and 40% in the southeast. The northwest tract is sandy and unproductive with little water but improves gradually from desert land in the far west and northwest to comparatively fertile and habitable land towards the east. The area includes the Thar Desert. The south-eastern area, higher in elevation (100 to 350 m above sea level) and more fertile, has a very diversified topography. in the south lies the hilly tract of Mewar. In the southeast, a large area within the districts of Kota and Bundi forms a tableland. To the northeast of these districts is a rugged region (badlands) following the line of the Chambal River. Farther north the country levels out; the flat plains of the northeastern Bharatpur district are part of an alluvial basin.

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Language
Rajasthani language is a language of the Indo-Aryan languages family.[16] It is spoken by 130 million people in Rajasthan and other states of India.[17]

Economy
Rajasthan's economy is primarily agricultural and pastoral. Wheat and barley are cultivated over large areas, as are pulses, sugarcane, and oilseeds. Cotton and tobacco are the state's cash crops. Rajasthan is among the largest producers of edible oils in India and the second largest producer of oilseeds. Rajasthan is also the biggest wool-producing state in India and the main opium producer and consumer. There are mainly two crop seasons. The water for irrigation comes from wells and tanks. The Indira Gandhi Canal irrigates northwestern Rajasthan. The main industries are mineral based, agriculture based, and textiles. Rajasthan is the second largest producer of polyester fibre in India. The Bhilwara District produces more cloth than Bhiwandi, Maharashtra and the bhilwara is the largest city in suitings production and export. Several prominent chemical and engineering companies are located in the town of Kota, in southern Rajasthan. Rajasthan is pre-eminent in quarrying and mining in India. The Taj
Women vendors sitting on the ground at a fruit and vegetable market in Kuchaman, Rajasthan

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Sogra Cuisine

Industrial plant near Jodhpur, Rajasthan.

Tourism
Rajasthan attracted 14% of total foreign visitors during 2009-2010 which is fourth highest in all states of India. It positioned fourth place also in Domestic tourist visitors.[18] Endowed with natural beauty and a great history, tourism is a flourishing industry in Rajasthan. The palaces of Jaipur, lakes of Udaipur, and desert forts of Jodhpur, Bikaner & Jaisalmer rank among the most preferred destinations in India for many tourists both Indian and foreign. Tourism accounts for eight percent of the state's domestic product. Many old and neglected palaces and forts have been converted into heritage hotels. Tourism has increased employment in the hospitality sector.

The Umaid Bhawan Palace is one of the largest royal palaces in the world.

Rajasthan is famous for the majestic forts, intricately carved temples and decorated havelis, which were built by Rajput kings in previous ages, they were the soul of pre-Muslim era Rajasthan. Jantar Mantar, Dilwara Temples, Chittorgarh Fort, Lake Palace, City Palaces, Jaisalmer Havelis are part of the true architectural heritage of India. Jaipur, the Pink City, is noted for the ancient houses made of a type of sand stone dominated by a pink hue. At Ajmer, the white marble

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Bara-dari on the Anasagar lake is exquisite. Jain Temples dot Rajasthan from north to south and east to west. Dilwara Temples of Mount Abu, Ranakpur Temple dedicated to Lord Adinath near Udaipur, Jain temples in the fort complexes of Chittor, Jaisalmer and Kumbhalgarh, Lodurva Jain temples, Bhandasar Temple of Bikaner are some of the best examples. Rajasthan is often called a shopper's paradise. Rajasthan is famous for textiles, semi-precious stones and handicrafts. The attractive designs of jewellery and clothes are eye-catching and invite shoppers. Rajasthani The Jain temple of Ranakpur. furniture has intricate carvings and bright colours. Rajasthani handicrafts are in demand due to the intricate work on them. Above all, Rajasthan's shopping appeals to both tourists and people from other parts of India due to its cheap prices for quality goods. Bikaner is famous for its namkeens, Jaipur for its jewellery, Jodhpur for sweets and Jaisalmer for yellow stone.

Culture
Rajasthan is culturally rich and has artistic and cultural traditions which reflect the ancient Indian way of life. There is rich and varied folk culture from villages which is often depicted and is symbolic of the state. Highly cultivated classical music and dance with its own distinct style is part of the cultural tradition of Rajasthan. The music is uncomplicated and songs depict day-to-day relationships and chores, more often focused around fetching water from wells or ponds. The Ghoomar dance from Udaipur and Kalbeliya dance of Jaisalmer have gained international recognition. Folk music is a vital part of Rajasthani culture. Kathputli, Bhopa, Chang, Teratali, Ghindar, Kachchhighori, Tejaji etc. are the examples of the traditional Rajasthani culture. Folk songs are commonly ballads which relate heroic deeds and love stories; and religious or devotional songs known as bhajans and banis (often accompanied by musical instruments like dholak, sitar, sarangi etc.) are also sung.
Camel ride in the Thar desert near Jaisalmer.

Rajasthan is known for its traditional, colorful art. The block prints, tie and dye prints, Bagaru prints, Sanganer prints, and Zari embroidery are major export products from Rajasthan. Handicraft items like wooden furniture and handicrafts, carpets, and blue pottery are some of the A decorated Indian elephant during a fair in Jaipur, India things commonly found here. Rajasthan is a shoppers' paradise, with beautiful goods found at low prices. Reflecting the colorful Rajasthani culture, Rajasthani clothes have a lot of mirror-work and embroidery. A Rajasthani traditional dress for females comprises an ankle length skirt and a short top, also known as a lehenga or a chaniya choli. A piece of cloth is used to cover the head, both for protection from heat and maintenance of modesty. Rajasthani dresses are usually designed in bright colours like blue, yellow and orange.

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The main religious festivals are Deepawali, Holi, Gangaur, Teej, Gogaji, Shri Devnarayan Jayanti, Makar Sankranti and Janmashtami, as the main religion is Hinduism. Rajasthan's desert festival is celebrated with great zest and zeal. This festival is held once a year during winter. Dressed in brilliantly hued costumes, the people of the desert dance and sing haunting ballads of valor, romance and tragedy. There are fairs with snake charmers, puppeteers, acrobats and folk performers. Camels, of course, play a stellar role in this festival.
Rajasthani Up-Down Dolls found in the road-side shops of Jaisalmer, Rajasthan.

Administration
Government
The current government in Rajasthan is that of Indian National Congress. The current Chief Minister is Ashok Gehlot.

Politics
The Political life of Rajasthan is dominated by two major parties Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), and Indian National Congress .

Districts
Rajasthan is divided into 33 districts and seven divisions: Ajmer Division: Ajmer, Bhilwara, Nagaur, Tonk. Bharatpur Division: Bharatpur, Dholpur, Karauli, Sawai Madhopur. Bikaner Division: Bikaner, Churu, Ganganagar, Hanumangarh. Jaipur Division: Jaipur, Alwar, Jhunjhunu, Sikar, Dausa. Jodhpur Division: Barmer, Jaisalmer, Jalore, Jodhpur, Pali, Sirohi. Kota Division: Baran, Bundi, Jhalawar, Kota. Udaipur Division: Banswara, Chittorgarh, Pratapgarh, Dungarpur, Udaipur, Rajsamand

Demographics
Rajasthan has a mainly Rajasthani population. Hindus account for 88.8% of the population.[20] Muslims make up 8.5%, Sikhs 1.4% and Jains 1.2% of the population.[20] The state of Rajasthan is also populated by Sindhis, who came to Rajasthan from Sindh province (now in Pakistan) during the India-Pakistan separation in 1947. The mother tongue of the majority of people in Rajasthan is Rajasthani. Rajasthani and Hindi are the most widely used languages in Rajasthan. Rajasthani is used as a medium of instruction, along with Hindi and English, in some schools. Some other languages used in Rajasthan are Gujarati, Sindhi and Punjabi.

Locals performing traditional folk dance in Jaisalmer.

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Education
During recent years, Rajasthan has made significant progress in the area of education. The state government has been making sustained efforts to improve the educational standard. In recent decades, the literacy rate of Rajasthan has increased significantly. In 1991, the state's literacy rate was only 38.55% (54.99% male and 20.44% female). In 2001, the literacy rate increased to 60.41% (75.70% male and 43.85% female). This was the highest leap in the percentage of literacy recorded in India (the rise in female literacy being 23%).[21] At the Census 2011, Rajasthan had a literacy rate of 67.06% (80.51% male and 52.66% female). Although Rajasthan's literacy rate is below the national average of 74.04% and although its female literacy rate is the lowest in the country (closely followed by Bihar at 53.33%), the state has been praised for its efforts and achievements in raising both male and female literacy rates. [22] [23] Rajasthan has nine universities and more than two hundred and fifty colleges, fifty five thousand primary and seven thousand four hundred secondary schools. There are forty-one engineering colleges with an annual enrollment of about 11,500 students. The state has twenty-three polytechnics and one-hundred and fifty-two Industrial Training Institute (ITIs) that impart vocational training to the students.[24]
Non-formal education center in Udaipur, Rajasthan. Educational program by Seva Mandir, an NGO working for the development of the rural and tribal population in Udaipur and Rajsamand districts of southern Rajasthan

Flora and fauna

Though a large percentage of the total area is desert, and even though there is little forest cover, Rajasthan has a rich and varied flora and fauna. The natural vegetation is classed as Northern Desert Thorn Forest (Champion 1936). These occur in small clumps scattered in a more or less open forms. Density and size of patches increase from west to east following the increase in rainfall. Some wildlife species, which are fast vanishing in other parts of India, are found in the desert in large numbers such as the Great Indian Bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps), the Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), the Indian Gazelle (Gazella bennettii) and the Indian Wild Ass. The Desert National Park, Jaisalmer, spread over an area of 3162km, is an excellent example of the ecosystem of the Thar Desert, and its diverse fauna. Great Indian Bustard, Blackbuck, chinkara, desert fox, Bengal fox, wolf, desert cat etc. can be easily seen here. Seashells and massive fossilized tree trunks in this park record the geological history of the desert. The region is a haven for migratory and resident birds of the desert. One can see many eagles, harriers, falcons, buzzards, kestrel and vultures. Short-toed Eagles (Circaetus gallicus), Tawny Eagles (Aquila rapax), Spotted Eagles (Aquila clanga), Laggar Falcons (Falco jugger) and kestrels are the commonest of these.
Chinkara

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The Ranthambore National Park located in Sawai Madhopur, is one of the finest Tiger Reserves in the Country which became a part of Project Tiger in 1973. The Sariska Tiger Reserve located in Alwar district, 200km from Delhi and 107km from Jaipur covers an area of approximately 800km2.The area was declared a National Park in 1979. Tal Chhapar Sanctuary is a very small sanctuary in Sujangarh , Churu District, 210km from Jaipur, in the Shekhawati region. This sanctuary is home to a large population of graceful Blackbuck. Desert Fox and desert cat can also be spotted along with typical avifauna such as partridge and sand grouse.

Great Indian Bustard

Wildlife
Rajasthan is also noted for National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries. There are four national park and wildlife sanctuaries named the Keoladeo National Park of Bharatpur, Sariska Tiger Reserve of Alwar, Ranthambore National Park of Sawai Madhopur, and Desert National Park of Jaisalmer. Ranthambore National Park and Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary both are known worldwide for their tiger population and considered by both wild lovers and photographers as the best places in India to spot tigers.some time before due to poaching and negligence tiger became extinct here, but recently 5 tigers have been shifted here to make them inhabit here. Besides, it houses several small wildlife sanctuaries and eco-tourism parks . Prominent among them are Mount Abu Sanctuary, Bhensrod Garh Sanctuary, Darrah Sanctuary, Jaisamand Sanctuary, Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary, Jawahar Sagar sanctuary and Sita Mata Wildlife Sanctuary. There are a variety of wildlife species in Rajasthan, notably including the apex predator Caracal, Caracal caracal.[25]

Transport
Rajasthan is connected by many national highways. Most renowned being NH 8, which is India's first 48 lane highway. Rajasthan also has an inter-city surface transport system both in terms of railways and bus network. All chief cities are connected by air, rail and road. By Air: There are four main airports at Rajasthan- Jaipur airport, Udaipur airport, Jodhpur airport and Kota airport. These airports connect Rajasthan with the major cities of India such as Delhi and Mumbai. By Rail: Rajasthan is connected with the main cities of India by rail. Jaipur, Kota, Bikaner, Ajmer, Udaipur and Jodhpur are the principal railway stations in Rajasthan. Kota City is the only Electrified Section served by three Rajdhani Expresses and trains to all cities of India. By Road: Rajasthan is well connected to the main cities of the country including Delhi, Ahmedabad and Indore by State and National Highways and served by Rajasthan State Road Transport Corporation (RSRTC [26]) and Private operators.

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Statistics
Population:68.6 million (2011 Census, estimated at more than 68 million now) Cities and Towns: 222 Major cities: Jaipur, Jodhpur, Kota, Udaipur, Ajmer, Bikaner Bharatpur, Alwar, Bhilwara, Sri Ganganagar, Sikar and Hanumangarh. Roads: 1,51,914km. (8,798km National Highway) National highways crossing Rajasthan: Delhi-Ahmedabad, Agra-Bikaner, Jaipur-Bhopal, Bhatinda-Kandla and Pali-Ambala. Climate: Generally dry with monsoon during JulyAugust Districts: 33 Languages: English and Hindi commonly used, as well as indigenous Rajasthani languages, Braj Bhasha etc. Literacy: 61.03%

References
[1] http:/ / www. rajasthan. gov. in [2] http:/ / www. gfcmail. com/ sqlimages/ michelin/ 2068559013. pdf [3] Let's Know Handicrafts of India (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=eggCrlgpYMIC) by Amar Tyagi, p. 52 [4] "World Heritage List" (http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list/ 340). . [5] Asiatic Society of Bombay; Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Bombay Branch (1904). Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bombay, Volume 21. p.416. "But this much is certain that Rajputana was essentially the country of the Gurjaras" [6] R.C. Majumdar (1994). Ancient India (http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=XNxiN5tzKOgC& pg=PA263& dq). Motilal Banarsidass Publ.. p.263. ISBN 81-208-0436-8, ISBN 978-81-208-0436-4. . [7] John Keay (2001). India: a history (http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=ibLUu6RlvqwC& pg=PA231& dq). Grove Press. pp.231232. ISBN 0-8021-3797-0, ISBN 978-0-8021-3797-5. . "Colonel James tod, who as the first British official to visit Rajasthan spent most of the 1820s exploring its political potential, formed a very different idea of "Rashboots".....and the whole region thenceforth became, for the British, 'Rajputana'.The word even achieved a retrospective authenticity, in 1829 translation of Ferishta's history of early Islamic India, John Briggs discarded the pharse 'Indian princes', as rendered in Dow's earlier version, and substituted 'Rajpoot princes'." [8] http:/ / www. fortauwa. com/ rajasthan-tour-travels. html [9] INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION Related Articles arsenical bronze writing, literatur (https:/ / www. amazines. com/ Indus_Valley_Civilization_related. html) [10] "The dynastic art of the Kushans", John Rosenfield, p 130 [11] Thakur Deshraj, Jat Itihas (Hindi), Maharaja Suraj Mal Smarak Shiksha Sansthan, Delhi, 1934, 2nd edition 1992 pp 587588. [12] Asiatic Society of Bombay; Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Bombay Branch (1904). Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bombay, Volume 21. p.432. "Up to the tenth century almost the whole of North India, excepting Bengal, owned their supremacy at Kannauj." [13] Radhey Shyam Chaurasia (2002). History of Ancient India: Earliest Times to 1000 A. D.. Atlantic Publishers & Distributors. p.207 to 208. ISBN 81-269-0027-X, ISBN 978-81-269-0027-5. [14] Dr Natthan Singh, Jat-Itihas, (Jat History), Jat Samaj Kalyan Parishad, F-13, Dr Rajendra Prasad Colony, Tansen marg, Gwalior, M.P, India 474 002 2004, page-91 [15] Bhardwaj, K. K. "Hemu-Napoleon of Medieval India", Mittal Publications, New Delhi, p.25 [16] Grierson, George A. 1918. Linguistic Survey of India (Volume VIII, Part II). Calcutta: Government of India Press [17] Census of India, 2001. Rajasthan. New Delhi: Government Press [18] India Inbound Tourism Statistics,India Inbound Visitors Summary,India Tourism Statistics Inbound,Tourism Growth Statistics India (http:/ / www. itopc. org/ travel-requisite/ inbound-tourism-statistics. html) [19] "Census Population" (http:/ / indiabudget. nic. in/ es2006-07/ chapt2007/ tab97. pdf) (PDF). Census of India. Ministry of Finance India. . Retrieved 18 December 2008. [20] Indian Census (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ ) [21] http:/ / www. rajliteracy. org/ Literacy. html [22] http:/ / www. census2011. co. in/ news/ 81-rajasthan-literacy-rate-now-67-06-census-data. html [23] http:/ / infopiper. com/ 2011/ rajasthan-population-2011-growth-rate-literacy-sex-ratio-in-census-2011/ [24] http:/ / www. mapsofindia. com/ maps/ rajasthan/ education/ [25] C. Michael Hogan. 2009. Caracal: Caracal caracal, GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg (http:/ / www. globaltwitcher. com/ artspec_information. asp?thingid=35844) [26] http:/ / www. rsrtc. gov. in

Gahlot, Sukhvirsingh. 1992. RAJASTHAN: Historical & Cultural. J. S. Gahlot Research Institute, Jodhpur.

Rajasthan Somani, Ram Vallabh. 1993. History of Rajasthan. Jain Pustak Mandir, Jaipur. Tod, James & Crooke, William. 1829. Annals & Antiquities of Rajasthan (http://www.traveladda.com/ north_india/rajasthan.html) or the Central and Western Rajput States of India. 3 Vols. Reprint: Low Price Publications, Delhi. 1990. ISBN 81-85395-68-3 (set of 3 vols.) Mathur, P.C., 1995. Social and Economic Dynamics of Rajasthan Politics (Jaipur, Aaalekh)

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External links
Rajasthan (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/India/Rajasthan//) at the Open Directory Project Rajasthan travel guide from Wikitravel

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Sikkim
Sikkim
State

Seal

Location of Sikkim in India

Map of Sikkim Coordinates (Gangtok): 2720N 8837E Country Established India 16 May 1975

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Gangtok Gangtok 4

Capital Largest city Districts Government -Governor -ChiefMinister -Legislature Area -Total Area rank Population (2011) -Total -Rank -Density Time zone ISO 3166 code HDI HDI rank Literacy Official languages

Balmiki Prasad Singh Pawan Chamling Unicameral (32 seats)

7096km2(2739.8sqmi) 27th

607688 28th 85.6/km2(221.8/sqmi) IST (UTC+05:30) IN-SK 0.684 (medium) 7th (2005) 76.6% (7th) Nepali (lingua franca), Bhutia, Lepcha (since 1977), Limbu (since 1981), Newari, Rai, Gurung, Mangar, Sherpa, Tamang (since 1995) and Sunwar (since 1996) sikkim.gov.in [1]

Website

Sikkim (Lepcha: Mayel Lyang; Limbu: Yuksom, one of the fortified place;[2] Standard Tibetan: Tibetan: , bras ljongs; Denzong;[3] Demojongs; Nepali: , i.e. the Goodly Region, or Shikim, Shikimpati or Sikkim of the English and Indians[4] ) is a landlocked Indian state nestled in the Himalayas. This thumb-shaped state borders Nepal in the west, the Tibet Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China to the north and the east and Bhutan in the southeast. The Indian state of West Bengal borders Sikkim to its south.[5] With just slightly over 500,000 permanent residents, Sikkim is the least populous state in India and the second-smallest state after Goa.[6] Despite its small area of 7096km2 (2740sqmi), Sikkim is geographically diverse due to its location in the Himalayas. The climate ranges from subtropical to high alpine. Kangchenjunga, the world's third-highest peak, is located on the border of Sikkim with Nepal.[7] Sikkim is a popular tourist destination owing to its culture, scenic beauty and biodiversity. Legend has it that the Buddhist saint Guru Rinpoche visited Sikkim in the 9th century, introduced Buddhism and foretold the era of the monarchy. Indeed, the Namgyal dynasty was established in 1642. Over the next 150 years, the kingdom witnessed frequent raids and territorial losses to Nepalese invaders. It allied itself with the British rulers of India but was soon annexed by them. Later, Sikkim became a British protectorate and merged with India following a referendum in 1975. Sikkim has 11 official languages: Nepali (lingua franca), Bhutia, Lepcha (since 1977), Limbu (since 1981), Newari, Rai, Gurung, Mangar, Sherpa, Tamang (since 1995) and Sunwar (since 1996).[8] English is taught at schools and used in government documents. It is the only state in India with an ethnic Nepalese majority. The predominant religions are Hinduism and Vajrayana Buddhism. Gangtok is the capital and the largest town. Sikkim has a booming

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Toponymy
The most widely accepted origin of the name Sikkim is that it is a combination of two words in the Limbu Su, which means "new", and Khyim, which means "palace" or house, in reference to the palace built by the state's first ruler, Phuntsog Namgyal. The Tibetan name for Sikkim is Denjong, which means the "valley of rice".[3] The Lepchas, original inhabitants of Sikkim called it Nye-mae-el or paradise,[9] and the Bhutias call it Beyul Demazong, which means the hidden valley of rice.[9] In Hindu religious texts, Sikkim is known as Indrakil, the garden of Indra.[10]

History
The earliest recorded event related to Sikkim is the passage of the Buddhist saint Guru Rinpoche through the land in the 8th century. The Guru is reported to have blessed the land, introduced Buddhism in Sikkim, and foretold the era of monarchy in the state that would arrive centuries later. In the 14th century, according to legend, Khye Bumsa, a prince from the Minyak House in Kham in Eastern Tibet, had a divine revelation one night instructing him to travel south to seek his fortunes. His Statue of Guru Rinpoche, the patron saint of Sikkim. descendants were later to form the royal family of The statue in Namchi is the tallest statue of the saint in Sikkim. In 1642, the fifth-generation descendant of Khye the world at 36metres (120ft). Bumsa, Phuntsog Namgyal, was consecrated as the first Chogyal (king) of Sikkim by the three venerated Lamas who came from the north, west and south to Yuksom, marking the beginning of the monarchy.[12] Phuntsog Namgyal was succeeded in 1670 by his son, Tensung Namgyal, who moved the capital from Yuksom to Rabdentse. In 1700, Sikkim was invaded by the Bhutanese with the help of the half-sister of the Chogyal, who had been denied the throne. The Bhutanese were driven away by the Tibetans, who restored the throne to the Chogyal ten years later. Between 1717 and 1733, the kingdom faced many raids by the Nepalese in the west Flag of the former monarchy of Sikkim and Bhutanese in the east, culminating with the destruction of the capital Rabdentse by the Nepalese.[13] In 1791, China sent troops to support Sikkim and defend Tibet against the Gurkhas. Following Nepal's subsequent defeat, the Qing Dynasty established control over Sikkim.[14] Following the arrival of the British Raj in neighboring India, Sikkim allied with them against their common enemy, Nepal. The Nepalese attacked Sikkim, overrunning most of the region including the Terai. This

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prompted the British East India Company to attack Nepal, resulting in the Gurkha War of 1814.[15] Treaties signed between Sikkim and Nepal resulted in returning of the territory annexed by the Nepalese in 1817. However, ties between Sikkim and the British weakened when the latter began taxation of the Morang region. In 1849 two British doctors, Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker and Dr. Archibald Campbell, the latter being in charge of relations between the British and Sikkim Government, ventured into the mountains of Sikkim unannounced and unauthorised.[16] The doctors were detained by the Sikkim government, leading to a punitive British expedition against the Himalayan kingdom, after which the Darjeeling district and Morang were annexed to India in 1853. The invasion led to the Chogyal becoming a titular ruler under the directive of the British governor.[17] In 1890, Sikkim became a British protectorate and was granted more sovereignty over the next three decades.[18] In 1947, a popular vote rejected Sikkim's joining the Indian Union, and Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru agreed to a special protectorate status for Sikkim. Sikkim came under the suzerainty of India, which controlled its external affairs, defence, diplomacy and communications, but Sikkim otherwise retained autonomy. A state council was established in 1955 to allow for constitutional government under the Chogyal. Meanwhile, the Sikkim National Congress demanded fresh elections and greater representation for the Nepalese. In 1973, riots in front of the palace led to a formal request for protection from India. The Chogyal was proving to be extremely unpopular with the people. In 1975, the Kazi (Prime Minister) appealed to the Indian Parliament for a change in Sikkim's status so that it could become a state of India. In April, the Indian Army took over the city of Gangtok and disarmed the Palace Guards. A referendum was held in which 97.5% of the voting people (59% of the people entitled to vote) voted to join the Indian Union. A few weeks later, on 16 May 1975, Sikkim officially became the 22nd state of the Indian Union and the monarchy was abolished.[19]

Historical (1876) Map of the Princely state of Sikkim [11] depicting Chomto Dong Lake in northern Sikkim. However, the whole of Chumbi and Darjiling are not depicted as part of Sikkim in the map. Double-click for details.

The Dro-dul Chorten Stupa in Gangtok.

In 2000, the seventeenth Karmapa Urgyen Trinley Dorje, who had been confirmed by the Dalai Lama, and accepted as a tulku by the Chinese government, escaped from Tibet, seeking to return to the Rumtek Monastery in Sikkim. Chinese officials were in a quandary on this issue, as any protests to India would mean an explicit endorsement of India's governance of Sikkim, which the Chinese still regarded as an independent state occupied by India. China eventually recognized Sikkim as an Indian state in 2003, on the condition that India accepted Tibet Autonomous Region as a part of China.[20] This mutual agreement led to a thaw in Sino-Indian relations.[21] New Delhi accepted Tibet as a part of China in 1953 during the government of then Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru.[22] On 6 July 2006, the Himalayan pass of Nathula was opened to cross-border trade, further evidence of improving relations in the region.[23]

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Geography
The thumb-shaped state is characterized by wholly mountainous terrain. Almost the entire state is hilly, with an elevation ranging from 280metres (920ft) to 8,585metres (28,000ft). The summit of the Kangchenjunga is the highest point which falls on the border between Sikkim and Nepal.[7] For the most part, the land is unfit for agriculture because of the precipitous and rocky slopes. However, certain hill slopes have been converted into farm lands using terrace farming techniques. Numerous snow-fed streams in Sikkim have carved out river valleys in the west and south of the state. These streams combine into the Teesta and its tributary, the Rangeet. The Teesta, described as the "lifeline of Sikkim", flows through the state from north to south. About a third of the land is heavily forested. The Himalayan ranges surround the northern, eastern and western borders of Sikkim in a crescent. The Lower Himalayas in the southern reaches of the state are the most densely populated. The state has 28 mountain peaks, more than 80 glaciers,[24] 227 high-altitude lakes including the Tsongmo Lake, Gurudongmar and Khecheopalri Lake, 5 hot springs, and more than 100 rivers and streams. Eight mountain passes connect the state to Tibet, Bhutan and Nepal.[25]

Kangchenjunga, (8,586metres or 28,170ft), highest peak of India and third-highest on Earth

Cities and towns of Sikkim

Mountains of North Sikkim

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Sikkim's hot springs are known for medicinal and therapeutic values. The most important hot springs are at Phurchachu (Reshi), Yumthang, Borang, Ralang, Taram-chu and Yumey Samdong. They have high sulphur content and are located near river banks. Some also emit hydrogen.[26] The average temperature of the water in these hot springs is 50C (122F).[27]

Unfrozen Gurudongmar Lake in North Sikkim

Geology
The hills of Sikkim mainly consist of gneissose and half-schistose rocks, making their soil brown clay, and generally poor and shallow. The soil is coarse, with large amounts of iron oxide concentrations, ranging from neutral to acidic and has poor organic and mineral nutrients. This type of soil tends to support evergreen and deciduous forests.[28] Most of Sikkim is covered by Precambrian rock and is much younger in age than the hills. The rock consists of phyllites and schists and therefore the slopes are highly susceptible to weathering and prone to erosion. This, combined with the intense rain, causes extensive soil erosion and heavy loss of soil nutrients through leaching. As a result, landslides are frequent, isolating the towns and villages from the major urban centres.[29]

Climate
The climate ranges from sub-tropical in the south to tundra in the northern parts. The tundra-type region in the north is clad by snow for four months a year though the temperature drops below 0C (32F) almost every night.[30] The peaks of north-western Sikkim are perpetually frozen.[31] Most of the inhabited regions of Sikkim, however, witness a temperate climate, with the temperatures seldom exceeding 28C (82F) in summer or dropping below 0C (32F) in winter. The mean monthly temperature in summer is 15C.[32] The state has five seasons: winter, summer, spring, and autumn, and a monsoon season between June and September. The average annual temperature for most of Sikkim is around 18C (64F). Sikkim is one of the few states in India to receive regular snowfall. The snow line ranges from 20,000feet in the north to 16,000feet in the south.[33] During the monsoon, heavy rains increase the possibility of landslides. The record for the longest period of continuous rain is 11days. In the northern region, because of high altitude, temperatures drop below 40C (40F) in winter. Fog also affects many parts of the state during winter and the monsoons, making transportation perilous.[34]

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Subdivisions
Sikkim has four districts, each overseen by a Central Government appointee, the district collector, who is in charge of the administration of the civilian areas of the districts. The Indian army has control of a large territory, as the state is a sensitive border area. Many areas are restricted and permits are needed to visit them. There are eight towns and nine subdivisions in Sikkim. The four districts are East Sikkim, West Sikkim, North Sikkim and South Sikkim. The district capitals are Gangtok, Geyzing, Mangan and Namchi respectively.[35] These Four Districts are further divided into Subdivisions. "Pakyong" and "Rongli" are the subdivisions of the East District. "Soreng" is the subdivision of the West District. "Chungthang" is the subdivision of the North District. "Ravongla" is the subdivision of the South District.[36]
The four districts of Sikkim and their headquarters

Flora and fauna

Sikkim is situated in an ecological hotspot of the lower Himalayas, one of only three among the Ecoregions of India. The forested regions of the state exhibit a diverse range of fauna and flora. Owing to its altitudinal gradation, the state has a wide variety of plants, from tropical to temperate to alpine and tundra, and is perhaps one of the few regions to exhibit such a diversity within such a small area. Nearly 81% of the area of Sikkim comes under the administration of its forest department.[37]
The Rhododendron is the state tree.

The flora of Sikkim include the rhododendron, the state tree, with a wide range of species occurring from subtropical to alpine

regions. Orchids, figs, laurel, bananas, sal trees and bamboo grow in the Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests of the lower altitudes of Sikkim, which enjoy a subtropical-type climate. In the temperate elevations above 1500metres (4900ft) are Eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests, where oaks, chestnuts, maples, birches, alders, and magnolias grow in large numbers, as well as Himalayan subtropical pine forests, dominated by Chir pine. The alpine-type vegetation is typically found between an altitude of 3500 to 5000 metres (11500 to 16000 ft). In lower elevations are found juniper, pine, firs, cypresses and rhododendrons from the Eastern Himalayan subalpine conifer forests. Higher up are Eastern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows, home to a broad variety of rhododendrons and wildflowers. Sikkim has around 5,000 flowering plants, 515 rare orchids, 60 primula species, 36 rhododendron species, 11 oak varieties, 23 bamboo varieties, 16 conifer species, 362 types of ferns and ferns allies, 8 tree ferns, and over 424 medicinal plants.[38] A variant of the Poinsettia, locally known as "Christmas Flower", can be found in abundance in the mountainous state. The orchid Dendrobium nobile is the official flower of Sikkim.

Sikkim The fauna include the snow leopard,[39] the musk deer, the Himalayan Tahr, the red panda, the Himalayan marmot, the serow, the goral, the barking deer, the common langur, the Himalayan Black Bear, the clouded leopard,[40] the Marbled Cat, the leopard cat, the wild dog, the Tibetan wolf, the hog badger, the binturong, the jungle cat and the civet cat.[41] Among the animals more commonly found in the alpine zone are yaks, mainly reared for their milk, meat, and as a beast of burden. The avifauna of Sikkim consist of the Impeyan pheasant, the crimson horned pheasant, the snow partridge, the snow cock, the lammergeyer and griffon vultures, as well as golden eagles, quail, plovers, woodcock, sandpipers, pigeons, Old World flycatchers, babblers and robins. Sikkim has more than 550 species of birds, some of which have been declared endangered.[42]
The Red Panda is the state animal of Sikkim.

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Sikkim also has a rich diversity of arthropods, many of which remain unstudied even today. As with the rest of India, the most studied group is that of the butterflies. Of approximately 1438 butterfly species found in the Indian subcontinent, 695 have been recorded from Sikkim.[43] These include the endangered Kaiser-i-hind, Yellow Gorgon and the Bhutan Glory.[44]

Economy
This is a chart of trend of gross state domestic product of Sikkim at market prices estimated by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation with figures in millions of Indian Rupees.[45]
Year 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2003 Gross State Domestic Product 520 1,220 2,340 5,200 9,710 23,786 [46]

Sikkim's gross state domestic product for 2004 is estimated at $478 million in current prices. Sikkim's economy is largely agrarian. The British introduced terraced farming of rice,[47] in addition to crops such as maize, millet, wheat, barley, oranges, tea and cardamom.[48] Sikkim has the highest production and largest cultivated area of cardamom in India.[49] Because of the hilly terrain, and lack of reliable transportation infrastructure, there are no large-scale industries. Breweries, distilleries, tanning and watchmaking are the main industries. These are located in the southern reaches of the state, primarily in the towns of Melli and Jorethang. The state has a high growth rate of 8.3%, which is the second highest in the country after Delhi.[50]

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In recent years, the government of Sikkim has extensively promoted tourism. As a result, the state revenue has increased 14 times since the mid-1990s.[51] A fledgling industry the state has recently invested in is gambling, including online gambling. A casino was opened in March 2009, the Casino Sikkim, and seven further casino licences are being considered by the state government.[52] The Playwin lottery has Elaichi or Cardamom is the chief cash crop of Sikkim. been a commercial success and operates all over the country.[53] [54] In October 2009 the government of Sikkim announced plans to offer three online sports betting licences.[55] Among the minerals mined in Sikkim are copper, dolomite, talc, graphite, quartzite, coal, zinc and lead.[56] The opening of the Nathula Pass on 6 July 2006 connecting Lhasa, Tibet to India is expected to give a boost to the local economy, though the financial benefits will be slow to arrive. The pass, closed since the 1962 Sino-Indian War, was an offshoot of the ancient Silk Road, which was essential to the wool, fur and spice trade.[23]

Transport
Air
Sikkim does not have any airports or railheads because of its rough terrain, however, the first airport of the state is expected to be ready by 2011 in Pakyong, 30km (19mi) away from Gangtok.The airport will be capable of operating ATR aircraft.[57] The closest airport, Bagdogra Airport, is near the town of Siliguri, West Bengal. The airport is about 124km away from Gangtok. A regular helicopter service run by the Sikkim Helicopter Service connects Gangtok to Bagdogra; the flight is thirty minutes long, operates only once a day, and can carry 4 people.[58] The Gangtok helipad is the only civilian helipad in the state.

The River Teesta is considered as the "lifeline of Sikkim."

Rail
The closest railway stations are Siliguri and New Jalpaiguri.[59] New Sikkim Railway Project has been launched to connect Rangpo town of Sikkim with Sevoke which is expected to complete in 2015.[60] [61]

Road
National Highway 31A and National Highway 31 together link Siliguri to Gangtok.[62] The Sikkim National Transport runs bus and truck services. Privately run bus, tourist taxi and jeep services ply throughout Sikkim and also connect it to Siliguri. A branch of the highway from Melli connects western Sikkim. Towns in southern and western Sikkim are connected to the northern West Bengal hill stations of Kalimpong and Darjeeling.[63] The state is connected to China by Nathu La.Recently Ministry of Railways has proposed plan for Mirik to Ranipool Railway lines.

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Demographics
The majority of Sikkim's residents are of Nepali ethnic-national origin who arrived in the 19th century. The native Sikkimese consist of the Bhutias, who migrated from the Kham district of Tibet in the 14th century, and the Lepchas who are believed to have migrated from the Far East. Tibetans reside mostly in the northern and eastern reaches of the state. Migrant resident communities include the Biharis, Bengalis and Marwaris who own most of the shops in South Sikkim and Gangtok.[65] Hinduism has been the major religion in the state since Nepalis take over Sikkim, followed by Buddhism and native religion practised by Native Sikkimese people. Sikkim has 75 monasteries, the oldest dating back to the 1700s.[66] The Christians are mostly Lepcha people who were converted by British missionaries since the late 19th century. Among other minorities are Muslims of Bihari ethnicity and Jains.[67] Though tensions between the Lepchas and the Nepalese escalated during the merger of Sikkim with India, there has never been any communal violence, unlike most other states.[68]

Old Sikkimese woman

Nepali is the lingua franca of Sikkim. Bhutia and Lepcha are also common. English and Hindi are also spoken and understood in most of Sikkim. Other languages include Dzongkha, Groma, Gurung, Limbu, Magar, Majhi, Majhwar, Nepal Bhasa, Rai, Sikkimese, Sherpa, Sunuwar, Tamang, Thulung, Tibetan, and Yakha.[69] Sikkim is India's least populous state. In 2001 it had 540,851 inhabitants, with 288,484 males and 252,367 females.[70] It is also one of the least densely populated states with only 76 persons per square kilometre. Its growth rate is 32.98% (19912001). The sex ratio is 875 females per 1000 males. With 50,000 inhabitants, Gangtok is the state's only significant town. The urban population in Sikkim is 11.06%.[36] The per capita income stands at 11,356, which is one of the highest in the country.[71]

Culture
The Sikkimese celebrate all major Hindu festivals such as Diwali and Dussera. Nepali festivals like Tihar and Bhimsen Puja are common.[72] Losar, Loosong, Saga Dawa, Lhabab Duechen, Drupka Teshi and Bhumchu are Buddhist festivals. During the Losar (Tibetan New Year) most offices and educational institutions are closed for a week.[73] Muslims celebrate Id-ul-fitr and Muharram.[74] Christmas has also been promoted in Gangtok to attract tourists during the off-season.[75] Western rock music and Hindi songs have gained wide acceptance The Gumpa being performed in Lachung during the Buddhist festival of Losar among the Sikkimese. Indigenous Nepali rock and Lepcha music [76] are also popular. Common sports in Sikkim are Football and cricket. Hang gliding and river rafting have also been introduced in order to promote tourism.[77] Noodle-based dishes such as the thukpa, chowmein, thanthuk, fakthu, gyathuk and wonton are common in Sikkim. Momos, steamed dumplings filled with vegetable, buff (buffalo meat) or pork and served with a soup, are a popular snack.[78] Beer, whiskey, rum and brandy are widely consumed.[79] Sikkim has the third highest per capita

Sikkim alcoholism rate amongst all Indian states, behind Punjab and Haryana.[80]

492

Government and politics

State symbols
State day 16 May (day of accession to India)

State animal Red Panda State bird State tree Blood Pheasant Rhododendron [81]

State flower Noble orchid[82]

Like all states of India, the head of the state government is a governor appointed by the Central Indian Government. His/her appointment is largely ceremonial, and his/her main role is to oversee the swearing in of the Chief Minister. The Chief Minister, who holds the real executive powers, is the head of the party or coalition garnering the largest majority in the state elections. The The White Hall complex houses the residences of the governor also appoints the cabinet ministers on the advice of the Chief Minister and Governor of Sikkim. Chief Minister. Sikkim has a unicameral legislature like most other Indian states. Sikkim is allocated one seat in each of both chambers of India's national bicameral legislature, the Lok Sabha, and the Rajya Sabha. There are a total of 32 state assembly seats including one reserved for the Sangha. The Sikkim High Court is the smallest high court in the country.[83] In 1975, after the abrogation of Sikkim's monarchy, the Congress Party got the largest majority in the 1977 elections. In 1979, after a period of instability, a popular ministry headed by Nar Bahadur Bhandari, leader of the Sikkim Sangram Parishad Party was sworn in. Bhandari held on to power in the 1984 and 1989 elections. In the 1994 elections Pawan Kumar Chamling from the Sikkim Democratic Front became the Chief Minister of the state. The party has since held on to power by winning the 1999 and 2004 elections.[17] [58] It won all the 32 seats of the state assembly in 2009.[84]

Infrastructure
Although roads in Sikkim are often exposed to landslides and flooding by nearby streams, the roads are significantly better than the equivalent roads of other Indian states. The roads are maintained by the Border Roads Organisation (BRO), an offshoot of the Indian army. The roads in South Sikkim and NH-31A are in good condition, landslides being less frequent in these areas. The state government maintains 1857.35km of roadways that do not fall in the BRO jurisdiction.[36] Sikkim receives most of its electricity from 19 hydroelectric power Tibetology Museum and research centre. stations.[51] It has achieved 100% rural electrification.[85] Power also obtained from the National Thermal Power Corporation and Power Grid Corporation of India.[86] However the voltage is unstable and voltage stabilisers are needed. Per capita consumption of electricity in Sikkim is 182kWh.

Sikkim The state government has promoted biogas and solar power for cooking but these have received a poor response and are used mostly for lighting purposes.[87] 73.2% of the total households have access to safe drinking water,[36] and the large number of streams assures sufficient water supply.

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Media
The southern urban areas have English, Nepali and Hindi dailies. Nepali language newspapers as well as some English newspapers are locally printed, whereas Hindi and English newspapers are printed in Siliguri. Important local dailies[88] are Hamro Prajashakti (Nepali Daily), Himalayan Mirror (English Daily), the Samay Dainik [89], Sikkim Express (English), Sikkim Now (English), , Kanchanjunga Times (Nepali Weekly), Pragya Khabar (Nepali Weekly) and Himalibela. The regional editions of English newspapers include The Statesman and The Telegraph, which are printed in Siliguri and available in the same day, as well as The The Rumtek monastery is the most famous monument Hindu and The Times of India, printed in Kolkata, which are of Sikkim and was the centre of media attention in 2000. received with a day's delay in the towns of Gangtok, Jorethang, Melli and Geyzing. Himalaya Darpan, a Nepali daily being published from Siliguri is one of the leading Nepali dailies in the region. The Sikkim Herald is an official weekly publication of the government. Online media covering Sikkim include the Nepali newspaper Himgiri [90], the English news portal Haalkhabar [91] and the literary magazine Tistarangit [92]. Avyakta, Bilokan, Journal of Hill Research, Khaber Khagaj, Panda, and Sikkim Science Society Newsletter are the registered publications in Bengali, Nepali, and English published out of Sikkim in weekly, quarterly, half-yearly, and annual periodicities.[93] Internet cafs are well established in the district capitals, but broadband connectivity is not widely available. Satellite television channels through dish antennae are available in most homes in the state. Channels served are the same available throughout India along with Nepali language channels. The main service providers are Dish TV, Doordarshan and Nayuma. The area is well serviced by local cellular companies.

Education
Literacy in Sikkim is 69.68%, which breaks down into 76.73% for males and 61.46% for females. There are a total of 1157 schools, including 765 schools run by the State government, 7 central government schools and 385 private schools.[94] Twelve colleges and other institutions in Sikkim offer higher education. The largest institution is the Sikkim Manipal University of Technological Sciences, which offers higher education in engineering, medicine and management. It also runs a host of distance education programs[95] in diverse fields. There are two state-run polytechnical schools, Advanced Technical Training Centre (ATTC) and Centre for Computers and Communication Technology (CCCT) in Sikkim which offer diploma courses in various branches of engineering. ATTC is situated at Bardang, Singtam and CCCT at Chisopani, Namchi. Sikkim University a central university, began operating in 2008 at Yangang, which is situated about 28km from Singtam.[96] Many students, however, migrate to Siliguri, Kolkata, Bangalore and other Indian cities for their higher education.

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Notes
[1] http:/ / www. sikkim. gov. in/ [2] Lepcha - Sikkim Online Guide (http:/ / www. sikkimonline. info/ sikkim/ Lepcha) [3] Bell, Charles Alfred (1987). Portrait of a Dalai Lama: the life and times of the great thirteenth. Wisdom Publications. p.25. ISBN086171055X. [4] Strachey (1884), p. 2. [5] "Physical Features of Sikkim" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060702113711/ http:/ / www. sikkimipr. org/ GENERAL/ ecosystem/ ecosystem. htm). Department of Information and Public Relations, Government of Sikkim. 29 September 2005. Archived from the original (http:/ / sikkimipr. org/ GENERAL/ ecosystem/ ecosystem. htm) on 2 July 2006. . Retrieved 12 October 2006. [6] Arjun Adlakha (April 1997). "Population Trends: India" (http:/ / www. census. gov/ ipc/ prod/ ib-9701. pdf#search="india state population") (PDF). International brief. U.S. Department of Commerce. p. 5. . Retrieved 4 November 2008. [7] Madge, Tim (1995). Last Hero: Bill Tilman, a Biography of the Explorer. Mountaineers Books. p.93. ISBN0898864526. [8] Sonam Wangdi (Oct 13,2009). "Nepali Language in the Eighth Schedule of Constitution" (http:/ / www. darjeelingtimes. com/ news/ print/ 2208. html). . Retrieved 10 March 2010. [9] "General information about Sikkim" (http:/ / sikkimtournet. com/ webforms/ general/ Introduction. aspx). Sikkim Tourism, Government of Sikkim. . Retrieved 16 May 2008. [10] Datta, Amaresh (2006) [1988]. Encyclopaedia of Indian literature vol. 2. Sahitya Akademi. p.1739. ISBN8126011947. [11] Narratives of the mission of George ... - Google Books (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=w6k9pto4BGMC& pg=PR32& lpg=PR32& dq=Chomto+ Dong+ Lake& source=bl& ots=_wOJLgWrAt& sig=tmlTD9BKz9wdoZccmVFaM1cU3bg& hl=en& ei=XbHVSsniH4atlAf66OmcCQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CA0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=Chomto Dong Lake& f=false) [12] Central Asia. Area Study Centre (Central Asia), University of Peshawar. v. 41, no. 2. 2005. pp.5053. [13] Singh, O. P. (1985). Strategic Sikkim. Stosius/Advent Books. p.42. ISBN0865908028. [14] Singh, O. P. p. 43 [15] Jha, Pranab Kumar (1985). History of Sikkim, 1817-1904: Analysis of British Policy and Activities. O.P.S. Publishers. p.11. ASIN: B001OQE7EY. [16] "Sikkim and Tibet". Blackwood's Edinburgh magazine (William Blackwood) 147: 658. May 1890. [17] "History of Sikkim" (http:/ / sikkim. nic. in/ sws/ sikk_his. htm). Government of Sikkim. 29 August 2002. . Retrieved 12 October 2006. [18] Bell, Charles (1992). Tibet: Past and Present. Motilal Banarsidass. pp.170174. ISBN8120810481. [19] "About Sikkim" (http:/ / sikkim. gov. in/ ASP/ Miscc/ aboutsikkim. htm). Official website of the Government of Sikkim. . Retrieved 15 June 2009. [20] BBC News: India and China agree over Tibet (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ south_asia/ 3015840. stm) [21] Baruah, Amit (12 April 2005). "China backs India's bid for U.N. Council seat" (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ 2005/ 04/ 12/ stories/ 2005041210160100. htm). The Hindu. . Retrieved 12 October 2006. [22] Hindustan Times: Nehru accepted Tibet as a part of China: Rajnath (http:/ / www. hindustantimes. com/ StoryPage/ FullcoverageStoryPage. aspx?sectionName=& id=36c4f9b8-7ce1-4466-9ec3-2829420e3bee_Special& Headline=Nehru+ accepted+ Tibet+ as+ a+ part+ of+ China:+ Rajnath) [23] "Historic India-China link opens" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ south_asia/ 5150682. stm). BBC. 6 July 2006. . Retrieved 12 October 2006. [24] First commission on study of glaciers launched by Sikkim. Gangtok, Jan 17 2008 (http:/ / dstsikkim. gov. in/ glacier/ pressrelese. htm) [25] Kapadia, Harish (2001). "Appendix". Across peaks & passes in Darjeeling & Sikkim. Indus Publishing. p.154. ISBN8173871264. [26] Choudhury, Maitreyee (2006). Sikkim:Geographical Perspectives. Mittal Publications. p.11. ISBN8183241581. [27] Hooker, J. D. (1855). Himalayan Journals: Notes of a Naturalist. II. London: John Murray. p.125. [28] Bhattacharya, B. (1997). Sikkim: Land and People. Omsons Publications. pp.710. ISBN8171171532. [29] "Terrain Analysis and Spatial Assessment of Landslide Hazards in Parts of Sikkim". Journal of the Geological Society of India v. 47. 1996. p.491. [30] Chowdhury p. 11 [31] Chowdhury p. 13 [32] Chowdhury p. 12 [33] Hooker, Joseph Dalton (1854). Himalayan journals: Notes of a naturalist. J. Murray, version 2. p.396. [34] Hooker p. 409 [35] Mathew, K. M., ed. "India". Manorama Yearbook 2009. Malayala Manorama. p.660. ISBN8189004123. [36] "Sikkim at a glance" (http:/ / www. sikkimipr. org/ GENERAL/ STATS/ sikkimataglance. htm). Department of Information and Public Relations, Government of Sikkim. 29 September 2005. . Retrieved 12 October 2006. [37] "Forests in Sikkim" (http:/ / sikkim. nic. in/ sws/ sikk_fore. htm). Forest Department, Government of Sikkim. . Retrieved 3 June 2009. [38] "Biodiversity" (http:/ / sikkimforest. org/ files/ bio. htm). Department of Forest, Environment & Wildlife, Government of Sikkim. . Retrieved 3 June 2009. [39] Wilson DE, Mittermeier RA (eds) (2009) Handbook of the Mammals of the World. Vol. 1. Carnivores. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona

Sikkim
[40] Sanderson, J., Khan, J., Grassman, L. & Mallon, D.P. (2008). Neofelis nebulosa (http:/ / www. iucnredlist. org/ apps/ redlist/ details/ 14519). In: IUCN 2008. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Downloaded on 18 January 2009. [41] Shrestha, Tej Kumar (1997). Mammals of Nepal. pp.350371. ISBN0952439069. [42] Crossette, Barbara (1996). So Close to Heaven: The Vanishing Buddhist Kingdoms of the Himalayas. Vintage Books. p.123. ISBN0679743634. [43] Evans, W.H. (1932). The Identification of Indian Butterflies, (2/e). Mumbai. p.23. ASIN: B00086SOSG. [44] Haribal, Meena (2003) [1994]. Butterflies of Sikkim. Natraj. p.9. ISBN8185019118. [45] "National Accounts Division : Press release & Statements" (http:/ / mospi. nic. in/ mospi_nad_main. htm). Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation. 23 May 2006. . Retrieved 12 October 2006. [46] http:/ / sikkim. gov. in/ [47] Dutt, Ashok K.; Baleshwar Thakur (2007). City, Society and Planning: Society. Concept Publishing. p.501. ISBN8180694607. [48] Bareh, Hamlet (2001). "Introduction" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=jrr7HPr8NAQC). Encyclopaedia of North-East India: Sikkim. Mittal Publications. pp.2021. ISBN8170997941. . [49] India: A Reference Annual. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. 2002. p.747. [50] "Economy of Sikkim" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060714055754/ http:/ / sikkimipr. org/ GENERAL/ ECONOMY/ ECONOMY. HTM). Department of Information and Public Relations, Government of Sikkim. 29 September 2005. Archived from the original (http:/ / sikkimipr. org/ GENERAL/ ECONOMY/ ECONOMY. HTM) on 14 July 2006. . Retrieved 12 October 2006. [51] Dasgupta, Abhijit (May 2009). "Forever and ever and ever". India Today 34 (22): 35. RNI:28587/75. [52] Patil, Ajit (28 May 2009). "Casinos in India" (http:/ / www. indiabet. com/ indian-betting/ casinos-in-india. html). India Bet. . Retrieved 28 October 2009. [53] Bakshi-Dighe, Arundhati (23 March 2003). "Online lottery: A jackpot for all" (http:/ / www. indianexpress. com/ oldStory/ 20688/ ). Indian Express. . Retrieved 2 June 2009. [54] "Playwin lottery" (http:/ / www. lotteryinsider. com/ lottery/ playwin. htm). Interplay Multimedia Pty. Ltd. 20 August 2006. . Retrieved 12 October 2006. [55] Sanjay, Roy (27 October 2009). "Indian online gambling market set to open up" (http:/ / www. indiabet. com/ indian-betting/ indian-online-gambling-market-set-to-open-up. html). India Bet. . Retrieved 27 October 2009. [56] Mishra, R. K. (2005). State level public enterprises in Sikkim: policy and planning. Concept Publishing. p.3. ISBN8180693961. [57] "Patel word on speedy airport completionSikkim hopes for spurt in tourist inflow" (http:/ / www. telegraphindia. com/ 1090302/ jsp/ siliguri/ story_10609938. jsp). The Telegraph, Kolkata. 2 March 2009. . Retrieved 14 June 2009. 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[60] North Bengal-Sikkim Railway Link - Railway Technology (http:/ / www. railway-technology. com/ projects/ northbengalsikkimrai/ ) [61] The Hindu Business Line : Inspection survey for Sikkim rail link (http:/ / www. thehindubusinessline. com/ 2010/ 01/ 25/ stories/ 2010012551081500. htm) [62] "Hill traffic slides to standstill" (http:/ / www. telegraphindia. com/ 1060916/ asp/ siliguri/ story_6752322. asp). The Telegraph (Kolkata). 16 September 2006. . Retrieved 14 June 2009. [63] Choudhury pp. 84-87 [64] "Census Population" (http:/ / indiabudget. nic. in/ es2006-07/ chapt2007/ tab97. pdf) (PDF). Census of India. Ministry of Finance India. . Retrieved 18 December 2008. [65] Clarence, Maloney (1974). Peoples of South Asia. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. p.409. ISBN0030849691. [66] Bareh p. 9 [67] Singh, Kumar Suresh (1992). Anthropological Survey of India. p.39. ISBN8170461200. [68] Nirmalananda Sengupta (1985). State government and politics: Sikkim. Stosius/Advent Books. p.140. ISBN0865906947. [69] Bareh p. 10 [70] "Census reference tables total population" (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Census_Data_2001/ Census_data_finder/ A_Series/ Total_population. htm). Government of India. . Retrieved 10 March 2010. [71] "People of Sikkim" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060701112053/ http:/ / sikkimipr. org/ GENERAL/ PEOPLE/ PEOPLE. HTM). Department of Information and Public Relations, Government of Sikkim. 29 September 2005. Archived from the original (http:/ / sikkimipr. org/ GENERAL/ PEOPLE/ PEOPLE. HTM) on 1 July 2006. . Retrieved 12 October 2006. [72] Choudhury p. 35 [73] Choudhury p. 34 [74] Bulletin of Tibetology. Namgyal Institute of Tibetology. 1995. p.79. [75] "Culture and Festivals of Sikkim" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060714040958/ http:/ / sikkimipr. org/ GENERAL/ CULTURE/ LUCKY_SIGNS. htm). Department of Information and Public Relations, Government of Sikkim. 29 September 2005. 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Sikkim
[77] Lama, Mahendra P. (1994). Sikkim: Society, Polity, Economy, Environment. Indus Publishing. p.128. ISBN8173870136. [78] Shangderpa, Pema Leyda (3 September 2002). "Sleepy capital comes alive to beats of GenX" (http:/ / www. telegraphindia. com/ 1020903/ asp/ siliguri/ story_1161127. asp). The Telegraph. . Retrieved 7 May 2008. [79] Shrivastava, Alok K. (2002). "Sikkimese cuisine". Surajkund, the Sikkim story. New Delhi: South Asia Foundation. p.49. ISBN8188287016. [80] Nagarajan, Rema (25 July 2007). "India gets its high from whisky" (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ articleshow/ 2231571. cms). Times of India. . Retrieved 3 June 2009. [81] Dhar, T. N.; S. P. Gupta (1999). Tourism in Indian Himalaya. Lucknow: Indian Institute of Public Administration. p.192. OCLC42717797. [82] Srivastava, R.C. (1998). "Preface". Flora of Sikkim. Oriental Enterprises. p.x. [83] "Judge strengths in High Courts increased" (http:/ / pib. nic. in/ archieve/ lreleng/ lyr2003/ roct2003/ 30102003/ r301020036. html). Ministry of Law & Justice. 30 October 2003. . Retrieved 12 October 2006. [84] "SDF wins all seats in Sikkim Assembly" (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ 2009/ 05/ 17/ stories/ 2009051759450900. htm). The Hindu. 17 May 2009. . Retrieved 15 June 2009. [85] Choudhury p. 88 [86] Choudhury p. 91 [87] Choudhury p. 87 [88] "Newspapers and Journalists in Sikkim" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080121045116/ http:/ / www. sikkimipr. org/ IPR/ news_jounalists/ news_papers_and_journalists. htm). IT Department, Government of Sikkim. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. sikkimipr. org/ IPR/ news_jounalists/ news_papers_and_journalists. htm) on 21 January 2008. . Retrieved 5 June 2009. [89] http:/ / www. samaydainik. com/ [90] http:/ / www. himgirinepali. com [91] http:/ / www. haalkhabar. com/ [92] http:/ / www. tistarangit. com/ [93] "Publication Place Wise-Registration" (https:/ / rni. nic. in/ search_place. asp). Registrar of Newspapers for India. . Retrieved 5 June 2009. If one types in Sikkim in the input box and submits, the list is displayed. [94] Balmiki Prasad Singh Governor of Sikkim (26 February 2010). "In the process of Constitutional democracy, Sikkim has not lagged behind-Governor" (http:/ / www. sikkimipr. org/ images/ herald/ Jan 26. pdf). . Retrieved 11 March 2010. [95] Sailesh (26 June 2010). "Sikkim Manipal University-Distance Education" (http:/ / www. smude. edu. in). . Retrieved 26 June 2010. [96] Chettri, Vivek (4 February 2008). "Do-it-yourself mantra for varsity" (http:/ / www. telegraphindia. com/ 1080204/ jsp/ siliguri/ story_8858265. jsp). The Telegraph. . Retrieved 15 May 2008.

496

References
Evans, W.H. (1932) The Identification of Indian Butterflies. (2nd Ed), Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, India. Haribal, Meena (1992) Butterflies of Sikkim Himalaya and their Natural History. Sikkim Nature Conservation Foundation. Hooker, Joseph Dalton "Himalayan Journals" Ward, Lock, Bowden & Co. Assistant-director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Holidaying in Sikkim and Bhutan published by Nest and Wings ISBN 81-87592-07-9 Sikkim Land of Mystic and Splendour published by Sikkim Tourism. Manorama Yearbook 2003 ISBN 81-900461-8-7 Strachey, H. (1854). "Physical Geography of Western Tibet." Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, Vol. XXIII, pp.169, plus map.

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External links
Official website of the Government of Sikkim, Maintained by Department of Information Technology (http:// www.sikkim.gov.in/) "Details of the census" (http://web.archive.org/web/20060619194905/http://www.censusindia.net/profiles/ sik.html). Archived from the original (http://www.censusindia.gov.in/) on 19 June 2006. Sinlung News (http://www.sinlung.com/) Buddhist Monasteries of Sikkim (http://sikkim.nic.in/sws/glim_mon.htm) China backs India's bid for U.N. Council seat (http://www.hindu.com/2005/04/12/stories/ 2005041210160100.htm); Amit Baruah; The Hindu 12 April 2005. Sikkim Railway Link Project (http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2010/01/25/stories/ 2010012551081500.htm) Historic India-China link opens (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/5150682.stm), BBC News. Sikkim (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/India/Sikkim//) at the Open Directory Project Sikkim travel guide from Wikitravel

Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu
State

Seal

Location of Tamil Nadu in India

Tamil Nadu

498

Map of Tamil Nadu Coordinates: 1305N 8016E Country Established Capital Largest city Districts Government -Governor -ChiefMinister Surjit Singh Barnala M. Karunanidhi M. K. Stalin (Deputy) Unicameral (234 seats) India 1 November 1956 Chennai Chennai 32 total

-Legislature Area -Total Area rank Population (2011) -Total -Rank -Density Time zone ISO 3166 code HDI HDI rank Literacy Official languages Website [1]

130058km2(50215.7sqmi) 11th

72,138,958 7th unknown operator: u','/km2(/sqmi) IST (UTC+05:30) IN-TN 0.666 (medium) 10th (2006) [2]

80.3% (11th) Tamil tn.gov.in [3]

Tamil Nadu
[4]

499

Established in 1773; Madras State was formed in 1956 and renamed as Tamil Nadu on 14 January 1969

Tamil Nadu (Tamil: ,

pronounced[tm

na]

listen))

is one of the 28 states of India. Its capital

and largest city is Chennai. Tamil Nadu lies in the southernmost part of the Indian Peninsula and is bordered by the union territory of Puducherry, and the states of Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. It is bound by the Eastern Ghats in the north, the Nilgiri, the Anamalai Hills, and Palakkad on the west, by the Bay of Bengal in the east, the Gulf of Mannar, the Palk Strait in the south east, and by the Indian Ocean in the south. Tamil Nadu is the eleventh largest state in India by area (about the size of Greece) and the seventh most populous state. It is the fifth largest contributor to India's GDP[5] and ranks tenth in Human Development Index as of 2006.[2] Tamil Nadu is also the most urbanised state in India.[6] The state has the highest number (10.56%) of business enterprises and stands second in total employment (9.97%) in India,[7] compared to the population share of about 6%.[8] [9] The region has been the home of the Tamil people since at least 500 BCE. Its official language Tamil has been in use in inscriptions and literature for over 2000 years. Tamil Nadu is home to many natural resources, grand Hindu temples of Dravidian architecture, hill stations, beach resorts, multi-religious pilgrimage sites and eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites.[10] [11]

History
Prehistory
Tamil Nadu's history dates back to pre-historic times. Archaeological evidence points to this area being one of the longest continuous habitations in India. In Adichanallur, 24km (15mi) from Tirunelveli, archaeologists from the Archaeological Survey of India unearthed 169 clay urns containing human skulls, skeletons and bones, plus husks and grains of rice, charred rice and Neolithic celts, giving evidence confirming them to be of the Neolithic period, 3800 years ago.[12] The ASI archaeologists have proposed that the script used at that site is "very rudimentary" Tamil Brahmi.[13] Adichanallur has been announced as an archaeological site for further excavation and studies.[14] About 60% of the total epigraphical inscriptions found by ASI in India are from Tamil Nadu and most of which are in Tamil language.[15]

A sculpture at Airavatesvara Temple, Darasuram, built by Tamil Chola Kings. The group of monuments are UNESCO World Heritage sites

There have been more discoveries of the evidence of prehistoric creatures inhabiting the landscape of what is now modern Tamil Nadu in the shape of eggs of dinosaurs and other animals of their kind. Geologists in Tamil Nadu have stumbled upon a Jurassic treasure trove buried in the sands of a river bed. Sheer luck led them to hundreds of fossilized dinosaur eggs, perhaps 65 million years old, underneath a stream in a tiny village in Ariyalur district.[16] Researchers from the Salem-based Periyar University found clusters of eggs of what they believe to be the most aggressive Carnosaur and the docile, leaf-eating Sauropod at Sendurai village. While Carnosaurs were large predatory dinosaurs, Sauropods were long-necked, herbivores which grew to enormous heights and sizes.[17]

Tamil Nadu

500

Medieval Period (6001300)

The Cholas who were very active during the Sangam age were entirely absent during the first few centuries.[18] The period started with the rivalry between the Pandyas and the Pallavas, which in turn caused the revival of the Cholas. The Cholas went on to becoming a great power. Their decline saw the brief resurgence of the Pandyas. This period was also that of the re-invigorated Hinduism during which temple building and religious literature were at their best.[19] The Cheras ruled in southern India from before the Sangam era (300 BCE 250 CE) over the Coimbatore, Karur, Salem Districts in present day Tamil Nadu and Tiruchirapalli Rockfort present day Kerala from the capital of Vanchi Muthur in the west, (thought to be modern Karur). They traded extensively from nearby Muziris, in spices, ivory, timber, pearls and gems, with the ancient kingdoms of Egypt, Rome, Greece, Ceylon, Phoenicia, Arabia, Mesopotamia and Persia.[20] The Kalabhras, invaded and displaced the three Tamil kingdoms and ruled between the third and the seventh centuries CE of the Sangam period. This is referred to as the Dark Age in Tamil history. They were expelled by the Pallavas and the Pandyas in sixth century. There is considerable evidence to show that under the Kalabhras' rule Jainism flourished in the land of the Tamils. The didactic work Naaladiyar was composed during their reign. It consists of moral sayings in the venpa meter, 400 in number in 40 chapters, each by one Jain ascetic, according to tradition. Following in the tradition of Jainism, Naaladiyar emphasizes virtues such as control of the senses, asceticism, renunciation, and other desirable social qualities. Because the Kalabhras gave protection to Jains and perhaps Buddhists, too, some have concluded that they were anti-Hindu, although this latter view is not undisputed. During the sixth to eighth centuries century CE, Tamil Nadu saw the rise of the Pallavas under Mahendravarman I and his son Mamalla Narasimhavarman I.[21] The Pallavas were originally executive officers under the Satavahana Empire.[22] After the fall of the Satavahanas, around 550 CE under King Simhavishnu they emerged into prominence. They subjugated the Cholas and reigned as far south as the Kaveri River. Pallavas ruled a large portion of South India with Kanchipuram as their capital. Dravidian architecture reached its peak during the Pallava rule.[23] Narasimhavarman II built the Shore Temple which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Shore Temple built by the Pallavas at Mamallapuram (c. eighth century C.E.) UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The Pallavas were replaced by the Cholas as the dominant kingdom in the 10th century C.E and they in turn were replaced by Pandyas in the 13th century C.E. The Pandyan capital Madurai was in the deep south away from the coast. They had extensive trade links with the Southeast Asian maritime empires of Srivijaya and their successors, as well as contacts, even formal diplomatic contacts, reaching as far as the Roman Empire. During the 13th century C.E. Marco Polo mentioned the Pandyas as the richest empire in existence.[24] Temples such as the Meenakshi Amman Temple at Madurai and Nellaiappar Temple at Tirunelveli are the best examples of Pandyan temple architecture.[25] [26] The Pandyas excelled in both trade and literature. They controlled the pearl fisheries along the South Indian coast, between Sri Lanka and India, which produced some of the finest pearls in the known ancient world.

Tamil Nadu Chola Empire By the 9th century, during the times of the second Chola monarch Aditya I, his son Parantaka I, Parantaka Chola II itself the Chola empire had expanded into what is now interior Andhra Pradesh and coastal Karnataka, while under the great Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola, the Cholas rose as a notable power in south Asia. The Chola Empire stretched as far as Bengal. At its peak, the empire spanned almost 3,600,000km (1,389,968 sq mi). Rajaraja Chola conquered all of peninsular South India and parts of the Sri Lanka. Rajendra Chola's navies went even further, occupying coasts from Chola Empire under Rajendra Chola c. 1030 C.E. Burma (now Myanmar) to Vietnam,[27] the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, Sumatra, Java, Malaya in South East Asia and Pegu islands. He defeated Mahipala, the king of the Bengal, and to commemorate his victory he built a new capital and named it Gangaikonda Cholapuram. The Cholas excelled in building magnificent temples. Brihadeshwara Temple in Thanjavur is a classical example of the magnificent architecture of the Chola kingdom. Brihadshwara temple is an UNESCO Heritage Site under "Great Living Chola Temples."[28] Another example is Annamalaiyar Temple located at the city of Tiruvannamalai and the Chidambaram Temple in the heart of the temple town of Chidambaram. Raja Raja Chola and Rajendra Chola period is said to be the golden period of Tamil Nadu, and under them the Chola empire rose to be the most powerful empire in all of South-India. With the decline of the Cholas between 1230 and 1280 CE, the Pandyas rose to prominence once again, under Maravarman Sundara Pandya and his younger brother, the celebrated Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan. This revival was short-lived as the Pandya capital of Madurai itself was sacked by Alauddin Khilji's troops under General Malik Kafur in 1316. The Muslim invasion led to the establishment of the short lived Madurai Sultanate.[29]

501

Brihadeeswara Temple built by Raja Raja Chola I in 1010 A.D.

Vijayanagar and Nayak period (13361646)

These Muslim invasions triggered the establishment of the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire in the Deccan. It eventually conquered the entire Tamil country (c. 1370 CE). This empire lasted for almost two centuries till the defeat of Vijayanagara in the Battle of Talikota in 1565. Subsequent to this defeat, many incompetent kings succeeded to the throne of Vijayanagara with the result that its grip loosened over its feudatories among whom the Nayaks of Madurai and Tanjore were among the first to declare their independence, despite initially maintaining loose links with the Vijayanagara kingdom."[30] As the Vijayanagara Empire went into decline after mid-16th century, the Nayak governors, who were

Thirumalai Nayak Mahal at Madurai.

Tamil Nadu appointed by the Vijayanagar kingdom to administer various territories of the empire, declared their independence. The Nayaks of Madurai and Nayaks of Thanjavur were most prominent of them all in the 17th century. They reconstructed some of the oldest temples in the country such as the Meenakshi Temple.

502

Rule of Nawabs and Nizams (16921801)

In the early 18th century, the eastern parts of Tamil Nadu came under the dominions of the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Nawab of the Carnatic. While Wallajah was supported by the English, Chanda Sahib was supported by the French by the middle of the 18th century. In the late 18th century, the western parts of Tamil Nadu, encompassing Kongu Nadu, came under the dominions of Hyder Ali and later Tipu Sultan, particularly with their victory in the Second Anglo-Mysore War.

Tamil Nadu under European rule (18011947)

Around 1609, the Dutch established a settlement in Pulicat, while the Danish had their establishment in Tranquebar (Tharangambadi). In 1639, the British, under the British East India Company, established a settlement further south of Pulicat, in present day Chennai. In the late 18th century, the British fought and reduced the French dominions in India to Puducherry. Nizams of Hyderabad and the Nawabs of the Carnatic bestowed tax revenue collection rights on the East India Company for defeating the Kingdom of Mysore. After winning the Polygar wars, the East India Company consolidated most of southern India into the Madras Presidency coterminous with the dominions of Nizam of Hyderabad. Pudukkottai remained as a princely state.

Fort Dansborg at Tharangambadi built by the Danish

Tamil Nadu in independent India

When India became independent in 1947, Madras Presidency became Madras State, comprising present day Tamil Nadu, coastal Andhra Pradesh up to Ganjam district in Orissa, South Canara district Karnataka, and parts of Kerala. The state was subsequently split up along linguistic lines. In 1969, Madras State was renamed Tamil Nadu, meaning Country of Tamil.

Geography
Tamil Nadu covers an area of 130058square kilometres (50216 sqmi), and is the eleventh largest state in India. The bordering states are Kerala to the west, Karnataka to the northwest and Andhra Pradesh to the north. To the east is the Bay of Bengal and the union territory of Puducherry. The southernmost tip of the Indian Peninsula is located in Tamil Nadu. At this point is the town of Kanyakumari which is the meeting point of the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, and the Indian Ocean. The western, southern and the north-western parts are hilly and rich in vegetation. Tamil Nadu is the only state in India which has both the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats and they both meet at the Nilgiri

Topographic map of Tamil Nadu

Tamil Nadu hills.[31] The Western Ghats dominate the entire western border with Kerala, effectively blocking much of the rain bearing clouds of the South West Monsoon from entering the state. The eastern parts are fertile coastal plains and the northern parts are a mix of hills and plains. The central and the south central regions are arid plains and receive less rainfall than the other regions. Tamil Nadu has a coastline of about 910kilometres (600mi) which is the countrys third longest coastline. Tamil Nadu's coastline bore the brunt of the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami when it hit India, which caused 7,793 direct deaths in the state.[32] Tamil Nadu falls mostly in a region of low seismic hazard with the exception of the western border areas that lie in a low to moderate hazard zone; as per the 2002 Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) map, Tamil Nadu falls in Zones II & III. Historically, parts of this region have experienced seismic activity in the M5.0 range.[33]

503

Climate
Tamil Nadu is heavily dependent on monsoon rains, and thereby is prone to droughts when the monsoons fail. The climate of the state ranges from dry sub-humid to semi-arid. The state has three distinct periods of rainfall: advancing monsoon period, South West monsoon from June to September, with strong southwest winds; North East monsoon from October to December, with dominant northeast winds; dry season from January to May. The normal annual rainfall of the state is about 945mm (37.2in) of which 48% is through the North East monsoon, and 32% through the South West monsoon. Since the state is entirely dependent on rains for recharging its water resources, monsoon failures lead to acute water scarcity and severe drought.[35]
[34] A semi-arid wasteland near Tirunelveli. Monsoon clouds pour torrents of rain on windward-facing Kerala, but are prevented from reaching Tirunelveli by the Agasthyamalai Range of the Western Ghats (background).

Tamil Nadu is classified into seven agro-climatic zones: north-east, north-west, west, southern, high rainfall, high altitude hilly, and Cauvery Delta (the most fertile agricultural zone). The table below shows the maximum and minimum temperatures that the state experiences in the plains and hills.[36]
Plains Max. 43C (109F) Hills 32.3C (90.1F)

Min. 13.1C (55.6F) 3.0C (37.4F)

Governance and administration

Tamil Nadu

504

State Symbols of Tamil Nadu

Animal Nilgiri Tahr (Tamil: ) Bird Dance Emerald Dove (Tamil: , ) Bharathanattiyam (Tamil: )

Flower Gloriosa Lily (Tamil: , ) Song Sport Tree Neerarum Sadugudu Palm Tree (Tamil: ) Source:
[37]

The Governor is the Constitutional head of the state while the Chief Minister is the head of the government and the head of the council of ministers. The Chief Justice of the Madras High Court is the head of the judiciary. The present Governor, Chief Minister and the Chief Justice are Surjit Singh Barnala, M.Karunanidhi and M. Y. Iqbal respectively.[38] [39] [40] The major administrative units of the state constitutes 39 Lok Sabha constituencies, 234 Assembly constituencies, 32 districts, 10 city corporations, 152 municipalities, 611 town panchayats and 12,618 village panchayats. Chennai (formerly known as Madras) is the state capital. It is the fourth largest city in India and is also one of the five A1 Metropolitan cities of India. Tamil Nadu had a bicameral legislature until 1986, when it was replaced with a unicameral legislature, like most other states in India. The term length of the government is 5 years, as is elsewhere in India. The present government run by the DMK led alliance came to power in 2006 and comprises a council of 29 ministers, chaired by the Chief Minister. Dr.M.Karunanidhi. Tamil Nadu legislative assembly is chaired by the speaker Mr. R Avudaiappan and is housed at the Omandurar Government Estate in Chennai. The state had come under the President's rule on four occasions first from 1976 to 1977, next for a short period in 1980, then from 1988 to 1989 and the latest in 1991. Tamil Nadu has 10 City Corporations: Chennai, Coimbatore, Madurai, Tiruchirapalli, Salem, Tirunelveli, Erode, Tirupur, Vellore and Thoothukudi. There is a plan to upgrade Nagercoil and Thanjavur as City Corporations. The Corporation of Chennai, established in 1688, is the oldest Municipal Corporation not only in India but also in any commonwealth nations outside United Kingdom.[41] Tamil Nadu has been a pioneering state of E-Governance initiatives in India. A large part of the government records like land ownership records are digitised and all major offices of the state government like Urban Local Bodies all the Corporations and Municipal Office activities revenue collection, land registration offices, and transport offices have been computerised. Tamil Nadu is one of the states where law and order has been maintained largely successfully.[42] The Tamil Nadu Police Force is over 140 years old. It is the fifth largest state police force in India and has the largest strength of women police personnel in the country.[43] As of 2003, the state had a total police population ratio of 1:668, higher than the national average of 1:717.[44] The current Director General of Police (law and order) of Tamil Nadu is Latika Charan.

Tamil Nadu

505

Districts
The 32 districts of Tamil Nadu are listed below with the numbers corresponding to those in the image at right.

Districts of Tamil Nadu

Ariyalur District Chennai District Coimbatore District Cuddalore District Dharmapuri District Dindigul District Erode District

Pudukkottai District Ramanathapuram District Salem District Sivagangai District Thanjavur District Theni District Thoothukudi District Thiruchirapalli District Thirunelveli District Thirupur district Thiruvallur District Thiruvannamalai District Thiruvarur District Vellore District Viluppuram District Virudhunagar District

Kanchipuram District Kanyakumari District Karur District Krishnagiri District Madurai District Namakkal District Nilgiris District Perambalur District

Nagapattinam District

Politics

Tamil Nadu

506

Political Alliance DMK+ AIADMK+ Independent/Other

Assembly Elections 163 69 2

Lok Sabha Elections 27 12 0

[45] [46]

Source: Indian Elections / Election Commission of India.

Prior to Indian independence Tamil Nadu was under British colonial rule as part of the Madras Presidency. The main party in Tamil Nadu at that time was the Congress Party. Regional parties have dominated state politics since 1916. One of the earliest regional parties, the South Indian Welfare Association, a forerunner to Dravidian parties in Tamil Nadu, was started in 1916. The party was called after its English organ, Justice Party, by it opponents. Later, South Indian Liberal Federation was adopted as its official name. The reason for victory of the Justice Party in elections was the non-participation of the Congress Party, demanding complete independence of India. Freedom movement saw Tamil Nadu assembly complex in Chennai great leaders like K. Kamaraj, Subramanya Bharathi (a poet who inspired the freedom movement by his poetic skills), Subramania Siva, V O Chidhamdaranar (Industrialist, who managed ships under the free India banner), Thirupur Kumaran, Rajagopalachariar (Rajaji), L. Sriramulu Naidu (first Mayor of Madras), and Sathyamurthi. Periyar E. V. Ramasamy popularly known as Periyar, believed in agitational politics and took the Justice Party away from its original path. The Justice Party which had a moribund existence under E.V.Ramaswamy. He renamed the party Dravidar Kazhagam (DK for short) in 1944. DK was a non-political party which demanded the establishment of an independent state called Dravida Nadu. However, due to the differences between its two leaders EVR and C.N. Annadurai, the party was split. Annadurai left the party to form the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK). The DMK decided to enter politics in 1956. In the 19th century, western scholars discovered that the Dravidian languages dominating South India formed a different linguistic group than the Indo-Aryan languages predominant in North India. They also classified Indians into distinct Aryan and Dravidian races. It was proposed that the generally darker-skinned Dravidians constituted a distinct race. This concept has affected thinking in India about racial and regional differences and had an impact on aspects of Tamil nationalism, which has appropriated the claim that Dravidians are the earliest inhabitants of India, and the Aryan population were oppressive interlopers from whom Dravidians should liberate themselves.[47] Re-organisation of Indian states according to linguistic and ethnic basis Present chief minister M.Karunanidhi (centre) has moderated Tamil nationalism, especially the demand for separation with ex-chief ministers C. N. Annadurai (left) and from the Indian Union. The Anti-Hindi agitations in mid-1960s made M. G. Ramachandran (right) the DMK more popular and a more powerful political force in the state. The DMK routed the Congress Party in the 1967 elections and took control of the state government, ending Congress' stronghold in Tamil Nadu. C.N. Annadurai became the DMK's first Chief Minister. Muthuvel Karunanidhi took over as Chief Minister and party leader after Annadurai's death in 1969. Karunanidhi's leadership was soon challenged by M.G. Ramachandran, popularly known as MGR. In 1972, he split from DMK and

Tamil Nadu formed the Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (ADMK) and later renamed the party as All India Anna Dravid Munnetra Kazhagam. He was the Chief Minister of the state from 1977 until his death in 1987. After the death of MGR AIADMK was defeated in 1989 assembly polls because of the Split of the party into two factions headed by Janaki (Wife of MGR) and Jayalalithaa. Later on J. Jayalalithaa took control of the party. She was elected as the General Secretary of the unified AIADMK. There have been several splits in both the DMK and the AIADMK, but since 1967 one of those two parties has held power in the state. The rise of Congress Party, Vijayakanth's DMDK, Vaiko's Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam and Dr. Ramdoss's PMK in the recent years has ensured that no single party is in majority to run a government and thereby giving rise to coalition politics.

507

Demographics
Religions in Tamil Nadu Religion Hinduism Christianity Islam Others
[49]

Percent 88.34% 6.08% 5.57% 0.26%

Tamil Nadu is the seventh most populous state in India with a population of 72,138,958 (5.96% of India's population; census 2011 fig.).[50] It is the seventh most densely populated state in India with a population density of 555 persons per square kilometre as of 2011, having increased from 429 in 1991, significantly higher than the Indian average of 382 persons per square kilometre.[50] 44% of the state's population live in urban areas, the highest among large states in India.[51] Tamil Nadu's population grew by 15.6% between 2001 and 2011, the sixth lowest rate for that period amongst populous states (states whose population exceeded 20 million in 2011).[50] Although its decadal rate of population growth has declined since 1971, the population growth during the last decade (20012011) has increased.[50] The state has registered the lowest fertiliy rate along with Andhra Pradesh and Goa in India in year 200506 with 1.8 children born for each woman, lower than required for population sustainability.[52] [53] [54]

Age wise population pyramid

Hinduism is followed by the majority of the people. The distribution of population based on their faith, as of the 2001 census, is shown in the bar graph above. Hinduism is the dominant religion has a higher percentage of adherents in Tamil Nadu (88%) when compared to other states. Christianity, though a minority, has the highest population in absolute numbers when compared to other states. Scheduled castes and Scheduled tribes comprise 19% and 1% of the population respectively.[55] [56] Tamil is the official and the principal spoken language of the state. As of the 2001 Census, Tamil is spoken by 89.00% of the population followed by Telugu at 5.66%, Kannada at 2.0%, Urdu at 1.51% and Malayalam at 0.59%.[57]

Tamil Nadu

508

Education and social development

Tamil Nadu is the one of the most literate states in India.[58] Tamil Nadu has performed reasonably well in terms of literacy growth during the decade 20012011. The state's literacy rate increased from 73.47% in 2001 to 80.3% in 2011 which is above the national average.[59] A survey conducted by the Industry body Assocham ranks Tamil Nadu top among Indian states with about 100% Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) in primary and upper primary education.[60] One of the basic limitations for improvement in education in the state is the rate of absence of teachers in public schools, which at 21.4% is significant.[61] The analysis of primary school education in the state by Pratham shows a low drop-off rate but poor quality of state education compared to other states.[62] [63]

The main entrance of IIT Madras, showing its logo and its motto.

The administrative building of National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli with its clock tower.

Tamil Nadu has 37 universities,[64] 454 engineering colleges.[65] and 566 arts and science colleges, 34335 elementary schools, 5167 high schools, 5054 higher secondary schools and 5000 hospitals.[66] Some of the most reputed educational institutes present in Tamil Nadu are University of Madras, IIT Madras, PSG College of Technology, Anna University Chennai, Coimbatore Institute of Technology, NIT Tiruchi, Madras Christian College,[67] Christian Medical College,Vellore Institute of Technology, Bharathidasan Institute of Management, Madras Medical College, Loyola College and Tamil Nadu Agricultural College of Engineering, Anna University, the University. The Indian Institute of Management is scheduled to open in oldest engineering school of south India Trichy by 20092010.[68] Tamil Nadu produces the highest number of engineering graduates in India (around 1,75,000) every year which attracts many software companies to set up their shop in south India. India has a human development index calculated as 0.619, while the corresponding figure for Tamil Nadu is 0.736, placing it among the top states in the country.[69] [70] The life expectancy at birth for males is 65.2 years and for females it is 67.6 years.[71] However, it has a high level of poverty especially in the rural areas. As of 20042005, the poverty line was set at 351.86/month for rural areas and 547.42/month for urban areas.[72] Poverty in the state dropped from 51.7% in 1983 to 21.1% in 2001[73] For the period 20042005, the Trend in Incidence of Poverty in the state was 22.5% compared with the national figure of 27.5%.[74] The World Bank is currently assisting the state in reducing poverty[75] High drop-out and low completion of secondary schools continue to hinder the quality of training in the population. Other problems include class, gender, inter-district and urban-rural disparities. Based on

Tamil Nadu URP Consumption for the period 20042005, percentage of the state's population Below Poverty Line was 27.5%.[72] The Oxford Poverty & Human Development Initiative ranks Tamil Nadu to have a Multidimensional Poverty Index of 0.141, which is in the level of Ghana among the developing countries.[76] The Dravidian movement, which championed the causes of educating the people and eradicating superstitions, began in Tamil Nadu. In addition, it aims to uplift socially repressed deprived communities and drew considerable support from the middle classes for their efforts in this matter. The movement was committed to social justice which led to the expansion of reservations for the deprived communities. Tamil Nadu now has 69% reservation in educational institutions, the highest among all Indian states.[77] The Mid-day Meal Scheme program in Tamil Nadu, initiated by Kamaraj, was expanded considerably during the rule of the AIADMK in 1983. It feeds over a fifth of the state's population. Despite this, the state is among the 12 states in India that have alarming level of hunger according to the 2008 Global Hunger Index.[78] [79] ``

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Culture
Tamil Nadu has a long tradition of venerable culture. Tamil Nadu is known for its rich tradition of literature, music and dance which continue to flourish today. Unique cultural features like Bharatanatyam (dance), Tanjore painting, and Tamil architecture were developed and continue to be practised in Tamil Nadu.

Language and literature

Tamil is the only official language of Tamil Nadu. English is also in common usage as an official language of India. When India adopted national standards Tamil was the very first language to be recognized as a classical language of India. The Tamil people regard their language a very important part of their cultural identity.

Kolam - a Traditional culture of Hindus in Tamil Nadu

Most early Tamil literary works are in verse form, with prose not becoming more common until later periods. Throughout its history, Tamil literature has sought to inform and inspire, educate and entertain.
- ( - 423) 'The mark of wisdom is to discern the truth From whatever source it is heard.' (Tirukkural 423)

Tamil poetry has universal appeal as evidenced by many examples. Tirukkural, which was written nearly two millennia ago portrays a universal outlook. This is evident as the author, Tiruvalluvar, does not mention his religion, land, or the audience for his work. He is often portrayed as a holy saint of Tamil Nadu today. Ancient Tamil literature is predominantly secular and deals with everyday life in the Tamil Context. The first Tamil printing press was established at Tarangambadi by the Danish missionaries. During the Indian freedom struggle, many Tamil poets and writers sought to provoke national spirit, social equity and secularist thoughts among the common man, notably Subramanya Bharathy and Bharathidasan. Even today, Tamil Nadu is home to creative writers like Vairamuthu, Jayakanthan,and Indira Parthasarathy.

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Religions

Meenakshi Amman Temple complex in Madurai, one of the grandest Hindu temples in India

Population by religion, 2001 Religious group Hindu Christian Muslim Total [81]

[80] % 88.1 6.1 5.6 100

Population (million) 55.0 3.79 3.47 62.4

About 88% of the population identifies as Hindu and Tamil Nadu is the home of the core schools of medieval and modern Hinduism as well as several non-mainstream Hindu movements. These include Advaita Vedanta, Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita, Alvars' Sri Vaishnavism, and Nayanmars Shaivism. Several important Hindu Tamil figures became important figures for Hinduism as a whole (e.g.Ramanuja.) In modern times, well known figures for Hinduism in the state include Ramana Maharishi and the Kanchi Paramacharya. Murugan, Thirumal (Vishnu), Sivan, Sakthi in various forms and a large number of village deities are also worshiped by Hindus in Tamil Nadu. The emblem of Government of Tamil Nadu depicts the Gopuram (Entrance Arch) of the temple at Srivilliputhur. Christians and Muslims together form over 11% of the population. Christians are mainly concentrated in the southern districts of Kanyakumari (44% of the population, 2001), Thoothukudi (17%, 2001) and Tirunelveli (11%,2001). St. Thomas Mount in Chennai, the place where St. Thomas, one of the disciples of Jesus, was believed to have been martyred,[82] is an important pilgrimage site for Indian Christians. The Santhome Basilica, supposedly built atop the tomb of St. Thomas, and the Vailankanni Basilica of Our Lady of Good Health revered churches by India's Roman Catholics are good examples of majestic church architectures in Tamil Nadu. The Church of South India and the Pentecostal Mission Church are headquartered in Chennai.
Basilica of Our Lady of Good Health at Velankanni, a Christian pilgrimage centre

Vaniyambadi,

Madurai,

Nagore,

Muslims are mainly concentrated in areas such as Adirampattinam, Kayalpatnam, Kilakarai, Pernambut, Ambur, and Melapalayam, with the state

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capital Chennai also home to a number of Muslims. Among Muslims, 97.5% are Sunni and the rest are Shias. The Sunnis adhere to either Hanafi or Shafi schools of thought. Erwadi in Ramanathapuram district and Nagore in Nagapattinam district are important pilgrimage site for Muslims, while the Thousand Lights Mosque in Chennai is one of the largest mosques in the country. Kazimar Big Mosque in Kazimar Street, Madurai and Karpudaiyar masjid in Kayalpatnam are the oldest mosques in Tamil Nadu. There was a popular atheist movement in the 1940s that has lost support since.

Erwadi dargah in Ramanathapuram District, a major pilgrimage center of Muslims in Tamil Nadu.

Festivals
Pongal, also called as Tamizhar Thirunaal (festival of Tamils) or Makara Sankranti elsewhere in India, a four-day harvest festival is one of the most widely celebrated festivals throughout Tamil Nadu. The Tamil language saying Thai Pirandhal Vazhi Pirakkum literally meaning, the birth of the month of Thai will pave way for new opportunities is often quoted with reference to this festival. The first day, Bhogi Pongal, is celebrated by throwing away and destroying old clothes and materials by setting them on fire to mark the end of the old and emergence of the new. The second day, Surya Pongal, is the main day which falls on the first day of the tenth Tamil month Thai (14 January or 15 January in western calendar). The third day, Maattu Pongal, is meant to offer thanks to the cattle, as they provide milk and are used to plough the lands. Jallikattu, a bull taming contest, marks the main event of this day. During this final day, Kaanum Pongal the word "kaanum", means 'to view' in Tamil. The first month in the Tamil calendar is Chitterai and the first day of this month in mid-April is celebrated as Tamil New Year. Thiruvalluvar Calendar is 31 years ahead of Gregorian Calendar, that is 2000 CE in Gregorian calendar is represented as 2031 in Thiruvalluvar Calendar. Aadi Perukku is celebrated on the 18th day of the Tamil month Aadi, which celebrates the rising of the water level in the river Cauvery. Apart from these major festivals, in every village and town of Tamil Nadu, the inhabitants celebrate festivals for the local gods once a year and the time varies from place to place. Most of these festivals are related to the goddess Maariyamman, the mother goddess of rain.
Thungapuram Ayyanar car festival

A bull tamed by a Tamil youth at Alanganallur, Madurai

Additional major Hindu festivals including Deepavali (Death of Narakasura), Ayudha Poojai, Saraswathi Poojai (Dasara), Krishna

Tamil Nadu Jayanthi and Vinayaka Chathurthi are celebrated. Ayya Vaikunda Avataram, is celebrated predominantly in the southern districts.[83] In addition, Christmas, Eid ul-Fitr, Easter and Bakrid are celebrated by Christians and Muslims in the state.

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Music
The Kings of ancient Thamizhagam created sangams for Iyal Isai Nadagam (Literature, Music and Drama). Music played a major role in sangams. Music in Tamil Nadu had different forms. In villages where farming was the primary occupation, ladies who work in the fields used to sing kulavai songs. Odhuvars, Sthanikars or Kattalaiyars offer short musical programmes in the Nadhaswaram and Thavil players temples by singing the devotional Thevaram songs. In sharp contrast with the restrained and intellectual nature of Carnatic music, Tamil folk music tends to be much more exuberant. Popular forms of Tamil folk music include the Villuppu, a form of music performed with a bow, and the Nuppurappu, ballads that convey folklore and folk history. Some of the leading Tamil folk artists in the early 21st century are Pushpuvanam Kuppuswamy, Dr. Vijayalakshmi Navaneethakrishnan, Chinnaponnu, Paravai muniammal etc. Carnatic music is the classical music form of Southern India. This is one of the world's oldest & richest musical traditions.[84] The Trinity of Carnatic music Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar and Syama Sastri were from Tamil Nadu. Thyagarajar Aaradhanai (worship) takes place every year in the month of Marghazhi in Thiruvaiyaru all carnatic musicians render their obesiance to Saint Thyagarajar by singing his compositions.[85] The composers belonging to the Tamil Trinity, namely Muthu Thandavar (?1560 ?1640 CE), Arunachala Kavi (17121779) and Marimutthu Pillai (17171787) composed hundreds of devotional songs in Tamil and helped in the evolution of Carnatic music. Today, Tamil Nadu has hundreds of notable carnatic singers and instrumentalists who spread this music all over the world. Chennai hosts a large cultural event, the annual Madras Music Season during DecemberJanuary, which includes performances by hundreds of artists all over the city. In terms of modern cine-music, Ilaiyaraaja was the most prominent composer of film music in Tamil cinema during the late 1970s and 1980s. His work highlighted Tamil folk lyricism and introduced broader Western musical sensibilities to the South Indian musical mainstream. Tamil Nadu is also the home of the double Oscar Winner A.R. Rahman[86] [87] [88] who has composed film music in Tamil, Telugu, Hindi films, English and Chinese films, was once referred to by Time magazine as "The Mozart of Madras".

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Arts and dance

Tamils have a large number of folk dances. These are performed for every possible occasion, to celebrate the arrival of seasons, birth of a child, weddings and festivals. Tamil dance is closely intertwined with the Tamil theatrical tradition. The most celebrated of these is karakattam. In its religious form, the dance is performed in front of an image of the goddess Mariamman. The dancer bears on his or her head a brass pot filled with uncooked rice, decorated with flowers and surrounded by a bamboo frame, and tumbles and leaps to the rhythm of a song without spilling a grain. Karakattam is usually performed to a special type of song known as temmanguppu or thevar pu, a folk song in the mode of a lover speaking to his beloved, to the accompaniment of a nadaswaram and melam. Other Tamil folk dances include mayilam, where the dancers tie a string of peacock feathers around their waist; yilttam, danced in a circle while waving small pieces of cloth of various colours; poikkal kuthiraiyaaam, where the dancers use dummy horses; manattam, where the dancers imitate the graceful leaping of deer; paraiyam, a dance to the sound of rhythmical drumbeats, and thppandam, a dance involving playing with burning wooden torches.

A Bharatanatyam dancer

Bharatanatyam is a classical dance form originating from Tamil Nadu. Bharatanatyam is thought to have been created by Bharata Muni, a Hindu sage, who wrote the Natya Shastra, the most important ancient treatise on classical Indian dance. In ancient times it was performed in Hindu temples by Devadasis. In this form, it as also been called sadir or chinna melam. Many of the ancient sculptures in Hindu temples are based on Bharata Natyam dance postures. Bharatanatyam is a traditional dance-form known for its grace, purity, tenderness, and sculpturesque poses. It continues to be a popular dance style at present times and is practised by male and female dancers all over India. Terukkuttu or Kattaikkuttu is a traditional form of Tamil street theatre folk dance/drama.

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Film industry
Tamil Nadu is also home to the Tamil film industry. It is known for being the second largest film industry in terms of revenue and worldwide distribution, in India.[89] [90] It is based at Kodambakkam in Chennai.

Cuisine
Tamil cuisine is basically South Indian cuisine, where Rice and rice-derived dishes form the major portion of a diet (see Rice and curry). There are regional sub-varieties namely Chettinadu, Kongunadu, Madurai, Tirunelveli varieties etc. Traditionally, food is served on a banana leaf instead of a plate and eaten with the right hand. Rice is the staple food of Tamils and is typically eaten mixed with Sambhar (with or without Ghee), vegetarian or non-vegetarian Kulambu, Rasam, Curd and Buttermilk. This is accompanied with Chettinad cuisine, typically served on a banana various vegetarian and/or non-vegetarian dishes like Kootu, Aviyal, leaf Poriyal, Appalam, Varuval, Peratal, Kothsu, varieties of Pickles and Chicken / Mutton / Fish fry. Breakfast and snack items include Dosai, Adai, Idly, Vadai, Pongal, Appam(Aappam), Paniyaram, Puttu(Pittu), Uppumavu(Uppuma), Santhakai(Noodles), Idiyappam and Uthappam. These items are eaten along with Sambar, varieties of Chatni and Podi . Traditionally prepared Filter Coffee is unique in taste and popular all over the state. The Chettinad region is famous for its spicy non-vegetarian cuisine, while Ambur, Dindigal and Sankarankoil are known for their Biriyani. Sweet items that are native to Tamil Nadu and prepared at homes are Athirasam, Chakkarai Pongal (prepared during Pongal) and Kuli Paniyaram. Tirunelveli is known for its unique wheat Halwa and Palani is renowned for its Panchamirtham. In the recent past, North Indian, Western, Chinese and fast food culture are also witnessing a steady growth in Tamil Nadu.

Economy
Gross State Domestic Product in Crores and Current Prices[91]
Year GSDP Change 19.32% 29.96% 32.47% 19.36% 09.92% 21.81% Share of India 7.49% 7.18% 7.40% 7.33% 6.85% 6.61%

199495 68,666 199697 89,237 199899 118,209 200001 141,100 200203 155,099 200405 188,921

Tamil Nadu's gross state domestic product for 2007 is estimated at 275,000 crores (70 billion USD) in current prices.[92] [93] The state experienced a GDP growth rate of 12.1% for this period.[60] It was the third largest economy (20072008) among all states in India,[94] and also the most industrialised state in India.[95] It ranks third in foreign direct investment (FDI) approvals (cumulative 19912002) of 225,826 million ($5,000 million), next only to Maharashtra and Delhi constituting 9.12% of the total FDI in the country.[96] The per capita income in 20072008 for the state was 43,000 ranking second among the South Indian states[97] and steadily been above the national average.[98] According to the 2001 Census, Tamil Nadu has the highest level of urbanisation (43.86%) in India, accounting for 6% of Indias total population and 9.6% of the urban population.[99] and is the most urbanized state in India.[6]

Tamil Nadu Services contributes to 45% of the economic activity in the state, followed by manufacturing at 34% and agriculture at 21%. Government is the major investor in the state with 51% of total investments, followed by private Indian investors at 29.9% and foreign private investors at 14.9%. Tamil Nadu has a network of about 113 industrial parks and estates offering developed plots with supporting infrastructure.[100] According to the publications of the Tamil Nadu government the Gross State Domestic Product at Current Prices (Base year 19992000) for the year 20082009 is 339,212 crores. The percapita income at current price is 51, 097.[101]

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Agriculture
Tamil Nadu has historically been an agricultural state and is a leading producer of agricultural products in India. In 2008, Tamil Nadu was India's fifth biggest producer of Rice.[102] The total cultivated area in the State was 56.10 million hectares in 200708.[103] The Cauvery delta region of the composite Thanjavur district is known as the Rice Bowl of South India. In terms of production, Tamil Nadu accounts for 10% in fruits and 6% in vegetables, in India.[104] Annual food grains production in the year 200708 was 100.35 lakh mt.[103] Mango and Banana are the leading fruit crops in Tamil Nadu accounting for over 87% of the total fruit production. The main vegetables grown are tapioca, tomato, onion, brinjal and drumstick. Tamil Nadu is also a leading state in the production of flowers with the total production of horticultural crops standing at 99.47 Lakhs during 200304. The main flowers grown in Tamil Nadu are Jasmine, Mullai, Chrysanthemum, Marigold and Rose. The state is the largest producer of bananas,[105] flowers,[106] tapioca,[106] the second largest producer of mango,[106] natural rubber,[107] coconut,[108] groundnut and the third largest producer of coffee,[109] sapota,[106] Tea[110] and Sugarcane.[111] Tamil Nadu's sugarcane yield per hectare is the highest in India.[111] The state has 17,000 hectares of land under oil palm cultivation, the second highest in India.[112] Tamil Nadu is the home to Dr M.S. Swaminathan, known Paddy fields at Nagercoil as the "father of the Green Revolution" in India.[113] Tamil Nadu Agricultural University with its seven colleges and thirty two research stations spread over the entire state contributes to evolving new crop varieties and technologies and disseminating through various extension agencies. Among states in India, Tamil Nadu is one of the leaders in livestock, poultry and fisheries production. Tamil Nadu had the second largest number of poultry amongst all the states and accounted for 17.7% of the total poultry population in India.[114] In 20032004, Tamil Nadu had produced 37,836 lakhs of eggs, which was the second highest in India representing 9.37% of the total egg production in the country.[115] With the third longest coastline in India, Tamil Nadu represented 27.54% of the total value of fish and fishery products exported by India in 2006.[116]

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Textile, automobile and heavy industries

Textile mills and engineering industries are present around the city of Coimbatore. It is home to textile, automotive spare sparts and motor pump manufacturing units. Cities of Tirupur and Erode are the country's largest exporters of knitwear.[117] They are well known for textile manufacturing industries and exports to such extent that the districts of Coimbatore, Tirupur and Erode are referred to as 'Textile Valley of India'.[118] Tamil Nadu is one of the highly industrialised states in India. Over 11.2% of the S&P CNX 500 conglomerates have corporate offices in Tamil Nadu. Many heavy engineering and manufacturing companies are located in and around the suburbs of Chennai and Tiruchirappalli. Tamil Nadu has seen major investments in the automobile industry over many decades manufacturing cars, railway coaches, battle-tanks, tractors, motorcycles, automobile spare parts and accessories, tyres and heavy vehicles. Major global automobile companies including BMW, Ford, Renault-Nissan, Caterpillar, Hyundai, Mitsubishi Motors and Michelin as well as local automobile majors like Ashok Leyland, Hindustan Motors, TVS Motors, Irizar-TVS, Royal Enfield, MRF, Apollo Tyres, TAFE Tractors and DaimlerChrysler AG[119] have manufacturing operations in Tamil Nadu. Karur is a hub for bus body building industries. The region around Coimbatore, Tirupur, Karur and Erode is referred to as the "Textile Valley of India" with the export turnover from the Tirupur in 2004 at 50,000 million ($1,000 million). 56% of India's total knitwear exports come from Tirupur. Karur generates around (35,500 million) $750 million a year in foreign exchange. Arani and Kanchipuram are famous for their handloom and silk weaving industries. Sivakasi is a major centre of fireworks and safety match production and offset printing in India, over 60% of firework production is contributed from sivakasi

Hyundai's manufacturing plant at Irungattukottai near Sriperumbudur

Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited atTiruchirapalli(Trichy)

Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, one of India's largest electrical equipment manufacturing company, has manufacturing plants at Tiruchirapalli and Ranipet. India's leading steel producer, SAIL has a steel plant in Salem.[120] Sterlite Industries has their copper smelter plant in Tuticorin and aluminium plant in Mettur. The state government owns the Tamil Nadu Newsprint and Papers Ltd. (TNPL),[121] the world's biggest bagasse based Paper mills in Karur, as well as the world's sixth largest manufacturer of watches together with TATA at Hosur, under the brand name of "Titan".[122]

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Electronics and software

Electronics manufacturing is a growing industry in Tamil Nadu, with many telecommunications giants like Nokia, Flextronics, Motorola, Sony-Ericsson, Foxconn, Samsung, Cisco, Moser Baer and Dell having chosen Chennai as their South Asian manufacturing hub. Products manufactured include circuit boards and cellular phone handsets.[123] Tamil Nadu is the second largest software exporter by value in India, second only to Karnataka. Software exports from Tamil Nadu grew from 76 billion ($1.6 billion) in 200304 to 207 billion {$5 billion} Infosys' campus at Mahindra World City near Chennai by 200607 according to NASSCOM [124] and to 366 billion in 200809 which shows 29% growth in software exports according to STPI.[125] Major national and global IT Companies such as Infosys, Wipro, HCL, Tata Consultancy Services, Mahindra Satyam, Verizon, Hewlett-Packard, Amazon.com, Paypal, IBM, Accenture, Ramco Systems, Computer Sciences Corporation, Cognizant Technology solutions, Tech Mahindra, Polaris, Aricent, MphasiS, MindTree, Symantec and many others have offices in Tamil Nadu.

Leather industry
The state accounts for 70 [126] per cent of leather tanning capacity in India and 38 per cent of leather footwear and components. The exports from Tamil Nadu are valued at about US $ 762 million, which accounts for 42 per cent of Indian leather exports. Hundreds of leather and tannery industries are located around Vellore and its nearby towns such as Ranipet, Ambur and Vaniyambadi. The Vellore district is the top exporter of finished leather goods in the country. Vellore leather accounts for more than 37% [127] of the country's Export of Leather and Leather related products such as finished leathers, shoes, garments, gloves and so on. The tanning industry in India has a total installed capacity of 225 million pieces of hide and skins of which Tamil Nadu alone contributes to an inspiring 70%. Leather industry occupies a pride of place in the industrial map of Tamil Nadu. Tamil Nadu enjoys a leading position with 40% share in India 's export. It currently employs about 2.5 million persons Leather exports by the end of the year 2000-2001 were Rs. 9000 [128] crores.

Infrastructure
Tamil Nadu has a transportation system that connects all parts of the state. Tamil Nadu is served by an extensive road network, providing links between urban centers, agricultural market-places and rural areas. There are 24 national highways in the state, covering a total distance of 2002km (1244mi).[129] The state is also a terminus for the Golden Quadrilateral project. The state has a total road length of 167000 km ( mi), of which 60628km (37672 mi) are maintained by Highways Department. This is nearly 2.5 times higher than the density of all-India road network.[130] Tamil Nadu has a well-developed rail network as part of Southern Railway. Headquartered at Chennai, the Southern Railway network extends over a large area of India's Southern Peninsula, covering the states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Puducherry, a small portion of Karnataka and a small portion of Andhra Pradesh. Tamil Nadu has a total railway
Pamban road (left) and rail (right) bridges, connecting the Indian mainland with the Pamban Island. The rail bridge was opened to traffic in 1914, and was considered an engineering marvel in its time

Tamil Nadu track length of 5952km (3698mi) and there are 532 railway stations in the state.[131] The system connects it with most major cities in India. Main rail junctions in the state include Chennai, Coimbatore, Madurai, Tiruchirapalli (Trichy) and Salem. Chennai has a well-established suburban railway network and is in the process of developing a metro. Tamil Nadu has a major international airport, Chennai International Airport, that is connected with 19 countries with more than 169 direct flights every week. This is the third largest airport in India after Mumbai and Delhi and has a passenger growth of 18%. Other international airports present in the state are Tiruchirapalli International Airport, Coimbatore International Airport. The Madurai Airport, Salem Airport and Tuticorin Airport are domestic airports which connect their respective cities to other parts of the country. Increased industrial activity has given rise to an increase in passenger traffic as well as freight movement which has been growing at over 18 per cent per year.[132] Tamil Nadu has three major seaports at Chennai, Ennore and Tuticorin, as well as one intermediate port, at Nagapattinam (Seven other minor ports including Cuddalore and Nagapattinam).[103] Chennai Port is an artificial harbour situated on the Coromandel Coast in South-East India and it is the second principal port in the country for handling containers. Ennore Port handles all the coal and ore traffic in Tamil Nadu. The volume of cargo in the ports grew by 13 per cent during 2005.[133] [134] As of 2005, Tamil Nadu is one of the few Indian states with surplus MRTS Train station in Chennai Electricity generation capacity, enabling the electrical authority to sell it to neighbouring states of Andra Pradesh & Karnataka. The Kalpakkam Nuclear Power Plant, Ennore Thermal Plant, Neyveli Lignite Power Plant, many hydroelectric plants including Mettur and the Narimanam Natural Gas Plants are major sources of Tamil Nadu's electricity. It is presently adding the Koodankulam Nuclear Power Plant to its energy grid, which on completion would be the largest atomic power plant in the country, in terms of capacity.[135] The total installed capacity for electricity in the State is 8,249 MW. The installed capacity of State Sector is 5,288 MW, and that of Private Sector is 1,058 MW. Apart from this, 1,903 MW is available as share from Central Sector.[103] Tamil Nadu sources[136] a significant proportion of its power needs from renewable sources with wind power installed capacity at over 3600 MW[137] or over 40% of the maximum peak demand. Tamil Nadu ranks first nationwide in diesel-based thermal electricity generation with a national market share of over 34%. 55% of all wind-generated electricity in India is created by windmills in Tamil Nadu. Renowned Danish wind power company NEG Micon has established its manufacturing unit in Chennai.[138]

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Environment
Tamil Nadu includes a wide range of Biomes, extending east from the South Western Ghats montane rain forests in the Western Ghats through the South Deccan Plateau dry deciduous forests and Deccan thorn scrub forests to tropical dry broadleaf forests and then to the beaches, estuaries, salt marshes, mangroves, and coral reefs of the Bay of Bengal. The state has a range of flora and fauna with many species and habitats. To protect this diversity of wildlife there are Protected areas of Tamil Nadu, including two Biosphere Reserves, five National Parks and several Wildlife Sanctuaries.[139] There are about 2000 species of wildlife that are native to Tamil Nadu. Protected areas provide safe habitat for large mammals including Elephants, Tigers, Leopard, Wild dog, Sloth bears, Gaurs, Lion-tailed macaques, Nilgiri Langurs, Nilgiri Tahrs, Grizzled Giant Squirrels and Sambar deer, resident and migratory birds such as Cormorants, Darters, Herons, Egrets, Open-billed Storks, Spoonbills and White Ibises, Little Grebes, Indian Moorhen, Black-winged Stilts, a few migratory Ducks and occasionally Grey Pelicans, marine species such as the Dugongs, Turtles, Dolphins and Balanoglossus and a wide variety of fish and insects.
A Bengal tiger in the Kanyakumari Wildlife The Angiosperm diversity of India includes 17,672 species. Tamil Sanctuary Nadu ranks 1st among all states in the Country, with 5640 species, 1/3 of the total flora of India. This includes 1559 species of medicinal plants, 533 endemic species, 260 species of wild relatives of cultivated plants and 230 red-listed species. The Gymnosperm diversity of the country is 64 species of which Tamil Nadu has four indigenous species and about 60 introduced species. The Pteridophytes diversity of India includes 1022 species of which Tamil Nadu has about 184 species. Vast numbers of bryophytes, Likens, Fungi, Algae and Bacteria are among the wild plant diversity of Tamil Nadu.[140]

Common plant species include the state tree: Palmyra Palm, Eucalyptus, Rubber, Cinchona, Clumping Bamboos (Bambusa Arundinacea), Common teak, Anogeissus latifolia, Indian Laurel , Grewia, and blooming trees like Indian labumusum, Ardisia, and Solanaceae. Rare and unique plant life includes Combretum ovalifolium [141], Ebony (Diospyros nilagrica), Habenaria rariflora (Orchid), Alsophila, Impatiens elegans, Ranunculus reniformis, and Royal fern.[142] There are at least 85 widely diversified environmental organizations involved with environmental conservation and environmental education in Tamil Nadu. These organizations are notable for the diversity of their members and their intended impact groups, ranging from urban to rural, local to national, elementary students to government policy makers and rich to poor. The intent of these organizations is increased awareness of environmentalism by the state's population.[143] The Ministry of Environment and Forests through its Department of Environment and the Tamil Nadu Forest Department is the primary Government organization planning and implementing environmental policy in the state.[144] [145] The Tamil Nadu State Council for Science and Technology coordinates government scientific agencies and creates environmental awareness programs in the state,[146] There are several prominent leaders worth public roles in these efforts. There are environmental NGOs working in the state who are characterized by funding from private sources, programs of environmental activism and a high degree of autonomy and volunteerism.

Tamil Nadu Schools, colleges and universities in the state have academic courses in environmental education and Environmental studies and non-academic clubs and student activities involved with environmentalism. Public and private mass media sources in the state play a role in increasing public awareness of environmental issues. The Hindu Newspaper and wildlife photographers and conservation writers are especially influential. There are several independent environmental consultants in the state, experienced in a wide range of environmental technical specialization.

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Sports
The Sports Development Authority of Tamil Nadu (SDAT) is the government body that is vested with the responsibility of developing sports and related infrastructure in the state.[147] The SDAT owns and operates world class stadiums and organizes sporting events.[148] It also accommodates sporting events, both at domestic and international Kari Motor Speedway in Coimbatore level, organized by other sports associations at its venues. It has national racing tracks like Irungattukottai Race Track in Sriperumpudur near Kanchipuram district, where national level Bike and Car races were conducted.[149] The YMCA College of Physical Education at Nandanam in Chennai was established in 1920 and was the first college for physical education in Asia.[150] Cricket is the most popular sport and Kabaddi, also known locally as Sadugudu, is the state game of Tamil Nadu. M. A. Chidambaram Stadium in Chennai is an international cricketing arena with a capacity of 50,000 and houses the Tamil Nadu Cricket Association. Cricketers from Tamil Nadu who have represented the national team either in ODI or Test or Both are Krishnamachari Srikkanth Srinivasaraghavan Venkataraghavan Dinesh Karthik Robin Singh Murali Vijay Murali Karthik Ravichandran Ashwin Laxman Sivaramakrishnan Subramaniam Badrinath Hemang Badani Sadagoppan Ramesh Lakshmipathy Balaji Sridharan Sriram V. B. Chandrasekhar T. A. Sekhar Bharath Reddy W. V. Raman

Cricket contests between local clubs, franchises and teams are also popular across the state. Chennai is also one of the ten Indian cities to be featured in the nation level Twenty-20 Cricket competition, the Indian Premier League. The team, owned by the cement manufacturers, India Cements, is called Chennai Super Kings. [151] The MRF Pace Foundation in Chennai is a much sought after fast bowling academy by pace bowlers all over the world. The state game of Kabaddi, and Silambam, are sports played in the rural areas. The ATP Chennai Open tournament held in Chennai every January is the biggest Tennis event in South Asia.[152] Tennis players from Tamil Nadu who had made it to the big stage include

Tamil Nadu Ramanathan Krishnan, Ramesh Krishnan, Vijay Amritraj, Anand Amritraj, Mahesh Bhupathi and Prakash Amritraj.

521

Tamil Nadu has a long standing motorsports culture. The sport was pioneered by Sundaram Karivardhan in its early days. Notable sportspersons from Tamil Nadu in the field are Narain Karthikeyan, the first Indian to participate in F1 racing, and Karun Chandhok. Motor racing events are held at the Irungattukottai track (near Sriperumbudur), Sholavaram track and Kari Motorspeedway near Coimbatore. The Tamil Nadu Hockey Association is the governing body of Hockey in the state. Vasudevan Baskaran was the captain of the Indian team that won gold medal in 1980 Olympics at Moscow. The Mayor Radhakrishnan Stadium in Chennai hosts international hockey events and is regarded by the International Hockey Federation as one of the best in the world for its infrastructure.[153] Chennai hosted the SAF Games in 1995. Anju Bobby George, a world renowned athlete, represents Tamil Nadu in the national arena.[154] The Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium in Chennai is a multipurpose stadium hosting Football and Track & Field events. The Indian Triathlon Federation and the Volleyball Federation of India are headquartered in Chennai.[155] Chennai hosted Indias first ever International Beach Volleyball Championship in 2008.[156]

Viswanathan Anand, the world chess champion

Chess and Carrom are popular indoor sports. World Chess champion and Indian Grand Master Viswanathan Anand and Arjuna Awardee and two-time world carrom champion Maria Irudayam hail from Tamil Nadu. Tamil Nadu boasts of total of 8 Grand Masters and numerous International Masters.[157] Snooker was invented by General Sir Frederick Roberts at the Ooty Club in Udhagamandalam.[158] [159] The SDAT TNSRA Squash Academy in Chennai, one of the very few modern squash facilities in South Asia,[160] hosts international squash events. Tamil Nadu has six 18-hole Golf courses,[161] the most popular of which are the Kodaikanal Golf Club, established in 1895, and Gymkhana Club, Chennai. The Madras Boat Club, set up in 1867, hosts regular rowing races on the Adyar River.[162] The 232-year-old Guindy race course in Chennai is a horse racing venue. Adventure sports have gained popularity, especially amongst the tourists visiting the state.[163]

Tamil Nadu

522

Tourism
Tamil Nadu's tourism industry is the second largest in India, with an annual growth rate of 16%.[164] Tourism in Tamil Nadu is promoted by Tamil Nadu Tourism Development Corporation (TTDC), a Government of Tamil Nadu undertaking. The tagline adopted for promoting tourism in Tamil Nadu is Enchanting Tamil Nadu. Approximately 1,753,000 foreign and 50,647,000 domestic tourists visited the state in 2007.[165] Tamil Nadu is a land of varied beauty. It boasts some of the grandest Hindu temples of Dravidian architecture. These temples are of a Hogenakal Waterfall on Kaveri river, Dharmapuri distinct style renowned for their towering Gopurams. The district Brihadishwara Temple in Thanjavur, built by the Cholas, the Airavateswara temple in Darasuram and the Shore Temple, along with the collection of other monuments in Mahabalipuram also called as Mamallaburam have been declared as UNESCO World Heritage Sites.[166] [167] The largest Shiva Temple in Tamil Nadu is Nellaiappar Temple situated in the heart of Tirunelveli city. Madurai is home to one of the grandest Hindu temples in the World Madurai Meenakshi Amman Temple. Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam is the largest functioning temple in the world, Tiruchirappalli where the famous Rockfort Temple temple is located, Rameshwaram whose temple walk-ways (Praagarams) are the longest of all Indian temples, Kanchipuram and Palani are important pilgrimage sites for Hindus. Other popular temples in Tamil Nadu include those in Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Chidambaram, Thiruvannaamalai, Tiruttani, Swamithoppe, Tiruchendur and Tiruvallur. Tamil Nadu is also home to beautiful hill stations. Popular among them are Udhagamandalam (Ooty), Kodaikanal, Yercaud, Coonoor, Topslip, Valparai, Yelagiri and Manjolai. The Nilgiri hills, Palani hills, Shevaroy hills, Kolli Hills and Cardamom hills are all abodes of thick forests and wildlife.

Botanical Gardens, Ooty

Mukurthi National Park & Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve are the two tiger reserves in the state. Tamil Nadu has many National Parks, Biosphere Reserves, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Elephant and Bird Sanctuaries, Reserved Forests, Zoos and Crocodile farms. Prominent among them are Mudumalai National Park, The Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve, Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park, Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary and Arignar Anna Zoological Park. The mangrove forests at Pichavaram are also eco-tourism spots of importance. Kanyakumari, the southern most tip of peninsular India, is famous for its beautiful sunrise, Vivekananda Rock Memorial and Thiruvalluvar's statue built off the coastline. Marina Beach in Chennai is one of the longest beaches in the world.[168] The stretch of beaches from Chennai to Mahabalipuram are home to many resorts, theme parks and eateries. The prominent waterfalls in the state are Courtallam, Hogenakal, Papanasam, Manimuthar, Thirparappu, Pykara and Silver Cascade.
Thiruvalluvar statue in Kanyakumari, southern tip of India

Tamil Nadu The Chettinad region of the state is renowned for its Palatial houses and cuisine. With medical care in Chennai, Vellore, Coimbatore and Madurai, Tamil Nadu has the largest numbers in Medical tourism in India.

523

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Tamil Nadu
[121] TNPL (http:/ / www. tnpl. co. in/ ). [122] Titan Website (http:/ / www. tata. com/ titan/ ). [123] Flextronics signs pact for Chennai facility (http:/ / www. thehindubusinessline. com/ 2005/ 10/ 07/ stories/ 2005100702790400. htm). [124] The Hindu Business Line : TN software exports clock 32 pc growth (http:/ / www. thehindubusinessline. com/ 2006/ 05/ 07/ stories/ 2006050702500300. htm). [125] "The Times of India : TN logs 29% growth in software exports in FY09." (http:/ / infotech. indiatimes. com/ news/ software/ TN-logs-29-growth-in-software-exports-in-FY09/ articleshow/ 4754105. cms). The Times Of India. . [126] http:/ / tnenvis. nic. in/ major_indus. htm [127] http:/ / vellore. nic. in/ dic. htm [128] http:/ / www. tntdpc. com/ business_directory. html [129] Economy and Business in Tamil Nadu (http:/ / www. india-now. net/ download/ TamilNadu_may06. pdf)PDF(1.21MB) [130] Official site for Tamil Nadu Highways (http:/ / www. tnhighways. org). [131] Tamil Nadu Railway Statistics (http:/ / www. tn. gov. in/ misc/ tnataglance. htm#ROAD AND TRANSPORT). [132] Transportation in Tamil Nadu (http:/ / www. indiainbusiness. nic. in/ indian-states/ tamilnadu/ EconoInfra. htm). [133] Official website for Ennore Port (http:/ / www. ennoreport. gov. in/ ). [134] Official website for Tuticorin Port (http:/ / www. tuticorinport. gov. in/ ). [135] "NPCIL" (http:/ / www. npcil. nic. in/ main/ ProjectConstructionStatus. aspx). NPCIL. . Retrieved 23 September 2009. [136] TEDA Projects of TEDA Tamil Nadu Energy Development Agency (http:/ / www. teda. gov. in/ page/ Projects. htm) by TEDA. [137] Policy Note 20082009 of Energy Department, Tamil Nadu, India (http:/ / www. tn. gov. in/ policynotes/ energy. htm) by Govt. of Tamil Nadu. [138] Vestas Web page (http:/ / www. vestas. com/ dk/ Home/ index. asp). [139] Tamil Nadu Forest Department, retrieved 29 July 2007 Tamil Nadu Wildlife Tourism (http:/ / www. forests. tn. nic. in/ WLTourism. htm). [140] "Biodiversity of Tamil Nadu" (http:/ / tnenvis. nic. in/ biodiversity. htm). Environmental Information System (ENVIS). Chennai: Department of Environment, Govt. of Tamil Nadu &Ministry of Environment & Forests. 2006. . Retrieved 8 December 2009. [141] http:/ / www. ars-grin. gov/ cgi-bin/ npgs/ html/ taxon. pl?311513 [142] Tamil Nadu Dept. of Forests, Retrieved 9 September 2007 Biodiversity (http:/ / www. forests. tn. nic. in/ WildBiodiversity/ wildbiodiversity_home. html). [143] Directory of Environmental Resource Persons in Tamil Nadu (http:/ / assets. wwfindia. org/ downloads/ directory_of_environmental_resource_persons_in_tamil_nadu. pdf). Chennai: ENVIS (http:/ / tnenvis. nic. in/ actvities_yr_2008. htm) & World Wide Fund for Nature India/Tamil Nadu State Office. 2008, 2nd source (http:/ / tnenvis. nic. in/ PDF/ resource person. pdf). . [144] "About the Ministry" (http:/ / moef. nic. in/ modules/ about-the-ministry/ introduction/ ). Ministry of Environment & Forests (MoEF), Govt. of India. . Retrieved 7 December 2009. [145] "Welcome To Department of Environment" (http:/ / www. environment. tn. nic. in/ projects. htm). Chennai: Government of Tamil Nadu, Department of Environment. 2007. . Retrieved 7 December 2009. [146] Ganesan, I.A.S, Secy., Thiru. K. (2007). "Activities of TNSCST" (http:/ / www. tanscst. org/ activity. asp). Chennai: Tamil Nadu State Council for Science and Technology. . Retrieved 19 November 2009. [147] "Youth Welfare & Sports Development Department" (http:/ / www. tn. gov. in/ citizen/ sdat. htm). Tn.gov.in. 1992-10-15. . Retrieved 2010-11-04. [148] Sports development authority of Tamil Nadu, Chennai 600 084 (http:/ / www. sportsinfotn. com/ news07\newsfeb07. htm). [149] "Sports Development Authority of Tamil Nadu's Sports Event Calendar" (http:/ / www. sportsinfotn. com/ start. asp?vdomain=8& vpage=calendar. htm). Sportsinfotn.com. . Retrieved 2010-11-04. [150] Y.M.C.A. College of Physical Education NANDANAM (http:/ / www. indiastudychannel. com/ colleges/ 7720-Y-M-C-A-College-Physical-Education. aspx). [151] "Chennai Super Kings owners and main sponsors". http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Chennai_Super_Kings#Administration. [152] Nadal, other tennis greats arrive for Chennai Open 2008 (http:/ / www. thaindian. com/ newsportal/ sports/ nadal-other-tennis-greats-arrive-for-chennai-open-2008_10010658. html). [153] Radhakrishnan Stadium to have new turf (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ 2004/ 10/ 20/ stories/ 2004102004161800. htm). [154] Anju B George to be felicitated (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ articleshow/ 26757677. cms). [155] All Presidents, National Sports Federation (http:/ / www. 33rdnationalgames. nic. in/ oldpages/ IOA Address/ All Presidents, National Sports Federation. htm). [156] India seeks to popularise beach volleyball (http:/ / www. thaindian. com/ newsportal/ south-asia/ india-seeks-to-popularise-beach-volleyball_10074262. html). [157] TN Chess Men's and Women's GM's & IM's (http:/ / tamilchess. com/ TnGm_Im. aspx). [158] The History Of Snooker (http:/ / library. thinkquest. org/ C007555/ history. html). [159] THE ORIGIN OF SNOOKER : THE NEVILLE CHAMBERLAIN STORY (http:/ / www. ibsf. info/ pdf/ origin-of-snooker. pdf). [160] Opening up new vistas for squash talent (http:/ / www. hinduonnet. com/ thehindu/ mp/ 2002/ 12/ 12/ stories/ 2002121200460400. htm). [161] Golf Courses in Southern India (http:/ / www. golftoday. co. uk/ clubhouse/ coursedir/ world/ india/ southernindia/ indexsouthindia. html). [162] Sports in Chennai (http:/ / www. spiritus-temporis. com/ chennai/ sports. html). [163] Adventure Tourism (http:/ / www. indialine. com/ travel/ tamilnadu/ adventure. html).

526

Tamil Nadu
[164] [165] [166] [167] [168] 8 Steps to India (http:/ / www. nfis. com. au/ india/ pdfs/ 1_why_focus_southern_india. pdf) (http:/ / tamilnadutourism. org/ pdf/ Policy-2008 English Book. pdf) Great Living Chola Temples UNESCO World Heritage Centre (http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list/ 250). Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram (http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list/ 249). Marina Beach, Chennai One of the Longest Beaches in the World (http:/ / www. tamilnow. com/ tourism/ chennai/ marina-beach. html).

527

External links
Tamil Nadu Government Website (http://www.tn.gov.in/) Tamil Nadu (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/India/Tamil_Nadu//) at the Open Directory Project

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Tripura
Tripura
State

Seal

Location of Tripura in India Coordinates (Agartala): 2350N 9117E Country Established Capital Largest city Districts Government -Governor -ChiefMinister -Legislature Area -Total Area rank Population (2011) -Total -Rank -Density 3671032 21st 349.9/km2(906.2/sqmi) 10491.69km2(4050.9sqmi) 26th D Y Patil Manik Sarkar Unicameral (60 seats) India 21 January 1972 Agartala Agartala 4

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Time zone ISO 3166 code HDI HDI rank Literacy Official languages Website IST (UTC+05:30) IN-TR 0.608 (medium) 23rd (2005) 73% (5th) Bengali, Kokborok tripura.nic.in [1]

Tripura (Bengali: Tripura) is a state in North-East India, with an area of 4,051 mi or 10,491.69 km.[2] . It is the third smallest state of India, acoording to area. Tripura is surrounded by Bangladesh on the north, south, and west. The Indian states of Assam and Mizoram lie to the east. The capital is Agartala and the main languages spoken are Bengali and Kokborok. It was formerly an independent Tripuri kingdom[3] and was merged with independent India on 15 October 1949 by the Tripura Merger Agreement. It was also known as "Hill Tippera" (anglicized version of Tipra) during the British Raj period[4] [5] and has a history of over 2500 years and 186 kings.[6]

Origin of name
Several theories exist pertaining to the origin of Tripura's name: The origin of the word Tripura is attributed to the legendary tyrant king of Tripura, Tripur. According to legend, Tripur was the 39th descendant of Druhya, who was a descendant of Yayati, one of the lunar race kings. He was so powerful that he ordered his subjects to worship him as the sole God. People fled to escape his tyranny to the nearby state of Hiramba (Cachar). The word Tripura may have originated from Tripura Sundari: the presiding deity of the land which is famous as one of the 51 Shakti Peethas, pilgrimage centres of Shakti worshippers of Hinduism.[7] According to historian Kailash Chandra Singha, the word Tripura is a derivative from two different Kokborok words twi and pra. Twi means water, pra means near. It is likely that the state bears the name Tripura from this fact that in ancient time the boundaries of Tripura extended up to the Bay of Bengal when its ruler held sway from the Garo Hills to the Arakan. According to another school of thought, the name Tripura was probably given to the state in honour of the temple at Udaipur, Tripureshwari, the wife of lord Shiva.

History
Tripura finds mentions in the Mahabharata, the Puranas and pillar inscriptions of Emperor Ashoka. Tripura has a long historic past, its unique tribal culture and a fascinating folklore.In the distant past Tripura was known as Kirat Desh. Tripura was a princely state. The Tripuri Kings (bubagra) held the title of Manikya and ruled Tripura for 3000 years until its merger with the union of India. Udaipur, in South Tripura district, was the capital of the Kingdom. The capital was shifted to Old Agartala by King Krishna Flag of the Twipra Kingdom Manikya in the eighteenth century, and then to the present Agartala in the 19th Century. The 19th century marked the beginning of Tripura's modern era, when King Bir Chandra Manikya Bahadur Debbarma modeled his administration on the pattern of British India and enacted various reforms.

Tripura The Ganamukti Parishad movement led to the integration of the kingdom with India signed by the Regent Maharani on September 9, 1947 and the administration of the state was actually taken over by the Govt. of India on October 15, 1949 within Assam state. Tripura became a Union Territory without legislature with effect from November 1, 1956 and a popular ministry was installed in Tripura on July 1, 1963. On January 21, 1972 Tripura attained statehood. Tripura was heavily affected by the partition of India and the majority of the population now comprises Bangalis, many of whom came as refugees from East Pakistan after independence in 1947. Armed conflict in Tripura has been a problem since the end of the 1970s as an aftermath of Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. Mass migration of Bengalis from Bangladesh during this time has resulted in widespread insurgency and militancy in the state with groups such as the Tripura National Volunteers, the National Liberation Front of Tripura and the All Tripura Tiger Force aiming to drive away the Bengali people. This is the Tripura Rebellion.

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Geography and climate

Tripura is a landlocked hilly state in northeastern India with altitudes varying from 15 to 940 m above sea level, though the majority of the population lives in the plains. Tripura has a tropical climate and receives rainfall during the monsoons. It is surrounded on the north, west, and south by Bangladesh and is accessible to the rest of India through the Karimganj district of Assam and Aizawl district of Mizoram in the east. The state extends between 2256'N and 2432'N and 9009'E and 9210'E. Its maximum stretch measures about 184km (114mi) from north to south and 113km (70mi) from east to west with an area of 10,491.69km. Tripura is the third smallest state of the

Tripura's landscape

country. Although landlocked, Tripura has many rivers including the Manu River which originates here.[8]

Economy
Gross State Domestic Product at Current Prices [9] (19992000 Base) figures in millions of Indian Rupees Year 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 Gross State Domestic Product 2,860 5,240 10,310 22,960 52,700

Tripura's gross state domestic product for 2004 is estimated at $2.1 billion in current prices. Agriculture and allied activities is the mainstay of the people of Tripura and provides employment to about 64% of the population. There is a preponderance of food crop cultivation over cash crop cultivation in Tripura. At present about 62% of the net sown area is under food crop cultivation. Rice is the principal crop, followed by oilseed, pulses, potato, and sugarcane. Tea and rubber are the important cash crops of the State. Tripura has been declared the Second Rubber Capital of India

Tripura after Kerala by the Indian Rubber Board. Handicraft, particularly hand-woven cotton fabic, wood carvings, and bamboo products, are also important. The per capita income at current prices of the state stands at 10,931 and at constant prices 6,813 in the financial year 2000-2001. High quality timber including sal, garjan, teak, and Gamar are found abundantly in the forests of Tripura. Tripura has poor mineral resources, with meagre deposits of kaolin, iron ore, limestone, coal but this state has considerable amount of natural gas. The industrial sector of the state continues to be highly underdeveloped.ONGC has its natural gas gathering station & GAIL has marketing terminals of Natural gas in north,west & south part of tripura. ONGC & Tripura state governmnet going to establish 700MW power plant at Palatana in south tripura.

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Government and politics

Tripura is governed through a parliamentary system of representative democracy, a feature the state shares with other Indian states. Universal suffrage is granted to residents. There are three branches of government. The legislature, the Tripura Legislative Assembly, consists of elected members and special office bearers such as the Speaker and Deputy Speaker, that are elected by the members. Assembly meetings are presided over by the Speaker or the Deputy Speaker in the Speaker's absence. The judiciary is composed of the Guwahati High Court (Agartala Bench) and a system of lower courts. The 19th century Ujjayanta Palace, now used as Executive authority is vested in the Council of Ministers headed by the the meeting place of Tripura's State Legislative Chief Minister, although the titular head of government is the Assembly Governor. The Governor is the head of state appointed by the President of India. The leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the Legislative Assembly is appointed as the Chief Minister by the Governor, and the Council of Ministers are appointed by the Governor on the advice of the Chief Minister. The Council of Ministers reports to the Legislative Assembly. The Assembly is unicameral with 60 Members of the Legislative Assembly, or MLAs.[10] Terms of office run for 5 years, unless the Assembly is dissolved prior to the completion of the term. Tripura sends 2 representatives to the Lok Sabha and 1 representative to the Rajya Sabha. Auxiliary authorities known as panchayats, for which local body elections are regularly held, govern local affairs. Tripura also has an autonomous tribal council, the Tripura Tribal Areas Autonomous District Council which has it head-quarters in Khumulwng. The main political parties are the Left Front and the Indian National Congress. Tripura is currently governed by Left Front, with Manik Sarkar as Chief Minister. Until 1977 the state was governed by the Indian National Congress. The left front governed from 1978 to 1988, and then returned in power in 1993. During 19881993 the state was governed by a coalition of the Congress and Tripura Upajati Juba Samiti. On the last elections (23 February 2008) the Left Front gained 49 out of 60 seats in the Assembly, 46 of which went to the CPI(M).[11]

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Divisions
For administrative purposes, the state has been divided into 4 districts, 17 subdivisions, 40 development blocks.

State of Tripura having 4 districts, roadways & small railway network.

Districts Dhalai North Tripura South Tripura West Tripura

Head-quarters Population Area (in km) Ambassa Kailashahar Udaipur Agartala 307,417 590,655 762,565 1,530,531 2312 2470 2624 3544

Major towns of the state are Agartala, Bishalgarh, Jogendranagar, Sonamura, Amarpur, Dharmanagar, Pratapgarh, Udaipur, Kailashahar, Teliamura, Indranagar, Khowai, and Belonia. Badharghat, Jogendranagar, and Indranagar are now parts of the Agartala municipality.

Transport and communication

Tripura is connected with the rest of the country through Assam by Meter gauge railway line extending to Lumding and Silchar. The main railways stations are in Agartala , Dharmanagar, Kumarghat. National Highway 44 connects it to Assam and the rest of India. Agartala Airport, which has flights to Kolkata, Guwahati, Bangalore, Chennai, Delhi, and Silchar, is the main airport of the state. Most of the major Telecommunications companies of India are present in the state, with the state capital and regions of the state being served by Airtel, Aircel, Vodafone, Reliance, Tata Indicom, Idea and BSNL landline, mobile, and broadband networks.

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Demographics
Tripura is the second most populous state in North-East India, after Assam. According to the census of 2001, Tripura has a total population of 3,199,203, with a density of 305 persons per square kilometer, and ranks 22nd among Indian states. It constitutes 0.31% population of India and 8.18% of the Northeast. In the 2001 census of India, Bengalis represent almost 70% of Tripura's population and the native tribal populations represent 30% of Tripura's population. The tribal population comprises several different tribes and ethnic groups with diverse languages and cultures with the largest tribal group being the Kokborok-speaking tribes of the Tripuri (16% of the state's population), the Jamatia, the Reang, and the Noatia tribal communities. There is some tension between these native tribal populations and Bengali settlers in tribal areas. Tripura ranks 22nd in the human resource development index and 24th in the poverty index in India according to 1991 sources. The literacy rate of Tripura is 73.2%, higher than the national rate of 65.20%.
Religious communities in Tripura Religious community Hindu Muslim Christian Buddhist
[13]

Rate (in %) 85.6% 8.0% 3.2% 3.1%

Hinduism is the majority religion in the state, with 85.6% of the population following the religion.[13] Muslims make up 8.0% of the population, Christians 3.2%, and Buddhists 3.1%.[13]

Communities in Tripura
Community Bengali Tipra/Tripuri Language Bengali Kokborok Language Family Indo-European Sino-Tibetan Indo-European Sino-Tibetan Indo-European Sino-Tibetan Sino-Tibetan Tibeto-Burman

Bishnupriya Manipuri Bishnupriya Manipuri Manipuri Chakma Kuki Mizo Magh/ Arakanese Meitei Changma Vaj Kuki Mizo Magh/ Arakanese

This represents a major change in the religious composition of the state over time. In 1941 the population was 70% Hindu, 23% Muslim and 6% followers of tribal religions.[14] It should be noted that in 1951 Tripura had 649,930 inhabitants, and the number was even less in 1941 because the Hindu exodus had not begun from East Bengal, although that would not really become a factor in the state's population until the 1970s.

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Hinduism
Today most of the Hindus in Tripura, both those who are Bengali and the Tripuri and numerous tribes, are adherents of an animist-Shaktism hybrid of Hinduism, which was the state religion under the Tripuri kings. 'Tripura' is the goddess worshiped in Sri Vidya.[15] Brahmin priests (called chantais) are regarded as custodians of dharma and occupy an exalted position in Tripura society. Important gods are Shiva and Tripureshwari (patron goddess of Tripura and an aspect of Shakti). Several fertility gods are also worshipped, such as Lam-Pra (the twin deities of sky and sea), Mailu-ma (goddess of corn, identified with Lakshmi), Khulu-ma (goddess of the cotton plant), and Burha-cha (god of healing). Durga Puja, Navaratri, Kali Puja, and the worship of the Chaturdasha deities are important festivals. In the Ganga festival, Tripura's tribal peoples worship the Ganges River.[16]

Islam
Muslims of Tripura, as most other parts of India, are second largest religious group in the state.[13] Ethnically, they are mostly Bengali and follow the Sunni sect of Islam.

Christianity
According to the census in 2001 there were 102,489 Christians in the state. Christians in the state are mostly from the native Tripuri people and other indigenous tribes. The major denomination is the Baptist with the Tripura Baptist Christian Union (TBCU) having 80,000 members and around 500 churches across the state. It is followed by the Catholic Church with 25,000 followers in 13 parishes under the Roman Catholic Diocese of Agartala.

Culture
Tripura has several diverse ethno-linguistic groups, which has given rise to a composite culture. The dominant cultures are Bengali, Tripuris, Jamatia, Reang, Noatia, Koloi, Murasing, Chakma, Halam, Garo, Kuki, Mizo, Mogh, Munda, Oraon, Santhal, and Uchoi. Tripura has a rich cultural heritage of music, fine arts, handicrafts and dance. Music is an integral part of the tribal people of Tripura. Some of their indigenous instruments are the sarinda, chongpreng, and sumui (a kind of flute). Songs are sung during religious occasions, marriages, and other festivals. Agricultural festivals are integral to the culture of the state. Dance is important to the tribal way of life. Dances are performed during Goria Puja. Hojagiri dance is performed by standing on a Children in Tripura prepare for a traditional dance. pitcher and is performed by the Reang clans. The Bihu dance is performed by the Chakmas during Chaitra Sankranti (the last day of the month of Chaitra).Tripura produce some renowned artists like Sachin Deb Barman Rahul Deb Barman. Dhirendrakrishna Deb Barman was the ex principle of Kalabhawan ,Santiniketan.Rabindranath Tagore himself was highly attach with Tripura royal family . In the field of fine arts , Shyamacharan Painter, Nalinikanta Majumder, Rajkumari Kanchanprabha,they renowned, and after established the govt college of art and craft Sumangal Sen, Bimal Kar ,Bipulkanti saha, Chinmoy roy,Pashanto Sengupta,Sakti Halder ,Patrha Pratim Ganguli ,Sapwan Nandi all are initiated highly the atmosphere of art in Tripura. At present the Govt art college is one of the most beautiful art campus in North east India. Afterward ,Dipika saha, Sanghamitra nandi, Kajal deb ,Harekrishna Paul,Abhijit

Tripura bhattacharjee,Bishwaranjan Debnath, Rajib Majumdar they started teaching in art college .Those Artists are staying out of the state among them, Radhabinod Sarma ,Jayanta Bhattacharya(Tuichidrai),Naton Majumder,Pranab Chakaborty,Palto Barman,Mnimoy Deb Barman,Asha Deb Barman and others are also very promising and working with the time. young staff those are preparing their masters ,they are working with different medium and promoting art .

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Flora and fauna

The state is located in the bio-geographic zone of 9B-North-East Hills and possesses an extremely rich bio-diversity. The local flora and faunal components of Indo-Malayan and Indo-Chinese sub-regions. There are 379 species of trees, 320 shrubs, 581 herbs, 165 climbers, 16-climbing shrubs, 35 ferns, and 45 epiphytes. Wildlife sanctuaries of the state include Sipahijola Wildlife Sanctuary, Gumti Wildlife sanctuary, Roa Wildlife Sanctuary, and Trishna Wildlife Sanctuary. National parks of the state include Clouded Leopard National Park, Sepahijola, and Rajbari National Park, Trishna.

Education
Tripura schools are run by the state government or by private organizations, including religious institutions. Instruction is mainly in Bengali or English, though Kokborok and other tribal languages are also used. Secondary schools are affiliated with the CISCE, the CBSE, the NIOS or the Tripura Board of Secondary Education. Under the 10+2+3 plan, after completing secondary school, students typically enroll for 2 years in a junior college, also known as pre-university, or in schools with a higher secondary facility. Notable higher education institutions of Tripura are MBB College, National Institute of Technology, Tripura Institute of Technology, Agartala Government Medical College, Tripura Medical College, Tripura Institute Of Paramedical Science, Tripura University, and ICFAI University all located in Agartala.

Sports
Football and cricket are the most popular sports in the state. The state capital Agartala has its own club football championships every year where many local clubs compete in a league and knockout format. Tripura participates as an Eastern state team in the Ranji Trophy, the Indian domestic Cricket competition. The state also is a regular participant of the Indian National Games and the North Eastern Games.

Notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] http:/ / tripura. nic. in Tripura History (http:/ / www. north-east-india. com/ tripura/ tripura-history. html) Govt. of Tripura (http:/ / tripura. nic. in/ kt3. htm) Hill Tippera - History (http:/ / dsal. uchicago. edu/ reference/ gazetteer/ pager. html?objectid=DS405. 1. I34_V13_124. gif) The Imperial Gazetteer of India, 1909, v. 13, p. 118. [5] Hill Tippera (http:/ / www. 1911encyclopedia. org/ Hill_Tippera), from Encyclopdia Britannica Eleventh Edition. [6] List of Kings (http:/ / www. uq. net. au/ ~zzhsoszy/ ips/ t/ tripura. html), from University of Queensland. [7] Tripura (http:/ / tripura. nic. in/ kt3. htm) [8] "Manu River" (http:/ / banglapedia. search. com. bd/ HT/ M_0150. htm). banglapedia. . Retrieved 2007-07-07. [9] "Gross State Domestic Product at Current Prices (19992000 Bae" (http:/ / mospi. nic. in/ mospi_nad_main. htm). National Accounts Division: Press release & Statements. Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India (http:/ / mospi. gov. in/ welcome. asp). . Retrieved 2007-03-07. [10] "Tripura Legislative Assembly" (http:/ / legislativebodiesinindia. gov. in/ States/ Tripura/ tripura-w. htm). Legislative Bodies in India. National Informatics Centre. . Retrieved 2007-04-21. [11] Results (http:/ / www. cpim. org/ pd/ 2008/ 0316_pd/ 03162008_leaded. htm) of the elections [12] "Census Population" (http:/ / indiabudget. nic. in/ es2006-07/ chapt2007/ tab97. pdf) (PDF). Census of India. Ministry of Finance India. . Retrieved 2008-12-18.

Tripura
[13] [14] [15] [16] Indian Census (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ ) Columbia-Lippincott Gazeteer. p. 1947 The Philosophy of Tripura Tantra (http:/ / www. shivashakti. com/ philtan. htm) "Tribals of Tripura celebrate Ganga festival" (http:/ / www. hvk. org/ articles/ 0209/ 58. htm)

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Native-NE: The Community Website of North East India (http://nativene.com)

Further reading
Jagadis Gan-Chaudhuri (1985), An Anthology of Tripura, Inter India Publications ISBN 81-210-0075-0 Roychoudhury, N.R. (1977), Tripura Through the Ages: A Short History of Tripura from the Earliest Times to 1947 A.D., Bureau of Research & Publications on Tripura. Bhattacharjee, P.R. (1994), Economic Transition in Tripura (Hardcover), Vikas Publishing House ISBN 978-0-7069-7171-2 Palit, P.K. (2004), History of Religion in Tripura (Hardcover) Kaveri Books ISBN 978-81-7479-064-4 Debbarma, Chandramani (2006), Glory of Tripura Civilisation Parul Prakashani, Agartala

External links
Latest News Matrimony yellowpages articles Tenders Jobs Portal of Tripura (http://www.tripuraindia.com) Tripura travel guide from Wikitravel Tripura News (http://www.sinlung.com) Official website of the government of Tripura. (http://tripura.nic.in) Tripura (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/India/Tripura/) at the Open Directory Project Tripura from the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica (http://53.1911encyclopedia.org/H/HI/HILL_TIPPERA.htm) Introduction to Tripura by Indira Gandhi National Centre for Arts (IGNCA) (http://ignca.nic.in/craft057.htm) Tripura Society's website (http://www.tripurasociety.org) Profile of Twipra (Tripura) (http://www.twipra.com/tprofile/default.asp) Tripuri Peoples' Website (http://www.tripura.org.in) A Cyber Joint for Tripura University Alumni (http://www.tripurauniversity.org/) Indian Railways History in North East of India (http://indiavoice.info/indian-railways/) The Bishnupriya Manipuri (http://www.bishnupriyamanipuri.com/)

Uttar Pradesh

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Uttar Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh
State

Seal Nickname(s): Land of the Ganges and Yamuna

Location of Uttar Pradesh in India

Map of Uttar Pradesh Coordinates (Lucknow): 2651N 8055E Country India

Uttar Pradesh

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Region Established History Capital Largest metropolitan area Districts Government -Body -Governor -ChiefMinister -Legislature Government of India, Government of Uttar Pradesh Banwari Lal Joshi Kumari Mayawati Bicameral (404 + 108 seats) [1] [2] [3] Lucknow Kanpur 72 total Awadh, Baghelkhand, Braj, Bundelkhand, Purvanchal, RohilKhand, Indo-Gangetic Plain 14 November 1834 (as Uttar Pradesh)

-Parliamentary constituency 80 (year 2004) -High Court Population (2011) -Total -Rank Demonym Time zone UN/LOCODE ISO 3166 code Vehicle registration HDI HDI rank Literacy [4] [5] 199,581,477 1st Uttarpradeshi, UPite IST (UTC+05:30) INUP IN-UP UP XX XXXX 0.490 (low) 25th (2005) 61.6% (26th) 70.22% (male) 42.97% (female) Hindi, Urdu upgov.nic.in [6] Allahabad High Court

Official languages Website

Uttar Pradesh (formerly:United Provinces) (Hindi: , Urdu: , pronounced Hindustani pronunciation:[ttr prde] ( listen), "Northern Province"), often referred to as U.P. or Uttam Pradesh is a state located in the northern part of India. With a population of over 199 million people,[5] it is India's most populous state, as well as the world's most populous sub-national entity. Were it a nation in its own right, Uttar Pradesh would be the world's fifth most populous country ahead of Pakistan. Uttar Pradesh is the second largest state-economy in India contributing 8.34% to India's total GDP in the financial year 2010. With an area of 93933sqmi ( km2), Uttar Pradesh covers a large part of the highly fertile and densely populated upper Gangetic plain. It shares an international border with Nepal to the north along with the Indian state of Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh to the north-west, Haryana, Delhi and Rajasthan on the west, Madhya Pradesh on the south, Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand on the south east and Bihar on the east. The administrative and legislative capital of Uttar Pradesh is Lucknow and the industrial capital is Kanpur. The state's high court is based at Allahabad with a bench in state capital Lucknow. It is home to many historical cities, including Allahabad, Varanasi, Lucknow, Agra. Kanpur is its largest city; other big cities are Gorakhpur, Meerut, Agra, Aligarh, Bareilly, Ghaziabad and

Uttar Pradesh Noida. Uttar Pradesh has an important place in the culture of India; it is considered to be the birthplace of Hinduism, has been the ancient seat of Hindu religion, learning and culture, and has many important sites of Hindu pilgrimage. The State also has several sites important to Buddhism: the Chaukhandi Stupa marks the spot where Buddha met his first disciples, while the Dhamek Stupa in Sarnath commemorates Buddha's first sermon. Also the town of Kushinagar is where Gautama Buddha died. Throughout its history, the region of Uttar Pradesh was sometimes divided between smaller kingdoms and at other times formed an important part of larger empires that arose on its east or west, including the Magadha, Nanda, Mauryan, Sunga, Kushan, Gupta, Gurjara, Rashtrakuta, Pala and Mughal empires. The Indo-Gangetic plain, that spans most of the state, is also the birth place of the Indo-Islamic syncretic culture of the medieval period. It holds much of the heritage of the Mughal Empire, including the world famous mausoleum Taj Mahal built by Shah Jehan, the magnificent tomb of Mughal Emperor Akbar the Great in Agra and Akbar's capital-palace in Fatehpur Sikri. It was a centre of nationalism during the British colonial period and has continued to play a prominent role in Indian political and cultural movements. The state has a rich heritage of traditional crafts and cottage industries of various types that employ highly skilled craftsmen and artisans. Hindus constitute 80% of the population in the state. Islam is practised by about 18% of the population while the remaining 2% include Atheists, Sikhs, Jains, Buddhists and Christians, and also the tribal population.

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History
Evolution of the State
The area has undergone several name changes and territorial demarcations since the early 19th century, i.e., after the British East India Company had established its supremacy in the Gangetic plains. In 1833 the then Bengal Presidency of the Company was divided into two parts, one of which became Presidency of Agra; in 1836 the Agra area was named North-Western Provinces and placed under a Lieutenant Governor by the Company. In 1877, the two provinces of Agra and Oudh (Oudh was occupied by the Company, in 1858), were placed under one Colonial administrator of the British Crown; he was called Lieutenant Governor of the North-Western Provinces and Chief Commissioner of Oudh. In 1902 the name was changed to United Provinces of Agra and Oudh with Lieutenant Governor of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh as administrator; in 1921 Lieutenant Governorship was elevated to Governorship and the name of the province was changed to United Provinces of British India. In 1935, the name was shortened to United Provinces. On independence from the British colonial rule in 1947, the princely states of Rampur, Banares and Tehri-Garwal were merged into the United Provinces. In 1950, the name of United Provinces was changed to Uttar Pradesh. In 1999 a separate Himalayan state, Uttaranchal, (now named Uttarakhand), was carved out of Uttar Pradesh.

Prehistory, legends and ancient period

Archeological finds in Uttar Pradesh confirm presence of Stone Age homo sapiens hunter-gatherers in Chhatarpalia, Mahugarh, Parisdhia, Lalitpur, Nihi and Gopipur,[7] [8] [9] [10] between 8511 and 728 kyr (thousand years ago) before present (BP); Middle Paleolithic and later the Upper Paleolithic artifacts dated at 2131 kyr BP;[11] Mesolithic/Microlithic hunter-gatherer's settlement, near Pratapgarh, around 105509550 CE;[12] villages, domesticated cattle, sheep or goats and evidence of plants and agriculture as early as 6000 CE although, most dates range between c. 4000 and 1500 CE thus initiating a sequence which extends into the Iron Age,[13] [14] [15] beginning from Indus Valley Civilization and Harappa Culture finds in the Saharanpur division through the Vedic period.

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540 The ancient Mahajanapada era kingdom of Kosala in Ayodhya where, according to Hindu legend, the divine king Rama of the Ramayana epic reigned was located here. Krishna another divine king of Hindu legend, who plays a key role in the Mahabharata epic and is revered as the eighth reincarnation (Avatar) of Hindu god Vishnu was born in the city of Mathura. The aftermath of Mahabharata war is believed to have taken place in the area between the Doab region of Western Uttar Pradesh and Delhi, (in what was Kuru Mahajanapada), during the reign of the Pandava king Yudhishtira. The kingdom of the Kurus[16] corresponds to the Black and Red Ware and Painted Gray Ware culture and the beginning of the Iron Age in Northwestern India, around 1000 BCE. The revered Swaminarayan mentioned in the Brahma Purana and Vishwaksena Samhita as the manifestation of God was born in the village of Chhapaiya.

Ancient cities of Indian Subcontinent.

Most of the empire building invasions of North India, from the east as well as the west, passed through the vast swathe of Gangetic plains of what today is Uttar Pradesh. Control over this region was of vital importance to the power and stability of all of India's major empires, including the Mauryan (320200 BCE), Kushan (100250CE) and Gupta (350600 CE) Rajput (6501036 CE) empires. Following the Hun invasions that broke Guptas' empire, the Ganges-Yamuna Doab saw the rise of Kannauj. During the reign of Harshavardhana (590647 CE), the Kannauj empire was at its zenith; spanning from Punjab and Gujarat to Bengal and Orissa and parts of central India, north of the Narmada River it encompassed the entire Indo-Gangetic plain. A patron of Buddhism and the University at Nalanda, Harsha organized theological debates and also patronised art and literature. A noted author on his own merit, he wrote three Sanskrit plays. Many communities in various parts of India boast of being descendants of migrants from Kannauj, reflecting its glory in the past.[17] Soon after Harshavardhana's death, his empire disintegrated into many kingdoms, to be invaded and ruled mostly by Rajputs, who also challenged Bengal's mighty Pala Empire's control of the region.

Mathura in Uttar Pradesh served as the capital of the Kushan Empire.

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Medieval
The fall of the post-Harshavardhana Rajput kings of north India came when the Turko-Afghan Muslim rulers moved into present day Uttar Pradesh. Much of the state formed part of the various Indo-Islamic empires (Sultanates) after 1000 CE and was ruled from their capital, Delhi. Later, in Mughal times, U.P. became the heartland of their vast empire; they called the place 'Hindustan', which is used to this day as the name for India in several languages. Mughal rulers Babur and Humanyun had their capital in Delhi. However, in 1540 an Afghan Sher Shah Suri took the reigns of U.P. also after defeating Humanyun, the Mughal king, who ran away Agra and Fatehpur Sikri in Uttar Pradesh were the capital cities of to Kabul. Sher Shah's son Islam Shah and his Prime Akbar the Great. Minister,the Hindu warrior Hemu, ruled Uttar Pradesh from their capital at Gwalior. After the death of Islam Shah, Hemu became the virtual king of U.P., Bihar, MP and part of Bengal. Hemu had won in all 22 battles spanning entire North India. He defeated Akbar's forces at Agra and Delhi and established 'Hindu Raj' in North India on 7th Oct. 1556. He was bestowed the title of 'Vikramaditya' at his coronation or 'Rajyabhishake' at Purana Quila in Delhi and was titled as 'Samrat Hem Chandra Vikramaditya'. Hemu had lost his life in the Second Battle of Panipat. After Hemu's defeat and killing, U.P. came under Akbar's rule. Agra and Fatehpur Sikri were the capital cities of Akbar. At their zenith, the Mughal Empire covered almost the entire Indian subcontinent (including present day Afghanistan, Pakistan and Bangladesh), which was ruled at different times from Delhi, Agra and Allahabad. When the Mughal Empire disintegrated, their last territory remained confined to the Doab region of Hindustan and Delhi. Other areas of Hindustan (U.P.) were now ruled by different rulers: Oudh was ruled by the Nawabs of Oudh, Rohilkhand by Afghans, Bundelkhand by the Marathas and Benaras by its own king, while Nepal controlled Kumaon-Garhwal as a part of Greater Nepal. The state's capital city of Lucknow was established by the Muslim Nawabs of Oudh in the 18th century.

Modern-colonial
Starting from Bengal in the later half of the 18th century, a series of battles for North Indian lands finally gave the British East India Company accession over this state's territories including the territories of Bundelkhand, Kumaon and Benaras rulers and the last Mughal territories of Doab and Delhi. When the Company included Ajmer and Jaipur kingdoms in this northern territory, they named it the "North-Western Provinces" (of Agra). Today, the area may seem large compared to several of the Republic of India's present 'mini-states' no more than the size of earlier 'divisions' of the British era but at the time it was one of the smallest British provinces. Its capital shifted twice between Agra and Allahabad.

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542 Due to dissatisfaction with British rule, a serious rebellion erupted in various parts of North India; Meerut cantonment's sepoy, Mangal Pandey, is widely credited as its starting point. It came to be known as the Indian Rebellion of 1857. After the revolt failed the British attempted to divide the most rebellious regions by reorganizing the administrative boundaries of the region, splitting the Delhi region from NWFP of Agra and merging it with Punjab, while the Ajmer- Marwar region was merged with Rajputana and Oudh was incorporated into the state. The new state was called the 'North Western Provinces of Agra and Oudh', which in 1902 was renamed as the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. It was commonly referred to as the United Provinces or its acronym UP.

Mangal Pandey

In 1920, the capital of the province was shifted from Allahabad to Lucknow. The high court continued to be at Allahabad, but a bench was established at Lucknow. Allahabad continues to be an important administrative base of today's Uttar Pradesh and has several administrative headquarters. Uttar Pradesh continued to be central to Indian politics and was especially important in modern Indian history as a hotbed of both the Indian Independence Movement and the Pakistan Movement. Nationally known figures such as Jawaharlal Nehru were among the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh in 1903 leaders of the movement in UP. The All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS) was formed at the Lucknow session of the Indian National Congress on 11 April 1936 with the legendary nationalist Swami Sahajanand Saraswati elected as its first President,[18] in order to address the long standing grievances of the peasantry and mobilise them against the zamindari landlords' attacks on their occupancy rights, thus sparking the Farmers' movement in India.[19] [20] During the Quit India Movement of 1942, Ballia district overthrew the colonial authority and installed an independent administration under Chittu Pandey. Ballia became known then as Baghi Ballia (Rebel Ballia) for this significant contribution in India's freedom movement.

Post-independence
After independence, the state was renamed Uttar Pradesh ("northern province") by its first chief minister, Govind Ballabh Pant. Pant was well acquainted with and close to Jawaharlal Nehru (the first Prime Minister of free India) and was also popular in the Congress Party. He established such a good reputation in Lucknow that Nehru called him to Delhi, the capital and seat of Central Government of the country, to make him Home Minister of India in 27 December 1954. He was succeeded by Dr. Sampoornanand, a classicist Sanskrit scholar. Following a political crisis in Uttar Pradesh, initiated by Kamlapati Tripathi and C.B.Gupta, Sampurnanand was asked to resign as CM in 1960 and sent to Rajasthan as the Governor of Rajasthan, paving the way for Gupta and Tripathi to become Chief Ministers. Sucheta Kripalani served as India's first woman chief minister from October 1963 until March 1967, when a two-month long strike by state employees caused her to step down. After her, Chandra Bhanu Gupta assumed the

Uttar Pradesh office of Chief Minister with Laxmi Raman Acharya as Finance Minister, but the government lasted for only two years due to the confusion and chaos which ended only with the defection of Charan Singh from the Congress with a small set of legislators. He set up a party called the Jana Congress, which formed the first non-Congress government in U.P. and ruled for over a year. Hemvati Nandan Bahuguna was chief minister for Congress Party government for part of the 1970s. He was dismissed by the Central Government headed by Indira Gandhi, along with several other non-Congress chief ministers, shortly after the imposition of the widely unpopular Emergency, when Narain Dutt Tewari later chief minister of Uttarakhand became chief minister. The Congress Party lost heavily in 1977 elections, following the lifting of the Emergency, but romped back to power in 1980, when Mrs. Gandhi handpicked the man who would later become her son's principal opposition, V.P. Singh, to become Chief Minister.

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Creation of the state of Uttarakhand

On 9 November 2000, the Himalayan portion of the state, comprising the Garhwal and Kumaon divisions and Haridwar district, was formed into a new state 'Uttaranchal', now called Uttarakhand, meaning the 'Northern Segment' state.

Geography
Uttar Pradesh shares an international border with Nepal and is bounded by the Indian states of Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Delhi, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Bihar. The state can be divided into two distinct hypsographical regions. The larger Gangetic Plain region is in the north: it includes the Ganges-Yamuna Doab, the Ghaghra plains, the Ganges plains and the Terai. It has highly fertile alluvial soils and flat topography (slope 2m/km) broken by numerous ponds, lakes and rivers. The smaller Vindhya Hills and Plateau region is in the south: it is characterised by hard rock strata and varied topography of hills, plains, valleys and plateau; limited availability of water makes the region relatively arid.

Flora and fauna

the state bird of uttar pradesh is SARAS Uttar Pradesh has 5.86% land under forest cover now. In spite of alarming deforestation and poaching of wild life, a diverse flora and fauna exists. Several species of trees, large and small mammals, reptiles and insects are found in the belt of temperate upper mountainous forests; medicinal plants are also found wild here, or are now grown on plantations. Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands support cattle. Moist deciduous trees grow in the upper Gangetic plain, including its riverbanks. In fact, this vast plain is so fertile and life supporting that any thing, which can live or grow anywhere, will do so here. Ganges and its tributaries are the habitat of a variety of large and small reptiles, amphibians, fresh-water fish and crabs. Mostly scrubs, trees like babool and animals like chinkara are found in the arid Vindhyas.[21] [22] The states important plants and animals include the following: Trees: pine, rhododendrons, silver fir, deodar, saal, oak, teak, sheesham, mango, neem, banyan, peepal, imli, jamun, mahua, semal, gular and dhak. Medicinal plants: hingan,[23] Dhak,[24] rauwolfia, sepentina, hexandrum, podophyllum. Large vertebrates: elephant, tiger, bear, neelgai, wild pig, deer, wolf, jackal, fox, langoor, porcupine. Birds: peacock, gray quail, pigeon, swallow, maina, Indian parakeet, crow and duck. Reptiles: crocodile, gharial, goh, snakes, chameleon and other lizards. Fish: Rohu, catla, khusa, parhan, patra, moi, korouch and singhi.

Uttar Pradesh According to Hindu legend, Lord Ramas warrior devotee Hanuman had brought life saving Sanjivani herbs from a mountain of this, or possibly the breakaway Uttarakhand, region.

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Climate
The climate of Uttar Pradesh is predominantly subtropical, but weather conditions change significantly with location and seasons: Temperature: Depending on the elevation, the average temperatures vary from 12.517.5 C (5564F) in January to 27.532.5 C (8291F) in May and June. The highest temperature recorded in the State was 49.9C (121.8F) at Gonda on 8 May 1958. Rainfall: Rainfall in the State ranges from 10002000 mm (3979 in) in the east to 6001000 mm (2439 in) in the west. About 90% of the rainfall occurs during the southwest Monsoon, lasting from about June to September. With most of the rainfall concentrated during this four-month period, floods are a recurring problem and cause heavy damage to crops, life, and property, particularly in the eastern part of the state, where the Himalayan-origin rivers flow with a very low north-south gradient. Snowfall: In the Himalayan region of the State, annual snowfall averaging 3 to 5 metres (10 to 15 feet) is common between December and March. Droughts: Periodic failure of monsoons results in drought conditions and crop failure.

Constituent regions
The state comprises several distinct regions: The Doab region which runs along UPs western border from north to south; this region is further divided into three zones: The Upper Doab in the north-west, The Middle Doab in the west, including the Braj-bhumi in the trans-Yamuna area, The Lower Doab in the south-centre, The Rohilkhand region in the north; The Awadh(or Oudh), the historic country of Kosalas in the centre; The northern parts of Bundelkhand in the south; The northern parts of Bagelkhand in the south-east; and The south-eastern part of the Bhojpur country in the east, commonly called Purvanchal ("Eastern Province").
Regions of Uttar Pradesh

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Administrative divisions and districts (as in 2010)

The state of Uttar Pradesh consists of seventy two districts, which are grouped into eighteen divisions:Agra Division, Aligarh Division, Allahabad Division, Azamgarh Division, Bareilly Division, Basti Division, Chitrakoot Division, Devipatan Division, Faizabad Division, Gorakhpur Division, Jhansi Division, Kanpur Division, Lucknow Division, Meerut Division, Mirzapur Division, Moradabad Division, Saharanpur Division and Varanasi Division. Municipal Corporations Following are Municipal Corporations (Nagar Nigam) in UP:[26] [27] 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Agra Aligarh Allahabad Bareilly Ghaziabad Gorakhpur Jhansi Kanpur Lucknow

10. Meerut 11. Moradabad 12. Varanasi Special Status Noida Major cities The largest district in terms of area is Lakhimpur Kheri. The largest district in terms of population is Allahabad, followed by Kanpur Nagar (Census 2001). The largest city (urban area) is Kanpur Nagar. As per Re-classification of cities/towns on the basis of 2001 Census by Government of India, Ministry of Finance, Department of Expenditure (as of 18 November 2004), following are major cities:[28] A class cities Lucknow Kanpur B-1 class cities Agra Allahabad Meerut Varanasi

B-2 class cities Aligarh Barielly Ghaziabad Gorakhpur Basti Moradabad

C class cities- Saharanpur, Gangoh, Deoband, Kairana, Shamli, Muzaffarnagar, Khatauli, Kiratpur, Najibabad, Bijnor, Nagina, Sherkot, Chandpur, Sambhal, Chandausi, Rampur, Amroha, Hasanpur, Mawana, Baraut, Modinagar,

Uttar Pradesh Muradnagar, Loni, Behta Hajipur, Pilkhuwa, Hapur, Noida, Dadri, Sikandrabad, Bulandshahar, Jahangirabad, Khurja, Hathras, Mathura , Vrindavan, Firozabad, Shikohabad, Kasganj, Etah, Mainpuri, Sahaswan, Ujhani, Budaun, Baheri, Faridpur, Pilibhit, Bisalpur, Tilhar, Shahjahanpur, Gola Gokarannath, Lakhimpur, Sitapur, Laharpur, Shahabad, Hardoi, Unnao, Gangaghat, Rae Bareli, Farrukhabad-cum-Fatehgarh , Chhibramau, Kannauj, Etawah, Auraiya, Jalaun, Orai, Konch, Mauranipur, Jhansi, Lalitpur, Rath, Mahoba, Banda, Fatehpur, Bela Pratapgarh, Barabanki, Faizabad, Tanda, Sultanpur, Bahraich, Balrampur, Gonda, Basti, Deoria, Mubarakpur, Azamgarh, Maunath Bhanjan, Ballia, Jaunpur, Ghazipur, Mughalsarai, Bhadohi, Mirzapur-cum-Vindhyachal, Obra, Renukoot.

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Demographics
Uttar Pradesh is the most populous state in India with a population of 199,581,477 million people as of 1 March 2011. If it were a separate country, Uttar Pradesh would be the world's fifth most populous nation, next only to China, India, the United States of America and Indonesia. As of the 2001 census of India, about 80% of Uttar Pradesh population is Hindu, while Muslims make up around 18% of the population. The remaining population consists of Sikhs, Buddhists, Christians and Jains.[29] The peripheral regions of Uttar Pradesh, are home to a number of tribal communities such as Agaria, Baiga, Bhar, Bhoksa, Bind, Chero, Gond, Kol and Korwa. Five of these tribal communities have been recoginised by the Government of India as disadvantaged scheduled tribes, viz. Tharus, Boksas, Bhotia, Jaunswaris and Rajis.[30]

Politics

The State Assembly (Vidhan Sabha) has 403 electoral constituencies. In the Uttar Pradesh Elections, 2007, Mayawati's Bahujan Samaj Party achieved unexpected majority status, leading to her emergence as the chief minister of Uttar Pradesh. This is the first time, since 1991 victory of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) with a majority, that a single party has gained absolute majority; the last two decades having been mostly dominated by various coalitions among the Samajwadi Party, Bharatiya Janata Party, and the Bahujan Samaj Party. One characteristic of the BSP win in 2007 was the amalgamation of Brahmin votes into this Dalit The results of the UP assembly elections since 1989 dominated party,[31] as opposed to the decades-old trend of deep-rooted electoral divisions in the state between Dalits, Upper Castes, Muslims and different OBC groups, which tend to vote in blocks. Mayawati, having won 206 seats, took the oath of secrecy for the post of UP's next CM on 13 May 2007. She became Chief Minister for the fourth time. Along with her 19 cabinet rank ministers, 21 Ministers of State holding Independent <script src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/en.wikipedia.org/load.php?debug=false&lang=en&modules=jquery%7Cmediawiki&only=scripts&ski type="text/javascript"></script>Charge were also sworn in by the Governor T. V. Rajeswar. Some of the prominent names of her cabinet colleagues are: Awadhpal Singh, Babu Singh Kushwaha, Badshah Singh, Nasimuddin Siddiqui, Rakesh Dhar Tripathi, Ratanlal Ahirwar and Sudhir Goyal. Former Chief Minister Mulayam Singh Yadav's Samajwadi Party stood second in State with 97 seats.

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Political leadership
The state has a record of providing national leadership; eight of India's fourteen Prime Minister's were from Uttar Pradesh. They are: Jawaharlal Nehru, Lal Bahadur Shastri, Indira Gandhi, Rajiv Gandhi, Choudhary Charan Singh, Vishwanath Pratap Singh, Chandra Shekhar and Atal Bihari Vajpayee, who represented a UP constituency, though he was born in Gwalior. Ch. Charan singh, Ch. Ajeet Singh, Kokab Hamid, Sompal Shastri and many of the politicians are from Baghpat Distt. The contemporary political scene is also interesting in the national context. Heirs-apparent to the Nehru-Gandhi family have adopted U.P. as their home state. Indian National Congress President Sonia Gandhi represents Rae Bareli and her son Rahul Gandhi Amethi, Sultanpur. Indira Gandhi's younger daughter-in-law Maneka Gandhi is a seven time BJP Parliamentarian from Aonla, while her son Varun Gandhi has also made his debut as a BJP politician and is a member of Lok Sabha from Pilibhit. Other prominent politicians include BJP leader and past Human Resources Development minister Dr. Murli Manohar Joshi, SP leader and ex-Chief Minister Mulayam Singh Yadav, BSP leader and now fourth time Chief Minister Mayawati, BJP President and ex-Chief Minister Rajnath Singh, former BJP Chief Minister Kalyan Singh , Rashtriya Lok Dal chief Ajit Singh and ex-Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh and later of Uttarakhand, Narayan Dutt Tiwari, Ex-Deputy Chief & Finance Minister Laxmi Raman Acharya, Ex-Minister for State for Environment & Forest, & also Minister for Education [Vir Sen, Khurja & Hapur], Mukhtar Abbas Naqvi Ex Information & Broadcasting Minister, Govt. of India, Zafar Ali Naqvi Minister of Education, UP Govt. etc. At the lowest tier of political pyramid the state has a large number of village councils, known as Panchayats, which are similar to those found in other states in India.

Education
The region of Uttar Pradesh had a long tradition of learning, although it had remained mostly confined to the elite class and the religious establishment. Sanskrit-based education comprising the learning of Vedic-to-Gupta periods, coupled with the later Pali corpus of knowledge and a vast store of ancient-to-medieval learning in Persian/Arabic languages, had formed the core of Hindu-Buddhist-Muslim education, until the rise of British power. The present schools-to-university system of education owes its inception and development here, as in the rest of the country, to foreign Christian missionaries and the British colonial administration. Aligarh Muslim University is a residential academic institution. This entire university is spread in over 1.5km2. Modelled on the British University of Cambridge, it was established by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan in 1875 then named as Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College and in 1920 it was granted the status of a Central University by an Act of Indian Parliament. Located in the city of Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, India, it was among the first institutions of higher learning set up during the British Raj. Banaras Hindu University is a Central University located in Varanasi.[32] It evolved out of the Central Hindu College of Varanasi,
IIM Lucknow

PK Kelkar Library, IIT Kanpur, designed by Achyut Kanvinde

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set up by Annie Besant a colourful British lady of Irish descent who joined hands with Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya in April 1911 for a common Hindu University at Varanasi. Eventually, the Banaras Hindu University started functioning from 1 October 1917, with the Central Hindu College as its first constituent college. Most of the money for the university came from Hindu princes and its present 1350-acre (5.5km2) campus was built on land donated by the Kashi Naresh. Regarded as the one among the largest residential universities La Martinire College in Asia,[33] it has more than 128 independent teaching departments; several of its colleges including science, linguistics, law, engineering (IT-BHU) and medicine (IMS-BHU) are ranked amongst the best in India.[34] The university's total enrollment stands at just over 15000, including the students from abroad. It will be the only university in India that will host one of the IITs in its premises, the IT-BHU, from academic session 2010.[35] The Inderprastha Dental College & Hospital is an autonomous education insititution approved by Dental Council of India ranked as the Best Private Dental College in Delhi NCR. The school of Management Sciences (SMS), Varanasi is an autonomous educational institution approved by All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), Ministry of HRD , Govt of India. It was established in 1995, by SMS Society, A philonthrphic non profit organization registered under Societies Registration Act 1860. The Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur set up in 1960 in the industrial city of Kanpur and now known as IIT-Kanpur or 'IITK' is one of the famous internationally respected Indian Institutes of Technology; it is primarily focused on teaching of undergraduates in engineering and related sciences and technologies and research in these fields. The Indian Institute of Management Lucknow is among premier management schools in India. There are many other reputed schools in the State's capital Lucknow, including the famous St. Francis' College, Lucknow. Other schools like Loreto Convent, St Agnes' Loreto High School, La Martinire College, CMS are also there. Uttar Pradesh Government is constantly working on promoting education in the state. The Government has given permission to many new Universities in the state. Among them is Noida International University.

Economy
Uttar Pradesh is the second largest state-economy in India contributing 8.34% to India's total GDP. Between 2004 and 2009, Uttar Pradesh grew at 6.29% and is now quite close to the miracle growth norm (which is 7% by international norm).[36] Most of the part of this growth was contributed in period of 2007-09 after Mayawati took the charge of Uttar Pradesh. She decided to promote the Lucknow region as another IT destination after Noida. Some IT giants like TCS have already started their campus in Lucknow since 2008-09. The major economic activity in the state is agriculture; in 1991, 73% of Tata Consultancy Services campus, Lucknow the population in the state was engaged in agriculture and 46% of the state income was accounted for by agriculture. UP has retained its preeminent position in the country as a food-surplus state. Uttar Pradesh is home to largest number of Small Scale industrial units in the country, with 12% of over 2.3 million units.[37] But, industrial output has been adversely affected by erratic power supply from the

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UP State Electricity Board and remains far below its full production capacity. Unavailability of adequate raw materials at competitive prices is another negative factor. Also, like in most parts of India, traders and middlemen make most of the profits while the labour class lives at subsistence level. Nevertheless, labour efficiency is higher in UP at 26 than the national average of 25.[37] With a solid GDP of US$20 billion, Kanpur is the largest economic hub of Uttar Pradesh - followed by Lucknow - that is why Kanpur is assigned the status of economic capital of Uttar Pradesh and is the only city of the State listed in the 'Top 10 Indian cities'. Following are some of the important industrial hubs in the state: Kanpur is the largest shoe-manufacturing centre in the country with strong leather , engineering ,chemical and other booming sector Industries. NOIDA is among the top IT (Information Technology) destinations of the country while Lucknow is an emerging one. Meerut, a manufacturing centre of sports goods, sharp tools like scissors and also of gold ornaments, is regularly listed among the top tax-paying cities in the country.[38]

Honda car manufacturing plant at Greater Noida

Vendors in a busy road, Pilibhit City

Mirzapur and Bhadohi are manufacturing centres and worldwide exporters of carpets and cotton durries. Moradabad, a famous production centre of traditional 'Moradabadi' metalware, has emerged now as a major producer and exporter of stainless steel utensils also. Aligarh is a manufacturing hub of brass, zinc, aluminium, iron door fittings and is also famous for its padlocks. These items are exported all over the world. Agra was visited by more than 8 million domestic and 825,000 foreign tourists in 2006, followed by Varanasi, Lucknow, Allahabad, Vrindaban and Mathura.Agra is also famoush for handicraft items, gold jewellery and a number of small scale industries. Economy is gearing itself to cater to contemporary Western tastes and life style in upper class Uttar Pradeshis; elegant shopping malls are coming up in big cities to satisfy their needs. The economy also benefits from the State's thriving tourism industry.

Tourism
Uttar Pradesh attracts a large number of visitors, both national and Picture shows the Sector-18 junction, with international; with more than 71 million domestic tourists (in 2003) SabMall in the background, in NOIDA, U.P. and almost 25% of the All-India foreign tourists visiting Uttar Pradesh, it is one of the top tourist destinations in India.[37] There are two regions in the state where a majority of the tourists go, viz. the Agra circuit and the Hindu pilgrimage circuit. The city of Agra, gives access to three World Heritage Sites: Taj Mahal, Agra Fort and the nearby Fatehpur Sikri. Taj Mahal is a mausoleum built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal. It is cited as "the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage". Agra Fort is about 2.5km northwest of its much more famous sister monument, the Taj Mahal. The fort can be more

Uttar Pradesh accurately described as a walled palatial city. Fatehpur Sikri was the world famous 16th century capital city near Agra, built by the Mughal emperor Akbar the Great, whose mausoleum in Agra is also worth a visit. Dayal Bagh in Agra is a modern day temple and popular tourist sight. Its lifelike sculptures in marble are unique in India. Agra's dubious modern attractions include Asia's largest Spa as well as Asia's first and only 6D theatre. The pilgrimage circuit includes the holiest of the Hindu holy cities on the banks of sacred rivers Ganges and the Yamuna: Varanasi (also considered world's oldest city), Ayodhya (birth place of Lord Rama), Mathura (birth place of Lord Krishna), Vrindavan (the village where Lord Krishna spent his childhood), and Allahabad (the confluence or 'holy-sangam' of the sacred Ganges-Yamuna rivers). Varanasi is widely considered to be one of the oldest cities in the world. It is famous for its ghats (bathing steps along the river), full of pilgrims year round who come to bathe in the sacred Ganges River. Mathura is world-famous for its colourful celebrations of the Holi festival, which attracts many tourists also thanks partly to the hype, which the Indian film industry has given to this highly entertaining socio-religious festival. Thousands gather at Allahabad to take part in the Magh Mela festival, which is held on the banks of the Ganges. This festival is organised on a larger scale every 12th year and is called the Kumbha Mela, where over 10 million Hindu pilgrims congregate proclaimed as one of the largest gathering of human beings in the world. Budaun is also a city which attracts thousands of tourists annually. Its religious city with many historical monuments and tombs of many famous people. The historically important towns of Sarnath and Kushinagar are located not far from Varanasi. Gautama Buddha gave his first sermon at Sarnath after his enlightenment and died at Kushinagar; both are important pilgrimage sites for Buddhists. Also at Sarnath are the Pillars of Ashoka and the Lion Capital of Ashoka, both important archaeological artifacts with national significance. At a distance of 80km from Varanasi, Ghazipur is famous not only for its Ganges Ghats but also for the Tomb of British potentate Lord Cornwallis, maintained by the Archeological Survey of India. Lucknow, the capital of Uttar Pradesh, has several beautiful historical monuments such as Bara Imambara and Chhota Imambara. It has also preserved the damaged complex of the Oudh-period British Resident's quarters, which are being restored. Some of the main natuaral protected areas in Uttar Prdesh are: Dudhwa National Park is one of the best tiger reserves in the country. Pilibhit Tiger Reserve home to the Tiger Reserve. Sandi Bird Sanctuary - houses about 20,000 migratory birds annually. Katarniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary the most concentrated sanctuary in India with a large population of tigers as well as leopards situated in Bahraich and bordering Nepal is also worth a visit.

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Some areas require a special permit for non-Indians to visit.

JK temple, a beautiful temple built by J.K.Trust in the industrial city of Kanpur

Kumbh Mela, is the largest gathering anywhere in the world.

Taj Mahal

Varanasi is a holy city for Hinduism and Buddhism

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Madan Mohan temple in Brindavan.

The Tomb of Salim Chisti

Itmad-Ud-Daulah's Tomb at Agra

Amar Singh Gate at Agra Fort

The five-storey Panch Mahal at Fatehpur Sikri

Buland Darwaza

Tomb of Akbar the Great

Gateway to Bara Imambara

The Chhota Imambara

The Dhamekh Stupa is located in Sarnath where Gautama Buddha first taught the Dharma

Kushinagar is a town where Gautama Buddha died

Kakrala is town where Sufi Hazrat Shah Sharafat Miyan was Born.

Transportation
The state has a large network of multimodal transportation system: Airways: The state has four major airports and 23 airstrips. Cities that have nationally well connected. Domestic airports are Lucknow, GorakhpurAgra, Kanpur Allahabad and Varanasi. Lucknow is the largest and most important airport of the state. Also, Lucknow and Varanasi are two International Airports situated in state. Bareilly's Trishul Air-base will soon serve also as a domestic airport. Railways: Almost all the major as well as smaller cities of the state are linked through railways. It has largest railway network in the country; with a total length of 8,546km (as on 2006) and the sixth largest railway density.
Kanpur Central (CNB) is the largest railway station of North Central Railways

Roadways: The state has largest road network in the country, after Maharashtra. It boasts of 31 National Highways (NH), with a total

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length of 4,942km (8.5% of total NH length in India). Approx. each and every city is connected to State highways, most important of them are SH33, SH29 and SH51. Budaun is the key city of these highways. It has seventh highest road density in India, (1,027km per 1000km,2 as on 2002 ) and largest surfaced urban road network in the country (50,721km, as on 2002). Cities of Kanpur, Lucknow, Bareilly, Allahabad, Varanasi, Jhansi, Gorakhpur, Agra and Ghazipur are connected to a number of National Highways. With an existing expressway between Lucknow and Kanpur, new expressways are coming up between Agra and Noida and between Noida and Ballia ( through Budaun). The State Governments road transport company Uttar Pradesh State Road Transport Corporation (UPSRTC) serves nationalized routes in the state for intrastate and interstate transport. The State also set up the Uttar Pradesh Expressways Industrial Development Authority with the task of developing 7 new expressways. Waterways: A long stretch of the river Ganges from Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh) to Haldia (West Bengal) has been declared as National Waterway (NW)-I and 600km of the total NW-I lies in Uttar Pradesh. Although, the state has a large and diversified transportation network, its condition and functioning need substantial improvement.

Expressway

The 2nd Yamuna Bridge

Culture
Architecture
Architectural legacies of the past millennia of Uttar Pradesh survive to varying extent. The oldest of them fall within the purview of archeology or mythology; religious places in the State identifiable in the narratives of Puranas and other sacred literature of Indian religions have architectural edifices that are very old and have been built over repeatedly in course of time. Medieval kings and emperors have left imposing monuments: forts, palaces, temples, mosques and mausoleums, whose external and internal grandeur recalls the opulence of those times. British colonial architecture is still seen in many cities' judicial buildings, hospitals, banks, post offices, police stations, and railway stations.

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Art and craft

Uttar Pradesh is famous for its rich heritage of art and craft. Most famous centres are the following: Agra since the Mughal era has been home to numerous Mughal crafts, including the Pietra Dura, still practiced today. Bareilly boasts for its Zari work, (a type of fabric decoration), 'Jhumka' - an intricate ear-rings or ear-pendants, Manja and Surma (Kohl (cosmetics)). Firozabad, the city of bangles, is also a hub for crafting many glass accessories. The glass artifacts produced in its factories are of high value and are exported all over the country and around the world. Kannauj is well known for oriental perfumes, scents and rose water and also for traditional tobacco products.

A marble table top in Pietra Dura, Agra

Kanpur is internationally known for its leather craft; shoes and other leather items are made here for the Indian market and exported to foreign countries as well.Kanpur is also known as Leather City of the World. Khurja is famous for its ceramics pottery; in fact, the entire state is famous for its pottery not only in India but also around the world. Lucknow, the capital, boasts of its cloth work and embroidery (chikan) work on silk and cotton garments. Allahabad is Known for his National Institute of Art & Craft College. Bhadohi is known for its carpets, a craft which dates back to the 16th century, during the reign of Mughal Emperor, Akbar [39] and is believed to have established when centuries ago, some Iranian master weavers stopped at Madhosingh village, near Khamaria, in Bhadohi while travelling in India, and subsequently set up looms here. Bhadohi carpets received the Geographical Indication (GI) tag in 2010,[40] and also known as dollar-city; beside this, it is one of the highest revenue generating districts of UP. Moradabad is well known for its metal-ware, especially brass artifacts. Pilibhit is known for its wooden footwear (locally called Paduka or Khadaon) and also for flutes made of wooden pipes. Flutes are exported to Europe, America and other countries. Saharanpur is known all over India and abroad for its wood-carving items produced there. Varanasi Mubarakpur(Azamgarh) is famous for its Banarasi saris and silk. A banarasi sari is an essential part of any marriage in the state. Gorakhpur is famous for its beautiful teracotta statues and handcraft cloths. Nizamabaad Azamgarh is famous for black pottery.

Language and literature

Uttar Pradesh is often referred to as the 'Hindi heartland of India'.[41] While the languages of state administration are Hindi,[42] established by the Uttar Pradesh Official Language Act, 1951, and Urdu, established by the Amendment to the same in 1989, the native languages of the state are considered. Both language are the common populace as well as the State and Central Governmental authorities. Linguistically, the state spreads across the Central, East-Central and Eastern zones of the Indo-Aryan languages, the major native languages of the state being, Awadhi, Bundeli, Braj Bhasha, Kannauji and the vernacular form of Khari boli, which also forms the basis for the standardised Hindi and Urdu registers. Bhojpuri is spoken in the east and Bagheli is spoken on the southwestern fringes of the state.[43] The

Uttar Pradesh state government promotes the native dialects in cultural festivals[44] education in the dialects, however, is negligible. Moreover, the literature of the two main literary dialects of the medieval era, Braj Bhasha and Awadhi, is considered to be subsumed under Hindi literature. While once these two dialects were the main literary vehicles in the region, any progress in literature in them or any of the other native languages is negligible. Uttar Pradesh is the seat of Hindi literature, and has produced many legendary writers and poets like Jaishankar Prasad, Maithili Sharan Gupt, Munshi Premchand, Suryakant Tripathi Nirala, Babu Gulabrai, Sachchidananda Hirananda Vatsyayan 'Agyeya', Rahul Sankrityayan, Harivansh Rai Bachchan, Dharamvir Bharati, Subhadra Kumari Chauhan, Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, Dushyant Kumar, Hazari Prasad Dwivedi, Chandramani Brahmdutt, Acharya Kuber Nath Rai, Bharatendu Harishchandra, Kamleshwar Prasad Saxena, Shivmangal Singh Suman, Pushpa Singh Visan, Mahadevi Varma, Vibhuti Narain Rai and many others.

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Dance and music

The state is home to a very ancient tradition in dance and music. During the eras of Guptas and Harsh Vardhan, Uttar Pradesh was a major centre for musical innovation. Swami Haridas was a great saint-musician who championed Hindustani classical music. Tansen, the great musician in Mughal Emperor Akbar's court, was a disciple of Swami Haridas. The ragas sung by Tansen were believed to be so powerful that they could bring rain, or light a fire, when recited. Kathak, a classical dance form, involving gracefully coordinated movements of feet and arms along with the entire body, grew and flourished in Uttar Pradesh. Kathak is a famous dance form, indigenous to Uttar Pradesh. Wajid Ali Shah, the last Nawab of Awadh, was a great patron and a passionate champion of Kathak. Today, the state is home to two prominent schools of this dance form, namely, Lucknow Gharana and Banaras Gharana. In modern times, Uttar Pradesh has given to the world music legends like Anup Jalota, Baba Sehgal, Girija Devi, Gopal Shankar Misra, Hari Prasad Chaurasia, Kishan Maharaj, Naushad Ali, Pandit Ravi Shankar, Shubha Mudgal, Siddheshwari Devi, Talat Mehmood, and Ustad Bismillah Khan. The legendary Ghazal singer Begum Akhtar was also a native of Uttar Pradesh; "Ae Mohabbat Tere anjaam pe rona aaya" is said to be one of her best musical performances of all times. Uttar Pradesh is also the birthplace of British pop legend Sir Cliff Richard. The Bhatkhande Music Institute University at Lucknow is named after the great musician Pandit Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande. The region's folk heritage includes songs called rasiya (known and especially popular in Braj), which celebrate the divine love of Radha and Shri Krishna. These songs are accompanied by large drums known as bumb and are performed at many festivals. Other folk dances or folk theater forms include: Khayal Naqal (mimicry) Nautanki Qawwali Raslila Swang

Ramlila, which includes enacting the entire Ramayana.

Uttar Pradesh Lokrang Sanskritik Samiti an organisation of Jogia Janubi Patti, Fazilanagar, Kushinagar is doing research work in the field of Folk-songs, Folk-artists and Folk-cultures. In the month of May, every year the Samiti organises its function "Lokrang". More than 150 artists and writers participate in this programme.

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Cuisine
Uttar Pradesh has a rich tradition of sumptuous vegetarian and non-vegetarian food preparations and of sweetmeats, seen at their best on formal occasions. A formal vegetarian meal of Uttar Pradesh consists of chapatis, rotis (flatbread) and/or puris (deep fried puffed flatbreads), daal (thick lentil soup), rice (boiled white rice), vegetable curries (one or more of dry/fried and semi-liquid curries each), curd, pickles, papad (thin spicy crackers) and a variety of sweets ( gulab jamuns, rasmalai, rabri, jalebi, laddoos of varying varieties, pethas, kheer, gujhiys and many others). It is normally served in metal dishes and traditionally eaten without the use of cutlery, sitting on the bare floor. When a large gathering is to be feasted in a traditional manner, food may also be served on disposable, flat platters (called 'pattal'), which are made by intertwining broad leaves of certain trees.Samosas and pakoras are among the favourite snacks. A non-vegetarian meal consists of many varieties of meat- or rice-preparations that have evolved in the region, and are now nationally and internationally known as the Moghlai cuisine; some of these are: kebab, kofta, korma, keema, pulao, biryani, parathas (plain or stuffed), halwa, firni etc. In addition, a selection from the above vegetarian dishes may be present among the food spread. Traditionally, food is served in metal-ware or ceramic crockery, eaten directly with bare hands or (sometimes) with spoons, sitting on the ground covered with a flooring material like cloth-sheet or carpet.

Dress
The people of Uttar Pradesh wear a variety of native- and Western-style dress. Traditional styles of dress include colourful draped garments - such as sari for women and dhoti or lungi for men - and tailored clothes such as salwar kameez for women and kurta-pyjama for men. Men also often sport a head-gear like topi or pagri. Sherwani is a more formal male dress and is frequently worn along with chooridar on festive occasions. European-style trousers and shirts are also common among the men. Dress material varies according to the weather requirements; hence, fabrics made of cotton and cotton-synthetic blends are common in summer and warm clothing, made of wool or synthetic-wool, is needed in winter, when a sweater, jacket and/or a coat may be worn, especially during peak winter.

Festivals
Religious practices are as much an integral part of everyday life, and a very public affair, as they are in the rest of India. Therefore, not surprisingly, many festivals are religious in origin, although several of them are celebrated irrespective of caste and creed. Among the most important Hindu festivals are Diwali, Holi and Dashehra, which are also observed with equal fervour by Jains and Sikhs.Ten days of Ramlila takes place during the period of navratri and on the 10th day, epithet of Raavan is burnt with great fervour. Durga puja is also observed in many parts of the state during navratri. Brah Waf, Eid, Bakreed and Birthdate of Imam Ali ibn Abitalib are recognized official Muslim religious festivals. Moharram, though the day of Ashura is official holiday but Shiites consider it as a day of mourning and not a festival as some people believe. Mahavir Jayanti is celebrated by Jains, Buddha Jayanti by Buddhists, Guru Nanak Jayanti by Sikhs and Christmas by the Christians.[45] Other festivals include Ram navami, Chhath puja, Krishna-janmashtami, Mahashivratri,etc.

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Media
Uttar Pradesh is well integrated into the national media network: Radio broadcasts: Broadcasting was started in India in 1936 by All India Radio (abbreviated as AIR), now officially known as Akashvani.[46] Today, it is the sister service of Doordarshan, the national television broadcaster; both are a division of Prasar Bharati (Broadcasting Corporation of India), an autonomous corporation of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. Broadcasts in several languages are being aired in the State from a number of transmission stations by Akashwani. Television: Telecasting had begun in India in 1959, with test educational telecasting in New Delhi. Doordarshan started black-and-white small-screen programming in the mid 1970s and 1982 saw colour version of TV.[47] Several private TV Channels, functioning now at national level, have become a vibrant and very effective part of the media. Satellite-telecasting has revolutionized their reach. Telecasts of important cricket matches draw enormous viewers; even street-side TV-sets attract crowds of cricket fans. Newspapers and magazines etc. A number of periodicals are published in Hindi, English and Urdu. Growth of journalism had its roots as much in the initiative of resident Britons as in the Indian freedom movement and the need for dissemination of other news and messages of socio-religious reforms. The Pioneer was founded in Allahabad in 1865 by George Allen, an Englishman.[48] It was brought out three times a week from 1865 to 1869 and daily thereafter. In 1866, a supplement, the Pioneer Mail, consisting mostly of advertisements, was added to the publication. Also from Allahabad, a nationalist newspaper The National Herald had started publication, under the patronage of the Nehrus and M.C. Rau as its editor, during the British period. In 1909, Madan Mohan Malviya, started The Leader, from Allahabad, with C. Y. Chintamani, as its editor from 1909 to 1934.[49] Sidque, a famous Urdu weekly, was started in that period by the highly respected intellectual Moulana Abdul Maajid Daryabadi for reforming the Indo-Islamic society. Presently, all major national level dailies are publishing their City Editions from several major cities of the state. The State's own native publications dailies/ weeklies/ monthlies are numerous, and mostly in Hindi and Urdu languages. Some Hindi language dailies, e.g. Amar Ujala and Dainik Jagran, have a wide circulation, with their local editions being published from several important cities. National Herald now publishes an Urdu version also. At still lower level, locally published newspapers and literary weeklies and monthlies are extremely large in number. Audio-visual production: In spite of its large size, Bollywood level Production of films for the silver screen, or of informative short documentary films of high standard, has not grown in Uttar Pradesh. However, writers and artists from the State have continued to contribute as song and story writers, music composers and lyricists, actors, directors and producers and earn name and fame in centres of the Indian film industry.

Sports
Presently, common sports of Uttar Pradesh are of two distinct genre: the traditional sports and the modern sports of mainly European origin. Traditional sports, now played mostly as a past time, include wrestling, swimming, kabaddi and track- or water-sports played according to local traditional rules and without use of modern gears; some times, display of martial skills using a sword or Pata (stick) etc. form the basis of sports. Due to lack of organized patronage and requisite facilities, these sports are surviving mostly as individuals' hobbies or local competitive events, e.g. in interested schools.

Green Park Stadium, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh. In background river Ganges can be seen.

Uttar Pradesh Modern sports the indoor, field and track games are popular, especially among the educated class, but the State has yet to attain all-round national standing in most of them. Field hockey is very popular and Uttar Pradesh has produced some of the finest players in India. Dhyan Chand, the legendary field hockey player of India and a hero of many Olympic Games was born on 29 August 1905, in Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh. Adolf Hitler, the Chancellor of Germany, was so impressed by Dhyan Chand's performance in the Berlin Olympic hockey finals that he offered to elevate 'Lance Naik' Dhyan Chand to the rank of a Colonel if he migrated to Germany; Chand had declined the offer. Cricket has become more popular than field hockey. Though not renowned for it cricket team, U.P. won its first Ranji Trophy tournament in February 2006, beating Bengal in the final. It can also boast of its 3 or 4 players normally finding a place in the national side. Green Park Stadium in Kanpur is one of the oldest cricket venues in India and has witnessed some of India's most famous victories.

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Regions of Uttar Pradesh

Upper Doab Middle Doab Lower Doab Rohilkhand Awadh

Purvanchal Bundelkhand Baghelkhand

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[1] Cahoon, Ben (2000). "Provinces of British India" (http:/ / www. worldstatesmen. org/ India_BrProvinces. htm). WorldStatesmen.org. . Retrieved 2009-09-21. [2] "Governers of Uttar Pradesh" (http:/ / www. upgov. nic. in/ upinfo/ governers. html). Upgov.nic.in. . Retrieved 2009-09-21. [3] Ben Cahoon. "Indian states since 1947" (http:/ / www. worldstatesmen. org/ India_states. html). Worldstatesmen.org. . Retrieved 2009-09-21. [4] "census of india" (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ ). Census of India 2001. Government of India. 27 May 2002. . Retrieved 14 April 2007. [5] "Population estimate" (http:/ / www. geohive. com/ cntry/ india. aspx). geoHive.com. 2008-07-01. . Retrieved 2008-08-15. [6] http:/ / www. upgov. nic. in [7] Virendra N. Misra, Peter Bellwood (1985). Recent Advances in Indo-Pacific Prehistory: proceedings of the international symposium held at Poona, December 1921, 1978 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=gMoJj-0Z94UC& pg=PA69). p.69. ISBN9004075127. . [8] Bygone Communities Faced Ire of the River (http:/ / www. boloji. com/ environment/ 205. htm) [9] Bridget Allchin, Frank Raymond Allchin (1982). The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=r4s-YsP6vcIC& pg=PA58). Cambridge University Press. p.58. ISBN052128550X. . [10] Hasmukhlal Dhirajlal Sankalia, Shantaram Bhalchandra Deo, Madhukar Keshav Dhavalikar (1985). Studies in Indian Archaeology (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=35DP1Z-2dnYC& pg=PA96). Popular Prakashan. p.96. ISBN0861320883. . [11] Gibling, M.R.; Sinha, R.; Roy, N.G.; Tandon, S.K.; Jain, M. (2008). "Quaternary fluvial and eolian deposits on the Belan river, India: paleoclimatic setting of Paleolithic to Neolithic archeological sites over the past 85,000 years". Quaternary Science Reviews 27: 391. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2007.11.001. [12] Chapter 14 South Asia: From Early Villages to Buddhism (http:/ / www. thamesandhudsonusa. com/ web/ humanPast/ summaries/ ch14. html) [13] Kenneth A. R. Kennedy (2000). God-apes and Fossil Men (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=W6zQHNavWlsC& pg=PA263). University of Michigan Press. p.263. ISBN0472110136. . [14] Bridget Allchin, Frank Raymond Allchin (1982). The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=r4s-YsP6vcIC& pg=PA119). Cambridge University Press. p.119. ISBN052128550X. . [15] Prehistoric human colonization of India (http:/ / www. ias. ac. in/ jbiosci/ nov2001/ 491. pdf) [16] M. WItzel, Early Sanskritization. Origins and development of the Kuru State. B. Klver (ed.), Recht, Staat und Verwaltung im klassischen Indien. The state, the Law, and Administration in Classical India. Mnchen : R. Oldenbourg 1997, 27-52 [17] "History of Uttar Pradesh Uttar Pradesh History History and Origin of Uttar Pradesh India History of UP" (http:/ / www. bharatonline. com/ uttar-pradesh/ history. html#). Bharatonline.com. . Retrieved 2010-07-18. [18] Bandyopdhyya, ekhara (2004). From Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India. Orient Longman. p.407. ISBN978-8125025962. [19] Bandyopdhyya, ekhara (2004). From Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India. Orient Longman. p.406. ISBN978-8125025962.

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[20] Akshayakumar Ramanlal Desai Peasant Struggles in India, Oxford University Press, 1979. p. 349. [21] (http:/ / www. indiazone. com/ 14/ flora_fauna_uttar_pradesh. htm) [22] (http:/ / www. webindia123. com/ uttar/ land/ forest. htm) [23] "aegyptica" (http:/ / bsienvis. nic. in/ medi. htm#Balanites). Bsienvis.nic.in. . Retrieved 2009-09-21. [24] "monosperma" (http:/ / bsienvis. nic. in/ medi. htm#Butea). Bsienvis.nic.in. . Retrieved 2009-09-21. [25] "Uttar Pradesh weather" (http:/ / www. wunderground. com/ NORMS/ DisplayIntlNORMS. asp?CityCode=42181& Units=both). . Retrieved 2008-09-27. [26] Municipal Corporation of Various Division (http:/ / www. sarkaritel. com/ states/ uttar_pradesh/ municipal_corporation_various_division. htm), Uttar Pradesh Government [27] http:/ / urbandevelopment. up. nic. in/ s_nigam. htm [28] Re-classification of cities/towns on the basis of 2001 Census grant of House Rent Allowance (HRA) and Compensatory (City) Allowance (CCA) to Central Government employees. (html version) (http:/ / dpe. nic. in/ newgl/ glch04c8. htm) (pdf version) (http:/ / finmin. nic. in/ the_ministry/ dept_expenditure/ miscellaneous/ hracca. pdf) Government of India, Ministry of Finance, Department of Expenditure, 18th November, 2004) [29] "Census Reference Tables, C-Series Population by religious communities" (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Census_Data_2001/ Census_data_finder/ C_Series/ Population_by_religious_communities. htm). Census of India. Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. 2001. . Retrieved 2008-07-12. [30] People of India Uttar Pradesh Volume XLII edited by A Hasan & J C Das, Manohar Publications [31] Somini Sengupta (12 May 2007). "Brahmin Vote Helps Party of Low Caste Win in India" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 05/ 12/ world/ asia/ 12india. html?_r=1& oref=slogin). The New York Times. . Retrieved 2007-05-12. [32] Rediff news (http:/ / www. rediff. com/ news/ 2007/ oct/ 04univ. htm) [33] "Banaras hindu university" (http:/ / www. ias. ac. in/ currsci/ sep102005/ 899. pdf) (PDF). Indian Academy of Sciences. 2005-07-26. . Retrieved 2007-04-19. [34] Raj Chengappa (2008-05-22). "India's best colleges: India Today" (http:/ / indiatoday. intoday. in/ index. php?option=com_content& Itemid=1& task=view& id=8688& sectionid=30& issueid=55& page=archieve). Indiatoday.intoday.in. . Retrieved 2010-07-18. [35] ITBHU To IIT-BHU (http:/ / www. telegraphindia. com/ 1090908/ jsp/ nation/ story_11464099. jsp) [36] "Fast growth trickles up from the states: Ruled by Swaminathan S Anklesaria Aiyar" (http:/ / economictimes. indiatimes. com/ opinion/ columnists/ swaminathan-s-a-aiyar/ Fast-growth-trickles-up-from-the-states/ articleshow/ 5414772. cms). The Economic Times. 6 January 2010. . [37] Utta Pradesh (http:/ / www. ibef. org/ download/ Uttar Pradesh_25April_08. pdf), October 2007 [38] Pradeep Thakur (2008-07-01). "Meerut 9th in top 10 tax-paying cities India NEWS The Times of India" (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ India/ Meerut_9th_in_top_10_tax-paying_cities/ articleshow/ 3182693. cms). Timesofindia.indiatimes.com. . Retrieved 2009-09-21. [39] "..Famous for its handmade carpet industry.." (http:/ / www. tehelka. com/ story_main41. asp?filename=Ne310109worn_down. asp). Tehelka Magazine. Vol 6, Issue 4, Dated Jan 31, 2009. . [40] Singh, Binay (Sep 9, 2010). "Famed Bhadohi carpet gets GI tag" (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ city/ varanasi/ Famed-Bhadohi-carpet-gets-GI-tag/ articleshow/ 6520954. cms). The Times of India. . [41] "Three Indian children to attend J8 summit in Rome.:. newkerala.com Online News" (http:/ / www. newkerala. com/ topstory-fullnews-67268. html). Newkerala.com. . Retrieved 2009-09-21. [42] "Uttar Pradesh Legislature" (http:/ / uplegassembly. nic. in/ UPLL. HTML). Uplegassembly.nic.in. . Retrieved 2009-09-21. [43] "Ethnologue report for language code: bfy" (http:/ / www. ethnologue. com/ show_language. asp?code=bfy). Ethnologue.com. . Retrieved 2009-09-21. [44] "A treat of devotional bhajans Lucknow City NEWS The Times of India" (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ articleshow/ 549508792. cms). Timesofindia.indiatimes.com. 2001-12-05. . Retrieved 2009-09-21. [45] "18 Popular India Festivals" (http:/ / festivals. indobase. com/ index. html). . Retrieved 2007-12-23. [46] About us (http:/ / allindiaradio. org/ about1. html) Official website. allindiaradio.org. Retrieved:2008-08-03. [47] "A Snapshot of Indian Television History" (http:/ / www. indiantelevision. com/ indianbrodcast/ history/ historyoftele. htm). Indian Television Dot Com Pvt Ltd. . Retrieved 2006-06-01. [48] Das Gupta, Uma (1977). "The Indian Press 18701880: A Small World of Journalism" (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 311549) (see pages 233-234). Modern Asian Studies 11 (2): 213235. doi:10.1017/S0026749X00015092. . [49] "C. Y. Chintamani (April 10, 1880 July 1, 1941)" (http:/ / www. tribuneindia. com/ 2000/ 20000507/ spectrum/ main2. htm#3). The Tribune. May 7, 2000. .

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External links
Uttar Pradesh (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/India/Uttar_Pradesh//) at the Open Directory Project Official website of the Government of Uttar Pradesh (http://www.upgov.nic.in/) Official Website of Uttar Pradesh Tourism (http://www.up-tourism.com/) PIN Code Search of All Districts/Post Offices of Uttar Pradesh (http://pincode.net.in/UTTAR_PRADESH)

Uttarakhand
Uttarakhand
State

Seal

Location of Uttarakhand in India

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Map of Uttarakhand Coordinates (Dehradun): 3020N 7804E Country Established Capital Largest city Districts Government -Governor -ChiefMinister -Legislature -Speaker Area -Total Area rank Population (2011) -Total -Rank -Density Time zone ISO 3166 code HDI HDI rank Literacy Official languages Website 10116752 19th unknown operator: u','/km2(/sqmi) IST (UTC+05:30) IN-UL 0.628 (medium) 12th (2005) 72% (10th) Hindi, Sanskrit ua.nic.in [3] [2] 53,566km2(unknown operator: u','sqmi) 18th Margaret Alva Dr. Ramesh Pokhriyal Unicameral (71 seats) Harbans Kapoor [1] India 9 November 2000 Dehradun Dehradun 13

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Dehradun is the provisional capital of the state. The new capital has not yet been chosen. 70 (elected) + 1 (nominated Anglo-Indian)

Uttarakhand (Sanskrit:, Uttarkhanam?, Hindi:, Uttarkhan?), formerly Uttaranchal, is a state located in the northern part of India. It is often referred to as the Land of Gods (Hindi: , Dv bhmi) due to the many holy Hindu temples and cities found throughout the state, which are some of Hinduism's most spiritual and auspicious places of pilgrimage and worship. Known for its natural beauty, it was carved out of Himalayan and adjoining north-western districts of Uttar Pradesh on 9 November 2000, becoming the 27th state of the Republic of India.[4] It borders the Tibet Autonomous Region on the north, Nepal on the east and the Indian states of Uttar Pradesh to the south, Haryana to the west and Himachal Pradesh to the north west. The region is traditionally referred to as Uttarakhand in Hindu scriptures and old literature, a term which derives from Sanskrit uttara () meaning north, and kha () meaning country or part of a country. It has an area of 20,682 sqmi (53,566 km). In January 2007, the name of the state was officially changed from Uttaranchal, its interim name, to Uttarakhand. The provisional capital of Uttarakhand is Dehradun, which is also a rail-head and the largest city in the region. The small hamlet of Gairsain has been mooted as the future capital owing to its geographic centrality but controversies and lack of resources have led Dehradun to remain provisional capital. The High Court of the state is in Nainital. Recent developments in the region include initiatives by the state government to capitalise on handloom and handicrafts, the burgeoning tourist trade as well as tax incentives to lure high-tech industry to the state. The state also has big-dam projects, controversial and often criticised in India, such as the very large Tehri dam on the Bhagirathi-Bhilangana rivers, conceived in 1953 and about to reach completion.[5] Uttarakhand is also well known as the birthplace of the Chipko environmental movement,[6] and other social movements including the mass agitation in the 1990s that led to its formation.

History
Literally North Country or Section in Sanskrit, the name of Uttarakhand finds mention in the early Hindu scriptures as the combined region of Kedarkhand (present day Garhwal) and Manaskhand (present day Kumaon). Uttarakhand was also the ancient Puranic term for the central stretch of the Indian Himalayas. It is well-known for the presence of a multitude of Hindu pilgrimage spots. The Pauravas, Kushanas, Kunindas, Guptas, Katyuris, Raikas, Palas, the Chands, and Parmaras or Panwars and the British have ruled Uttarakhand in turns.[7]

A stone sculpture (Mahabalipuram) depicting Bhagiratha in penance for the salvation of 60,000 of his ancestors

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The region was originally settled by Kols, an aboriginal people of the austro-asiatic physical type who were later joined by Indo-Aryan Khas tribes that arrived from the northwest by the Vedic period. At that time, present-day Uttarakhand also served as a haunt for Rishis and Sadhus. It is believed that Sage Vyasa scripted the Mahabharata here as the Pandavas are believed to have traveled and camped in the region. Among the first major dynasties of Garhwal and Kumaon were the Kunindas in the 2nd century B.C. who practiced an early form of Shaivism. They traded salt with Western Tibet. It is evident from the The historical temples at Jageshwar, preserved by Ashokan edict at Kalsi in Western Garhwal that Buddhism made the Archaeological Survey of India inroads in this region. Folk shamanic practices deviating from Hindu orthodoxy also persisted here. However, Garhwal and Kumaon were restored to nominal Brahmanical rule due to the travails of Shankaracharya and the arrival of migrants from the plains. Between the 4th and 14th centuries, the Katyuri dynasty of Khas origin dominated lands of varying extent from the Katyur (modern day Baijnath) valley in Kumaon. The historically significant temples at Jageshwar are believed to have been built by the Katyuris and later remodeled by the Chands. Other peoples of the Tibeto-Burman group known as Kiratas are thought to have settled in the northern highlands as well as in pockets throughout the region, and believed to be the ancestors to the modern day Bhotiya, Raji, Buksha, and Tharu peoples.[8] By the medieval period, the region was consolidated under the Garhwal Kingdom in the west and the Kumaon Kingdom in the east. From the 13th18th century, Kumaon prospered under the Chand Rajas who had their origins in the plains of India. During this period, learning and new forms of painting (the Pahari school of art) developed.[9] Modern-day Garhwal was likewise unified under the rule of Parmar/Panwar Rajas, who along with a mass migration of Brahmins and Rajputs, also arrived from the plains.[10] In 1791, the expanding Gurkha Empire of Nepal, overran Almora, the seat of the Uttarakhand as a part of the United Province, Kumaon Kingdom. In 1803, the Garhwal Kingdom also fell to the 1903 Gurkhas. With the conclusion of the Anglo-Nepalese War in 1816, a rump portion of the Garhwal Kingdom was reestablished from Tehri, and eastern British Garhwal and Kumaon ceded to the British as part of the Treaty of Sugauli. In the post-independence period, the Tehri princely state was merged into Uttar Pradesh state, where Uttarakhand composed the Garhwal and Kumaon Divisions.[11] Until 1998, Uttarakhand was the name most commonly used to refer to the region, as various political groups including most significantly the Uttarakhand Kranti Dal (Uttarakhand Revolutionary Party est. 1979), began agitating for separate statehood under its banner. Although the erstwhile hill kingdoms of Garhwal and Kumaon were traditional rivals with diverse lingual and cultural influences due to the proximity of different neighbouring ethnic groups, the inseparable and complementary nature of their geography, economy, culture, language, and traditions created strong bonds between the two regions.[12] These bonds formed the basis of the new political identity of Uttarakhand, which gained significant momentum in 1994, when demand for separate statehood (within the Union of India) achieved almost unanimous acceptance among the local populace as well as political parties at the national level.[13] Most notable incident during this period was the Rampur Tiraha firing case on the night of 1 October 1994, which led to public uproar.[14] On 24 September 1998 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly passed the 'Uttar Pradesh Reorganisation Bill', 1998, which eventually led to the creation of the state,[15] eventually the Parliament passed the Indian Federal Legislation - Uttar Pradesh Reorganisation Act 2000, and thus on 9 November 2000,[16] Uttarakhand became the 27th state in the Republic of India.

Uttarakhand However, the term Uttaranchal came into use when the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)-led central and Uttar Pradesh state governments initiated a new round of state reorganization in 1998 and introduced its preferred name. Chosen for its allegedly less separatist connotations, the name change generated enormous controversy among the rank and file of the separate state activists who saw it as a political act,[17] however they were not quite as successful as Jharkhand state that successfully thwarted a similar move to impose the name Vananchal. Nevertheless, the name Uttarakhand remained popular in the region, even while Uttaranchal was promulgated through official usage. In August 2006, India's Union Cabinet assented to the four-year-old demand of the Uttaranchal state assembly and leading members of the Uttarakhand movement to rename Uttaranchal state as Uttarakhand. Legislation to that effect was passed by the State Legislative Assembly in October 2006,[18] and the Union Cabinet brought in the bill in the winter session of Parliament. The bill was passed by Parliament and signed into law by the President in December 2006. Since then, Uttarakhand denotes a state in the Union of India.

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Geography
Uttarakhand has a total geographic area of 51,125 km, of which 93% is mountainous and 64% is covered by forest. Most of the northern parts of the state are part of Greater Himalaya ranges, covered by the high Himalayan peaks and glaciers, while the lower foothills were densely forested till denuded by the British log merchants and later, after independence, by forest contractors. Recent efforts in reforestation, however, have been successful in restoring the situation to some extent. The unique Himalayan ecosystem plays host to a large number of animals (including bharal, snow leopards, leopards and tigers), plants and rare herbs. Two of India's mightiest rivers, the Ganges and the Yamuna take birth in the glaciers of Uttarakhand, and are fed by myriad lakes, glacial melts and streams in the region.[19]

Nanda Devi is the second-highest mountain in India.

Uttarakhand lies on the southern slope of the Himalaya range, and the climate and vegetation vary greatly with elevation, from glaciers at the highest elevations to subtropical forests at the lower elevations. The highest elevations are covered by ice and bare rock. Below them, between 3000 and 5000 metres (9800 and 16000 ft) are montane grasslands and shrublands: the western Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows. Temperate coniferous forests, the western Himalayan subalpine conifer forests, grow just Valley of Flowers National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site below the tree line. At 3000 to 2600 metres (9800 to 8500 ft) elevation they transition to the temperate western Himalayan broadleaf forests, which lie in a belt from 2600 to 1500 metres (8500 to 4900 ft) elevation. Below 1500metres (4900ft) elevation lie the Himalayan subtropical pine forests. The Upper Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests and the drier Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands cover the lowlands along the Uttar Pradesh border. This belt is locally known as Bhabhar. These lowland forests have mostly been cleared for agriculture, but a few pockets remain.[20] Indian National Parks in Uttarakhand include the Jim Corbett National Park (the oldest national park of India) at Ramnagar in Nainital District, Valley of Flowers National Park and Nanda Devi National Park in Chamoli District, which together are a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Rajaji National Park in Haridwar District, and Govind Pashu Vihar National Park and Gangotri National Park in Uttarkashi District.

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A panorama of Garhwal Himalaya from Dhanaulti

Demographics
According to 2001 India census, Uttarakhand had a population of approximately 8.48 million. A population exceeding 10 million is expected by the next census of 2011. The native people of Uttarakhand are generally called either Kumaoni or Garhwali depending on their place of origin in either the Garhwal or Kumaon region. Another well known category is Gujjar, they were the rulers of a kingdom with capital at Landhaura and which covered the whole of today's Haridwar District. Gujjars King Raja Ramdayal Singh Panwar had helped the Tehri ruler against the Gorkhas and the Present MLA from Laksar in Haridwar is Kunwar Pranav Singh Champion is the descendent of that King. Gujjar is a dominant community of Haridwar District. Kumaoni and Garhwali dialects of Central Pahari are spoken in Kumaon and Garhwal region respectively. Jaunsari and Bhotiya dialects are also spoken by tribal communities in the west and north respectively. The urban population however converses mostly in Hindi. Sanskrit has got the official status in the state. Hindus form the majority of the population at 85.0%, Muslims form 10.5%, Sikhs 2.5% and Christians, Buddhists, Jains and others about 0.5%. It has male-female ratio of .964 and has a literacy rate of 72%. The largest cities in the state include Dehradun (530,263), Haridwar Mindroling Monastery in Clement Town. (220,767), Haldwani (158,896), Roorkee (115,278) and Rudrapur (88,720). The state government recognizes 15,620 villages and 81 cities and urban areas. Historians of Kumaon and Garhwal say that in the beginning there were only three castes: Rajput, Brahmin and Shilpkar. Main occupation of Rajput were Zamindari and law enforcement. Occupation of Brahmins were to perform religious rituals in temples and religious occasions. Shilpkar were mainly working for rajputs, in their lands and were expert in handcrafts. The famous surnames Chauhan, Bisht, Bhayera, Rawat, Pandey, Bhatt and Negi are used by Rajputs.

Woman from Than Gaon in Uttarakhand, with two goat kids

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Government and politics

The present Chief Minister of Government of Uttarakhand is Dr. Ramesh Pokhriyal.He was appointed as the fifth Chief Minister of Uttarakhand by then Governor of Uttarakhand Mr. B. L. Joshi on 27 June 2009. The last state elections in Uttarakhand were held on 21 February 2007. The Bharatiya Janata Party emerged as the largest party with 34 seats in the 70-seat Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly. One seat short of forming a majority, the BJP have had to rely on support from the Uttarakhand Kranti Dal and three independents to form the government. The Indian National Congress is the official opposition, holding 21 seats.

Chief Ministers of Uttarakhand

Nityanand Swami Bhagat Singh Koshiyari Narayan Dutt Tiwari B C Khanduri Ramesh Pokhriyal Nishank

Districts
There are 13 districts in Uttarakhand which are grouped into two divisions. Kumaon division and Garhwal division The Kumaon division includes six districts. Almora Bageshwar Champawat Nainital Pithoragarh Udham Singh Nagar

The Garhwal division includes seven districts. Dehradun Haridwar Tehri Garhwal Uttarkashi Chamoli Pauri Garhwal (commonly known as Garhwal)

Districts of Uttarakhand

Rudraprayag

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Important cities

View of the 'Evening Aarti' at Brahmakund,Har ki Pauri (Haridwar)

Ram Jhula Bridge over the Ganges river in Rishikesh

A view of the Nainital lake.

City Dehradun Haridwar Haldwani Roorkee Kashipur Rudrapur Rishikesh Pithoragarh Ramnagar Nainital Almora Mussoorie

Population 778593 254372 151942 113082 116497 119281 75020 66378 47099 38560 30613 26069

District Dehradun Haridwar Nainital Haridwar Udham Singh Nagar Udham Singh Nagar Dehradun Pithoragrah Nainital Nainital Almora Dehradun

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Kotdwara Srinagar Gopeshwar Ranikhet Uttarkashi Tanakpur Khatima Vikasnagar Bageshwar Banbasa 25400 19861 19855 19049 Pauri Garhwal Pauri Garhwal Chamoli Almora

16220 (2001) Uttarkashi 15810 14378 12485 7803 7138 Champawat Udham Singh Nagar Dehradun Bageshwar Champawat Chamoli Champawat Rudraprayag Pauri Garhwal

Karanprayag 6976 Champawat 3958

Rudraprayag 2242 Devprayag 2144

Economy
Uttarakhand's gross state domestic product for 2004 is estimated at $6 billion in current prices. Born out of the division of Uttar Pradesh, the new state of Uttarakhand produces about 8% of the output of the old Uttar Pradesh state. Consolidated Finvest and Holdings, a S&P CNX 500 conglomerate has its corporate office in Uttarakhand. It reported a gross income of 137 million for 2005. In 2003, a new industrial policy for the state with generous tax benefits for investors was initiated that has led to a massive upsurge of capital Evening prayers at Har ki Pauri in Haridwar, one investment. SIDCUL, the State Industrial Development Corporation of of the most sacred cities of Hinduism Uttaranchal (sic) has established seven industrial estates in the southern periphery of the state, while dozens of hydroelectric dams are being built in the upper reaches. However, hill development remains an uphill challenge as out migration of local peoples continues from the highland hinterlands.

Transport
Uttarakhand is well connected with Rail, Road and Air modes of transport

Airports
Jolly Grant Airport (Dehradun) Pantnagar Airport (Pantnagar) (Naini-Saini (Pithoragarh) Uttarkashi Gochar (Chamoli) Agastyamuni (Heliport) (Rudraprayag)

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Tourism
Chota Char Dham

Kedarnath Badrinath Gangotri Yamunotri

Leisure, adventure, and religious tourism play a prominent role in Uttarakhand's economy, with the Corbett National Park and Tiger Reserve and the nearby hill-stations of Nainital, Mussoorie, Almora, Kausani, Bhimtal and Ranikhet being amongst the most frequented destinations of India. The state also contains numerous peaks of interest to mountaineers, although Nanda Devi, the highest and best-known of these, has been off-limits since 1982. Other national wonders include the Valley of Flowers, which along with Nanda Devi National Park, form a UNESCO World Heritage Site. To Uttarakhand, long called "abode of the gods" (Devbhumi), belong some of the holiest Hindu shrines, and for more than a thousand years, pilgrims have been visiting the region in the hopes of salvation and purification from sin. Gangotri and Yamunotri, the sources of both the Ganges and Yamuna fall in the upper reaches of the state and together with Badrinath (dedicated to Vishnu) and Kedarnath (dedicated to Shiva) form the Char Dham, one of Hinduism's most spiritual and auspicious pilgrimage circuits. Haridwar, meaning "Gateway to God" is a prime Hindu destination. Haridwar hosts the Kumbha Mela every twelve years, in which millions of pilgrims take part from all parts of the India and the world. Rishikesh near Haridwar is known as the preeminent yoga centre of India. The state has an abundance of temples and shrines, many dedicated to local deities or manifestations of Shiva and Durga, references to many of which can be found in Hindu scriptures and legends.[22] The architecture of most of these temples is typical of the region and slightly different from other parts of India. The ancient temples at Jageshwar (a complex of 124 temples in a deodar woodland) are historically the most prominent for their distinct architectural features. Uttarakhand is, however, a place of pilgrimage not only for the Hindus. Hemkund nested in the Himalayas is a prime pilgrimage center for the Sikhs. Tibetan Buddhism has also made itself felt with the recent reconstruction of Mindroling Monastery and its Buddha Stupa, touted as the world's highest,[23] southwest of Dehradun. The state has always been a destination for mountaineering, hiking and rock climbing in India. A recent development in adventure tourism in the region has been white water rafting and other adventures sports. Eco tourism, agritourism and rural tourism have also found new grounds in many villages of the state.
Gurudwara Hemkund Sahib, an important pilgrimage site for Sikhs.

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Education
Uttarakhand is home to several important educational institutions, including the oldest engineering colleges in Asia, the Indian Institute of Technology at Roorkee and Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture & Technology in Pantnagar.Other universities and institutes of prime importance include, Indian Military Academy in Dehradun, Forest Research Institute in Dehradun, Govind Ballabh Pant Engineering College in Pauri and Kumaon Engineering College Dwarahat

Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, distant view.

Uttarakhand is home to several reputed day and boarding schools including St. Joseph's College (Nainital), The Doon School (Dehradun), SelaQui International School (Dehradun), Brightlands (Dehradun), St. Joseph's Academy (Dehradun), Woodstock School (Landour), St. George's College (Mussoorie), Delhi Public School (Ranipur, Haridwar) Sherwood College (Nainital), All Saints' College (Nainital), St. Mary's Convent (Nainital), Sainik School Facade of St. George's College, Mussoorie, estb. 1853 Ghorakhal near Bhowali and G D Birla Memorial School (Ranikhet). Several Indian luminaries attended these schools including former prime ministers and film stars. Historically, Uttarakhand is believed to be the land where the Vedas and the Shastras were composed and the great epic, the Mahabharata, was written. Rishikesh is widely considered the Yoga capital of the world.

Universities
Garhwal and Kumaun Universities were founded in 1973 as part of the upsurge of regional sentiment that led to the Uttarakhand statehood. The most famous universities of Uttarakhand are:

Main (Administrative) Building, IIT Roorkee

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Name Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee Indian Institute of Remote Sensing All India Institute of Medical Sciences from 2012 Indian Institute of Management from 2012 Central University Central University Central University Central University Roorkee Dehradun Rishikesh Kashipur Pantnagar

Location

Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture & Technology State University Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna Garhwal University Kumaun University Uttarakhand Technical University Doon University University of Petroleum and Energy Studies Himgiri Nabh Vishwavidyalaya(University in the Sky) [24] Central University State University State University State University Private University Private University

Tehri Garhwal ,Srinagar & Pauri Nainital and Almora Dehradun Dehradun Dehradun Dehradun Dehradun

Institute of Chartered Financial Analysts of India (ICFAI) Forest Research Institute Himalayan Institute of Hospital Trust Graphic Era University Gurukul Kangri University University of Patanjali (Patanjali Yogpeeth) Dev Sanskrit Vishwavidyalaya Uttarakhand Open University [27] [26]

[25] Private University

Deemed University Dehradun Deemed University Dehradun Deemed University Dehradun Deemed University Haridwar Private University Private University State University Haridwar Haridwar Haldwani

Leading Institutes
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee Indian Institute of Management Kashipur Pantnagar University Indian Institute of Remote Sensing Govind Ballabh Pant Engineering College Forest Research Institute Indian Military Academy Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration Indian Institute of Petroleum Kumaon Engineering College

Entertainment Industry
Although the entertainment industry of Uttarakhand is in its infant stage, yet there is a rapid growth in terms of audio visual entertainment. The pure folk seems to be disappearing from villages, so is the younger generation. Still there are many options one can get close to the folk music. Recently, in the honor of all who gave Bedupako Baramaasa folk tune an international fame and also to make Uttarakhand folk available all around the world 24X7, an online radio, which is one of the only and very first on-line radio of Uttarakhand available on web, was created by the name of bedupako.

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References
[1] http:/ / www. harbanskapoor. com [2] "Sanskrit made second official language" (http:/ / www. garhwalpost. com/ index. php?mod=article& cat=Uttarakhand& article=5051). . Retrieved 2009-12-28. [3] http:/ / ua. nic. in [4] Uttarakhand (http:/ / india. gov. in/ business/ investment_incentives/ uttarakhand/ uttarakhand. php) Govt. of India, Official website. [5] Yadav, K. P. S. (2002). Going Under : Tehri prepares for a watery grave as the controversial dam becomes a grim reality. Its residents are in mourning, their grief compounded by an uncertain future. Down To Earth, 10(16), 20. [6] Guha, R. (2000). The unquiet woods : ecological change and peasant resistance in the Himalaya (Expanded ed.). Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press. [7] Kandari, O. P., & Gusain, O. P. (Eds.). (2001). Garhwal Himalaya : Nature, Culture & Society. Srinagar, Garhwal: Transmedia. [8] Saklani, D. P. (1998). Ancient communities of the Himalaya. New Delhi: Indus Pub. Co. [9] Pande, B. D. (1993). History of Kumaun : English version of "Kumaun ka itihas". Almora, U.P., India: Shyam Prakashan : Shree Almora Book Depot. [10] Rawat, A. S. (1989). History of Garhwal, 1358-1947: an erstwhile kingdom in the Himalayas. New Delhi: Indus Pub. Co. [11] Saklani, A. (1987). The history of a Himalayan princely state : change, conflicts and awakening : an interpretative history of princely state of Tehri Garhwal, U.P., A.D. 1815 to 1949 A.D (1st ed.). Delhi: Durga Publications. [12] Aggarwal, J. C., Agrawal, S. P., & Gupta, S. S. (Eds.). (1995). Uttarakhand: past, present, and future. New Delhi: Concept Pub. Co. [13] Kumar, P. (2000). The Uttarakhand Movement: Construction of a Regional Identity. New Delhi: Kanishka Publishers. [14] Rampur Tiraha firing (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ articleshow/ 104312. cms) The Times of India, 31 Jul 2003. [15] Reorganisation Bill passed by UP Govt (http:/ / www. indianexpress. com/ res/ web/ pIe/ ie/ daily/ 19980924/ 26750834. html) The Indian Express, 24 September 1998. [16] Uttarakhand (http:/ / india. gov. in/ business/ investment_incentives/ uttarakhand/ uttarakhand. php) Govt. of India, Official website. [17] Negi, B. (2001). "Round One to the Lobbyists, Politicians and Bureaucrats." Indian Express, 2 January. [18] UNI. (2006). "Uttaranchal becomes Uttarakhand." Tribune (India), 12 October. [19] Negi, S. S. (1991). Himalayan rivers, lakes, and glaciers. New Delhi: Indus Pub. Co. [20] Negi, S. S. (1995). Uttarakhand: land and people. New Delhi: MD Pub. [21] "Census Population" (http:/ / indiabudget. nic. in/ es2006-07/ chapt2007/ tab97. pdf) (PDF). Census of India. Ministry of Finance India. . Retrieved 2008-12-18. [22] Dilwali, A., & Pant, P. (1987). The Garhwal Himalayas, ramparts of heaven. New Delhi: Lustre Press. [23] PTI. (2002). "Dalai Lama Inaugurates World's Highest Stupa." 28 October. [24] http:/ / www. hnv. edu. in/ [25] http:/ / www. iuuttarakhand. edu. in/ [26] http:/ / www. hihtindia. org/ [27] http:/ / www. dsvv. org/

Further reading
State symbols
State animal Musk Deer State bird State tree Monal Rhododendron

State flower Brahma Kamal

Rivett-Carnac, J. H. (1879). Archaeological notes on ancient sculpturings on rocks in Kumaon, India (http:// www.archive.org/stream/archaeologicalno00rive#page/n7/mode/2up). Calcutta : G.H. Rouse. Upreti, Ganga Dutt (1894). Proverbs & folklore of Kumaun and Garhwal (http://www.archive.org/stream/ cu31924089930774#page/n7/mode/2up). Lodiana Mission Press. Oakley, E Sherman (1905). Holy Himalaya; the religion, traditions, and scenery of Himalayan province (Kumaon and Garwhal) (http://www.archive.org/stream/holyhimalayareli00oaklrich#page/n7/mode/2up). Oliphant Anderson & Ferrier, London.

Uttarakhand of Kumaon, Raja Rudradeva; (Ed. with English tr. Haraprasada Shastri) (1910). Syanika sastra: or A Book on Hawking (http://www.archive.org/stream/syanikasatraorbo00rudruoft#page/n3/mode/2up). Asiatic Society, Calcutta. Umachand Handa (2002). History of Uttaranchal. Indus Publishing. ISBN 81-7387-134-5. Excerpts (http:// books.google.com/books?id=7_Ct9gzvkDQC&pg=PA153&dq=Uttaranchal&lr=&as_brr=0#PPP1,M1) Husain, Z. (1995). Uttarakhand movement: the politics of identity and frustration, a psycho-analytical study of the separate state movement, 1815-1995. Bareilly: Prakash Book Depot. ISBN 81-85897-17-4 arm, D. (1989). Tibeto-Himalayan languages of Uttarakhand. Studies in Tibeto-Himalayan languages, 3. New Delhi, India: Mittal Publications. ISBN 81-7099-171-4 Fonia, K. S. (1987). Uttarakhand, the land of jungles, temples, and snows. New Delhi, India: Lancer Books. Mukhopadhyay, R. (1987). Uttarakhand movement a sociological analysis. Centre for Himalayan Studies special lecture, 8. Raja Rammohunpur, Dt. Darjeeling: University of North Bengal. Uma Prasad Thapliyal (2005). Uttaranchal: Historical and cultural perspectives. B.R. Pub. Corp.,. ISBN 81-7646-463-5. Nationalistic part of Greater Nepal Region Vijaypal Singh Negi, Jawahernagar,Post -Agastyamuni,Dist.- Rudraprayag, The Great HimalaysPublication Date1998,

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External links
Official web-site of Uttarakhand Government (http://gov.ua.nic.in) IMPORTANT PEAKS-HILLS IN UTTARAKHAND & PICTURE GALLERY OF HIMALAYAN RANGE (http://www.nainitaltourism.com/Important_Peaks_Hills_Uttaranchal_Uttarakhand.html)

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West Bengal
West Bengal
State

Seal

Location of West Bengal in India

Map of West Bengal Coordinates (Kolkata): 223411N 882211E Country Region Established Capital India East India 1 November 1956 Kolkata

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Largest city Largest metro Districts Government -Governor -ChiefMinister -Legislature M. K. Narayanan Buddhadeb Bhattacharya Unicameral (295 Area -Total Area rank Population (2011) -Total -Rank -Density Time zone ISO 3166 code HDI HDI rank Literacy Official languages Website 295 elected, 1 nominated [1] 91347736 4th 1029.2/km2(2665.7/sqmi) IST (UTC+05:30) IN-WB 0.625 (medium) 19th (2005) 77.1% [2] (16th) 88752km2(34267.3sqmi) 13th seats) Kolkata

19 total

Bengali English wbgov.com [3]

West Bengal (Bengali: ; pronounced[potim bo]( listen)) is a state in the eastern region of India and is the nation's fourth most populous.[4] It is also the seventh most populous sub-national entity in the world.[4] West Bengal is the sixth-largest contributor to India's GDP.[5] West Bengal, together with Bangladesh lying on its east, forms the historical and geographical region of Bengal. To its northeast lie the states of Assam and Sikkim and the country of Bhutan, and to its southwest lies the state of Orissa. To the west, it borders the states of Jharkhand and Bihar, and to the northwest, Nepal. The Bengal region was part of several kingdoms and dynasties over the course of Indian history. The British East India Company cemented their hold on the region following the Battle of Plassey in 1757, and the city of Calcutta, now Kolkata, served for many years as the capital of British India. A hotbed of the Indian independence movement through the early 20th century, Bengal was divided in 1947 along religious lines into two separate entities: West Bengal a state of India and East Bengal, which joined the new nation of Pakistan before becoming part of modern-day Bangladesh.

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History
Stone age tools dating back 20,000 years have been excavated in the state.[6] Remnants of civilization in the greater Bengal region date back four thousand years,[7] when the region was settled by Dravidian, Tibeto-Burman, and Austro-Asiatic peoples. The exact origin of the word Bangla or Bengal is unknown, though it is believed to be derived from the Dravidian-speaking tribe Bang that settled in the area around the year 1000 BC.[8] The region was a part of the Vanga Kingdom, one of ancient kingdoms of Epic India. The kingdom of Magadha was formed in 7th century BC, consisting of the Bihar and Bengal regions. It was one of the four main kingdoms of India at the time of Mahavira and the Buddha, and consisted of several Janapadas.[9] During the rule of Maurya dynasty, the Magadha Empire extended over nearly all of South Asia, including Afghanistan and parts of Persia under Ashoka the Great in the 3rd century BC. One of the earliest foreign references to Bengal is a mention of a land named Gangaridai by the Ancient Greeks around 100 BC. The word is speculated to have come from Gangahrd (Land with the Ganges in its heart) in reference to an area in Bengal.[10] Bengal had overseas trade relations with Suvarnabhumi (Burma, Lower Thailand, Lower Malay Peninsula, and the Sumatra).[11] According to Mahavamsa, Vijaya Singha, a Vanga prince, conquered Lanka (modern day Sri Lanka) and gave the name "Sinhala" to the country.[12]

Pala Empire under Dharmapala Pala Empire under Devapala

From the 3rd to the 6th centuries AD, the kingdom of Magadha served as the seat of the Gupta Empire. The first recorded independent king of Bengal was Shashanka, reigning around early 7th century.[13] After a period of anarchy, the Buddhist Pala dynasty ruled the region for four hundred years, followed by a shorter reign of the Hindu Sena dynasty. Islam made its first appearance in Bengal during the 12th century when Sufi missionaries arrived. Later, occasional Muslim raiders reinforced the process of conversion by building mosques, madrassas and Sufi Khanqah. Beginning in 1202 a military commander from the Delhi Sultanate, Bakhtiar Khilji, overran Bihar and Bengal as far east as Rangpur, Bogra and the Brahmaputra River. Although he failed to bring Bengal under his control, the expedition managed to defeat Lakshman Sen and his two sons moved to a place then called Vikramapur (present-day Munshiganj District), where their diminished dominion lasted until the late 13th century. During the 14th century, the former kingdom became known as the Sultanate of Bengal, ruled intermittently with the Sultanate of Delhi. Hindu states continued to exist in the Southern and the Eastern parts of Bengal till the 1450s such as the Deva dynasty. Also, the Ganesha dynasty began with Raja Ganesha in 1414, but his successors converted to Islam. Bengal came once more under the control of Delhi as the Mughals conquered it in 1576. There were several independent Hindu states established in Bengal during the Mughal period like those of Maharaja Pratapaditya of Jessore and Raja Sitaram Ray of Burdwan. These kingdoms contributed a lot to the economic and cultural landscape of Bengal. Extensive land reclamations in forested and marshy areas were carried out and intrastate trade as well as commerce were highly encouraged. These kingdoms also helped introduce new music, painting, dancing and sculpture into Bengali art-forms as well as many temples were constructed during this period. Militarily, these served as bulwarks against Portuguese and Burmese attacks. Many of these kingdoms are recorded to have fallen during the late 1700s. While Koch Bihar Kingdom in the North, flourished during the period of 16th and the 17th centuries as well as weathered the Mughals also and survived till the advent of the British.

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European traders arrived late in the fifteenth century. Their influence grew until the British East India Company gained taxation rights in Bengal subah, or province, following the Battle of Plassey in 1757, when Siraj ud-Daulah, the last independent Nawab, was defeated by the British.[14] The Bengal Presidency was established by 1765, eventually including all British territories north of the Central Provinces (now Madhya Pradesh), from the mouths of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra to the Himalayas and the Punjab. The Bengal famine of 1770 claimed millions of lives.[15] Calcutta was named the capital of British India in 1772. The Bengal Renaissance and Brahmo Samaj socio-cultural reform movements had great impact on the cultural and economic life of Bengal. The failed Indian rebellion of 1857 started near Calcutta and resulted in transfer of authority to the British Crown, administered by the Viceroy of India.[16] Between 1905 and 1911, an abortive attempt was made to divide the province of Bengal into two zones.[17] Bengal suffered from the Great Bengal famine in 1943 that claimed 3 million lives.[18]

Raja Ram Mohan Roy is regarded as the "Father of the Bengal Renaissance"

Bengal played a major role in the Indian independence movement, in which revolutionary groups such as Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar were dominant. Armed attempts against the British Raj from Bengal reached a climax when Subhash Chandra Bose led the Indian National Army from Southeast Asia against the British. When India gained independence in 1947, Bengal was partitioned along religious lines. The western part went to India (and was named West Bengal) while the eastern part joined Pakistan as a province called East Bengal (later renamed East Pakistan, giving rise to independent Bangladesh in 1971).[19] Both West and East Bengal suffered from large refugee influx during the partition in 1947, leading to the political unrests later on. The partition of Bengal entailed the greatest exodus of people in Human History. Millions of Hindus migrated from East Pakistan to India and thousands of Muslims too went Subhash Chandra Bose is one of the across the borders to East Pakistan. Because of the immigration of the refugees, most prominent freedom fighters there occurred the crisis of land and food in West Bengal; and such condition from Bengal in the Indian remained in long duration for more than three decades.The politics of West independence movement against the Bengal since the partition in 1947 developed round the nucleus of refugee British Raj. problem. Both the Rightists and the Leftists in the Politics of West Bengal have not yet become free from the socio-economic conditions created by the partition of Bengal. These conditions as have remained unresolved in some twisted forms have given birth to local socio-economic, political and ethnic movements.[20] In 1950 the Princely State of Cooch Behar merged with West Bengal after King Jagaddipendra Narayan had signed the Instrument of Accession with India.[21] In 1955, the former French enclave of Chandannagar, which had passed into Indian control after 1950, was integrated into West Bengal; portions of Bihar were subsequently merged with West Bengal. During the 1970s and 1980s, severe power shortages, strikes and a violent Marxist-Naxalite movement damaged much of the state's infrastructure, leading to a period of economic stagnation. The Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971 resulted in the influx of millions of refugees to West Bengal, causing significant strains on its infrastructure.[22] The 1974 smallpox epidemic killed thousands. West Bengal politics underwent a major change when the Left Front

West Bengal won the 1977 assembly election, defeating the incumbent Indian National Congress. The Left Front, led by Communist Party of India (Marxist), has governed for the state for the subsequent three decades.[23] The state's economic recovery gathered momentum after economic reforms in India were introduced in the mid-1990s by the central government, aided by election of a new reformist Chief Minister Buddhadeb Bhattacharya in 2000. As of 2007, armed activists have been organising minor terrorist attacks in some parts of the state,[24] [25] while clashes with the administration are taking place at several sensitive places on the issue of industrial land acquisition.[26] [27] While West Bengal has made economic gains recently, it still remains one of the most poorest states in India due to high political instability and bad governance.[28] Throughout its political and cultural history the state has witnessed strikes/bandhs,[29] [30] a low Human Development Index level,[31] [32] abysmal medical treatment and healthcare services,[33] [34] tremendous lack of socio-economic development,[35] poor infrastructure,[36] [37] excessive corruption and violence.[38] [39]

577

Geography and climate

West Bengal is on the eastern bottleneck of India, stretching from the Himalayas in the north to the Bay of Bengal in the south. The state has a total area of 88752square kilometres (34267 sqmi).[40] The Darjeeling Himalayan hill region in the northern extreme of the state belongs to the eastern Himalaya. This region contains Sandakfu (3636 metres/ 11929 feet)the highest peak of the state. The narrow Terai region separates this region from the plains, which in turn transitions into the Ganges delta towards the south. The Rarh region intervenes between the Ganges delta in the east and the western plateau and high lands. The Chola range is situated on the Sikkim and Bhutan border. The highest peak is Rishila. The town of Kalimpong is situated in this region. Neora Valley National Park is located here. The relatively low-height Buxa-Jayanti range, a part of the Sivalik, is also located here. Among the Himalayan ranges of this region, Singalila range hosts Sandakfu which at 3636metres (11929ft) is the highest point of West Bengal. Two high peaks, Tiger Hill and Ghoom are seen near the town of Darjeeling. Many ranges branch off in different directions from Tiger Hill. Durpindara is an important mountain in the eastern part of the mountainous region. A few hills also occur in the Terai or Dooars region at the foot of the Himalayas. Some remnants of the Siwaliks can be seen in the Jalpaiguri district, where they are known as the Buxa-Jayanti Hills. A small coastal region is on the extreme south, while the Sundarbans mangrove forests form a remarkable geographical landmark at the Ganges delta.

Map of West Bengal

Many areas remain flooded during the heavy rains brought by monsoon.

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The Ganges is the main river, which divides in West Bengal. One branch enters Bangladesh as the Padma or Pdda, while the other flows through West Bengal as the Bhagirathi River and Hooghly River. The Teesta, Torsa, Jaldhaka and Mahananda rivers are in the northern hilly region. The western plateau region has rivers such as the Damodar, Ajay and Kangsabati. The Ganges delta and the Sundarbans area have numerous rivers and creeks. Pollution of the Ganges from indiscriminate waste dumped into the river is a major problem. There are several dams on the Ganges in West Bengal used for National Highway 31A winds along the banks of hydroelectricity. One at Farakka, close to the point where the main the Teesta River near Kalimpong, in the flow of the river enters Bangladesh, and the tributary Hooghly (also Darjeeling Himalayan hill region. known as Bhagirathi) continues in West Bengal past the capital. This barrage, which feeds the Hooghly branch of the river by a long feeder canal, and its water flow management has been a long-lingering source of dispute with Bangladesh. Damodar, another important tributary of the Ganges, meets the river near Bagnan, Howrah. Popularly known as "Sorrow of Bengal" due to its frequent floods, is having the large hydroelectric dam called Damodar Valley Project, built on the lines of the Tennessee Valley Authority. There is also a controversial dam at Tehri, on the Bhagirathi, one of the main source rivers of the Ganges.[41] At least nine districts in the state suffer from arsenic contamination of groundwater, and an estimated 8.7 million people drink water containing arsenic above the World Health Organisation recommended limit of 10g/L.[42] West Bengal's climate varies from tropical savannah in the southern portions to humid subtropical in the north. The main seasons are summer, rainy season, a short autumn, and winter. While the summer in the delta region is noted for excessive humidity, the western highlands experience a dry summer like northern India, with the highest day temperature ranging from 38C (100F) to 45C (113F).[43] At nights, a cool southerly breeze carries moisture from the Bay of Bengal. In early summer brief squalls and thunderstorms known as Kalbaisakhi, or Nor'westers, often occur. Troughs of low pressure are often developed near the Bay of Bengal, resulting cyclonic storms. These are known as Ashwiner Jhar and often cause huge destruction. This season is a festive season in West Bengal due to celebration of Durga puja, Lakshmi puja and Diwali.[44] Monsoons bring rain to the whole state from June to September. Heavy rainfall of above 250cm is observed in the Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri and Cooch Behar district. Later, blowing westwards, the winds cause average rainfall of 125cm in the northern plains and western plateau region. During the arrival of the monsoons, low pressure in the Bay of Bengal region often leads to the occurrence of storms in the coastal areas. West Bengal receives the Bay of Bengal branch of the Indian ocean monsoon that moves in a northwest direction. Winter (DecemberJanuary) is mild over the plains with average minimum temperatures of 15C (59F).[43] A cold and dry northern wind blows in the winter, substantially lowering the humidity level. However, the Darjeeling Himalayan Hill region experiences a harsh winter, with occasional snowfall at places.

Flora and fauna

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State Symbols of West Bengal

Union day August 18 (Day of accession to India)

State animal Bengal Tiger

State bird State tree

White-throated Kingfisher Devil Tree

[45] State flower Night-flowering Jasmine [45]

Owing to the varying altitude from the Himalayas to the coastal plains, the flora and fauna of the state is diverse. Forests make up 14% of the geographical area of West Bengal, which is lower than the national average of 23%.[46] [47] Protected forests cover 4% of the state area.[48] Part of the world's largest mangrove forest Sundarbans is located in southern West Bengal.[49] From a phytogeographic viewpoint, the southern part of West Bengal can be divided into two regions: the Gangetic plain and the littoral mangrove forests of the Sundarbans.[50] The alluvial soil of the Gangetic plain compounded with favorable rainfall make this region especially fertile.[50] Much of the vegetation of the western part of the state shares floristic similarities with the plants of the Chota Nagpur plateau in the adjoining state of Jharkhand.[50] The predominant commercial tree species is Shorea robusta, commonly known as Sal. The coastal region of Purba Medinipur exhibits coastal vegetation; the predominant tree is the Casuarina. The most valuable tree from the Sundarbans is the ubiquitous sundri (Heritiera fomes) from which the forest gets its name.[51] Vegetation in northern West Bengal is dictated by elevation and precipitation. For example, the foothills of the Himalayas, the Dooars, are densely wooded with Sal and other trees of the tropical evergreen type.[52] Above 1000 m, the forest type changes to subtropical. In Darjeeling, which is above 1500 m, common trees typifying the temperate forest are oaks, conifers, and rhododendrons.[52] The Sundarbans are noted for a reserve project conserving Bengal tigers. There are five national parks in the state[53] Sundarbans National Park, Buxa Tiger Reserve, Gorumara National Park, Neora Valley National Park and Singalila National Park. Wildlife includes the Indian rhinoceros, Indian elephants, deer, bison, leopards, gaur, and

A Bengal tiger

Sal trees in Arabari forest, in West Midnapur. Joint Forest Management maintains the forest.

Sun set in Neora Valley

West Bengal crocodiles. The state is also rich in bird life. Migratory birds come to the state during the winter.[48] The high altitude forests like Singalila National Park shelter barking deer, red panda, chinkara, takin, serow, pangolin, minivet and Kalij pheasants. In addition to the Bengal tiger, the Sundarbans host many other endangered species like Gangetic dolphin, river terrapin, estuarine crocodile etc.[54] The mangrove forest also acts as a natural fish nursery, supporting coastal fishes along the Bay of Bengal.[54]

580

Government and politics

West Bengal is governed through a parliamentary system of representative democracy, a feature the state shares with other Indian states. Universal suffrage is granted to residents. There are two branches of government. The legislature, the West Bengal Legislative Assembly, consists of elected members and special office bearers such as the Speaker and Deputy Speaker, that are elected by the members. Assembly meetings are presided over by the Speaker or the Deputy Speaker in the Speaker's absence. The judiciary is composed of the Calcutta High Court and a system of lower courts. Executive authority is vested in the Council of Ministers headed by the Chief Minister, although the titular head of government is the Governor. The Governor is the head of state appointed by the President of India. The leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the Legislative Assembly is appointed as the Chief Minister by the Governor, and the Council of Ministers are appointed by the Governor on the advice of the Chief Minister. The Council of Ministers reports to the Legislative Assembly. The Assembly is unicameral with 295 Members of the Legislative Assembly, or MLAs,[55] [56] including one nominated from the Anglo-Indian community. Terms of office run for 5 years, unless the Assembly is dissolved prior to the completion of the term. Auxiliary authorities known as panchayats, for which local body elections are regularly held, govern local affairs. The state contributes 42 seats to Lok Sabha and 16 seats to Rajya Sabha of the Indian Parliament.[57]

Calcutta High Court is the highest court in West Bengal

SUCI rally in Kolkata

The main players in the regional politics are the Left Front alliance (led by the Communist Party of India (Marxist) or CPI(M)), the All India Trinamool Congress, the Indian National Congress, and other major/minor parties. Following the West Bengal State Assembly Election in 2006, the Left Front coalition under Buddhadeb Bhattacharya of the CPI(M) was elected to power(getting 235 seats in the legislature). West Bengal has been ruled by the Left Front for the past 30 years, making it the world's longest-running democratically elected communist government.[23] [58] [59]

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Subdivisions
The 19 districts of West Bengal are as listed below.[60]

Districts of West Bengal

Bankura Bardhaman Birbhum Cooch Behar Darjeeling Hooghly Howrah Jalpaiguri Kolkata

Malda Murshidabad Nadia North 24 Parganas Uttar Dinajpur Purulia South 24 Parganas Dakshin Dinajpur West Midnapore

East Midnapore

Each district is governed by a district collector or district magistrate, appointed either by the Indian Administrative Service or the West Bengal Civil Service.[61] Each district is subdivided into Sub-Divisions, governed by a sub-divisional magistrate, and again into Blocks. Blocks consists of panchayats (village councils) and town municipalities.[60] The capital and largest city of the state is Kolkata the third-largest urban agglomeration[62] and the fourth-largest city[63] in India. Siliguri is an economically important Metropolitan City, strategically located in the northeastern Siliguri Corridor (Chicken's Neck) of India. Asansol, Durgapur are the other Metropolitan cities in the western industrial belt.[64] Other major cities and towns in West Bengal are Howrah, Raniganj, Haldia, Jalpaiguri, Kharagpur, Burdwan, Darjeeling, Midnapore, Tamluk, Malda and Cooch Behar.[64]

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Economy

Kolkata is the economic center of West Bengal

Gross State Domestic Product at Current Prices (9394 Base) figures in crores of Indian Rupees Year 19992000 20002001 20012002 20022003 20032004 20042005 20052006

[65]

Gross State Domestic Product 135,182 143,532 157,136 168,047 189,099 208,578 236,044

Agriculture is the leading occupation in West Bengal. Rice is the state's principal food crop. Other food crops are pulses, oil seeds, wheat, tobacco, sugarcane and potatoes. Jute is the main cash crop of the region. Tea is also produced commercially; the region is well known for Darjeeling and other high quality teas.[66] However, the service sector is the largest contributor to the gross domestic product of the state, contributing 51% of the state domestic product compared to 27% from agriculture and 22% from industry.[67] State industries are localized in the Kolkata region and the mineral-rich western highlands. The DurgapurAsansol colliery belt is home to a number of major steel plants.[66] Manufacturing industries playing an important economic role are engineering products, electronics, electrical equipment, cables, steel, leather, textiles, jewellery, frigates, automobiles, railway coaches, and wagons. The Durgapur centre has established a number of industries in the areas of tea, sugar, chemicals and fertilizers. Natural resources like tea and jute in and nearby parts has made West Bengal a major centre for the jute and tea industries.

West Bengal

583 A significant part of the state is economically backward, namely, large parts of six northern districts of Cooch Behar, Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri, Malda, North Dinajpur and South Dinajpur; three western districts of Purulia, Bankura, Birbhum; and the Sundarbans area.[68] Years after independence, West Bengal was still dependent on the central government for meeting its demands for food; food production remained stagnant and the Indian green revolution bypassed the state. However, there has been a significant spurt in food production since the 1980s, and the state now has a surplus of grains.[68] The state's share of total industrial output in India was 9.8% in 198081, declining to 5% by 199798. However, the service sector has grown at a rate higher than the national rate.[68]

Freshly sown saplings of paddy; in the background are stacks of jute sticks.

West Bengal has the third largest economy (20032004) in India, with a net state domestic product of US$ 21.5 billion.[67] During 20012002, the state's average SDP was more than 7.8% outperforming the National GDP Growth.[69] The state's total financial debt stands at 192000 crore (US$42.62 billion) as of 2010.[70] It has promoted foreign direct investment, which has mostly come in the software and electronics fields;[67] Kolkata is becoming a major hub for the Information technology (IT) industry. Owing to the boom in Kolkata's and the overall state's economy, West Bengal is now the third fastest growing economy in the country.[71] However, the rapid industrialisation process has given rise to debate over land acquisition for industry in this agrarian state.[72] NASSCOMGartner ranks West Bengal power infrastructure the best in the country.[73] West Bengals state domestic product (SDP) grew in 2004 with 12.7 % and in 2005 with 11.0 % .[74] "Taking a cue from China, West Bengalss Chief Minister Buddhadeb Bhattacharya has pushed through an ambitious economic reform program with an approach more capitalist than communist."[75] Notably, many corporate companies are now headquartered in Kolkata include ITC Limited, India Government Mint, Kolkata, Haldia Petrochemicals, Exide Industries, Hindustan Motors, Britannia Industries, Bata India, Birla Corporation, CESC Limited, Coal India Limited, Damodar Valley Corporation, PwC India, Peerless Group, United Bank of India, UCO Bank and Allahabad Bank. Recently, various events like adoption of "Look East" policy by the government of India, opening of the Nathu La Pass in Sikkim as a border trade-route with China and immense interest in the South East Asian countries to enter the Indian market and invest have put Kolkata in an advantageous position for development in future, particularly with likes of Myanmar, where India needs oil from military regime.[76] [77]

Transport
The total length of surface road in West Bengal is over 92023km (57180 mi);[78] national highways comprise 2377km (1477mi)[79] and state highways 2393km (1487mi). The road density of the state is 103.69km per 100km (166.92mi per 100sq mi), higher than the national average of 74.7km per 100km (120mi per 100sq mi).[80] Average speed on state highways varies between 4050km/h (2531mi/h); in villages and towns, speeds are as low as 2025km/h (1216mi/h) due to the substandard quality of road constructions and low maintenance. Total railway length is 3825km (2377mi).[81] Kolkata is the headquarters of two divisions of the Indian RailwaysEastern Railway and South Eastern Railway.[82] The

Howrah station, a major railway Terminus in West Bengal

West Bengal Northeast Frontier Railway (NFR) plies in the northern parts of the state. The Kolkata metro is the country's first underground railway.[83] The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, part of NFR, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[84] The state's only international airport is Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport at Dum Dum, Kolkata. Bagdogra airport near Siliguri is another significant airport in the state and recently it has been upgraded to an international airport. Kolkata is a major river-port in eastern India. The Kolkata Port Trust manages both the Kolkata docks and the Haldia docks.[85] There is passenger service to Port Blair on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and cargo ship service to ports in India and abroad, operated by the Shipping Corporation of India. Ferry is a principal mode of transport in the southern part of the state, especially in the Sundarbans area. Kolkata is the only city in India to have trams as a mode of transport and these are operated by the Calcutta Tramways Company.[86] Several government-owned organisations operate substandard bus services in the state, including the Calcutta State Transport Corporation, the North Bengal State Transport Corporation, the South Bengal State Transport Corporation, the West Bengal Surface Transport Corporation, and the Calcutta Tramways Company, thus leading to mismanagement. There are also private bus companies. The railway system is a nationalised service without any private investment. Hired forms of transport include metered taxis and auto rickshaws which often ply specific routes in cities. In most of the state, cycle rickshaws, and in Kolkata, hand-pulled rickshaws, are also used for short-distance travel. Large-scale transport accidents in West Bengal are common, particularly the sinking of transport boats and train crashes.[87]

584

Demographics

Baul singers at Basanta-Utsab, Shantiniketan

Religions in West Bengal Religion Hinduism Islam Others

[89]

Percent 72.5% 25.2% 2.3%

West Bengal is the fourth most populous state in India with a population of 91,347,736 (7.55% of India's population; census 2011 fig.)[90] Majority of the population comprises Bengalis.[91] The Bihari minority is scattered throughout the state and communities of Sherpas and ethnic Tibetans can be found in regions bordering Sikkim. Darjeeling district has a large number of Gurkha people of Nepalese origin. West Bengal is home to indigenous tribal Adivasis such as Santals, Kol, Koch-Rajbongshi and Toto tribe.

West Bengal The official language is Bengali and English.[92] [93] Hindi is also commonly used. Nepali is spoken primarily in the Darjeeling district. Languages such as Rajbongshi, Santali and Ho are used in some parts of the state. Urdu is used primarily in Central Kolkata. There were also many Armenians, Greeks and Jews, although these have declined in 20th century. After the establishment of Israel, many Jews left to live in Israel and the size of the Jewish community had a severe decrease.[94] Chinatown in the eastern part of the city of Kolkata is the only Chinatown in the country. The locality was once home to 20,000 Dakshineswar Kali Temple ethnic Chinese, now the population has dropped to 2,000 or so. The traditional occupation of the Chinese community here had been working in the nearby tanning industry and the Chinese restaurants.[95] As of 2001, Hinduism is the principal religion at 72.5% of the total population, while Muslims comprise 25.2% of the total population , being the second-largest community as also the largest minority group; Sikhism, Christianity and other religions make up the remainder.[89] West Bengal has a population density of 904inhabitants per square kilometre (2340/sqmi) making it the most densely populated state in India.[96] The state contributes 7.8% of India's population.[97] The state's 19912001 growth rate of 17.8% is lower than the national rate of 21.3%.[90] The gender ratio is 934 females per 1000 males.[90] The literacy rate is 77.1%.[90] Data of 19951999 showed the life Tipu Sultan Mosque,Kolkata expectancy in the state was 63.4 years, higher than the national value of 61.7 years.[98] About 72% of people live in rural areas. The proportion of people living below the poverty line in 19992000 was 31.9%.[68] Scheduled Castes and Tribes form 28.6% and 5.8% of the population respectively in rural areas, and 19.9% and 1.5% respectively in urban areas.[68] The crime rate in the state in 2004 was 82.6 per 100,000, which was half of the national average.[99] This is the fourth-lowest crime rate among the 32 states and union territories of India.[100] However, the state reported the highest rate of Special and Local Laws (SLL) crimes.[101] In reported crimes against women, the state showed a crime rate of 7.1 compared to the national rate of 14.1.[100] Some estimates state that there are more than 60,000 brothel-based women and girls in prostitution in Kolkata.[102] [103] The population of prostitutes in Sonagachi constitutes mainly of Nepalese, Indians and Bangladeshis.[103] Some sources estimate there are 60,000 women in the brothels of Kolkata.[104] The largest prostitution area in city is Sonagachi.[103] West Bengal was the first Indian state to constitute a Human Rights Commission of its own.[100]

585

West Bengal

586

Culture
The Bengali language boasts a rich literary heritage, shared with neighbouring Bangladesh. West Bengal has a long tradition in folk literature, evidenced by the Charyapada, Mangalkavya, Shreekrishna Kirtana, Thakurmar Jhuli, and stories related to Gopal Bhar. In the nineteenth and twentieth century, Bengali literature was modernized in the works of authors such as Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Michael Madhusudan Dutt, Rabindranath Tagore, Kazi Nazrul Islam, Sharat Chandra Chattopadhyay, Jibananda Das and Manik Bandyopadhyay. In modern timesJibanananda Das, Bibhutibhushan Bandopadhyay, Tarashankar Bandopadhyay, Manik Bandopadhyay, Ashapurna Devi, Shirshendu Mukhopadhyay, Buddhadeb Guha, Mahashweta Devi, Samaresh Majumdar, Sanjeev Chattopadhyay and Sunil Gangopadhyay among others are well known. The Baul tradition is a unique heritage of Bengali folk music, which has also been influenced by regional music traditions.[105] Other folk Rabindranath Tagore is Asia's first Nobel laureate music forms include Gombhira and Bhawaiya. Folk music in West and composer of India's and Bangladesh's Bengal is often accompanied by the ektara, a one-stringed instrument. national anthem West Bengal also has an heritage in North Indian classical music. "Rabindrasangeet", songs composed and set into tune by Rabindranath Tagore and "Nazrul geeti" (by Kazi Nazrul Islam) are popular. Also prominent are other musical forms like Dwijendralal, Atulprasad and Rajanikanta's songs, and "adhunik" or modern music from films and other composers. From the early 1990s, there has been an emergence and popularisation of new genres of music, including fusions of Baul and Jazz by several Bangla bands, as well as the emergence of what has been called Jeebonmukhi Gaan (a modern genre based on realism). Bengali dance forms draw from folk traditions, especially those of the tribal groups, as well as the broader Indian dance traditions. Chau dance of Purulia is a rare form of mask dance. State is known for Bengali folk music such as baul and kirtans and gajan, and modern songs including Bengali adhunik songs. From the early 1990s, there has been an emergence of new genres of music, including the emergence of what has been called Bengali Jeebonmukhi Gaan (a modern genre based on realism) by artists like Anjan Dutta, Kabir Suman, Nachiketa and folk/alternative/rock bands like Moheener Ghoraguli, Chandrabindoo, Bhoomi, Cactus and Fossils. Dutta's songs are influenced by classical music, and especially country music and blues and Bob Dylan and Leonard Cohen which he fused with Bengali tradition of east west, as did Suman. American urban folk and grunge are also an inspiration for this generation.[106] Mainstream Hindi films are popular, as are films from the Bengali cinema industry, dubbed "Tollywood". Tollygunj in Kolkata is the location of Bengali movie studios and the name "Tollywood" (similar to Hollywood and Bollywood) is derived from that name. The Bengali film industry is also known for art films or Indy films. Its long tradition of filmmaking has produced acclaimed directors like Satyajit Ray, Mrinal Sen, Tapan Sinha and Ritwik Ghatak. Contemporary directors include Buddhadev Dasgupta, Goutam Ghose, Aparna Sen and Rituparno Ghosh. Many of these have brought acclaim to Bengali cinema on national and transnational arena, Europe in particular. Bengal had been the harbinger of modernism in fine arts. Abanindranath Tagore, called the father of Modern Indian Art had started the Bengal School of Art which was to create styles of art outside the European realist tradition which was taught in art colleges under the colonial administration of the British Government. The movement had many adherents like Gaganendranath Tagore, Ramkinkar Baij, Jamini Roy and Rabindranath Tagore. After Indian Independence, important groups like the Calcutta Group and the Society of Contemporary Artists were formed in bengal which dominated the art scene in India.

West Bengal

587 The capital Kolkata was also the workplace of several social reformers, like Raja Ram Mohan Ray, Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar, and Swami Vivekananda. These social reforms have eventually led to a cultural atmosphere where practices like sati, dowry, and caste-based discrimination or untouchability, the evils that crept into the Hindu society, were abolished.

Food
Rice and fish are traditional favourite foods, leading to a saying in Bengali, machhe bhate bangali, that translates as "fish and rice make a Bengali".[107] Bengal's vast repertoire of fish-based dishes includes hilsa preparations, a favorite among Bengalis. There are numerous ways of cooking fish depending on A Murti (representation) of Durga, the texture, size, fat content and the bones. Sweets occupy an important place in shown riding her lion and attacking the diet of Bengalis and at their social ceremonies. It is an ancient custom among the demon Mahishasura. both Hindu and Muslim Bengalis to distribute sweets during festivities. The confectionery industry has flourished because of its close association with social and religious ceremonies. Competition and changing tastes have helped to create many new sweets. Bengalis make distinctive sweetmeats from milk products, including Rshogolla, Chmchm, Kalojam and several kinds of sondesh. Pitha and patishapta are specialties of winter season. Sweets like coconut-naru, til-naru, moa, payesh, etc. are prepared during the festival of Lakshmi puja. Popular street food includes Aloor Chop, Beguni, Kati roll, and phuchka.[108] [109] The variety of fruits and vegetables that Bengal has to offer is incredible. A host of gourds, roots and tubers, leafy greens, succulent stalks, lemons and limes, green and purple eggplants, red onions, plantain, broad beans, okra, banana tree stems and flowers, green jackfruit and red pumpkins are to be found in the markets or anaj bazaar as popularly called. Panta bhat (rice soaked overnight in water)with onion & green chili is a traditional dish consumed in rural areas. Common spices found in a Bengali kitchen are cumin, ajmoda (radhuni), bay leaf, mustard, ginger, green chillies, turmeric, etc. People of erstwhile East Bengal use a lot of ajmoda, coriander leaves, tamarind, coconut and mustard in their cooking; while those aboriginally from West Bengal use a lot of sugar, garam masala and red chilli powder. Vegetarian dishes are mostly without onion and garlic.

Costumes
Bengali women commonly wear the shai , often distinctly designed according to local cultural customs. In urban areas, many women and men wear Western attire. Among men, western dressing has greater acceptance. Men also wear traditional costumes such as the panjabi with dhuti , often on cultural occasions.

Festivals
Ramakrishna Belur Math temple in Howrah Durga Puja in October is the most popular festival in the West [110] Bengal. Poila Baishakh (the Bengali New Year), Rathayatra, Dolyatra or Basanta-Utsab, Nobanno, Poush Parbon (festival of Poush), Kali Puja, SaraswatiPuja, LaxmiPuja, Christmas, Eid ul-Fitr, Eid ul-Adhaand Muhharam are other major festivals.[111] Buddha Purnima, which marks the birth of Gautama Buddha, is one of the most important Hindu/Buddhist festivals while Christmas, called Bodin (Great day) in Bengali is celebrated by the minority Christian population. Poush mela is a popular festival of Shantiniketan, taking place in winter.[111] West Bengal has been home to several famous religious teachers,

including Sri Chaitanya, Sri Ramakrishna, Swami Vivekananda, A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada and Paramahansa Yogananda. The swami is credited with introducing Hinduism to western society and became a

West Bengal religious symbol of the nation in eyes of the intellectuals of the west.

588

Education
West Bengal schools are run by the state government or by private organisations, including religious institutions. Instruction is mainly in English or Bengali, though Urdu are also used, especially in Central Kolkata. The secondary schools are affiliated with the Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE), the Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE), the National Institute of Open School (NIOS) or the West Bengal Board of Secondary Education. Under the 10+2+3 plan, after completing secondary school, students typically enroll for 2 years in a junior college, also known as pre-university, or in schools with a higher secondary facility affiliated with the West Bengal Council of Higher Secondary Education or any central board. Students choose from one of three streams, namely, liberal arts, commerce or science. Upon completing the required coursework, students may enroll in general or professional degree programs.

IIM Calcutta

IIT Kharagpur

West Bengal has eighteen universities.[112] [113] The University of Calcutta, one of the oldest and largest public universities in India, has more than 200 affiliated colleges. Kolkata has played a pioneering role in the development of the modern education system in India. It is the gateway to the revolution of European education. Sir William Jones (philologist) established the Asiatic Society in 1794 for promoting oriental studies. People like Ram Mohan Roy, David Hare, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar and William Carey played a leading role in the setting up of modern schools and colleges in the city. The Fort William Medical College Kolkata College was established in 1810. The Hindu College was established in 1817. In 1855 the Hindu College was renamed as the Presidency [114] College. The Bengal Engineering & Science University and Jadavpur University are prestigious technical [115] universities. Visva-Bharati University at Santiniketan is a central university and an institution of national importance.[116] The state has several higher education institutes of national importance including the Indian Statistical Institute, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur (the first IIT of the country), West Bengal National University of Juridical Sciences, Indian Institute of Foreign Trade, the Indian Institute of Management Calcutta (the first management institute in India of its kind) and the National Institute of Technology, Durgapur (formerly Regional Engineering College, Durgapur). After 2003 the state govt supported the creation of West Bengal University of Technology, West Bengal State University and Gour Banga University. Besides these, the state also has Kalyani University, The University of Burdwan and North Bengal University-all well established and nationally

West Bengal renowned, to cover the educational needs at the district levels of the state and also an Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata. Also recently Presidency College, Kolkata became a University named Presidency University. Apart from this there is another private university run by Ramakrishna mission named Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda University at Belur Math. There are a number of research institutes in kolkata. The Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science is the first research institute in Asia. C. V. Raman got Nobel Prize for his discovery (Raman Effect) done in IACS. Also Bose Institute, Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, S.N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences are most prominent. A large number of Indian Scholars are educated at different universities in Bengal. State has produced likes of Jagadish Chandra Bose, Satyendra Nath Bose and RC Bose.

589

Media
West Bengal had 505 published newspapers in 2005,[117] of which 389 were in Bengali.[117] Ananda Bazar Patrika, published from Kolkata with 1,234,122 daily copies, has the largest circulation for a single-edition, regional language newspaper in India.[117] Other major Bengali newspapers are Bartaman, Sangbad Pratidin, Aajkaal, Jago Bangla, Uttarbanga Sambad and Ganashakti. Major English language newspapers which are published and sold in large numbers are The Times of India, Hindustan Times, The Hindu, The Indian Express, The Statesman, The Telegraph and Asian Age. Some prominent financial dailies like The Economic Times, Financial Express, Business Line and Business Standard are widely circulated. Vernacular newspapers such as those in Hindi, Nepali Gujarati, Oriya, Urdu and Punjabi are also read by a select readership. Doordarshan is the state-owned television broadcaster. Multi system operators provide a mix of Bengali, Nepali, Hindi, English and international channels via cable. Bengali 24-hour television news channels include STAR Ananda, Tara Newz, Kolkata TV, 24 Ghanta, Ne Bangla, News Time, Mahuaa Khobor, CTVN Plus, Channel 10 and R Plus .[118] [119] All India Radio is a public radio station.[119] Private FM stations are available only in cities like Kolkata, Siliguri and Asansol.[119] Vodafone, Airtel, BSNL, Reliance Communications, Uninor, Aircel, MTS India, Tata Indicom, Idea Cellular and Tata DoCoMo are available cellular phone operators. Broadband internet is available in select towns and cities and is provided by the state-run BSNL and by other private companies. Dial-up access is provided throughout the state by BSNL and other providers.

Sports
Cricket and football (soccer) are popular sports in the state. Kolkata is one of the major centers for football in India[120] and houses top national clubs such as East Bengal, Mohun Bagan and Mohammedan Sporting Club.[121] Indian sports such as Kho Kho and Kabaddi are also played. Calcutta Polo Club is considered as the oldest polo club of the world,[122] and the Royal Calcutta Golf Club is the oldest of its kind outside Great Britain.[123]

Salt Lake Stadium Yuva Bharati Krirangan, Kolkata

West Bengal

590

West Bengal has several large stadiumsThe Eden Gardens is one of only two 100,000-seat cricket amphitheaters in the world, although renovations will reduce this figure.[124] Kolkata Knight Riders, East Zone and Bengal play there, and the 1987 World Cup final was there although in 2011 World Cup, Eden Gardens was stripped due to construction incompleteness. Salt Lake Stadiuma multi-use stadiumis the world's second highest-capacity football stadium.[125] [126] Calcutta Cricket and Football Club is the second-oldest cricket Eden Gardens in Kolkata club in the world.[127] National and international sports events are also [128] held in Durgapur, Siliguri and Kharagpur. Notable sports persons from West Bengal include former Indian national cricket captain Sourav Ganguly, Pankaj Roy Olympic tennis bronze medallist Leander Paes, and chess grand master Dibyendu Barua. Other major sporting icons over the years include famous football players such as Chuni Goswami, PK Banerjee and Sailen Manna as well as swimmer Mihir Sen and athlete Jyotirmoyee Sikdar (winner of gold medals at the Asian Games).[129]

Notes
[1] Census of India (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ ), 2011. Census Data Online, Population. [2] "West Bengal front final printing" (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ 2011-prov-results/ indiaatglance. html) (html). . Retrieved 30 July 2009. [3] http:/ / www. wbgov. com/ [4] "India: Administrative Divisions (population and area)" (http:/ / www. world-gazetteer. com/ wg. php?x=& men=gadm& lng=en& des=wg& geo=-104& srt=npan& col=abcdefghinoq& msz=1500& va=x). Census of India. . Retrieved April 17, 2009. [5] Gross Domestic Product by prices as of February 28, 2008 (http:/ / mospi. nic. in/ 6_gsdp_cur_9394ser. htm). [6] Sarkar, Sebanti (March 28, 2008). "History of Bengal just got a lot older" (http:/ / www. telegraphindia. com/ 1080328/ jsp/ frontpage/ story_9067406. jsp) (jsp). The Daily Telegraph (Kolkata: The Telegraph). . Retrieved September 13, 2010. "Humans walked on Bengals soil 20,000 years ago, archaeologists have found out, pushing the states pre-history back by some 8,000 years." [7] Bharadwaj, G (2003). "The Ancient Period". In Majumdar, RC. History of Bengal. B.R. Publishing Corp. [8] James Heitzman and Robert L. Worden, ed (1989). "Early History, 1000 B.C.-A.D. 1202" (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ frd/ cs/ bdtoc. html). Bangladesh: A country study. Library of Congress. . [9] Sultana, Sabiha. "Settlement in Bengal (Early Period)" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071007093807/ http:/ / www. banglapedia. net/ HT/ S_0221. HTM). Banglapedia. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. banglapedia. net/ HT/ S_0221. HTM) on October 7, 2007. . Retrieved March 4, 2007. [10] Chowdhury, AM. "Gangaridai" (http:/ / banglapedia. search. com. bd/ HT/ G_0019. htm). Banglapedia. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. . Retrieved September 8, 2006. [11] Prasad, Prakash Chandra (2003). Foreign Trade and Commerce in Ancient India (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=mFW3sXnzEQ4C& pg=PA231& dq=ancient+ history+ of+ bengal+ trade#v=onepage& q=bengal& f=false). Abhinav Publications. p.28. ISBN978-8170170532. . Retrieved September 13, 2010. [12] Geiger, Wilhelm (2010) [1908]. "Chapter VI: The Coming of Viajaya" (http:/ / lakdiva. org/ mahavamsa/ chap006. html). Mahavamsa: Great Chronicle of Ceylon (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=nX2af3kcregC& printsec=frontcover& dq=wilhelm+ geiger#v=onepage& q& f=false). Kessinger Publishing, LLC. ISBN978-1161834925. . Retrieved September 13, 2010. [13] "Shashanka" (http:/ / banglapedia. search. com. bd/ HT/ S_0122. htm). Banglapedia. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. . Retrieved October 26, 2006. [14] Chaudhury, S; Mohsin, KM. "Sirajuddaula" (http:/ / banglapedia. search. com. bd/ HT/ S_0411. htm). Banglapedia. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. . Retrieved October 26, 2006. [15] Fiske, John. "The Famine of 1770 in Bengal" (http:/ / etext. library. adelaide. edu. au/ f/ fiske/ john/ f54u/ chapter9. html). The Unseen World, and other essays. University of Adelaide Library Electronic Texts Collection. . Retrieved October 26, 2006. [16] (Baxter 1997, pp.3032) [17] (Baxter 1997, pp.3940) [18] Sen, Amartya (1973). Poverty and Famines. Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-828463-2. [19] Harun-or-Rashid. "Partition of Bengal, 1947" (http:/ / banglapedia. search. com. bd/ HT/ P_0101. htm). Banglapedia. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. . Retrieved October 26, 2006. [20] Dr. Sailen Debnath, 'West Bengal in Doldrums'ISBN 978-81-86860-34-2; & Dr. Sailen Debnath ed. Social and Political Tensions In North Bengal since 1947, ISBN 81-86860-23-1 [21] Dr. Sailen Debnath,ed. Social and Political Tensions In North Bengal since 1947, ISBN 81-86860-23-1.

West Bengal
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References
Baxter, C (1997). Bangladesh, From a Nation to a State. Westview Press. p.0813336325. ISBN185984121X Bennett, A; Hindle, J (1996). London Review of Books: An Anthology. Verso. pp.6370. ISBN185984121X Roy, A; Alsayyad, N (2004). Urban Informality: Transnational Perspectives from the Middle East, Latin America and South Asia. Lexington Books. ISBN0739107410 West Bengal Human Development Report 2004 (http://www.undp.org.in/index.php?option=com_content& task=view&id=124&Itemid=212). Development and Planning Department, Government of West Bengal. 2004. ISBN81-7955-030-3 Impact of Social Sector Development in West Bengal (http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/sereport/ser/ wbm_indx.htm). Planning Commission, Government of India. 2009. ISBN45174569037

West Bengal Klass, L; Morton, S (1996). Community Structure and industrialization in West Bengal. University Press of America Inc.. ISBN0-7618-0420-X Sunny, C (1999). "Poverty and social development in west bengal" (http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/ sereport/ser/wbm/wbm_ch2.pdf). India Rural Development Report, NIRD. Retrieved 1999 KPMG India, V (December 10, 2001). "Sustainable economic development in West Bengal A Perspective" (http://www.in.kpmg.com/TL_Files/Pictures/West_Bengal.pdf). Confederation of Indian Industry (CII). Retrieved 2007 Amrita Basu, V. (1997). Two Faces of Protest: Contrasting Modes of Women's Activism in India (http://books. google.com/?id=ZyY0Yb5BrqgC&pg=PA25&dq=communism+in+west+bengal&cd=5#v=onepage& q=communism in west bengal). University of California Press ltd.. ISBN0-520-065069. Retrieved June 16, 2009. Jasodhara Bagchi, Sarmistha Dutta Gupta, V. (2000). The changing status of women in West Bengal, 19702000: the challenge ahead (http://books.google.com/?id=KYYW8Un5zFAC&pg=PA119&dq=violence+west+ bengal&cd=1#v=onepage&q=violence west bengal). Saga Publication India Pvt Ltd.. ISBN0-7619-3242-9. Retrieved June 16, 2010. Magnus berg, Kaare Strom, V. (2008). Resources, governance and civil conflict (http://books.google.com/ ?id=eBW-KtJ28ZsC&pg=PA93&dq=Naxalite+in+west+bengal&cd=1#v=onepage&q=Naxalite in west bengal). Routledge. ISBN0-415-41679-X. Retrieved June 16, 2004. Atul Kohli, I. (1987). The State and Poverty in India (http://books.google.com/?id=vxLAK8EXo84C& pg=PA117&dq=poverty+in+west+bengal&cd=1#v=onepage&q= west bengal). Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-37876-5. Retrieved June 16, 2007. Marvin, Davis (1983) [1983]. Rank and rivalry: the politics of inequality in rural West Bengal. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN052124657. Richard Maxwell Eaton, The rise of Islam and the Bengal frontier, 12041760, 1993, University of California Press, California, California,1993, ISBN 0-520-08077-7. Ross Mallick. (1955). Development Policy of a Communist Government: West Bengal Since 1977, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (Reprinted 2008) ISBN 978-0-521-43292-4. Jasodhara Bagchi, Sarmistha Dutta Gupta, V. (2009). A Story of Ambivalent Modernization in Bangladesh and West Bengal: The Rise and Fall of Bengali Elitism in South Asia. Peter Lang Publishing; First printing edition. ISBN978-1433108204. Tapan Raychaudhuri (2002). Europe Reconsidered: Perceptions of the West in Nineteenth-Century Bengal. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0195661095. Harriss-White, Barbara (editor) (2008). Rural Commercial Capital: Agricultural Markets in West Bengal. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN0195691598. Raychaudhuri, Ajitava (editor); Das, Tuhin K. (editor) (2005). West Bengal economy: some contemporary issues (http://books.google.com/?id=NTeHPuhTsXcC&pg=PA45&dq=politics+in+west+bengal& cd=42#v=onepage&q). Jadavpur University Press, India. ISBN81-7764-731-8. Inden; Ronald B.; Ralph W (2005). Kinship in Bengali Culture. The University of Chicago Press, 1977. ISBN81-8028-018-7. Davis, Marvin (1983). Rank and rivalry: the politics of inequality in rural West Bengal. 1st edition. Cambridge University Press. xxvii, 239. ISBN0 521 24657. Banerjee, Anuradha (1998). Environment, population, and human settlements of Sundarban Delta. Ashok Kumar Mittal. ISBN81-7022-739-9.

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West Bengal

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External links
Government Official website of Government of West Bengal (http://www.wbgov.com/) Statistical handbook West Bengal (http://wbplan.gov.in/htm/ReportPub/WB_HandBook.pdf) West Bengal Government Information Commission (http://wbic.gov.in/) Directorate of Census Operations (http://web.cmc.net.in/wbcensus/home.asp) of West Bengal

Other West Bengal travel guide from Wikitravel Bengal/ West Bengal (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/India/West) at the Open Directory Project* Online video encyclopaedia on West Bengal sponsored by UNESCO (http://www.indiavideo.org/)

597

Union Territories of India

Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
union territory

Port Blair
Location of Andaman and Nicobar Islands Coordinates Country District(s) Established Capital Largest city Lt. Governor Population Density 1141N 9246E India 3 1956-11-01 Port Blair Port Blair Lieutenant General Bhopinder Singh 3799441(32) 46/km2 (119/sqmi)

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

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HDI(2005) 0.766(medium) Official languages Hindi, Bengali,Telugu, Tamil, English, Nicobarese Time zone Area ISO 3166-2 Website IST (UTC+5:30) 8250square kilometres (3190sqmi)(27th) IN-AN www.and.nic.in//
[1]

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands (pronunciation); (Bengali: ; Tamil: , Hindi: , Telugu: ) are a group of islands in the Bay of Bengal and a Union Territory of India. The territory is located geographically 150km (93mi) north of Aceh in Indonesia and separated from Thailand and Burma by the Andaman Sea. It comprises two island groups, the Andaman Islands and the Nicobar Islands, separated by the 10 N parallel, with the Andamans to the north of this latitude, and the Nicobars to the south. The Andaman Sea lies to the east and the Bay of Bengal to the west. The territory's capital is the Andamanese town of Port Blair. The territory's population as per the most recent (2011) Census of India was 379,944. Added together, the total land area of the territory is approximately 6496km2 (2508sqmi).

History
First Inhabitants
The Andaman and Nicobar islands have been inhabited for several thousand years, at the very least. The earliest archaeological evidence yet documented goes back some 2,200 years; however, the indications from genetic, cultural and linguistic isolation studies point to habitation going back 30,000 to 60,000 years, well into the Middle Paleolithic.[2] In the Andaman Islands, the various Andamanese people maintained their separated existence through the vast majority of this time, diversifying into distinct linguistic, cultural and territorial groups. By the 1850s when they first came into sustained contact by outside groups, the indigenous people of the Andamans were: the Great Andamanese, who collectively represented at least 10 distinct sub-groups and languages; the Jarawa; the Jangil (or Rutland Jarawa); the Onge; and the Sentinelese (most isolated of all the groups).

In total, these people numbered somewhere around 7,000 at the time of these first encounters. As the numbers of settlers from the mainland increased (at first mostly prisoners and involuntary indentured labourers, later purposely recruited farmers), these indigenous people lost territory and numbers in the face of punitive expeditions by British troops, land encroachment and the effects of various epidemic diseases. The Jangil and most of the Great Andamanese groups soon became extinct; presently there remain only approximately 400450 indigenous Andamanese, the Jarawa and Sentinelese in particular maintaining a steadfast independence and refusing most attempts at contact. The indigenous people of the Nicobars (unrelated to the Andamanese) have a similarly isolated and lengthy association with the islands. There are two main groups: the Nicobarese, or Nicobari, living throughout many of the islands; and

Andaman and Nicobar Islands the Shompen, restricted to the hinterland of Great Nicobar.

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Pre-colonial era
Rajendra Cholan I (1014 to 1042 CE)one of the greatest kings of Tamil Chola dynasty occupied Andaman and Nikobar Islands to use it as a strategic naval base to launch a naval expedition against Sriwijaya Empire (a classical Hindu-Malay empire based on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia). The cholas called the 'Nicobar' island as 'Nakkavaram' which is inscribed on the Tanjore inscription of 1050 CE. Nakkavaram in Tamil means "naked man" or "land of the naked" which should have been evolved to the modern name "Nicobar". Marco Polo(12-13th Century CE) also referred this island as 'Necuveran'. Name of the island 'Andaman' might have been evolved from the Indian monkey god Hanuman The islands provided a temporary maritime base for ships of the Marathas in the 17th century. The legendary admiral Kanhoji Angre established naval supremacy with a base in the islands and is credited with attaching those islands to India.

Danish occupation of the Nicobar Islands

The history of organized European colonization on the islands began with the Danish East India Company in 17541756 when they were administrated under the name of Frederikserne from Tranquebar (in continental Danish India); missionaries from the Moravian Church Brethren's settlement in Tranquebar attempted a settlement on Nancowry and died in great numbers from disease; the islands were repeatedly abandoned due to outbreaks of malaria in 1784, 180709, 18301834 and finally from 1848 gradually for good. Between 1778 and 1783, Austria attempted to establish a colony on the islands on the mistaken assumption that Denmark had abandoned its claims to the islands.[3] Danish involvement ended formally on 16 October 1868 when the Danish rights to the Nicobar Islands were sold to Britain,[3] which made them part of British India by 1869 when the British took possession.

British colonial period

After an initial attempt to set up a colony in the islands by the British was abandoned after only a few years (17891796), a second attempt from 1858 proved to be more permanent. The primary purpose was to set up a penal colony for dissenters and independence fighters from the Indian subcontinent. The British used the islands as an isolated prison for members of the Indian independence movement. The mode of imprisonment was called Kala pani. The Cellular Jail in Port Blair was regarded as the "Siberia" of British India. The islands were administered as a Chief Commissioner's Province. The British continued their occupancy until the Japanese invasion and occupation of the Andaman Islands during World War II.

Indian Control
The islands were nominally put under the authority of the Arzi Hukumate Azad Hind of Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose. Netaji visited the islands during the war, and renamed them as "Shaheed-dweep" (Martyr Island) & "Swaraj-dweep" (Self-rule Island). General Loganathan, of the Indian National Army was made the Governor of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. On 22 February 1944 he along with four INA officersMajor Mansoor Ali Alvi, Sub. Lt. Md. Iqbal, Lt. Suba Singh and stenographer Srinivasanarrived at Lambaline Airport in Port Blair. On 21 March 1944 the Headquarters of the Civil Administration was established near the Gurudwara at Aberdeen Bazaar. On 2 October 1944, Col. Loganathan handed over the charge to Maj. Alvi and left Port Blair, never to return.[4] The islands were reoccupied by British and Indian troops of the 116th Indian Infantry Brigade on 7 October 1945, to whom the remaining Japanese garrison surrendered.

Andaman and Nicobar Islands At the independence of both India (1947) and Burma (1948), the departing British announced their intention to resettle all Anglo-Indians and Anglo-Burmese on the islands to form their own nation, although this never materialized. It became part of the Indian union in 1956. It was declared a union territory on 1956.[5] :33

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Recent history
On 26 December 2004 the coasts of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands were devastated by a 10m (33ft) high tsunami following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. At least 5,930 people were believed to have been killed on the Nicobar and Andaman Islands during the disaster. The worst affected Nicobar islands were Katchal and Indira Point, the latter the southernmost point of India, which was submerged by the ocean. While newer settlers of the islands suffered the greatest casualties from the tsunami, most of the aboriginal people survived because oral traditions passed down from generations ago warned them to evacuate from large waves that follow large earthquakes.[6]

Geography
There are 394 islands in the territory having an area of 8249km2 (3185sqmi). Of these, only 38 are permanently inhabited. The islands extends from 6 to 8 North latitudes and from 92 to 94 East longitudes. The Andamans are separated from the Nicobar group by a channel (the Ten Degree Channel) some 150km (93mi) wide. The highest point is located in North Andaman Island (Saddle Peak at 732m (2402ft)). The Andaman group has 325 islands which cover an area of 6408km2 (2474sqmi) while the Nicobar group has only 24 islands with an area of 1841km2 (711sqmi).[5] :33

Aerial view of the Andaman Islands

The northernmost point of the Andaman and Nicobars group is 901km (560mi) away from the mouth of the Hooghly River and 190km (120mi) from Myanmar. The southernmost island, Great Nicobar's southernmost point, called Indira Point, lies only 150km (93mi) from Sumatra in Indonesia. The capital of the union territory, Port Blair, is located 1255km (780mi) from Kolkata, 1200km (750mi) from Visakhapatnam and 1190km (740mi) from Chennai.[5] :33

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

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Flora
Andaman & Nicobar Islands are blessed with a unique tropical rainforest canopy, made of a mixed flora with elements from Indian, Myanmarese, Malaysian and endemic floral strains. So far, about 2,200 varieties of plants have been recorded, out of which 200 are endemic and 1,300 do not occur in mainland India. The South Andaman forests have a profuse growth of epiphytic vegetation, mostly ferns and orchids. The Middle Andamans harbours mostly moist deciduous forests. North Andamans is characterized by the wet evergreen type, with plenty of woody climbers. The North Nicobar Islands (including Car Nicobar and Battimalv) are marked by the complete absence of evergreen forests, while such forests form the dominant vegetation in the central and southern islands of the Nicobar group. Grasslands occur only in the Nicobars, and while deciduous forests are common in the Andamans, they are almost absent in the Nicobars. The present forest coverage is claimed to be 86.2% of the total land area. This atypical forest coverage is made up of twelve types, namely: 1. Giant evergreen forest 2. Andamans tropical evergreen forest 3. Southern hilltop tropical evergreen forest 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Cane brakes Wet bamboo brakes Andamans semi-evergreen forest Andamans moist deciduous forest Andamans secondary moist deciduous forest Littoral forest

Map of Andaman and Nicobar Islands with an extra detailed area around Port Blair

10. Mangrove forest 11. Brackish water mixed forest 12. Submontane hill valley swamp forest Timber Andaman Forest abounds in a plethora of timber species numbering 200 or more, out of which about 30 varieties are considered to be commercial. Major commercial timber species are Gurjan (Dipterocarpus spp.) and Padauk (Pterocarpus dalbergioides). The following ornamental woods are noted for their pronounced grain formation: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Marble Wood (Diospyros marmorata) Padauk (Pterocarpus dalbergioides) Silver Grey (a special formation of wood in white chuglam) Chooi (Sageraea elliptical) Kokko (Albizzia lebbeck)

Padauk being sturdier than teak is widely used for furniture making. There are burr wood and buttress formations in Andaman Padauk. The largest piece of buttress known from Andaman was a dining table of 137ft (4.02.1m). The largest piece of burr was again a dining table to seat eight persons at a time. The holy Rudraksha (Elaeocarps sphaericus) and aromatic Dhoop/Resin trees also are found here.

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

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Fauna
These islands because some like turbo, trochus & nautilus etc. are used as novelties supporting many cottage industries producing a wide range of decorative items & ornaments. Shells such as giant clam, green mussel and oyster support edible shell fishery, a few like scallop, clam, and cockle are burnt in kilns to produce edible lime.

Demographics
The major languages spoken in the Andamans in numerical order are Bengali (32.6%), Hindi (25.95%), Tamil including Sri Lankan Tamils (17.84%), Nicobarese and Telugu (18.93%). Other languages include Malayalam and English. [8] The majority of Andamans are Hindus, with significant Muslim, Christian and Sikh minorities. Foreigners wishing to visit the Andaman and Nicobar Islands require a Restricted Area Permit; however, they are now available on arrival at Port Blair's Veer Savarkar Airport.

Administration
In 1874, the British had placed the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in one administrative territory headed by a Chief Commissioner as its judicial administrator. On 1 August 1974, the Nicobar islands were hived off into another revenue district with district headquarters at Car Nicobar under a Deputy Commissioner. In 1982, the post of Lieutenant Governor was created who replaced the Chief Commissioner as the head of administration. Subsequently a "Pradesh council" with representatives of the people was constituted to advise the Lieutenant Governor.[5]

Administrative Divisions
Andaman & Nicobar Islands are divided into 3 districts. Each districts are again sub-divided into Sub-Divisions and taluks. North and Middle Andaman district Headquarters: Mayabunder Diglipur Sub-Division Diglipur taluk Mayabunder Sub-Division Mayabunder taluk Rangat taluk South Andaman district Headquarters: Port Blair Port Blair Sub-Division Port Blair taluk Ferrargunj taluk Little Andaman Sub-Division Little Andaman taluka (Hut Bay) Nicobar District Headquarters: Car Nicobar Car Nicobar Sub-Division Car Nicobar taluk Nancowrie Sub-Division Nancowrie taluk Kamorta taluk Teressa taluk Katchal taluk

Andaman and Nicobar Islands Great Nicobar Sub-Division Great Nicobar taluk (Campbell Bay) Little Nicobar taluk

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Economy
Agriculture
A total of 48675hectares ( acres) of land is used for agriculture purposes. Paddy, the main food crop, is mostly cultivated in Andaman group of islands, whereas coconut and arecanut are the cash crops of Nicobar group of islands. Field crops, namely pulses, oilseeds and vegetables are grown, followed by paddy during Rabi season. Different kinds of fruits such as mango, sapota, orange, banana, papaya, pineapple and root crops are grown on hilly land owned by farmers. Spices such as pepper, clove, nutmeg, and cinnamon are grown under a multi-tier cropping system. Rubber, red oil, palm and cashew are grown on a limited scale in these islands.
Little Andaman Island seen by Spot satellite

Industry
There are 1,374 registered small-scale, village and handicrafts units. Two units are export oriented in the line of fish processing activity. Apart from this, there are shell and wood based handicraft units. There are also four medium sized industrial units. SSI units are engaged in the production of polythene bags, PVC conduit pipes and fittings, paints and varnished, fibre glass and mini flour mills, soft drinks and beverages, etc. Small scale and handicraft units are also engaged in shell crafts, bakery products, rice milling, furniture making , etc. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands Integrated Development Corporation has spread its wings in the field of tourism, fisheries, industries and industrial financing and functions as authorised agents for Alliance Air/Jet Airways.

Ross Island a couple of days before the tsunami of December 2004.

Macro-economic trend
This is a chart of trend of gross state domestic product of Andaman and Nicobar Islands at market prices, estimated by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, with figures in millions of Indian Rupees.[9]

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

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Year 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

Gross State Domestic Product 530 1,060 1,900 6,750 9,560 13,130

Andaman and Nicobar Islands' gross state domestic product for 2004 was estimated at $354 million in current prices.

Tourist places
Cellular Jail Baratang Barren Island Havelock Island

References
[1] http:/ / www. and. nic. in/ / [2] Palanichamy, Malliya G. Suraksha Agrawal, Yon-Gang Yao, Quing-Peng Kong, Chang Sun, Faisal Khan, Tapas Kumar Chaudhuri, and Ya-Ping Zhang. 2006. Comment on "Reconstructing the Origin of Andaman Islanders. Science 311:470 (27 January 2006). [3] Ramerini, Marco. "Chronology of Danish Colonial Settlements" (http:/ / www. colonialvoyage. com/ DanishP. html). ColonialVoyage.com. . Retrieved January 2010. [4] "Black Days in Andaman and Nicobar Islands" by Rabin Roychowdhury, [Pub. Manas] Pubs. New Delhi [5] Planning Commission of India (2008). Andaman and Nicobar Islands Development Report (http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=ujf2N5O4iKgC). State Development Report series (illustrated ed.). Academic Foundation. ISBN8171886523. . Retrieved 12 March 2011. [6] "Tsunami folklore 'saved islanders'" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ south_asia/ 4181855. stm). BBC News. 20 January 2005. . Retrieved 23 April 2010. [7] "Census Population" (http:/ / indiabudget. nic. in/ es2006-07/ chapt2007/ tab97. pdf) (PDF). Census of India. Ministry of Finance India. . Retrieved 18 December 2008. [8] INDAX A comprehensive guide to India (http:/ / www. indax. com/ basic. html) [9] http:/ / mospi. nic. in/ mospi_nad_main. htm

External links
Andaman and Nicobar Administration Website (http://www.and.nic.in/) Andaman and Nicobar Administration Website (http://www.and.nic.in/hindiand08/Hindimain.htm) (Hindi) Official Andaman and Nicobar Tourism Website (http://tourism.andaman.nic.in/) Andaman and Nicobar Islands (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/India/Andaman_and_Nicobar_Islands// ) at the Open Directory Project Andaman and Nicobar Islands travel guide from Wikitravel

Chandigarh

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Chandigarh
Chandigarh
City Beautiful Union territory

Seal

Chandigarh
Location of Chandigarh Coordinates Country District(s) Established Capital Largest city 3045N 7647E India 1 1953 Chandigarh Chandigarh [1] Mayor: Ravinder Pal Singh 1054686 (29) 9252/km2 (23963 /sqmi) 0.860(very high) Literacy 81.9%
[2]

Population Density HDI

Official languages Punjabi, Hindi and English Time zone Area Elevation IST (UTC+5:30) 114square kilometres (44sqmi)(33) 350metres (1150ft)

Chandigarh

606
ISO 3166-2 Website IN-CH chandigarh.nic.in/
[3]

Chandigarh (Punjabi: , Hindi: ) is a union territory of India that serves as the capital of two states, Punjab and Haryana. The name Chandigarh translates as "The Fort of Chandi". The name was coined from an ancient temple called Chandi Mandir, devoted to the Hindu Goddess Chandi, present in the city's vicinity.[4] It is occasionally referred to as The City Beautiful. Chandigarh Capital Region (CCR), including Mohali, Panchkula, and Zirakpur, had a combined population of 1,165,111 (1.16 million) as per the 2001 census. Earlier the Chandigarh Capital region was also called 'Tricity' because of Panchkula and Mohali as adjacent cities but with the mushrooming of other towns like Zirakpur, Kharar etc. with considerable population it is better called 'Chandigarh Capital Region'. As the first planned city of India, Chandigarh is known internationally for its architecture and urban planning.[5] Chandigarh is home to numerous architectural projects of Le Corbusier, Pierre Jeanneret, Matthew Nowicki, and Albert Mayer. The city tops the list of Indian States and Union Territories with the highest per capita income in the country at Rs.99,262 at current prices and Rs.70,361 at constant prices (20062007).[6] As per a study conducted by Ministry of Urban Development, Chandigarh has emerged as the cleanest city in India,[7] while also topping the List of Indian states and territories by Human Development Index.[8]

History
After the partition of British India into the two nations of India and Pakistan in 1947, the region of Punjab was also split between India and Pakistan. The Indian state of Punjab required a new capital city to replace Lahore, which became part of Pakistan during the partition.[9] After several plans to make additions to existing cities were found to be infeasible for various reasons, the decision to construct a new and planned city was undertaken. Of all the new town schemes in independent India, the Chandigarh project quickly assumed prime significance, because of the city's strategic location as well as the personal interest of Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of independent India. Commissioned by Nehru to reflect the new nation's modern, progressive outlook. Chandigarh were designed by the French (born Swiss) architect and urban planner, Le Corbusier, in the 1950s. Le Corbusier was in fact the second architect of the city, after the initial master plan was prepared by the American architect-planner Albert Mayer who was working with the Poland-born architect Matthew Nowicki. On 1 November 1966, the newly-formed Indian state of Haryana was carved out of the eastern portion of the Punjab, in order to create Haryana as a majority Hindi speaking state, while the western portion of Punjab retained a mostly Punjabi language-speaking majority and remained as the current day Punjab. However, the city of Chandigarh was on the border, and was thus created into a union territory to serve as capital of both these states.

Geography and climate

Chandigarh is located near the foothills of the Shivalik range of the Himalayas in Northwest India. It covers an area of approximately 44 sqmi or 114km. and shares its borders with the states of Haryana in the east and Punjab in the north, west and south. The exact cartographic co-ordinates of Chandigarh are 3044N 7647E.[10] It has an average elevation of 321 metres (1053ft). The surrounding districts are of Mohali, Patiala and Roopnagar in Punjab and Panchkula and Ambala in Haryana. The boundary of the state of Himachal Pradesh is also minutes away from its north border.

Sukhna Lake

Chandigarh Chandigarh has a humid subtropical climate characterized by a seasonal rhythm: very hot summers, mild winters, unreliable rainfall and great variation in temperature (-1 C to 41.2 C). In winter, pieces of snow sometimes occurs during December and January. The average annual rainfall is 1110.7 mm [11]. The city also receives occasional winter rains from the west.

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Average temperature
Spring: The climate remains quite pleasant during the spring season (from mid-February to mid-March and then from mid-September to mid-October). Temperatures vary between (max) 16 C to 25 C and (min) 9 C to 18 C. Autumn: In autumn (from Mid-March to April), the temperature may rise to a maximum of 36 C. Temperatures usually remain between 16 to 27 in autumn. The minimum temperature is around 11 C. Summer: The temperature in summer (from Mid-May to Mid-June) may rise to a maximum of 45 C (rarely). Temperatures generally remain between 35 C to 40 C (94 - 101F). Monsoon: During monsoon(from mid-June to mid-September), Chandigarh receives moderate to heavy rainfall and sometimes heavy to very heavy rainfall (generally during the month of August or September). Usually, the rain bearing monsoon winds blow from south-west/ south-east. Mostly, the city receives heavy rain from south (which is mainly a persistent rain) but it generally receives most of its rain during monsoon either from North-west or North-east. Maximum amount of rain received by the city of Chandigrah during monsoon season is 195.5mm in a single day. Winter: Winters (November to Mid-March) are mild but it can sometimes get quite chilly in Chandigarh. Average temperatures in the winter remain at (max) 7 C to 15 C and (min) -3 C to 5 C. Rain usually comes from the west during winters and it is usually a persistent rain for 23 days with sometimes hail-storms.

Environment
Most of Chandigarh is covered by dense Banyan and Eucalyptus plantations. Asoka, Cassia, Mulberry and other trees flourish in the forested ecosystem.The city has forests surrounding it which sustain many animal and plant species. Deers, Sambars, Barking Deers, Parrots, Woodpeckers and Peacocks inhabit the protected forests. Sukhna Lake hosts a variety of ducks and geese, and attracts migratory birds from parts of Siberia and Japan in the winter season. A parrot sanctuary located in the city is home to a variety of bird species.
Sambar in a forest

Architecture and urban planning

Taking over from Albert Mayer, Le Corbusier produced a plan for Chandigarh that conformed to the modern city planning principles of Congrs International d'Architecture Moderne CIAM, in terms of division of urban functions, an anthropomorphic plan form, and a hierarchy of road and pedestrian networks. This vision of Chandigarh, contained in the innumerable conceptual maps on the drawing board Chandigarh Secretariat Building together with notes and sketches had to be translated into brick and mortar. Le Corbusier retained many of the seminal ideas of Mayer and Nowicki, like the basic framework of the master plan and its components: The Capitol, City Center, besides the University, Industrial area, and linear parkland. Even the neighborhood unit was retained as the basic module of planning. However, the curving outline of

Chandigarh Mayer and Nowicki was reorganized into a mesh of rectangles, and the buildings were characterized by an "honesty of materials". Exposed brick and boulder stone masonry in its rough form produced unfinished concrete surfaces, in geometrical structures. This became the architectural form characteristic of Chandigarh, set amidst landscaped gardens and parks. Chandigarh Museum and Art gallery have a separate section dedicated to the architecture of Chandigarh.

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The Open Hand Monument

Chandigarh administration
Chandigarh Administration is under the control of the Administrator who is appointed under the provisions of Art 239 of the Constitution. The administrative control of Chandigarh is under the Ministry of Home Affairs. The Adviser to the Administrator, a very senior officer equivalent to the Chief Secretary of a state, belonging to one of the All India Services, is second in command after the Administrator. S/He generally belongs to the AGMU cadre of the Indian Administrative Service. The Deputy Commissioner, an officer belonging to the Indian Administrative Service, is the in-charge of the General Administration in the Chandigarh UT.
Punjab and Haryana High Court at Chandigarh

The Senior Superintendent of Police, an officer belonging to the Indian Police Service, is responsible for maintaining Law & Order and related issues in the Chandigarh UT. The Deputy Conservator of Forests, an officer belonging to the Indian Forest Service, is responsible for the management of the Forests, Environment, Wild-Life and Pollution Control in the Chandigarh UT. The above three officers are generally from AGMU cadre and can also be from Punjab or Haryana cadres of the All India Services.

Chandigarh

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Demographics
Religion in Chandigarh Religion Hinduism Sikhism Islam Others Distribution of religions Percent 78.6% 16.1% 3.9% 1.4%

As of 2001 India census,[13] Chandigarh had a population of 900,635, making for a density of about 7900 persons per square kilometre. Males constitute 56% of the population and females 44%. The sex ratio is 777 females for every 1,000 maleswhich is the lowest in the country. Chandigarh has an average literacy rate of 81.9%, higher than the national average of 64.8%; with male literacy of 86.1% and female literacy of 76.5%. About 12% of the population is under 6 years of age. The main religions in Chandigarh are Hinduism: 78.6%, Sikhism: 16.1%, Islam: 3.9%, and Christianity: 0.8%.[14] Hindi and Punjabi and are the main languages spoken in Chandigarh, although these days English is quite popular. A significant percentage of the population of Chandigarh consists of people who had moved here from the neighboring states of Haryana and Punjab to fill up the large number of vacancies in various government departments that were established in Chandigarh.

Culture and contemporary life

The culture of Chandigarh is an amalgamation of the cultures of the neighboring states with an urban tinge. The setting up of Rajiv Gandhi Software Technology Park has also added to its semi -cosmopolitan identity. Primarily, Chandigarh's culture is influenced by Punjabi, Haryanavi, Himachali, UP and Bihar. North Indian food is popular in the city. Entertainment and performing arts The Tagore theater is an important venue for stage shows. There is an open theater in Panchkula sector 5. The Indradhanush auditorium is also very popular for indoor functions.

Economy
The government is a major employer in Chandigarh with three governments having their base here. A significant percentage of Chandigarhs population therefore consists of people who are either working for one of these governments or have retired from government service. For this reason, Chandigarh is often called a Pensioner's Paradise. There are about 15 medium to large industrial including two in the Public sector. In addition Chandigarh has over 2500 units are registered under small scale sector. The important industries are paper manufacturing, basic metals and alloys and machinery. Other A Shopping mall in the city. industries are relating to food products, sanitary ware, auto parts, machine tools, pharmaceuticals and electrical appliances. Yet, with a Per capita income (PCI) of 99,262, Chandigarh is the richest city in India.[15] Chandigarh's gross state domestic product for 2004 is estimated at $2.2 billion in current prices.

Chandigarh Chandigarh has a well-developed market and banking infrastructure. Nearly all the major banks in the country have registered their presence in Chandigarh. Most banks with a pan India presence have their zonal/regional offices present in Chandigarh. The Bank Square in Sector 17 in Chandigarh has a large presence of such offices all in one section of the commercial sector. Three major trade promotion organizations have their offices in Chandigarh. These are: Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce & Industry, (FICCI) the PHD Chamber of Commerce and Industry (PHDCCI) and the Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) which has its regional headquarters at Sector 31, Chandigarh. The defence forces have a significant presence in Chandigarh, apart from the Indian Airforce base in Sector 31 and the nearby Cantonment in Chandimandir, the city is the base for sourcing supplies for the Leh - Laddakh and Siachen region of defence operations. Chandigarh IT Park (also Chandigarh Technology Park) is the city's attempt to break into the IT world. Chandigarh's infrastructure, proximity to Delhi, Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh, and the IT talent pool attracts IT businesses looking for office space in the area. Major Indian firms and multinational corporations to the like of Quark, Infosys, Dell, IBM, TechMahindra have set up base in the city and its suburbs. According to a recent Global Services Survey conducted by Cyber Media, Chandigarh is ranked 9th in the top 50 cities identified globally as emerging outsourcing and IT services destinations.[16]

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Education
Chandigarh is known for its quality school education. The schools are affiliated to different types of school curricula. The prominent colleges in Chandigarh include GGDSD College, Punjab Engineering College, University Business School (UBS), Chandigarh College Of Engineering & Technology (CCET), University Institute Of Engineering & Technology (UIET), DAV College, MCM DAV College, Government College for Girls and Boys and Government Teacher Training College. One of the most popular university that is Gandhi Bhavan built by Pierre Jeanneret for situated in chandigarh is Panjab University Chandigarh. Other popular Punjab University schools in Chandigarh are Sacred Heart Convent School Sector 26, Bhavan Vidyalaya Sector 27, Yadvindra Public School (Y.P.S) Mohali ,St Xavier's School Sec-44 , St.Stephen's School Sec-45, Shivalik Public School, Vivek High School, St. John's High School, St. Kabir ,Carmel Convent Sec-9, St. Joseph's Sr. Sec. School Sec-44, St. Anne's School Sec-32, Delhi Public School Sec 40, etc. There are model schools set up by the government in various sectors, originally aimed to cater the needs of each sector. It is a major study hub for students all over Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, J&K, Punjab, Bihar, Uttaranchal, and also for students from South-East Asia. Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (PGIMER)is a premier medical research institute which works with the primary mandate of medical research and Post-Graduate medical education. The institute serves as prime tertiary level medical care facility for the region. The institute was formed by the act of parliament and is centrally governed.

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Transport
Chandigarh has the largest number of vehicles per capita in India.[17] Wide, well maintained roads and ample parking space all over the city, make it convenient to use private vehicles for local transport. Chandigarh is well connected by road by NH 22 (Ambala - Kalka Shimla - Kinnaur) and NH 21 (Chandigarh - Leh). Chandigarh has a railway station and an International Airport. Metro Rail project is underway for the region.

"Green Bus" introduced by the CTU runs throughout Chandigarh

Sporting venues and gardens

Chandigarh is home to numerous inter state sporting teams in tournaments like PHL and IPL. The city has built upon this achievements a network of sound infrastructure ranging from stadium to training camps. This include the entire gamut from cricket stadiums, swimming pools, shooting ranges to skating rinks and hockey stadiums. Chandigarh also has gardens across the entire city. Chandigarh is home to world famous Rock Garden, built from mostly from waste material. Another well known garden is the Rose Garden. Other gardens include Garden of Annuals, Fragrance Garden, Hibiscus Garden, Chrysanthemum Garden, Botanical Garden and Shanti Kunj.

The popular Sector-42 Hockey Stadium

Academic works
Evenson, Norma. Chandigarh. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1966. Joshi, Kiran. Documenting Chandigarh: The Indian Architecture of Pierre Jeanneret, Edwin Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew. Ahmedabad: Mapin Publishing in association with Chandigarh College of Architecture, 1999. ISBN 1-890206-13-X Kalia, Ravi. Chandigarh: The Making of an Indian City. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999. Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew. Chandigarh and Planning Development in India, London: Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, No.4948, 1 April 1955, Vol.CIII, pages 315-333. I. The Plan, by E. Maxwell Fry, II. Housing, by Jane B. Drew. Nangia, Ashish. Re-locating Modernism: Chandigarh, Le Corbusier and the Global Postcolonial. PhD Dissertation, University of Washington, 2008. Perera, Nihal. "Contesting Visions: Hybridity, Liminality and Authorship of the Chandigarh Plan" Planning Perspectives 19 (2004): 175-199 Prakash, Vikramaditya. Chandigarhs Le Corbusier: The Struggle for Modernity in Postcolonial India. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2002. Sarin, Madhu. Urban Planning in the Third World: The Chandigarh Experience. London: Mansell Publishing, 1982.

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References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] http:/ / www. indianexpress. com/ news/ mayor-suggests-steps-to-make-chandigarh-wome/ 643661/ (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ 2011-prov-results/ prov_data_products. html) http:/ / chandigarh. nic. in/ The Official Government Website (http:/ / chandigarh. gov. in/ knowchd_general. htm) Business Portal of India (http:/ / business. gov. in/ investment_incentives/ chandigarh. php) "Front Page News : Monday, July 26, 2010" (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ 2008/ 09/ 17/ stories/ 2008091755600800. htm). Chennai, India: The Hindu. 2008-09-17. . Retrieved 2010-07-26. [7] "India's cleanest: Where does your city stand?: Rediff.com News" (http:/ / news. rediff. com/ slide-show/ 2010/ may/ 11/ slide-show-1-chandigarh-cleanest-of-all. htm). News.rediff.com. 2010-05-13. . Retrieved 2010-07-26. [8] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ List_of_Indian_states_by_Human_Development_Index [9] http:/ / www. chandigarh. co. uk/ history. html [10] Falling Rain Genomics, Inc - Chandigarh (http:/ / www. fallingrain. com/ world/ IN/ 5/ Chandigarh. html) [11] http:/ / chandigarh. nic. in/ knowchd_general. htm [12] "Census population" (http:/ / sampark. chd. nic. in/ images/ State_2006/ StatisticalAbstract2004/ Areapopulation/ area_pop_tab2. 1. pdf) (PDF). Census of India. http:/ / sampark. chd. nic. in. . Retrieved 2008-06-04. [13] "Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20040616075334/ http:/ / www. censusindia. net/ results/ town. php?stad=A& state5=999). Census Commission of India. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. censusindia. net/ results/ town. php?stad=A& state5=999) on 2004-06-16. . Retrieved 2008-11-01. [14] Indian Census (http:/ / censusindia. gov. in/ Dist_File/ datasheet-0401. pdf) [15] Chandigarh's the richest of 'em all (http:/ / www. ibnlive. com/ news/ chandigarhs-the-richest-of-em-all/ 12571-3. html) [16] The Hindu Business Line (http:/ / www. thehindubusinessline. com/ 2007/ 10/ 03/ stories/ 2007100351450400. htm) [17] http:/ / www. mapsofindia. com/ top-ten-cities-of-india/ top-ten-highest-no-of-car-ownership. html

External links
Chandigarh travel guide from Wikitravel Chandigarh Administration Official Site (http://chandigarh.gov.in/)

Dadra and Nagar Haveli

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Dadra and Nagar Haveli

Dadra and Nagar Haveli /
union territory

Silvassa
Location of Dadra and Nagar Haveli / Coordinates Country District(s) Established Capital Administrator Population Density HDI(2005) 0.618(medium) Official languages Gujarati, Marathi Time zone Area ISO 3166-2 Website IST (UTC+5:30) 487square kilometres (188sqmi)(4th) IN-DN dnh.nic.in
[1]

2016N 7301E India 1 1961-08-11 Silvassa Shri Satya Gopal, IAS 342853(5th) 2 704/km (1823/sqmi)

Dadra and Nagar Haveli (Gujarati: , Marathi: , Hindi: ) is a Union Territory in western India. Nagar Haveli is wedged between Maharashtra and Gujarat, whereas Dadra is an enclave lying a few kilometres north of Nagar Haveli in Gujarat. Its capital is Silvassa. The territory lies some ten to thirty kilometres up-river from the city of Daman. Dadra and Nagar Haveli are in the watershed of the Daman Ganga River, which flows through the territory. The towns of Dadra and Silvassa both lie on the north bank of the river. The Western Ghats range rises to the east, and the foothills of the range occupy the eastern portion of the district. The territory is landlocked, although the Arabian Sea coast lies just to the west in Gujarat. The major spoken languages in the territory are Gujarati, Hindi and Marathi.[2]

Dadra and Nagar Haveli

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History
Portuguese era
In 1783, Nagar-Aveli was given to the Portuguese as a compensation for the sinking of a Portuguese ship by the Maratha navy. Then, in 1785 the Portuguese purchased Dadra. It was administered by the Portuguese Governor of Daman until 1954.

Liberation of Dadra and Nagar Haveli

After India attained Independence in 1947, the residents of Dadra and Nagar Haveli, with the help of volunteers of organisations like the United Front of Goans (UFG), the National Movement Liberation Organisation (NMLO) and the Azad Gomantak Dal liberated the territories of Dadra and Nagar Haveli from Portuguese rule in 1954.[3]

Integration into India

Although it enjoyed de facto independence, Dadra and Nagar Haveli were still recognized internationally (e.g., by the International Court of Justice) as Portuguese possessions.[4] The residents of the former colony requested the Government of India for administrative help. Mr. K.G. Badlani, an officer of the Indian Administrative Service (IAS) was sent as the administrator. From 1954 to 1961, the territory was administered by a body called the Varishta Panchayat of Free Dadra and Nagar Haveli.[5] [6] In 1961 when Indian forces took over Goa, Daman, and Diu, Mr. Badlani was, for one day, designated the Prime Minister of Dadra and Nagar Haveli, so that, as Head of State, he could sign an agreement with the Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru, and formally merge Dadra and Nagar Haveli with the Republic of India.

Old map of the territory.

Administration
A Lieutenant Governor administers the territory, which covers an area of 188 sqmi or 487 km and consists of two talukas: Dadra Nagar Haveli Dadra is the headquarters of Dadra taluka, comprising Dadra town and two other villages. Silvassa is the headquarters of Nagar Haveli taluka, comprising Silvassa town and 68 other villages.

Dadra and Nagar Haveli

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Economy
Dadra and Nagar Haveli's gross state domestic product for 2004 is estimated at $218 million in current prices. Manufacturing is the main economy in Dadra and Nagar Haveli as the taxes are low.[8]

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] http:/ / dnh. nic. in Dadra Nagar Haveli tourism (http:/ / dnh. nic. in/ Home Page_files/ Tourism/ silvassa. pdf) P S Lele, Dadra and Nagar Haveli: past and present, Published by Usha P. Lele, 1987, "Case concerning Right of Passage over Indian Territory (Merits), Judgement of 12 April 1960" (http:/ / www. icj-cij. org/ docket/ files/ 32/ 4521. pdf). International Court of Justice Reports 1960: 6. . Retrieved 2011-04-01. Constitution of India, 10th Amendment Umaji Keshao Meshram & Ors v. Radhikabhai w/o Anandrao Banapurkar AIR 1986 SC 1272 (http:/ / www. austlii. edu. au/ ~andrew/ CommonLII/ INSC/ 1986/ 43. html): this judgment mentions the Administration of Dadra and Nagar Haveli in this period "Census Population" (http:/ / indiabudget. nic. in/ es2006-07/ chapt2007/ tab97. pdf) (PDF). Census of India. Ministry of Finance India. . Retrieved 2008-12-18. Industries in Dadar and Nagar Haveli (http:/ / www. dnh. nic. in/ industry. html)

External links
Government website (http://dnh.nic.in/) Dadra and Nagar Haveli travel guide from Wikitravel

Daman and Diu

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Daman and Diu

Daman and Diu
union territory

Daman
Location of Daman and Diu Coordinates Country District(s) Established Capital Administrator Population Density HDI(2005) 0.754(medium) Official languages Marathi,Gujarati, Hindi, English Time zone Area ISO 3166-2 IST (UTC+5:30) 112square kilometres (43sqmi)(6th(among u.t.)) IN-DD 2025N 7250E India 2 1987-05-30 Daman Shri Satya Gopal, IAS 242911(6th(among u.t.)) 2 2169/km (5618/sqmi)

Daman and Diu (Gujarati: , Portuguese: Damo e Diu) is a union territory in India. For over 450 years, the coastal enclaves of Daman and Diu on the Arabian Sea coast were part of Portuguese India, along with Goa and Dadra and Nagar Haveli. Goa, Daman, and Diu were incorporated into the Republic of India on 19 December 1961, by military conquest; Portugal did not recognize the Indian annexation of these territories until 1974. Goa, Daman, and Diu were administered as part of a single union territory until 1987, when Goa was granted statehood, leaving Daman and Diu as a separate union territory; each enclave constitutes one of the union territory's two districts. Marathi, Gujarati and English are the official[1] and main languages.[2] [3] The use of Portuguese goes on declining because it is no longer official nor taught at school, though a number of elder people can still understand it, some even preferring it for discourse at home. In addition to standard Portuguese, there are two also shrinking Portuguese-based creole languages in Daman (known as Lngua da Casa, "Home Language") and Diu (Lngua dos

Daman and Diu Velhos, "Elders' Language"). English is increasingly accepted for official purposes.

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Districts
Diu District, an area of 40 km. The main settlement is the town of Diu. Daman District, an area of 28 sqmi or 72 km. The main settlement is the city of Daman.

Economy
Daman and Diu's gross state domestic product for 2005 is estimated at $156 million in current prices.

Notes
[1] The Goa, Daman and Diu Official Language Act, 1987 (http:/ / india. gov. in/ allimpfrms/ allacts/ 419. pdf) [2] Tourism of India: Daman and Diu (http:/ / www. tourism-of-india. com/ damananddiu. html) [3] Daman & Diu (http:/ / www. whereincity. com/ india/ daman/ ) [4] "Census Population" (http:/ / indiabudget. nic. in/ es2006-07/ chapt2007/ tab97. pdf) (PDF). Census of India. Ministry of Finance India. . Retrieved 2008-12-18.

St. Paul's Church in Diu

External links
Daman Administration's Official Website (http://www.daman.nic.in/) Daman Online Website (http://www.damanonline.com/) Daman and Diu Tourism's Official Website (http://www.damandiutourism.com/) Daman and Diu at wikitravel (http://wikitravel.org/en/Daman_and_Diu) Commissioner Linguistic Minorities; 42nd Report; July 2003 to June 2004 (http://nclm.nic.in/shared/ linkimages/35.htm)

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Lakshadweep
Lakshadweep Islands
Union Territory

Seal

Kavaratti
Location of Lakshadweep Islands Coordinates Country State District(s) Established Capital Largest city Administrator Population Density HDI(2005) 0.796(medium) Official languages Malayalam, English[1] Ethnicgroups Time zone Area ISO 3166-2 84.33% Malayali 15.67% Mahls IST (UTC+5:30) 32square kilometres (12sqmi) IN-LD 1034N 7237E India Lakshadweep 1 1956-11-10 Kavaratti Andrott J. K. Dadoo 64429 2013/km2 (5214/sqmi)

Lakshadweep
[2]

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Website

www.lakshadweep.gov.in

Lakshadweep (listen; Malayalam: Lakadvp), also known as the Laccadive Islands, is a group of islands in the Laccadive Sea, 200 to 440km off the coast of the South West Indian state of Kerala. The islands form the smallest Union Territory of India. The total land area is 11 sqmi or 32 km. Ten of the islands are inhabited. Lakshadweep is the northern part of the erstwhile Lakshadweepa. The islands are the northernmost among the Lakshadweep-Maldives-Chagos group of islands, which are actually the tops of a vast undersea mountain range, in the Indian Ocean and the Arabian Sea.[3] The land area is 32km2; the lagoon area is about 4200km2, the territorial waters area is 20,000km2 and the economic zone area is 400,000km2.

Etymology
Lakshadweep, comes from Lakshadweepa, which literally means one hundred thousand ( laksha) islands ( dweepa) in Sanskrit. It is the least populous Union Territory of India

History
The earliest references to the islands is made in Puranuru as part of the ancient Tamil (Dravidian) country, Tamilakam. Little else is known about the early history of the Lakshadweep islands. There are references to the control of the islands by the Cheras in the Sangam literature Pathitruppaththu. A Pallava inscription of 7th century AD refers to the islands as Dveepa Laksham and lists them as part of the Pallava domain. Local traditions and legends attribute the first settlement on these islands to the period of Cheraman Perumal, the last Chera king of Kerala.[4] The oldest inhabited islands in the group are Amini, Kalpeni Andrott, Kavaratti and Agatti. Lakshadweep islanders were originally Hindus who later converted to Islam in the 14th century. However, recent archaeological evidence has established that Buddhist settlements also had existed in the islands as early as the 6th or 7th century. According to popular tradition, Islam was brought to Lakshadweep by an Arab named Ubaidulla in 41 (661 AD). His grave is located in the island of Andrott. Muslim grave stones dated to 139 (756 AD) have also been discovered here. During the 11th century, the islands came under the rule of the Late Cholas. In the 17th century, the islands came under the rule of Ali Rajahs/Arakkal Bheevi of Kannur, who received them as a gift from the Kolathiris. The Portuguese took control to exploit coir production until the islanders expelled the Portuguese. The islands are also mentioned in great detail in the stories of the Arab traveller Ibn Batuta. The Amindivi group of islands (Amini, Kadmat, Kiltan, Chetlat and Bitra) came under the rule of Tipu Sultan in 1787. They passed to British control after the Third Anglo-Mysore War and were attached to South Canara. The rest of the islands came under the suzerainty of the Arakkal family of Cannanore in return for a payment of annual tribute. The British took over the administration of those islands for non-payment of arrears. These islands were attached to the Malabar district of the Madras Presidency during the British Raj.

Independent India
Sardar Patel is the man behind the integration of Lakshadweep Islands with the Republic of India. The inhabitants of these islands were cut off from the mainstream of the country and learnt about Indian Independence days after 15 August 1947. It was Patel who realised that Pakistan could lay claim to these islands on the grounds of Muslim majority, though the islands were nowhere near the new state of Pakistan. An Indian Navy ship was sent to Lakshadweep to hoist the national flag by Patel to thwart any attempt by Pakistan to grab the islands. Hours later, vessels belonging to the Pakistan Navy were spotted near the islands.These vessels however retreated to Karachi after seeing the Indian flag flying over the Lakshadweep.[5]

Lakshadweep In 1956, despite the fact that most of the Islanders were Malayalis, the States Reorganisation Act separated these islands from the mainland administrative units, forming a new union territory by combining all the islands.

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Geography
Lakshadweep is an archipelago of twelve atolls, three reefs and five submerged banks, with a total of about thirty-nine islands and islets. The reefs are in fact also atolls, although mostly submerged, with only small unvegetated sand cays above the high water mark. The submerged banks are sunken atolls. Almost all the atolls have a northeast-southwest orientation with the islands lying on the eastern rim, and a mostly submerged reef on the western rim, enclosing a lagoon.It has 10 inhabited islands, 17 uninhabited islands, attached islets, 4 newly formed islets and 5 submerged reefs. The main islands are Kavaratti (where the capital city, Kavaratti, is located), Agatti, Minicoy, and Amini. The total population of the territory was 60,595 according to the 2001 census. Agatti has an airport where there are direct flights from Kochi, Kerala or Ernakulam (Cochin). Tourists need a permit [6] to visit the islands; foreign nationals are not permitted to visit certain islands. Consumption of alcohol is not permitted in the islands except on Bangaram Island.

Lakshadweep Islands map

India`s Coral Islands

The Amindivi group islands (consisting of Amini, Keltan, Chetlat, Kadamat, Bitra and Peremul Par) and the Lakshadweep group islands (comprising mainly Androth, Kalpeni, Kavaratti, Pitti and Suheli Par), both have a submarine connection between them, together with the Minicoy Island form the Coral Islands of India in the Arabian Sea. All these islands have been built up by corals and have fringing coral reefs very close to their shores.[7] Two banks further north are not considered part of the group: Angria Bank Adas Bank The atolls, reefs and banks are listed from north to south in the table:

One of the uninhabited islands in Lakshadweep

Lakshadweep

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Worms-eye view of the lighthouse in Minicoy Island

Atoll/Reef/Bank (alternate name)

type

Land Lagoon Area Area (km) (km)

No. Pop. of Census islets 2001

Location

Amindivi Islands Cora Divh Sesostris Bank Bassas de Pedro (Munyal Par, Padua Bank) bank bank bank 339.45 388.53 2474.33 - 1342N 7211E - 1308N 7200E - 1307N 7225E

Cherbaniani Reef (Beleapani Reef) reef Byramgore Reef (Chereapani) Chetlat Island Bitr Island Kiltn Island Kadmat Island (Cardamum) Elikalpeni Bank Peremul Par Amini Island 1) reef atoll atoll atoll atoll bank reef atoll

0.01 0.01 1.14 0.10 2.20 3.20 0.01

172.59 57.46 1.60 45.61 1.76 37.50 95.91 83.02

2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1

- 1218N 7153E - 1154N 7149E 2289 1142N 7242E 264 1133N 7209E 3664 1129N 7300E 5319 1114N 7247E - 1112N 7358E - 1110N 7204E 7340 1106N 7245E

2.59 155.09 1)

Laccadive Islands Bangaram Island (Bangaram) 2) Agatti Island 2) Pitti Island 1) Androth Island (Andrott) Kavaratti Island Kalpeni Island atoll atoll island 1) atoll atoll atoll 2.30 3.84 46.25 17.50 4 4 1 1 1 7 - 3) 1056N 7217E 7072 1050N 7212E - 1050N 7238E 10720 1050N 7341E 10113 1033N 7238E 4319 1005N 7338E

0.01 155.09 1) 4.90 4.22 2.79 4.84 4.96 25.60

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Suheli Par atoll 0.57 Minicoy Investigator Bank Minicoy Island Lakshadweep bank atoll 4.80 32.69 141.78 30.60 4203.14 2 32 - 0832N 7317E 9495 0817N 7302E 60595 0816'-1358'N, 7144-7424'E 78.76 2 - 1005N 7217E

1)

Amini Island and Pitti Island are both on Pitti Bank, a largely sunken atoll with a lagoon area of 155.09km
2)

Bingaram and Agatti Islands are connected by a shallow submarine ridge

3)

new international tourist resort, otherwise uninhabited, but with a population 61 at the 1990 census

Politics
Lakshadweep forms a single Indian district and is governed by an administrator appointed by the central government of India. The union territory comes under the jurisdiction of the Kerala High Court at Ernakulam. The territory elects one member to the Lok Sabha (lower house of the Parliament of India). There is no local government at the moment but the administration plans to introduce a two-tiered system based on the Panchayati raj. There will be ten island councils for the inhabited islands (with a total of 79 members).

Demographics
Languages
The principal languages of Lakshadweep are Malayalam, Jeseri (Dweep Bhasha) and Mahl.[9] The people of all the northern islands speak a dialect of Malayalam with Tamil and Arabic influences, due to extensive trade activities of these people. The people of Minicoy, the southernmost atoll, speak Mahl, a variant of Divehi language spoken in the Maldives. Malayalam with Malayalam script was introduced as the official language of Lakshadweep during the British raj. Previously a type of Arabic script was used for the language. The policy was continued by the Indian government. Malayalam serves as a link language on the islands including on the Mahl dominated Minicoy Island.[10]

Ethnicity
The islanders are ethnically similar to coastal Kerala's Malayali people, and were influenced by Arab traders. Inhabitants of Minicoy, the southernmost and second largest island, are ethnically Dhivehis native to the Maldives. This group of Dhivehis form a subgroup of Dhivehis, sometimes referred by the name Mahls. Most of the indigenous population is Sunni-Muslim. The locals of all the islands except Minicoy call themselves the Div-i or the Aminidivi ("from the mother island"). Lakshadweep's ethnic groups can be classified as 84.33% Malayali, and 15.67% Dhivehi.

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Economy
Lakshadweep's gross state domestic product for 2004 is estimated at US$60million at current prices. Coconut fibre extraction and production of fibre products is Lakshadweep's main industry. There are five coir fibre factories, five production demonstration centres and seven fibre curling units run by the government of India. These units produce coir fibre, coir yarn, curled fibre and corridor mattings.

Tourism
Due to its isolation and scenic appeal, Lakshadweep is emerging as a major tourist attraction for Indians. This brings in significant revenue, which is likely to increase. Since such a small region cannot support industries, the government is actively promoting tourism as a means of income. Water sports activities such as scuba diving, wind surfing, snorkelling, kayaking, canoeing, water skiing, yachting and night-voyage into sea are adventurous as well as quite popular among tourists. Hundreds of varieties of living corals, dolphins, sea turtles, sea urchins, seabirds, seaweeds, sea cucumbers, starfish, cowry, clams, eels, swordfish, octopus and innumerable types of lagoon triggerfish, etc. are a real delightful treat to the eyes of a naturalist. Tourists flock these islands throughout the year except during the South-west monsoon months when sea is extremely rough.
A beach side resort at Kadmat Island, Lakshadweep

A beach at Kavaratti

Fisheries
Being rich in marine life and mineral resources, fishing is naturally the main livelihood of the islanders. Though all varieties of fish available in the lagoons, Tuna fish variety is available in abundance around the Lakshadeep sea. Fresh tuna caught is processed by drying it in the Sun after cooking and smoking.The resultant product, known as `Mas`, as well as Tuna-pickle are popular products exported from these islands worldwide. Sharks, crabs, shrimp, lobsters, etc. are also available in plenty.

Other products
The worlds first ever low temperature thermal desalination plant (LTTD) was opened in Kavaratti, one of the Indian Lakshadweep islands. The plant cost about 50million (922,000) and will produce 100,000litres/day of potable water from sea water. Production costs, currently 220-250/m (4.1-4.6/m), are expected to go do down to 30-60/m (0.55-1.11/m) as the capacity is increased. LTTD technology involves flashing relatively warm sea water (28-30 deg Celsius) inside a vacuum flash chamber and condensing the resultant vapour using deep sea cold water (7-15 C). The cold water for the Kavaratti plant is drawn at a depth of 350m some 400m from the shore. The technology was developed by the National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT). It can be used not only to produce drinking water but also for power generation and air conditioning. In addition, the deep sea water contains extra nutrients for fish, an important source of food and income for the local population.

Lakshadweep The government plans to set up desalination plants with a capacity of 10million litres/per day on all islands and coastal areas. Source: Gov of India Press Information Bureau, 23 May 2005

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Agriculture
Coconut is the main crop cultivated in the islands. Lakshadweep is India's largest producer of coconuts. About 2,598hectares are under coconut cultivation and the productivity per hectare is 22,310. Coconuts cultivated in the Lakshadweep are also rich in coconut oil.

Transport
Agatti Aerodrome on Agatti Island is currently the only airport in Lakshadweep. Indian Airlines, the state-owned carrier, serves Agatti and flies to Kochi on the mainland. Also, from April 2007, a private carrier, Kingfisher Airlines, has commenced flights to and from Agatti. Kingfisher connects Kochi and Bangalore to Agatti. The other islands are linked by the Pawan Hans helicopter or boat service. Ships are the major means of transportation for the islanders. Ships are operated from either Kochi, Mangalore or Beypore (Calicut). There are Passenger ship M.V. Amindivi of the around 5 passenger ships, but generally only two at a time operate. Lakshadweep Islands administration docked at Advance bookings are required. Sailing schedules are arranged so that Old Mangalore port each island gets priority at some time of the year. There are vessels operating between some of the larger islands like Kavaratti, Androth, Kalpeni etc., but sailings are affected by weather conditions.

References
[1] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=vpZv2GHM7VQC& pg=PA134& dq=Lakshadweep+ malayalam& hl=en& ei=YeJ4TZS4F4rMswbl7vjZBw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=7& ved=0CEgQ6AEwBjgy#v=onepage& q=Lakshadweep%20malayalam& f=false [2] http:/ / www. lakshadweep. gov. in [3] http:/ / www. nationalgeographic. com/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ im/ im0125. html [4] `Lakshadweep & It`s People 1992-1993`Planning Department,Govt. Secretariat,Lakshadweep Administration,Kavaratti. page:12 [5] Gopal K. Bhargava, S. C. Bhatt (2006). Land and people of Indian states and union territories: in 36 volumes. Lakshadweep (http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=eLSqp6EMxWAC& dq=). Gyan Publishing House. pp.232. ISBN8178353911. .Page 29 [6] http:/ / lakshadweep. nic. in/ [7] `INDIA: A Physical Geography`(ISBN 81-230-0656-X),1968,Publications Dn, Ministry of I&B, Govt. of India. page:74. [8] "Census Population" (http:/ / indiabudget. nic. in/ es2006-07/ chapt2007/ tab97. pdf) (PDF). Census of India. Ministry of Finance India. . Retrieved 2008-12-18. [9] About Lakshadweep on india.gov.in (http:/ / india. gov. in/ knowindia/ ut_lakshadweep. php) [10] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=b_a4G_Tw2ycC& pg=PA13& dq=Lakshadweep+ malayalam& hl=en& ei=KuV4TeqwIszHsgb53oTlBw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=2& ved=0CDcQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage& q=Lakshadweep%20malayalam& f=false

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External links
Official website (http://http://www.lakshadweep.gov.in)

Delhi
Delhi
Capital

From top clockwise: Lotus Temple, Humayun's Tomb, Connaught Place, Akshardham Temple, and India Gate.

Delhi
Location of Delhi in India Coordinates Country Territory Lt. Governor Chief Minister Mayor Legislature (seats) 283636N 771348E India Delhi Tejendra Khanna Sheila Dikshit Prof. Rajni Abbi Unicameral (70)

Delhi
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Population Density Metro HDI(2005) 0.789(very high) Official languages Time zone Area Elevation Website English, Hindi, Urdu, Punjabi IST (UTC+5:30) 1483square kilometres (573sqmi)(1st) [3] 239metres (784ft) delhigovt.nic.in
[4]

16,753,235 (2nd)(2011) 11297/km2 (29259 /sqmi) [2] 18,916,890 (2nd)(2010)

Seal of Delhi

Delhi, locally pronounced as Dilli (Hindi: , Punjabi: , Urdu: Urdu:

)or Dehli (Hindi: , Punjabi: ,

,)

officially National Capital Territory of Delhi (NCT), is the largest metropolis by area and the

second-largest metropolis by population in India.[5] [6] [7] [8] It is the eighth largest metropolis in the world by population with 16,753,235 inhabitants in the Territory at the 2011 Census. There are nearly 22.2 million residents in the greater National Capital Region urban area (which also includes Noida, Greater Noida, Ghaziabad, Gurgaon and Faridabad along with other smaller nearby towns).[2] The name Delhi is often also used to include urban areas near the NCT, as well as to refer to New Delhi, the capital of India, which lies within the metropolis. Although technically a federally administered union territory, the political administration of the NCT of Delhi today more closely resembles that of a state of India with its own legislature, high court and an executive council of ministers headed by a Chief Minister. New Delhi, jointly administered by both the federal Government of India and the local Government of Delhi, is also the capital of the NCT of Delhi. Located on the banks of the River Yamuna, Delhi has been known to be continuously inhabited since at least the 6th century BC,[9] though human habitation is believed to have existed since the second millennium BC.[10] Delhi is also widely believed to have been the site of Indraprastha, the legendary capital of the Pandavas during the times of the Mahabharata.[11] Delhi re-emerged as a major political, cultural and commercial city along the trade routes between northwest India and the Gangetic plain after the rise of the Delhi sultanates.[12] [13] It is the site of many ancient and medieval monuments, archaeological sites and remains. In 1639, Mughal emperor Shahjahan built a new walled city in Delhi which served as the capital of the Mughal Empire from 1649 to 1857.[14] [15] After the British East India Company had gained control of much of India during the 18th and 19th centuries, Calcutta became the capital both under Company rule and under the British Raj, until George V announced in 1911 that it was to move back to Delhi. A new capital city, New Delhi, was built to the south of the old city during the 1920s.[16] When India gained independence from British rule in 1947, New Delhi was declared its capital and seat of government. As such, New Delhi houses important offices of the federal government, including the Parliament of India, as well as numerous national museums, monuments, and art galleries. Owing to the migration of people from across the country, Delhi has grown to be a multicultural, cosmopolitan metropolis. Its rapid development and urbanisation, coupled with the relatively high average income of its population, has transformed Delhi into a major cultural, political, and commercial centre of India.[17]

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Etymology and idioms

The Etymology and idioms of "Delhi" is uncertain, but many possibilities exist. The very common view is that its eponym is Dhillu or Dilu, a king of the Mauryan dynasty, who built the city in 50 BC and named it after himself.[11] [18] [19] The Hindi/Prakrit word dhili ("loose") was used by the Tomaras to refer to the city because the Iron Pillar built by Raja Dhava had a weak foundation and was replaced.[19] The coins in circulation in the region under the Tomaras were called dehliwal.[20] Some other historians believe that the name is derived from Dilli, a corruption of dehleez or dehaliUrdu for 'threshold'and symbolic of city as a gateway to the Gangetic Plain.[21] Another theory suggests that the city's original name was Dhillika.[22] Delhi is referenced in various idioms of North Indian and Pakistani languages. Examples include Abhi Dilli door hai (or, its Persian version, Hanooz Dilli door ast) literally meaning Delhi is still far away, which is generically said about a task or journey is still far from complete.[23] [24] Dilli dilwalon ka shehr or Dilli Dilwalon ki meaning Delhi belongs to the large-hearted/daring.[25] Aas-paas barse, Dilli pari tarse literally meaning it pours all around, while Delhi lies parched. An allusion to the sometimes semi-arid climate of Delhi, it idiomatically refers to situations of deprivation when there is plenty all around.[24]

History
Human habitation was probably present in and around Delhi during the second millennium BC and before,[10] and continuous inhabitation has been evidenced since at least the 6th century BC.[9] The city is believed to be the site of Indraprastha, legendary capital of the Pandavas in the Indian epic Mahabharata.[11] Settlements grew from the time of the Mauryan Empire (c. 300 BC).[10] Remains of seven major cities have been discovered in Delhi. The Tomara dynasty founded the city of Lal Kot in AD 736. The Chauhans conquered Lal Kot in 1180 and renamed it Qila Rai Pithora. The Chauhan king Prithviraj III was defeated in 1192 by the Afghan Muhammad Ghori.[11] In 1206, Qutb-ud-din Aybak, the first ruler of the Slave Dynasty established the Delhi Sultanate. Qutb-ud-din started the construction the Qutub Minar and Quwwat-al-Islam (might of Islam), the earliest extant mosque in India.[11] [28] After the fall of the Slave dynasty, a succession of Turkic and Afghan dynasties, the Khilji dynasty, the Tughluq dynasty, the Sayyid dynasty and the Lodhi dynasty held power in the late medieval period, and built a sequence of forts and townships that are part of the seven cities of Delhi.[29]

At 72.5m (238ft), the Qutub Minar is the world's [26] tallest free-standing brick minaret.

Built in 1560, Humayun's Tomb is the first [27] example of Mughal tomb complexes.

In 1398, Timur Lenk invaded India on the pretext that the Muslim sultans of Delhi were too lenient towards their Hindu subjects. Timur entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins.[30] Near Delhi, Timur massacred 100,000 captives.[31] Delhi was a major centre of Sufism during the Sultanate period.[32] In 1526, Zahiruddin Babur defeated the last Lodhi sultan in the First Battle of Panipat and founded the Mughal Empire that ruled from Delhi, Agra and Lahore.[11]

Delhi

628 The Mughal Empire ruled northern India for more than three centuries, with a sixteen-year hiatus during the reign of Sher Shah Suri, from 1540 to 1556.[33] During 15531556, the Hindu king, Hemu Vikramaditya acceded to the throne of Delhi by defeating forces of Mughal Emperor Akbar at Agra and Delhi. However, the Mughals reestablished their rule after Akbar's army defeated Hemu during the Second Battle of Panipat.[34] [35] [36] Shah Jahan built the seventh city of Delhi that bears his name (Shahjahanabad), and is more commonly known as the "Old City" or "Old Delhi". The old city served as the capital of the Mughal Empire from 1638. After 1680, the Mughal Empire's influence declined rapidly as the Hindu Marathas rose to prominence.[37]

Red Fort, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is the location from which the Prime Minister of India addresses the nation on Independence Day

A weakened Mughal Empire lost the Battle of Karnal, following which the victorious forces of Nader Shah invaded and looted Delhi, carrying away many treasures, including the Peacock Throne.[38] A treaty signed in 1752 made Marathas the protector of the Mughal throne at Delhi.[39] In 1761, after the Marathas lost the third battle of Panipat, Delhi was raided by Ahmed Shah Abdali. In 1803, the forces of British East India Company overran the Maratha forces near Delhi and ended the Mughal rule over the city.[40] After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, Delhi came under direct rule of the British crown and was made a district province of the Punjab.[11] In 1911, the capital of British India was transferred from Calcutta to Delhi, following which a team of British architects led by Edwin Lutyens designed a new political and administrative area, known as New Delhi, to house the government buildings. New Delhi, also known as Lutyens' Delhi, was officially declared as the capital of the Union of India after the country gained independence on 15 August 1947. During the partition of India, thousands of Hindu and Sikh refugees from West Punjab and Sindh fled to Delhi, while many Muslim residents of the city migrated to Pakistan. Starting on 31 October 1984, approximately three thousand Sikhs were killed during the four-day long anti-Sikh riots after the Sikh body guards of then-Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi, assassinated her. Migration to Delhi from the rest of India continues, contributing more to the rise of Delhi's population than the birth rate, which is declining.[41] The Constitution (Sixty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1991 declared the Union Territory of Delhi to be formally known as National Capital Territory of Delhi.[42] The Act gave Delhi its own legislative assembly, though with limited powers.[42] In December 2001, the Parliament of India building in New Delhi was attacked by armed militants resulting in the death of six security personnel.[43] India suspected the hand of Pakistan-based militant groups in the attacks resulting in a major diplomatic crisis between the two countries.[44] Delhi again witnessed terrorist attacks in October 2005 and September 2008 resulting in the deaths of 62[45] and 30[46] civilians respectively.

Geography
The National Capital Territory of Delhi is spread over an area of 1484km2 (573sqmi) , of which 783km2 (302sqmi) is designated rural, and 700km2 (270sqmi) urban. Delhi has a maximum length of 51.9km (32mi) and the maximum width of 48.48km (30mi). There are three local bodies (statutory towns) namely, Municipal Corporation of Delhi (area is 1397.3 km2 or 540sqmi), New Delhi Municipal Committee (42.7 km2 or 16sqmi) and Delhi Cantonment Board (43 km2 or 17sqmi).[47]
River Yamuna near Delhi

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Delhi is an expansive area, in its extremity it spans from Narela in the north to Badarpur in the south. Najafgarh is the furthest point west, and Seemapuri is its eastern extremity. The NCR encompasses towns south and east of the said border, namely Ghaziabad, Noida, Faridabad and Gurgaon. Oddly, the main expanse of Delhi does not follow a specific geographical feature. The main city area of Delhi does not end until Saket in the South, whilst the northern limit is Jahangirpuri and the western limit is Janakpuri-Dwarka. The terrain of Delhi shows great Lightning strikes near India Gate, New Delhi. variation. It changes from plain agricultural fields in the north to dry, Delhi receives much of its rainfall during the monsoon season which lasts from July to arid hills (an offshoot of the Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan) in the south September and west. There used to be large natural lakes in the southern part of the city, but most have now dried up. Most of Delhi, including New Delhi, is situated on the western banks of the river Yamuna which separates the main city from eastern suburbs (commonly known as trans-Yamuna), although there is a good connectivity between the eastern and western sides, with a number of road and railway bridges as well as the Delhi Metro. Delhi is located at 2837N 7714E, and lies in northern India. It borders the Indian states of Uttar Pradesh to the east and Haryana on the north, west and south. During British Raj it was adjacent to the province of Punjab and still historically and culturally tied closely to the region of Punjab.[48] Almost entirely within the Gangetic plains, two prominent features of the geography of Delhi are the Yamuna flood plains and the Delhi ridge. The low-lying Yamuna flood plains provide fertile alluvial soil suitable for agriculture but are prone to recurrent floods. Reaching up to a height of 318 m (1,043ft),[49] the Delhi ridge forms a dominating feature in this region. It originates from the Aravalli Range in the south and encircles the west, northeast and northwest parts of the city. Yamuna, a sacred river in Hinduism, is the only major river flowing through Delhi. Another river called the Hindon River separates Ghaziabad from the eastern part of Delhi. Delhi falls under seismic zone-IV, making it vulnerable to major earthquakes, but earthquakes have not been common in recent history.[50] Delhi has the third highest tree-cover among cities in India.[51] Delhi was one of the world's ten most polluted cities in the 1990s, with vehicles producing 70% of the polluting emissions.[52] In 1996 the Centre for Science and Environment started a public interest litigation in the Supreme Court of India that ordered the conversion of Delhi's fleet of buses and taxis to be run on Compressed Natural Gas and banned the use of leaded petrol in 1998. In 2003, Delhi won the United States Department of Energys first Clean Cities International Partner of the Year award for bold efforts to curb air pollution and support alternative fuel initiatives.[52]

Climate
Delhi features an atypical version of the humid subtropical climate (Kppen Cwa). Summers are long and extremely hot, from early April to mid-October, with the monsoon season in between. Early March sees a reversal in the direction of wind, from the north-western direction, to the south-western. These bring the hot waves from Rajasthan, carrying sand and are a characteristic of the Delhi summer. These are called loo. The months of March to May see a time of hot prickling heat. Monsoon arrives at the end of June, bringing some respite from the heat, but increasing humidity at the same time. The brief, mild winter starts in late November and peaks in January and is notorious for its heavy fog.[53] Extreme temperatures range from 0.6 C (30.9 F) to 46.7C (116.1F).[54] The annual mean temperature is 25 C (77 F); monthly mean temperatures range from 13 C to 32 C (56 F to 90 F).[55] The average annual rainfall is approximately 714mm (28.1inches), most of which is during the monsoons in July and August.[11] The average date

Delhi of the advent of monsoon winds in Delhi is 29 June.[56]

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Civic administration
As of July 2007, the National Capital Territory of Delhi comprises nine districts, 27tehsils, 59census towns, 300villages[59] and three statutory towns the Municipal Corporation of Delhi (MCD); the New Delhi Municipal Committee (NDMC); and the Delhi Cantonment Board (DCB).[60] The Delhi metropolitan area lies within the National Capital Territory of Delhi (NCT). The NCT has three local municipal corporations: Municipal Corporation of Delhi (MCD), New Delhi Municipal Council (NDMC) and Delhi Cantonment Board. MCD is one of the largest municipal corporations in the world providing civic amenities to an estimated 13.78million people.[61] The capital of India, New Delhi, falls under the administration of NDMC. The chairperson of the NDMC is appointed by the Government of India in consultation with the Chief Minister of Delhi. Delhi has four major satellite cities, which lie outside the National Capital Territory of Delhi. These are Gurgaon and Faridabad (in Map showing the nine districts of Delhi Haryana), and New Okhla Industrial Development Authority (Noida) and Ghaziabad (in Uttar Pradesh). Delhi is divided into nine districts. Each district (division) is headed by a Deputy Commissioner and has three subdivisions. A Subdivision Magistrate heads each subdivision. All Deputy Commissioners report to the Divisional Commissioner. The District Administration of Delhi is the enforcing department for all kinds of State and Central Government policies and exercises supervisory powers over numerous other functionaries of the Government. The Delhi High Court has jurisdiction over Delhi. Delhi also has lower courts: the Small Causes Court for civil cases; the Magistrate Court and the Sessions Court for criminal cases. The Delhi Police, headed by the Police Commissioner, is one of the largest metropolitan police forces in the world.[62] Delhi is administratively divided into nine police-zones, which are further subdivided into 95 local police stations.[63] Recently, there have been changes in the Police Districts, their jurisdiction etc., although the Administrative Districts of Delhi are nine only, it seems. For instance, an Outer Delhi Police District has been carved out in the Western part of Delhi.

Government and politics

Earlier known as a special union territory, the National Capital Territory of Delhi has its own Legislative Assembly, Lieutenant Governor, council of ministers and Chief Minister. The legislative assembly seats are filled by direct election from territorial constituencies in the NCT. However, the Union Government of India and the Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi jointly administer New Delhi, a city in Delhi, which is the capital and seat of government of both the National Capital Territory of Delhi and of India itself.

The North Block, built in 1931 during the British Raj, houses key government offices

While services like transport and others are taken care of by the Delhi government, services such as the police are directly under the control of the Central Government.[64] The legislative assembly was re-established in 1993 for the

Delhi first time since 1956, with direct federal rule in the span. In addition, the Municipal Corporation of Delhi (MCD) handles civic administration for the city as part of the Panchayati Raj act. New Delhi, an urban area in Delhi, is the seat of both the State Government of Delhi and the Government of India. The Parliament of India, the Rashtrapati Bhavan (Presidential Palace), Cabinet Secretariat and the Supreme Court of India are located in New Delhi. There are 70 assembly constituencies and seven Lok Sabha (Indian parliament's lower house) constituencies in Delhi.[65]
[66]

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Delhi was a traditional stronghold of the Indian National Congress, also known as the Congress Party. In the 1990s, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) under the leadership of Madan Lal Khurana came into power; however in 1998, Congress regained power under Sheila Dikshit, the incumbent Chief Minister. The Congress retained power in the Legislative Assembly in the 2003 and 2008 elections.

Economy
With an estimated net State Domestic Product (FY 2007) of 118200 crore (US$26.24 billion) in nominal terms and 336400 crore [67] [68] (US$74.68 billion) in PPP terms, Delhi is the largest [69] commercial center in northern India. In 2007, Delhi had a per capita income of 66728 (US$1481.36) at current prices, the third highest in India after Chandigarh and Goa as of 200607.[70] The tertiary sector contributes 70.95% of Delhi's gross SDP followed by secondary and primary sectors, with 25.20% and 3.85% Gurgaon, a satellite city of Delhi, is an important contribution, respectively.[68] Delhi's workforce constitutes 32.82% of economic hub in the National Capital Region the population showing an increase of 52.52% between 1991 and 2001.[71] Delhi's unemployment rate decreased from 12.57% in 19992000 to 4.63% in 2003.[71] In December 2004, 636,000 people were registered with various employment exchange programmes in Delhi.[71] In 2001 the total workforce in all government (union and state) and quasi-government sector was 620,000. In comparison, the organised private sector employed 219,000.[71] Key service industries include information technology, telecommunications, hotels, banking, media and tourism.[72] Delhi's manufacturing industry has also grown considerably as many consumer goods industries have established manufacturing units and headquarters in and around Delhi. Delhi's large consumer market, coupled with the easy availability of skilled labour, has attracted foreign investment in Delhi. In 2001, the manufacturing sector employed 1,440,000 workers while the number of industrial units was 129,000.[73] Construction, power, telecommunications, health and community services, and real estate form integral parts of Delhi's economy. Delhi has India's largest and one of the fastest growing retail industries.[74] As a result, land prices are booming and Delhi is currently ranked the 7th most expensive office hotspot in the world, with prices at $145.16 per square foot.[75] As in the rest of India, the fast growth of retail is expected to affect the traditional unorganized retail trading system.[76]

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Utility services
The water supply in Delhi is managed by the Delhi Jal Board (DJB). As of 2006, it supplied 650MGD (million gallons per day) of water, while the water demand for 200506 was estimated to be 963MGD.[77] The rest of the demand is met by private and public tube wells and hand pumps. At 240MGD, the Bhakra storage is the largest water source for DJB, followed by the Yamuna and the Ganges.[77] With falling groundwater level and rising population density, Delhi faces severely acute water shortage. Delhi daily produces 8000tonnes of solid wastes which is dumped at three landfill sites by MCD.[78] The daily domestic waste water production is 470MGD and industrial waste water is 70MGD.[79] A large portion of the sewerage flows untreated into the river Yamuna.[79] The city's per capita electricity consumption is about 1,265kWh but actual demand is much more.[80] In 1997, Delhi Vidyut Board (DVB) replaced Delhi Electric Supply Undertaking which was managed by the MCD. The DVB itself The headquarters of the New Delhi cannot generate adequate power to meet the city's demand and borrows power Municipal Corporation (NDMC). On the foreground is Jantar Mantar. from India's Northern Region Grid. As a result, Delhi faces a power shortage resulting in frequent blackouts and brownouts, especially during the summer season when energy demand is at its peak. Several industrial units in Delhi rely on their own electrical generators to meet their electric demand and for back up during Delhi's frequent and disruptive power cuts. A few years ago, the power sector in Delhi was handed over to private companies. The distribution of electricity is carried out by companies run by Tata Power and Reliance Energy. The Delhi Fire Service runs 43 fire stations that attend about 15,000 fire and rescue calls per year.[81] State-owned Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited (MTNL) and private enterprises like Vodafone Essar, Airtel, Idea cellular, Reliance Infocomm, and Tata Indicom provide telephone and cell phone service to the city. In May 2008, Airtel alone had approximately 4 million cellular subscribers in Delhi.[82] Cellular coverage is extensive, and both GSM and CDMA (from Reliance and Tata Indicom) services are available. Affordable broadband penetration is increasing in the city.[83]

Transport
Public transport in Delhi is provided by buses, auto rickshaws and a metro rail system. Buses are the most popular means of transport catering to about 60% of the total demand.[87] The state-owned Delhi Transport Corporation (DTC) is a major bus service provider for the city. The DTC operates the world's largest fleet of environment-friendly CNG buses.[88] Delhi BRTS is Bus rapid transit serving the city which runs between Ambedkar Nagar and Delhi Gate. The Delhi Metro, a mass rapid transit system built and operated by Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC), serves many parts of Delhi as well as the satellite city of Gurgaon in the neighbouring Haryana and Noida in neighbouring Uttar
The Indira Gandhi International Airport is the [84] busiest airport in South Asia. Shown here is Terminal 1D of the airport.

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Pradesh. As of October 2010, the metro consists of six operational lines with a total length of 153km (95mi) and 130 stations while several other lines are under construction.[89] The Phase-I was built at a cost of US$2.3 billion and the Phase-II will cost an additional US$4.3 billion.[90] Phase-II of the network is under construction and will have a total length of 128km. It is expected to be completed by 2010.[91] Phase-III and IV will be completed by 2015 and 2020 respectively, creating a network spanning 413.8km, longer than that of the London Underground. Auto rickshaws are a popular means of public transportation in Delhi, as they charge a lower fare than taxis. Most run on Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) and are yellow and green in colour. Taxis are not an integral part of Delhi public transport, though they are easily available. Private operators operate most taxis, and most neighborhoods have a taxi stand from which taxis can be ordered or picked up. In addition, air-conditioned radio taxis, which can be ordered by calling a central number, have become increasingly popular, charging a flat rate of 15 per kilometre. Delhi is a major junction in the rail map of India and is the headquarters of the Northern Railway. The five main railway stations are New Delhi Railway Station, Old Delhi, Nizamuddin Railway Station, Anand Vihar Railway Terminal and Sarai Rohilla.[87] Delhi is connected to other cities through many highways and expressways. Delhi currently has three expressways and three are under construction to connect it with its prosperous and commercial suburbs. The Delhi-Gurgaon Expressway connects Delhi with Gurgaon and the international airport. The DND Flyway and Noida-Greater Noida Expressway connect Delhi with two prosperous suburbs of Noida and Greater Noida.

The Delhi metro has an average ridership of 1.6 million commuters per day and runs at an [85] operational profit.

The DTC operates the world's largest fleet of [52] [86] CNG buses, totaling 9000

AC bus fleet of Delhi Transport Corporation

Indira Gandhi International Airport (DEL) is situated in the western corner of Delhi and serves as the main gateway for the city's domestic and international civilian air traffic. In 200607, the airport recorded a traffic of more than 23 million passengers,[92] [93] making it one of the busiest airports in South Asia. A new US$1.93 billion Terminal 3 handles an additional 34 million passengers annually in 2010.[94] Further expansion programs will allow the airport to handle more than 100 million passengers per annum by 2020. Private vehicles account for 30% of the total demand for transport.[87] At 1922.32km of road length per 100km, Delhi has one of the highest road densities in India.[87] Delhi is well connected to other parts of India by five National Highways: NH 1, 2, 8, 10 and 24. Roads in Delhi are maintained by MCD (Municipal Corporation of Delhi), NDMC, Delhi Cantonment Board, Public Works Department (PWD) and Delhi Development Authority.[95] Delhi's high population growth rate, coupled with high economic growth rate has resulted in an ever increasing demand for transport creating excessive pressure on the city's existent transport infrastructure. As of 2008. Also, the number of vehicles in the metropolitan region, i.e., Delhi NCR is 112 lakhs (11.2 million).[96] In 2008, there were 85 cars in Delhi for every 1,000 of its residents.[97] In order to meet the transport demand in Delhi, the State and Union

Delhi government started the construction of a mass rapid transit system, including the Delhi Metro.[87] In 1998, the Supreme Court of India ordered all public transport vehicles of Delhi to use compressed natural gas (CNG) as fuel instead of diesel and other hydro-carbons.[98]

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Northern Peripheral Road

Northern Peripheral Road road is being developed under the public private partnership (PPP) model. This stretch will connect Dwarka with National Highway 8 at Kherki Dhaula and will pass Pataudi Road. The NPR stretch has been planned as an alternate link road between Delhi and Gurgaon, and is expected to ease the traffic situation on the Delhi-Gurgaon Expressway. The road will also provide connectivity to the much-touted Reliance-HSIIDC SEZ besides the Garhi Harsaru dry depot.[99] Much like Delhi, Gurgaon too will have a BRT corridor to decongest traffic on the Northern Peripheral Road .In several sections, the NPR will have provisions for the Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) corridor to ensure smooth flow. The road will be fully developed in march 2012.[100]

Demographics
Many ethnic groups and cultures are represented in Delhi, making it a cosmopolitan city. Being the political and economic hub of northern India, the city attracts workers both blue collar and white collar from all parts of India, further enhancing its diverse character. A diplomatic hub, home to the embassies of 160 countries, Delhi has a large expatriate population as well. According to the 2011 census of India, the population of Delhi is 16,753,235.[101] The corresponding population density was 11,297 persons per km, with a sex ratio of 866 women per 1000 men, and a Hindus make up 82% of Delhi's population. literacy rate of 86.34%. In 2004, the birth rate, death rate and infant Shown here is Akshardham Temple, the largest [102] Hindu temple in the world. mortality rate (per 1000 population) were 20.03, 5.59 and 13.08, respectively.[103] As of 2007, the National Capital Territory of Delhi had an estimated population of 21.5 million people, making it the second largest metropolitan area in India after Mumbai.[104] According a 19992000 estimate, the total number of people living below the poverty line, defined as living on $11 or less per month, in Delhi was 1,149,000 (which was 8.23% of the total population, compared to 27.5% of India as a whole).[105] In 2001, the population of Delhi increased by 285,000 as a result of migration and by an additional 215,000 as a result of natural population growth[103] this made Delhi one of the fastest growing cities in the world. By 2015, Delhi is Sunset at the Bah' House of Worship in New Delhi, India, also called the Lotus Temple expected to be the third-largest agglomeration in the world after Tokyo and Mumbai.[106] Dwarka, Asia's largest planned residential colony, is located within the National Capital Territory of Delhi.[107] Hinduism is the religion of 80% of Delhi's population. There are also large communities of Muslims (10%), Sikhs (7.9%), Baha'i (0.1%), Jains (1.1%) and Christians (0.9%) in the city.[108] Other minorities include Parsis, Anglo-Indians, Buddhists and Jews.[109]

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635

Hindustani language is the principal spoken language while English is the principal written language of the city. Other languages commonly spoken in the city are dialects of Hindi, Punjabi and Urdu. The linguistic groups from all over India are well represented in the city; among them are Punjabi, Haryanvi, UP, Rajasthani, Bihari, Bengali, Sindhi, Tamil, Garhwali ,Telugu, North-East, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi and Gujarati. 52% of Delhi lives in slums[110] without basic services like water, electricity, sanitation, sewage system, proper housing etc.[111] [112]
Muslims form 10% of Delhi's population. Shown here is Jama Masjid, the largest mosque in India.

In 2005, Delhi accounted for the highest percentage (16.2%) of the crimes reported in the 35 cities in India with populations of one million or more.[113] The city also has the highest rate of crime against women (27.6 compared to national average rate of 14.1 per 100,000) and against children (6.5 compared to national average of 1.4 per 100,000) in the country.[114]

Culture
Delhi's culture has been influenced by its lengthy history and historic association as the capital of India. This is exemplified by the many monuments of significance found in the city; the Archaeological Survey of India recognises 1200 heritage buildings[115] and 175 monuments in Delhi as national heritage sites.[116] The Old City is the site where the Mughals and the Turkic rulers constructed several architectural marvels like the Jama Masjid (India's largest mosque)[117] and Red Fort. Three World Heritage Sitesthe Red Fort, Qutab Minar and Humayun's Tombare located in Delhi.[118] Other monuments include the India Gate, the Jantar Mantar (an 18th-century astronomical observatory) and the Purana Qila (a 16th century fortress). The Laxminarayan Temple, Akshardham, the Bah' Lotus Temple and the ISKCON Temple are examples of modern architecture. Raj Ghat and associated memorials houses memorials of Mahatma Gandhi and other notable personalities. New Delhi houses several government buildings and official residences reminiscent of the British colonial architecture. Important structures include the Rashtrapati Bhavan, the Secretariat, Rajpath, the Parliament of India and Vijay Chowk. Safdarjung's Tomb is an example of the Mughal gardens style.

Traditional pottery on display in Dilli Haat

Rice and Kadai chicken from Delhi

Delhi's association and geographic proximity to the capital, New Delhi, has amplified the importance of national events and holidays. National events like Republic Day, Independence Day and Gandhi Jayanti (Gandhi's birthday) are celebrated with great enthusiasm in Delhi. On India's Independence Day (15 August) the Prime Minister of India addresses the nation from the Red Fort. Most Delhiites celebrate the day by flying kites, which are considered a symbol of freedom.[119] The Republic Day Parade is a large cultural and military parade showcasing India's cultural diversity and military might.[120] [121] Over the centuries Delhi is known for its composite culture, and a festival that symbolizes it truly is the Phool Walon Ki Sair, which takes place each year in September, and where flowers and fans embroidered with flowers, pankha are offered to the shrine of 13th century Sufi saint, Khwaja Bakhtiyar Kaki, along with the Yogmaya Temple also situated in Mehrauli.[122] Religious festivals include Diwali (the festival of lights), Mahavir Jayanti, Guru Nanak's Birthday, Durga Puja, Holi, Lohri, Chhath, Krishna Janmastami, Maha Shivaratri, Eid ul-Fitr, Moharram and Buddha Jayanti.[121] The Qutub

Delhi Festival is a cultural event during which performances of musicians and dancers from all over India are showcased at night, with the Qutub Minar as the chosen backdrop of the event.[123] Other events such as Kite Flying Festival, International Mango Festival and Vasant Panchami (the Spring Festival) are held every year in Delhi. The Auto Expo, Asia's largest auto show,[124] is held in Delhi biennially. The World Book Fair, held biannually at the Pragati Maidan, is the second largest exhibition of books in the world with as many as 23 nations participating in the event.[125] Delhi is often regarded as the "Book Capital" of India because of high readership.[126] Punjabi and Mughlai delicacies like kababs and biryanis are popular in Delhi. The street food there is known to be delicious and includes chaat, golgappe and aloo tikki.[127] [128] Due to Delhi's large cosmopolitan and migrant population, cuisines from every part of India, including Gujarati Rajasthani, Maharashtrian, Bengali, Hyderabadi cuisines, and South Indian food items like idli, sambar and dosa are widely available. Local delicacies include Chaat, Golgappe, Aloo-Tikki and Dahi-Papri. There are several food outlets in Delhi serving international cuisine, including Italian, Japanese, Continental, Middle-Eastern, Thai and Chinese. Within the last decade western fast food has become more popular as well.

636

The Auto Expo is held annually at Pragati Maidan and showcases the technological prowess of the Indian automobile industry

Historically, Delhi has always remained an important trading centre in northern India. Old Delhi still contains legacies of its rich Mughal past, which can be found among the old city's tangle of snaking lanes and teeming bazaars.[129] The dingy markets of the Old City have an eclectic product range, from oil-swamped mango, lime and eggplant pickles, candy-colored herbal potions to silver jewelry, bridal attire, uncut material and linen, spices, sweets.[129] Some of old regal havelis (palatial residences) are still there in the Old City.[130] Chandni Chowk, a three-century-old shopping area, is one of the most popular shopping areas in Delhi for jewellery and Zari saris.[131] Notable among Delhi's arts and crafts are the Zardozi (an embroidery done with gold thread) and Meenakari (the art of enameling). Dilli Haat, Hauz Khas, Pragati Maidan offer a variety of Indian handicrafts and handlooms. Over time Delhi has absorbed a multitude of humanity from across the country and has morphed into an amorphous pool of cultural styles.[17] [132]

Education
Schools and higher educational institutions in Delhi are administered either by the Directorate of Education, the NCT government, or private organizations. In 200405, there were 2,515 primary, 635 middle, 504 secondary and 1,208 senior secondary schools in Delhi. That year, the higher education institutions in the city included 165 colleges, among them five medical colleges and eight engineering colleges,[135] seven major universities (Delhi University, Jawaharlal Nehru University, Jamia Millia Islamia, Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University (GGSIPU), National Law University, Indira Gandhi National Open Consistently ranked as India's top medical University (IGNOU) and Jamia Hamdard), and nine deemed [133] college, All India Institute of Medical [135] universities. Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Sciences is a global leader in medical research [134] National Law University are the only state universities; IGNOU is for and treatment open/distance learning; the rest are all central universities. Delhi boasts of being home to 3 of top 10 engineering colleges in India IIT Delhi, NSIT (Formerly DIT) and DTU (Formerly DCE).

Delhi

637 Private schools in Delhiwhich employ either English or Hindi as the language of instructionare affiliated to one of two administering bodies: the Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE), the Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE) and the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS). In 200405, approximately 15.29lakh (1.529million) students were enrolled in primary schools, 8.22lakh (0.822million) in middle schools and 6.69lakh (0.669million) in secondary schools across Delhi.[135] Female students represented 49% of the total enrollment. The same year, the Delhi government spent between 1.58% and 1.95% of its gross state domestic product on education.[135]

Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi is ranked as Asia's fourth-best institute in science and [136] technology in year 1999.

After completing the ten-year secondary phase of their education under the 10+2+3/4 plan, students typically spend the next two years either in junior colleges or in schools with senior secondary facilities, during which their studies become more focused. They select a stream of studyliberal arts, commerce, science, or, less commonly, vocational. Upon completion, those who choose to continue, either study for a three-year undergraduate degree at a college, or a professional degree in law, engineering, or medicine. Notable higher education or research institutes in Delhi include All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Dr.Ram Manohar Lohia Hospital & PGIMER, Maulana Azad Medical College, Jawaharlal Nehru University, Indian Statistical Institute, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, Indian Institute of Foreign Trade, Delhi Technological University, National Law University, Delhi, Netaji Subhas Institute of Technology, Indian Law Institute, Delhi School of Economics, Jamia Millia Islamia. As of 2008, about 16% of all Delhi residents possessed at least a college graduate degree.[137]

Media
As the capital of India, New Delhi is the focus of political reportage, including regular television broadcasts of Parliament sessions. Many country-wide media agencies, among them the state-owned Press Trust of India , Media Trust Of India and Doordarshan, are based in the city. Television programming in the city includes two free terrestrial television channels offered by Doordarshan, and several Hindi, English and regional-languages cable channels offered by multi system operators. Satellite television, in contrast, has yet to gain large-scale subscribership in the city.[138] Print journalism remains a popular news medium in Delhi. During 200405, 1029 newspapers in thirteen languages were published from the city. Of these, 492 were Urdu and Hindi language newspapers, including Navbharat Times, Hindustan Dainik, Punjab Kesari, Pavitra Bharat, Dainik Jagran, Dainik Bhaskar and Dainik Desbandhu. Amongst the English language newspapers, The Hindustan Times, with Pitampura TV Tower broadcasts programming to over a million copies in circulation, was the single largest daily. Other Delhi major English newspapers include Times of India, The Hindu, Indian Express, Business Standard, The Pioneer and Asian Age . Regional dailies include Malayala Manorama and Dinakaran. Radio is a less popular mass medium in Delhi, although FM radio has been gaining ground[139] since the inauguration of several new FM channels in 2006.[140] A number of state-owned and private radio stations broadcast from Delhi, including All India Radio (AIR), one of the world's largest radio service providers, which offers six

Delhi radio channels in ten languages. Other city-based radio stations include "Aaj Tak", "Radio City(91.1 MHz)", "Big FM(92.7 MHz)", "Red FM(93.5MHz)", "Radio One(94.3 MHz)", "Hit FM(95 MHz)", "Apna Radio", "Radio Mirchi(98.3 MHz)", "FM Rainbow(102.4 MHz)", "Fever FM(104 MHz)", "Oye FM(104.8 MHz)", "FM Gold(106.4 MHz)". Various news and general interest magazines are also published from Delhi like India Today, Outlook, COVERT and many more.

638

Sports
Cricket and soccer are the most popular sports in Delhi.[141] There are several cricket grounds (or maidans) located across the city. The Feroz Shah Kotla stadium is one of the oldest cricket grounds in India and is a venue for international cricket matches. The Delhi cricket team represents the city in the Ranji Trophy, a domestic first-class cricket championship.[142] The city is also home to the IPL team Delhi Daredevils, and ICL team Delhi Giants (earlier named Delhi Jets). Football is a very popular sport in the city and is home to the newly sports event held in India. Shown here is the formed AIFF-u19 club which will take part in the 2011 format of the I Opening Ceremony at the Jawaharlal Nehru League. The only football stadium in Delhi is the Ambedkar Stadium Stadium, the third largest stadium in India. which holds 20000 people though in the past few years due to tremendous rise in popularity of the sport has held up to 50000 people in the past years.Delhi even witnessed India winning back to back trophies in football in the form of the 2007 Nehru Cup defeating Syria 10 AFC Challenge Cup 2008 defeating favourites Tajikistan 41 by a stellar performance by local Star Sunil Chhetri and the 2009 Nehru Cup. Rugby has become an increasingly popular sport among youngsters and the city is home to the Delhi Lions and Delhi Hurricanes. The city successfully played host to 2010 Asian Five Nations Rugby Tournament's Division Two match between India and Philippines. The Philippines defeated India to win promotion to Division One in 2011, and maintain their unbeaten record within the tournament in 2010. The Only Stadium in the city for this particular sport is in the Delhi University North Campus. Boxing and shooting figure among increasingly popular sports in the suburb of Gurgaon. Formula 1 has now got a circuit in India in Greater Noida, a suburb of Delhi in the twin cities area of (Noida-Greater Noida), which is all set to host the Indian Grand Prix in October 2011 with the Jaypee Group constructing the circuit. It is set to be among the top 5 fastest circuits in the world. The team, Force India F1, was formed in October 2007 when a consortium led by Indian businessman Vijay Mallya and Michiel Mol bought the Spyker F1 team for 88 million. Force India F1 represents increased Indian participation within Formula One. Golf is also a very popular sport in the capital city and the National Capital Region, which is home to the highest number of golf courses in India. Other sports such as field hockey, basketball, tennis, squash, badminton, swimming, kart racing, weightlifting, table tennis, cycling, roller skating and cue sports, such as snooker, billiards and diving are also popular. Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium and the Indira Gandhi Indoor Stadium are other stadiums in Delhi. In the past, Delhi has hosted several domestic and international sporting events, such as the First and the Ninth Asian Games.[143] Delhi hosted the 2010 Commonwealth Games, the largest multi-sport event ever held in India. Delhi lost bidding for the 2014 Asian Games,[144] and considered making a bid for the 2020 Summer Olympics.[145] However, sports minister Manohar Singh Gill later stated that funding infrastructure would come before a 2020 bid.[146] The mess left after the Commonwealth Games prompted Prime Minister Manmohan Singh to replace sports and youth affairs minister Manohar Singh Gill with Ajay Maken in the 19 January 2011 cabinet reshuffle.[147]
The 2010 Commonwealth Games was the largest

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639

Sister cities and twin regions

Delhi has the following sister cities, with which it shares good relations:[148]
City Seoul Chicago London Los Angeles Sydney Kuala Lumpur Moscow Tokyo Ulan Bator Saint Petersburg Paris (Partner City) Geographical location Seoul National Capital Area Chicago metropolitan area England Los Angeles County, California New South Wales Selangor Central Federal District Kant region (Honsh island) Mid-East Mongolia Northwestern Federal District le-de-France Nation South Korea United States 2001 [149] Since

United Kingdom 2002[150] United States Australia Malaysia Russia Japan Mongolia Russia France Japan 2002 2002 2006 [151] [151] [152] 2002 [151]

Fukuoka Prefecture (Twin region) Kyushu

2007

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Further reading
Economic Survey of Delhi 20052006 (http://delhiplanning.nic.in/Economic Survey/ES 2005-06/ES2005-06. htm). Planning Department. Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi. Retrieved on 12 February 2007 Horton, P (2002). Lonely Planet Delhi (3 ed.). Lonely Planet Publications. ISBN1864502975 Rowe, P; Coster, P (2004). Delhi (Great Cities of the World). World Almanac Library. ISBN0836851978 Delhi: Adventures in a Megacity (http://www.penguinbooksindia.com/delhi) by Sam Miller (writer and journalist)

External links
Government Directory of Indian Government Websites, Delhi (http://goidirectory.nic.in/delhi.htm) Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi (http://delhigovt.nic.in/) Municipal Corporation of Delhi (http://www.mcdonline.gov.in/) New Delhi Municipal Council (http://www.ndmc.gov.in/index1024.aspx)

Other Delhi Public Transport Application (http://follicleconsultants.com/DtcApp.html) Delhi Public Transport Application for Android 2.1+ (https://market.android.com/details?id=akshat.dual& feature=search_result) Delhi travel guide from Wikitravel Delhi (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/India/Delhi/) at the Open Directory Project Information about Delhi (http://www.delhiinformation.org)

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Puducherry
Territoire de Pondichry Union Territory of Puducherry
union territory

Location of Territoire de Pondichry Union Territory of Puducherry Coordinates Country District(s) Established Capital Largest city Lt. Governor Chief Minister 1156N 7950E India 4 1 July 1963 Pondicherry Pondicherry Iqbal Singh Vaithilingam

Legislature (seats) Unicameral (30) Population Density 1244464(2nd) 2529/km2 (6550/sqmi)

Official languages Tamil, French, Telugu, Malayalam Time zone Area ISO 3166-2 Website IST (UTC+5:30) 492square kilometres (190sqmi)(3rd) IN-PY www.pon.nic.in
[1]

Puducherry (formerly Pondicherry) is a Union Territory of India. It is a former French colony, consisting of four non-contiguous enclaves, or districts, and named for the largest, Pondicherry. In September 2006, the territory changed its official name from Pondicherry to the vernacular original,[2] Puducherry, which means "New village"[3] in the Tamil language. The territory is called (Putuccri) or (Piccri) in Tamil, or "Pondichry" in French. It is also known as The French Riviera of the East (La Cte d'Azur de l'Est).

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Geography
Puducherry consists of four small unconnected districts: Puducherry, Karaikal, and Yanam on the Bay of Bengal and Mah on the Arabian Sea. Puducherry and Karaikal are by far the larger ones, and are both enclaves of Tamil Nadu. Yanam and Mah are enclaves of Andhra Pradesh and Kerala respectively. The territory has a total area of 492 km: Puducherry (city) 293km, Karaikal 160km, Mah 9km and Yanam 30km. It has 900,000 inhabitants (2001).

History
The History of Puducherry can be traced back to the 2nd century. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, of the early 2nd century, mentions a marketplace named Poduke (ch. 60), which G.W.B. Huntingford identified as possibly being Arikamedu (now part of Ariyankuppam), about 2 miles from the modern Pondicherry. Huntingford further notes that Roman pottery was found at Arikamedu in 1937, and archeological excavations between 1944 and 1949 showed that it was "a trading station to which goods of Roman manufacture were imported during the first half of the 1st century AD".[4]

French influence
A remarkable degree of French influence in Puducherry exists to this date. Puducherry was designed based on the French (however originally Dutch) grid pattern and features neat sectors and perpendicular streets. The entire town is divided into 2 sections, the French Quarter (Ville Blanche or 'White town') and the Indian quarter (Ville Noire or 'Black Town'). Many streets still retain their French names and French style villas are a common sight in Puducherry. In the French quarter, the buildings are typically colonial style with long compounds and stately walls. The Indian quarter consists of houses lined with verandas, and houses with large doors and grills. These French and Indian style houses are identified and its architecture is preserved from destruction by an organization named INTACH. If ever anyone wishes to demolish the existing house in the town area and rebuild, they need the permission from this organization and the new built house should resemble the same architectural beauty it possessed before destruction. The use of French language can be still seen in Puducherry. Puducherry still has a large number of Tamil and a small number of non-Tamil residents with French passports, these are descendants of those who chose to remain French when the then ruling French Establishment presented the people of Puducherry with an option to either remain French or become Indians at the time of Puducherry's transfer to India in 1954. Apart from the monuments pertaining to the French period, there is the French Consulate in Puducherry and several cultural organisations. Another important one is 'Le Foyer du Soldat'. It is a Legion hall for soldiers who served in the different French wars. Of the cultural organisations the French Institute of Pondicherry, the Pondicherry Centre of the cole franaise d'Extrme-Orient and a branch of the Alliance Franaise are noteworthy. A French-medium school system, the Lyce Franais de Pondichry, continues to operate under the aegis of the French Minister of National Education (France).

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Official languages of government

Official languages of Puducherry are French, Tamil, Telugu and Malayalam. Status of each languages varies differently with respect to each district. When communicating between districts of different languages, generally English is used for convenience. 1.Tamil: Language used by the Puducherry Government, especially used when communicating within and between the Tamil majority districts of (Puducherry and Karikal) along with issuing official decrees. Also the official Language in Tamil Nadu state. 2.French: It is also the official language of Puducherry Union territory. It was the official language of French India (1673-1954) and its official language status was preserved by Trait de Cession (Treaty of Cession) signed by India and France on 28 May 1956. It remained as the de jure official language of Puducherry U.T by the Article XXVIII of Trait de Cession which states that,

Map of Puducherry Region, Union Territory of Puducherry, India

Le franais restera langue officielle des tablissements aussi longtemps que les reprsentants lus de la population n'auront pas pris une dcision diffrente (French version) The French language shall remain the official language of the Establishments so long as the elected representatives of the people shall not decide otherwise (English version)

Regional official languages

1.tamil:official language of puducherry.it is the largely spoken language in the territory.puducherry being a neibhour of tamilnadu reflects most of the culture of tamilnadu.2.french:as puducherry was a colony of france,french also is an official language. 3. Telugu: Another official language of Puducherry, but used more within Yanam (Telugu district). Telugu is widely spoken in Puducherry by Reddys, chettys and Naidus. So, more correctly, it is considered a regional official language of Puducherry while being official language of Yanam District. It also has an official language status in the state of Andhra Pradesh. 4. Malayalam: Another official language of Puducherry, but used only within Mah (Malayalam district). So, more correctly, it is considered a regional official language of Puducherry while being official language of Mahe District. It also has an official language status in Kerala State and Lakshadweep Islands Union Territory.

Language spoken in numbers

As of 2001, number of people speaking in each official languages are, Tamil: 820,749 (In Puducherry and Karaikal Districts) Malayalam: 36,823 (In Mahe District only) Telugu: 31,362 (In Puducherry and Yanam Districts) French: Above 10,000

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Government and administration

Puducherry is a Union Territory of India, not a separate State, which implies that the governance and administration of the territory falls directly under the federal authority in New Delhi. However, along with Delhi, Puducherry is one of the two union territories in India, which is entitled by special constitutional amendments to have an elected legislative assembly and a cabinet of ministers, thereby enjoying partial statehood powers. Under the special provision, the government is permitted to make laws with respect to specific matters. In many cases, such legislations may require the ratification from the federal government or the assent of the President of India. The Centre is represented by the Lt. Governor, who resides at the Raj Nivas (Le Palais du Gouverneur) at the Park, the former palace of the French Governor. The Central government is more directly involved in the financial well-being of the territory, as against the states where financial administration, given a budgeted central grant is the responsibility to the state governments. Consequently, Puducherry has at various times, enjoyed lower taxes, especially in the indirect category.

Puducherry Legislative Assembly

Special administration status

According to Trait de cession dated 1956, the four former French colonies were assured of maintaining their special administrative status. That is why Puducherry is the only Union Territory with some special provisions like Legislative Assembly, French as official language, etc. The Article II of Trait de Cession states that, The Establishments will keep the benefit of the special administrative status which was in force prior to 1 November 1954. Any constitutional changes in this status which may be made subsequently shall be made after ascertaining the wishes of the people.

In Indian philosophy
Puducherry was the residence of Sri Aurobindo. The Sri Aurobindo Ashram and its offshoot, Auroville still operate from Puducherry.

Puducherry in literature
Puducherry was the setting for the first third of the Booker prize-winning novel Life of Pi by Yann Martel. Lee Langley's novel A house in Pondicherry was likewise set there. In The second Sherlock Holmes novel, The Sign of Four by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, the family of a murder victim resides at Pondicherry Lodge. Some Novels of M. Mukundan, former employee of the French Embassy and Malayalam Writer.

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Economy
Macro-economic trend
This is a chart of trend of gross state domestic product of Puducherry at market prices estimated Statistics and Programme Implementation with figures in millions of Indian Rupees.
Year 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 Gross State Domestic Product 1,840 3,420 6,030 13,200 37,810 [17]

by Ministry of

Puducherry's gross state domestic product for 2004 is estimated at $2 billion in current prices. The potential for fisheries is substantial in the Union Territory. The four regions of the Union Territory have a coastline of 45km with 675 sq. km of inshore waters, 1.347 ha of inland water and 800 ha of brackish water. There are 27 marine fishing villages and 23 inland fishing villages with fishermen population of about 65,000 of which 13,000 are actively engaged in fishing. Irrigation tanks and ponds are also tapped for commercial fish rearing. The Railways play a vital role for speedy economic growth. The entire cost towards execution of the new broad gauge line for 10.7km from Karaikal to Nagore would now be funded by the Ministry of Railways and work has already been awarded on turn key basis for laying the new railway line in a period of 18 months. The present availability of power is about 400 MW. The demand is likely to increase with the development of Port, Special Economic Zone, other industrial development, trade, commerce etc.It has been decided to expand the Puducherry Airport so that air services could improve gradually over years, to land ATR to Boeing aircraft, to meet the growing demand for air travel. A MoU has already been signed with Airports Authority of India for expansion of Puducherry Airport in two phases.

Tourist spots
Places to visit
Puducherry Beach Auroville Aurobindo Ashram Chunnambar Boat House Bharathi Park Museum Romain Rolland Library Botanical Garden Anglo-French Textile Mills Pondicherry Museum

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Places of worship
Manakula Vinayagar Temple Kamakshi Amman Temple Navagraha Temple (15ft high Navagrahas) Panchavatee Sri Prithyingara Devi Temple Saneeswaran Temple, Thirunallar (Navagraha Sthalam for Saneeswaran - 5km west of Karaikal) Varadaraja Perumal Temple Vedapureeswarar Temple Immaculate Conception Cathedral Sacred Heart Church Jumma Masjid Irumbai Maahaleswarar Temple (Special: Lord Shiva came from the Broken Lingam) Sengazhuneer Amman Temple at Veerampattinam (oldest temple near Ariyankuppam) Our Lady of Lourdes Church, Villianur (8 km from Puducherrry)

Transport
Rail
Puducherry is connected by a railway branch line from the five-way junction at Viluppuram (town). The railway line is being gauge converted under Project Unigauge from metre gauge to broad gauge.[5]

Road network
Puducherry is endowed with excellent infrastructural facilities on par with the best available in the country. A network of all weather metalled roads connecting every village exists in the territory. Puducherry has a road length of 2552km (road length per 4.87km), the highest in the country. Road length comparsion with Tamilnadu and India as a whole.
ROADS Total Road Length (in Puducherry) Road Length per 1000km. Puducherry 4575 Tamil Nadu 1572 2552km. India 663

Classification of roads

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Sl. No. 1 2 3

Type of road National Highways State Highways District & Other Roads Puducherry - 173.384 Karaikal - 55.162 Mah - 19.622 Yanam - 26.460 274.628

Length in (km) 64.450 49.304

274.628

Rural Roads Puducherry - 164.964 Karaikal - 83.470 248.434 Grand Total 248.434 636.816

Pondicherry University
Puducherry is a Union Territory with one of the highest levels of quality of life in the country with excellent physical infrastructure and almost a hundred per cent literacy level. It is also the place where Sri Aurobindo and the Mother chose to stay and their writings remain a tremendous source of spiritual awakening that emphasizes the progress of humanity and its spiritual brotherhood. A unique experimental city, Auroville, the brainchild of the Mother, whose inhabitants are drawn from all parts of the world, is situated on the outskirts of the city. Puducherry, which still carries several marks of French culture and heritage, was also the place where the national poet Shri Subramania Bharathiar wrote several of his masterpieces that fanned the flames of freedom and also enriched modern Tamil literature. Bharathidasan, a staunch disciple of Subramania Bharathiar, whose poems stressed social revolution and emancipation of women, was also an eminent son of Puducherry. Therefore, it is, indeed, in the fitness of things that this city with such an illustrious history should also have the distinction of housing a Central University that would meet the needs of the people of the Southern states of India in general and those of Puducherry in particular, for higher education.[6]

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] http:/ / www. pon. nic. in Bill to rename Pondicherry as Puducherry passed <http://www.hindu.com/2006/08/22/stories/2006082207481000.htm>. BBC: "New name for old French territory" <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/5365248.stm>. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, transl. G.W.B. Huntingford (Hakluyt Society, 1980), p. 119. http:/ / business. gov. in/ investment_incentives/ infrastructure_pc. php University, Pondicherry. "Pondicherry University" (http:/ / www. pondiuni. edu. in/ about_uni. htm). .

External links
Official website of the Government of the Union Territory of Puducherry (http://pondicherry.nic.in/) Future of French India, by Russel H. Fifield (Associate Professor of Political Science at University of Michigan (http://www.links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0362-8949(19500322)19:6<62:TFOFI>2.0.CO;2-#) Puducherry - its Early Origins (http://www.pon.nic.in/open/regions/pondy/origin.htm) Freedom struggle in Puducherry (http://pib.nic.in/feature/feyr98/fe0898/f1808986.html)

Puducherry Indian Ministry for External Affaires - 1956 Treaty of Cession (http://meaindia.nic.in/treatiesagreement/1956/ chap133.htm) Exploration Off Arikamedu by Archaeological Survey of India (http://asi.nic.in/index3.asp?sublink2id=24)

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654

Politics
Politics of India
The politics of India takes place within the framework of a federal constitutional republic, in which the President of India is head of state and the Prime Minister of India is the head of government. Executive power is exercised by the President and is independent of the legislature. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the Parliament of India, the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha. Federal and state elections generally take place within a multi-party system, although this is not enshrined in law. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature, the highest national court being the Supreme Court of India. Moreover, internal security is also threatened as incidences of political parties instigating and leading violence between two opposing, India is a nation that is characterized to be "sovereign socialist secular democratic republic." Like the United States, India, during the time of incepting its constitution had chosen a federal form of government, however, the central government in India has greater power in relation to its states, and its central government is patterned after the British parliamentary system. Regarding the former, "the Centre", the national government, can and has dismissed state governments if no majority party or coalition is able to form a government or under specific Constitutional clauses, and can impose direct federal rule known as President's rule. Locally, the Panchayati Raj system has several administrative functions. For most of the years since independence, the federal government has been guided by the Indian National Congress (INC),[1] In India the two largest political parties have been the Indian National Congress (INC) and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). Presently the two parties have dominated the Indian politics, however, regional parties also exist. From 1950 to 1990, barring two brief periods, the INC enjoyed a parliamentary majority. The INC was out of power between 1977 and 1980, when the Janata Party won the election owing to public discontent with the corruption of the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. In 1989, a Janata Dal-led National Front coalition in alliance with the Left Front coalition won the elections but managed to stay in power for only two years.[2] As the 1991 elections gave no political party a majority, the INC formed a minority government under Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao and was able to complete its five-year term.[3] The years 19961998 were a period of turmoil in the federal government with several short-lived alliances holding sway. The BJP formed a government briefly in 1996, followed by the United Front coalition that excluded both the BJP and the INC. In 1998, the BJP formed the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) with several other parties and became the first non-Congress government to complete a full five-year term.[4] In the 2004 Indian elections, the INC won the largest number of Lok Sabha seats and formed a government with a coalition called the United Progressive Alliance (UPA), supported by various parties.[5] In the 2009 Lok Sabha Elections, it won again with a surprising majority, the INC itself winning more than 200 seats. Indian democracy has been suspended only once.[6] Nevertheless, Indian politics is often described as chaotic. More than a fifth of parliament members face criminal charges.[6]

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Central and State Governments

The central government exercises its broad administrative powers in the name of the President, whose duties are largely ceremonial. The president and vice president are elected indirectly for 5-year terms by a special electoral college. The vice president assumes the office of president in case of the death or resignation of the incumbent president The constitution designates the governance of India under two branches, namely: the executive branch and the legislative branch. Real national executive power is centered in the Council of Ministers, led by the Prime Minister of India. The President appoints the Prime Minister, who is designated by legislators of the political party or coalition commanding a parliamentary majority. The President then appoints subordinate ministers on the advice of the Prime Minister. In reality, the President has no discretion on the question of whom to appoint as Prime Minister except when no political party or coalition of parties gains a majority in the Lok Sabha. Once the Prime Minister has been appointed, the President has no discretion on any other matter whatsoever, including the appointment of ministers. But all Central Government decisions are nominally taken in his/her name.

Legislative branch
The constitution designates the Parliament of India as the legislative branch to oversee the operation of the government. India's bicameral parliament consists of the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the Lok Sabha (House of the People or Council of Ministers).

State Government
States in India have their own elected governments, whereas Union Territories are governed by an administrator appointed by the president. Some of the state legislatures are bicameral, patterned after the two houses of the national parliament. The states' chief ministers are responsible to the legislatures in the same way the prime minister is responsible to parliament. Each state also has a presidentially appointed governor who may assume certain broad powers when directed by the central government. The central government exerts greater control over the union territories than over the States, although some territories have gained more power to administer their own affairs. Local state governments in India have less autonomy compared to their counterparts in the United States, Africa and Australia.,

Judicial branch
India's independent judicial system began under the British, and its concepts and procedures resemble those of Anglo-Saxon countries. The constitution designates the Supreme Court, the High Courts and the lower courts as the authority to resolve disputes among the people as well as the disputes related to the people and the government. The constitution through its articles relating to the judicial system provides a way to question the laws of the government, if the common man finds the laws as unsuitable for any community in India..

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Local governance
On April 24, 1993, the Constitutional (73rd Amendment) Act, 1992 came into force to provide constitutional status to the Panchayati Raj institutions. This Act was extended to Panchayats in the tribal areas of eight States, namely Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Rajasthan from 24 December 1996. The Act aims to provide 3-tier system of Panchayati Raj for all States having population of over 2 million, to hold Panchayat elections regularly every 5 years, to provide reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Women, to appoint State Finance Commission to make recommendations as regards the financial powers of the Panchayats and to constitute District Planning Committee to prepare draft development plan for the district.

Role of political parties

As any other democracy, political parties represent different sections among the Indian society and regions, and their core values play a major role in the politics of India. Both the executive branch and the legislative branch of the government are run by the representatives of the political parties who have been elected through the elections. Through the electoral process, the people of India choose which majority in the lower house, a government can be formed by that party or the coalition. India has a multi-party system, where there are a number of national as well as regional parties. A regional party may gain a majority and rule a particular state. If a party represents more than 4 states then such parties are considered as national parties. In the 61 years since India's independence, India has been ruled by the Indian National Congress (INC) for 48 of those years. The party enjoyed a parliamentary majority barring two brief periods during the 1970s and late 1980s. This rule was interrupted between 1977 to 1980, when the Janata Party coalition won the election owing to public discontent with the controversial state of emergency declared by the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. The Janata Dal won elections in 1989, but its government managed to hold on to power for only two years.
Indian state governments led by various political

Between 1996 and 1998, there was a period of political flux with the parties as of March 2009. government being formed first by the right-wing nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) followed by a left-leaning United Front coalition. In 1998, the BJP formed the National Democratic Alliance with smaller regional parties, and became the first non-INC and coalition government to complete a full five-year term. The 2004 Indian elections saw the INC winning the largest number of seats to form a government leading the United Progressive Alliance, and supported by left-parties and those opposed to the BJP. On 22 May 2004, Manmohan Singh was appointed the Prime Minister of India following the victory of the INC & the left front in the 2004 Lok Sabha election. The UPA now rules India without the support of the left front. Previously, Atal Bihari Vajpayee had taken office in October 1999 after a general election in which a BJP-led coalition of 13 parties called the National Democratic Alliance emerged with a majority. Formation of coalition governments reflects the transition in Indian politics away from the national parties toward smaller, more narrowly-based regional parties. Some regional parties, especially in South India, are deeply aligned to the ideologies of the region unlike the national parties and thus the relationship between the central government and the state government in various states has not always been free of rancor. Disparity between the ideologies of the political parties ruling the centre and the state leads to severely skewed allocation of resources between the states.

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Political issues
Social issues
The lack of homogeneity in the Indian population causes division between different sections of the people based on religion, region, language, caste and race. This has led to the rise of political parties with agendas catering to one or a mix of these groups. Some parties openly profess their focus on a particular group, for example, the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam's focus on the dravid population, and the Shiv Sena's pro-Marathi agenda. Some other parties claim to be universal in nature, but tend to draw support from particular sections of the population, for example, the Rashtriya Janata Dal (translated as National People's Party) has a vote bank among the Yadav and Muslim population of Bihar and the All India Trinamool Congress does not have any significant support outside West Bengal. The Bharatiya Janata Party, the party with the second largest number of MPs in the 15th Lok Sabha, has an image of being pro-Hindu. Such support from particular sections of the population affects the agenda and policies of such parties, and refute their claims of being universal representatives. The Congress may be viewed as the most secular party with a national agenda, however it also practices votebank politics to gain the support of minorities, especially Muslims, through appeasement and pseudo-secularist strategies. The narrow focus and votebank politics of most parties, even in the central government and central legislature, sidelines national issues such as economic welfare and national security. Moreover, internal security is also threatened as incidences of political parties instigating and leading violence between two opposing groups of people is a frequent occurrence.

Economic issues
Economic issues like poverty, unemployment, development are main issues that influence politics. Garibi hatao (eradicate poverty) has been a slogan of the Indian National Congress for long. The well known Bharatiya Janata Party is looked upon with grace as a political party that is indeed encouraging to free market economy, businesses and others. The Communist Party of India (Marxist) vehemently supports left-wing politics like land-for-all, right to work and has strongly opposed to neo-liberal policies such as globalization, capitalism and privatization. The economic policies of most other parties do not go much further than providing populist subsidies and reservations. As a noteworthy case, the manifesto of the Samajwadi Party, the third largest party in the 15th Lok Sabha, for the 2009 general elections promised to reduce the use of computers upon being elected.

Law and order

Just to name a few, terrorism , Naxalism, Religious violence and caste-related violence are important issues that affect the political environment of the Indian nation. Stringent anti-terror legislations like TADA, POTA and MCOCA have received much political attention, both in favour as well as criticism. Law and order issues such as action against organized crime are not issues that affect the outcomes of elections. On the other hand, there is a criminal-politician nexus. Many elected legislators have criminal cases against them. In July 2008 Washington Times reported that nearly a fourth of the 540 Indian Parliament members faced criminal charges, "including human trafficking, immigration rackets, embezzlement, rape and even murder".[7]

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Further reading
W. Phillips Shively. 2008. Power and Choice: An Introduction to Political ScienceChapter 14 Example: Parliamentary Government in India" McGraw Hill Higher Education. ISBN 978-0-07-340391-5 Leftism in India, 1917-1947 [8]; Satyabrata Rai Chowdhuri, Palgrave, U.K., 2007. Subrata K. Mitra and V.B. Singh. 1999. Democracy and Social Change in India: A Cross-Sectional Analysis of the National Electorate. New Delhi: Sage Publications. ISBN 81-7036-809-X (India HB) ISBN 0-7619-9344-4 (U.S. HB).

References
[1] "Country Profile: India" (http:/ / lcweb2. loc. gov/ frd/ cs/ profiles/ India. pdf) (PDF). Library of Congress - Federal Research Division. December 2004. . Retrieved 2007-06-24. [2] Bhambhri, Chandra Prakash (1992). Politics in India 1991-92. Shipra Publications. pp.118, 143. ISBN978-8185402178. [3] "Narasimha Rao passes away" (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ 2004/ 12/ 24/ stories/ 2004122408870100. htm). Chennai, India: The Hindu. 24 December 2004. . Retrieved 2008-11-02. [4] Patrick Dunleavy, Rekha Diwakar, Christopher Dunleavy. "The effective space of party competition" (http:/ / www. lse. ac. uk/ collections/ government/ PSPE/ pdf/ PSPE_WP5_07. pdf) (PDF). London School of Economics and Political Science. . Retrieved 2007-10-01. [5] Hermann, Kulke; Dietmar Rothermund (2004). A History of India. Routledge. p.384. ISBN978-0415329194. [6] A special report on India: The democracy tax is rising: Indian politics is becoming ever more labyrinthine (http:/ / www. economist. com/ specialreports/ displaystory. cfm?story_id=12749771) December 11th 2008 The Economist [7] Wax, Emily (24 July 2008). "With Indian Politics, the Bad Gets Worse" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2008/ 07/ 23/ AR2008072303390. html). Washington Times. . Retrieved 22 May 2010. [8] http:/ / www. palgrave. com/ products/ title. aspx?PID=278315

External links
Outline of the Indian Government (http://india.gov.in/) Official party websites: Official Indian National Congress Web Site (http://www.congress.org.in/) Official Bharatiya Janata Party Web Site (http://www.bjp.org/)

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Foreign relations and military

Foreign relations of India
India has formal diplomatic relations with most nations. As a second most populous country and the world's most-populous democracy and recently has one of the fastest economic growth rates in the world.[1] With the world's tenth largest military expenditures,[2] and eleventh largest economy by nominal rates or fourth largest by purchasing power parity, India is a regional power,[3] and a potential global power.[4] It is India's growing international influence that increasingly gives it a more prominent voice in global affairs.[5] [6] [7] [8] India has a long history of collaboration with several countries and is considered a leader of the developing world.[9] [10] India was one of the founding members of several international organizations, most notably the United Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Asian Development Bank and the G20 industrial nations. India has also played an important and influential role in other international organizations like East Asia Summit,[11] World Trade Organization,[12] International Monetary Fund (IMF),[13] G8+5[14] and IBSA Dialogue Forum.[15] Regional organizations India is a part of include SAARC and BIMSTEC. India has taken part in several UN peacekeeping missions and in 2007, it was the second-largest troop contributor to the United Nations.[16] India is currently seeking a permanent seat in the UN Security Council, along with the G4 nations.[17]

History
Even before independence, the Government of British India maintained semi-autonomous diplomatic relations. It had colonies (such as the Aden Settlement), sent and received full diplomatic missions,[18] and was a founder member of both the League of Nations[19] and the United Nations.[20] After India gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1947, it soon joined the Commonwealth of Nations and strongly supported independence movements in other colonies, like the Indonesian National Revolution.[21] The partition and various territorial disputes, particularly that over Kashmir, would strain its relations with Pakistan for years to come. During the Cold War, India adopted a foreign policy of not aligning itself with any major power bloc. However, India developed close ties with the Soviet Union and received extensive military support from it. The end of the Cold War significantly affected India's foreign policy, as it did for much of the world. The country now seeks to strengthen its diplomatic and economic ties with the United States,[22] the People's Republic of China,[23] the European Union,[24] Japan,[25] Israel,[26] Mexico,[27] and Brazil.[28] India has also forged close ties with the member states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations,[29] the African Union,[30] the Arab League[31] and Iran.[32] Though India continues to have a military relationship with Russia,[33] Israel has emerged as India's second largest military partner[30] while India has built a strong strategic partnership with the United States.[22] [34] The Indo-US civilian nuclear agreement, signed and implemented in 2008, highlighted the growing sophistication of the Indo-American relations.[35]

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Policy
India's foreign policy has always regarded the concept of neighborhood as one of widening concentric circles, around a central axis of historical and cultural commonalities.[36] The guiding principles of India's Foreign Policy have been founded on Panchsheel, pragmatism and pursuit of national interest. In a period of rapid and continuing change, Diplomatic relations between world states and IndiaIndiaNations that India has relations withNations that have no diplomatic relations with IndiaDisputed areas foreign policy must be capable of responding optimally to new challenges and opportunities. It has to be an integral part of the larger effort of building the nation's capabilities through economic development, strengthening social fabric and well-being of the people and protecting India's sovereignty and territorial integrity. India's foreign policy is a forward-looking engagement with the rest of the world, based on a rigorous, realistic and contemporary assessment of the bilateral, regional and global geo-political and economic milieu. As many as 20 million people of Indian origin live and work abroad and constitute an important link with the mother country. An important role of India's foreign policy has been to ensure their welfare and well being within the framework of the laws of the country where they live.[37]

Role of the Prime Minister

Jawaharlal Nehru, India's first Prime Minister, promoted a strong personal role for the Prime Minister but a weak institutional structure. Nehru served concurrently as Prime Minister and Minister of External Affairs; he made all major foreign policy decisions himself after consulting with his advisers and then entrusted the conduct of international affairs to senior members of the Indian Foreign Service. His successors continued to exercise considerable control over India's international dealings, although they generally appointed separate ministers of external affairs.[38] [39] [40]

India's second prime minister, Lal Bahadur Shastri (196466), expanded the Office of Prime Minister (sometimes called the Prime Minister's Secretariat) and enlarged its powers. By the 1970s, the Office of the Prime Minister had become the de facto coordinator and supraministry of the Indian government. The enhanced role of the office strengthened the prime minister's control over foreign policy making at the expense of the Ministry of External Affairs. Advisers in the office provided channels of information and policy recommendations in addition to those offered by the Ministry of External Affairs. A subordinate part of the officethe Research and Analysis Wing (RAW)--functioned in ways that significantly expanded the information available to the prime minister and his advisers. The RAW gathered intelligence, provided intelligence analysis to the Office of the Prime Minister, and conducted covert operations abroad. The prime minister's control and reliance on personal advisers in the Office of the Prime Minister was particularly strong under the tenures of Indira Gandhi (196677 and 198084) and her son, Rajiv (198489), who succeeded her, and weaker during the periods of coalition governments. Observers find it difficult to determine whether the locus of decision-making authority on any particular issue lies with the Ministry of External Affairs, the Council of Ministers,

Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh with Russian President Dmitry Medvedev in New Delhi. The Prime Minister, in collaboration with External Affairs Ministry, handles key foreign policy decisions.

Foreign relations of India the Office of the Prime Minister, or the prime minister himself.[41] The Prime Minister is however free to appoint advisers and special committees to examine various foreign policy options and areas of interest.[42] In a recent instance, Manmohan Singh appointed K. Subrahmanyam in 2005 to head a special government task force to study 'Global Strategic Developments' over the next decade.[43] The Task Force submitted its conclusions to the Prime Minister in 2006.[44] [45] The report has not yet been released in the public domain.

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Ministry of External Affairs

The Ministry of External Affairs is the Indian government's agency responsible for the foreign relations of India. The Minister of External Affairs holds cabinet rank as a member of the Council of Ministers. S. M. Krishna is current Minister of External Affairs. The Ministry has two Ministers of State Preneet Kaur and E. Ahamed. The Indian Foreign Secretary is the head of Indian Foreign Service (IFS) and therefore, serves as the head of all Indian ambassadors and high commissioners.[46] Nirupama Rao is the current Foreign Secretary of India.

Overview
India's relations with the world have evolved since the British Raj (18571947), when the British Empire monopolized external and defense relations. When India gained independence in 1947, few Indians had experience in making or conducting foreign policy. However, the country's oldest political party, the Indian National Congress, had established a small foreign department in 1925 to make overseas contacts and to publicize its freedom struggle. From the late 1920s on, Jawaharlal Nehru, who had a long-standing interest in world affairs among independence leaders, formulated the Congress stance on international issues. As a member of the interim government in 1946, Nehru articulated India's approach to the world.[47] play.[48] India's international influence varied over the years after independence. Indian prestige and moral authority were high in the 1950s and facilitated the acquisition of developmental assistance from both East and West. Although the prestige stemmed from India's nonaligned stance, the nation was unable to prevent Cold War politics from becoming intertwined with interstate relations in South Asia. Sardar Swaran Singh was India's foreign minister from 1964 to 1966. In the 1960s and 1970s, India's international position among developed and developing countries faded in the course of wars with China and Pakistan, disputes with other countries in South Asia, and India's attempt to balance Pakistan's support from the United States and China by signing the Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation in August 1971. Although India obtained substantial Soviet military and economic aid, which helped to strengthen the nation, India's influence was undercut regionally and internationally by the perception that its friendship with the Soviet Union prevented a more forthright condemnation of the Soviet presence in Afghanistan. In the late 1980s, India improved relations with the United States, other developed countries, and China while continuing close ties with the Soviet Union. Relations with its South Asian neighbors, especially Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Nepal, occupied much of the energies of the Ministry of External Affairs.[49]

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In the 1990s, India's economic problems and the demise of the bipolar world political system forced India to reassess its foreign policy and adjust its foreign relations. Previous policies proved inadequate to cope with the serious domestic and international problems facing India. The end of the Cold War gutted the core meaning of nonalignment and left Indian foreign policy without significant direction. The hard, pragmatic considerations of the early 1990s were still viewed within the Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, India nonaligned framework of the past, but the disintegration of the Soviet has forged a closer partnership with Western Union removed much of India's international leverage, for which powers. Shown here are Prime Minister relations with Russia and the other post-Soviet states could not Manmohan Singh with US President Barack Obama in 2009. compensate. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, India improved its relations with the United States, Canada, France, Japan and Germany. In 1992, India established formal diplomatic relations with Israel and this relationship grew during the tenures of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) government and the subsequent UPA(United Progressive Alliance) governments.[50] In the mid-1990s, India attracted the world attention towards the alleged Pakistan-backed terrorism in Kashmir. The Kargil War resulted in a major diplomatic victory for India. The United States and European Union recognized the fact that Pakistani military had illegally infiltrated into Indian territory and pressurized Pakistan to withdraw from Kargil. Several anti-India militant groups based in Pakistan were labeled as terrorist groups by the United States and European Union. In 1998, India tested nuclear weapons for the second time (see Pokhran-II) which resulted in several U.S., Japanese and European sanctions on India. India's then defense minister, George Fernandes, said that India's nuclear program was necessary as it provided a deterrence to potential Chinese nuclear threat. Most of the sanctions imposed on India were removed by 2001.[51] After the September 11 attacks in 2001, Indian intelligence agencies provided the U.S. with significant information on Al-Qaeda and related India has often represented the interests of groups' activities in Pakistan and Afghanistan. India's extensive developing countries at various international contribution to the War on Terrorism, coupled with a surge in its platforms. Shown here are Prime Minister Manmohan Singh with Dmitry Medvedev, Hu economy, has helped India's diplomatic relations with several Jintao and Luiz Incio Lula da Silva during BRIC countries. Over the past three years, India has held numerous joint summit in June, 2009. military exercises with U.S. and European nations that have resulted in a strengthened U.S.-India and E.U.-India bilateral relationship. India's bilateral trade with Europe and U.S. has more than doubled in the last five years.[52] India has been pushing for reforms in the UN and WTO with mixed results. India's candidature for a permanent seat at the UN Security Council is currently backed by several countries including France, Russia,[53] the United Kingdom,[54] Germany, Japan, Brazil[55] ,Australia[56] and UAE. [57] In 2004, the United States signed a nuclear co-operation agreement with India even though the latter is not a part of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. The US argued that India's strong nuclear non-proliferation record made it an exception, however this has not persuaded other Nuclear Suppliers Group members to sign similar deals with India. During a state visit to India in November 2010, US president Barack Obama announced US support for India's bid for permanent membership to UN Security Council[58] as well as India's entry to Nuclear Suppliers Group, Wassenaar Arrangement, Australia Group and Missile Technology Control Regime.[59] [60]

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Strategic partners
India's growing economy, strategic location, friendly foreign policy and large and vibrant diaspora has won it more allies than enemies.[61] India has friendly relations with several countries in the developing world. Though India is not a part of any major military alliance, it has close strategic and military relationship with most of the major powers. Countries considered India's closest include the Russian Federation,[62] Israel,[63] Afghanistan,[64] France, Nepal,[65] Bhutan [66] and Bangladesh.[67] Russia is the largest supplier of military equipment to India, followed by Israel and France.[68] According to some analysts, Israel is set to overtake Russia as India's largest military and strategic partner.[69] The two countries also collaborate extensively in the sphere of counter-terrorism and space technology.[70] India also enjoys strong military relations with several other countries, including the United Kingdom, the United States,[71] Japan,[72] Singapore, Brazil, South Africa and Italy.[73] In addition, India operates an airbase in Tajikistan[74] and signed a landmark defense accord with Qatar in 2008.[75] India has also forged relationships with developing countries, especially South Africa, Brazil,[76] and Mexico.[77] These countries often represent the interests of the developing countries through economic forums such as the G8+5, IBSA and WTO. India was seen as one of the standard bearers of the developing world and claimed to speak for a collection of more than 30 other developing nations at the Doha Development Round.[78] [79] India's "Look East" Policy has helped it develop greater economic and strategic partnership with Southeast Asian countries, South Korea, Japan, and Taiwan. India also enjoys friendly relations with the Persian Gulf countries and most members of the African Union.

Bilateral and regional relations

Neighbours
Afghanistan Bilateral relations between India and Afghanistan have been traditionally strong and friendly. While India was the only South Asian country to recognize the Soviet-backed Democratic Republic of Afghanistan in the 1980s, its relations were diminished during the Afghan civil wars and the rule of the Islamist Taliban in the 1990s.[80] India aided the overthrow of the Taliban and became the largest regional provider of humanitarian and reconstruction aid.[64] [81] The new democratically-elected Afghan government strengthened its ties with India in wake of persisting tensions and problems with Pakistan, which was suspected of continuing to shelter and support the Taliban.[64] [81] India pursues a policy of close cooperation to bolster its standing as a regional power and contain its rival Pakistan, which it maintains is supporting Islamic militants in Kashmir and other parts of India.[64] India is the largest regional investor in Afghanistan, having committed more than US$2.2 billion for reconstruction purposes.[82] Bangladesh Both states are part of the Indian subcontinent and have had a long common cultural, economic and political history. India played a crucial part in Bangladesh's independence from Pakistan. In recent years India provides co-operation and assistance during annual natural calamities. India is largest exporter to Bangladesh. Most of differences are of sharing water resources between the two countries such as Ganges , where India diverse Ganges water to Calcutta through Farakka Barrage.

Foreign relations of India Bhutan Historically,there have been close ties with India. Both countries signed a Friendship treaty in 1949, where India would assist Bhutan in foreign relations. On February 8, 2007, the Indo-Bhutan Friendship Treaty was substantially revised under the Bhutanese King, Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck. Whereas in the Treaty of 1949 Article 2 read as "The Government of India undertakes to exercise no interference in the internal administration of Bhutan. On its part the Government of Bhutan agrees to be guided by the advice of the Government of India in regard to its external relations." In the revised treaty it now reads as, "In keeping with the abiding ties of close friendship and cooperation between Bhutan and India, the Government of the Kingdom of Bhutan and the Government of the Republic of India shall cooperate closely with each other on issues relating to their national interests. Neither government shall allow the use of its territory for activities harmful to the national security and interest of the other." The revised treaty also includes in it the preamble "Reaffirming their respect for each other's independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity", an element that was absent in the earlier version. The Indo-Bhutan Friendship Treaty of 2007 strengthens Bhutan's status as an independent and sovereign nation. Tata Power is building a hydro-electric dam. This dam will greatly develop the Bhutanese economy by providing employment, and by selling electricity to India and fulfilling India's burgeoning energy needs. Due to this dam Bhutan's economy grew 20%, the second highest growth rate in the world. Myanmar India was one of the leading supporters of Burmese independence and established diplomatic relations after Burma's independence from Great Britain in 1948. For many years, Indo-Burmese relations were strong due to cultural links, flourishing commerce, common interests in regional affairs and the presence of a significant Indian community in Burma.[83] India provided considerable support when Burma struggled with regional insurgencies. However, the overthrow of the democratic government by the Military of Burma led to strains in ties. Along with much of the world, India condemned the suppression of democracy and Burma ordered the expulsion of the Burmese Indian community, increasing its own isolation from the world.[83] [84] Only China maintained close links with Burma while India supported the pro-democracy movement.[83] [85] [86] However, due to geo-political concerns, India revived its relations and recognised the new name of Myanmar in 1993 overcoming strains over drug trafficking, the suppression of democracy and the rule of the military junta in Burma. Burma is situated to the south of the states of Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh in Northeast India. and the proximity of the People's Republic of China gives strategic importance to Indo-Burmese relations. The Indo-Burmese border stretches over 1,600 miles and some insurgents in North-east India seek refuge in Myanmar. Consequently, India has been keen on increasing military cooperation with Myanmar in its counter-insurgency activities. In 2001, the Indian Army completed the construction of a major road along its border with Myanmar. India has also been building major roads, highways, ports and pipelines within Myanmar in an attempt to increase its strategic influence in the region and also to counter China's growing strides in the Indochina peninsula. Indian companies have also sought active participation in oil and natural gas exploration in Myanmar.In February 2007, India announced a plan to develop the Sittwe port, which would enable ocean access from Indian Northeastern states like Mizoram, via the Kaladan River. India is a major customer of Myanmarese oil and gas. In 2007, Indian exports to Myanmar totaled US$185 million, while its imports from Myanmar were valued at around US$810 million, consisting mostly of oil and gas.[87] India has granted US$100 million credit to fund highway infrastructure projects in Myanmar, while US$ 57 million has been offered to upgrade Myanmarese railways. A further US$27 million in grants has been pledged for road and rail projects.[88] India is one of the few countries that has provided military assistance to the Myanmarese junta.[89] However, there has been increasing pressure on India to cut some of its military supplies to Myanmar.[90] Relations between the two remain close which was evident in the aftermath of Cyclone Nargis, when India was one of the few

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Foreign relations of India countries whose relief and rescue aid proposals were accepted by Myanmar's ruling junta.[91] China Despite lingering suspicions remaining from the 1962 Sino-Indian War and continuing boundary disputes over Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh, Sino-Indian relations have improved gradually since 1988. Both countries have sought to reduce tensions along the frontier, expand trade and cultural ties, and normalize relations. A series of high-level visits between the two nations have helped improve relations. In December 1996, PRC President Jiang Zemin visited India during a tour of South Asia. While in New Delhi, he signed with the Indian Prime Minister a series of confidence-building A Chinese container ship unloads cargo at the measures for the disputed borders. Sino-Indian relations suffered a Jawaharlal Nehru Port in India. Bilateral trade between the two countries is expected to surpass brief setback in May 1998 when the Indian Defence minister justified US$60 billion by 2010 making China the single the country's nuclear tests by citing potential threats from the PRC. [92] largest trading partner of India. However, in June 1999, during the Kargil crisis, then-External Affairs Minister Jaswant Singh visited Beijing and stated that India did not consider China a threat. By 2001, relations between India and the PRC were on the mend, and the two sides handled the move from Tibet to India of the 17th Karmapa in January 2000 with delicacy and tact. In 2003, India formally recognized Tibet as a part of China, and China recognized Sikkim as a formal part of India in 2004. Since 2004, the economic rise of both China and India has also helped forge closer relations between the two. Sino-Indian trade reached US$36 billion in 2007, making China the single largest trading partner of India.[93] The increasing economic reliance between India and China has also bought the two nations closer politically, with both India and China eager to resolve their boundary dispute.[94] They have also collaborated on several issues ranging from WTO's Doha round in 2008[95] to regional free trade agreement.[96] Similar to Indo-US nuclear deal, India and China have also agreed to cooperate in the field of civilian nuclear energy.[97] However, China's economic interests have clashed with those of India. Both the countries are the largest Asian investors in Africa[98] and have competed for control over its large natural resources.[99] India and China agreed to take bilateral trade up to US$100 billion on a recent visit by Wen Jiabao to India. Maldives India enjoys a considerable influence over Maldives' foreign policy and provides extensive security co-operation especially after the Operation Cactus in 1988 during which India repelled Tamil mercenaries who invaded the country. As founder member in 1985 of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, SAARC, which brings together Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, the country plays a very active role in SAARC. The Maldives has taken the lead in calling for a South Asian Free Trade Agreement, the formulation of a Social Charter, the initiation of informal political consultations in SAARC forums, the lobbying for greater action on environmental issues, the proposal of numerous human rights measures such as the regional convention on child rights and for setting up a SAARC Human Rights Resource Centre. The Maldives is also an advocate of greater international profile for SAARC such as through formulating common positions at the UN. But the Maldives claims the Indian-administered territory of Minicoy as part of its country, that is inhabited by Muslims. India is starting the process to bring the island country into India's security grid. The move comes after the moderate Islamic nation approached New Delhi earlier this year over fears that one of its island resorts could be taken over by terrorists given its lack of military assets and surveillance capabilities.[100] India is also signing an agreement later this year which includes following things.

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Foreign relations of India India will permanently base two helicopters in the country to enhance its surveillance capabilities and ability to respond swiftly to threats. One helicopter from the Coast Guard is likely to be handed over during Antony's visit while another from the Navy will be cleared for transfer shortly. Maldives has coastal radars on only two of its 26 atolls. India will help set up radars on all 26 for seamless coverage of approaching vessels and aircraft. The coastal radar chain in Maldives will be networked with the Indian coastal radar system. India has already undertaken a project to install radars along its entire coastline. The radar chains of the two countries will be interlinked and a central control room in India's Coastal Command will get a seamless radar picture. The Indian Coast Guard (ICG) will carry out regular Dornier sorties over the island nation to look out for suspicious movements or vessels. The Southern Naval Command will overlook the inclusion of Maldives into the Indian security grid. Military teams from Maldives will visit the tri-services Andaman Nicobar Command (ANC) to observe how India manages security and surveillance of the critical island chain. Nepal Relations between India and Nepal are close yet fraught with difficulties stemming from geography, economics, the problems inherent in big power-small power relations, and common ethnic and linguistic identities that overlap the two countries' borders. In 1950 New Delhi and Kathmandu initiated their intertwined relationship with the Treaty of Peace and Friendship and accompanying letters that defined security relations between the two countries, and an agreement governing both bilateral trade and trade transiting Indian soil. The 1950 treaty and letters stated that "neither government shall tolerate any threat to the security of the other by a foreign aggressor" and obligated both sides "to inform each other of any serious friction or misunderstanding with any neighboring state likely to cause any breach in the friendly relations subsisting between the two governments." Which granted the Indian and Nepali People don`t mandatory to have Work permit for any economic activity such as work and business related activity. These accords cemented a "special relationship" between India and Nepal that granted Nepal preferential economic treatment and provided Nepalese in India the same economic and educational opportunities as Indian citizens. Pakistan Despite historical, cultural and ethnic links between them, relations between India and Pakistan have been plagued by years of mistrust and suspicion ever since the partition of India in 1947. The principal source of contention between India and its western neighbour has been the Kashmir conflict. After an invasion by Pashtun tribesmen and Pakistani paramilitary forces, the Hindu Maharaja of the Dogra Kingdom of Jammu and Kashmir, Hari Singh, and its Muslim Prime Minister, Sheikh Abdullah, signed an Instrument of Accession with New Delhi. The First Kashmir War started after the Indian Army Former Indian PM Nehru with then Pakistani PM entered Srinagar, the capital of the state, to secure the area from the Muhammad Ali Bogra in 1953. invading forces. The war ended in December 1948 with the Line of Control dividing the erstwhile princely state into territories administered by Pakistan (northern and western areas) and India (southern, central and northeastern areas). Pakistan contested the legality of the Instrument of Accession since the Dogra Kingdom has signed a standstill agreement with it. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 started following the failure of Pakistan's Operation Gibraltar, which was designed to infiltrate forces into Jammu and Kashmir to precipitate an insurgency against rule by India. The five-week war caused thousands of casualties on both sides. It ended in a United Nations (UN) mandated ceasefire and the subsequent issuance of the Tashkent

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Foreign relations of India Declaration. India and Pakistan went to war again in 1971, this time the conflict being over East Pakistan. The large-scale atrocities committed there by the Pakistan army led to millions of Bengali refugees pouring over into India. India, along with the Mukti Bahini, defeated Pakistan and the Pakistani forces surrendered on the eastern front. The war resulted in the creation of Bangladesh. In 1998, India carried out the Pokhran-II nuclear tests which was followed by Pakistan's Chagai-I tests. Following the Lahore Declaration in February 1999, relations briefly improved. A few months later however, Kashmiri insurgents and Pakistani paramilitary forces, backed by Pakistani Army, infiltrated in large numbers into the Kargil district of Indian Kashmir. This initiated the Kargil conflict after India moved in thousands of troops to successfully flush out the infiltrators. Although the conflict did not result in a full-scale war between India and Pakistan, relations between the two reached all-time low which worsened even further following the involvement of Pakistan-based terrorists in the hijacking of the Indian Airlines IC814 plane in December 1999. Attempts to normalize relations, such as the Agra summit held in July 2001, failed. An attack on the Indian Parliament in December 2001, which was blamed on Pakistan, which had condemned the attack[101] caused a military standoff between the two countries which lasted for nearly a year raising fears of a nuclear conflict. However, a peace process, initiated in 2003, led to improved relations in the following years. Since the initiation of the peace process, several confidence-building-measures (CBMs) between India and Pakistan have taken shape. The Samjhauta Express and DelhiLahore Bus service are two of these successful measures which have played a crucial role in expanding people-to-people contact between the two countries.[102] The initiation of SrinagarMuzaffarabad Bus service in 2005 and opening of a historic trade route across the Line of Control in 2008 further reflects increasing eagerness between the two sides to improve relations. Although bilateral trade between India and Pakistan was a modest US$1.7 billion in March 2007, it is expected to cross US$10 billion by 2010. After the Kashmir earthquake in 2005, India sent aid to affected areas in Pakistani Kashmir & Punjab as well as Indian Kashmir.[103] The 2008 Mumbai attacks seriously undermined the relations between the two countries. India alleged Pakistan of harboring militants on their soil, while Pakistan vehemently denies such claims. Relations are currently hampered since India has sent a list of 40 alleged fugitive in various terror strikes to Pakistan, expecting them to be handed over to India. Pakistan, on the other hand, has declared that it has no intentions whatsoever of carrying out their extradition. Sri Lanka Bilateral relations between Sri Lanka and India have been generally friendly, but were affected by the Sri Lankan civil war and by the failure of Indian intervention during the Sri Lankan civil war. India is Sri Lanka's only neighbour, separated by the Palk Strait; both nations occupy a strategic position in South Asia and have sought to build a common security umbrella in the Indian Ocean.[104] India-Sri Lanka relations have undergone a qualitative and quantitative transformation in the recent past. Political relations are close, trade and investments have increased dramatically, infrastructural linkages are constantly being augmented, defence collaboration has increased and there is a general, broad-based improvement across all sectors of bilateral cooperation. India was the first country to respond to Sri Lanka's request for assistance after the tsunami in December 2004. In July 2006, India evacuated 430 Sri Lankan nationals from Lebanon, first to Cyprus by Indian Navy ships and then to Delhi & Colombo by special Air India flights. There exists a broad consensus within the Sri Lankan polity on the primacy of India in Sri Lanka's external relations matrix. Both the major political parties in Sri Lanka, the Sri Lanka Freedom Party and the United Nationalist Party have contributed to the rapid development of bilateral relations in the last ten years. Sri Lanka has supported India's candidature to the permanent membership of the UN Security Council.[105]

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AsiaPacific
Australia The strongest ties between these two states is the commonwealth connection. Cricketing and Bollywood ties also help foster relations as in the frequent travel for games, and, more importantly, the presence of Australian cricketers in India for commercial gain. This was further enhanced with the IPL, and, to a lesser degree, the ICL. Bollywood has also improved ties as with John Howard's visit to Mumbai to increase tourism to Australia.[106] Furthermore, there is a going strategic connection to forming an "Asian NATO" with India, Japan, the US and Australia.[107] The bilateral agreements have worked out for all but the Indo-Australian angle, though this has been hurt by India's refusal to sign the NPT and Australia's consequent refusal to provide India with uranium until the latter do so. The Australian and Indian militaries have already worked well together. Of late the relations between the two countries were jolted, with attacks on Indian Community students in Melbourne, Australia. Indian Government lodged strong protests with the Australian Government. Australian Prime Minister Mr. Kevin Rudd said that "Australia valued its education system and International Students are valued more here in Australia." Mr. Rudd though said that his Govt. has ordered a thorough probe into the attacks and also condemned it in strongest possible terms no significant break through has been achieved.[108] [109] Fiji Fijis relationship with the Republic of India is often seen by observers against the backdrop of the sometimes tense relations between its indigenous people and the 44 percent of the population who are of Indian descent. India has used its influence in international forums such as the Commonwealth of Nations and United Nations on behalf of ethnic Indians in Fiji, lobbying for sanctions against Fiji in the wake of the 1987 coups and the 2000 coup, both of which removed governments, one dominated and one led, by Indo-Fijians. Japan India-Japan relations have always been strong. India has culturally influenced Japan through Buddhism. During the Indian Independence Movement, the Japanese Imperial Army helped Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose's Indian National Army. Relations have remained warm since India's independence. Japanese companies, like Sony, Toyota, and Honda, have manufacturing facilities in India, and with the growth of the Indian economy, India is a big market for Japanese firms. The most prominent Japanese company to have a big investment in India is Two Japanese Naval warships took part in automobiles giant Suzuki which is in partnership with Indian Malabar 2007 off India's western coast, one of the automobiles company Maruti Suzuki, the largest car manufacturer in few such multilateral exercises Japan has ever India. Honda is also a partner in "Hero Honda", one of the largest taken part in symbolizing close military cooperation between India and Japan. motor cycle sellers in the world. In December 2006, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh's visit to Japan culminated in the signing of the "Joint Statement Towards Japan-India Strategic and Global Partnership". Japan has funded some major infrastructure projects in India, most notably the Delhi Metro subway system. Indian applicants were welcomed in 2006 to the JET Program, starting with just one slot available in 2006 and 41 in 2007. Also, in 2007, the Japanese Self Defense Forces took part in a naval exercise in the Indian Ocean, known as Malabar 2007, which also involved the naval forces of India, Australia, Singapore and the United States. In October 2008, Japan signed an agreement with India under which it would grant the latter a low-interest loan worth US$4.5 billion to construct a high-speed rail line between Delhi and Mumbai. This is the single largest overseas project being financed by Japan and reflects growing economic partnership between the two.[110] India is

Foreign relations of India also one of three countries with whom Japan has security pact, the other being Australia and the United States.[111] Laos In recent years, India has endeavoured to build relations, with this small Southeast Asian nation. They have strong military relations, and India shall be building an Airforce Academy in Laos.[112] Indonesia The ties between Indonesia and India date back to the times of the Ramayana,[113] "Yawadvipa" (Java) is mentioned in India's earliest epic, the Ramayana. Sugriva, the chief of Rama's army dispatched his men to Yawadvipa, the island of Java, in search of Sita.[114] Indonesians had absorbed many aspects of Indian culture since almost two millennia ago. The most obvious trace is the large adoption of sanskrit into Indonesian language. Indianised Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms, such as Srivijaya, Medang, Sunda and Majapahit were the predominant governments in Indonesia, and lasted from 200[115] to the 1500s, with the last remaining being in Bali. The example of profound Hindu-Buddhist influences in Indonesian history are the 9th century Prambanan and Borobudur temples. In 1950, the first President of Indonesia Sukarno called upon the peoples of Indonesia and India to "intensify the cordial relations" that had existed between the two countries "for more than 1000 years" Jawaharlal Nehru and his daughter Indira Gandhi before they had been "disrupted" by colonial powers.[116] Fifteen years with Sukarno, Megawati Sukarnoputri and Guntur, during stately visit to Indonesia in June later in Djakarta, government-inspired mobs were shouting: "Down 1950. with India, the servant of imperialists" and "Crush India, our enemy. [117] " Yet in the spring of 1966, the foreign ministers of both countries began speaking again of an era of friendly relations. India had supported Indonesian independence and Nehru had raised the Indonesian question in the United Nations Security Council. Today, India has an embassy in Jakarta [118] and Indonesia operates an embassy in Delhi.[119] India regards Indonesia as a key member of ASEAN. Both nations had agreed to establish a strategic partnership.[120] Malaysia India has a high commission in Kuala Lumpur, and Malaysia has a high commission in New Delhi. Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations, and the Asian Union. India and Malaysia are also connected by various cultural and historical ties that date back to antiquity. The two countries are on excellently friendly terms with each other seeing as Malaysia is home to a strong concentration of Indian immigrants.Mahathir bin Mohamad the fourth and longest serving Prime Minister of Malayasia is of Indian origin, his father Mohamad Iskandar, was a Malayalee Muslim (who migrated from Kerala) and his mother Wan Tampawan, was Malay.[121] Philippines Through the Srivijaya and Majapahit empires, Hindu influence has been visible in Philippine history from the 10th to 14th century A.D. During the 18th century, there was robust trade between Manila and the Coromandel Coast of Bengal, involving Philippine exports of tobacco, silk, cotton, indigo, sugar cane and coffee. The Philippines established diplomatic relations with India on 16 November 1949. The first Philippine envoy to India was the late Foreign Secretary Narciso Ramos. Seven years after Indias independence in 1947, the Philippines and India signed a Treaty of Friendship on 11 July 1952 in Manila to strengthen the friendly relations existing between the two

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Foreign relations of India countries. Soon after, the Philippine Legation in New Delhi was established and then elevated to an Embassy.[122] However, due to foreign policy differences as a result of the bipolar alliance structure of the Cold War, the development of bilateral relations was stunted. It was only in 1976 that relations started to normalize when Mr. Aditya Birla, one of Indias successful industrialists, met with then President Ferdinand E. Marcos to explore possibilities of setting up joint ventures in the Philippines. Today, like India, the Philippines is the leading voice-operated business process outsourcing (BPO) source in terms of revenue (US$ 5.7) and number of people (500,000) employed in the sector. In partnership with the Philippines, India has 20 IT/BPO companies in the Philippines. Philippines-India bilateral trade stood at US$ 986.60 million dollars in 2009. In 2004 it was US$ 600 million. Both countries aim to reach US$1 billion by 2010. There are 60,000 Indians living in the Philippines. The Philippines and India signed in October 2007 the Framework for Bilateral Cooperation which created the PH-India JCBC. It has working groups in trade, agriculture, tourism, health, renewable energy and a regular policy consultation mechanism and security dialogue. Singapore India and Singapore share long-standing cultural, commercial and strategic relations, with Singapore being a part of the "Greater India" cultural and commercial region. More than 300,000 people of Indian origin live in Singapore. Following its independence in 1965, Singapore was concerned with China-backed communist threats as well as domination from Malaysia and Indonesia and sought a close strategic relationship with India, which it saw as a counter-balance to Chinese influence and a partner in achieving regional security.[123] Singapore had always been an important strategic trading post, giving Singapore Navy frigate RSS Formidable (68) India trade access to Maritime Southeast Asia and the Far East. steams alongside the Indian Navy frigate INS Brahmaputra (F 31) in the Bay of Bengal. Although the rival positions of both nations over the Vietnam War and Singapore is one of India's strongest allies in the Cold War caused consternation between India and Singapore, their South East Asia. relationship expanded significantly in the 1990s;[123] Singapore was one of the first to respond to India's "Look East" Policy of expanding its economic, cultural and strategic ties in Southeast Asia to strengthen its standing as a regional power.[123] Singapore, and especially, the Singaporean Foreign Minister, George Yeo, have taken an interest, in re-establishing the ancient Indian university, Nalanda University. Singapore is the 8th largest source of investment in India and the largest amongst ASEAN member nations.[123] [124] It is also India's 9th biggest trading partner as of 200506.[123] Its cumulative investment in India totals USD 3 billion as of 2006 and is expected to rise to US 5 billion by 2010 and US 10 billion by 2015.[123] [125] [126] India's economic liberalisation and its "Look East" policy have led to a major expansion in bilateral trade, which grew from USD 2.2 billion in 2001 to US 910 billion in 2006 a 400% growth in span of five years and to USD 50 billion by 2010.[123] [125] [126] Singapore accounts for 38% of India's trade with ASEAN member nations and 3.4% of its total foreign trade.[123] India's main exports to Singapore in 2005 included petroleum, gemstones, jewellery, machinery and its imports from Singapore included electronic goods, organic chemicals and metals. More than half of Singapore's exports to India are basically "re-exports" items that had been imported from India.[123] [124]

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Foreign relations of India South Korea The cordial relationship between the two countries extends back to 48AD, when Queen Suro, or Princess Heo, travelled from the kingdom of Ayodhya to Korea.[127] According to the Samguk Yusa, the princess had a dream about a heavenly king who was awaiting heaven's anointed ride. After Princess Heo had the dream, she asked her parents, the king and queen, for permission to set out and seek the man, which the king and queen urged with the belief that god orchestrated the whole fate.[128] Upon approval, she set out on a boat, carrying gold, silver, a tea plant, and a stone which calmed the waters.[127] Archeologists discovered a stone with two fish kissing each other, a symbol of the Gaya kingdom that is unique to the Mishra royal family in Ayodhya, India. This royal link provides further evidence that there was an active commercial engagements between India and Korea since the queen's arrival to Korea.[127] Current descendants live in the city of Kimhae as well as abroad in America's state of New Jersey and Kentucky. Many of them became prominent and well-known around the world like President Kim Dae Jung, Prime Minister Jong Pil Kim. The relations between the countries have been relatively limited, although much progress arose during the three decades. Since the formal establishment of the diplomatic ties between two countries in 1973, several trade agreements have been reached. Trade between the two nations has increased exponentially, exemplified by the $530 million during the fiscal year of 19921993, and the $10 billion during 20062007.[129] During the 1997 Asian financial crisis, South Korean businesses sought to increase access to the global markets, and began trade investments with India.[129] The last two presidential visits from South Korea to India were in 1996 and 2006,[130] and the embassy works between the two countries are seen as needing improvements.[131] Recently, there have been acknowledgements in the Korean public and political spheres that expanding relations with India should be a major economical and political priority for South Korea. Much of the economic investments of South Korea have been drained into China;[132] however, South Korea is currently the fifth largest source of investment in India.[133] To the Times of India, President Roh voiced his opinion that cooperation between India's software and Korea's IT industries would bring very efficient and successful outcomes.[130] The two countries agreed to shift their focus to the revision of the visa policies between the two countries, expansion of trade, and establishment of free trade agreement to encourage further investment between the two countries. Korean companies such as LG and Samsung have established manufacturing and service facilities in India, and several Korean construction companies won grants for a portion of the many infrastructural building plans in India, such as the "National Highway Development Project".[133] Tata Motor's purchase of Daewoo Commercial Vehicles at the cost of $102 million highlights the India's investments in Korea, which consist mostly of subcontracting.[133] Taiwan The bilateral relations between India and Taiwan (officially Republic of China) have improved since the 1990s despite both nations not maintaining official diplomatic relations,[86] [133] India recognizes only the People's Republic of China and not the Republic of China's contention of being the legitimate government of territorial China a conflict that emerged after the Chinese Civil War (194549). However, India's economic & Commercial links as well as people-to-people contacts with Taiwan have expanded in recent years.[133]
Chinese Expedition Army (now Republic of China Army) boarding planes for India.

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Thailand

Foreign relations of India India's Look East policy, saw India grow relations with ASEAN countries including Thailand, and Thailand's Look West policy, also saw it grow its relations with India. Both countries are members of BIMSTEC. Indian Prime Ministers Rajiv Gandhi, P.V. Narasimha Rao, Atal Bihari Vajpayee, and Manmohan Singh, have visited Thailand, which were reciprocated by contemporary Thai Prime Ministers Chatichai Choonhavan, Thaksin Sinawatra, and Surayud Chulanont. In 2003, a Free Trade Agreement was signed between the two countries. India, is the 13th largest investor in Thailand. The spheres of trade are in chemicals, pharmaceuticals, textiles, nylon, tyre cord, real estate, rayon fibres, paper grade pulps, steel wires, and rods. However, IT Services, and manufacturing, are the main spheres. Through Buddhism, India, has culturally influenced Thailand. The Indian epics, Mahabharata, and Ramayana, are popular and are widely taught in schools as part of the curriculum in Thailand. The example can also be seen in temples around Thailand, where the story of Ramayana and renowned Indian folk stories are depicted on the temple wall. Thailand, has become a big tourist destination for Indians. Vietnam India supported Vietnam's independence from France, opposed U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War and supported unification of Vietnam. India established official diplomatic relations in 1972 and maintained friendly relations, especially in the wake of Vietnam's hostile relations with the People's Republic of China, which had become India's strategic rival.[134] India granted the "Most Favoured Nation" status to Vietnam in 1975[134] and both nations signed a bilateral trade agreement in 1978 and the Bilateral Investment Promotion and Protection Agreement (BIPPA) on March 8, 1997.[135] In 2007, a fresh joint declaration was issued during the state visit of the Prime Minister of Vietnam Nguyen Tan Dung.[136] Bilateral trade has increased rapidly since the liberalisation of the economies of both Vietnam and India.[134] India is the 13th-largest exporter to Vietnam, with exports have grown steadily from USD 11.5 million in 198586 to USD 395.68 million by 2003.[135] Vietnam's exports to India rose to USD 180 million, including agricultural products, handicrafts, textiles, electronics and other goods.[137] Between 2001 and 2006, the volume of bilateral trade expanded at 2030% per annum to reach USD 1 billion by 2006.[138] [139] Continuing the rapid pace of growth, bilateral trade is expected to rise to USD 2 billion by 2008, 2 years ahead of the official target.[139] [140] India and Vietnam have also expanded cooperation in information technology, education and collaboration of the respective national space programmes.[136] Direct air links and lax visa regulations have been established to bolster tourism.[141] India and Vietnam are members of the Mekong-Ganga Cooperation, created to develop to enhance close ties between India and nations of Southeast Asia. Vietnam has supported India's bid to become a permanent member of the U.N. Security Council and join the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC).[142] In the 2003 joint declaration, India and Vietnam envisaged creating an "Arc of Advantage and Prosperity" in Southeast Asia;[136] to this end, Vietnam has backed a more important relationship and role between India and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and its negotiation of an Indo-ASEAN free trade agreement.[134] [136] India and Vietnam have also built strategic partnerships, including extensive cooperation on developing nuclear power, enhancing regional security and fighting terrorism, transnational crime and drug trafficking.[86] [136] [137]

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Americas
India's commonalities with developing nations in Latin America, especially Brazil and Mexico have continued to grow. India and Brazil continue to work together on the reform of Security Council through the G4 nations while have also increased strategic and economic cooperation through the IBSA Dialogue Forum. The process of finalizing Preferential Trade Agreement (PTA) with MERCOSUR (Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay) is on the itinerary and negotiations are being held with Chile.[143] Brazilian President Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva was the guest of honour at the 2004 Republic Day celebrations in New Delhi.[144]

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Argentina Formal relations between both the countries were first established in 1949. India has an embassy in Buenos Aires and Argentina has an embassy in New Delhi. The current Indian Ambassador to Argentina (concurrently acreditted to Uruguay and Paraguay) is Mr. R Viswanathan.

(L-R): Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, President of Argentina, Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner and President Pratibha Patil at Rashtrapati Bhawan.

Brazil A group called the Filhos de Gandhi (Sons of Gandhi) participates regularly in the carnival in Salvador. Private Brazilian organizations occasionally invite Indian cultural troupes. In recent years, relations between Brazil and India have grown considerably and co-operation between the two countries has been extended to such diverse areas as science and technology, pharmaceuticals and space. The two-way trade in 2007 nearly tripled to US$ 3.12 billion from US$ 1.2 billion in 2004. India attaches tremendous importance to its relationship with this Latin American giant and hopes to see the areas of co-operation expand in the coming years.

The Prime Minister of India, Manmohan Singh with Brazilian President Luiz Incio Lula da [145] Silva in 2006.

Both countries want the participation of developing countries in the UNSC permanent membership since the underlying philosophy for both of them are: UNSC should be more democratic, legitimate and representative the G4 is a novel grouping for this realization. Brazil and India are deeply committed to IBSA (South-South cooperation) initiatives and attach utmost importance to this trilateral cooperation between the three large, multi-ethnic, multi-racial and multi-religious developing countries, which are bound by the common principle of pluralism and democracy. Canada Indo-Canadian relations, are the longstanding bilateral relations between India and Canada, which are built upon a "mutual commitment to democracy", "pluralism", and "people-to-people links," according to the government of Canada. In 2004, bilateral trade between India and Canada was at about C$2.45 billion. However, the botched handling of the Air India investigation and the case in general suffered a setback to Indo-Canadian relations. India's Smiling Buddha nuclear test led to connections between the two countries being frozen, with allegations that India broke the terms of the Colombo Plan. Although Jean Chrtien and Romo LeBlanc both visited India in the late 1990s, relations were again halted after the Pokhran-II tests.

Flag Commander of Western Fleet of Indian Navy while briefing a press conference on a joint Indo-Canadian naval exercise.

Foreign relations of India Colombia Both countries established diplomatic ties on January 19, 1959. Since then the relationship between the two countries has been gradually increasing with more frequent diplomatic visits to promote political, commercial cultural and academic exchanges. Colombia is currently the commercial point of entry into Latin America for Indian companies.[146] Mexico Mexico is a very important and major economic partner of India. Mexico and India, both have embassies in the other country. Octavio Paz worked as a diplomat in India. His book In Light of India is an analysis of Indian history and culture.[147] See also Hinduism in Mexico Paraguay India and Paraguay established diplomatic relations on September 13, 1961. India is represented in Paraguay through its embassy in Buenos Aires, Argentina and an honorary consulate in Asuncion. Since 2005, Paraguay has had an embassy in New Delhi. United States of America Historically, relations between India and the United States were lukewarm following Indian independence, as India took a leading position in the Non-Aligned Movement, and attempted to pursue even-handed economic and military relations with the Soviet Union, although US provided support to India in 1962 during its war with China. For most of the Cold War, the USA tended to have warmer relations with Pakistan, primarily as a way to contain Soviet-friendly India and to use Pakistan to back the Afghan Mujahideen against the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan. An Indo-Soviet twenty year friendship treaty, signed in 1971, also positioned India against the USA. Cold War era India played a key role in establishing the Non-Aligned Movement in 1961. Though India pursued close relations with both USA and USSR, it decided not to join any major power bloc and refrained from joining military alliances. India, however began establishing close military relationship with the Soviet Union. After the Sino-Indian War and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, India made considerable changes to its foreign policy. It developed a close relationship with the Soviet Union and started receiving massive military equipment and financial assistance from the USSR. This had an adverse effect on the Indo-USA relationship. The United States saw Pakistan as a counter-weight to pro-Soviet India and started giving the former military assistance. This created an atmosphere of suspicion between India and USA. The USA-India relationship suffered a considerable setback during the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan when India openly supported the Soviet Union.

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Relations between India and the United States came to an all-time low during the early 1970s. Despite reports of atrocities in East Pakistan, and being told, most notably in the Blood telegram, of genocidal activities being perpetrated by Pakistani forces, U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger and U.S. President Richard Nixon did nothing to discourage then Pakistani President Yahya Khan and the Pakistan Army. Kissinger was particularly concerned about Soviet expansion into South Asia as a result of a treaty of friendship that had recently been signed between India and the Soviet Union, and sought to demonstrate to the People's Republic of China the value of a tacit alliance with the United States.[148] During the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, Indian Armed Forces, along with the Mukti Bahini, succeeded in liberating East Pakistan which soon declared independence. Richard Nixon, then USA President, feared that an Indian invasion of West Pakistan would mean total Soviet domination of the region, and that it would seriously undermine the global position of the United States and the regional position of America's new tacit ally, China. In order to demonstrate to China the bona fides of the United States as an ally, and in direct violation of the USA Congress-imposed sanctions on Pakistan, Nixon sent military supplies to Pakistan, routing them through Jordan and Iran,[149] while also encouraging China to increase its arms supplies to Pakistan.

President of United States Of America Richard Nixon and Prime Minister of India Indira Gandhi in 1971. They had a deep personal antipathy that colored bilateral relations.

When Pakistan's defeat in the eastern sector seemed certain, Nixon sent the USS Enterprise to the Bay of Bengal, a move deemed by the Indians as a nuclear threat. The Enterprise arrived on station on December 11, 1971. On 6 December and 13 December, the Soviet Navy dispatched two groups of ships, armed with nuclear missiles, from Vladivostok; they trailed U.S. Task Force 74 into the Indian Ocean from 18 December 1971 until 7 January 1972. The Soviets also sent a nuclear submarine to ward off the threat posed by USS Enterprise in the Indian Ocean.[150] Though American efforts had no effect in turning the tide of the war, the incident involving USS Enterprise is viewed as the trigger for India's subsequent nuclear program.[151] American policy towards the end of the war was dictated primarily by a need to restrict the escalation of war on the western sector to prevent the 'dismemberment' of West Pakistan.[152] Years after the war, many American writers criticized the White House policies during the war as being badly flawed and ill-serving the interests of the United States.[153] India carried out nuclear tests a few years later resulting in sanctions being imposed by United States, further drifting the two countries apart. In recent years, Kissinger came under fire for comments made during the Indo-Pakistan War in which he described Indians as "bastards."[154] Kissinger has since expressed his regret over the comments.[155] Post Cold War era Since the end of the Cold War, India-USA relations have improved dramatically. This has largely been fostered by the fact that the USA and India are both democracies and have a large and growing trade relationship. During the Gulf War, the economy of India went through an extremely difficult phase. The Government of India liberalized the Indian economy. After the break up of the Soviet Union, India started looking for new allies and tried improving diplomatic relations with the members of the NATO particularly the United States, Canada, France and Germany. In 1992, India established formal diplomatic relations with Israel.

Foreign relations of India Pokhran tests In 1998, India tested nuclear weapons which resulted in several U.S., Japanese and European sanctions on India. India's then defence minister, George Fernandes, said that India's nuclear program was necessary as it provided a deterrence to some potential nuclear threat. Most of the sanctions imposed on India were removed by 2001. India has categorically stated that it will never use weapons first but will defend if attacked. The economic sanctions imposed by the United States in response to India's nuclear tests in May 1998 appeared, at least initially, to seriously damage Indo-American relations. President Bill Clinton imposed wide-ranging sanctions pursuant to the 1994 Nuclear Proliferation Prevention Act. U.S. sanctions on Indian entities involved in the nuclear industry and opposition to international financial institution loans for non-humanitarian assistance projects in India. The United States encouraged India to sign the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) immediately and without condition. The U.S. also called for restraint in missile and nuclear testing and deployment by both India and Pakistan. The non-proliferation dialogue initiated after the 1998 nuclear tests has bridged many of the gaps in understanding between the countries. PostSeptember 11 After the September 11 attacks in 2001, Indian intelligence agencies provided the U.S. with significant information on Al-Qaeda and related groups' activities in Pakistan and Afghanistan. India's extensive contribution to the War on Terrorism has helped India's diplomatic relations with several countries. Over the past few years, India has held numerous joint military exercises with U.S. and European nations that have resulted in a strengthened U.S.-India and E.U.-India bilateral relationship. India's bilateral trade with Europe and U.S. has more than doubled in the last five years. However, India has not signed the CTBT, or the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, claiming the discriminatory nature of the treaty that allows the five declared nuclear countries of the world to keep their nuclear arsenal and develop it using computer simulation testing. Prior to its nuclear testing, India had pressed for a comprehensive destruction of nuclear weapons by all countries of the world in a time-bound frame. This was not acceptable to the USA and other countries. Presently, India has declared its policy of "no-first use of nuclear weapons" and the maintenance of a "credible nuclear deterrence". The USA, under President George W. Bush has also lifted most of its sanctions on India and has resumed military co-operation. Relations with USA have considerably improved in the recent years, with the two countries taking part in joint naval exercises off the coast of India and joint air exercises both in India as well as in the United States.[156] [157] [158] India has been pushing for reforms in the UN and WTO with mixed results. India's candidature for a permanent seat at the UN Security Council is currently backed by several countries including United Kingdom, France, Germany, Japan, Brazil, African Union nations, USA and recently People's Republic of China. In 2005, the United States signed a nuclear co-operation agreement with India even though the latter is not a part of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. The US argued that India's strong nuclear non-proliferation record made it an exception and persuaded other Nuclear Suppliers Group members to sign similar deals with India. On March 2, 2006 India and the USA signed the Indo-U.S. Nuclear Pact on co-operation in civilian nuclear field. This was signed during the four days state visit of USA President George Bush in India. On its part, India would separate its civilian and military nuclear programs, and the civilian programs would be brought under the safeguards of International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). The United States would sell India the reactor technologies and the nuclear fuel for setting up and upgrading its civilian nuclear program. The U.S. Congress needs to ratify this pact since U.S. federal law prohibits the trading of nuclear technologies and materials outside the framework of the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG).

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Foreign relations of India Indo-USA strategic partnership Indo-USA relations got strategic content in the early 1960s. The rise of China worried the policymakers in Washington. Chinese assertion in Tibet, its role in the Korean War and other such acts concerned Washington. As the relations between India and China deteriorated during late fifties, the Americans found a golden opportunity to take advantage of this situation to promote India as a counterweight to China.[159] But any unidimensional alliance is bound to be short-lived and this alliance was no exception to this general rule. As China ceased to be a headache for the American policymakers by the late sixties, this unidimensional alliance disappeared into thin air.

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Prime Minister Manmohan Singh with President Barack Obama at the White House.

The end of the Cold War necessitated as well as facilitated the infusion of strategic content to Indo-USA relationsthis time multidimensional. In the post Cold War era, the strategic objectives of India and the USA converges on a number of issues and not just oneas well as the case earlier. These issues include, inter alia, containment of terrorism, promotion of democracy, counter proliferation, freedom of navigation in the Indian Ocean, Asian balance of power, etc.[34] One of the very interesting feature of Indo-USA relations of recent times is the changes on the terms of engagement between the two countries on the issue of nuclear proliferation. While earlier, in the USA strategic thinking on nuclear proliferation, India figured mainly because of American concern about latter's nuclear and missile programmes, in the twenty-first century, however, American strategic thinking on the issue of nuclear proliferation has undergone radical reorientation. Now, the Americans are increasingly realising the futility of insisting on a rollback of India's nuclear programme. They, rather, want to leverage India's growing power and influence in favour of their broader nonproliferation and counter proliferation objectives.[160] As promotion of democracy around the world is one of the most important foreign policy objective of the USA, India as the largest democracy of the world-can hardly be ignored by the USA. This is the reason, cooperation in promotion of democracy in the world has become one of the most important facets of Indo-USA relations in recent times. India is a founding member of the 'Community of Democracies' a prominent endeavour of the USA on promotion of democracy. However, India rejected the suggestion of the USA about setting up a Centre for Asian Democracy.[161] Agriculture is another important area of cooperation between India and the USA in present times. Considering the fact that both the nations at present have a vast pool of human resources adept at knowledge economy, it is only natural that the best course such partnership can aim at is harnessing these human resources by concentrating on development and dissemination of agricultural knowledge through research, education and training etc. An initiative to forge such a partnership is the 'India-USA Knowledge Initiative on Agriculture' (KIA).[162] Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh was the guest of honor at the first state dinner, which took place on November 24, 2009, of the administration of US President Barack Obama. Obama later visited India from November 69, 2010, signing numerous trade and defence agreements with India. He addressed the joint session of the Indian parliament in New Delhi, becoming only the second US President to do so, and announced that the United States would lend it's support to India's bid for a permanent seat in the United Nations Security Council, signifying the growing strategic dimension of the relationship between the world's two largest democracies.[163]
Embassy of India in Washington, D.C.

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Europe
European Union India was one of the first countries to develop relations with the Union, signing bilateral agreements in 1973, when the United Kingdom joined. The most recent cooperation agreement was signed in 1994 and an action plan was signed in 2005. As of April 2007 the Commission is pursuing a free trade agreement with India.[164] The Union is India's largest trading partner, accounting for 20% of Indian trade. G20 Leaders Summit on Financial Markets and the World Economy in However, India accounts for only 1.8% of Washington, D.C. the EU's trade and attracts only 0.3% of European Foreign Direct Investment, although still provides India's largest source. During 2005 EU-India trade grew by 20.3%.[165] There was controversy in 2006 when the Indian Mittal Steel Company sought to take-over the Luxembourg based steel company, Arcelor. The approach met with opposition from France and Luxembourg but was passed by the Commission who stated that were judging it on competition grounds only.[166] The European Union (EU) and India agreed on September 29, 2008 at the EU-India summit in Marseille, France's largest commercial port, to expand their cooperation in the fields of nuclear energy and environmental protection and deepen their strategic partnership. French President Nicolas Sarkozy, the EU's rotating president, said at a joint press conference at the summit that "EU welcomes India, as a large country, to engage in developing nuclear energy, adding that this clean energy will be helpful for the world to deal with the global climate change." Sarkozy also said the EU and Indian Prime Minister Manmohan pledged to accelerate talks on a free trade deal and expected to finish the deal by 2009. The Indian prime minister was also cautiously optimistic about cooperation on nuclear energy. "Tomorrow we have a bilateral summit with France. This matter will come up and I hope some good results will emerge out of that meeting," Singh said when asked about the issue. Singh said that he was "very satisfied" with the results of the summit. He added that EU and India have "common values" and the two economies are complementary to each other. European Commission President Jos Manuel Barroso, also speaking at Monday's press conference, expounded the joint action plan on adjustments of EU's strategic partnership with India, saying the two sides will strengthen cooperation on world peace and safety, sustainable development, cooperation in science and technology and cultural exchanges. Reviewing the two sides' efforts in developing the bilateral strategic partnership, the joint action plan reckoned that in politics, dialogue and cooperation have enhanced through regular summits and exchanges of visits and that in economy, mutual investments have increased dramatically in recent years, dialogue in macro economic policies and financial services has established and cooperation in energy, science and technology and environment has been launched. Under the joint action plan, EU and Indian would enhance consultation and dialogue on human rights within the UN framework, strengthen cooperation in world peacekeeping mission, fight against terror and non-proliferation of arms, promote cooperation and exchange in developing civil nuclear energy and strike a free trade deal as soon as possible. France, which relies heavily on nuclear power and is a major exporter of nuclear technology, is expected to sign a deal that would allow it to provide nuclear fuel to India. Trade between India and the 27-nation EU has more than doubled from 25.6 billion euros ($36.7 billion) in 2000 to 55.6 billion euros last year, with further expansion to be seen. "We have agreed to achieve an annual bilateral trade

Foreign relations of India turnover of 100 billion euros within the next five years," Singh told reporters. A joint statement issued at the end of the summit said the EU and India would work to reach an agreement on climate change by the end of 2009.[167] United Kingdom Since 1947, India's relations with the United Kingdom have been through bilateral, as well as through the Commonwealth of Nations framework. Although the Sterling Area no longer exists and the Commonwealth is much more an informal forum, India and the UK still have many enduring links. This is in part due to the significant number of people of Indian origin living in the UK. The large South Asian population in the UK results in steady travel and communication between the two countries. The British Raj allowed for both cultures to imbibe tremendously from the other. The English language and cricket are perhaps the two most evident British exports, whilst in the UK food from the indian subcontinent are very popular.[168] The United Kingdom's favourite food is often reported to be Indian Cuisine, although no official study reports this.[168] Economically the relationship between Britain and India is also strong. India is the second largest investor in Britain after the US.[169] [170] Britain is also one of the largest investors in India.[171] The Queen's visits to India have been enormously successful along with those by other members of the Royal Family. Britain has also supported India's rise to prominence on the international stage, including advocating a permanent seat on the Security Council.[172] The UK recently gave India a 825 million aid package to help India develop its health and education systems.[167] [173] France France and India established diplomatic relationships soon after India achieved independence in 1947. India's strong diplomatic ties with France resulted in the peaceful cession of Pondicherry to India on November 1, 1954 without any military opposition from France. France, Russia and Israel were the only countries that did not condemn India's decision to go nuclear in 1998.[174] In 2003, France became the largest supplier of nuclear fuel and technology to India and remains a large military and economic trade partner. India's permanent member The Indian Air Force has the second largest fleet aspirations in the UN Security Council have found very strong support of France's Mirage 2000H after Arme de l'Air. from former French President Chirac and more recently by the current French President Nicolas Sarkozy. The recent decision by the Indian government to purchase French Scorpne class submarines worth $3 billion USD and 43 Airbus aircraft for Air India worth $2.5 billion USD has further cemented the strategic, military and economic co-operation between India and France. Nicolas Sarkozy visited India in January 2008 and was the Chief Guest of the Republic Day parade in New Delhi. France was the first country to sign a nuclear energy co-operation agreement with India; this was done during Prime Minister Singh's visit, following the waiver by the Nuclear Suppliers Group. During the Bastille Day celebrations on July 14, 2009, a detachment of 400 Indian troops marched along with the French troops as well as the Indian Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh was the guest of honour.[175]

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Foreign relations of India Italy Despite racial and religious disconnections, India and Italy have enjoyed overall pleasurable and strong relations throughout history. Italy and India are also close economic partners and is home to a large population of Indian immigrants. The chief of India's leading political party, the Indian National Congress, Sonia Gandhi, arguably the most powerful Indian woman, is of Italian descent. Unfortunately at diplomatic level the relations seem not to be always good, an example is the terrible visa situation between the two countries for the past few years, visas of any kind (tourist, business, employment and others) are issued for very short term and after a lot of hurdles for both Indian and Italian nationals. This situation has reduced noticeably the possibility of tourism and business development between the two countries. It is not officially known the reason for the current diplomatic situation. India has an embassy in Rome, a general consulate in Milan. Italy has an embassy in New Delhi, two general consulates (in Mumbai and Calcutta). There are around 100,000 people of Indian Origin living in Italy, meanwhile there are only around 300 Italian citizens residing in India mostly working on behalf of Italian industrial groups. See also Embassy of India in Rome, Indo Italian Germany During the Cold War India maintained diplomatic relations with West Germany and East Germany. Since the fall of the Berlin Wall, and the reunification of Germany, relations have further improved. The German ambassador to India, Bernd Mutzelburg, once said that India and Germany, are not just 'natural partners', but important countries in a globalised world. Germany is India's largest trade partner in Europe. German Chancellor Angela Merkel visited India recently, as did the Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh visit Germany. Both countries have been working towards gaining permanent seats in the United Nations Security Council. As both countries are strong liberal democracies, they have similar objectives. UN reforms, fighting terrorism and climate change, and promotion of science, education, technology, and human rights, are some areas of shared interests, and collaboration between these two countries. Culturally too, Indian and German writers and philosophers, have influenced each other.[176] Recently, Germany has invested in developing education and skills amongst rural Indians. Also of note, during World War 2 an Indian division known as the Tiger Legion was attached to the German Wehrmacht. Greece The first contact between both civilization dates back from Alexander the Great's visit to India and eventual retreat. Alexander's seemingly un-stoppable eastward expansion was halted at the Kingdoms of North-Western of India. 3000 BC and earlier, the Mahabharata talks of Indian warrior Kings' conquest of Greece and the cultural exchange resulting therefrom. In modern time, diplomatic relations between Greece and India were established in May 1950. The new Greek Embassy building in New Delhi was inaugurated on February 6, 2001.

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Arrival of the first Indian student to Dresden, East Germany, in 1951

Foreign relations of India Turkey Due to controversial issues such as Turkey's close relationship with Pakistan and India's strong relations with Greece and Armenia, relations between the two countries have often been blistered at certain times, but better at others. India and Turkey's relationship alters from unsureness to collaboration when the two nations work together to combat terrorism in Central and South Asia, and the Middle East. India and Turkey are also connected by history, seeing as they have known each other since the days of the Ottoman Empire, and seeing as India was one of the countries to send aid to Turkey following its war of independence. The Indian real estate firm GMR, has invested in and is working towards the modernization of Istanbul's Sabiha Gken International Airport. Other European countries
Country Formal Relations Began Notes

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Armenia 1992-08-31

See ArmeniaIndia relations The first contacts between both civilizations date back from 2,500 years ago, during the 5th century BC. In modern times, India recognized Armenia on December 26, 1991. See Foreign relations of Belarus

Belarus Bulgaria 1954

See BulgariaIndia relations Bulgaria has an embassy in New Delhi and an honorary consulate in Kolkata. [178] Sofia. [177] India has an embassy in

Croatia Cyprus Denmark Estonia 1991-09-09

See Foreign relations of Croatia See Foreign relations of Cyprus See Denmark-India relations See EstoniaIndia relations India's first recognition of Estonia came on 22 September 1921 when the former had just acquired membership in the League of Nations. India re-recognised Estonia on September 9, 1991 and diplomatic relations were established on December 2 of the same year in Helsinki. Neither country has a resident ambassador. Estonia is represented in India by two honorary consulates (in Mumbai and New Delhi). India is represented in Estonia through its embassy in Helsinki (Finland) and through an honorary consulate in Tallinn.

Finland Georgia Holy See Iceland

See Foreign relations of Finland See Foreign relations of Georgia See Foreign relations of the Holy See See IcelandIndia relations Iceland and India established diplomatic relations in 1972. The Embassy of Iceland in London was accredited to India and the Embassy of India in Oslo, Norway, was accredited to Iceland. However, it was only after 2003 that the [179] two countries have began close diplomatic and economic relationships. In 2003, President of Iceland lafur Ragnar Grmsson visited India on diplomatic mission. This was the first visit by an Icelandic President to India. During the visit, Iceland pledged support to New Delhi's candidature for a permanent seat in the United Nation Security Council thus becoming the first Nordic country to do so. This was followed by an official visit of President [180] of India A. P. J. Abdul Kalam to Iceland in May 2005. Following this a new embassy of Iceland was opened in [179] [181] New Delhi on 26 February 2006. Soon, an Indian Navy team visited Iceland on friendly mission. Gunnar Plsson is the ambassador of Iceland to India. The Embassy's area of accreditation, apart from India includes [182] Bangladesh, Indonesia, the Seychelles, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Maldives, Mauritius and Nepal. India [183] appointed S. Swaminathan as the first resident ambassador to Iceland in March 2008.

Foreign relations of India

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See India Ireland relations Indo-Irish relations picked up steam during the freedom struggles of the respective countries against a common imperial empire in the United Kingdom. Political relations between the two states have largely been based on socio-cultural ties, although political and economic ties have also helped build relations. Indo-Irish relations were greatly strengthened by the such luminaries as the likes of Pandit Nehru, amon de Valera, Rabindranath Tagore, W. B. Yeats, James Joyce, and, above all, Annie Besant. Politically relations have not been cold nor warm. Mutual benefit has led to economic ties that are fruitful for both states. Visits by government leaders have kept relations cordial at regular intervals.

Ireland

Malta

See IndiaMalta relations Malta opened a High Commission in New Delhi in 2007. Malta also has an honorary consulate in Mumbai. India is represented in Malta through its embassy in Tripoli, Libya and an honorary consulate in Valletta.

Poland

See IndiaPoland relations Historically, relations have generally been close and friendly, characterized by understanding and cooperation on [184] international front.

Romania

[185] India has an embassy in Bucharest. [186] Romania has an embassy in New Delhi and an honorary consulate in Kolkata. See also Hinduism in Romania

Russia

See IndiaRussia relations During the Cold War, India and the Soviet Union enjoyed a strong strategic, military, economic and diplomatic relationship. After the collapse of the USSR, India improved its relations with the West but it continued its close relations with Russia. India is the second largest market for Russian arms industry. In 2004, more than 70% on [187] Indian Military's hardware came from Russia, making Russia the chief supplier of arms. India has an embassy in Moscow and two Consulates-General (in Saint Petersburg and Vladivostok). Russia has an embassy in New Delhi and three Consulates-General (in Chennai, Kolkata, Mumbai). Since 2000 and the visit of Vladimir Putin in India there have been an Indo-Russian Strategic Partnership.

Serbia

1956

[188] India has an embassy in Belgrade. [189] Serbia has an embassy in New Delhi and an honorary consulate in Chennai. See also Hinduism in Serbia [190] Serbian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with India [191] India has an embassy in Ljubljana. Slovenia has an embassy in New Delhi. See also Hinduism in Slovenia Spain has an embassy in New Delhi and a consulate in Mumbai. India has an embassy in Madrid and consulates in Barcelona and Tenerife

Slovenia

Spain

Ukraine

See IndiaUkraine relations Diplomatic relations between India and Ukraine were established in January 1992. Indian Embassy in Kiev was opened in May 1992 and Ukraine opened its mission in New Delhi in February 1993. The Consulate General of India in Odessa functioned from 1962 till its closure in March 1999.

West Asia
Arab states of the Persian Gulf India and the Arab states of the Persian Gulf enjoy strong cultural and economic ties. This is reflected in the fact that more than 50% of the oil consumed by India comes from the Persian Gulf countries[192] and Indian nationals form the largest expatriate community in the Arabian peninsula.[193] The annual remittance by Indian expatriates in the region amounted to US$20 billion in 2007.[194] India is one of the largest trading partners of the CCASG with non-oil trade between India and Dubai alone amounting to US$19 billion in 2007.[195] The Persian Gulf countries have also played an important role in addressing India's energy security concerns, with Saudi Arabia and Kuwait regularly increasing their oil supply to India to meet the country's rising energy demand. In 2005, Kuwait increased

Foreign relations of India its oil exports to India by 10% increasing the net oil trade between the two to US$4.5 billion.[196] In 2008, Qatar decided to invest US$5 billion in India's energy sector.[197] India has maritime security arrangement in place with Oman and Qatar.[198] In 2008, a landmark defense pact was signed, under which India committed its military assets to protect "Qatar from external threats".[199] There has been progress in a proposed deep-sea gas pipeline from Qatar, via Oman, to India.[200] Bahrain India is a close ally of Bahrain, the Kingdom along with its GCC partners are (according to Indian officials) among the most prominent backers of India's bid for a permanent seat on the UN Security Council,[201] and Bahraini officials have urged India to play a greater role in international affairs. For instance, over concerns about Iran's nuclear programme Bahrain's Crown Prince appealed to India to play an active role in resolving the crisis.[202] Ties between India and Bahrain go back generations, with many of Bahrain's most prominent figures having close connections: poet and constitutionalist Ebrahim Al-Arrayedh grew up in Bombay, while 17th century Bahraini theologians Sheikh Salih Al-Karzakani and Sheikh Ja`far bin Kamal al-Din were influential figures in the Kingdom of Golkonda[203] and the development of Shia thought in the sub-continent. Bahraini politicians have sought to enhance these long standing ties, with Parliamentary Speaker Khalifa Al Dhahrani in 2007 leading a delegation of parliamentarians and business leaders to meet Indian President Pratibha Patil, opposition leader L K Advani, and take part in training and media interviews.[204] Politically, it is easier for Bahrain's politicians to seek training and advice from India than it is from the United States or other western alternative. In December 2007, the Bahrain India Society was launched in Manama to promote ties between the two countries. Headed by the former Minister of Labour Abdulnabi Al Shoala, the Society seeks to take advantage of the development in civil society to actively work to strengthen ties between the two countries, not only business links, but according to the body's opening statement in politics, social affairs, science and culture. India's Minister of State for Foreign Affairs E Ahmed and his Bahraini counterpart Dr Nazar Al Baharna attended the launch.[205] Egypt Modern Egypt-India relations go back to the contacts between Saad Zaghloul and Mohandas Gandhi on the common goals of their respective movements of independence.[206] In 1955, Egypt under Gamal Abdul Nasser and India under Jawaharlal Nehru became the founders of the Non-Aligned Movement. During the 1956 War, Nehru stood supporting Egypt to the point of threatening to withdraw his country from the Commonwealth of Nations. In 1967, following the Arab-Israeli war, India supported Egypt and the Arabs. In 1977, New Delhi described the visit of President Anwar al-Sadat to Jerusalem as a "brave" move and considered the peace treaty between Egypt and Israel a primary step on the path of a just settlement of the Middle East problem. Major Egyptian exports to India include raw cotton, raw and manufactured fertilizers, oil and oil products, organic and non-organic chemicals, leather and iron products. Major imports into Egypt from India are cotton yarn, sesame, coffee, herbs, tobacco, lentils, pharmaceutical products and transport equipment. The Egyptian Ministry of Petroleum is also currently negotiating the establishment of a natural gas-operated fertilizer plant with another Indian company. In 2004 the Gas Authority of India Limited, bought 15% of Egypt Nat Gas distribution and marketing company. In 2008 Egyptian investment in India was worth some 750 million dollars, according to the Egyptian ambassador.[207]

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Foreign relations of India Iran After the Iranian Revolution of 1979, Iran withdrew from CENTO and dissociated itself from US-friendly countries, including Pakistan, which automatically entailed improved relationship with the Republic of India. Currently, the two countries have friendly relations in many areas. There are significant trade ties, particularly in crude oil imports into India and diesel exports to Iran. Iran frequently objected to Pakistan's attempts to draft anti-India resolutions at international organizations such as the OIC. India welcomed Iran's inclusion as an observer state in the SAARC regional organization. Lucknow continues to be a major centre of Shiite culture and Persian study in the subcontinent.

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Seen here is Rabindranath Tagore as a guest of Iran's parliament in the 1930s.

In the 1990s, India and Iran both supported the Northern Alliance in Afghanistan against the Taliban regime. They continue to collaborate in supporting the broad-based anti-Taliban government led by Hamid Karzai and backed by the United States. Iraq Iraq was one of the few countries in the Middle East with which India established diplomatic relations at the embassy level immediately after its independence in 1947.[208] Both nations signed the "Treaty of Perpetual Peace and Friendship" in 1952 and an agreement of cooperation on cultural affairs in 1954.[208] India was amongst the first to recognize the Baath Party-led government, and Iraq remained neutral during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965. However, Iraq sided alongside other Persian Gulf states in supporting Pakistan against India during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, which saw the creation of Bangladesh.[208] The eight-year long IranIraq War caused a steep decline in trade and commerce between the two nations.[208] During the 1991 Persian Gulf War, India remained neutral but permitted refueling for U.S. airplanes.[208] It opposed U.N. sanctions on Iraq, but the period of war and Iraq's isolation further diminished India's commercial and diplomatic ties.[208] From 1999 onwards, Iraq and India began to work towards a stronger relationship. Iraq had supported India's right to conduct nuclear tests following its tests of five nuclear weapons on May 11 and May 13, 1998.[208] In 2000, the then-Vice President of Iraq Taha Yassin Ramadan visited India, and on August 6, 2002 President Saddam Hussein conveyed Iraq's "unwavering support" to India over the Kashmir dispute with Pakistan.[208] [209] India and Iraq established joint ministerial committees and trade delegations to promote extensive bilateral cooperation.[133] [210] Although initially disrupted during the 2003 invasion of Iraq, diplomatic and commercial ties between India and the new democratic government of Iraq have since been normalized.[210]

Foreign relations of India Israel The creation of Israel at the end of World War II was a complex issue. India, along with Iran and Yugoslavia had recommended a single state with Arab and Jewish majority provinces with an aim to prevent partition of historic Palestine and prevent any conflict that might follow based on its own experience during partition.[211] However, the final UN resolution decided to partition historic Palestine into Arab and Jewish states based on religious and ethnic majority which India opposed in the final vote as it did not agree with concept of partition on the basis of religion.[212]

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Beni-Israel Family at Bombay.

However, due to the security threat from a US aided Pakistan and its nuclear program in the 80s, Israel and India started a clandestine relationship that involved cooperation between their respective intelligence agencies.[213] Israel shared India's concerns about the growing danger posed by Pakistan and nuclear proliferation to Iran and other Arab states.[214] After the end of the Cold War, formal relations with Israel started improving significantly.[63] [215] Since the establishment of full diplomatic relations with Israel in 1992, India has improved its relation with the Jewish State. India is regarded as Israel's strongest ally in Asia, and Israel is India's second largest arms supplier. India has entertained Israeli Prime Minister in a visit in 2003,[216] and Israel has entertained Indian dignitaries such as Finance Minister Jaswant Singh in diplomatic visits. India and Israel collaborate in scientific and technological endeavors. Israel's Minister for Science and Technology has expressed interest in collaborating with the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) towards utilizing satellites for better management of land and other resources. Israel has also expressed interest in participating in ISRO's Chandrayaan Mission involving an unmanned mission to the moon.[217] On January 21, 2008 India successfully launched an Israeli spy satellite into orbit from Sriharikota space station in southern India.[218] Israel and India share intelligence on terrorist groups. They have developed close defense and security ties since establishing diplomatic relations in 1992. Israel is India's second-biggest arms supplier, after Russia. India has bought more than $5 billion worth of Israeli equipment since 2002. In addition, Israel is training Indian military units and discussing an arrangement to give Indian commandos instruction in counter-terrorist tactics and urban warfare.[219] In December 2008, Israel and India signed a memorandum to set up an Indo-Israel Legal Colloquium to facilitate discussions and exchange programs between judges and jurists of the two countries.[220] Lebanon India has a peacekeeping force as part of the UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL). One infantry battalion is deployed in Lebanon and about 900 personnel are stationed in the Eastern part of South Lebanon.[221] The force also provided non-patrol aid to citizens.[222] India and Lebanon have very good relations since the 1950s. Oman IndiaOman relations are foreign relations between India and the Sultanate of Oman. India has an embassy in Muscat, Oman. The Indian consulate was opened in Muscat in February 1955 and five years later it was upgraded to a Consulate General and later developed into a full fledged Embassy in 1971. The first Ambassador of India arrived in Muscat in 1973. Oman established its Embassy in New Delhi in 1972 and a Consulate General in Mumbai in 1976.

Foreign relations of India Saudi Arabia Bilateral relations between India and the Saudi Arabia have strengthened considerably owing to cooperation in regional affairs and trade. Saudi Arabia is the one of largest suppliers of oil to India, who is one of the top seven trading partners and the 5th biggest investor in Saudi Arabia.[223] India and Saudi Arabia are actively cooperating in the field of science and technology. CSIR and the Saudi Arabian Standards Organisation (SASO) have an ongoing programme of technical cooperation (POC) since June 1993. Under this programme, Indian experts in different scientific areas, particularly in the field of measurement and calibration, are deputed to Saudi Arabia on regular basis. Similarly, several Saudi experts and have undergone advanced training in India. National Physical Laboratory has provided expertise and technology for two important SASO projects related to calibration and teleclock system. CSIR and the King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST) signed a MoU for bilateral cooperation in 1997 and have an ongoing programme of cooperation, particularly in the field of space science, remote sensing and installation of Internet. Recently a three-member delegation from CSIR, NPL and CFTRI visited SASO during January 2004 and both sides agreed to renew the POC.[224]

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Russia and Central Asia

The dissolution of the Soviet Union and the emergence of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) had major repercussions for Indian foreign policy. Substantial trade with the former Soviet Union plummeted after the Soviet collapse and has yet to recover. Longstanding military supply relationships were similarly disrupted due to questions over financing, although Russia continues to be India's largest supplier of military systems and spare parts. The relationship with USSR was tested (and proven) during the 1971 Atal Bihari Vajpayee with Russian president war with Pakistan, which led to the subsequent liberation of Vladimir Putin in 2001. Bangladesh. Soon after the victory of the Indian Armed Forces, one of the foreign delegates to visit India was Admiral S.G. Gorshkov, Chief of the Soviet Navy. During his visit to Mumbai (Bombay) he came on board INS Vikrant. During a conversation with Vice Admiral Swaraj Prakash, Gorshkov asked the Vice Admiral, "Were you worried about a battle against the American carrier?" He answered himself: "Well, you had no reason to be worried, as I had a Soviet nuclear submarine trailing the American task force all the way into the Indian Ocean." [225] Russian Federation India's ties with the Russian Federation are time-tested and based on continuity, trust and mutual understanding. There is national consensus in both the countries on the need to preserve and strengthen India-Russia relations and further consolidate the strategic partnership between the two countries. A Declaration on Strategic Partnership was signed between former Russian President and current Prime Minister Vladimir Putin and former Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in October 2000.

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Russia and India have decided not to renew the 1971 Indo-Soviet Peace and Friendship Treaty and have sought to follow what both describe as a more pragmatic, less ideological relationship. Russian President Yeltsin's visit to India in January 1993 helped cement this new relationship. Ties have grown stronger with President Vladimir Putin's 2004 visit. The pace of high-level visits has since increased, as has discussion of major defence purchases. Russia, is working for the development of the Kudankulam nuclear plant, that will be capable of Joint Indo-Russian BrahMos nuclear cruise producing 1000 MW of electricity. Gazprom, is working for the missile, has a top speed of Mach 2.8, making it development of oil and natural gas, in the Bay of Bengal. India and the world's fastest supersonic cruise missile. Russia, have collaborated extensively, on space technology. Other areas of collaboration include software, ayurveda, etc. India and Russia, have set a determination in increasing trade to $10 billion. Counter-terrorism techniques are also in place between Russia and India. In 2007 President Vladimir Putin was guest of honour at Republic Day celebration on 26 January 2007. 2008, has been declared by both countries as the Russia-India Friendship Year. Bollywood films are quite popular in Russia. The Indian public sector oil company ONGC bought Imperial Energy in 2008. In December 2008, during President Medvedev's visit, to New Delhi, India and Russia, signed a nuclear energy co-operation agreement. In March, 2010, Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin signed an additional 19 pacts with India which included civilian nuclear energy, space and military co-operation and the final sale of Admiral Gorshkov (Aircraft Carrier) along with MiG-29K fighter jets. Kazakhstan India is working towards developing strong relations with this resource rich Central Asian country. The Indian oil company, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation, has got oil exploration and petroleum development grants in Kazakhstan. The two countries are collaborating in petrochemicals, information technology, and space technology. Kazakhstan has offered India five blocks for oil and gas exploration. India and Kazakhstan, are to set up joint projects in construction, minerals and metallurgy. India also signed four other pacts, including an extradition treaty, in the presence of President Prathibha Patil and her Kazakh counterpart Nursultan Nazarbayev. Kazakhastan will provide uranium and related products under the MoU between Nuclear Power Corp. of India and KazatomProm. These MoU also opens possibilities of joint exploration of uranium in Kazakhstan, which has the worlds' second largest reserves, and India building atomic power plants in the Central Asian country. Mongolia The relations between India and Mongolia are still at a nascent stage and Indo-Mongolian cooperation is limited to diplomatic visits, provision of soft loans and financial aid and the collaborations in the IT sector. India established diplomatic relations in December 1955. India was the first country outside the Soviet block to establish diplomatic relations with Mongolia. Since then, there have been treaties of mutual friendship and cooperation between the two countries in 1973, 1994, 2001 and 2004.

Foreign relations of India Seychelles There are many Indians living in Seychelles. The Indian Navy also helps the Seychelles government defend against pirates. Tajikistan Diplomatic relations were established India and Tajikistan following Tajikistan's independence from the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union, which had been friendly with India. Tajikistan occupies a strategically important position in Central Asia, bordering Afghanistan, the People's Republic of China and separated by a small strip of Afghan territory from Pakistan. India's role in fighting the Taliban and Al-Qaeda and its strategic rivalry with both China and Pakistan have made its ties with Tajikistan important to its strategic and security policies. Despite their common efforts, bilateral trade has been comparatively low, valued at USD 12.09 million in 2005; India's exports to Tajikistan were valued at USD 6.2 million and its imports at USD 5.89 million. India's military presence and activities have been significant, beginning with India's extensive support to the anti-Taliban Afghan Northern Alliance (ANA). India began renovating the Farkhor Air Base and stationed aircraft of the Indian Air Force there. The Farkhor Air Base became fully operational in 2006, and 12 MiG-29 bombers and trainer aircraft are planned to be stationed there. Uzbekistan The countries have some culture in common especially because of deep Turkic and Persian influences in the two countries. India has an embassy in Tashkent. Uzbekistan has an embassy in New Delhi. Uzbekistan has had a great impact on Indian culture mostly due to the Mughal Empire which was founded by Babur of Ferghana (in present-day Uzbekistan) who created his empire southward first in Afghanistan and then in India.

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Africa
India has had good relationships with most sub-Saharan African nations for most of its history. In the Prime Minister's visit to Mauritius in 1997, the two countries secured a deal to a new Credit Agreement of INR 10.50 crore (US$3 million) to finance import by Mauritius of capital goods, consultancy services and consumer durable from India. The government of India secured a rice and medicine agreement with the people of Seychelles. India continued to build upon its historically close relations with Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. Visits from political ministers from Ethiopia provided opportunities for strengthening bilateral cooperation between the two countries in the fields of education and technical training, water resources management and development of small industries. This has allowed India to gain benefits from nations that are generally forgotten by other Western Nations. The South African President, Thabo Mbeki has called for a strategic relationship between India and South Africa to avoid imposition by Western Nations. India continued to build upon its close and friendly relations with Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Indian PM Manmohan Singh with Brazilian Mozambique, Namibia, Swaziland, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The President Luiz Incio Lula da Silva and South Minister of Foreign Affairs arranged for the sending of Special Envoys African President Thabo Mbeki. to each of these countries during 199697 as a reaffirmation of India's assurance to strengthening cooperation with these countries in a spirit of South-South partnership. These relations have created a position of strength with African nations that other nations may not possess.[226]

Foreign relations of India Cte d'Ivoire The bilateral relations between the Republic of India and the Republic of Cte d'Ivoire have considerably expanded in recent years as India seeks to develop an extensive commercial and strategic partnership in the West African region . The Indian diplomatic mission in Abidjan was opened in 1979. Cte d'Ivoire opened its resident mission in New Delhi in September 2004.[227] Both nations are currently fostering efforts to increase trade, investments and economic cooperation.[228] Liberia The bilateral relations between the Republic of India and the Republic of Liberia have expanded on growing bilateral trade and strategic cooperation. India is represented in Liberia through its embassy in Abidjan (Ivory Coast) and an active honorary consulate in Monrovia since 1984. Liberia was represented in India through its resident mission in New Delhi which subsequently closed due to budgetary constraints.[229] Nigeria India has close relations with this oil rich West African country. Twenty percent of India's crude oil needs are met, by Nigeria. 40000barrels per day (6400m3/d) of oil, is the amount of oil, that India receives from Nigeria. Trade, between these two countries stands at $875 million in 20052006. Indian companies have also invested in manufacturing, pharmaceuticals, iron ore, steel, information technology, and communications, amongst other things. Both India and Nigeria, are members of the Commonwealth of Nations, G-77, and the Non Aligned Movement. The Nigerian President, Olusegun Obasanjo was the guest of honour, at the Republic Day parade, in 1999, and the Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, visited Nigeria in 2007, and addressed the Nigerian Parliament. South Africa India and South Africa, have always had strong relations even though India revoked diplomatic relations in protest to the apartheid regime in the mid 20th century. The history of British rule connects both lands. There is a large group of South Africans of Indian descent. Mahatma Gandhi, spent many years in South Africa, during which time, he fought for the rights of the ethnic Indians. Nelson Mandela was inspired by Gandhi. After India's independence, India strongly condemned apartheid, and refused diplomatic relations while apartheid was conducted as state policy in South Africa.

689

The two countries, now have close economic, political, and sports relations. Trade between the two countries grew from $3 million in 19921993 to $4 billion in 20052006, and aim to reach trade of $12 billion by 2010. One third of India's imports from South Africa is gold bullion. Diamonds, that are mined from South Africa, are polished in India. Nelson Mandela was awarded the Gandhi Peace Prize. The two countries are also members of the IBSA Dialogue Forum, with Brazil. India hopes to get large amounts of uranium, from resource rich South Africa, for India's growing civilian nuclear energy sector. Sudan Indo-Sudanese relations have always been characterized as longstanding, close, and friendly, even since the early development stages of their countries.At the time of Indian independence, Sudan had contributed 70000 pounds , which was used to build part of the National Defence Academy in Pune. The main building of NDA is called Sudan Block. The two nations established diplomatic relations shortly after India became known as one of the first Asian countries to recognize the newly independent African country. India and Sudan also share geographic and historical

A meeting of G5 leaders in Berlin, Germany. From left to right: Manmohan Singh of India, Luiz Incio Lula da Silva of Brazil, Felipe Caldern of Mexico, Hu Jintao of China and Thabo Mbeki of South Africa.

Foreign relations of India similarities, as well as economic interests. Both countries are former British colonies, and remotely border Saudi Arabia by means of a body of water. India and Sudan continue to have cordial relations, despite issues such as India's close relationship with Israel, India's solidarity with Egypt over border issues with Sudan, and Sudan's intimate bonds with Pakistan and Bangladesh. India had also contributed some troops as United Nations peacekeeping force in Darfur.

690

International organizations
India participates in the following international organisations:[230] ADB Asian Development Bank AfDB African Development Bank (non-regional members) ASEAN Regional Forum ASEAN (dialogue partner) BIMSTEC Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multisectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation BIS Bank for International Settlements Commonwealth of Nations CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research (observer) CP Colombo Plan EAS East Asia Summit FAO Food and Agriculture Organization G-15 G-24 G-77 IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization ICC International Chamber of Commerce ICRM International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement IDA International Development Association IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development IFC International Finance Corporation IFRCS International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies IHO International Hydrographic Organization ILO International Labor Organization IMF International Monetary Fund IMO International Maritime Organization IMSO International Mobile Satellite Organization Interpol International Criminal Police Organization IOC International Olympic Committee IOM International Organization for Migration (observer) IPU Inter-parliamentary Union ISO International Organization for Standardization ITSO International Telecommunications Satellite Organization ITU International Telecommunication Union

ITUC International Trade Union Confederation (the successor to ICFTU (International Confederation of Free Trade Unions) and the WCL (World Confederation of Labor)) LAS League of Arab States (observer) MIGA Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency

Foreign relations of India MONUC United Nations Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo NAM Nonaligned Movement OAS Organization of American States (observer) OPCW Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons PCA Permanent Court of Arbitration PIF Pacific Islands Forum (partner) SAARC South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation SACEP South Asia Co-opeative Environment Programme SCO Shanghai Cooperation Organization (observer) UN United Nations UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development UNDOF United Nations Disengagement Observer Force UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization UNIFIL United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon UNMEE United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea UNMIS United Nations Mission in Sudan UNOCI United Nations Operation in Cote d'Ivoire UNWTO World Tourism Organization UPU Universal Postal Union WCL World Confederation of Labor WCO World Customs Organization WFTU World Federation of Trade Unions WHO World Health Organization WIPO World Intellectual Property Organization WMO World Meteorological Organization WTO World Trade Organization

691

Non-Aligned Movement
Nonalignment had its origins in India's colonial experience and the nonviolent Indian independence struggle led by the Congress, which left India determined to be the master of its fate in an international system dominated politically by Cold War alliances and economically by Western capitalism. The principles of nonalignment, as articulated by Nehru and his successors, were preservation of India's freedom of action internationally through refusal to align India with any bloc or alliance, particularly those led by the United States or the Soviet Union; nonviolence and international cooperation as a means of settling international disputes. Nonalignment was a consistent feature of Indian foreign policy by the late 1940s and enjoyed strong, almost unquestioning support among the Indian elite. The term "Non-Alignment" itself was coined by Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru during his speech in 1954 in Colombo, Sri Lanka.

United Nations
As a founder member of the United Nations, India has been a firm supporter of the Purposes and Principles of the United Nations, and has made significant contributions to the furtherance and implementation of these noble aims, and to the evolution and functioning of its various specialized programmes. It stood at the forefront during the UN's tumultuous years of struggle against colonialism and apartheid, its struggle towards global disarmament and the ending of the arms race, and towards the creation of a more equitable international economic order. At the very first session of the UN, India had raised its voice against colonialism and apartheid, two issues which have been among

Foreign relations of India the most significant of the UN's successes in the last half century. India exulted in the UN's triumph, and saw in the UN's victory, a vindication of the policy relentlessly pursued by it from its initial days at the world forum. India has been a participant in all its peace-keeping operations including those in Korea, Egypt and Congo in earlier years and in Somalia, Angola and Rwanda in recent years. India has also played an active role in the deliberations of the United Nations on the creation of a more equitable international economic order. It has been an active member of the Group of 77, and later the core group of the G-15 nations. Other issues, such as environmentally sustainable development and the promotion and protection of human rights, have also been an important focus of India's foreign policy in international forums. See more [231]

692

World Trade Organization

Described by WTO chief Pascal Lamy as one of the organization's "big brothers",[232] India was instrumental in bringing down the Doha round of talks in 2008.[233] It has played an important role of representing as many as 100 developing nations during WTO summits.[234]

SAARC
Certain aspects of India's relations within the subcontinent are conducted through the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). Its members are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. Established in 1985, SAARC encourages cooperation in agriculture, rural development, science and technology, culture, health, population control, narcotics control and anti-terrorism. SAARC has intentionally stressed these "core issues" and avoided more divisive political issues, although political dialogue is often conducted on the margins of SAARC meetings. In 1993, India and its SAARC partners signed an agreement to gradually lower tariffs within the region. Forward movement in SAARC has come to a standstill because of the tension between India and Pakistan, and the SAARC Summit originally scheduled for, but not held in, November 1999 has not been rescheduled. The Fourteenth SAARC Summit was held during 34 April 2007 in New Delhi.

International disputes
India's territorial disputes with neighboring Pakistan and People's Republic of China have played a crucial role in its foreign policy. India is also involved in minor territorial disputes with neighboring Bangladesh, Nepal and Maldives. India currently maintains two manned stations in Antarctica but has made some unofficial territorial claims, which are yet to be clarified. India is involved in the following international disputes:

Bangladesh
6.5km of the border between India and Bangladesh remains to be demarcated. Ongoing discussions with Bangladesh to exchange 162 minuscule enclaves between the two.

Nepal
Kalapani village of India is claimed by Nepal and Nawalparasi district of Nepal is claimed by India. The dispute between India and Nepal involves about 75km2 (29sqmi) of area in Kalapani, where China, India, and Nepal meet. Indian forces occupied the area in 1962 after China and India fought their border war. Three villages are located in the disputed zone: Kuti [Kuthi, 3019'N, 8046'E], Gunji, and Knabe. India and Nepal disagree about how to interpret the 1816 Sugauli treaty between the British East India Company and Nepal, which delimited the boundary along the Maha Kali River (Sarda River in India). The dispute intensified in 1997 as the Nepali parliament considered a treaty on hydro-electric development of the river. India and Nepal differ as to which stream constitutes

Foreign relations of India the source of the river. Nepal regards the Limpiyadhura as the source; India claims the Lipu Lekh. Nepal has reportedly tabled an 1856 map from the British India Office to support its position. The countries have held several meetings about the dispute and discussed jointly surveying to resolve the issue.[235] Although the Indo-Nepali dispute appears to be minor, it was aggravated in 1962 by tensions between China and India. Because the disputed area lies near the Sino-Indian frontier, it gains strategic value.[236]

693

British Indian Ocean Territories

Dispute over the British Indian Ocean Territories and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands with the former colonial powers. India regards these islands as part of its Lakshadweep Indosphere strategy as part of its oceanic vicinity of its sovereignty and a threat to its integrity of its emerging geo-political might, and does not recognise the crown's rule over these "Indian" islands.

Maldives
Dispute over Minicoy Island with Maldives.

Pakistan
The unresolved Kashmir dispute and the status of Kashmir with Pakistan, involving the Siachen Glacier, India claims the disputed territory from Pakistan administered Kashmir. Boundary issues of the Ferozepur and Pathankot with the Government of Pakistan. Dispute over Sir Creek and the maritime boundary regarding the Rann of Kachchh area of India. Water-sharing problems with Pakistan over the Indus River (Wular Barrage). (Indus Water Treaty) Pakistani sponsorship of terrorism in India

People's Republic of China

India claims Aksai Chin and Trans-Karakoram Tract, as part of Jammu and Kashmir.
Indus and tributaries

China claims most of Arunachal Pradesh, a contested disputed territory of north-east India by not recognising the McMahon Line. Two regions are claimed by both India and China. Aksai Chin is in the disputed territory of Kashmir, at the junction of India, Tibet and Pakistan-Occupied Kashmir. India claims the 38,000-square-kilometre territory, currently administered by China. India also considers the cessation of Shaksam Valley to China by Pakistan as illegal and a part of its territory. Arunachal Pradesh is a state of India in the country's northeast, bordering on Bhutan, Myanmar and China. Though it is under Indian administration, China calls the 90,000-square-kilometre area as South Tibet. Also the boundary between the North Indian states of Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal with China's Tibet is not properly demarcated with some portions under de-facto administration of India.[237]

Foreign relations of India

694

Look East Policy

In the post cold war era, a significant aspect of India's foreign policy is the Look East Policy. During the cold war, India's relations with its South East Asian neighbours was not very strong. After the end of the cold war, the government of India particularly realised the importance of redressing this imbalance in India's foreign policy. Consequently, the Narsimha Rao government in the early nineties of the last century unveiled the look east policy. Initially it focused on renewing political and economic contacts with the countries of East and South-East Asia. At present, under the Look East Policy, the Government of India is giving special emphasis on the economic development of backward north eastern region of India taking advantage of huge market of ASEAN as well as of the energy resources available in some of the member countries of ASEAN like Myanmar.[238] Look-east policy was launched in 1992 just after the end of the cold war, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. After the start of liberalization, it was a very strategic policy decision taken by the government in the foreign policy. To quote Prime Minister Manmohan Singh "it was also a strategic shift in India's vision of the world and India's place in the evolving global economy". The policy was given an initial thrust with the then Prime Minister Narasimha Rao visiting China, Japan, South Korea, Vietnam and Singapore and India becoming a important dialogue partner with ASEAN in 1992. Since the beginning of this century, India has given a big push to this policy by becoming a summit level partner of ASEAN (2002) and getting involved in some regional initiatives such as the BIMSTEC and the Ganga Mekong Cooperation and now becoming a member of the East Asia Summit (EAS) in December, 2005.[239]

India ASEAN
India's interaction with ASEAN in the cold war era was very limited. India declined to get associated with ASEAN in the 1960s when full membership was offered even before the grouping was formed.[239] It is only with the formulation of the Look-East policy in the last decade (1992), India had started giving this region due importance in the foreign policy. India became a sectoral dialogue partner with ASEAN in 1992, a full dialogue partner in 1995, a member of the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) in 1996, and a summit level partner (on par with China, Japan and Korea) in 2002. The first India-ASEAN Business Summit was held at New Delhi in October 2002. The then Prime Minister A.B. Vajpayee addressed this meet and since then this business summit has become an annual feature before the India-ASEAN Summits, as a forum for networking and exchange of business experiences between policy makers and business leaders from ASEAN and India. Four India-ASEAN Summits, first in 2002 at Phnom Penh (Cambodia), second in 2003 at Bali (Indonesia), third in 2004 at Vientiane (Laos) and the fourth in 2005 at Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia), have taken place till date. The following agreements have been entered into with ASEAN: Framework Agreement on Comprehensive Economic Cooperation (for establishing a FTA in a time frame of 10 years) was concluded in Bali in 2003. An ASEAN-India Joint Declaration for Cooperation to Combat International Terrorism has been adopted. India has acceded to the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation (TAC) in 2003, on which ASEAN was formed initially (in 1967). Agreement on "India-ASEAN Partnership for Peace, Progress and Shared Prosperity" was signed at the 3rd ASEAN-India Summit in Nov 2004. Setting up of Entrepreneurship Development Centres in ASEAN member states Cambodia, Myanmar, Laos and Vietnam. (The one in Laos is already functional) The following proposals were announced by the Prime Minister at the 4th ASEAN-India Summit: Setting up centres for English Language Training (ELT) in Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam. Setting up a tele-medicine and tele-education network for Cambodia, Myanmar, Laos and Vietnam.

Foreign relations of India Organising special training courses for diplomats from ASEAN countries. Organising an India-ASEAN Technology Summit in 2006. Organising education fairs and road shows in ASEAN countries. Conducting an India-ASEAN IT Ministerial and Industry Forum in 2006.

695

The ASEAN region has an abundance of natural resources and significant technological skills. These provide a natural base for the integration between ASEAN and India in both trade and investment. The present level of bilateral trade with ASEAN of nearly US $ 18 billion is reportedly increasing by about 25 % per year. India hopes to reach the level of US $ 30 billion by 2007. India is also improving its relations with the help of other policy decisions like offers of lines of credit, better connectivity through air (open skies policy), rail and road links.[239]

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[215] U.S. and India Consider 'Asian NATO' (http:/ / www. newsmax. com/ archives/ articles/ 2003/ 5/ 29/ 162032. shtml) [216] Ariel Sharon's India visit (http:/ / www. rediff. com/ news/ sharon. htm),rediff.com [217] Israel plans thrust on science and technology collaboration (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ 2003/ 12/ 25/ stories/ 2003122502231200. htm), The Times of India, December 24, 2003 [218] India launches Israeli satellite (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ south_asia/ 7199736. stm), BBC News Online, January 21, 2008 [219] Israel says Mumbai attackers targeted its citizens (http:/ / www. latimes. com/ news/ nationworld/ world/ la-fg-indiaisrael29-2008nov29,0,440564. story), Los Angeles Times, November 29, 2008 [220] India, Israel set up bilateral legal colloquium (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ India_Israel_set_up_bilateral_legal_colloquium/ articleshow/ 3916719. cms?TOI_latestnews) [221] "Pallam Raju to visit Indian peacekeepers in Lebanon" (http:/ / www. thaindian. com/ newsportal/ india-news/ pallam-raju-to-visit-indian-peacekeepers-in-lebanon_10093673. html). Thaindian.com. . Retrieved 2009-11-21. [222] "Indian UN vet treats animal victims of Lebanon war" (http:/ / www. reuters. com/ article/ inDepthNews/ idUSEIC54708020061026?pageNumber=2& virtualBrandChannel=0). Reuters. 2006-10-26. . Retrieved 2009-11-21. [223] "India, Saudi Arabia to better understanding" (http:/ / www. business-standard. com/ common/ storypage_c_online. php?bKeyFlag=IN& autono=38855). Business Standard. . Retrieved 2008-06-04. [224] Indo-Saudi bilateral relations (http:/ / mea. gov. in/ foreignrelation/ saudi. pdf) [225] (http:/ / www. bharat-rakshak. com/ NAVY/ history/ 1971war/ 9-cold-war. html) [226] Embassy of India (1996-05-16). "Africa (South of Sahara): India's foreign policy" (http:/ / www. indianembassy. org/ policy/ Foreign_Policy/ africa. htm). Indianembassy.org. . Retrieved 2009-11-21. [227] "Foreign Relations of India-Ivory Coast" (http:/ / www. meaindia. nic. in/ foreignrelation/ / 11fr05. pdf). Ministry of External Affairs. . Retrieved 2008-10-02. [228] "India to put $1bn in African oil" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ business/ 4791381. stm). BBC. 2006-08-14. . Retrieved 2008-10-02. [229] "Embassy of India" (http:/ / www. indemabj. com/ index. html). Ministry of External Affairs. 2009. . Retrieved 2009-02-28. [230] CIA World Fact Book https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ in. html [231] http:/ / www. un. int/ india/ india_un. html [232] "India is among "big brothers" of WTO: Pascal Lamy- Foreign Trade-Economy-News-The Economic Times" (http:/ / economictimes. indiatimes. com/ News/ Economy/ Foreign_Trade/ India_is_among_big_brothers_of_WTO_Pascal_Lamy/ articleshow/ 3373292. cms). Economictimes.indiatimes.com. 2008-08-17. . Retrieved 2009-11-21. [233] "News from Canada and the world" (http:/ / www. theglobeandmail. com/ servlet/ Page/ document/ v5/ content/ subscribe?user_URL=http:/ / www. theglobeandmail. com/ servlet/ story/ LAC. 20080730. IBWTO30/ TPStory/ Business& ord=129452172& brand=theglobeandmail& force_login=true). The Globe and Mail. . Retrieved 2009-11-21. [234] "Search Global Edition The New York Times" (http:/ / www. iht. com/ articles/ ap/ 2008/ 07/ 28/ business/ EU-WTO-Trade-Talks. php). International Herald Tribune. 2009-03-29. . Retrieved 2009-11-21. [235] The Kathmandu Post, 16 July 1997, 2 July 1997, 31 May 1996; The Hindustan Times (Delhi), 9 June 1997, p. 13; Xinhua 11 April 1997 [236] International Boundary Consultants (http:/ / www. boundaries. com/ India. htm) [237] CBC News: China (http:/ / www. cbc. ca/ news/ background/ china/ borderdisputes. html) [238] (http:/ / www. assamtribune. com/ scripts/ details. asp?id=jan1907\edit2)

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[239] "India's Look-East Policy" (http:/ / www. indianmba. com/ Occasional_Papers/ OP104/ op104. html). Indianmba.com. . Retrieved 2009-11-21.

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External links
Foreign Relations: Ministry of external affairs, Government of India (http://mea.gov.in/secframe.php?sec=fr) Harvard University homepage (http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/publication/17778/indias_foreign_policy. html) India's Foreign Policy, Xenia Dormandy List of Treaties ruling relations Argentina and India (Argentine Foreign Ministry, in Spanish) (http://www. mrecic.gov.ar/portal/seree/ditra/in.html) Indian embassy in Buenos Aires (http://www.indembarg.org.ar/) Indian embassy in Rome (http://www.indianembassy.it/) Italian embassy in New Delhi (http://www.ambnewdelhi.esteri.it/Ambasciata_NewDelhi) Italian general consulate in Mumbai (http://www.consmumbai.esteri.it/Consolato_Mumbai) Italian general consulate in Calcutta (http://www.conscalcutta.esteri.it/Consolato_Calcutta) IBSA - India, Brazil, South Africa - News and Media (http://www.ibsanews.com)

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Indian Armed Forces

Indian Armed Forces

Emblem of India Service branches Indian Army Indian Navy Indian Air Force Indian Coast Guard Strategic Nuclear Command Integrated Space Cell Leadership Commander-in-Chief Ministry of Defence President Pratibha Patil A. K. Antony

Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee Air Chief Marshal Pradeep Vasant Naik Manpower Militaryage Conscription Available for military service Fit for military service Reaching military age annually Active personnel Reserve personnel 16 years of age None 319,129,420males, age1649 (2010 est.), 296,071,637females, age1649 (2010 est.) 249,531,562males, age1649 (2010 est.), 240,039,958females, age1649 (2010 est.) 12,151,065 males (2010 est.), 10,745,891females (2010 est.) 1,325,000 2,142,821 Expenditures Budget Percent of GDP $36.03 billion (FY11) 1.83% (2011 est.) Industry
[2] [1] [1]

(ranked 3rd)

(ranked 10th)

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Domestic suppliers Heavy Vehicles Factory Bharat Electronics Limited Gun Carriage Factory Jabalpur Hindustan Aeronautics Limited Ishapore Rifle Factory Ordnance Factories Organization Tata Motors Heavy Alloy Penetrator Project Mazagon Dock Limited Cochin Shipyard Bharat Dynamics Bajaj Auto - Joint Venture - Rolta India Ltd Mahindra & Mahindra Ashok Leyland Shaktiman truck Maruti Suzuki
Russian Federation Israel France United States United Kingdom Sweden Belgium Germany Italy Brazil Romania [3] Turkey

Foreign suppliers

Annual imports Annual exports

Russia Sri Lanka, Ecuador, Maldives Related articles

History

Military history of India British Indian Army Indian National Army Air Force Army Navy

Ranks

The Indian Armed Forces (IAF) (Devangar: , Bhratya Saastra Snn) are the military forces of the Republic of India encompassing the Indian Army, the Indian Navy, the Indian Air Force, Indian Coast Guard and various other inter-service institutions. The President of the Republic of India is the Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Armed Forces. The Indian Armed Forces is managed by Ministry of Defence (MoD) which is led by Union Cabinet Minister of Defense. The IAF is one of the world's largest military force, with roughly 1.32 million active standing army and 2.14 million reserve forces thus giving India the third-largest active troops in the world as of 2006[1] [4] after the People's Liberation Army and US Armed Forces.[5] Auxiliary services include the Indian Coast Guard, the Central Paramilitary Forces (CPF) and the Strategic Forces Command. India's official defense budget stands at US$36.03 billion for FY2011 (or 1.83% of GDP)[2] but the actual spending on the armed forces is estimated to be much higher than that.[6] Undergoing rapid expansion and modernization,[7] the Indian Armed Forces plans to have an active military space program[8] and is currently developing a missile defense shield[9] and nuclear triad capability. The Armed Forces of India possess nuclear weapons and operate short and intermediate-range ballistic missiles as well as nuclear-capable aircraft, and naval vessels. India is the world's largest arms importer accounting for 9% of all global

Indian Armed Forces imports and ranks among the top thirty in arms export.[10] Currently, India imports close to 70% of its weapons requirements, with Israel, Russia and the United States as its top military suppliers.[11] [12] [13] The countrys defence expenditure will be around US$112 billion by 2016.[14] [15] [16] The IAF served as India's armed forces in all the country's major military operations including the Indo-Pakistani wars of 1947, Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, Sino-Indian War, 1987 Sino-Indian skirmish, Kargil War and others. India is currently moving to build a 9970.16 crore (US$2.2 billion) dedicated, highly secure and state-of-the-art optical fiber cable (OFC) network for the Army, Navy and Air Force. This will be one of the world's largest, closed user group (CUG) networks for exclusive use by the million-plus personnel of the Indian armed forces.[17] Following 1962, the IAF has had close military relations with the Russia, including development cooperation, such as on the Fifth Generation Fighter Aircraft (FGFA), Multirole Transport Aircraft (MTA), and others as well.

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Military history of India

India has one of the longest military history dating back several millennia. The first reference of armies is found in the Vedas as well as the epics Ramayana and Mahabaratha. There were many powerful dynasties in India: Maha Janapadas, Matsya Kingdom, Shishunaga Empire, Gangaridai Empire, Nanda Empire, Maurya Empire, Sunga Empire, Kharavela Empire, Kuninda Kingdom, Chola Empire, Chera Empire, Pandyan Empire, Satavahana Empire, Western Satrap Empire, Kushan Empire, Vakataka Empire, Kalabhras Kingdom, Gupta Empire, Pallava Empire, Kadamba Empire, Western Ganga Kingdom, Vishnukundina Empire, Chalukya Empire, Harsha Empire, Rajput, Shahi Kingdom, Eastern Chalukya Kingdom, Pratihara Empire, Pala Empire, Rashtrakuta Empire, Paramara Kingdom, Yadava Empire, Solanki Kingdom, Western Chalukya Empire, Hoysala Empire, Sena Empire, Eastern Ganga Empire, Kakatiya Kingdom, Kalachuri Empire, Delhi Sultanate, Deccan Sultanates, Ahom Kingdom, Vijayanagar Empire, Mysore Kingdom, Mughal Empire, Maratha Empire, Sikh Empire, etc. Classical Indian texts on archery in particular, and martial arts in general are known as Dhanurveda.

The Maurya Empire at its largest extent under Ashoka the Great

India has a maritime history dating back to 5,000 years.[18] [19] [20] [21] The first [22] [23] tidal dock is believed to have been built at Lothal around 2300 BCE during the Indus Valley Civilization, Chola territories during Rajendra Chola I, c. 1030 near the present day Mangrol harbour on the Gujarat coast. The Rig Veda written around 1500 BCE, credits Varuna with knowledge of the ocean routes and describes naval expeditions. There is reference to the side wings of a vessel called Plava, which give stability to the ship under storm conditions. A compass, Matsya yantra was used for navigation in the fourth and fifth century AD.

Indian Armed Forces

706 The earliest known reference to an organization devoted to ships in ancient India is to the Mauryan Empire from the 4th century BCE. Emperor Chandragupta Maurya's Prime Minister Kautilya's Arthashastra devotes a full chapter on the state department of waterways under navadhyaksha (Sanskrit for Superintendent of ships) Kautilya. The term, nava dvipantaragamanam (Sanskrit for sailing to other lands by ships, i.e. Exploration) appears in this book in addition to appearing in the Buddhist text, Baudhayana Dharmasastra as the interpretation of the term, Samudrasamyanam. Sea lanes between India and neighboring lands were the usual form of trade for many centuries, and are responsible for the widespread influence of Indian Culture on other societies. Powerful navies included those of the Maurya, Satavahana, Chola, Vijayanagara, Kalinga, Mughal and Maratha empires.[24] The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia.

The Mughal Empire at its largest in terms of territorial extent, c.1700

During the 17th and 18th centuries, the Maratha and Kerala fleets were expanded, and became the most powerful Naval Forces in the subcontinent, defeating European Navies at various times (See the Indian troops fighting with the British contingent is Battle of Colachel). The fleet review of the Maratha navy took shown in this painting of Mysore. place at the Ratnagiri fort in which the ships Pal and Qalbat participated.[25] The Maratha Kanhoji Angre and Kunjali Marakkar, the Naval chief of Saamoothiri were two notable naval chiefs of the period.

1857 to 1947 era

The British Royal Indian Navy was first established by the British while much of India was under the control of the East India Company. The first Indian to be granted a commission was Sub Lieutenant D. N. Mukherji, who joined the Royal Indian Marine as an engineer officer in 1928. Indian sailors started a rebellion known as the Royal Indian Navy mutiny in 1946, on board ships and in shore establishments which spread all over India. A total of 78 ships, 20 shore establishments and 20,000 sailors were involved in the rebellion.

Sailors of the Indian Navy breaching the Delhi gates during the Indian struggle of freedom 1857

When India became a republic on 26 January 1950, the navy became known as the Indian Navy, and its vessels as Indian Naval Ships (INS). On 22 April 1958 Vice Admiral R. D. Katari assumed office as the first Indian Chief of the Naval Staff.

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Structure
The headquarters of the Indian Armed Forces is in New Delhi, the capital city of India.The President acts as de jure Commander in chief of the Armed Forces.[26] while de facto control lies with the executive. The Ministry of Defence (MoD) is the ministry charged with the responsibilities of countering insurgency and ensuring external security of India.

Command organisation
Gen V K Singh is the head of army Chiefs panel, Admiral Nirmal Kumar Verma is the head of navy Chiefs panel and Air Chief Marshal Pradeep Vasant Naik is the head of air forces Chiefs panel.[27] Air Chief Marshal Naik is currently also serving as Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee for the Indian Armed Force. The Indian armed force are split into different groups based on their region of operation. The Indian Army is administratively divided into 7 tactical commands, each under the control of different Lieutenant Generals.The Indian Air Force is divided into five operational and two functional commands. Each Command is headed by an Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief with the rank of Air Marshal. The Indian Navy operates four Commands. Each Command is headed by a Flag Officer Commanding-in-Chief in the rank of Vice Admiral.The Indian Coast Guard operations are split into 4 regions, each region is headed by an Inspector General or a Deputy Inspector General.

Doctrine
The Armed Forces have six main tasks:[28] 1. 2. 3. 4. To assert the territorial integrity of India. To defend the country if attacked by a foreign nation. To send own amphibious warfare equipment to take the battle to enemy shores.[29] Cold Start which means Indian Armed Forces being able to quickly mobilise and take offensive actions without crossing the enemy's nuclear-use threshold. 5. To support the civil community in case of disasters (e.g. flooding). 6. Participate in United Nations peacekeeping operations in consonance with Indias commitment to the United Nations Charter. There is a semi-official book called "Customs and Etiquette in the Services", written by retired Major General Ravi Arora, which details how Indian personnel are expected to conduct themselves generally.[30] Arora is an executive editor of the Indian Military Review.[31]

Personnel
As of 2006

Soldiers of the Sikh Light Infantry

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Component Indian Army Indian Navy Indian Air Force

[1] [1] Active Reserve 1,325,000 2,142,821 55,000 170,000

Indian Coast Guard 19,741

Service branches
Indian Army
India maintains the third-largest military force in the world, which includes Indian Army, Navy, Air Force and auxiliary forces such as the Paramilitary Forces, the Coast Guard, and the Strategic Forces Command.[32] It is a completely voluntary service, the military draft having never been imposed in India. The army has rich combat experience in diverse terrains, due to India's diverse geography, and also has a distinguished history of serving in United Nations peacekeeping operations. Initially, the army's main objective was to defend the nation's frontiers. However, over the years, the army has also taken up the responsibility of providing internal security, especially in insurgent-hit Kashmir and north-east. The force is headed by the Chief of Army Staff of the Indian Army, currently General V K Singh. The highest rank in the Indian Army is Field Marshal, but it is a largely ceremonial rank and appointments are made by the President of India, on the advice of the Union Cabinet of Ministers, only in exceptional circumstances. (See Field Marshal (India)). Late General S.H.F.J. Manekshaw and the late General K.M. Cariappa are the only two officers who have attained this rank.

Soldiers of Indian Army and U.S. Army Alaska stand in formation during the Yudh Abhyas 2010 opening ceremony of the annual joint and bilateral training exercise at Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson in Alaska.

The Indian Army has seen military action during the First Kashmir War, Operation Polo, the Sino-Indian War, the Second Kashmir War, the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, the Sri Lankan Civil War and the Kargil War. Currently, the Indian army has dedicated one brigade of troops to the UN's standby arrangements. Through its large, sustained troop commitments India has come in for much praise for taking part in difficult operations for prolonged periods. The Indian Army has participated in several UN peacekeeping operations, including the ones in Cyprus, Lebanon, Congo, Angola, Cambodia, Vietnam, Namibia, El Salvador, Liberia, Mozambique and Somalia. The army also provided a paramedical unit to facilitate the withdrawal of the sick and wounded in Korea. Currently, the Indian Army is seeking to massively modernize its equipment through various procurement programs. In addition, it has also embarked on an infantry modernization program known as Futuristic Infantry Soldier As a System (F-INSAS).

124 Arjun MK1 tanks are in service with the Indian Army.

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Indian Navy
The Indian Navy is the naval branch of the armed forces of India. With 67,000 men and women, including 5,000 naval aviation personnel and 2,000 Marine Commandos (MARCOS), it is the world's third largest navy.[33] The Indian Navy currently operates around 170 vessels, including the aircraft carrier INS Viraat. In recent years, India has started many ambitious projects to bolster its maritime capabilities including efforts to acquire ships from foreign countries.

INS Shivalik the first indigenous modern frigate of the Indian navy.

In recent years, the Indian Navy has undergone extensive modernization and expansion with an intention to increase its [34] [35] capabilities as a recognized blue-water navy. It is fairly advanced in terms of technology and is in control of one of two Asian aircraft carriers. Two more aircraft carriers are currently being produced. The ships of the Indian Navy are of Indian and foreign origin.[36] In addition, three ballistic missile submarine are to enter service by 2010 end. It is also only one of the six navies in the world that has nuclear capabilities. Others include US, Russia, China, France and the UK. In addition it is in command of the BrahMos which is the fastest cruise missile in the world with speeds of 2.8 Mach. In its maritime doctrine, the Indian Navy establishes its role in providing support to maritime neighbours during natural disasters. This was demonstrated during the Asian tsunami crisis during which the Indian Navy sent 35 ships to support relief efforts in neighbouring countries. The Indian navy has taken part in UN missions in the coast of Somalia and has provided security to an African Union summit held in Mozambique. The Indian Navy is increasing its capabilities as a true blue-water navy; the Indian Navy's doctrine states that this is for the collective good of nations.

Indian Navy's marine commandos during a training exercise in the Philippine Sea.

Indian Navy is expected to spend about US$40 billion on military modernization from 2008 to 2013.[37] The modernization program includes the Russian-built aircraft carrier INS Vikramaditya, indigenously built Vikrant class aircraft carriers, Lease of Akula-II class submarine, indigenously built Arihant class nuclear-powered submarines, Shivalik class frigate, Kolkata class destroyer, Scorpne class submarine, Improved Talwar class frigate and eight P-8 Poseidon .[38] [39]

Indian Air Force

With a strength of approximately 170,000 personnel, and 1,600+ aircraft in active service, the Indian Air Force is the fourth largest air force in the world.[40] [41] In recent years, the IAF has undertaken an ambitious expansion and modernization program and is increasingly used for India's power projection beyond South Asia. Historically, the IAF has generally relied on Soviet, British, Israeli and French military craft and technology to support its growth. In recent times however, India has manufactured its own aircraft, including the HAL Tejas, a 4th generation fighter, and the HAL Dhruv, a multi-role helicopter, which has been exported to several countries, including Israel, Burma, Nepal

IAF engineers conduct post-flight maintenance on Su-30 MKI fighters following a Red Flag mission in Nevada.

Indian Armed Forces and Ecuador. India also maintains UAV squadrons which can be used to carry out ground attacks and aerial surveillance. India is testing its own long range BVR air to air missile named Astra[42] and also building a Medium Altitude Long Endurance Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) called Rustom.[43] India and Russia are building number of next generation aircraft like 5th generation stealth aircraft called Fifth Generation Fighter Aircraft[44] and medium-lift military transport aircraft called Multirole Transport Aircraft.[45]

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Indian Coast Guard

The Indian Coast Guard is the maritime Military Force created to guard Republic of India's vast coastline. It was created on 18 August 1978 as an independent entity as per the Coast Guard Act. its primary objective is to guard India's vast coastline and operates under the effective control of the Ministry of Defense. The coast guard works closely with the Indian Navy and the Indian Customs Department, and is usually headed by a naval officer of the rank of Vice-Admiral. India's coast guard has a large number of fast craft including hovercrafts and hydrofoils. They patrol the seas and river mouths. The coast guard has performed a number of HAL Dhruv naval variant. commendable tasks of rescuing distressed personnel. It has also apprehended pirates on high seas and cleaned up oil spills. Heavy patrolling of sensitive areas such as Karnataka, Gujarat, West Bengal and Mumbai have resulted in the nabbing of a large number of smugglers and illegal immigrants.

Nuclear Command Authority

India possesses an arsenal of nuclear weapons and maintains a no-first use, non-use against non-nuclear nations and a credible nuclear deterrence policy against nuclear adversaries. India's nuclear missiles include the Prithvi, the Agni, the Shaurya, Sagarika, Dhanush, and others. India has long range strategic bombers like the Tupolev Tu-22 M3 and Tupolev Tu-142 as well as fighter jets like Sukhoi Su-30MKI,[46] Dassault Mirage 2000,[47] MiG-29[48] and HAL Tejas capable of being armed with nuclear tipped bombs and missiles. Since India doesn't have a nuclear first use against an adversary, it becomes important to protect from a first strike. Presently, this protection is provided by the two layered Anti-ballistic missile defense system. The first test of Agni-V, which is a MIRVed ICBM is expected in the year 2011. India's Strategic Nuclear Command controls its land-based nuclear warheads, while the Navy controls the ship and in future submarine based missiles and the Air Force the air based warheads. India's nuclear warheads are deployed in four areas: 1. Ship based mobile, like Dhanush. (operational)

Agni missile range.

Agni-II

Indian Armed Forces 2. Land-based mobile, like Agni. (operational) 3. Submarine based, like Sagarika. (under deployment) 4. Air-based warheads of the Indian Air Forces' strategic bomber force (operational)

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Indian Ballistic Missile Defense Program

The Indian Ballistic Missile Defense Program is an initiative to develop and deploy a multi-layered Ballistic missile defense system to protect India from missile attacks.[49] [50]

Development
Phase 1 Development of ABM System began in 1999. Around 40 public and private Companies were involved in the development of ABM System. They include Bharat Electronics Ltd and Bharat Dynamics Ltd, Astra Microwave, ASL, Larsen & Toubro, Vem Technologies Private Limited and KelTech. Development of LRTR (Long Range Tracking Radar) and MFCR (Multi-function Fire Control Radar) was led by Electronics and Radar Development Establishment (ERDE).[51] [52] For the AAD Missile System, Defence Research and Development Laboratory (DRDL) developed the mission control software. Research Centre, Imarat (RCI) developed navigation, electromechanical actuation systems and Active Radar Seeker. Advanced System Laboratory (ASL) provided the motors, jet vanes and structures for the two missiles. High Energy Materials Research Laboratory (HEMRL) supplied the propellants for the missile.[52] Phase 2 Two new anti-ballistic missiles that can intercept IRBM/ICBMs are being developed. These high speed missiles (AD-1 and AD-2) are being developed to intercept ballistic missiles with the range of Launching of Advanced Air Defense (AAD) 5000km.[53] The test trials of these two systems is expected to take missile [54] place in 2011. The new missile will be similar the THAAD missile deployed by the U.S.A. These missiles will have to travel at hypersonic speeds and will require radars with scan capability of over 1500 kilometers to successfully intercept the target.[55] India is also planning to develop a laser based weapon system as part of its Ballistic Missile Defence to intercept and destroy missiles soon after they are launched towards the country. DRDO's Air Defence Programme Director V K Saraswat says its ideal to destroy a ballistic missile carrying nuclear or conventional warhead in its boost phase. Saraswat further added that it will take another 1015 years for the premier defence research institute to make it usable on the ground.[56]

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Security pacts and Overseas Bases

In 1950 Indo-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship, India made obligation to actively assist Nepal in national defence and military preparedness, and made both nations not to tolerate threats to each others security.[58] [59] In 1958, the then-Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru visited Bhutan and reiterated India's support for Bhutan's independence and later declared in the Indian Parliament that any aggression against Bhutan would be seen as aggression against India.[60] India also operates the Farkhor Air Base in Tajikistan. India India and Russia share an extensive economic, started the process to bring the island country Maldives into India's [57] defence and technological relationship. [61] [62] security grid. India can use Iranian bases for war with Pakistan. Shown here is President Pratibha Patil with [63] India is also one of three countries with whom Japan has a security President Dmitry Medvedev. pact, the others being Australia and the United States.[64] India and Russia have a military cooperation pact until 2010 which is likely to be extended or renewed.[65] In 1951,India and Burma signed a Treaty of Friendship in New Delhi. Article II of the treaty stipulated that "There shall be everlasting peace and unalterable friendship between the two States who shall ever strive to strengthen and develop further the cordial relations existing between the peoples of the two countries".[66] India had signed a pact to develop ports in Myanmar and various bilateral issues, including economic cooperation, connectivity, security and energy.[67] India and Israel have increased cooperation in military and intelligence ventures since the establishment of diplomatic relations. While India and Israel were officially "rivals" during the Cold War, the fall of the Soviet Union and the rise of Islamic terrorism in both countries have generated a solid strategic alliance.[68] India has maritime security arrangement in place with Oman and Qatar.[69] In 2008, a landmark defense pact was signed, under which India committed its military assets to protect "Qatar from external threats".[70]

Budget
India has the world's 10th largest defense budget. In 2009, India's official military budget stood at US$]32.7 billion.[71] In 2004, the GlobalSecurity.org estimated India's budget to be around US$100 billion in terms of purchasing power parity (PPP).[72] According to Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, India's military budget (PPP) stood at US$72.7 billion in 2007.[73] A major portion of Military spending of the world India's current defense budget is devoted to the ambitious modernization program of the country's armed forces. Between 2007 and 2012, India is expected to spend about US$50 billion on the procurement of new weapons.[74] India boosted defence spending by 21% in 2009.[75]

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Gallantry awards
The highest wartime gallantry award given by the Military of India is the Param Vir Chakra (PVC), followed by the Maha Vir Chakra (MVC) and the Vir Chakra (VrC). Its peacetime equivalent is the Ashoka Chakra. The highest decoration for meritorious service is the Param Vishisht Seva Medal.

Ex Servicemen (ESM)
The India Gate is the largest war memorial in According to military sources, more than 55,000 armed forces India personnel retire from the army every year, most of them at a relatively younger age. A total of 1,567,390 ex servicemen are registered with the Indian Army, majority of them hailing from UP (17.35%), Punjab (12.23%), Haryana (10.57%), Maharashtra (9.18%), Kerala (8.16%), TN (6.58%), Rajastan (6.42%) and HP (5%). Many of them are re-employed in various Central government sectors.[76]

Future
Analysis of the Central Intelligence Agency indicates that India is projected to possess the fourth most capable concentration of power by 2015.[77] According to a report published by the US Congress, India is the developing world's leading arms purchaser.[78] Ongoing efforts at modernization of the armed forces, however, unless accompanied by significant political reforms, may fail to change India's military-strategic position, particularly with Pakistan. Despite importing large numbers of conventional weaponry over the last three decades, if India wishes to effectively confront critical security challenges it must address a civil-military imbalance that hampers coordination and an illegitimate procurement process that threatens to further entrench government corruption.[79]

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Recruitment and training

Recruitment is through four military-related academies. These include the National Defence Academy, Pune, Indian Military Academy, Dehradun, Indian Naval Academy, Ezhimala, Air Force Academy, Hyderabad and Officers Training Academy, Chennai. For entrance, one must display that they are both physically and mentally fit to be in the military by written examinations, physical endurance tests and passing medical fitness tests. After being commissioned,these officers are posted and deputed. They are at the helm of affairs not only inside the nation but also at abroad. The officers are appointed and removed only by the President of India. These officers are accorded high status of the nature of the officers of the Indian Administrative Service. The complete list of institutions training Indian army were listed in Military academies in India section.

Indian Peace Keeping And Anti-piracy Mission

In November 2008, an Indian navy warship destroyed a suspected Somali pirate vessel after it came under attack in the Gulf of Aden. India is regular contributor to United Nations and other Peacekeeping missions. The troop-contributions to UN peacekeeping operations as of March 2007 were 9,471.[80] It also suffered 127 soldier deaths while serving on peacekeeping missions.[81] India also provided army contingent performing a peacekeeping operation in Sri Lanka between 1987 and 1990 as Indian Peace Keeping Force and in November 1988, India also helped restore government of Maumoon Abdul Gayoom in Maldives under Operation Cactus.[82]

An Indian Army officer from the 7th Mechanized Infantry Battalion, prepares U.S. Army Sergeants from Schofield Barracks, Hawaii, for the jungle range during range training at Exercise Yudh Abhyas.

Anti-piracy Mission
India sought to augment its naval force in the Gulf of Aden by deploying the larger INS Mysore to patrol the area. Somalia also added India to its list of states, including the U.S. and France, who are permitted to enter its territorial waters, extending up to 12 nautical miles (22km; 14mi) from the coastline, in an effort to check piracy.[83] An Indian naval official confirmed receipt of a letter acceding to India's prerogative to check such piracy. "We had put up a request before the Somali government to play a greater role in suppressing piracy in the Gulf of Aden in view of the United Nations resolution. The TFG government gave its nod recently."[84] India also expressed consideration to deploy up to four more warships in the region.[85] [86] And in response increased activity of the INS Tabar. On 2010-09-06 A crack team of Indian marine commandos(MARCOS)from INS Delhi boarded the boat and overpowered the pirates - seven heavily-armed Somalians and one Yemeni national. A cache of arms, several drums of fuel and ship boarding equipment was also found.As part of the Indian response to the piracy menace in the area, the Indian Navy has escorted over 1,200 ships so far.

Relief Operation of IAF

Indian Air Force provides regular relief operation for food and medical facility around the World by its Cargo aircraft most notably Ilyushin Il-76.The most recent relief operation of IAF was in Kyrgyzstan.[87] [88] During the Leh floods Two Ilyushin Il-76. and four Antonov-32 aircraft of the IAF carried 30 tonnes of load, which include 125 rescue and relief personnel, medicines, generators, tents, portable X-ray machines and emergency rescue kits.A MI-17 helicopter and cheetak helicopters had been pressed to increase the rescue operations.

Indian Armed Forces

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IAF Efforts In Eclipse Study

The Indian Air Force successfully undertook sorties to help Indian scientists study the total solar eclipse that took place on July 23. Two separate missions from Agra and Gwalior were flown along the path of the moon's shadow, a mission that was deemed hugely successful by scientists associated with the experiment. While one AN-32 transport aircraft carrying scientific equipment, cameras and scientists that took off from Agra landed back after a three-hour flight, a Mirage-2000 trainer from Gwalior took spectacular images of the celestial spectacle from 40,000 feet. With weather being clear at the altitudes and coordinates planned by the IAF pilots, both AN-32 and Mirage-2000 pilots were able to accomplish the mission successfully.[89]

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717

Does not include members of the Indian Police Service

Further reading
CIA World Factbook 2010: India (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in. html) Militarism in India: The Army and Civil Society in Consensus- by A. Kundu

External links
The Irrelevance of India's Rise as a Military Power (http://acdis.illinois.edu/students/courses-current/ focal-point-seminar/Cohen-India.html/)- video of lecture by Stephen P. Cohen, Brookings Institution, hosted by the Program in Arms Control, Disarmament, and International Security (ACDIS), University of Illinois, October 15, 2009 xisf.org (http://www.xisf.org/en)- Website of XISF Foundation, focussed on welfare of ex-services personnel from Indian Military Indian-Military.org (http://www.indian-military.org/)- Website dedicated to Indian Military BharatRakshak.com (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/)- Informative site on the Indian Military Indian Armed Forces (http://www.armedforces.nic.in/) - Indian military's official website Indian Air Force - Official website (http://indianairforce.nic.in/) India Defence (http://www.india-defence.com/) - Military & Defence News http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/mil_arm_for_per-military-armed-forces-personnel

Indian Armed Forces Armed forces, a forgotten lot: A debate by NDTV.com (http://www.ndtv.com/debate/showdebate. asp?show=1&story_id=497&template=Sixthpaycommission&category=National).

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719

Geography
Geography of India
Geography of India

Continent Region

Asia Southern Asia Indian subcontinent 21N 78E Ranked 7th 3287263 km2 ( sqmi) 90.44% land 9.56 % water [1] Total land borders: 15106.70km (9386.87mi) Bangladesh: 4096.70km (2545.57mi) China (PRC): 3488km (2167mi) Pakistan: 3323km (2065mi) Nepal: 1751km (1088mi) Myanmar: 1643km (1021mi) Bhutan: 699km (434mi) Afghanistan: 106km (66mi) Kangchenjunga 8586m (28169.3 ft) Kuttanad 2.2m (7.2ft) GangesBrahmaputra Chilka Lake

Coordinates Area

Borders

Highest point

Lowest point

Longest river Largest lake

The geography of India describes the physical features of India, a country in South Asia that lies entirely on the Indian Plate in the northern portion of the Indo-Australian Plate. The country lies to the north of the equator between

Geography of India 84' and 376' north latitude and 687' and 9725' east longitude.[2] It is the seventh-largest country in the world, with a total land area of 3287263square kilometres ( sqmi).[3] India measures 3214km (1997mi) from north to south and 2993km (1860mi) from east to west. It has a land frontier of 15200km (9445mi) and a coastline of 7517km (4671mi).[4] India is bounded to the southwest by the Arabian Sea, to the southeast by the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean to the south. Kanyakumari constitutes the southern tip of the Indian peninsula, which narrows before ending in the Indian Ocean. The southernmost part of India is Indira Point in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.[4] The Maldives, Sri Lanka and Indonesia are island nations to the south of India with Sri Lanka separated from India by a narrow channel of sea formed by Palk Strait and the Gulf of Mannar. The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of 12 nautical miles (13.8mi; 22.2km) measured from the appropriate baseline.[5] The northern frontiers of India are defined largely by the Himalayan mountain range where its political boundaries with China, Bhutan, and Nepal lie. Its western borders with Pakistan lie in the Punjab Plain and the Thar desert. In the far northeast, the Chin Hills and Kachin Hills, deeply forested mountainous regions, separate India from Burma while its political border with Bangladesh is defined by the watershed region of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, the Khasi hills and Mizo Hills. The Ganges is the longest river originating in India and forms the Indo-Gangetic Plain. The Ganges-Brahmaputra system occupies most of northern, central and eastern India, while the Deccan Plateau occupies most of southern India. Along its western frontier is the Thar Desert, which is the seventh-largest desert in the world. Officially, India's highest point is K2 at 8611m (28251 ft), though it lies in Gilgit-Baltistan, part of the disputed Kashmir region.[6] Kanchenjunga in Sikkim at 8598m (28209 ft) is the highest point within India's current geographic boundaries. Climate across India ranges from equatorial in the far south, to Alpine in the upper reaches of the Himalayas.

720

Geological development
India is entirely contained on the Indian Plate, a major tectonic plate that was formed when it split off from the ancient continent Gondwanaland. About 90 million years ago, during the late Cretaceous Period, the Indian Plate began moving north at about 15cm/year (6 in/yr).[7] About 50 to 55 million years ago, in the Eocene Epoch of the Cenozoic Era, the plate collided with Asia after covering a distance of 2000 to 3000 km (1243 to 1864 mi), having moved faster than any other known plate. In 2007, German geologists determined that the Indian Plate was able to move so quickly because it is only half as thick as the other plates which formerly constituted Gondwanaland.[8] The collision with the Eurasian Plate along the modern border between India and Nepal formed the orogenic belt that created the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayas. As of 2009, the Indian Plate is moving northeast at 5cm/yr (2 in/yr), while the Eurasian Plate is moving north at only 2cm/yr (0.8 in/yr). India is thus referred to as the "fastest continent".[8] This is causing the Eurasian Plate to deform, and the Indian Plate to compress at a rate of 4mm/yr (0.15 in/yr).

The Indian Plate

Geography of India

721

Political geography
India is divided into twenty-eight states (further subdivided into districts) and seven union territories. States:

The 28 states and 7 union territories of India

Andhra Pradesh Assam Bihar Chhattisgarh Goa Gujarat

Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jharkhand Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh

Maharashtra Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Orissa Punjab

Rajasthan Sikkim Tamil Nadu Tripura Uttar Pradesh Uttarakhand West Bengal

Arunachal Pradesh

Jammu and Kashmir

Union Territories:
Andaman and Nicobar Islands Chandigarh Dadra and Nagar Haveli Daman and Diu Lakshadweep National Capital Territory of Delhi Puducherry

India's borders run a total length of 15,106.70km (9,387mi).[1] Its borders with Pakistan and Bangladesh were delineated according to the Radcliffe Line, which was created in 1947 during Partition of India. Its western border with Pakistan extends up to 3,323km (2,065mi), dividing the Punjab region and running along the boundaries of the Thar Desert and the Rann of Kutch.[1] Both nations delineated a Line of Control (LoC) to serve as the informal boundary between the Indian and Pakistan-administered areas of Kashmir. According to India's claim, it shares a 106km (66mi) border with Afghanistan in northwestern Kashmir, which is under Pakistani control.[1]
Indian Kashmir, LoC and LAC

Geography of India India's border with Bangladesh runs 4,096.70km (2,546mi).[1] There are 92 enclaves of Bangladesh on Indian soil and 106 enclaves of India are on Bangladeshi soil.[9] The Teen Bigha Corridor is a strip of land formerly belonging to India on the West BengalBangladesh border which has been leased indefinitely to Bangladesh so that it can access its DehgramAngalpota enclaves.[10] The Line of Actual Control (LAC) is the effective border between India and the People's Republic of China. It traverses 4,057km along the Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh.[11] Both nations lay claim to the Aksai Chin region of northeastern Kashmir, which fell into Chinese control during the Sino-Indian War of 1962.The border with Burma (Myanmar) extends up to 1,643km (1,021mi) along the southern borders of India's northeastern states. Located amidst the Himalayan range, India's border with Bhutan runs 699km (434mi).[1] The border with Nepal runs 1,751km (1,088mi) along the foothills of the Himalayas in northern India.[1] The Siliguri Corridor, narrowed sharply by the borders of Bhutan, Nepal and Bangladesh, connects peninsular India with the northeastern states.

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Physiographic regions
India is divided into seven physiographic regions. They are 1. The northern mountains including the Himalayas, which includes the Kuen Lun and the Karakoram ranges and the northeast mountain ranges. 2. Indo-Gangetic plains 3. Thar Desert 4. Central Highlands and Deccan Plateau 5. East Coast 6. West Coast 7. Bordering seas and islands[4]

Mountains
A great arc of mountains, consisting of the Himalayas, Hindu Kush, and Patkai ranges define the northern Indian subcontinent. These were formed by the ongoing tectonic collision of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian Plate that started around 50 million years ago. The mountains in these ranges include some of the world's tallest mountains which act as a natural barrier to cold polar winds. They also facilitate the monsoon winds which in turn influence the climate in India. Rivers originating in these mountains, flow through the fertile IndoGangetic plains. These mountains are recognised by biogeographers as the boundary between two of the Earth's great ecozones: the temperate Palearctic that covers most of Eurasia and the tropical and subtropical Indomalaya ecozone which includes the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia and Indonesia.
Map of the hilly regions in India.

India has eight major mountain ranges having peaks of over 1000m (3281ft):

The Himalayan range is considered as the world's highest mountain range, with its tallest peak Mt. Everest on the NepalChina border.[12] They form India's northeastern border, separating it from northeastern Asia. They are one of the world's youngest mountain ranges and extend almost uninterrupted for 2500km (1553mi), covering an area of 500000 km2 ( sqmi).[12] The Himalayas extend from Jammu and Kashmir in the west to Arunachal Pradesh in the east. These states along with Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Sikkim lie mostly in the

Geography of India Himalayan region. Numerous Himalayan peaks rise over 7000m (22966 ft) and the snow line ranges between 6000m (19685ft) in Sikkim to around 3000m (9843ft) in Kashmir. Kanchenjungaon the SikkimNepal borderis the highest point in the area administered by India. Most peaks in the Himalayas remain snowbound throughout the year. The Himalayas act as a barrier to the frigid katabatic winds flowing down from Central Asia. Thus, North India is kept warm or only mildly cooled during winter; in summer, the same phenomenon makes India relatively hot. The Karakoram is situated in the disputed state of Jammu and Kashmir. It has more than sixty peaks above 7000m (22966 ft), including K2, the second highest peak in the world 8611m (28251 ft). K2 is just 237m (778ft) smaller than the 8848m (29029 ft) Mount Everest. The range is about 500km (311mi) in length and the most heavily glaciated part of the world outside of the polar regions. The Siachen Glacier at 70km (43mi) and the Biafo Glacier at 63km (39mi) rank as the world's second and third-longest glaciers outside the polar regions.[13] Just to the west of the northwest end of Mt. Kanchenjunga in Sikkim. the Karakoram, lies the Hindu Raj range, beyond which is the Hindu Kush range. The southern boundary of the Karakoram is formed by the Gilgit, Indus and Shyok rivers, which separate the range from the northwestern end of the Himalayas. The Patkai, or Purvanchal, are situated near India's eastern border with Myanmar. They were created by the same tectonic processes which led to the formation of the Himalayas. The physical features of the Patkai mountains are conical peaks, steep slopes and deep valleys. The Patkai ranges are not as rugged or tall as the Himalayas. There are three hill ranges that come under the Patkai: the PatkaiBum, the GaroKhasiJaintia and the Lushai hills. The GaroKhasi range lies in Meghalaya. Mawsynram, a village near Cherrapunji lying on the windward side of these hills, has the distinction of being the wettest place in the world, receiving the highest annual rainfall.[14] The Vindhya range runs across most of central India, extending 1050km (652mi).[12] The average elevation of these hills is 3000m (9843ft).[12] They are believed to have been formed by the wastes created by the weathering of the ancient Aravali mountains.[15] Geographically, it separates northern India from southern India. The western end of the range lies in eastern Gujarat, near its border with Madhya Pradesh, and runs east and north, almost meeting the Ganges at Mirzapur.

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The Vindhyas in central India

The Satpura Range begins in eastern Gujarat near the Arabian Sea coast and runs east across Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. It extends 900km (559mi) with many peaks rising above 1000m (3281ft).[12] It is triangular in shape, with its apex at Ratnapuri and the two sides being parallel to the Tapti and Narmada rivers.[16] It runs parallel to the Vindhya Range, which lies to the north, and these two east-west ranges divide the IndoGangetic plain from the Deccan Plateau located north of River Narmada.

Geography of India The Aravali Range is the oldest mountain range in India, running across Rajasthan from northeast to southwest direction, extending approximately 800km (497mi).[17] The northern end of the range continues as isolated hills and rocky ridges into Haryana, ending near Delhi. The highest peak in this range is Guru Shikhar at Mount Abu, rising to 1722m (5650ft), lying near the border with Gujarat.[18] The Aravali Range is the eroded stub of an ancient fold mountain system.[19] The range rose in a Precambrian event called the AravaliDelhi orogen. The range joins two of the ancient segments that make up the Indian craton, the Marwar segment to the northwest of the range, and the Bundelkhand segment to the southeast. The Western Ghats or Sahyadri mountains run along the western edge of India's Deccan Plateau and separate it from a narrow coastal plain along the Arabian Sea. The range runs approximately 1600km (994mi)[16] from south of the Tapti River near the GujaratMaharashtra border and across Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu to the southern tip of the Deccan peninsula. The average elevation is around 1000m (3281ft).[16] Anai Mudi in the Anaimalai Hills 2695m (8842ft) in Kerala is the highest peak in the Western Ghats.[20]
Western Ghats near Matheran

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The Eastern Ghats are a discontinuous range of mountains, which have been eroded and vivisected by the four major rivers of southern India, the Godavari, Mahanadi, Krishna, and Kaveri.[21] These mountains extend from West Bengal to Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, along the coast and parallel to the Bay of Bengal. Though not as tall as the Western Ghats, some of its peaks are over 1000m (3281ft) in height.[16] The Nilgiri hills in Tamil Nadu lies at the junction of the Eastern and Western Ghats.

Eastern Ghats (Javadi Hills) in Tamil Nadu

Indo-Gangetic plain
The Indo-Gangetic plains, also known as the Great Plains are large floodplains of the Indus and the Ganges-Brahmaputra river systems. They run parallel to the Himalaya mountains, from Jammu and Kashmir in the west to Assam in the east and draining most of northern and eastern India. The plains encompass an area of 700000square kilometers ( sqmi). The major rivers in this region are the Ganges and the Indus along with their tributariesBeas, Yamuna, Gomti, Ravi, Chambal, Sutlej and Chenab.

Geography of India

725 The great plains are sometimes classified into four divisions: The Bhabar belt is adjacent to the foothills of the Himalayas and consists of boulders and pebbles which have been carried down by the river streams. As the porosity of this belt is very high, the streams flow underground. The bhabar is generally narrow with its width varying between 7 to 15km.

The Terai belt lies next to the Bhabar region and is composed of newer alluvium. The underground streams reappear in this region. The region is excessively moist Extent of the Indo-Gangetic plain across South Asia. and thickly forested. It also receives heavy rainfall throughout the year and is populated with a variety of wildlife. The Bangar belt consists of older alluvium and forms the alluvial terrace of the flood plains. In the Gangetic plains, it has a low upland covered by laterite deposits. The Khadar belt lies in lowland areas after the Bangar belt. It is made up of fresh newer alluvium which is deposited by the rivers flowing down the plain. The Indo-Gangetic belt is the world's most extensive expanse of uninterrupted alluvium formed by the deposition of silt by the numerous rivers. The plains are flat making it conducive for irrigation through canals. The area is also rich in ground water sources. The plains are one of the world's most intensely farmed areas. The main crops grown are rice and wheat, which are grown in rotation. Other important crops grown in the region include maize, sugarcane and cotton. The Indo-Gangetic plains rank among the world's most densely populated areas.

Thar Desert
The Thar Desert (also known as the Great Indian Desert) is the world's seventh largest desert;[22] it forms a significant portion of western India and covers an area of 238,700km (92,200mile).[22] The desert continues into Pakistan as the Cholistan Desert. Most of the Thar Desert is situated in Rajasthan, covering 61% of its geographic area. About 10 percent of this ecoregion comprises sand dunes, and the remaining 90 percent consist of craggy rock forms, compacted salt-lake bottoms, and interdunal and fixed dune areas. Annual temperatures Desert tribes living in the Thar Desert near Jaisalmer, India. can range from 0C in the winter to over 50C during the summer. Most of the rainfall received in this region is associated with the short JulySeptember southwest monsoon that brings around 100500mm of precipitation. Water is scarce and occurs at great depths, ranging from 30 to 120 m below the ground level.[23] Rainfall is precarious and erratic, ranging from below 120mm (4.72inches) in the extreme west to 375mm (14.75inches) eastward. The soils of the arid region are generally sandy to sandy-loam in texture. The consistency and depth vary as per the topographical features. The low-lying loams are heavier and may have a hard pan of clay, calcium carbonate or gypsum.

Geography of India

726

Highlands
The Central Highlands comprise of three main plateaus the Malwa Plateau in the west, the Deccan Plateau in the south (covering most of the Indian peninsula) and the Chota Nagpur Plateau in the east. The Malwa Plateau is spread across Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. The average elevation of the Malwa plateau is 500 metres, and the landscape generally slopes towards the north. Most of the region is drained by the Chambal River and its tributaries; the western part is drained by the upper reaches of the Mahi River. The Deccan Plateau is a large triangular plateau, bounded by the Vindhyas to the north and flanked by the Eastern and Western Ghats. The Deccan covers a total area of 1.9 millionkm (735,000 mile). It is mostly flat, with elevations ranging from 300 to 600m (1,000 to 2,000ft). The average elevation of the plateau is 2,000 feet (600 m) above sea level. The surface slopes from 3,000 feet (900 m) in the west to 1,500 feet (450 m) in the east.[24] It slopes gently from west to east and gives rise to several peninsular rivers such as the Godavari, the Krishna, the Kaveri and the Narmada, which drain into the Bay of Bengal. This region is mostly semi-arid as it lies on the leeward side of both Ghats. Much of the Deccan is covered by thorn scrub forest scattered with small regions of deciduous broadleaf forest. Climate in the Deccan ranges from hot summers to mild winters. The Chota Nagpur Plateau is situated in eastern India, covering much of Jharkhand and adjacent parts of Orissa, Bihar and Chhattisgarh. Its total area is approximately 65,000km (25,000mile) and is made up of three smaller plateaus the Ranchi, Hazaribagh, and Kodarma plateaus. The Ranchi plateau is the largest, with an average elevation of 700m (2,300ft). Much of the plateau is forested, covered by the Chota Nagpur dry deciduous forests. Vast reserves of metal ores and coal have been found in the Chota Nagpur plateau. The Kathiawar peninsula in western Gujarat is bounded by the Gulf of Kutch and the Gulf of Khambat. The natural vegetation in most of the peninsula is xeric scrub, part of the Northwestern thorn scrub forests ecoregion. In western India, the Kutch region in Gujarat and Koyna in Maharashtra are classified as a Zone IV region (high risk) for earthquakes. The Kutch city of Bhuj was the epicentre of the 2001 Gujarat earthquake, which claimed the lives of more than 20,000 people and injured 166,836 while destroying or damaging near a million homes.[25] The 1993 Latur earthquake in Maharashtra killed 7,928 people and injured 30,000.[26] Other areas have a moderate to low risk of an earthquake occurring.[27]

Coasts
The Eastern Coastal Plain is a wide stretch of land lying between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal. It stretches from Tamil Nadu in the south to West Bengal in the north. The Mahanadi, Godavari, Kaveri and Krishna rivers drain these plains and their deltas occupy most of the area. The temperature in the coastal regions exceeds 30C (86F) coupled with high levels of humidity. The region receives both the northeast and southwest monsoon rains. The southwest monsoon splits into two branches, the Bay of Bengal branch and the Arabian Sea branch. The Bay of Bengal branch moves northwards crossing northeast India in Varkala beach on Kerala's coast early June. The Arabian Sea branch moves northwards and discharges much of its rain on the windward side of Western Ghats. Annual rainfall in this region averages between 1,000mm (40in) and 3,000mm (120in). The width of the plains varies between 100 and 130km (62 to 80miles).[28] The plains are divided into six regions the Mahanadi delta, the southern Andhra Pradesh plain, the Krishna-Godavari deltas, the Kanyakumari coast, the Coromandel Coast and sandy coastal.

Geography of India The Western Coastal Plain is a narrow strip of land sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea, ranging from 50 to 100km (30 to 60miles) in width. It extends from Gujarat in the north and extends through Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala. Numerous rivers and backwaters inundate the region. Originating in the Western Ghats, the rivers are fast-flowing and mostly perennial, leading to the formation of estuaries. Major rivers flowing into the sea are the Tapi, Narmada, Mandovi and Zuari. The coast is divided into 3 parts namely, Konkan, which is situated in Maharashtra,Goa and northern parts of Karnataka; the Kanara in Karnataka and the Malabar Coast in Kerala. Vegetation is mostly deciduous, but the Malabar Coast moist forests constitute a unique ecoregion.

727

Islands
The Lakshadweep and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are India's two major island formations which are classified as union territories. The Lakshadweep Islands lie 200 to 300km (124 to 186miles) off the coast of Kerala in the Arabian Sea with an area of 32km (11 sq mi). They consist of 12 atolls, 3 reefs and 5 submerged banks, with a total of about 36 islands and islets. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are located between 6o and 14o North latitude and 92o and 94o East longitude.[29] They consist of 572 isles, lying in the Aerial view of the Andaman Islands Bay of Bengal near the Myanmar coast. It is located 1255km (780miles) from Kolkata (Calcutta) and 193km (120miles) from Cape Negrais in Myanmar.[29] The territory consists of two island groups, the Andaman Islands and the Nicobar Islands. The Andaman Islands consists of 204 small islands with a total length of 352km (220miles). India's only active volcano, Barren Island is situated here, having last erupted in May 2005. The Narcondum is a dormant volcano and there is a mud volcano at Baratang. Indira Point, India's southernmost land point is situated in the Nicobar islands, and lies just 189km (117miles) from the Indonesian island of Sumatra to the southeast. The highest point is Mount Thullier at 642m (2,140ft). Significant islands just off the Indian coast include Diu, a former Portuguese enclave; Majuli, Asia's largest freshwater island; Elephanta in the Bombay Harbour; and Sriharikota barrier island in Andhra Pradesh. Salsette Island is India's most populous island on which the city of Mumbai (Bombay) is located. Forty-two islands in the Gulf of Kutch constitute the Marine National Park.

Geography of India

728

Water bodies
India has around 14,500km of inland navigable waterways.[30] There are twelve rivers which are classified as major rivers, with the total catchment area exceeding 2528000 km2 ( sqmi).[16] All major rivers of India originate from one of the three main watersheds:[16] 1. The Himalaya and the Karakoram ranges 2. Vindhya and Satpura range in central India 3. Sahyadri or Western Ghats in western India The Himalayan river networks are snow-fed and have a perennial supply throughout the year. The other two river systems are dependent on the monsoons and shrink into rivulets during the dry season. The Himalayan rivers that flow westward into Pakistan are the Indus, Beas, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Jhelum.[31] The Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghana system has the largest Rivers in India. catchment area of 1100000 km2 ( sqmi).[16] The Ganges originates from the Gangotri Glacier in Uttarakhand.[31] It flows southeast, draining into the Bay of Bengal.[16] The Yamuna and Gomti rivers also arise in the western Himalayas and join the Ganges in the plains.[16] The Brahmaputra, another tributary of the Ganges, originates in Tibet and enters India through the far-eastern state of Arunachal Pradesh. It proceeds westwards, joining the Ganges in Bangladesh.[16] The Chambal, another tributary of the Ganges originates from the Vindhya-Satpura watershed. The river flows eastward. Westward-flowing rivers from this watershed are the Narmada and Tapti, which drain into the Arabian Sea in Gujarat. The river network that flows from east to west constitutes 10% of the total outflow. The Western Ghats are the source of all Deccan rivers, which include the Mahanadi River through the Mahanadi River Delta, Godavari River, Krishna River and Kaveri River, all draining into the Bay of Bengal. These rivers constitute 20% of India's total outflow.[31] The heavy southwest monsoon rains cause the Brahmaputra and other rivers to distend their banks, often flooding surrounding areas. Though they provide rice paddy farmers with a largely dependable source of natural irrigation and fertilisation, such floods have killed thousands of people and tend to cause displacements of people in such areas.

The Godavari River

Major gulfs include the Gulf of Cambay, Gulf of Kutch and the Gulf of Mannar. Straits include the Palk Strait, which separates India from Sri Lanka and the Ten Degree Channel, which separates the Andamans from the Nicobar Islands and the Eight Degree Channel, which separates the Laccadive and Amindivi Islands from the Minicoy Island towards the south. Important capes include the Kanyakumari, the southern tip of mainland India; Indira Point, the southernmost location of India; Rama's Bridge and Point Calimere. While, Arabian Sea lies on the western side of India, Bay of Bengal and Indian Ocean lie towards the eastern and southern side respectively. Smaller seas include the Laccadive Sea and the Andaman Sea. There are four coral reefs in India, located in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Gulf of Mannar, Lakshadweep and Gulf of Kutch.[27] Important lakes include Chilka Lake, the country's

Geography of India largest saltwater lake in Orissa; Vembanad Lake in Kerala; Kolleru Lake in Andhra Pradesh; Loktak Lake in Manipur, Dal Lake in Kashmir, Sambhar Lake in Rajasthan and the Sasthamkotta Lake in Kerala.

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Wetlands
India's wetland ecosystem is widely distributed from the cold and arid located in the Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir, and those with the wet and humid climate of peninsular India. Most of the wetlands are directly or indirectly linked to river networks. The Indian government has identified a total of 71 wetlands for conservation and are part of sanctuaries and national parks.[32] Mangrove forests are present all along the Indian coastline in sheltered estuaries, creeks, backwaters, salt marshes and mudflats. The mangrove area covers a total of 4461km2 (1722sqmi),[33] which comprises 7% of the world's total mangrove cover. Prominent mangrove covers are located in the A map of the Indian Sunderbans. Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Sundarbans delta, the Gulf of Kutch and the deltas of the Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna rivers. Parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala also have large mangrove covers.[27] The Sundarbans delta is home to the largest mangrove forest in the world. It lies at the mouth of the Ganges and spreads across areas of Bangladesh and West Bengal. The Sundarbans is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, but is identified separately as the Sundarbans (Bangladesh) and the Sundarbans National Park (India). The Sundarbans are intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways, mudflats and small islands of salt-tolerant mangrove forests. The area is known for its diverse fauna, being home to a large variety of species of birds, spotted deer, crocodiles and snakes. Its most famous inhabitant is the Bengal Tiger. It is estimated that there are now 400 Bengal tigers and about 30,000 spotted deer in the area. The Rann of Kutch is a marshy region located in northwestern Gujarat and the bordering Sindh province of Pakistan. It occupies a total area of 27900km (10,800 mile).[34] The region was originally a part of the Arabian Sea. Geologic forces such as earthquakes resulted in the damming up of the region, turning it into a large saltwater lagoon. This area gradually filled with silt thus turning it into a seasonal salt marsh. During the monsoons, the area turns into a shallow marsh, often flooding to knee-depth. After the monsoons, the region turns dry and becomes parched.

Geography of India

730

Climate
Based on the Kppen system, India hosts six major climatic subtypes, ranging from arid desert in the west, alpine tundra and glaciers in the north, and humid tropical regions supporting rainforests in the southwest and the island territories. Many regions have starkly different microclimates. The nation has four seasons: winter (JanuaryFebruary), summer (MarchMay), a monsoon (rainy) season (JuneSeptember) and a post-monsoon period (OctoberDecember).[31] The Himalayas act as a barrier to the frigid katabatic winds flowing down from Central Asia. Thus, North India is kept warm or only mildly cooled during winter; in summer, the same phenomenon makes India relatively hot. Although the Tropic of Cancerthe boundary between the tropics and subtropicspasses through the middle of India, the whole country is considered to be

Temperature averages in India; units are in degree Celsius.

tropical. Summer lasts between March and June in most parts of India. Temperatures exceed 40C (104F) during the day. The coastal regions exceed 30C (86F) coupled with high levels of humidity. In the Thar desert area temperatures can exceed 45C (113F). The rain-bearing monsoon clouds are attracted to the low-pressure system created by the Thar Desert. The southwest monsoon splits into two arms, the Bay of Bengal arm and the Arabian Sea arm. The Bay of Bengal arm moves northwards crossing northeast India in early June. The Arabian Sea arm moves northwards and deposits much of its rain on the windward side of Western Ghats. Winters in peninsula India see mild to warm days and cool nights. Further north the temperature is cooler. Temperatures in some parts of the Indian plains sometimes fall below freezing. Most of northern India is plagued by fog during this season. The highest temperature recorded in India was 50.6C (123.1F) in Alwar in 1955. The lowest was in Kashmir.

Geology
India's geological features are classified based on their era of formation.[35] The Precambrian formations of Cudappah and Vindhyan systems are spread out over the eastern and southern states. A small part of this period is spread over western and central India.[35] The Paleozoic formations from the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian system are found in the Western Himalaya region in Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.[35] The Mesozoic Deccan Traps formation is seen over most of the northern Deccan; they are believed to be the result of sub-aerial volcanic activity.[35] The Trap soil is black in colour and conducive to agriculture. The Carboniferous system, Permian System and Triassic systems are seen in the western Himalayas. The Jurassic system is seen in the western Himalayas and Rajasthan. Tertiary imprints are seen in parts of Manipur, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and along the Himalayan belt. The

Geological regions of India

Geography of India Cretaceous system is seen in central India in the Vindhyas and part of the Indo-Gangetic plains.[35] The Gondowana system is seen in the Narmada River area in the Vindhyas and Satpuras. The Eocene system is seen in the western Himalayas and Assam. Oligocene formations are seen in Kutch and Assam.[35] The Pleistocene system is found over central India. The Andaman and Nicobar Island are thought to have been formed in this era by volcanoes.[35] The Himalayas were formed by the convergence and deformation of the Indo-Australian and Eurasian Plates. Their continued convergence raises the height of the Himalayas by 1cm each year. Soils in India can be classified into 8 categories: alluvial, black, red, laterite, forest, arid & desert, saline & alkaline and peaty & organic soils.[36] [37] Alluvial soil constitute the largest soil group in India, constituting 80% of the total land surface.[37] It is derived from the deposition of silt carried by rivers and are found in the Great Northern plains from Punjab to the Assam valley.[37] Alluvial soil are generally fertile but they lack nitrogen and tend to be phosphoric.[37] Black soil are well developed in the Deccan lava region of Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh.[38] These contain high percentage of clay and are moisture retentive.[37] Red soil are found in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka plateau, Andhra plateau, Chota Nagpur plateau and the Aravallis.[38] These are deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus and humus.[37] [38] Laterite soils are formed in tropical regions with heavy rainfall. Heavy rainfall results in leaching out all soluble material of top layer of soil. These are generally found in Western ghats, Eastern ghats and hilly areas of northeastern states that receive heavy rainfall. Forest soils occur on the slopes of mountains and hills in Himalayas, Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats. These generally consist of large amounts of dead leaves and other organic matter called humus.

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Natural resources
India's total renewable water resources are estimated at 1,907.8 km3/year.[39] Its annual supply of usable and replenshable groundwater amounts to 350 billion cubic metres.[40] Only 35% of groundwater resources are being utilised.[40] About 44 million tonnes of cargo is moved annually through the country's major rivers and waterways.[30] Groundwater supplies 40% of water in India's irrigation canals. 56% of the land is arable and used for agriculture. Black soils are moisture-retentive and are Indian coal production is the 3rd highest in the world according to the 2008 Indian Ministry of Mines estimates. Shown above is a coal mine in Jharkhand. preferred for dry farming and growing cotton, linseed, etc. Forest soils are used for tea and coffee plantations. Red soil have a wide diffusion of iron content.[38] Most of India's estimated 5.4billion barrels ( m3) in oil reserves are located in the Mumbai High, upper Assam, Cambay, the Krishna-Godavari and Cauvery basins.[41] India possesses about seventeen trillion cubic feet of natural gas in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Orissa.[41] Uranium is mined in Andhra Pradesh. India has 400 medium-to-high enthalpy thermal springs for producing geothermal energy in seven "provinces" the Himalayas, Sohana, Cambay, the Narmada-Tapti delta, the Godavari delta and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (specifically the volcanic Barren Island.)[42] India is the world's biggest producer of mica blocks and mica splittings.[43] India ranks second amongst the world's largest producers of barites and chromites.[43] The Pleistocene system is rich in minerals. India is the third-largest coal producer in the world and ranks fourth in the production of iron ore.[41] [43] It is the fifth-largest producer of

Geography of India bauxite and crude steel, the seventh-largest of manganese ore and the eighth-largest of aluminium.[43] India has significant sources of titanium ore, diamonds and limestone.[44] India possesses 24% of the world's known and economically viable thorium, which is mined along shores of Kerala.[45] Gold had been mined in the now-defunct Kolar Gold Fields in Karnataka.[46]

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Antipodes
The only land area antipodal to India is Easter Island, which is antipodal to the western corner of Rajasthan. The triangular island closely reflects the triangle between the cities of Mokal, Kuchchri, and Habur. Habur corresponds to Hanga Roa, and Mokal to the eastern cape.

References
[1] "Ministry of Home Affairs (Department of Border Management)" (http:/ / mha. nic. in/ docs/ BM_Intro(E). doc) (DOC). . Retrieved 2008-01-09. [2] compiled and edited by Research, Reference and Training Division. (2007). India Yearbook 2007. Publications Division, Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Govt. Of India. p.1. ISBN81-230-1423-6. [3] "India Details on Official India Government website" (http:/ / india. gov. in/ knowindia/ profile. php). Government of India. . Retrieved June 9, 2007. [4] Manorama Yearbook 2006 (India - The Country). Malayala Manorama. 2006. p.515. ISSN0542-5778. [5] "Territorial extent of India's waters" (http:/ / www. irfc-nausena. nic. in/ irfc/ ezine/ Trans2Trimph/ chapters/ 27_law of the sea1. htm). The International Law of the Sea and Indian Maritime Legislation. 2005-04-30. . Retrieved 2006-05-16. [6] K2 (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic-art/ 312055/ 69374/ K2-in-the-Karakoram-Range-northern-Baltistan-Northern-Areas-Pak) Britannica.com [7] Bin Zhu et al. (PDF). Age of Initiation of the India-Asia Collision in the East-Central Himalaya (http:/ / geosci. uchicago. edu/ ~rowley/ Rowley/ Collision_Age_files/ J Geol 2005 Zhu. pdf). Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University at Albany. pp.281. . Retrieved 2008-11-19. [8] Dr. Rainer Kind (September 2007). The Fastest Continent: India's truncated lithospheric roots. Helmholtz Association of German Research Centres. [9] Naunidhi Kaur (June 2002). "The Nowhere People" (http:/ / www. hinduonnet. com/ fline/ fl1912/ 19120600. htm). Frontline Magazine, The Hindu 19 (12). . Retrieved 2008-11-19. [10] J.N. Dixit (2001). Indian Foreign Policy and Its Neighbours. Gyan Books. p.109. ISBN8121207266. [11] "Another Chinese intrusion in Sikkim" (http:/ / news. oneindia. in/ 2008/ 06/ 19/ another-chinese-intrusion-in-sikkim. html). Oneindia.in. 2008-06-19. . Retrieved 2008-11-19. [12] Manorama Yearbook 2006 (India - The Country). Malayala Manorama. 2006. p.516. ISSN0542-5778. [13] Baltoro and Batura Glaciers in the Karakoram are 57km (35mi) long, as is Bruggen or Pio XI Glacier in southern Chile. Measurements are from recent imagery, generally supplemented with Russian 1:200,000 scale topographic mapping as well as Jerzy Wala, Orographical Sketch Map: Karakoram: Sheets 1 & 2, Swiss Foundation for Alpine Research, Zurich, 1990. [14] "Physical divisions" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20041212061106/ http:/ / www. nios. ac. in/ SecSoccour/ English/ Lesson07. pdf) (PDF). Archived from the original (http:/ / www. nios. ac. in/ SecSoccour/ English/ Lesson07. pdf) on 2004-12-12. . [15] The Indian geographical journal. 46. Indian Geographical Society. 1971. p.52. [16] Manorama Yearbook 2006 (India - The Country). p.517. [17] Aravali Range (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Kpd9lLY_0-IC& pg=PA92& dq=Aravali& as_brr=0) Students' Britannica India, by Dale Hoiberg, Indu Ramchandani. Published by Popular Prakashan, 2000. ISBN 0852297602. Page 92-93. [18] Gupta, Harsh K; Aloka Parasher-Sen, Dorairajan Balasubramanian (2000). Deccan Heritage. Orient Blackswan. p.28. ISBN8173712859. [19] Sharma, Hari Shanker (1987). Tropical geomorphology: a morphogenetic study of Rajasthan. Concept. p.295. ISBN8170220416. [20] Clayton, Pamela (11 2006). "Introduction" (http:/ / www. gla. ac. uk/ kerala/ LiteracyinKerala. pdf) (PDF). Literacy in Kerala (University of Glasgow). ISBN 0863890687. . Retrieved 2009-09-08. [21] Pullaiah, Thammineni; D.Muralidhara Rao (2002). "Preface". Flora of Eastern Ghats: Hill ranges of south east India. 1. Daya Books. p.1. ISBN8187498498. [22] "Terrestrial Ecoregions - Thar desert (IM1304" (http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ im/ im1304_full. html). World Wildlife Fund. . Retrieved 2008-11-19. [23] Kaul, R.N. (1970). Afforestation in Arid zones. N.V. Publishers, The Hague. [24] "The Deccan Plateau" (http:/ / geography. howstuffworks. com/ asia/ the-deccan-plateau. htm). How Stuff Works. . Retrieved 2008-11-14. [25] "Preliminary Earthquake Report" (http:/ / neic. usgs. gov/ neis/ eq_depot/ 2001/ eq_010126/ ). USGS Earthquake Hazards Program. . Retrieved 2007-11-21.

Geography of India
[26] Brijesh Gulati (January 2006) (PDF). Earthquake Risk Assessment of Buildings: Applicability of HAZUS in Dehradun, India (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080528065451/ http:/ / www. iirs-nrsa. gov. in/ pdf/ brijesh_thesis2005. pdf). Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, National Remote Sensing Agency. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. iirs-nrsa. gov. in/ pdf/ brijesh_thesis2005. pdf) on 2008-05-28. . Retrieved 2008-11-19. [27] Manorama Yearbook 2006 (India - The Country). p.519. [28] "The Eastern Coastal Plain" (http:/ / www. rainwaterharvesting. org/ eco/ ecp. htm). Rainwaterharvesting.org. . Retrieved 2008-11-19. [29] "National Portal of India: Know India: State of UTs" (http:/ / india. gov. in/ knowindia/ ut_andaman. php). Government of India. . Retrieved 2008-11-19. [30] "Introduction to Inland Water Transport" (http:/ / iwai. gov. in/ introduction. htm). Government of India. . Retrieved 2008-11-19. [31] Manorama Yearbook 2006 (India - The Country). pp.518. [32] compiled and edited by Research, Reference and Training Division. (2007). India Yearbook 2007. Publications Division, Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Govt. Of India. pp.Pg. 306. ISBN81-230-1423-6. [33] compiled and edited by Research, Reference and Training Division. (2007). India Yearbook 2007. Publications Division, Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Govt. Of India. pp.Pg. 309. ISBN81-230-1423-6. [34] "Rann of Kutch" (http:/ / www. nationalgeographic. com/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ im/ im0901. html). National Geographic. . Retrieved 2008-11-19. [35] Manorama Yearbook 2006 (India - Geology). pp.521. [36] "India Agronet - Soil Management" (http:/ / www. indiaagronet. com/ indiaagronet/ soil_management/ Soil_mgmt. htm). Indiagronet.com. . Retrieved July 18, 2007. [37] "Food and Agriculture Organization website" (http:/ / www. fao. org/ docrep/ 009/ a0257e/ A0257E02. htm). . Retrieved 2007-08-02. [38] "Krishi World website" (http:/ / www. krishiworld. com/ html/ soils10. html). Krishiworld.com. . Retrieved July 18, 2007. [39] "Water profile of India" (http:/ / www. eoearth. org/ article/ Water_profile_of_India#Water_Resources). Encyclopedia of Earth. . Retrieved 2008-11-20. [40] J.K. Jain; Farmer, B. H.; Rush, H.; West, H. W.; Allan, J. A.; Dasgupta, B.; Boon, W. H. (May 1977). "India's Underground Water Resources". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 278 (962): 50722. doi:10.1098/rstb.1977.0058. [41] "Energy profile of India" (http:/ / www. eoearth. org/ article/ Energy_profile_of_India). Encyclopedia of Earth. . Retrieved 2008-11-20. [42] D. Chandrasekharam. "Geothermal Energy Resources of India" (http:/ / www. geos. iitb. ac. in/ geothermalindia/ pubs/ IBC/ IBCTALKweb. htm). Indian Institute of Technology Bombay. . Retrieved 2008-11-20. [43] "India's Contribution to the World's Mineral Production" (http:/ / mines. nic. in/ imsene. html#INDIAS CONTRIBUTION TO THE WORLDS MINERAL PRODUCTION). Ministry of Mines, Government of India. . Retrieved 2008-11-20. [44] "India" (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ in. html). CIA Factbook. . Retrieved 2007-06-16. [45] "Information and Issue Briefs - Thorium" (http:/ / www. world-nuclear. org/ info/ inf62. htm). World Nuclear Association. . Retrieved 2006-06-01. [46] "Death of the Kolar Gold Fields" (http:/ / www. rediff. com/ news/ 2000/ may/ 08gita. htm). Rediff.com. . Retrieved 2008-11-21.

733

Further reading
Allaby, M (1998). Floods. Facts on File. ISBN 0-8160-3520-2. Balfour, E (1976). Encyclopaedia Asiatica: Comprising Indian Subcontinent, Eastern and Southern Asia. Cosmo Publications. ISBN8170203252. Nash, JM (2002). El Nio: Unlocking the Secrets of the Master Weather Maker. Warner. ISBN 0-446-52481-6. "Land and Natural Resources" (http://library.thinkquest.org/28853/terrain.htm). Terrain. Retrieved June 6, 2005.

Geology of India

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Geology of India
The geology of India started with the geological evolution of rest of the Earth i.e. 4.57 Ga (billion years ago). India has a diverse geology. Different regions in India contain rocks of all types belonging to different geologic periods. Some of the rocks are badly deformed and transmuted while others are recently deposited alluvium that has yet to undergo diagenesis. Mineral deposits of great variety are found in the subcontinent in huge quantity. Even the fossil records are impressive in which stromatolites, invertebrates, vertebrates and plant fossils are included. India's geographical land area can be classified into- Deccan trap , Gondwana and Vindhyan.

Plates in the crust of the earth, according to the plate tectonics theory

Firstly, the Deccan Trap covers almost all of Maharashtra, a part of Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh marginally. It is believed that the Deccan Trap was formed as result of sub-aerial volcanic activity associated with the continental deviation in this part of the Earth during the Mesozoic era. That is why the rocks found in this region are generally igneous type. During its journey northward after breaking off from the rest of Gondwana, the Indian Plate passed over a geologic hotspot, the Runion hotspot, which caused extensive melting underneath the Indian craton. The melting broke through the surface of the craton in a massive flood basalt event, creating what is known as the Deccan Traps. It is also thought that the Reunion hotspot caused the separation of Madagascar and India. The Gondwana and Vindhyan include within its fold parts of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttaranchal. The Gondwana Supergroup forms a unique sequence of fluviatile rocks deposited in Permo-Carboniferous time. Damodar and Sone river valley and Rajmahal hills in the eastern India are depository of the Gondwana rocks.

Plate tectonics
The Indian craton was once part of the supercontinent of Pangaea. At that time, it was attached to Madagascar and southern Africa on the south west coast, and Australia along the east coast. 160 Ma (ICS 2004) during the Jurassic Period, rifting caused Pangaea to break apart into two supercontinents namely, Gondwana (to the south) and Laurasia (to the north). The Indian craton remained attached to Gondwana, until the supercontinent began to rift apart about in the early Cretaceous, about 125 Ma (ICS 2004). The Indian Plate then drifted northward toward the Eurasian Plate, at a pace that is the fastest movement of any known plate. It is generally believed that the Indian plate separated from Madagascar about 90 Ma (ICS 2004), however some biogeographical and geological evidence suggests that the connection between Madagascar and Africa was retained at the time when the Indian plate collided with the Eurasian Plate about 50 Ma (ICS 2004).[1] This orogeny, which is continuing today, is related to closure of the Tethys Ocean. The closure of this ocean which created the Alps in Europe, and the Caucasus range in western Asia, created Himalaya Mountains and the Tibetan Plateau in South Asia. The current orogenic event is causing parts of the Asian continent to deform westward and eastward on either side of the orogeny. Concurrently with this collision, the Indian Plate sutured on to the adjacent Australian Plate, forming a new larger plate, the Indo-Australian Plate.

Geology of India Tectonic evolution The earliest phase of tectonic evolution was marked by the cooling and solidification of the upper crust of the earth surface in the Archaean era (prior to 2.5 billion years) which is represented by the exposure of gneisses and granites especially on the Peninsula. These form the core of the Indian craton. The Aravalli Range is the remnant of an early Proterozoic orogen called the Aravali-Delhi orogen that joined the two older segments that make up the Indian craton. It extends approximately 500kilometres (311mi) from its northern end to isolated hills and rocky ridges into Haryana, ending near Delhi. Minor igneous intrusions, deformation (folding and faulting) and subsequent metamorphism of the Aravalli Mountains represent the main phase of orogenesis. The erosion of the mountains, and further deformation of the sediments of the Dharwaian group (Bijawars) marks the second phase. The volcanic activities and intrusions, associated with this second phase are recorded in composition of these sediments. Early to Late Proterozoic calcareous and arenaceous deposits, which correspond to humid and semi-arid climatic regimes, were deposited the Cuddapah and Vindhyan basins. These basins which border or lie within the existing crystalline basement, were uplifted during the Cambrian (500 Ma (ICS 2004)). The sediments are generally undeformed and have in many places preserved their original horizontal stratification. The Vindhyans are believed to have been deposited between ~1700 and 650 Ma (ICS 2004).[2]

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Due to continental drift, the India Plate split from Madagascar and collided with the Eurasian Plate resulting in the formation of the Himalayas.

Early Paleozoic rocks are found in the Himalayas and consist of southerly derived sediments eroded from the crystalline craton and deposited on the Indian platform. In the Late Paleozoic, Permo-Carboniferous glaciations left extensive glacio-fluvial deposits across central India, in new basins created by sag/normal faulting. These tillites and glacially derived sediments are designated the Gondwanas series. The sediments are overlain by rocks resulting from a Permian marine transgression (270 Ma (ICS 2004)). The late Paleozoic coincided with the deformation and drift of the Gondwana supercontinent. To this drift, the uplift of the Vindhyan sediments and the deposition of northern peripheral sediments in the Himalayan Sea, can be attributed. During the Jurassic, as Pangea began to rift apart, large grabens formed in central India filling with Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous sandstones and conglomerates. By the Late Cretaceous India had separated from Australia and Africa and was moving northward towards Asia. At this time, prior to the Deccan eruptions, uplift in southern India resulted in sedimentation in the adjacent nascent Indian Ocean. Exposures of these rocks occur along the south Indian coast at Pondicherry and in Tamil Nadu. At the close of the Mesozoic one of the greatest volcanic eruptions in earths history occurred, the Deccan lava flows. Covering more than 500000square kilometres ( sqmi) area, these mark the final break from Gondwana.

Geology of India In the early Tertiary, the first phase of the Himalayan orogeny, the Karakoram phase occurred. The Himalayan orogeny has continued to the present day.

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Major rock groups

Precambrian super-eon
A considerable area of peninsular India, the Indian Shield, consists of Archean gneisses and schists which are the oldest rocks found in India. The Precambrian rocks of India have been classified into two systems, namely the Dharwar system and the Archaean system.

Map of chronostratigraphic divisions of India

The rocks of the Dharwar system are mainly sedimentary in origin, and occur in narrow elongated synclines resting on the gneisses found in Bellary district, Mysore and the Aravalis of Rajputana. These rocks are enriched in Manganese and Iron ore which represents a significant resource of these metals. They are also extensively mineralized with gold most notably the Kolar gold mines located in Kolar. In the north and west of India, the Vaikrita system, which occurs in Hundes, Kumaon and Spiti areas, the Dailing series in Sikkim and the Shillong series in Assam are believed to be of the same age as the Dharwar system. The metamorphic basement consists of gneisses which are further classified into the Bengal gneiss, the Bundelkhand gneiss and the Nilgiri gneiss. The Nilgiri system comprises Charnockites ranging from granites to gabbros.
The Dharwar System

Phanerozoic

Palaeozoic Lower Paleozoic- Rocks of the earliest Cambrian period are found in the Salt range in Punjab and the Spiti are in central Himalayas and consist of a thick sequence of fossiliferous sediments. In the Salt range, the stratigraphy starts with the Salt Pseudomorph zone, which has a thickness of 450feet (137m) and consists of dolomites and sandstones. It is overlain by magnesian sandstones with a thickness of 250feet (76m), similar to the underlying dolomites. These sandstones have very few fossils. Overlying the sandstones is the Neobolus Shale, which is composed of dark shales with a thickness of 100feet (30m). Finally there is a zone consisting of red or purple sandstones having a thickness of 250feet (76m) to 400feet (122m) called the Purple Sandstone. These are unfossiliferous and show sun-cracks and worm burrows which is typical of subaerial weathering. The deposits in Spiti are known as Haimanta system and they consist of Slates, micaceous quartzite and dolomitic limestones.

Geology of India The Ordovician rocks comprise flaggy shales, limestones, red quartzites, quartzites, sandstones and conglomerates. Siliceous limestones belonging to the Silurian overlie the Ordovician rocks. These limestones are in turn overlain by white quartzite and this is known as Muth quartzite. Silurian rocks which contain typical Silurian fauna are also found in the Vihi district of Kashmir. Upper Paleozoic- Devonian fossils and corals are found in grey limestone in the central Himalayas and in black limestone in the Chitral area. The Carboniferous is composed of two distinct sequences, the upper Carboniferous Po, and the lower Carboniferous Lipak. Fossils of Brachiopods and some Trilobites are found in the calcareous and sandy rocks of the Lipak series. The Syringothyris limestone in Kashmir also belongs to the Lipak. The Po series overlies the Lipak series, and the Fenestella shales are interbedded within a sequence of quartzites and dark shales. In many places Carboniferous strata are overlaid by grey agglomeratic slates, believed to be of volcanic origin. Many genera of productids are found in the limestones of the Permo - Triassic, which has led to these rocks being referred to as "productus limestone". This limestone is of marine origin and is divided into three distinct litho-stratigraphic units based on the productus chronology: the Late Permian Chideru, which contains many ammonites, the Late - Middle Permain Virgal, and the Middle Permian Amb unit. Mesozoic In the Triassic the Ceratite beds, named after the ammonite ceratite, consist of arenaceous limestones, calcerous sandstones and marls. The Jurassic consists of two distinct units. The Kioto limestone, extends from the lower the middle Jurassic with a thickness 2000feet (610m) to 3000feet (914m). The upper Jurassic is represented by the Spiti black shales, and stretches from the Karakoram to Sikkim. Cretaceous rocks are cover an extensive area in India. In South India, the sedimentary rocks are divided into four stages; the Niniyur, the Ariyalur, the Trichinopoly, and the Utatur stages. In the Utatur stage the rocks host phosphatic nodules, which constitute an important source of phosphates in the country. In the central provinces, the well developed beds of Lameta contain fossil records which are helpful in estimating the age of the Deccan Traps. This sequence of basaltic rocks was formed near the end of the Cretaceous period due to volcanic activity. These lava flows occupy an area of 200000square miles ( km2). These rocks are a source of high quality building stone and also provide a very fertile clayey loam, particularly suited to cotton cultivation. Cenozoic Tertiary period- In this period the Himalayan orogeny began, and the volcanism associated with the Deccan Traps continued. The rocks of this era have valuable deposits of petroleum and coal. Sandstones of Eocene age are found in Punjab, which grade into chalky limestones with oil seepages. Further north the rocks found in the Simla area are divided into three series, the Sabathu series consisting of grey and red shales, the Dagshai series comprising bright red clays and the Kasauli series comprising sandstones. Towards the east in Assam, Nummulitic limestone is found in the Khasi hills. Oil is associated with these rocks of the Oligo-Miocene age. Along the foothills of the Himilayas the Siwalik molasse is composed of sandstones, conglomerates and shales with thicknesses of 16000feet (4877m) to 20000feet (6096m) and ranging from Eocene to Pliocene. These rocks are famous for their rich fossil vertebrate fauna including many fossil hominoids. Quaternary period- The alluvium which is found in the Indo-Gangetic plain belongs to this era. It was eroded from the Himalayas by the rivers and the monsoons. These alluvial deposits consist of clay, loam, silt etc. and are divided into the older alluvium and the newer alluvium. The older alluvium is called Bhangar and is present in the ground above the flood level of the rivers. Khaddar or newer alluvium is confined to the river channels and their flood plains. This region has some of the most fertile soil found in the country as new silt is continually laid down by the rivers every year.

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Geology of India

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References
[1] Briggs, John C. (2003) The biogeographic and tectonic history of India. Journal of Biogeography 30:381388 [2] Ray, J.S., Journal of Earth System Science, February, 2006

Trans. Min. Geology Institute India, 1, 47 (1906). Rec. Geology Survey India, 69, 109 and 458 (1935). Mem. Geology Survey India, 70 (1936 and 1940).

Climate of India
The climate of India defies easy generalization, comprising a wide range of weather conditions across a large geographic scale and varied topography. Analyzed according to the Kppen system, India hosts six major climatic subtypes, ranging from desert in the west, to alpine tundra and glaciers in the north, to humid tropical regions supporting rain forests in the southwest and the island territories. Many regions have starkly different micro climates. The nation has four seasons: winter (January and February), summer (March to May), a monsoon (rainy) season (June to September), and a post-monsoon period (October to December). India's unique geography and geology strongly influence its climate; this is particularly true of the Himalayas in the north and the Thar Desert in the northwest. The Himalayas act as a barrier to the frigid katabatic winds flowing down from Central Asia. Thus, North India is kept warm or only mildly cold during winter; in summer, the same phenomenon makes India relatively hot. Although the Tropic of Cancerthe boundary between the tropics and subtropicspasses through the middle of India, the whole country is considered to be tropical. As in much of the tropics, monsoonal and other weather conditions in India are unstable: major droughts, floods, cyclones and other natural disasters are sporadic, but have killed or displaced millions.
A scene in Uttarakhand's Valley of Flowers National Park. In contrast to Tirunelveli, the park receives ample orographic precipitation due to its location in a mountainous windward-facing region wedged between the Zanskars and the Greater Himalayas.

A semi-arid wasteland near Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu. Monsoon clouds dump torrents of rain on lush forests that are only kilometres away in windward-facing Kerala, but are prevented from reaching Tirunelveli by the Agasthyamalai Range of the Western Ghats (background).

Climate of India

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History
During the triassic period (some 251 - 199.6 Ma), the Indian subcontinent was part of the vast supercontinent Pangaea. Despite its position within a high-latitude belt at 5575S (as opposed to its current position between 5 and 35N), latitudes now occupied by Greenland and parts of the Antarctic Peninsula, India likely experienced a humid temperate climate with warm, frost-free weather, though with well-defined seasons.[2] Later, India joined the southern supercontinent Gondwana, a process beginning some 550500Ma. The formation of the Himalayas (pictured) during During the Late Paleozoic, Gondwana extended from a point at or near the Early Eocene some 53 million years ago was the South Pole to near the equator, where the Indian craton (stable a key factor in determining India's modern-day continental crust) was positioned, resulting in a mild climate climate; global climate and ocean chemistry may [1] favourable to hosting high-biomass ecosystems. This is underscored by have been impacted. India's vast coal reservesmuch of it from the late Paleozoic sedimentary sequencethe fourth-largest reserves in the world.[3] During the Mesozoic, the world, including India, was considerably warmer than today. With the coming of the Carboniferous, global cooling stoked extensive glaciation, which spread northwards from South Africa towards India; this cool period lasted well into the Permian.[4] Tectonic movement by the Indian Plate caused it to pass over a geologic hotspotthe Runion hotspotnow occupied by the volcanic island of Runion. This resulted in a massive flood basalt event that laid down the Deccan Traps some 6068Ma,[5] [6] at the end of the Cretaceous period. This may have contributed to the global Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) extinction event, which caused India to experience significantly reduced insolation. Elevated atmospheric levels of sulphur gases formed aerosols such as sulfur dioxide and sulfuric acid, similar to those found in the atmosphere of Venus; these precipitated as acid rain. Elevated carbon dioxide emissions also contributed to the greenhouse effect, causing warmer weather that lasted long after the atmospheric shroud of dust and aerosols had cleared. Further climatic changes 20 million years ago, long after India had crashed into the Laurasian landmass, were severe enough to cause the extinction of many endemic Indian forms.[7] The formation of the Himalayas resulted in blockage of frigid Central Asian air, preventing it from reaching India; this made its climate significantly warmer and more tropical in character than it would otherwise have been.[8]

Climate of India

740

Regions

Average annual temperatures across India:

Climatic zones in India, based on the Kppen climate classificationKppen classification system:

India is home to an extraordinary variety of climatic regions, ranging from tropical in the south to temperate and alpine in the Himalayan north, where elevated regions receive sustained winter snowfall. The nation's climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert.[9] The Himalayas, along with the Hindu Kush mountains in Pakistan, prevent cold Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes.[10] Simultaneously, the Thar Desert plays a role in attracting moisture-laden southwest summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the majority of India's rainfall.[9] [11] Four major climatic groupings predominate, into which fall seven climatic zones that, as designated by experts, are defined on the basis of such traits as temperature and precipitation.[12] Groupings are assigned codes (see chart) according to the Kppen climate classification system.

Tropical dry
A tropical arid and semi-arid climate dominates regions where the rate of moisture loss through evapotranspiration exceeds that from precipitation; it is subdivided into three climatic subtypes. The first, a tropical semi-arid steppe climate, predominates over a long stretch of land south of Tropic of Cancer and east of the Western Ghats and the Cardamom Hills. The region, which includes Karnataka, inland Tamil Nadu, western Andhra Pradesh, and central Maharashtra, gets between 400750 millimetres (15.729.5 in) annually. It is drought-prone, as it tends to have less reliable rainfall due to sporadic lateness or failure of the southwest monsoon.[13] Karnataka is divided into three zones coastal, north interior and south interior. Of these, the coastal zone receives the heaviest rainfall

Dust Storm bursting through India for the first time

Climate of India with an average rainfall of about 3,638.5mm (143in) per annum, far in excess of the state average of 1,139mm (45in). In contrast to norm, Agumbe in the Shivamogga district receives the second highest annual rainfall in India. North of the Krishna River, the summer monsoon is responsible for most rainfall; to the south, significant post-monsoon rainfall also occurs in October and November. In December, the coldest month, temperatures still average around 2024 C (6875F). The months between March to May are hot and dry; mean monthly temperatures hover around 32 C, with 320millimetres (13in) precipitation. Hence, without artificial irrigation, this region is not suitable for permanent agriculture. Most of western Rajasthan experiences an arid climatic regime. Cloudbursts are responsible for virtually all of the region's annual precipitation, which totals less than 300millimetres (11.8in). Such bursts happen when monsoon winds sweep into the region during July, August, and September. Such rainfall is highly erratic; regions experiencing rainfall one year may not see precipitation for the next couple of years or so. Atmospheric moisture is largely prevented from precipitating due to continuous downdrafts and other factors.[14] The The Thar Desert. summer months of May and June are exceptionally hot; mean monthly temperatures in the region hover around 35C (95F), with daily maxima occasionally topping 50C (122F). During winters, temperatures in some areas can drop below freezing due to waves of cold air from Central Asia. There is a large diurnal range of about 14C (25.2F) during summer; this widens by several degrees during winter. To the west in Gujarat, there are diverse climate conditions. The winters are mild, pleasant, and dry with average daytime temperatures around 29 C (84 F) and nights around 12 C (54 F) with 100 percent sunny days and clear nights. The summers are extremely hot and dry with daytime temperatures around 41 C (106 F) and at night no lower than 29 C (84 F). In the weeks leading up to the arrival of the monsoon rains the temperatures are similar to above but with high humidity which makes the air feel hotter. Relief comes when the monsoon season starts around in mid June. The day temperatures are lowered to around 35 C (95 F) but humidity is very high and nights are around 27 C (81 F). Most of the rainfall occurs in this season, and the rain can cause severe floods. The sun is often occluded during the monsoon season. East of the Thar Desert, the region running from Punjab and Haryana to Kathiawar experiences a tropical and sub-tropical steppe climate. The climate of Haryana is similar to other states of India lying in the northern plains. It is very hot in summer (up to a high of 50 deg Celsius) and cold in winters (down to a low of 1 deg Celsius). The hottest months are May and June and the coldest being December and January. Rainfall is varied, with the Shivalik Hills region being the wettest and the Aravali Hills region being the driest. About 80% of the rainfall occurs in the monsoon season (JulySeptember) and sometimes causes local flooding. The Punjab Climate is determined by the extreme hot and extreme cold conditions. The region lying near the foot hills of Himalayas receive heavy rainfall whereas the region lying at a distant from the hills, the rainfall is scanty and the temperature is high. Punjabs climate comprises three seasons. They are the summer months that spans from mid April to the end of June. The rainy season in Punjab is from the months of early July to end of September. The winter season in Punjab is experienced during the months of early December to the end of February. The transitional Seasons in Punjab are the post monsoon season and the post winter season. The temperature range in Punjab is from 2 to 40 C (min/max), but can reach 47 C (117 F) in summer and 4 C in winter. The zone, a transitional climatic region separating tropical desert from humid sub-tropical savanna and forests, experiences temperatures that are less extreme than those of the desert. Average annual rainfall is 300650 millimetres (11.825.6 in), but is very unreliable; as in much of the rest of India, the southwest monsoon accounts for most precipitation. Daily summer temperature maxima rise to around 40C (104F). The resulting natural vegetation typically comprises short, coarse grasses.

741

Climate of India

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Subtropical humid
Most of Northeast India and much of North India are subject to a humid subtropical climate. Though they experience hot summers, temperatures during the coldest months may fall as low as 0C (32F). Due to ample monsoon rains, India has only one subtype of this climate, Cwa (under the Kppen system).[15] In most of this region, there is very little precipitation during the winter, owing to powerful anticyclonic and katabatic (downward-flowing) winds from Central Asia. Humid subtropical regions are subject to pronounced dry winters. Winter rainfalland occasionally snowfallis associated with large storm systems such as "Nor'westers" and "Western disturbances"; the latter are steered by westerlies towards the Himalayas.[16] Most summer rainfall occurs during powerful thunderstorms associated with the southwest summer monsoon; occasional tropical cyclones also contribute. Annual rainfall ranges from less than 1000millimetres (39in) in the west to over 2500millimetres (98in) in parts of the northeast. As most of this region is far from the ocean, the wide temperature swings more characteristic of a continental climate predominate; the swings are wider than in those in tropical wet regions, ranging from 24C (75F) in north-central India to 27C (81F) in the east.

Mountain
India's northernmost areas are subject to a montane, or alpine, climate. In the Himalayas, the rate at which an air mass's temperature falls per kilometre (3,281ft) of altitude gained (the dry adiabatic lapse rate) is 9.8C/km.[17] In terms of environmental lapse rate, ambient temperatures fall by 6.5C (11.7F) for every 1000metres (3281ft) rise in altitude. Thus, climates ranging from nearly tropical in the foothills to tundra above the snow line can coexist within several hundred metres of each other. Sharp temperature contrasts between Pangong Lake in Ladakh, an arid montane region sunny and shady slopes, high diurnal temperature variability, lying deep within the Himalayas. temperature inversions, and altitude-dependent variability in rainfall are also common. The northern side of the western Himalayas, also known as the trans-Himalayan belt, is a region of barren, arid, frigid, and wind-blown wastelands. Most precipitation occurs as snowfall during the late winter and spring months. Areas south of the Himalayas are largely protected from cold winter winds coming in from the Asian interior. The leeward side (northern face) of the mountains receives less rain while the southern slopes, well-exposed to the monsoon, get heavy rainfall. Areas situated at elevations of 1,0702,290 metres (3,5107,510ft) receive the heaviest rainfall, which decreases rapidly at elevations above 2290metres (7513ft). The Himalayas experience their heaviest snowfall between December and February and at elevations above 1500metres (4921ft). Snowfall increases with elevation by up to several dozen millimetres per 100metre (~2in; 330ft) increase. Elevations above 5000metres (16404ft) never experience rain; all precipitation falls as snow.[18]

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Seasons
The India Meteorological Department (IMD) designates four official seasons:[19] Winter, occurring from December to early April. The year's coldest months are December and January, when temperatures average around 1015 C (5059F) in the northwest; temperatures rise as one proceeds towards the equator, peaking around 2025 C (6877F) in mainland India's southeast. Summer or pre-monsoon season, lasting from April to June (April to July in northwestern India). In western and southern regions, the hottest month is April; for northern regions, May is the hottest month. Temperatures average around 3240 C (90104F) in most of the interior.

A winter scene in Bandhavgarh National Park, Madhya Pradesh.

Monsoon or rainy season, lasting from June to September. The season is dominated by the humid southwest summer monsoon, which slowly sweeps across the country beginning in late May or early June. Monsoon rains begin to recede from North India at the beginning of October. South India typically receives more rainfall. Post-monsoon season, lasting from October to December. In northwestern India, October and November are usually cloudless. Tamil Nadu receives most of its annual precipitation in the northeast monsoon season. The Himalayan states, being more temperate, experience an additional two seasons: autumn and spring. Traditionally, Indians note six seasons, each about two months long. These are the spring (Sanskrit: vasanta), summer (grma), monsoon season (var), early autumn (arada), late autumn (hemanta), and winter (iira). These are based on the astronomical division of the twelve months into six parts. The ancient Hindu calendar also reflects these seasons in its arrangement of months.

Winter
Once the monsoons subside, average temperatures gradually fall across India. As the Sun's vertical rays move south of the equator, most of the country experiences moderately cool weather; temperatures change by about 0.6C (1.08F) per degree of latitude. December and January are the coldest months, with mean temperatures of 1015 C (5059F) in Indian Himalayas. Mean temperatures are higher in the east and south, where they reach 2025 C (6877F). In northwestern India, virtually cloudless conditions prevail in October and November, resulting in wide diurnal temperature swings; as in much of the Deccan Plateau, they range between 16C (61F) 20C (68F). However, from March to May, "western disturbances" bring heavy bursts of rain and snow. These extra-tropical low-pressure systems originate in the eastern Mediterranean Sea.[20] They are carried towards India by the subtropical westerlies, which are the prevailing winds blowing at North India's range of latitude.[16] Once their passage is hindered by the Himalayas, they are unable to proceed Inclement conditions in the Indian Himalayas: a further, and they release significant precipitation over the southern view of Gulmarg, a popular tourist destination in Himalayas. There is a huge variation in the climatic conditions of Jammu and Kashmir in winter. Himachal Pradesh due to variation in altitude (450-6500mtrs). The climate varies from hot and sub-humid tropical (450-900mtrs) in the southern low tracts, warm and temperate (900-1800mtrs), cool and temperate (1900-2400mtrs) and cold glacial and alpine (2400-4800mtrs) in the northern and eastern high elevated mountain ranges. By October, nights and mornings are very cold. Snowfall at elevations of

Climate of India nearly 3000 m is about 3 m and lasts from December start to March end. About 4500 m, is perpetual snow. The spring season starts from mid February to mid April. The weather is pleasant and comfortable in the season. The rainy season starts at the end of the month of June. The landscape lushes green and fresh. During the season streams and natural springs are replenished. The heavy rains in July and August cause a lot of damage resulting into erosion, floods and landslides. Out of all the state districts, Dharamsala receives the highest rainfall, nearly about 3400mm. Spiti is the driest area of the state (rainfall below 50mm).[21] The three Himalayan states (Jammu and Kashmir in the extreme north, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand) experience heavy snowfall; in Jammu and Kashmir, blizzards occur regularly, disrupting travel and other activities. The rest of North India, including the Indo-Gangetic Plain, almost never receives snow. However, in the plains, temperatures occasionally fall below freezing, though never for more one or two days. Winter highs in Delhi range from 16C (61F) to 21C (70F). Nighttime temperatures average 28 C (3646F). In the Punjab plains, lows can fall below freezing, dropping to around 6C (21F) in Amritsar. Frost sometimes occurs, but the hallmark of the season is the notorious fog, which frequently disrupts daily life; fog grows thick enough to hinder visibility and disrupt air travel 1520days annually. In Bihar in middle of the Ganges plain, hot weather sets in and the summer lasts until the middle of June. The highest temperature is often registered in May which is the hottest time. Like the rest of the north, Bihar also experiences dust-storms, thunder-storms and dust raising winds during the hot season. Dust storms having a velocity of 4864km/Hour are most frequent in May and with second maximum in April and June. The hot winds (loo) of Bihar plains blow during April and May with an average velocity of 816km/hour. This hot winds greatly affects human comfort during this season. This is followed by rain.[22] The rainy season begins in June. The rainiest months are July and August. The rains are the gifts of the south west monsoon. There are in Bihar three distinct areas where rainfall exceeds 1800mm. Two of them lie on northern and north-western wings of the state and the third lies in the Netarhat pat. The south-west monsoon normally withdraws from Bihar in the first week of October.[23] Eastern India's climate is much milder, experiencing moderately warm days and cool nights. Highs range from 23C (73F) in Patna to 26C (79F) in Kolkata (Calcutta); lows average from 8C (46F) in Patna to 14C (57F) in Kolkata. Frigid winds from the Himalayas can depress temperatures near the Brahmaputra River.[24] The Himalayas have a profound effect on the climate of the Indian subcontinent and the Tibetan plateau. They prevent frigid, dry Arctic winds blowing south into the subcontinent, which keeps South Asia much warmer than corresponding temperate regions in the other continents. It also forms a barrier for the monsoon winds, keeping them from traveling northwards, and causing heavy rainfall in the Terai region. The Himalayas are also believed to play an important part in the formation of Central Asian deserts, such as the Taklamakan and Gobi. The mountain ranges also prevent western winter disturbances in Iran from traveling further, resulting in snow in Kashmir and rainfall for parts of Punjab and northern India. Despite being a barrier to the cold, northernly winter winds, the Brahmaputra valley receives part of the frigid winds, thus lowering the temperature in the North East India and Bangladesh. The Himalayas, which are often called "The Roof of the World", contain the greatest area of glaciers and permafrost outside of the poles. Ten of Asias largest rivers flow from here The two Himalayan states in the east, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh, receive substantial snowfall. The extreme north of West Bengal, centred around Darjeeling, also experiences snowfall, but only rarely. Parts of Uttar Pradesh are also affected by snow with several meters in places. Rainfall in the State ranges from 1,0002,000mm (3979in) in the east to 6001,000mm (2439in) in the west. In South India, particularly the hinterland of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, parts of Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh, somewhat cooler weather prevails. Minimum temperatures in western Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh hover around 10C (50F); in the southern Deccan Plateau, they reach 16C (61F). Coastal areas, especially those near the Coromandel Coast, and low-elevation interior tracts are warm, with daily high temperatures of 30C (86F) and lows of around 21C (70F). The Western Ghats, including the Nilgiri Range, are exceptional; there, lows can fall below freezing.[25] This compares with a range of 12C (54F) 14C (57F) on the Malabar Coast; there, as is the case for other coastal areas, the Indian Ocean exerts a strong moderating influence on weather.[10] The region averages 800mm/year, most of which falls between October and December. The topography

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Climate of India of the Bay of Bengal, and the staggered weather pattern prevalent during the season favours northeast monsoon, which has a tendency to cause cyclones and hurricanes rather than a steady precipitation. As a result, the coast is hit by inclement weather almost every year between October to January

745

Summer
Summer in northwestern India lasts from April to July, and in the rest of the country from March to June. The temperatures in the north rise as the vertical rays of the Sun reach the Tropic of Cancer. The hottest month for the western and southern regions of the country is April; for most of North India, it is May. Temperatures of 50C (122F) and higher have been recorded in parts of India during this season.[26] In cooler regions of North India, immense pre-monsoon squall-line thunderstorms, known locally as "Nor'westers", commonly drop large hailstones. In Himachal Pradesh, Summer lasts from mid April till the A summer view of Khajjiar, a hill station in end of June and most parts become very hot (except in alpine zone Himachal Pradesh. which experience mild summer) with the average temperature ranging from 28C (82F) to 32C (90F). Winter lasts from late November till mid March. Snowfall is common in alpine tracts (generally above 2200metres (7218ft) i.e. in the Higher and Trans-Himalayan region).[27] Near the coast the temperature hovers around 36C (97F), and the proximity of the sea increases the level of humidity. In southern India, the temperatures are higher on the east coast by a few degrees compared to the west coast. By May, most of the Indian interior experiences mean temperatures over 32C (90F), while maximum temperatures often exceed 40C (104F). In the hot months of April and May, western disturbances, with their cooling influence, may still arrive, but rapidly diminish in frequency as summer progresses.[28] Notably, a higher frequency of such disturbances in April correlates with a delayed monsoon onset (thus extending summer) in northwest India. In eastern India, monsoon onset dates have been steadily advancing over the past several decades, resulting in shorter summers there.[16] Altitude affects the temperature to a large extent, with higher parts of the Deccan Plateau and other areas being relatively cooler. Hill stations, such as Ootacamund ("Ooty") in the Western Ghats and Kalimpong in the eastern Himalayas, with average maximum temperatures of around 25C (77F), offer some respite from the heat. At lower elevations, in parts of northern and western India, a strong, hot, and dry wind known as the Loo blows in from the west during the daytime; with very high temperatures, in some cases up to around 45C (113F); it can cause fatal cases of sunstroke. Tornadoes may also occur, concentrated in a corridor stretching from northeastern India towards Pakistan. They are rare, however; only several dozen have been reported since 1835.[29]

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Monsoon

Onset dates and prevailing wind currents of the southwest summer and northeast winter monsoons.

Regional variation in rainfall across India. The monsoon season delivers four-fifths of the country's precipitation.

The southwest summer monsoon, a four-month period when massive convective thunderstorms dominate India's weather, is Earth's most productive wet season.[30] A product of southeast trade winds originating from a high-pressure mass centered over the southern Indian Ocean, the monsoonal torrents supply over 80% of India's annual rainfall.[31] Attracted by a low-pressure region centered over South Asia, the mass spawns surface winds that ferry humid air into India from the southwest.[32] These inflows ultimately result from a northward shift of the local jet stream, which itself results from rising summer temperatures over Tibet and the Indian subcontinent. The void left by the jet stream, which switches from a route just south of the Himalayas to one tracking north of Tibet, then attracts warm, humid air.[33] The main factor behind this shift is the high summer temperature difference between Central Asia and the Indian Ocean.[34] This is accompanied by a seasonal excursion of the normally equatorial intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ), a low-pressure belt of highly unstable weather, northward towards India.[33] This system intensified to its present strength as a result of the Tibetan Plateau's uplift, which accompanied the EoceneOligocene transition event, a major episode of global cooling and aridification which occurred 3449Ma.[35] The southwest monsoon arrives in two branches: the Bay of Bengal branch and the Arabian Sea branch. The latter extends towards a low-pressure area over the Thar Desert and is roughly three times stronger than the Bay of Bengal branch. The monsoon typically breaks over Indian territory by around 25 May, when it lashes the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal. It strikes the Indian mainland around 1 June near the Malabar Coast of Kerala.[36] By 9 June, it reaches Mumbai; it appears over Delhi by 29 June. The Bay of Bengal branch, which initially tracks the Coromandal Coast northeast from Cape Comorin to Orissa, swerves to the northwest towards the Indo-Gangetic Plain. The Arabian Sea branch moves northeast towards the Himalayas. By the first week of July, the entire country experiences monsoon rain; on average, South India receives more rainfall than North India. However, Northeast India receives the most precipitation. Monsoon clouds begin retreating from North India by the end of August; it withdraws from Mumbai by 5 October. As India further cools during September, the southwest monsoon weakens. By the end of November, it has left the country.[33]

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Monsoon rains impact the health of the Indian economy; as Indian agriculture employs 600 million people and composes 20% of the national GDP,[37] good monsoons correlate with a booming economy. Weak or failed monsoons (droughts) result in widespread agricultural losses and substantially hinder overall economic growth.[38] [39] [40] The rains reduce temperatures and replenish groundwater tables, rivers, and lakes.

Post-monsoon

During the post-monsoon months of October to December, a different monsoon cycle, the northeast (or "retreating") monsoon, brings dry, cool, and dense Central Asian air masses to large parts of India. Winds spill across the Himalayas and flow to the southwest across the country, resulting in clear, sunny skies.[41] Though the India Meteorological Department (IMD) and other sources refers to this period as a fourth ("post-monsoon") season,[19] [42] [43] other sources designate only three seasons.[44] Depending on location, this period lasts from October to November, after the southwest monsoon has peaked. Less and less precipitation falls, and vegetation begins to dry out. In most parts of India, this period marks the transition from wet to dry seasonal conditions. Average daily maximum temperatures range between 28 and 34 C (82and 93F). The northeast monsoon, which begins in September, lasts through the post-monsoon seasons, and only ends in March, carries winds that have already lost their moisture while crossing central Asia and the vast rain shadow region lying north of the Himalayas. They cross India diagonally from northeast to southwest. However, the large indentation made by the Bay of Bengal into India's eastern coast means that the flows are humidified before reaching Cape Comorin and rest of Tamil Nadu, meaning that the state, and also some parts of Kerala, experience significant precipitation in the post-monsoon and winter periods.[45] However, parts of West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and North-East India also receive minor precipitation from the northeast monsoon.[46]

Pre-monsoon clouds, as they appear in Mumbai, western Maharashtra.

Statistics
Shown below are temperature and precipitation data for selected Indian cities; these represent the full variety of major Indian climate types. Figures have been grouped by the four-season classification scheme used by the IMD;[] year-round averages and totals are also displayed.

Temperature
Average temperatures in various Indian cities (C) Winter (Dec Feb) Min 23 23 7 14 13 11 Avg 26 26 12 21 18 17 Max 28 29 18 28 24 24 Summer (Mar May) Min 25 24 13 24 23 19 Avg 27 27 18 32 30 25 Max 29 30 23 40 36 31
[47] [48] [49] [50]

Monsoon (Jun Sep) Min 25 28 15 24 23 25 Avg 27 26 19 27 26 28 Max 27 24 23 30 28 32

Post-monsoon (Oct Nov) Min 25 29 8 16 16 17 Avg 26 26 13 22 22 22 Max 28 23 18 28 26 27

Year-round

City Port Blair Thiruvananthapuram Bangalore Nagpur Bhopal Guwahati

Avg 27 26 17 26 25 24

Climate of India

748
10 7 4 4 1 2 13 15 14 12 10 5 4 6 21 23 20 18 9 6 0 23 24 14 13 10 7 1 30 33 23 25 14 14 6 35 40 32 34 18 19 12 24 23 22 25 15 16 10 29 29 26 28 18 22 16 33 35 30 32 20 30 24 15 12 7 10 7 1 7 20 19 15 16 10 8 0 25 27 23 24 13 16 7 25 22 18 21 13 13 6

Lucknow Jaisalmer Dehradun Amritsar Shimla Srinagar Leh

Precipitation
Average precipitation in various Indian cities (mm) Winter (Jan Feb) Jan 40 26 31 16 4 8 20 47 24 60 74 12 Feb 20 21 20 22 3 21 18 55 33 60 71 9 Mar 10 33 61 15 1 47 8 3 52 48 60 91 12 Summer (Mar May) Apr 60 125 110 8 3 181 8 21 30 50 94 6 May 360 202 150 18 11 226 20 7 54 45 60 61 7 Jun 480 306 212 168 136 309 114 10 230 27 170 36 4
[47] [48] [49]

Monsoon (Jun Sep) Jul 400 175 249 290 279 377 305 90 631 231 420 58 16 Aug 400 152 279 291 360 227 292 88 627 187 430 61 20 Sep 460 179 315 157 185 199 188 15 261 79 160 38 12

Post-monsoon (Oct Dec) Oct 290 223 291 73 52 92 33 32 18 30 31 7 Nov 220 206 210 17 21 25 5 6 11 6 10 10 3 Dec 150 65 140 19 7 10 8 3 18 20 33 8

Year-round

City Port Blair Thiruvananthapuram Bangalore Nagpur Bhopal Guwahati Lucknow Jaisalmer Dehradun Amritsar Shimla Srinagar Leh

Total 2,890 1,713 1,962 1,094 1,043 1,722 1,019 219 2,024 746 1,530 658 116

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Disasters

Disaster-prone regions in India.

Map showing winds zones, shaded by distribution of average speeds of prevailing winds.

Climate-related natural disasters cause massive losses of Indian life and property. Droughts, flash floods, cyclones, avalanches, landslides brought on by torrential rains, and snowstorms pose the greatest threats. Other dangers include frequent summer dust storms, which usually track from north to south; they cause extensive property damage in North India[51] and deposit large amounts of dust from arid regions. Hail is also common in parts of India, causing severe damage to standing crops such as rice and wheat.

Floods and landslides

In the Lower Himalaya, landslides are common. The young age of the region's hills result in labile rock formations, which are susceptible to slippages. Rising population and development pressures, particularly from logging and tourism, cause deforestation. The result, denuded hillsides, exacerbates the severity of landslides, since tree cover impedes the downhill flow of water.[52] Parts of the Western Ghats also suffer from low-intensity landslides. Avalanches occur in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Sikkim. Floods are the most common natural disaster in India. The heavy southwest monsoon rains cause the Brahmaputra and other rivers to distend their banks, often flooding surrounding areas. Though they provide rice paddy farmers with a largely dependable source of natural irrigation and fertilisation, the floods can kill thousands and displace millions. Excess, erratic, or untimely monsoon rainfall may also wash away or otherwise ruin crops.[53] [54] Almost all of India is flood-prone, and extreme precipitation events, such as flash floods and torrential rains, have become increasingly common in central India over the past several decades, coinciding with rising temperatures. Mean annual precipitation totals have remained steady due to the declining frequency of weather systems that generate moderate amounts of rain.[55]

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Cyclones
Tropical cyclones, which are severe storms spun off from the Intertropical Convergence Zone, may affect thousands of Indians living in coastal regions. Tropical cyclogenesis is particularly common in the northern reaches of the Indian Ocean in and around the Bay of Bengal. Cyclones bring with them heavy rains, storm surges, and winds that often cut affected areas off from relief and supplies. In the North Indian Ocean Basin, the cyclone season runs from April to December, with peak activity between May and November.[56] Each year, an Satellite imagery of Cyclone 05B in the Bay of average of eight storms with sustained wind speeds greater than Bengal. 63km/h (39mph) form; of these, two strengthen into true tropical cyclones, which have sustained gusts greater than 117km/h (73mph). On average, a major (Category 3 or higher) cyclone develops every other year.[] [57] During summer, the Bay of Bengal is subject to intense heating, giving rise to humid and unstable air masses that morph into cyclones. The 1737 Calcutta cyclone, the 1970 Bhola cyclone, and the 1991 Bangladesh cyclone rank among the most powerful cyclones to strike India, devastating the coasts of eastern India and neighboring Bangladesh. Widespread death and property destruction are reported every year in the exposed coastal states of West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu. India's western coast, bordering the more placid Arabian Sea, experiences cyclones only rarely; these mainly strike Gujarat and, less frequently, Kerala. Cyclone 05B, a supercyclone that struck Orissa on 29 October 1999, was the deadliest in more than a quarter-century. With peak winds of 160miles per hour (257km/h), it was the equivalent of a Category 5 hurricane.[58] Almost two million people were left homeless;[59] another 20 million people lives were disrupted by the cyclone.[59] Officially, 9,803 people died from the storm;[58] unofficial estimates place the death toll at over 10,000.[59]

Droughts
Indian agriculture is heavily dependent on the monsoon as a source of water. In some parts of India, the failure of the monsoons result in water shortages, resulting in below-average crop yields. This is particularly true of major drought-prone regions such as southern and eastern Maharashtra, northern Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Gujarat, and Rajasthan. In the past, droughts have periodically led to major Indian famines. These include the Bengal famine of 1770, in which up to one third of the population in affected areas died; the The dry bed of the Niranjana River, Bihar. 18761877 famine, in which over five million people died; the 1899 famine, in which over 4.5 million died; and the Bengal famine of 1943, in which over five million died from starvation and famine-related illnesses.[60] [61] All such episodes of severe drought correlate with El Nio-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events.[62] [63] El Nio-related droughts have also been implicated in periodic declines in Indian agricultural output.[64] Nevertheless, ENSO events that have coincided with abnormally high sea surfaces temperatures in the Indian Oceanin one instance during 1997 and 1998 by up to 3C (5F)have resulted in increased oceanic evaporation, resulting in unusually wet weather across India. Such anomalies have occurred during a sustained warm spell that began in the 1990s.[65] A contrasting phenomenon is that, instead of the usual high pressure air mass over the southern Indian Ocean, an ENSO-related oceanic low pressure convergence center forms; it then continually pulls dry air from Central Asia, desiccating India during what should have been the humid summer monsoon season. This reversed air

Climate of India flow causes India's droughts.[66] The extent that an ENSO event raises sea surface temperatures in the central Pacific Ocean influences the degree of drought.[62]

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Extremes
India's lowest recorded temperature was 45C (49F) in Dras, Ladakh, in eastern Jammu and Kashmir; however, the reading was taken with non-standard equipment. Readings as low as 30.6C (23.1F) have been taken in Leh, further east in Ladakh. However, temperatures on the Indian-controlled Siachen Glacier near Bilafond La (5450 metres/ 17881 feet) and Sia La (5589 metres/ 18337 feet) have fallen below 55C (67F),[67] while blizzards bring wind speeds in excess of 250km/h (155mph),[68] or hurricane-force winds ranking at 12 (the maximum) on the Beaufort scale. These conditions, not hostile actions, caused more than 97% of the roughly 15,000 casualties suffered by India and Pakistan during conflict in the region.[67] [68] [69] The highest reliable temperature reading was 50.6C (123.1F) in Alwar, Rajasthan in 1955. The India Meteorological Department (IMD) doubts the validity of 55C (131F) readings in Orissa from 2005.[70]

Alwar, on the fringes of the Thar Desert, registered a temperature of 50.6C (123.1F), India's highest.

The average annual precipitation of 11871millimetres (467in) in the village of Mawsynram, in the hilly northeastern state of Meghalaya, is the highest recorded in Asia, and possibly on Earth.[71] The village, which sits at an elevation of 1401metres (4596ft), benefits from its proximity to both the Himalayas and the Bay of Bengal. However, since the town of Cherrapunji, 5kilometres (3.1mi) to the east, is the nearest town to host a meteorological office (none has ever existed in Mawsynram), it is officially credited as being the world's wettest place.[72] In recent years, the Cherrapunji-Mawsynram region has averaged between 9296 and 10820 millimetres (366 and 426 in) [8] of rain annually, though Cherrapunji has had at least one period of daily rainfall that lasted almost two years.[73] India's highest recorded one-day rainfall total occurred on 26 July 2005, when Mumbai received more than 650millimetres (25.6in);[74] the massive flooding that resulted killed over 900 people.[75] [76] Remote regions of Jammu and Kashmir, such as Baramulla district in the east and the Pir Panjal Range in the southeast, experience exceptionally heavy snowfall. In the south around Jammu, the climate is typically monsoonal, though the region is sufficiently far west to average 40 to 100mm (1.6 to 4inches) of rain per months between January and March. In the hot season, Jammu city is very hot and can reach up to 40 C (104 F) whilst in July and August, very heavy though erratic rainfall occurs with monthly extremes of up to 650 millimetres (25.5inches). In September, rainfall declines, and by October conditions are hot but extremely dry, with minimal rainfall and temperatures of around 29 C (84 F). Across from the Pir Panjal range, the South Asian monsoon is no longer a factor and most precipitation falls in the spring from southwest cloudbands. Because of its closeness to the Arabian Sea, Srinagar receives as much as 25inches (635 millimetres) of rain from this source, with the wettest months being March to May with around 85 millimetres (3.3inches) per month. Across from the main Himalaya Range, even the southwest cloudbands break up and the climate of Ladakh and Zanskar is extremely dry and cold. Annual precipitation is only around 100mm (4inches) per year and humidity is very low. This region, almost all above 3,000 metres (9,750ft) above sea level and winters are extremely cold. In Zanskar, the average January temperature is 20 C (4 F) with extremes as low as 40 C (40 F). All the rivers freeze over and locals actually do river crossings during this period because their high levels from glacier melt in summer inhibits crossing. In summer in Ladakh and Zanskar, days are typically a warm 20 C (68 F) but with the low humidity and thin air nights can still be cold. Kashmir's highest recorded monthly snowfall occurred in February 1967, when 8.4metres (27.6ft) fell in Gulmarg, though the IMD has recorded snowdrifts up to 12metres (39.4ft) in several Kashmiri districts. In February

Climate of India 2005, more than 200 people died when, in four days, a western disturbance brought up to 2metres (6.6ft) of snowfall to parts of the state.[77]

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Global warming
Current sea level rise, increased cyclonic activity, increased ambient temperatures, and increasingly fickle precipitation patterns are effects of global warming that have impacted or are projected to impact India. Thousands of people have been displaced by ongoing sea level rises that have submerged low-lying islands in the Sundarbans.[78] Temperature rises on the Tibetan Plateau are causing Himalayan glaciers to retreat, threatening the flow rate of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Yamuna, and other major rivers; the livelihoods of hundreds of thousands of farmers depend on these rivers.[79] A 2007 World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) report states that the Indus River may run dry for the same reason.[80]

Lakshadweep, comprising tiny low-lying islands, are at risk of being inundated by sea level rises associated with global warming.

Severe landslides and floods are projected to become increasingly common in such states as Assam.[81] Ecological disasters, such as a 1998 coral bleaching event that killed off more than 70% of corals in the reef ecosystems off Lakshadweep and the Andamans, and was brought on by elevated ocean temperatures tied to global warming, are also projected to become increasingly common.[82] [83] [84] Villagers in India's North Easter state of Meghalaya are also concerned that rising sea levels will submerge neighbouring low-lying Bangladesh, resulting in an influx of refugees into Meghalayawhich has few resources to handle such a situation. If severe climate changes occur, Bangladesh will lose land along the coast line.[85] The Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research has reported that, if the predictions relating to global warming made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change come to fruition, climate-related factors could cause India's GDP to decline by up to 9%. Contributing to this would be shifting growing seasons for major crops such as rice, production of which could fall by 40%. Around seven million people are projected to be displaced due to, among other factors, submersion of parts of Mumbai and Chennai, if global temperatures were to rise by a mere 2C (3.6F).[86] Such shifts are not new. Earlier in the Holocene epoch (4,8006,300years ago), parts of what is now the Thar Desert were wet enough to support perennial lakes; researchers have proposed that this was due to much higher winter precipitation, which coincided with stronger monsoons.[87] Kashmir's erstwhile subtropical climate dramatically cooled 2.63.7Ma and experienced prolonged cold spells starting 600,000 years ago.[88]

Atmospheric pollution

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Thick haze and smoke, originating from burning biomass in northwestern India[89] and air pollution from large industrial cities in northern India,[90] often concentrate inside the Ganges Basin. Prevailing westerlies carry aerosols along the southern margins of the steep-faced Tibetan Plateau to eastern India and the Bay of Bengal. Dust and black carbon, which are blown towards higher altitudes by winds at the southern margins of the Himalayas, can absorb shortwave radiation and heat the air over the Tibetan Plateau. The net atmospheric heating due to aerosol absorption causes the air to warm and convect upwards, increasing the concentration of moisture in the mid-troposphere and providing positive feedback that stimulates further heating of aerosols.[90]

Clouds of thick haze and smoke form along the Ganges River Basin.

Notes
. The IMD-designated post-monsoon season coincides with the northeast monsoon, the effects of which are significant only in some parts of India.

References
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Late-season monsoon clouds during a sunset over the Coromandel Coast.

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Further reading
Toman, MA; Chakravorty, U; Gupta, S (2003). India and Global Climate Change: Perspectives on Economics and Policy from a Developing Country. Resources for the Future Press. ISBN1-891853-61-9.

External links
General overview "Country Guide: India" (http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/world/country_guides/results.shtml?tt=TT002240). BBC Weather. Maps, imagery, and statistics "India Meteorological Department" (http://www.imd.gov.in/). Government of India. "Weather Resource System for India" (http://www.weather.nic.in/). National Informatics Centre. Extreme weather events in Indian history (http://www.igu.in/9-3/3usde.pdf) Forecasts "India: Current Weather Conditions" (http://weather.noaa.gov/weather/IN_cc.html). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).

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Flora and fauna

Flora of India
This list is incomplete. The Flora of India is one of the richest of the world due to a wide range of climate, topology and environments in the country.With about 47000 species of plant species, it occupies tenth place in the world and fourth in Asia. It is thought there are over 15000 species of flowers in India,which account for 6 percent of the total plant species in the world.[1] and probably many more species. Whilst the list comprises indigenous types, others have been introduced to India and may be included. Major plant divisions (sub divisions) are shown together with Family and examples. The classification and ranking of plants varies due to differing taxonomy systems and synonyms may be shown.

Lotus, the national flower of India

Gymnosperms
Equisetophyta
Equisetaceae

Lycopodiophyta
Lycopodiaceae Selaginellaceae

Pinophyta - sd:cycadophytina
Cycadaceae

Pinophyta - sd:gnetophytina
Ephedraceae Gnetaceae Welwitschiaceae

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Pinophyta - sd:pinophytina
Araucariaceae Cupressaceae Pinaceae Podocarpaceae

Podocarpus wallichianus [2] Taxaceae Taxus wallichiana Taxus baccata Taxodiaceae Cryptomeria japonica

Polypodiophyta
Gleicheniaceae Marattiaceae Ophioglossaceae Polypodiaceae Thelypteridaceae

Psilotophyta
Psilotaceae Psilotum nudum (Western Ghats, Central India and northeast India) Psilotum complanatum Sw. Nicobar Islands[3]

Angiosperms
Alismatidae
Alismataceae Hydrocharitaceae Potamogetonaceae

Arecidae
Araceae Arecaceae Areca catechu Cyclanthaceae Lemnaceae Pandanaceae

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Asterids
Acanthaceae Asclepiadaceae .sf Decalepis hamiltonii Apocynaceae Hemidesmus indicus Plumeria rubra Asteraceae Bignoniaceae Boraginaceae Buddlejaceae Campanulaceae Caprifoliaceae Convolvulaceae Cuscutaceae Dipsacaceae Gentianaceae Gesneriaceae Globulariaceae Goodeniaceae Hydrophyllaceae Lamiaceae Lentibulariaceae Lennoaceae Loganiaceae Menyanthaceae Myoporaceae Oleaceae Orobanchaceae Pedaliaceae Plantaginaceae Polemoniaceae Rubiaceae Scrophulariaceae Solanaceae Valerianaceae Verbenaceae

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Caryophyllidae
Aizoaceae Amaranthaceae Basellaceae Cactaceae Caryophyllaceae Chenopodiaceae Didiereaceae Molluginaceae Nyctaginaceae Phytolaccaceae Plumbaginaceae Polygonaceae Portulacaceae

Commelinidae
Commelinaceae Cortaderia Cyperaceae Eriocaulaceae Joinvilleaceae Juncaceae Poaceae Typhaceae

Dilleniidae
Bataceae Begoniaceae Bixaceae Bombacaceae Brassicaceae Capparaceae Caricaceae Cistaceae Clusiaceae Cucurbitaceae Dilleniaceae Droseraceae Ebenaceae Elaeocarpaceae Epacridaceae Ericaceae Flacourtiaceae Fouquieriaceae

Lecythidaceae Loasaceae

Flora of India Malvaceae Marcgraviaceae Monotropaceae Moringaceae Myrsinaceae Nepenthaceae Ochnaceae Paeoniaceae Passifloraceae Primulaceae Pyrolaceae Salicaceae Sapotaceae Sarcolaenaceae Sarraceniaceae Sterculiaceae Styracaceae Tamaricaceae Theaceae Theophrastaceae Tiliaceae Turneraceae Violaceae

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Hamamelidae
Betulaceae Cannabaceae Cannabis sativa Casuarinaceae Casuarina equisetifolia Cecropiaceae Fagaceae Hamamelidaceae Juglandaceae Moraceae Ficus benghalensis Ficus religiosa Ficus elastica Ficus benjamina Myricaceae Platanaceae Ulmaceae Urticaceae

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Lilliidae
Agavaceae Aloeaceae Burmanniaceae Dioscoreaceae Haemodoraceae Hanguanaceae Iridaceae Liliaceae Orchidaceae Pontederiaceae Smilacaceae Taccaceae Xanthorrhoeaceae

Magnoliidae
Aristolochiaceae Annonaceae False Ashoka / Mast tree Polyalthia longifolia Berberidaceae Calycanthaceae Chloranthaceae Coriariaceae Fumariaceae Grossulariaceae Hernandiaceae Illiciaceae Lauraceae Magnoliaceae Menispermaceae Myristicaceae Nelumbonaceae Nymphaeaceae Papaveraceae Piperaceae Ranunculaceae Saururaceae Winteraceae

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Rosidae
Aceraceae Anacardiaceae Apiaceae Aquifoliaceae Araliaceae Balsaminaceae Buxaceae Caesalpiniaceae Celastraceae Chrysobalanaceae Cneoraceae Combretaceae Terminalia arjuna Terminalia bellerica Terminalia chebula Terminalia catappa

Corynocarpaceae Connaraceae Cornaceae Crassulaceae Dichapetalaceae Elaeagnaceae Erythroxylaceae Euphorbiaceae (Phyllanthus emblica), Indian gooseberry Fabaceae Garryaceae Geraniaceae Grossulariaceae Gunneraceae Hippocastanaceae Hydrangeaceae Icacinaceae Leeaceae Limnanthaceae Linaceae Lythraceae

Duabanga grandiflora Malpighiaceae Melastomataceae Meliaceae Melia azedarach Mimosaceae Myrtaceae Olacaceae

Flora of India Onagraceae Oxalidaceae Pittosporaceae Polygalaceae Proteaceae Punicaceae Rafflesiaceae Rhamnaceae Rhizophoraceae Rosaceae Rutaceae Sapindaceae Santalaceae Saxifragaceae Simaroubaceae Sonneratiaceae Surianaceae Thymelaeaceae Tropaeolaceae Vitaceae Viscaceae Zygophyllaceae

765

Zingiberidae
Bromeliaceae Cannaceae Costaceae Heliconiaceae Marantaceae Musaceae Strelitziaceae Zingiberaceae

References
[1] Flower Plants of India (2010). Web page: http:/ / www. ecoindia. com/ flora/ flowers/ accessed 3/810 [2] http:/ / www. ias. ac. in/ currsci/ oct102002/ 806. pdf [3] Chuahan, Nidhi; Hitendra Padalia, Stutee Gupta, M. C. Porwal, and P. S. Roy (25 July 2003). "Psilotum complanatum Sw., a rare epiphytic fern ally of Great Nicobar Island: Exploration and habitat monitoring" (http:/ / www. ias. ac. in/ currsci/ jul252003/ 193. pdf). Current Science 85 (2): 193197. . Retrieved 2008-03-15.

SPECIES CHECKLIST: Species Diversity in India (http://oldwww.wii.gov.in/envis/species_database.html); ENVIS Centre: Wildlife & Protected Areas (Secondary Database); Wildlife Institute of India (WII) ENVIS Centre: Wildlife & Protected Areas (Secondary Database) (http://oldwww.wii.gov.in/envis/database. html); Wildlife Institute of India (WII) Free EBOOK: Special Habitats and Threatened Plants of India (http://oldwww.wii.gov.in/envis/ threatened_plants/special_habitat_threatened_plants_of_india.pdf); Wildlife Institute of India (WII) ENVIS Centre on Conservation of Ecological Heritage and Sacred Sights of India (http://www.ecoheritage. cpreec.org/index.php); ENVIS; C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre is a Centre of Excellence of the

Flora of India Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India.

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External links
Hooker, J. D. Flora of British India Volume 1 (http://www.archive.org/details/floraofbritishin01hookrich) Hooker, J. D. Flora of British India Volume 2 (http://www.archive.org/details/floraofbritishin02hookrich) Hooker, J. D. Flora of British India Volume 3 (http://www.archive.org/details/floraofbritishin03hookrich) Hooker, J. D. Flora of British India Volume 4 (http://www.archive.org/details/floraofbritishin04hookrich) Hooker, J. D. Flora of British India Volume 5 (http://www.archive.org/details/floraofbritishin05hookrich) Hooker, J. D. Flora of British India Volume 6 (http://www.archive.org/details/floraofbritishin06hookrich) Flora of Andhra Pradesh By Sharfudding Khan (http://forest.ap.nic.in/Forest Flora of Andhra Pradesh/Flora by M Sharfuddin Khan/index.htm) Flora of Andhra Pradesh by RD Reddy (http://forest.ap.nic.in/Forest Flora of Andhra Pradesh/index.htm)

Fauna of India
India has some of the world's most biodiverse regions. The political boundaries of India encompass a wide range of ecozonesdesert, high mountains, highlands, tropical and temperate forests, swamplands, plains, grasslands, areas surrounding rivers, as well as island archipelago. It hosts three biodiversity hotspots: the Western Ghats, the Eastern Himalayas, and the hilly ranges that straddle the India-Myanmar border. These hotspots have numerous endemic species.[1]
Asian Elephant

India, for the most part, lies within the Indomalaya ecozone, with the upper reaches of the Himalayas forming part of the Palearctic ecozone; the contours of 2000 to 2500m are considered to be the altitudinal boundary between the Indo-Malayan and Palearctic zones. India displays significant biodiversity. One of eighteen megadiverse countries, it is home to 7.6% of all mammalian, 12.6% of all avian, 6.2% of all reptilian, 4.4% of all amphibian, 11.7% of all fish, and 6.0% of all flowering plant species.[2] The region is also heavily influenced by summer monsoons that cause major seasonal changes in vegetation and habitat. India forms a large part of the Indomalayan biogeographical zone and many of the floral and faunal forms show Malayan affinities with only a few taxa being unique to the Indian region. The unique forms includes the snake family Uropeltidae found only in the Western Ghats and Sri Lanka. Fossil taxa from the Cretaceous show links to the Seychelles and Madagascar chain of islands.[3] The Cretaceous fauna include reptiles, amphibians and fishes and an extant species demonstrating this phylogeographical link is the Purple Frog. The separation of India and Madagascar is traditionally estimated to have taken place about 88 million years ago. However there are suggestions that the links to

Tiger

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Madagascar and Africa were present even at the time when the Indian subcontinent met Eurasia. India has been suggested as a ship for the movement of several African taxa into Asia. These taxa include five frog families (including the Myobatrachidae), three caecilian families, a lacertid lizard and freshwater snails of the family Potamiopsidae.[4] A fossil tooth of what is believed to be of from a lemur-like primate from the Bugti Hills of central Pakistan however has led to suggestions that the lemurs may have originated in Asia. These fossils are however from the Oligocene (30 million years ago) and have led to controversy.[5] [6] Lemur fossils from India in the past led to theories of a lost continent called Lemuria. This theory however was dismissed when continental drift and plate tectonics became well established. The flora and fauna of India have been studied and recorded from early times in folk traditions and later by researchers following more formal scientific approaches (See Natural history in India). Game laws are reported from the third century BC.[7] A little under 5% of this total area is formally classified under protected areas.

Asiatic Lion

India is home to several well known large mammals including the Asian Elephant, Bengal Tiger, Asiatic Lion, Leopard and Indian Indian Rhinoceros Rhinoceros. Some of these animals are engrained in culture, often being associated with deities. These large mammals are important for wildlife tourism in India and several national parks and wildlife sanctuaries cater to these needs. The popularity of these charismatic animals have helped greatly in conservation efforts in India. The tiger has been particularly important and Project Tiger started in 1972 was a major effort to conserve the tiger and its habitats.[8] Project Elephant, though less known, started in 1992 and works for elephant protection.[9] Most of India's rhinos today survive in the Kaziranga National Park. Other well known large Indian mammals include ungulates such as the Water Buffalo, Nilgai, Gaur and several species of deer and antelope. Some members of the dog family such as the Indian Wolf, Bengal Fox, Golden Jackal and the Dhole or Wild Dogs are also widely distributed. It is also home to the Striped Hyaena. Many smaller animals such as the Macaques, Langurs and Mongoose species are especially well known due to their ability to live close to or inside urban areas.

Diversity
There is insufficient information about the invertebrate and lower forms of India with significant work having been done only in a few groups of insects notably the butterflies, odonates, hymenoptera, the larger coleoptera and heteroptera. Few concerted attempts to document the biodiversity have been made since the publication of the Fauna of British India series. There are about 2546 species of fishes (about 11% of the world species) found in Indian waters. About 197 species of amphibians (4.4% of the world total) and more than 408 reptile species (6% of the world total) are found in India. Among these groups the highest levels of endemism are found in the amphibians. There are about 1250 species of birds from India with some variations depending on taxonomic treatments accounting for about 12% of the world species.[10] There are about 410 species of mammals known from India which is about 8.86% of the world species.[11] The World Conservation Monitoring Centre gives an estimate of about 15,000 species of flowering plants in India.

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Biodiversity hotspots
The Western Ghats
The Western Ghats are a chain of hills that run along the western edge of peninsular India. Their proximity to the ocean and through orographic effect, they receive high rainfall. These regions have moist deciduous forest and rain forest. The region shows high species diversity as well as high levels of endemism. Nearly 77% of the amphibians and 62% of the reptile species found here are found nowhere else.[12] The region shows biogeographical affinities to the Malayan region, and the Satpura hypothesis proposed by Sunder Lal Hora suggests that the hill chains of Central India may have once formed a connection with the forests of northeastern India and into the Indo-Malayan region. Hora used torrent stream fishes to support the theory, but it was also suggested to hold for birds.[13] Later studies have suggested that Hora's original model species were a demonstration of convergent evolution rather than speciation by isolation.[12] More recent phylogeographic studies have attempted to study the problem using molecular approaches.[14] There are also differences in taxa which are dependent on time of divergence and geological history.[15] Along with Sri Lanka this region also shows some faunal similarities with the Madagascan region especially in the reptiles and amphibians. Examples include the Sibynophis snakes, the Purple frog and Sri Lankan lizard genus Nessia which appears similar to the Madagascan genus Acontias.[16] Numerous floral links to the Madagascan region also exist.[17] An alternate hypothesis that these taxa may have originally evolved out-of-India has also been suggested.[18] Biogeographical quirks exist with some taxa of Malayan origin occurring in Sri Lanka but absent in the Western Ghats. These include insects groups such as the zoraptera and plants such as those of the genus Nepenthes.

The Eastern Himalayas

The Eastern Himalayas is the region encompassing Bhutan, northeastern India, and southern, central, and eastern Nepal. The region is geologically young and shows high altitudinal variation. It has nearly 163 globally threatened species including the One-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), the Wild Asian Water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis (Arnee)) and in all 45 mammals, 50 birds, 17 reptiles, 12 amphibians, 3 invertebrate and 36 plant species. [19] [20] The Relict Dragonfly (Epiophlebia laidlawi) is an endangered species found here with the only other species in the genus being found in Japan. The region is also home to the Himalayan Newt (Tylototriton verrucosus), the only

The Indian Rhinoceros is one of the 45 species of globally threatened mammals found in the Eastern Himalayas.

salamander species found within Indian limits.[21]

Extinct and fossil forms

During the early Tertiary period, the Indian tableland, what is today peninsular India, was a large island. Prior to becoming an island it was connected to the African region. During the tertiary period this island was separated from the Asian mainland by a shallow sea. The Himalayan region and the greater part of Tibet lay under this sea. The movement of the Indian subcontinent into the Asian landmass created the great Himalayan ranges and raised the sea bed into what is today the plains of northern India.

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Once connected to the Asian mainland, many species moved into India. The Himalayas were created in several upheavals. The Siwaliks were formed in the last and the largest number of fossils of the Tertiary period are found in these ranges.[22] The Siwalik fossils include Mastodons, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, Sivatherium, a large four-horned ruminant, giraffe, horses, camels, bison, deer, antelope, gorillas, pigs, chimpanzees, orangutans, baboons, langurs, macaques, cheetahs, sabre-toothed cats, lions, tigers, sloth bear, Aurochs, leopards, wolves, dholes, porcupines, rabbits and a host of other mammals.[22]

Elephas ganesa a fossil elephant from the Siwaliks

Many fossil tree species have been found in the intertrappean beds [23] including Grewioxylon from the Eocene and Heritieroxylon keralensis from the middle Miocene in Kerala and Heritieroxylon arunachalensis from the Mio-Pliocene of Arunachal Pradesh and at many other places. The discovery of Glossopteris fern fossils from India and Antarctica led to the discovery of Gondwanaland and led to the greater understanding of continental drift. Fossil Cycads[24] are known from India while seven Cycad species continue to survive in India.[25] [26] Titanosaurus indicus was perhaps the first dinosaur discovered in India by Richard Lydekker in 1877 in the Narmada valley. This area has been one of the most important areas for paleontology in India. Another dinosaur known from India is Rajasaurus narmadensis,[27] a heavy-bodied and stout carnivorous abelisaurid (theropod) dinosaur that inhabited the area near present-day Narmada river. It was 9 m in length and 3 m in height and somewhat horizontal in posture with a double-crested crown on the skull. Some fossil snakes from the Cenozoic era are also known.[28] Some scientists have suggested that the Deccan lava flows and the gases produced were responsible for the global extinction of dinosaurs however these have been disputed.[29] [30] Himalayacetus subathuensis the oldest-known whale fossil of the family Protocetidae (Eocene), about 53.5 million years old was found in the Simla hills in the foothills of the Himalayas. This area was underwater (in the Tethys sea) during the Tertiary period (when India was an island off Asia). This whale may have been capable of living partly on land. [31] [32] Other fossil whales from India include Remingtonocetus approximately 43-46 million years old. Several small mammal fossils have been recorded in the intertrappean beds, however larger mammals are mostly unknown. The only major primate fossils have been from the nearby region of Myanmar. See also Geology of India

Recent extinctions
The exploitation of land and forest resources by humans along with hunting and trapping for food and sport has led to the extinction of many species in India in recent times. Probably the first species to vanish during the time of the Indus Vally civilisation was the species of wild cattle, Bos primegenius nomadicus or the wild zebu, which vanished from its range in the Indus valley and western India, possibly due to inter-breeding with domestic cattle and resultant fragmentation of wild populations due to loss of habitat.[33]

Illustration of a Himalayan Quail from A. O. Hume's work. Last seen in 1876

Fauna of India Notable mammals which became or are presumed extinct within the country itself include the Indian / Asiatic Cheetah, Javan Rhinoceros and Sumatran Rhinoceros.[34] While some of these large mammal species are confirmed extinct, there have been many smaller animal and plant species whose status is harder to determine. Many species have not been seen since their description. Hubbardia heptaneuron, a species of grass that grew in the spray zone of the Jog Falls prior to the construction of the Linganamakki reservoir, was thought to be extinct but a few were rediscovered near Kolhapur.[35] Some species of birds have gone extinct in recent times, including the Pink-Headed Duck (Rhodonessa caryophyllacea) and the Himalayan Quail (Ophrysia superciliosa). A species of warbler, Acrocephalus orinus, known earlier from a single specimen collected by Allan Octavian Hume from near Rampur in Himachal Pradesh was rediscovered after 139 years in Thailand.[36] [37] Similarly, the Jerdon's Courser (Rhinoptilus bitorquatus), named after the zoologist Thomas C. Jerdon who discovered it in 1848, was rediscovered in 1986 by Bharat Bhushan, an ornithologist at the Bombay Natural History Society after being thought to be extinct.

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Species estimates
An estimate of the numbers of species by group in India is given below. This is based on Alfred, 1998.[38]

Glimpses of biodiversity

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Taxonomic Group PROTISTA Protozoa Total (Protista) ANIMALIA Mesozoa Porifera Cnidaria Ctenophora Platyhelminthes Nemertinea Rotifera Gastrotricha Kinorhyncha Nematoda Nematomorpha Acanthocephala Sipuncula Mollusca Echiura Annelida Onychophora Arthropoda Crustacea Insecta Arachnida Pycnogonida Pauropoda Chilopoda Diplopoda Symphyla Merostomata Phoronida Bryozoa (Ectoprocta) Endoprocta Brachiopoda Pogonophora Praipulida Pentastomida

World species Indian species % in India

31250 31250

2577 2577

8.24 8.24

71 4562 9916 100 17500 600 2500 3000 100 30000 250 800 145 66535 127 12700 100 987949 35534

10 486 842 12 1622

14.08 10.65 8.49 12 9.27

330 100 10 2850

13.2 3.33 10 9.5

229 35 5070 43 840 1 68389 2934

28.62 24.14 7.62 33.86 6.61 1 6.9 8.26 6.83

73440 600 360 3000 7500 120 4 11 4000 60 300 80 8 70 100 162 4 2 3 200 10 3

7.9 2.67

3.33 2.16 3.33 50 27.27 5 16.66 1

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772
Chaetognatha Tardigrada Echinodermata Hemichordata Chordata Protochordata (Cephalochordata+Urochordata) Pisces Amphibia Reptilia Aves Mammalia Total (Animalia) Grand Total (Protosticta+Animalia) 111 514 6223 120 48451 2106 21723 5150 5817 9026 4629 1196903 1228153 30 30 765 12 4952 119 2546 209 456 1232 390 868741 871318 27.02 5.83 12.29 10 10.22 5.65 11.72 4.06 7.84 13.66 8.42 7.25 7.09

Taxonomic lists and indices

This section provides links to lists of species of various taxa found in India.

Animals.
Invertebrates Molluscs List of non-marine molluscs of India Arachnids Spiders of India Insects Coccinellidae Ladybird beetles of India [39] Odonata Dragonflies and damselflies of India Lepidoptera Butterflies of India Papilionid butterflies of India Pierid butterflies of India Nymphalid butterflies of India Lycaenid butterflies of India Hesperid butterflies of India Riodinid butterflies of India Moths of India Hymenoptera Ants of India
A praying mantis

Harpegnathos saltator

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Vertebrates Fish in India Amphibians of India Reptiles of India Snakes of India Birds of South Asia Mammals of India

Plants
See Flora of India

An Idiopid spider endemic to India

Threatened species
Many plants and animals are threatened or endangered due largely to habitat loss and population pressure apart from hunting and extraction. India stands out as one of the few countries with high human populations as well as a high number of threatened species.[40]

Deccan Mahseer Tor khudree

Threatened plant species

Threat Category (IUCN) Number of species Extinct Extinct/Endangered Endangered Endangered/Vulnerable Vulnerable Rare Indeterminate Insufficiently Known No information Not threatened TOTAL 19 43 149 2 108 256 719 9 1441 374 3120

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Threatened Animal species

Number of species per group according to IUCN threat categories (1994)

Threat categories Source: WCMC

[41]

References
[1] (http:/ / www. teriin. org/ biodiv/ hotspot. htm) [2] Dr S.K.Puri. "Biodiversity Profile of India (Text Only)" (http:/ / ces. iisc. ernet. in/ hpg/ cesmg/ indiabio. html). . Retrieved 2007-06-20. [3] Jean-Claude Rage (2003) Relationships of the Malagasy fauna during the Late Cretaceous: Northern or Southern routes? Acta Paleontologica Polonica 48(4):661-662 PDF (http:/ / app. pan. pl/ acta48/ app48-661. pdf) [4] Briggs, JC (2003) The biogeographic and tectonic history of India. Journal of Biogeography, 30:381388 [5] Marivaux L., Welcomme J.-L., Antoine P-O., Mtais G., Baloch I.M., Benammi M., Chaimanee Y., Ducrocq S., and Jaeger J.-J. (2001) A fossil lemur from the Oligocene of Pakistan. Science, 294: 587591. [6] Oligocene Lemur fossil hints at Asian origin (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2001/ 10/ 1022_TVlemur. html). Retrieved February 2007. [7] Krausman, PR & AJT Johnsingh (1990) Conservation and wildlife education in India. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 18:342-347 [8] Project Tiger (http:/ / projecttiger. nic. in/ ) Accessed Feb, 2007 [9] Project Elephant (http:/ / envfor. nic. in/ pe/ pe. html) Accessed Feb, 2007 [10] WCMC website (http:/ / www. wcmc. org. uk/ igcmc/ main. html) [11] Nameer, PO (1998). Checklist of Indian mammals. Kerala Forest Department, Thiruvananthapuram [12] Daniels, R. J. R. (2001) Endemic fishes of the Western Ghats and the Satpura hypothesis (http:/ / www. iisc. ernet. in/ currsci/ aug102001/ 240. pdf). Current Science 81(3):240-244 [13] Ripley, Dillon S. (1949) Avian relicts and double invasions in Peninsular India and Ceylon (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 2405549). Evolution 2:150-159 [14] Karanth, P. K. (2003) Evolution of disjunct distributions among wet-zone species of the Indian subcontinent: Testing various hypotheses using a phylogenetic approach (http:/ / www. ias. ac. in/ currsci/ nov102003/ 1276. pdf) Current Science, 85(9): 1276-1283 [15] Biswas, S. and Pawar S. S. (2006) Phylogenetic tests of distribution patterns in South Asia: towards an integrative approach (http:/ / www. ias. ac. in/ jbiosci/ mar2006/ 95. pdf); J. Biosci. 31 95113 [16] affinities (http:/ / www. pdn. ac. lk/ socs/ zaup/ reptiles/ affinities. html) [17] Biogeography of Madagascar (http:/ / www. mobot. org/ MOBOT/ Madagasc/ biomad1. html) [18] Karanth, P. 2006 Out-of-India Gondwanan origin of some tropical Asian biota (http:/ / www. iisc. ernet. in/ currsci/ mar252006/ 789. pdf). Current Science 90(6):789-792 [19] Conservation International 2006 (http:/ / www. cepf. net/ xp/ cepf/ where_we_work/ eastern_himalayas/ eastern_himalayas_info. xml)

Fauna of India
[20] Ecosystem Profile: Eastern Himalayas Region (http:/ / assets. panda. org/ downloads/ final_ehimalayas_ep. pdf), 2005 [21] Amphibian Species of the World - Desmognathus imitator Dunn, 1927 (http:/ / research. amnh. org/ herpetology/ amphibia/ references. php?id=27738) [22] Prater, S. H. (1971) The Book of Indian Animals. BNHS [23] Stewart R. Hinsley Notes on fossil wood (http:/ / www. malvaceae. info/ Fossil/ Wood. html). Retrieved September 2006. [24] Robert Buckler (1999) A brief review of the fossil cycads. PDF (http:/ / www. plantapalm. com/ vce/ evolution/ fossils. pdf) [25] Royal Botanical Gardens, Sydney, Australia (http:/ / plantnet. rbgsyd. nsw. gov. au/ cgi-bin/ cycadpg?region=ind) [26] Singh, Rita, P. Radha (2006) A new species of Cycas from the Malabar Coast, Western Ghats, India. Volume 58(2):119-123 [27] Rajasaurus and Indian Dinosaur. Geological Survey of India. PDF (http:/ / www. gsi. gov. in/ rajasaur. pdf) [28] Rage J.-C., Bajpai S., Thewissen J. G. M. & Tiwari B. N. 2003. Early Eocene snakes from Kutch, Western India, with a review of the Palaeophiidae. Geodiversitas 25 (4) : 695-716 PDF (http:/ / www. mnhn. fr/ publication/ geodiv/ g03n4a6. pdf) [29] Floodvolcanism is the main cause of mass extinctions: Nice try, but where is the evidence? PDF (http:/ / www. cosis. net/ abstracts/ EGU05/ 11195/ EGU05-J-11195-1. pdf) [30] Volcanism (http:/ / faculty. plattsburgh. edu/ thomas. wolosz/ volcanism. htm) [31] Whale fossils (http:/ / www. enchantedlearning. com/ subjects/ whales/ classification/ Whalefossils. shtml) [32] Bajpai, S. and Gingerich P.D. (1998) A new Eocene archaeocete (Mammalia, Cetacea) from India and the time of origin of whales Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:1546415468 PDF (http:/ / www-personal. umich. edu/ ~gingeric/ PDFfiles/ PDG344_himalayacetus_opt. pdf) [33] Rangarajan, M. (2006) India's Wildlife History (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=a89yMml_etQC& pg=PA4), p. 4 ISBN 8178241404 [34] Vivek Menon (2003). A field guide to Indian mammals. Dorling Kindersley, Delhi. ISBN0143029983. [35] IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC) E-Bulletin (http:/ / www. iucn. org/ themes/ ssc/ news/ ebulletin2002/ ebulletindec02. html) December 2002. Retrieved October 2006. [36] Threatened birds of Asia (http:/ / www. rdb. or. id/ detailbird. php?id=693). Retrieved October 2006. [37] The Nation, March 6, 2007 (http:/ / www. nationmultimedia. com/ 2007/ 03/ 07/ headlines/ headlines_30028700. php) [38] Alfred, J.R.B. (1998) Faunal Diversity in India: An Overview: In Faunal Diversity in India, i-viii, 1-495. (Editors. Alfred, JRB, et al., 1998). ENVIS Centre, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. [39] http:/ / www. angelfire. com/ bug2/ j_poorani/ index. html [40] IUCN (2004) A Global Species Assessment (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Djr8v_-mFzYC& printsec=frontcover). ISBN 2-8317-0826-5 [41] http:/ / www. wcmc. org. uk/ igcmc/ main. html

775

Further reading
SPECIES CHECKLIST: Species Diversity in India (http://oldwww.wii.gov.in/envis/species_database.html); ENVIS Centre: Wildlife & Protected Areas (Secondary Database); Wildlife Institute of India (WII) ENVIS Centre: Wildlife & Protected Areas (Secondary Database) (http://oldwww.wii.gov.in/envis/database. html); Wildlife Institute of India (WII) ENVIS Centre on Conservation of Ecological Heritage and Sacred Sights of India (http://www.ecoheritage. cpreec.org/index.php); ENVIS; C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre is a Centre of Excellence of the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India.

External links
World Conservation Monitoring Center (http://www.wcmc.org.uk/igcmc/main.html) Tata Energy Research Institute (http://edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/maps/biodivin.htm) Alliance for Zero extinction (http://www.zeroextinction.org/search_form_country.cfm) The official Indian Environment information site (http://envis.nic.in/ffc.asp) Project Brahma (http://www.projectbrahma.org), a community-driven, Mediawiki based initiative to document the biodiversity of India.

776

Economy
Economy of India
Economy of The Republic of India

Modern Indian currency notes Rank Currency Fiscal year Trade organizations 10th (nominal) / 4th (PPP) 1 Indian Rupee (INR) ( ) = 100 Paise Calendar year (1 April 31 March) WTO, SAFTA, G-20 and others Statistics GDP $1.53 trillion (nominal: 10th; 2010) [1] $4.06 trillion (PPP: 4th; 2010) 8.2% (2010, Q3) [2] [1] [1]

GDP growth GDP per capita

$1,265 (nominal: 138th; 2010) [1] $3,339 (PPP: 129th; 2010)

GDP by sector Inflation (CPI) Population below poverty line Gini index Labour force Labour force by occupation Unemployment Main industries

services (55.3%), industry (28.6%), agriculture (16.1%) (2010) 8.31% (February 2011) 37% (2010) [4] [3]

36.8 (List of countries) 478 million (2nd; 2009) agriculture (52%), industry (14%), services (34%) (2009 est.)

9.4% (200910)

[5]

telecommunications, textiles, chemicals, food processing, steel, transportation equipment, cement, mining, petroleum, machinery, information technology, pharmaceuticals 134th [6] (2011) External

Ease of Doing Business Rank

Exports

$201 billion (20th; 2010)

Economy of India

777
petroleum products, precious stones, machinery, iron and steel, chemicals, vehicles, apparel UAE 12.87%, US 12.59%, China 5.59% (2009) $327 billion (11th; 2010) crude oil, precious stones, machinery, fertilizer, iron and steel, chemicals China 10.94%, US 7.16%, Saudi Arabia 5.36%, UAE 5.18%, Australia 5.02%, Germany 4.86%, Singapore 4.02% (2009) $35.6 billion (2009-10) $237.1 billion (2010 est.) Public finances

Export goods Main export partners Imports Import goods Main import partners

FDI stock Gross external debt

Public debt Budget deficit Revenues Expenses Economic aid Credit rating Foreign reserves

$758 billion (2010)

[7]

55.9% of GDP

5.1% of GDP (2010-11) $170.7 billion (2010 est.) $257.4 billion (2010 est.) $2.107 billion (2008) [8]

$1.164 trillion (2010 est.) $308 billion (7th; April 2011) [9] Main data source: CIA World Fact Book All values, unless otherwise stated, are in US dollars

"Dollar" and "$" refer throughout to the US dollar. The Economy of India is the tenth largest in the world by nominal GDP[1] and the fourth largest by purchasing power parity (PPP).[1] The country's per capita GDP (PPP) is $3,339 (IMF, 129th) in 2010.[1] Following strong economic reforms from the post-independence socialist economy, the country's economic growth progressed at a rapid pace, as free market principles were initiated in 1991 for international competition and foreign investment.[10]

List of countries by GNI (nominal, Atlas method) per capitaGNI per capita:India (1,170 $)Higer GNI per capita compared to IndiaLower GNI per capita compared to India

Overview
Social democratic policies governed India's economy from 1947 to 1991. The economy was characterised by extensive regulation, protectionism, public ownership, pervasive corruption and slow growth.[11] [12] Since 1991, continuing economic liberalisation has moved the country towards a market-based economy.[11] [12] A revival of economic reforms and better economic policy in first decade of the 21st century accelerated India's economic growth rate. In recent years, Indian cities have continued to liberalise business regulations.[6] By 2008, India had established itself as the world's second-fastest growing major economy.[13] However, as a result of the financial crisis of 20072010, coupled with a poor monsoon, India's gross domestic product (GDP) growth rate significantly slowed to 6.7% in 200809, but subsequently recovered to 7.2% in 200910, while the fiscal deficit rose from 5.9% to a high 6.5% during the same period.[14] Indias current account

Economy of India deficit surged to 4.1% of GDP during Q2 FY11 against 3.2% the previous quarter. The unemployment rate for 20092010, according to the state Labour Bureau, was 9.4% nationwide, rising to 10.1% in rural areas, where two-thirds of the 1.2 billion population live.[5] India's large service industry accounts for 57.2% of the country's GDP while the industrial and agricultural sectors contribute 28.6% and 14.6% respectively.[15] Agriculture is the predominant occupation in India, accounting for about 52% of employment. The service sector makes up a further 34%, and industrial sector around 14%.[16] However, statistics from a 2009-10 government survey, which used a smaller sample size than earlier surveys, suggested that the share of agriculture in employment had dropped to 45.5%.[5] Major industries include telecommunications, textiles, chemicals, food processing, steel, transportation equipment, cement, mining, petroleum, machinery, information technology-enabled services and pharmaceuticals.[17] The labour force totals 500 million workers. Major agricultural products include rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, potatoes, cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goats, poultry and fish.[17] In 2009-2010, India's top five trading partners are United Arab Emirates, China, United States, Saudi Arabia and Germany. Previously a closed economy, India's trade and business sector has grown fast.[11] India currently accounts for 1.5% of world trade as of 2007 according to the World Trade Statistics of the WTO in 2006, which valued India's total merchandise trade (counting exports and imports) at $294 billion and India's services trade at $143 billion. Thus, India's global economic engagement in 2006 covering both merchandise and services trade was of the order of $437 billion, up by a record 72% from a level of $253 billion in 2004. India's total trade in goods and services has reached a share of 43% of GDP in 200506, up from 16% in 199091.[18]

778

History
Pre-colonial period (up to 1773)
The citizens of the Indus Valley civilisation, a permanent settlement that flourished between 2800 BC and 1800 BC, practiced agriculture, domesticated animals, used uniform weights and measures, made tools and weapons, and traded with other cities. Evidence of well-planned streets, a drainage system and water supply reveals their knowledge of urban planning, which included the world's first urban sanitation systems and the existence of a form of municipal government.[20] Maritime trade was carried out extensively between South India and southeast and West Asia from early times until around the fourteenth century AD. Both the Malabar and Coromandel Coasts were the sites of important trading centres from as early as the first century BC, used for import and export as well as transit points between the Mediterranean region and southeast Asia.[21] Over time, traders organised themselves into associations which received state patronage. However, state patronage for overseas trade came to an end by the thirteenth century AD, when it was largely taken over by the local Jewish and Muslim communities, initially on the Malabar and subsequently on the Coromandel coast.[22] Further north, the Saurashtra and Bengal coasts played an important role in maritime trade, and the Gangetic plains and the Indus valley housed several centres of river-borne commerce. Most overland trade was carried out via the Khyber Pass connecting the Punjab region with Afghanistan and onward to the Middle East and Central Asia.[23] Although many kingdoms and rulers issued coins, barter was prevalent. Villages paid a portion of their agricultural produce as revenue to the rulers, while their craftsmen received a part of the crops at harvest time for their services.[24]
The spice trade between India and Europe was [19] the main catalyst for the Age of Discovery.

Religion, especially Hinduism and the caste and the joint family systems, played an influential role in shaping economic activities.[25] The caste system functioned much like medieval European guilds, ensuring the division of

Economy of India labour, providing for the training of apprentices and, in some cases, allowing manufacturers to achieve narrow specialisation. For instance, in certain regions, producing each variety of cloth was the specialty of a particular sub-caste. Textiles such as muslin, Calicos, shawls, and agricultural products such as pepper, cinnamon, opium and indigo were exported to Europe, the Middle East and South East Asia in return for gold and silver.[26] Assessment of India's pre-colonial economy is mostly qualitative, owing to the lack of quantitative information. The Mughal economy functioned on an elaborate system of coined currency, land revenue and trade. Gold, silver and copper coins were issued by the royal mints which functioned on the basis of free coinage.[27] The political stability and uniform revenue policy resulting from a centralised administration under the Mughals, coupled with a well-developed internal trade network, ensured that India, before the arrival of the British, was to a large extent economically unified, despite having a traditional agrarian economy characterised by a predominance of subsistence agriculture dependent on primitive technology.[28] After the decline of the Mughals, western, central and parts of south and north India were integrated and administered by the Maratha Empire. After the loss at the Third Battle of Panipat, the Maratha Empire disintegrated into several confederate states, and the resulting political instability and armed conflict severely affected economic life in several parts of the country, although this was compensated for to some extent by localised prosperity in the new provincial kingdoms.[29] By the end of the eighteenth century, the British East India Company entered the Indian political theatre and established its dominance over other European powers. This marked a determinative shift in India's trade, and a less powerful impact on the rest of the economy.[30]

779

Colonial period (17731947)

There is no doubt that our grievances against the British Empire had a sound basis. As the painstaking statistical work of the Cambridge historian Angus Maddison has shown, India's share of world income collapsed from 22.6% in 1700, almost equal to Europe's share of 23.3% at that time, to as low as 3.8% in 1952. Indeed, at the beginning of the 20th Century, "the brightest jewel in the British Crown" was the poorest country in the world in terms of per capita income. Manmohan Singh[31]
An aerial view of Calcutta Port taken in 1945.

Company rule in India brought a major change in the taxation and Calcutta, which was the economic hub of British India, saw increased industrial activity during agricultural policies, which tended to promote commercialisation of World War II. agriculture with a focus on trade, resulting in decreased production of food crops, mass impoverishment and destitution of farmers, and in the short term, led to numerous famines.[32] The economic policies of the British Raj caused a severe decline in the handicrafts and handloom sectors, due to reduced demand and dipping employment.[33] After the removal of international restrictions by the Charter of 1813, Indian trade expanded substantially and over the long term showed an upward trend.[34] The result was a significant transfer of capital from India to England, which, due to the colonial policies of the British, led to a massive drain of revenue rather than any systematic effort at modernisation of the domestic economy.[35]

Economy of India

780

India's colonisation by the British created an institutional environment that, on paper, guaranteed property rights among the colonisers, encouraged free trade, and created a single currency with fixed exchange rates, standardised weights and measures and capital markets. It also established a well-developed system of railways and telegraphs, a civil service that aimed to be free from political Estimates of the per capita income of India interference, a common-law and an adversarial legal system.[37] This [36] (18571900) as per 194849 prices. coincided with major changes in the world economy industrialisation, and significant growth in production and trade. However, at the end of colonial rule, India inherited an economy that was one of the poorest in the developing world,[38] with industrial development stalled, agriculture unable to feed a rapidly growing population, a largely illiterate and unskilled labour force, and extremely inadequate infrastructure.[39] The 1872 census revealed that 91.3% of the population of the region constituting present-day India resided in villages,[40] and urbanisation generally remained sluggish until the 1920s, due to the lack of industrialisation and absence of adequate transportation. Subsequently, the policy of discriminating protection (where certain important industries were given financial protection by the state), coupled with the Second World War, saw the development and dispersal of industries, encouraging rural-urban migration, and in particular the large port cities of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras grew rapidly. Despite this, only one-sixth of India's population lived in cities by 1951.[41] The impact of the British rule on India's economy is a controversial topic. Leaders of the Indian independence movement and left-nationalist economic historians have blamed colonial rule for the dismal state of India's economy in its aftermath and argued that financial strength required for industrial development in Europe was derived from the wealth taken from colonies in Asia and Africa. At the same time, right-wing historians have countered that India's low economic performance was due to various sectors being in a state of growth and decline due to changes brought in by colonialism and a world that was moving towards industrialisation and economic integration.[42]

Pre-liberalisation period (19471991)

Indian economic policy after independence was influenced by the colonial experience, which was seen by Indian leaders as exploitative, and by those leaders' exposure to democratic socialism as well as the progress achieved by the economy of the Soviet Union.[39] Domestic policy tended towards protectionism, with a strong emphasis on import substitution industrialisation, economic interventionism, a large public sector, business regulation, and central planning,[43] while trade and foreign investment policies were relatively liberal.[44] Five-Year Plans of India resembled central planning in the Soviet Union. Steel, mining, machine tools, telecommunications, insurance, and power plants, among other industries, were effectively nationalised in the mid-1950s.[45]

Compare India (orange) with South Korea (yellow). Both started from about the same income level in 1950. The graph shows GDP per capita of South Asian economies and South Korea as a percentage of the American GDP per capita.

Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of India, along with the statistician Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis, formulated and oversaw economic policy during the initial years of the country's existence. They expected favorable outcomes from their strategy, involving the rapid development of heavy industry by both public and private sectors, and based on direct and indirect state intervention, rather than the more extreme Soviet-style central command system.[46] [47] The policy of concentrating simultaneously on capitaland technology-intensive heavy industry and subsidising manual, low-skill cottage industries was criticised by economist Milton Friedman, who thought it would waste capital and labour, and retard the development of small

Economy of India manufacturers.[48] The rate of growth of the Indian economy in the first three decades after independence was derisively referred to as the Hindu rate of growth, because of the unfavourable comparison with growth rates in other Asian countries, especially the East Asian Tigers.[49] [50] Since 1965, the use of high-yielding varieties of seeds, increased fertilisers and improved irrigation facilities collectively contributed to the Green Revolution in India, which improved the condition of agriculture by increasing crop productivity, improving crop patterns and strengthening forward and backward linkages between agriculture and industry.[51] However, it has also been criticised as an unsustainable effort, resulting in the growth of capitalistic farming, ignoring institutional reforms and widening income disparities.[52]

781

Post-liberalisation period (since 1991)

In the late 1970s, the government led by Morarji Desai eased restrictions on capacity expansion for incumbent companies, removed price controls, reduced corporate taxes and promoted the creation of small scale industries in large numbers. However, the subsequent government policy of Fabian socialism hampered the benefits of the economy, leading to high fiscal deficits and a worsening current account. The collapse of the Soviet Union, which was India's major trading partner, and the Gulf War, which caused a spike in oil prices, resulted in a major balance-of-payments crisis for India, which found itself facing the prospect of defaulting on its loans.[53] India asked for a $1.8 billion bailout loan from the International Monetary Fund (IMF), which in return demanded reforms.[54] In response, Prime Minister Narasimha Rao, along with his finance minister Manmohan Singh, initiated the economic liberalisation of 1991. The reforms did away with the Licence Raj, reduced tariffs and interest rates and ended many public monopolies, allowing automatic approval of foreign direct investment in many sectors.[55] Since then, the overall thrust of liberalisation has remained the same, although no government has tried to take on powerful lobbies such as trade unions and farmers, on contentious issues such as reforming labour laws and reducing agricultural subsidies.[56] By the turn of the 20th century, India had progressed towards a free-market economy, with a substantial reduction in state control of the economy and increased financial liberalisation.[57] This has been accompanied by increases in life expectancy, literacy rates and food security, although the beneficiaries have largely been urban residents.[58] While the credit rating of India was hit by its nuclear weapons tests in 1998, it has since been raised to investment level in 2003 by S&P and Moody's.[59] In 2003, Goldman Sachs predicted that India's GDP in current prices would overtake France and Italy by 2020, Germany, UK and Russia by 2025 and Japan by 2035, making it the third largest economy of the world, behind the US and China. India is often seen by most economists as a rising economic superpower and is believed to play a major role in the global economy in the 21st century.[60] [61]

Economy of India

782

Sectors
Industry and services
Industry accounts for 28% of the GDP and employ 14% of the total workforce.[16] In absolute terms, India is 12th in the world in terms of nominal factory output.[64] The Indian industrial sector underwent significant changes as a result of the economic reforms of 1991, which removed import restrictions, brought in foreign competition, led to privatisation of certain public sector industries, liberalised the FDI regime, improved infrastructure and led to an expansion in the production of fast moving consumer goods.[65] Post-liberalisation, the Indian private sector was faced with increasing domestic as well as foreign competition, including the threat of cheaper Chinese imports. It India has one of the world's fastest growing has since handled the change by squeezing costs, revamping [62] automobile industries. Shown here is the Tata [63] management, and relying on cheap labour and new technology. Nano, the world's cheapest car. However, this has also reduced employment generation even by smaller manufacturers who earlier relied on relatively labour-intensive processes.[66] Textile manufacturing is the second largest source of employment after agriculture and accounts for 20% of manufacturing output, providing employment to over 20 million people.[67] Ludhiana produces 90% of woollens in India and is known as the Manchester of India. Tirupur has gained universal recognition as the leading source of hosiery, knitted garments, casual wear and sportswear.[68] India is 13th in services output. The services sector provides employment to 23% of the work force and is growing quickly, with a growth rate of 7.5% in 19912000, up from 4.5% in 195180. It has the largest share in the GDP, accounting for 55% in 2007, up from 15% in 1950.[16] Information technology and business process outsourcing are among the fastest growing sectors, having a cumulative growth rate of revenue 33.6% between 199798 and 200203 and contributing to 25% of the country's total exports in 200708.[69] The growth in the IT sector is attributed to increased specialisation, and an availability of a large pool of low cost, highly skilled, educated and fluent English-speaking workers, on the supply side, matched on the demand side by increased demand from foreign consumers interested in India's service exports, or those looking to outsource their operations. The share of the Indian IT industry in the country's GDP increased from 4.8 % in 200506 to 7% in 2008.[70] In 2009, seven Indian firms were listed among the top 15 technology outsourcing companies in the world.[71] Mining forms an important segment of the Indian economy, with the country producing 79 different minerals (excluding fuel and atomic resources) in 200910, including iron ore, manganese, mica, bauxite, chromite, limestone, asbestos, fluorite, gypsum, ochre, phosphorite and silica sand.[72] Organised retail supermarkets accounts for 24% of the market as of 2008.[73] Regulations prevent most foreign investment in retailing. Moreover, over thirty regulations such as "signboard licences" and "anti-hoarding measures" may have to be complied before a store can open doors. There are taxes for moving goods from state to state, and even within states.[73] Tourism in India is relatively undeveloped, but growing at double digits. Some hospitals woo medical tourism.[74]

Economy of India

783

Agriculture
India ranks second worldwide in farm output. Agriculture and allied sectors like forestry, logging and fishing accounted for 15.7% of the GDP in 200910, employed 52.1% of the total workforce, and despite a steady decline of its share in the GDP, is still the largest economic sector and a significant piece of the overall socio-economic development of India.[77] Yields per unit area of all crops have grown since 1950, due to the special emphasis placed on agriculture in the five-year plans and steady improvements in irrigation, technology, application of modern agricultural practices and provision of agricultural credit and subsidies since the Green Revolution in India. However, international comparisons reveal the average yield in India is generally 30% to 50% of the highest average yield in the world.[78]

Farmers work outside a rice field in Andhra Pradesh. India is the second largest producer of [75] rice in the world after China, and Andhra Pradesh is the second largest rice producing state [76] in India with West Bengal being the largest.

India receives an average annual rainfall of 1208millimetres (47.6in) and a total annual precipitation of 4000 billion cubic metres, with the total utilisable water resources, including surface and groundwater, amounting to 1123 billion cubic metres.[79] 546820square kilometres ( sqmi) of the land area, or about 39% of the total cultivated area, is irrigated.[80] India's inland water resources including rivers, canals, ponds and lakes and marine resources comprising the east and west coasts of the Indian ocean and other gulfs and bays provide employment to nearly six million people in the fisheries sector. In 2008, India had the world's third largest fishing industry.[81] India is the largest producer in the world of milk, jute and pulses, and also has the world's second largest cattle population with 175 million animals in 2008.[75] It is the second largest producer of rice, wheat, sugarcane, cotton and groundnuts, as well as the second largest fruit and vegetable producer, accounting for 10.9% and 8.6% of the world fruit and vegetable production respectively.[75] India is also the second largest producer and the largest consumer of silk in the world, producing 77,000 million tons in 2005.[82]

Banking and finance

The Indian money market is classified into the organised sector, comprising private, public and foreign owned commercial banks and cooperative banks, together known as scheduled banks, and the unorganised sector, which includes individual or family owned indigenous bankers or money lenders and non-banking financial companies.[83] The unorganised sector and microcredit are still preferred over traditional banks in rural and sub-urban areas, especially for non-productive purposes, like ceremonies and short duration loans.[84] Prime Minister Indira Gandhi nationalised 14 banks in 1969, followed by six others in 1980, and made it mandatory for banks to provide 40% of their net credit to priority sectors like agriculture, small-scale industry, retail trade, small businesses, etc. to ensure that the banks fulfill their social and developmental goals. Since then, the number of bank branches has increased from 8,260 in 1969 to 72,170 in 2007 and the population covered by a branch decreased from 63,800 to 15,000 during the same period. The total bank deposits increased from 5910 crore (US$1.31 billion) in 197071 to 3830922 crore (US$850.46 billion) in 200809. Despite an increase of rural branches, from 1,860 or 22% of the total number of branches in 1969 to 30,590 or 42% in 2007, only 32,270 out of 500,000 villages are covered by a scheduled bank.[85] [86] India's gross domestic saving in 200607 as a percentage of GDP stood at a high 32.7%.[87] More than half of personal savings are invested in physical assets such as land, houses, cattle, and gold.[88] The public sector banks hold over 75% of total assets of the banking industry, with the private and foreign banks holding 18.2% and 6.5% respectively.[89] Since liberalisation, the government has approved significant banking reforms. While some of these relate to nationalised banks, like encouraging mergers, reducing government interference and increasing profitability and competitiveness, other reforms have opened up the banking and insurance sectors to private and foreign

Economy of India players.[16] [90]

784

Energy and power

India's oil reserves meet 25% of the country's domestic oil demand.[16] [92] As of 2009, India's total proven oil reserves stood at 775 million metric tonnes while gas reserves stood at 1074 billion cubic metres.[93] Oil and natural gas fields are located offshore at Mumbai High, Krishna Godavari Basin and the Cauvery Delta, and onshore mainly in the states of Assam, Gujarat and Rajasthan.[93] India is the fourth largest consumer of oil in the world and imported $82.1 billion worth of oil in the first three quarters of 2010, which had an adverse effect on As of 2010, India imported about 70% of its [91] its current account deficit.[91] The petroleum industry in India mostly crude oil requirements. Shown here is an consists of public sector companies such as Oil and Natural Gas ONGC platform at Mumbai High in the Arabian Sea, one of the few sites of domestic production. Corporation (ONGC), Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited (HPCL) and Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL). There are some major private Indian companies in the oil sector such as Reliance Industries Limited (RIL) which operates the world's largest oil refining complex.[94] As of 2010, India had an installed power generation capacity of 164,835 megawatts (MW), of which thermal power contributed 64.6%, hydroelectricity 24.7%, other sources of renewable energy 7.7%, and nuclear power 2.9%.[95] India meets most of its domestic energy demand through its 106 billion tonnes of coal reserves.[96] India is also India has the world's fifth largest wind power rich in certain renewable sources of energy with significant future industry, with an installed wind power capacity of potential such as solar, wind and biofuels (jatropha, sugarcane). India's 9,587 MW. Shown here is a wind farm in Muppandal, Tamil Nadu. huge thorium reserves about 25% of world's reserves are expected to fuel the country's ambitious nuclear energy program in the long-run. India's dwindling uranium reserves stagnated the growth of nuclear energy in the country for many years.[97] However, the Indo-US nuclear deal has paved the way for India to import uranium from other countries.[98]

External trade and investment

Global trade relations
Until the liberalisation of 1991, India was largely and intentionally isolated from the world markets, to protect its economy and to achieve self-reliance. Foreign trade was subject to import tariffs, export taxes and quantitative restrictions, while foreign direct investment (FDI) was restricted by upper-limit equity participation, restrictions on technology transfer, export obligations and government

A map showing the global distribution of Indian exports in 2006 as a percentage of the top market (USA - $20,902,500,000).

Economy of India approvals; these approvals were needed for nearly 60% of new FDI in the industrial sector. The restrictions ensured that FDI averaged only around $200 million annually between 1985 and 1991; a large percentage of the capital flows consisted of foreign aid, commercial borrowing and deposits of non-resident Indians.[99] India's exports were stagnant for the first 15 years after independence, due to general neglect of trade policy by the government of that period. Imports in the same period, due to industrialisation being nascent, consisted predominantly of machinery, raw materials and consumer goods.[100] Since liberalisation, the value of India's international trade has increased sharply,[101] with the contribution of total trade in goods and services to the GDP rising from 16% in 199091 to 43% in 200506.[18] India's major trading partners are the European Union, China, the United States and the United Arab Emirates.[102] In 200607, major export commodities included engineering goods, petroleum products, chemicals and pharmaceuticals, gems and jewellery, textiles and garments, agricultural products, iron ore and other minerals. Major import commodities included crude oil and related products, machinery, electronic goods, gold and silver.[103] In November 2010, exports increased 22.3% year-on-year to 85063 crore (US$18.88 billion), while imports were up 7.5% at 125133 crore (US$27.78 billion). Trade deficit for the same month dropped from 46865 crore (US$10.4 billion) in 2009 to 40070 crore (US$8.9 billion) in 2010.[104] India is a founding-member of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) since 1947 and its successor, the WTO. While participating actively in its general council meetings, India has been crucial in voicing the concerns of the developing world. For instance, India has continued its opposition to the inclusion of such matters as labour and environment issues and other non-tariff barriers to trade into the WTO policies.[105]

785

Balance of payments
Since independence, India's balance of payments on its current account has been negative. Since economic liberalisation in the 1990s, precipitated by a balance of payment crisis, India's exports rose consistently, covering 80.3% of its imports in 200203, up from 66.2% in 199091.[106] However, the global economic slump followed by a general deceleration in world trade saw the exports as a percentage of Cumulative Current Account Balance 19802008 imports drop to 61.4% in 200809.[107] India's growing oil import bill based on IMF data is seen as the main driver behind the large current account deficit,[91] which rose to $118.7 billion, or 9.7% of GDP, in 200809.[108] Between January and October 2010, India imported $82.1 billion worth of crude oil.[91] Due to the global late-2000s recession, both Indian exports and imports declined by 29.2% and 39.2% respectively in June 2009.[109] The steep decline was because countries hit hardest by the global recession, such as United States and members of the European Union, account for more than 60% of Indian exports.[110] However, since the decline in imports was much sharper compared to the decline in exports, India's trade deficit reduced to 25250 crore (US$5.61 billion).[109] India's reliance on external assistance and concessional debt has decreased since liberalisation of the economy, and the debt service ratio decreased from 35.3% in 199091 to 4.4% in 200809.[111] In India, External Commercial Borrowings (ECBs), or commercial loans from non-resident lenders, are being permitted by the Government for providing an additional source of funds to Indian corporates. The Ministry of Finance monitors and regulates them through ECB policy guidelines issued by the Reserve Bank of India under the Foreign Exchange Management Act of 1999.[112] India's foreign exchange reserves have steadily risen from $5.8 billion in March 1991 to $283.5 billion in December 2009. [113]

Economy of India

786

Foreign direct investment

Share of top five investing countries in FDI inflows. (20002010) Rank 1 2 3 4 5 Country Mauritius Singapore USA UK Netherlands Inflows Inflows (%) (million USD) 50,164 11,275 8,914 6,158 4,968 42.00 9.00 7.00 5.00 4.00
[114]

As the fourth-largest economy in the world in PPP terms, India is a preferred destination for FDI;[115] India has strengths in telecommunication, information technology and other significant areas such as auto components, chemicals, apparels, pharmaceuticals, and jewellery. Despite a surge in foreign investments, rigid FDI policies were a significant hindrance. However, due to positive economic reforms aimed at deregulating the economy and stimulating foreign investment, India has positioned itself as one of the front-runners of the rapidly growing Asia-Pacific region.[115] India has a large pool of skilled managerial and technical expertise. The size of the middle-class population stands at 300 million and represents a growing consumer market.[116] During 200010, the country attracted $178 billion as FDI.[117] The inordinately high investment from Mauritius is due to routing of international funds through the country given significant tax advantages; double taxation is avoided due to a tax treaty between India and Mauritius, and Mauritius is a capital gains tax haven, effectively creating a zero-taxation FDI channel.[118] India's recently liberalised FDI policy (2005) allows up to a 100% FDI stake in ventures. Industrial policy reforms have substantially reduced industrial licensing requirements, removed restrictions on expansion and facilitated easy access to foreign technology and foreign direct investment FDI. The upward moving growth curve of the real-estate sector owes some credit to a booming economy and liberalised FDI regime. In March 2005, the government amended the rules to allow 100% FDI in the construction sector, including built-up infrastructure and construction development projects comprising housing, commercial premises, hospitals, educational institutions, recreational facilities, and city- and regional-level infrastructure.[119] Despite a number of changes in the FDI policy to remove caps in most sectors, there still remains an unfinished agenda of permitting greater FDI in politically sensitive areas such as insurance and retailing. The total FDI equity inflow into India in 200809 stood at 122919 crore (US$27.29 billion), a growth of 25% in rupee terms over the previous period.[120] .

Economy of India

787

Currency
The Indian rupee is the only legal tender in India, and is also accepted as legal tender in the neighbouring Nepal and Bhutan, both of which peg their currency to that of the Indian rupee. The rupee is divided into 100 paise. The highest-denomination banknote is the 1,000 rupee note; the lowest-denomination coin in circulation is the 10 paise coin.[121] However, with effect from 30 June 2011, 50 paise will be the minimum coin accepted in the markets as all denominations below it will cease to be legal currency.[122] [123] India's monetary system is managed by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), the country's central bank.[124] Established on 1 April 1935 and nationalised in 1949, the RBI serves as the nation's monetary authority, regulator and supervisor of the monetary system, banker to the government, custodian of foreign exchange reserves, and as an issuer of currency. It is governed by a central board of directors, headed by a governor who is appointed by the Government of India.[125] The rupee was linked to the British pound from 19271946 and then the U.S. dollar till 1975 through a fixed exchange rate. It was devalued in September 1975 and the system of fixed par rate was replaced with a basket of four major international currencies the British pound, the U.S. dollar, the Japanese yen and the Deutsche mark.[126] Since 2003, the rupee has been steadily appreciating against the U.S. dollar.[127] In 2009, a rising rupee prompted the Government of India to purchase 200 tons of gold for $6.7 billion from the IMF.[128]
The RBI headquarters in Mumbai

Income and consumption

India's gross national income per capita in 2008 was $1040.[129] Indian official estimates of the extent of poverty have been subject to debate, with concerns being raised about the methodology for the determination of the poverty line.[130] [131] As of 2005, according to World Bank statistics, 75.6% of the population lived on less than $2 a day (PPP), while 41.6% of the population was World map showing the Gini coefficient, a measure of income inequality. India has living below the new international poverty a Gini coefficient of 0.368. line of $1.25 (PPP) per day.[132] [133] [134] However, data released in 2009 by the Government of India estimated that 37% of the population lived below the poverty line.[4] Housing is modest. According to The Times of India, a majority of Indians had a per capita space equivalent to or less than a 100square feet (9.3m2) room for their basic living needs, and one-third of urban Indians lived in "homes too cramped to exceed even the minimum requirements of a prison cell in the US."[135] The average is 103sqft (9.6m2) per person in rural areas and 117sqft (10.9m2) per person in urban areas.[135] Around half of Indian children are malnourished. The proportion of underweight children is nearly double that of Sub-Saharan Africa.[136] [137] However, India has not had any major famines since Independence.[138] A 2007 report by the state-run National Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganised Sector (NCEUS) found that 65% of

Economy of India Indians, or 750 million people, lived on less than 20 (US$0.44) per day,[139] with most working in "informal labour sector with no job or social security, living in abject poverty."[140] Since the early 1950s, successive governments have implemented various schemes to alleviate poverty, under central planning, that have met with partial success. All these programmes have relied upon the strategies of the Food for work programme and National Rural Employment Programme of the 1980s, which attempted to use the unemployed to generate productive assets and build rural infrastructure.[141] In August 2005, the Parliament of India, in response to the perceived failure of economic growth to gene rate employment for the rural poor, passed the Rural Employment Guarantee Bill into law, guaranteeing 100 days of minimum wage employment to every rural household in all the districts of India.[142] The question of whether economic reforms have reduced poverty has fuelled debates without generating clear-cut answers and has also increased political pressure against further economic reforms, especially those involving the downsizing of labour and cutting agricultural subsidies.[143] Recent statistics in 2010 point out that the number of high income households has crossed lower income households.[144]

788

Employment
Indias labor regulations among the most restrictive and complex in the world have constrained the growth of the formal manufacturing sector where these laws have their widest application. Better designed labor regulations can attract more labor- intensive investment and create jobs for Indias unemployed millions and those trapped in poor quality jobs. Given the countrys momentum of growth, the window of opportunity must not be lost for improving the job prospects for the 80 million new entrants who are expected to join the work force over the next decade. World Bank: India Country Overview 2008.[145] Agricultural and allied sectors accounted for about 52.1% of the total workforce in 200910.[77] While agriculture has faced stagnation in growth, services have seen a steady growth. Of the total workforce, 7% is in the organised sector, two-thirds of which are in the public sector.[146] The NSSO survey estimated that in 200405, 8.3% of the population was unemployed, an increase of 2.2% over 1993 levels, with unemployment uniformly higher in urban areas and among women.[147] [148] Growth of labour stagnated at around 2% for the decade between 19942005, about the same as that for the preceding decade.[142] Avenues for employment generation have been identified in the IT and travel and tourism sectors, which have been experiencing high annual growth rates of above 9%.[149] Unemployment in India is characterised by chronic (disguised) unemployment. Government schemes that target eradication of both poverty and unemployment (which in recent decades has sent millions of poor and unskilled people into urban areas in search of livelihoods) attempt to solve the problem, by providing financial assistance for setting up businesses, skill honing, setting up public sector enterprises, reservations in governments, etc. The decline in organised employment due to the decreased role of the public sector after liberalisation has further underlined the need for focusing on better education and has also put political pressure on further reforms.[150] [151] India's labour regulations are heavy even by developing country standards and analysts have urged the government to abolish or modify them in order to make the environment more conducive for employment generation.[152] [153] The 11th five-year plan has also identified the need for a congenial environment to be created for employment generation, by reducing the number of permissions and other bureaucratic clearences required.[154] Further, inequalities and inadequacies in the education system have been identified as an obstacle preventing the benefits of increased employment opportunities from reaching all sectors of society.[155] Child labour in India is a complex problem that is basically rooted in poverty, coupled with a failure of governmental policy, which has focused on subsidising higher rather than elementary education, as a result benefiting the privileged rather than the poorer sections of society.[156] The Indian government is implementing the world's largest child labour elimination program, with primary education targeted for ~250 million. Numerous non-governmental and voluntary organisations are also involved. Special investigation cells have been set up in states to enforce existing laws banning the employment of children under 14 in hazardous industries. The allocation of the

Economy of India Government of India for the eradication of child labour was $21 million in 2007.[157] Public campaigns, provision of meals in school and other incentives have proven successful in increasing attendance rates in schools in some states.[158] In 200910, remittances from Indian migrants overseas stood at 250000 crore (US$55.5 billion), the highest in the world, but their share in FDI remained low at around 1%.[159] India ranked 133th on the Ease of Doing Business Index 2010, behind countries such as China (89th), Pakistan (85th), and Nigeria (125th).[160]

789

Economic trends and issues

In the revised 2007 figures, based on increased and sustaining growth, more inflows into foreign direct investment, Goldman Sachs predicts that "from 2007 to 2020, Indias GDP per capita in US$ terms will quadruple", and that the Indian economy will surpass the United States (in US$) by 2043.[161] In spite of the high growth rate, the report stated that India would continue to remain a low-income country for decades to come but could be a "motor for the world economy" if it fulfills its growth potential.[161]

Shown here is a residential area in Mumbai.

Agriculture
Slow agricultural growth is a concern for policymakers as some two-thirds of Indias people depend on rural employment for a living. Current agricultural practices are neither economically nor environmentally sustainable and India's yields for many agricultural commodities are low. Poorly maintained irrigation systems and almost universal lack of good extension services are among the factors responsible. Farmers' access to markets is hampered by poor roads, rudimentary market infrastructure, and excessive regulation. World Bank: "India Country Overview 2008"[145] India's population is growing faster than its ability to produce rice and wheat.[162] The low productivity in India is a result of several factors. According to the World Bank, India's large agricultural subsidies are hampering productivity-enhancing investment. While overregulation of agriculture has increased costs, price risks and uncertainty, governmental intervention in labour, land, and credit markets are hurting the market. Infrastructure and services are inadequate.[163] Further, the average size of land holdings is very small, with 70% of holdings being less than one hectare in size.[164] The partial failure of land reforms in many states, exacerbated by poorly maintained or non-existent land records, has resulted in sharecropping with cultivators lacking ownership rights, and consequently low productivity of labour.[165] Adoption of modern agricultural practices and use of technology is inadequate, hampered by ignorance of such practices, high costs, illiteracy, slow progress in implementing land reforms, inadequate or inefficient finance and marketing services for farm produce and impracticality in the case of small land holdings. The allocation of water is inefficient, unsustainable and inequitable. The irrigation infrastructure is deteriorating.[163] Irrigation facilities are inadequate, as revealed by the fact that only 39% of the total cultivable land was irrigated as of 2010,[80] resulting in farmers still being dependent on rainfall, specifically the monsoon season, which is often inconsistent and unevenly distributed across the country.[166]

Economy of India

790

Corruption
Corruption has been one of the pervasive problems affecting India. The economic reforms of 1991 reduced the red tape, bureaucracy and the Licence Raj that were largely blamed for the institutionalised corruption and inefficiency.[167] Yet, a 2005 study by Transparency International (TI) found that more than half of those surveyed had firsthand experience of paying bribe or peddling influence to get a job done in a public office.[168]

The Right to Information Act (2005) which requires government officials to furnish information requested by citizens or face punitive action, computerisation of services, and various central and state government acts that established vigilance commissions, have considerably reduced corruption and opened up avenues to redress grievances.[168] The 2010 report by TI ranks India at 87th place and states that significant setbacks were made by India in reducing corruption.[169] The current government has concluded that most spending fails to reach its intended recipients. A large, cumbersome and overworked bureaucracy also contributes to administrative inefficiency.[170] India's absence rates are one of the worst in the world; one study found that 25% of public sector teachers and 40% of public sector medical workers could not be found at the workplace.[171] [172] The Indian economy continues to face The number of people employed in non-agricultural occupations in the public and private the problem of an underground sectors. Totals are rounded. Private sector data relates to non-agriculture establishments [141] economy with a 2006 estimate by the with 10 or more employees. Swiss Banking Association suggesting that India topped the worldwide list for black money with almost $1,456 billion stashed in Swiss banks. This amounts to 13 times the country's total external debt.[173] [174]

Overview of the index of perception of corruption, 2010

Education
India has made huge progress in terms of increasing primary education attendance rate and expanding literacy to approximately two thirds of the population.[175] The right to education at elementary level has been made one of the fundamental rights under the eighty-sixth Amendment of 2002, and legislation has been enacted to further the objective of providing free education to all children.[176] However, the literacy rate of 74% is still lower than the worldwide average and the country suffers from a high dropout rate.[177] Further, there exist severe disparities in literacy rates and educational opportunities between males and females, urban and rural areas, and among different social groups.[178]

Economy of India

791

Infrastructure
In the past, development of infrastructure was completely in the hands of the public sector and was plagued by slow progress, poor quality and inefficiency.[179] India's low spending on power, construction, transportation, telecommunications and real estate, at $31 billion or 6% of GDP in 2002 had prevented India from sustaining higher growth rates. This has prompted the government to partially open up infrastructure to the private sector allowing foreign investment,[141] [180] and most public infrastructure, barring railways, is today constructed and maintained by private contractors, in exchange for tax and other concessions from the government.[181]

Shown here is the Chennai Port.

Some 600 million Indians have no electricity at all.[182] While 80% of Indian villages have at least an electricity line, just 44% of rural households have access to electricity. Some half of the electricity is stolen, compared with 3% in China. The stolen electricity amounts to 1.5% of GDP.[183] [184] Transmission and distribution losses amount to around 20%, as a result of an inefficient distribution system, handled mostly by cash-strapped state-run enterprises.[185] Almost all of the electricity in India is produced by the public sector. Power outages are Shown here is the Mumbai Pune expressway in common, and many buy their own power generators to ensure Maharashtra. electricity supply.[182] As of 200607 the electricity production was at 652.2 billion kWh, with an installed capacity of 128400 MW.[186] In 2007, electricity demand exceeded supply by 15%.[182] However, reforms brought about by the Electricity Act of 2003 caused far-reaching policy changes, including mandating the separation of generation, transmission and distribution aspects of electricity, abolishing licencing requirements in generation and opening up the sector to private players, thereby paving the way for creating a competitive market-based electricity sector.[187] Substantial improvements in water supply infrastructure, both in urban and rural areas, have taken place over the past decade, with the proportion of the India has built numerous new airports in recent population having access to safe drinking water rising from 66% in years. Shown here is the new Terminal 1D at the Indira Gandhi International Airport in Delhi. 1991 to 92% in 2001 in rural areas, and from 82% to 98% in urban areas. however, quality and availability of water supply remains a major problem even in urban India, with most cities getting water for only a few hours during the day.[188] India has the world's third largest road network,[189] covering about 3.3 million kilometers and carrying 65% of freight and 80% of passenger traffic.[190] Container traffic is growing at 15% a year.[191] India has a national teledensity rate of 67.67% with 806.1 million telephone subscribers, two-thirds of them in urban areas,[192] but Internet use is rarethere were only 10.29 million broadband lines in India in September 2010. However, this is growing and is expected to boom following the expansion of 3G and wimax services.[193]

Economy of India

792

Economic disparities
Lagging states need to bring more jobs to their people by creating an attractive investment destination. Reforming cumbersome regulatory procedures, improving rural connectivity, establishing law and order, creating a stable platform for natural resource investment that balances business interests with social concerns, and providing rural finance are important. World Bank: India Country Overview 2008[145] A critical problem facing India's economy is the sharp and growing regional variations among India's different states and territories in terms of poverty, availability of infrastructure and socio-economic development.[195] Six low-income states Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Uttar Pradesh are home to more than one third of India's population.[196] Severe disparities exist among states in terms of income, literacy rates, life expectancy and living conditions.[197] The five-year plans, especially in the pre-liberalisation era, attempted Slums next to high-rise commercial buildings in to reduce regional disparities by encouraging industrial development in Kochi. Hundreds of people, mostly comprising rural residents who are forced to migrate to cities the interior regions and distributing industries across states, but the seeking low-income jobs, live in squalid results have not been very encouraging since these measures in fact [194] conditions like these. increased inefficiency and hampered effective industrial growth.[198] After liberalisation, the more advanced states have been better placed to benefit from them, with well-developed infrastructure and an educated and skilled workforce, which attract the manufacturing and service sectors. The governments of backward regions are trying to reduce disparities by offering tax holidays and cheap land, and focusing more on sectors like tourism which, although being geographically and historically determined, can become a source of growth and develops faster than other sectors.[199] [200]

Notes
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[130] Jayati Ghosh (January 2010). "Poverty reduction in China and India: Policy implications of recent trends" (http:/ / www. un. org/ esa/ desa/ papers/ 2010/ wp92_2010. pdf). DESA Working Paper No. 92. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. . Retrieved 2010-11-18. [131] Panagariya 2008, pp.140142 [132] "Poverty data: A supplement to World Development Indicators 2008" (http:/ / siteresources. worldbank. org/ DATASTATISTICS/ Resources/ WDI08supplement1216. pdf). World Bank. December 2008. . Retrieved 2010-11-18. [133] "World Banks new poverty norms find larger number of poor in India" (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ 2008/ 08/ 28/ stories/ 2008082856061300. htm). The Hindu (Chennai). 2008-08-28. . Retrieved 2008-11-03. [134] Steve Schifferes (2008-08-27). "World poverty 'more widespread'" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ business/ 7583719. stm). BBC. . Retrieved 2008-11-03. [135] Atul Thakur (2008-11-25). "33% of Indians live in less space than US prisoners" (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ 33_of_Indians_live_in_less_space_than_US_prisoners/ articleshow/ 3753189. cms). Times of India. . Retrieved 2011-01-17. [136] "India: Undernourished Children: A Call for Reform and Action" (http:/ / go. worldbank. org/ TUTLNHSPH0). World Bank. . Retrieved 2011-01-11. [137] Drze & Sen 1996, pp.2930 [138] Drze & Sen 1996, pp.8788 [139] "Report on Conditions of Work and Promotion of Livelihood in the Unorganised Sector" (http:/ / nceus. gov. in/ Condition_of_workers_sep_2007. pdf) (PDF). Ministry of Small Scale Industries, Government of India. . Retrieved 2009-06-21. [140] "Nearly 80% of India Lives On Half Dollar A Day" (http:/ / www. reuters. com/ article/ latestCrisis/ idUSDEL218894). Reuters. 2007-08-10. . Retrieved 2007-08-15. [141] "Economic Survey 20042005" (http:/ / indiabudget. nic. in/ es2004-05/ esmain. htm). . Retrieved 2006-07-15. [142] Panagariya 2008, p.146 [143] Datt & Sundharam 2009, pp.374376 [144] Prabhakar Sinha (2010-08-01). "India has more rich people than poor now" (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ india/ India-has-more-rich-people-than-poor-now/ articleshow/ 6242324. cms). The Times of India. . Retrieved 2010-11-15. [145] "India Country Overview 2008" (http:/ / go. worldbank. org/ NLCX7C1VC0). World Bank. 2008. . Retrieved 2011-01-17. [146] Datt & Sundharam 2009, pp.423424 [147] Datt & Sundharam 2009, pp.432433 [148] Panagariya 2008, p.147 [149] Datt & Sundharam 2009, p.429 [150] Economic Survey 2010, pp.275277. [151] Datt & Sundharam 2009, pp.434436 [152] Datt & Sundharam 2009, p.431 [153] Kaushik Basu (2005-06-27). "Why India needs labour law reform" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ south_asia/ 4103554. stm). BBC. . Retrieved 2010-12-16. [154] Datt & Sundharam 2009, p.434 [155] Drze & Sen 1996, p.39 [156] Drze & Sen 1996, pp.119120 [157] "Child Labor and India Embassy of India" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071023064701/ http:/ / www. indianembassy. org/ policy/ Child_Labor/ childlabor. htm#intro). Embassy of India. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. indianembassy. org/ policy/ Child_Labor/ childlabor. htm#intro) on 2007-10-23. . Retrieved 2009-03-13. [158] Drze & Sen 1996, pp.130131 [159] Ajay Banerjee (2011-01-09). "NRIs dont invest as much as they remit, says Montek" (http:/ / www. tribuneindia. com/ 2011/ 20110110/ main1. htm). The Tribune. . Retrieved 2011-01-13. [160] Sapovadia, Vrajlal K; Mattioli, Maria C (June 2004). "Laws of Labor: Core Labor Standards and Global Trade" (http:/ / ssrn. com/ abstract=711542). International Trade 26 (2). . [161] "Indias Rising Growth Potential" (http:/ / www. usindiafriendship. net/ viewpoints1/ Indias_Rising_Growth_Potential. pdf) (PDF). Goldman Sachs. 2007. . Retrieved 2009-06-21. [162] Somini Sengupta (2008-06-22). "The Food Chain in Fertile India, Growth Outstrips Agriculture" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 06/ 22/ business/ 22indiafood. html?_r=1). The New York Times. . Retrieved 2010-03-29. [163] "India: Priorities for Agriculture and Rural Development" (http:/ / go. worldbank. org/ 8EFXZBL3Y0). World Bank. . Retrieved 2011-01-08. [164] Panagariya 2008, p.318 [165] Panagariya 2008, pp.320321 [166] Datt & Sundharam 2009, p.502 [167] Drze & Sen 1996, p.180 [168] Transparency International India. "India Corruption Study 2005" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070415110720/ http:/ / www. cmsindia. org/ cms/ events/ corruption. pdf) (PDF). Centre for Media Studies. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. cmsindia. org/ cms/ events/ corruption. pdf) on 2007-04-15. . Retrieved 2008-03-14.

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[169] "2009 Corruption Perceptions Index reinforces link between poverty and corruption" (http:/ / www. transparency. org/ policy_research/ surveys_indices/ cpi/ 2009/ cpi_2009_table). Transparency International. . Retrieved 2008-03-15. [170] "India's civil service: Battling the babu raj" (http:/ / www. economist. com/ displaystory. cfm?story_id=10804248). The Economist. 2008-03-06. . Retrieved 2011-01-08. [171] Karthik Muralidharan. "Teachers and Medical Worker Incentives in India" (http:/ / econ. ucsd. edu/ ~kamurali/ teachers and medical worker incentives in india. pdf) (PDF). University of California. . Retrieved 2009-06-21. [172] Kaushik Basu (2004-11-29). "Combating India's truant teachers" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ south_asia/ 4051353. stm). BBC. . Retrieved 2011-01-09. [173] Kuldip Nayar (2011-02-04). "Laundering black money" (http:/ / www. deccanherald. com/ content/ 134580/ laundering-black-money. html). Deccan Herald. . Retrieved 2011-02-06. [174] V. Venkateswara Rao (2010-08-13). "Black, bold and bountiful" (http:/ / www. thehindubusinessline. in/ 2010/ 08/ 13/ stories/ 2010081350370900. htm). The Hindu Business Line. . Retrieved 2011-02-06. [175] "Education in India" (http:/ / go. worldbank. org/ OSFVRGA240). World Bank. . Retrieved 2011-01-13. [176] Economic Survey 2010, pp.280281. [177] "A special report on India: An elephant, not a tiger" (http:/ / www. economist. com/ specialreports/ displayStory. cfm?story_id=12749735). The Economist. 2008-12-11. . Retrieved 2011-01-17. [178] Drze & Sen 1996, pp.114115 [179] Panagariya 2008, p.396 [180] "Infrastructure the missing link" (http:/ / edition. cnn. com/ 2004/ WORLD/ asiapcf/ 09/ 03/ india. eye. infra/ ). CNN. 2004-10-06. . Retrieved 2005-08-14. [181] Panagariya 2008, p.371 [182] "A special report on India: Creaking, groaning: Infrastructure is Indias biggest handicap" (http:/ / www. economist. com/ specialreports/ displaystory. cfm?story_id=12749787). The Economist. 2008-12-11. . Retrieved 2011-01-09. [183] "Reforming the Power Sector: Controlling Electricity Theft and Improving Revenue" (http:/ / rru. worldbank. org/ documents/ publicpolicyjournal/ 272bhatia_Gulati. pdf) (PDF). The World Bank. . Retrieved 2009-06-21. [184] Mark Gregory (2006-03-15). "India struggles with power theft" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ business/ 4802248. stm). BBC. . Retrieved 2010-01-03. [185] Panagariya 2008, pp.386387 [186] Panagariya 2008, pp.384 [187] Panagariya 2008, pp.388390 [188] Panagariya 2008, pp.427428 [189] "Infrastructure Rankings" (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ rankorder/ 2085rank. html). CIA. . Retrieved 2011-01-17. [190] Panagariya 2008, pp.403404 [191] "Ageing Indian infrastructure causes congestion" (http:/ / www. theage. com. au/ news/ business/ ageing-indian-infrastructure-causes-congestion/ 2005/ 09/ 21/ 1126982123165. html). The Age (Melbourne). 2005-09-22. . [192] "Its ringing mobiles throughout the country" (http:/ / www. tribuneindia. com/ 2011/ 20110305/ main7. htm). The Tribune. 2011-03-05. . Retrieved 2011-03-19. [193] Rajani Baburajan (2011-03-08). "Digital Revolution in India" (http:/ / www. biztechreport. com/ story/ 1127-digital-revolution-india). Asia-Pacific Business and Technology Report. . Retrieved 2011-03-19. [194] Karishma Vaswani (2007-05-21). "Winners and losers as India booms" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ business/ 6677645. stm). BBC. . Retrieved 2011-04-16. [195] Datt & Sundharam 2009, pp.474475 [196] "Country Strategy for India (CAS) 20092012" (http:/ / www. ukibc. com/ ukindia2/ files/ India60. pdf) (PDF). World Bank. . Retrieved 2009-06-21. [197] Drze & Sen 1996, pp.4546 [198] Panagariya 2008, pp.164165 [199] Sachs, D. Jeffrey; Bajpai, Nirupam and Ramiah, Ananthi (2002). "Understanding Regional Economic Growth in India" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070701042205/ http:/ / www2. cid. harvard. edu/ cidwp/ 088. pdf) (PDF). Working paper 88. Harvard University. Archived from the original (http:/ / www2. cid. harvard. edu/ cidwp/ 088. pdf) on 2007-07-01. . [200] Kurian, N.J.. "Regional disparities in india" (http:/ / planningcommission. nic. in/ reports/ sereport/ ser/ vision2025/ regdsprty. doc). Planning Commission of India. . Retrieved 2005-08-06.

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References
Books Datt, Ruddar; Sundharam, K.P.M. (2009). Indian Economy. New Delhi: S. Chand Group. p.976. ISBN978-81-219-0298-4. Drze, John; Sen, Amartya (1996). India: Economic Development and Social Opportunity. Oxford University Press. p.292. ISBN978-0-19-564082-3. Kumar, Dharma (2005). The Cambridge Economic History of India, Volume II : c. 1757 2003. New Delhi: Orient Longman. p.1115. ISBN978-81-250-2710-2. Nehru, Jawaharlal (1946). The Discovery of India. Penguin Books. ISBN0-14-303103-1. Panagariya, Arvind (2008). India: The Emerging Giant. Oxford University Press. p.514. ISBN978-0-19-531503-5. Raychaudhuri, Tapan; Habib, Irfan (2004). The Cambridge Economic History of India, Volume I : c. 1200 c. 1750. New Delhi: Orient Longman. p.543. ISBN978-81-250-2709-6. Roy, Tirthankar (2006). The Economic History of India 18571947. Oxford University Press. p.385. ISBN978-0-19-568430-8. Papers and reports "Economic reforms in India: Task force report" (http://harrisschool.uchicago.edu/News/press-releases/IPP Economic Reform in India.pdf) (PDF). University of Chicago. pp. 32. Retrieved 2009-06-21. "Economic Survey 200910" (http://indiabudget.nic.in/es2009-10/chapt2010/chapter.zip). Ministry of Finance, Government of India. pp. 294. Retrieved 2010-11-22.

Further reading
Books Alamgir, Jalal (2008). India's Open-Economy Policy. Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-77684-4. Bharadwaj, Krishna (1991). "Regional differentiation in India". In Sathyamurthy, T.V.. Industry & agriculture in India since independence. Oxford University Press. pp.189199. ISBN0-19-564394-1. Articles "Milton Friedman on the Nehru/Mahalanobis Plan" (http://www.indiapolicy.org/debate/Notes/fried_opinion. html). Retrieved 2005-07-16. "Infrastructure in India: Requirements and favorable climate for foreign investment" (http://www.asiatradehub. com/india/intro.asp). Retrieved 2005-08-14. Bernardi, Luigi and Fraschini, Angela (2005). Tax System And Tax Reforms In India (http://ideas.repec.org/p/ uca/ucapdv/45.html). Working paper n. 51. Centre for Media Studies (2005) (PDF). India Corruption Study 2005: To Improve Governance Volume I: Key Highlights (http://www.prajanet.org/newsroom/internal/tii/ICS2k5_Vol1.pdf). Transparency International India. Retrieved 2009-06-21. Ghosh, Jayati. "Bank Nationalisation: The Record" (http://www.macroscan.com/cur/jul05/ cur210705Bank_Nationalisation.htm). Macroscan. Retrieved 2005-08-05. Gordon, Jim and Gupta, Poonam (2003) (PDF). Understanding India's Services Revolution (http://www.imf. org/external/np/apd/seminars/2003/newdelhi/gordon.pdf). 12 November 2003. Retrieved 2009-06-21. Panagariya, Arvind (2004). India in the 1980s and 1990s: A Triumph of Reforms (http://ideas.repec.org/p/ wpa/wuwpit/0403005.html). Sachs, D. Jeffrey; Bajpai, Nirupam and Ramiah, Ananthi (2002) (PDF). Understanding Regional Economic Growth in India (http://web.archive.org/web/20070701042205/http://www2.cid.harvard.edu/cidwp/088. pdf). Working paper 88. Archived from the original (http://www2.cid.harvard.edu/cidwp/088.pdf) on

Economy of India 2007-07-01. Srinivasan, T.N. (2002) (PDF). Economic Reforms and Global Integration (http://www.econ.yale.edu/ ~srinivas/ec_reforms.pdf). 17 January 2002. Retrieved 2009-06-21. Kurian, N.J.. "Regional disparities in india" (http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/sereport/ser/ vision2025/regdsprty.doc). Retrieved 2005-08-06. News "India says 21 of 29 states to launch new tax" (http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default. asp?page=story_25-3-2005_pg5_13). Daily Times. 25 March 2005. "Economic structure" (http://www.economist.com/countries/India/profile.cfm?folder=Profile-Economic Structure). The Economist. 6 October 2003. "Regional stock exchanges Bulldozed by the Big Two" (http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/businessline/ 2001/07/20/stories/042062cr.htm). Retrieved 2005-08-10.

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External links
Government of India websites Finance Ministry of India (http://finmin.nic.in/) India in Business (http://www.indiainbusiness.nic.in/)- Official website for Investment and Trade in India Reserve Bank of India's database on the Indian economy (http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/Statistics.aspx) Publications and statistics World Bank India Country Overview (http://www.worldbank.org.in/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/ SOUTHASIAEXT/INDIAEXTN/ 0,,contentMDK:20195738~menuPK:295591~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:295584,00.html) Ernst & Young 2006 report on doing Business in India (http://ibef.org/download/doingbusinessinindia2006. pdf) CIA The World Factbook India (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in. html)

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Economic history of India

The known Economic history of India begins with the Indus Valley civilization. The Indus civilization's economy appears to have depended significantly on trade, which was facilitated by advances in transport. Around 600 BC, the Mahajanapadas minted punch-marked silver coins. The period was marked by intensive trade activity and urban development. By 300 BC the Maurya Empire united most of the Indian subcontinent. The political unity and military security allowed for a common economic system and enhanced trade and commerce, with increased agricultural productivity. For the next 1500 years, India produced its classical civilizations such as the Rashtrakutas, Hoysalas and Western Gangas. During this period India is estimated to have had the largest economy of the ancient and medieval world between the 1st and 17th centuries AD, controlling between one third and one fourth of the world's wealth up to the time of the Marathas, from whence it rapidly declined during European rule. India has followed central planning for most of its independent history, which have included extensive public ownership, regulation, red tape, and trade barriers.[1] [2] After the 1991 economic crisis, the central government launched economic liberalization. India has turned towards a more capitalist system and has emerged as one of the fastest growing large economies of the world.[1] [3]

Indus Valley civilization

The Indus Valley civilization, the first known permanent and predominantly urban settlement that flourished between 2800 BC to 1800 BC boasted of an advanced and thriving economic system. Its citizens practiced agriculture, domesticated animals, made sharp tools and weapons from copper, bronze and tin and traded with other cities. Evidence of well laid streets, layouts, drainage system and water supply in the valley's major cities, Harappa, Lothal, Mohenjo-daro and Rakhigarhi reveals their knowledge of urban planning. One of the theories about their end is that they eventually overused their resources, and slowly died out.

Ancient and medieval characteristics

Though ancient India had a significant urban population, much of India's population resided in villages, whose economy was largely isolated and self-sustaining. Agriculture was the predominant occupation of the populace and satisfied a village's food requirements besides providing raw materials for hand based industries like textile, food processing and crafts. Besides farmers, other classes of people were barbers, carpenters, doctors (Ayurvedic practitioners), goldsmiths, weavers etc.

Religion
Religion, especially Hinduism, played an influential role in shaping economic activities. The Indian caste system castes and sub-castes functioned much like medieval European guilds, ensuring division of labour and provided for training of apprentices. The caste system restricted people from changing one's occupation and aspiring to an upper caste's lifestyle. Thus, a barber could not become a goldsmith and even a highly skilled carpenter could not aspire to the lifestyle or privileges enjoyed by a Kshatriya (person from a warrior class). This barrier to mobility on labour restricted economic prosperity to a few castes. Pilgrimage towns like Allahabad, Benares, Nasik and Puri, mostly centred around rivers, developed into centres of trade and commerce. Religious functions, festivals and the practice of taking a pilgrimage resulted in a flourishing pilgrimage economy.

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Family business
In the joint family system, members of a family pooled their resources to maintain the family and invest in business ventures. The system ensured younger members were trained and employed in the family business and the older and disabled persons would be supported by the family. The system, by preventing the agricultural land from being split ensured higher yield because of the benefits of scale. The system curbed members from taking initiative because of the support system and family or work.

Organizational entities
Along with the family-run business and individually owned business enterprises, ancient India possessed a number of other forms of engaging in business or collective activity, including the gana, pani, puga, vrata, sangha, nigama and sreni. Nigama, pani and sreni refer most often to economic organizations of merchants, craftspeople and artisans, and perhaps even para-military entities. In particular, the sreni was a complex organizational entity that shares many similarities with modern corporations, which were being used in India from around the 8th century BC until around the 10th century AD. The use of such entities in ancient India was widespread including virtually every kind of business, political and municipal activity.[4] The sreni was a separate legal entity which had the ability to hold property separately from its owners, construct its own rules for governing the behavior of its members, and for it to contract, sue and be sued in its own name. Some ancient sources such as Laws of Manu VIII and Chanakya's Arthashastra have rules for lawsuits between two or more sreni and some sources make reference to a government official (Bhandagarika) who worked as an arbitrator for disputes amongst sreni from at least the 6th century BC onwards.[5] There were between 18 to 150 sreni at various times in ancient India covering both trading and craft activities. This level of specialization of occupations is indicative of a developed economy in which the sreni played a critical role. Some sreni could have over 1000 members as there were apparently no upper limits on the number of members. The sreni had a considerable degree of centralised management. The headman of the sreni represented the interests of the sreni in the kings court and in many official business matters. The headman could also bind the sreni in contracts, set the conditions of work within the sreni, often received a higher salary, and was the administrative authority within the sreni. The headman was often selected via an election by the members of the sreni, who could also be removed from power by the general assembly. The headman often ran the enterprise with two to five executive officers, who were also elected by the assembly.

Coinage
Punch marked silver ingots, in circulation around the 5th century BC and the first metallic coins were minted around 6th century BC by the Mahajanapadas of the Gangetic plains were the earliest traces of coinage in India. While India's many kingdoms and rulers issued coins, barter was still widely prevalent.[6] Villages paid a portion of their agricultural produce as revenue while its craftsmen received a stipend out of the crops at harvest time for their services. Each village, as an economic unit, was mostly self-sufficient.

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Exports
Surplus of Indian manufactures, like the muslin of Dacca, calicos of Bengal, shawls of Kashmir, steel and iron works, silk, and other textiles and handicrafts, agricultural products like pepper, cinnamon, opium and indigo were exported to Europe, the Middle East and South East Asia in return for gold and silver.

GDP estimate
According to economic historian Angus Maddison in his book The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective, India had the world's largest economy from the first to 11th century, and in the 18th century, with a (32.9%) share of world GDP in the 1st century to (28.9%) in 1000 AD, and in 1700 AD with (24.4%).[7]

Maurya Empire
During the Maurya Empire (c. 321-185 BC), there were a number of important changes and developments to the Indian economy. It was the first time most of India was unified under one ruler. With an empire in place, the trade routes throughout India became more secure thereby reducing the risk associated with the transportation of goods. The empire spent considerable resources building roads and maintaining them throughout India. The improved infrastructure combined with increased security, greater uniformity in measurements, and increasing usage of coins as currency enhanced trade. During this time, the Arthasastra ("science of the state") was written by the Chanakya, an adviser to Chandragupta Maurya. The Arthasastra is one of the most important ancient texts on economics, politics and administration. It was a treatise on how to maintain and expand power, obtain material gain, and administer an empire. It covers both theory and implementation and contains many clear and detailed rules regarding the governing of an empire. The exhaustive account of the economic ideas embedded in the Arthasastra has been given by Ratan Lal Basu in his famous work "Ancient Indian Economic Thought, Relevance For Today".[8] The economic situation in the Maurya Empire is comparable to the Roman Empire several centuries later, which both had extensive trade connections and both had organizations similar to corporations. While Rome had organizational entities which were largely used for public state-driven projects, Maurya India had numerous private commercial entities which existed purely for private commerce. This was due to the Mauryas having to contend with pre-existing sreni hence they were more concerned about keeping the support of these pre-existing private commercial entities. The Romans did not have such pre-existing entities to contend with; hence, they were able to prevent such entities from developing.

Mughal Empire
1526
During this period, Mughal India was the second largest economy in the world. The gross domestic product of India in the 16th century was estimated at about 24.5% of the world economy, the largest in the world. [9] [9]

1600
An estimate of India's pre-colonial economy puts the annual revenue of Emperor Akbar's treasury in 1600 at 17.5 million, in contrast to the entire treasury of Great Britain in 1800, which totalled 16 million. The gross domestic product of Mughal India in 1600 was estimated at about 22.6% the world economy, the largest in the world.[9] [9]

Economic history of India

803

1700
By this time, the Mughal Empire expanded to almost 1000 million acres ( km2), or 90 per cent of South Asia, and a uniform customs and tax administration system was enforced. Annual revenue reported by the Emperor Aurangzeb's exchequer exceeded 100 million in 1700. Thus, India emerged as the world's largest economy, followed by Manchu China and Western Europe.[9] [9]

Early Modern Period

1725 - 1750
During this period, Mughals were replaced by the Maratha Empire in much of India. While the other small regional states who were mostly late Mughal tributary states such as the Nawabs in the north and the Nizam in south India remained. However, the Mughal tax administration system was left largely intact. China was the world's largest economy followed by India and France. The gross domestic product of India in 1750 was estimated at about 80 per cent that of China.[10]

1750 - 1775
During this period, tax administration system in India was collected by officers of the Maratha empire which expanded to almost 2.8 million km. While the Nizam's remained prosperous in the Deccan. China was the world's largest economy followed by India and France. The gross domestic product of India in 1775 was estimated at about 70 per cent that of China. Nevertheless, a devastating famine broke out in the eastern coast in early 1770s killing 5 per cent of the national population.[11]

British rule
After gaining the right to collect revenue in Bengal in 1765, the East India Company largely ceased importing gold and silver, which it had hitherto used to pay for goods shipped back to Britain.[12] In addition, as under Mughal rule, land revenue collected in the Bengal Presidency helped finance the Company's wars in other part of India.[12] Consequently, in the period 1760-1800, Bengal's money supply was greatly diminished; furthermore, the closing of some local mints and close supervision of the rest, the fixing of exchange rates, and the standardization of coinage, paradoxically, added to the economic downturn.[12] During the period, 17801860, India changed from being an exporter of processed goods for which it received payment in bullion, to being an exporter of raw materials and a buyer of manufactured goods.[12] More specifically, in the 1750s, mostly fine cotton and silk was exported from India to markets in Europe, Asia, and Africa; by the second quarter of the 19th century, raw materials, which chiefly consisted of raw cotton, opium, and indigo, accounted for most of India's exports.[13] Also, from the late 18th century British cotton mill industry began to lobby the government to both tax Indian imports and allow them access to markets in India.[13] Starting in the 1830s, British textiles began to appear inand soon to inundatethe Indian markets, with the value of the textile imports growing from 5.2 million 1850 to 18.4 million in 1896.[14] The British colonial rule created an institutional environment that did stabilise the law and order situation to a large extent. The British foreign policies however stifled the trade with rest of the world. They created a well-developed system of railways, telegraphs and a modern legal system. The infrastructure the British created was mainly geared towards the exploitation of resources ofin the world and totally stagnant, with industrial development stalled, agriculture unable to feed a rapidly accelerating population. They were subject to frequent famines, had one of the world's lowest life expectancies, suffered from pervasive malnutrition and were largely illiterate.

Economic history of India

804

GDP estimates
An estimate by Angus Maddison argues that India's share of the world income went from 24.4% in 1700, comparable to Europe's share of 23.3%, to a low of 3.8% in 1952. While Indian leaders during the Independence struggle and left-nationalist economic historians have blamed the colonial rule for the dismal state of India's economy, a broader macroeconomic view of India during this period reveals that there were segments of both growth and decline, resulting from changes brought about by colonialism and a world that was moving towards industrialization and economic integration.
Price of Silver - Rate of Exchange: 1871-72 to 1892-93 Period 18711872 18751876 18791880 18831884 18871888 18901951 18911892 18921893 Price of Silver (in pence per Troy ounce) 60 56 51 50 44 47 11/16 45 39 Rupee exchange rate (in pence) 23 21 20 19 18 18 16 15

Source: B.E. Dadachanji. History of Indian Currency and Exchange, 3rd enlarged ed. (Bombay: D.B. Taraporevala Sons & Co, 1934), p.15

The fall of the Rupee

See also: The crisis of silver currency and bank notes (17501870) After its victory in the Franco-Prussian War (187071), Germany extracted a huge indemnity from France of 200,000,000, and then moved to join Britain on a gold standard for currency. France, the US and other industrializing countries followed Germany in adopting a gold standard throughout the 1870s. At the same time, countries, such as Japan, which did not have the necessary access to gold or those, such as India, which were subject to imperial policies that determined that they did not move to a gold standard, remained mostly on a silver standard. A huge divide between silver-based and gold-based economies resulted. The worst affected were economies with a silver standard that traded mainly with economies with a gold standard. With discovery of more and more silver reserves, those currencies based on gold continued to rise in value and those based on silver were declining due to demonetization of silver. For India which carried out most of its trade with gold based countries, especially Britain, the impact of this shift was profound. As the price of silver continued to fall, so too did the exchange value of the rupee, when measured against sterling.

British East India Company rule

17751800 During this period, the East India Company began tax administration reforms in a fast expanding empire spread over 250 million acres ( km2), or 35 per cent of Indian domain. Indirect rule was also established on protectorates and buffer states. China was the world's largest economy followed by India and France. The gross domestic product of India in 1800 was estimated at about 60 per cent that of China, not taking into account the falling price of Rupee.

Economic history of India The Company treasury reported annual revenue of 111 million in circa 1800. This needs to converted to Indian Rupees with the falling price of Rupee to assess the impact on Indian economy. Almost all of the Indian land revenues were diverted by the Company to help the British Crown defend herself in the Napoleonic Wars. 18001825 China was the world's largest economy followed by India and France. The gross domestic product of India in 1825 was estimated at about 50 per cent that of China. British cotton exports reach 3 per cent of the Indian market by 1825.(pdf) [15] 18251850 China was the world's largest economy followed by the UK and India. Industrial revolution in the UK catapulted the nation to the top league of Europe for the first time ever. During this period, British foreign and economic policies began treating India as an unequal partner for the first time.[16] English replaced Persian as the official language of India. The gross domestic product of India in 1850 was estimated at about 40 per cent that of China. British cotton exports reach 30 per cent of the Indian market by 1850.(pdf) [15] Decline of the cotton textile industry Ray (2009) raises three basic questions about the 19th-century cotton textile industry in Bengal: when did the industry begin to decay, what was the extent of its decay during the early 19th century, and what were the factors that led to this? Since there is no data on production, Ray uses the industry's market performance and its consumption of raw materials. Ray challenges the prevailing belief that the industry's permanent decline started in the late 18th century or the early 19th century. The decline actually started in the mid-1820s. The pace of its decline was, however, slow though steady at the beginning, but reached crisis point by 1860, when 563,000 workers lost their jobs. Ray estimates that the industry shrank by about 28% by 1850. However, it survived in the high-end and low-end domestic markets. Ray agrees that British discriminatory policies undoubtedly depressed the industry's export outlet, but suggests its decay is better explained by technological innovations in Britain.[17]

805

British Raj
18501875 The formal dissolution of the declining Mughal Dynasty heralded a change in British treatment of Indian subjects. During the British Raj, massive railway projects were begun in earnest and government jobs and guaranteed pensions attracted a large number of upper caste Hindus into the civil service for the first time. China was the world's largest economy followed by the USA, UK and India. The gross domestic product of India in 1875 was estimated at about 30 per cent that of China (or 60 per cent that of the USA), not taking into account the falling price of Rupee. British cotton exports reach 55 per cent of the Indian market by 1875.(pdf) [15] 18751900 USA was the world's largest economy followed by China, UK, Germany and India. Collapse of the central authority of the Qing Dynasty and the resultant chaos triggered China's short but rapid decline on the world stage. The gross domestic product of India in 1900 was estimated at about 20 per cent that of the USA. The Crown treasury reported annual revenue of 122 million in circa 1900. While the revenue in terms of Pound Sterlings reported very low growth, it does not take into account the price of Rupee falling drastically, which is needed to understand the growth of revenue in terms of Indian economy.

Economic history of India 19001925 US was the world's largest economy followed by the UK, China, France, Germany, India and the USSR. The gross domestic product of India in 1925 was estimated at about 10 per cent that of the US. Zoroastrian business conglomerates like Tata and Godrej begin to enter textile, mining and durable goods industries. The Crown treasury reported annual revenue of 125 million in 1925. During this period, India became a net importer from net exporter of foodgrains. A US Dollar was exchanged at 2.76 Rupees. 19251950 US was the world's largest economy followed by the USSR, UK, China, France, Germany and India. The gross domestic product of India in 1950 was estimated at about 7 per cent that of the US. The Great Depression of 1929 had a very severe impact on India, which was then under the British. During the period 19291937, exports and imports fell drastically crippling seaborne international trade. The railways and the agricultural sector were the most affected. The international financial crisis resulted in the soaring prices of commodities. The discontent of farmers manifested itself in rebellions and riots. The Salt Satyagraha of 1930 was one of the measures undertaken as a response to heavy taxation during the Great Depression. The Great Depression and the economic policies of the Government of British India worsened the already deteriorating Indo-British relations. When the first general elections were held according to the Government of India Act 1935, anti-British feelings resulted in the Indian National Congress winning in most provinces with a very high percentage of the vote share. The newly independent but weak Union government's treasury reported annual revenue of 334 million in 1950. In contrast, Nizam Asaf Jah VII of south India was widely reported to have a fortune of almost 668 million then.[18] About one-sixth of the national population were urban by 1950.[19] A US Dollar was exchanged at 4.79 Rupees.

806

Economic impact of British imperialism

Debate continues about the economic impact of British imperialism on India. The issue was actually raised by conservative British politician Edmund Burke who in the 1780s vehemently attacked the East India Company, claiming that Warren Hastings and other top officials had ruined the Indian economy and society. Indian historian Rajat Kanta Ray (1998) continues this line of reasoning, saying the new economy brought by the British in the 18th century was a form of plunder and a catastrophe for the traditional economy of Mughal India. (Economic Drain Theory) Ray believes that British depleted the food and money stocks and imposed high taxes that helped cause the terrible famine of 1770, which killed a third of the people of Bengal.[20] P. J. Marshall, a British historian known for his work on the British empire, has a reinterpretation of the view that the prosperity of the formerly benign Mughal rule gave way to poverty and anarchy. Marshall argues the British takeover did not make any sharp break with the past. British control was delegated largely through regional rulers and was sustained by a generally prosperous economy for the rest of the 18th century, except the frequent famines with very high fatality rate(Famine in India). Marshall notes the British raised revenue through local tax administrators and kept the old Mughal rates of taxation. Instead of the Indian nationalist account of the British as alien aggressors, seizing power by brute force and impoverishing all of India, Marshall presents a British nationalist interpretation in which the British were not in full control but instead were controllers in what was primarily an Indian play and in which their ability to keep power depended upon excellent cooperation with Indian elites. Marshall admits that much of his interpretation is still rejected by many historians.[21]

Economic history of India

807

Republic of India
Nehruvian Socialist rate of growth
The "Nehruvian Socialist rate of growth" is used to refer to the low annual growth rate of the economy of India before 1991. It stagnated at around 3.5% from 1950s to 1980s, while per capita income growth averaged extremely low 1.3% a year.[22] At the same time, South Korea grew by 10% and Taiwan by 12%.[23] This phenomenon was called the "Hindu rate of growth", by the leading Indian economist Raj Krishna.

Socialist reforms (19501975)

Compare India (orange) with South Korea (yellow). Both started from about the same income level in 1950. The graph shows GDP per capita of South Asian economies and South Korea as a percent of the American GDP per capita.

USA was the world's largest economy followed by the USSR, Japan, Germany and China. The gross domestic product of India in 1975 was estimated at about 5 per cent that of the USA. Before independence a large share of tax revenue was generated by the land tax, which was in effect a lump sum tax on land. Since then land taxes have steadily declined as a share of revenues and completely replaced by sales taxes.[24] Moreover, the structural economic problems inherited at independence were exacerbated by the costs associated with the partition of British India, which had resulted in about 2 to 4 million refugees fleeing past each other across the new borders between India and Pakistan. The settlement of refugees was a considerable financial strain. Partition also divided India into complementary economic zones. Under the British, jute and cotton were grown in the eastern part of Bengal, the area that became East Pakistan (after 1971, Bangladesh), but processing took place mostly in the western part of Bengal, which became the Indian state of West Bengal in 1947. As a result, after independence India had to employ land previously used for food production to cultivate cotton and jute for its mills. Government was assigned an important role in the process of alleviating poverty, and since 1951 a series of plans had guided the country's economic development. Although there was considerable growth in the 1950s, the long-term rates of real growth were less positive than India's politicians desired and much less than those of many other Asian countries. Toward the end of Nehru's term as prime minister, India would continue to face serious food shortages despite hoped for progress and increases in agricultural production. There was mass starvation in states like Bihar due to socialist controls on the economy. Farmers as well as industrialists were ham-strung with controls (License Raj) on their freedom to run their respective businesses. Despite such atrocious conditions in the country Nehru's popularity remained unaffected because of the larger-than-life image and the personality cult that was promoted by the state controlled mass media. Since 1950, India ran into trade deficits that increased in magnitude in the 1960s. The Government of India had a budget deficit problem and therefore could not borrow money from abroad or from the private sector, which itself had a negative savings rate. As a result, the government issued bonds to the RBI, which increased the money supply, leading to inflation. In 1966, foreign aid, which was hitherto a key factor in preventing devaluation of the rupee was finally cut off and India was told it had to liberalise its restrictions on trade before foreign aid would again

Economic history of India materialise. The response was the politically unpopular step of devaluation accompanied by liberalisation. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 led the US and other countries friendly towards Pakistan to withdraw foreign aid to India, which further necessitated devaluation. Defence spending in 1965/1966 was 24.06% of total expenditure, the highest in the period from 1965 to 1989. This, accompanied by the drought of 1965/1966, led to a severe devaluation of the rupee. Current GDP per capita [25] grew 33% in the Sixties reaching a peak growth of 142% in the Seventies, decelerating sharply back to 41% in the Eighties and 20% in the Nineties. From FY 1951 to FY 1979, the economy grew at an average rate of about 3.1 percent a year in constant prices, or at an annual rate of 1.0 percent per capita (see table 16, Appendix). During this period, industry grew at an average rate of 4.5 percent a year, compared with an annual average of 3.0 percent for agriculture. They managed to tamp down on the natural business acumen and abilities of the population, yet some economists differed over the relative importance of those factors. Structural deficiencies, such as the need for institutional changes in agriculture and the inefficiency of much of the centrally directed industrial sector, also contributed to economic stagnation. Some other excuses that were generally offered were - War with China in 1962 and with Pakistan in 1965 and 1971; a flood of refugees from East Pakistan in 1971; droughts in 1965, 1966, 1971, and 1972; currency devaluation in 1966; and the first world oil crisis, in 1973-1974, all jolted the economy. This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of India at market prices estimated [26] by Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation with figures in millions of Indian Rupees. See also the IMF database [27].
Year Gross Domestic Product US Dollar Exchange1 Per Capita Income (as % of USA) 1.56 2.33 2.88 3.26 2.23 2.18

808

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 [28]

100,850 110,300 174,070 280,160 462,490 842,210

4.79 Indian Rupees 4.79 Indian Rupees 4.77 Indian Rupees 4.78 Indian Rupees 7.56 Indian Rupees 8.39 Indian Rupees

The Union government treasury reported annual revenue of 5-6 billion in 1975 thus registering an average annual growth of almost 12 per cent during the third quarter of 20th century. Nevertheless, prime minister Indira proclaimed emergency and suspended the Constitution in 1975. About one-fifth of the national population were urban by 1975.[29]

Economic history of India

809

1975 - 2000
Economic liberalization in India in the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century led to large changes in the economy. This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product and foreign trade of India at market prices estimated [26] by Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation with figures in millions of Indian Rupees. See also the IMF database [27].

Service markets which would enjoy much lighter burden of regulation and other obstacles became more successful than still regulated sectors. For example, world-famous business process services [1] are very lightly regulated.

Year

Gross Domestic Product

Exports

Imports

US Dollar Exchange1 Inflation Index (2000=100)

Per Capita Income (as % of USA) 2.18

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 [30]

842,210 1,380,334 2,729,350 5,542,706 11,571,882 20,791,898 90,290 149,510 406,350 135,960 217,540 486,980

8.39 Indian Rupees 7.86 Indian Rupees 12.36 Indian Rupees 17.50 Indian Rupees 18 28 42 69 100

2.08 1.60 1.56 1.32 1.26

1,307,330 1,449,530 32.42 Indian Rupees 2,781,260 2,975,230 44.94 Indian Rupees

About one-fourth of the national population was urban by 2000.[31]

2000 - present
The gross domestic product of India in 2007 was estimated at about 8 per cent that of the USA. National Democratic Alliance led by Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), was in helm of economic affairs from 1998 to 2004. During this period there were two finance ministers, viz., Yashwant Sinha (19982003) and Jaswant Singh (20032004). The main economic achievement of the government was the universal license in telecommunication field, which allows CDMA license holders to provide GSM services and vice versa. NDA started off the Golden Quadrilateral road network connecting main metros of Delhi, Chennai, Mumbai and Kolkata. The project, still under construction, was one of the most ambitious infrastructure projects of independent India. Simultaneously, North-South and East-West highway projects were planned and construction was started. The top 3 per cent of the population still contribute 50 per cent of the GDP and benefits of economic growth have not trickled down. Education for all is still an unrealised dream in India. This was made a fundamental right by amending the constitution of India and huge amount of money was pumped into the project under the name of Sarva

Economic history of India Shiksha Abhiyan. This project met with limited success. Graduate unemployment was estimated at 34 million nationwide. Currently, the economic activity in India has taken on a dynamic character which is at once curtailed by creaky infrastructure, for example dilapidated roads and severe shortages of electricity, and cumbersome justice system[32] yet at the same time accelerated by the sheer enthusiasm and ambition of industrialists and the populace. The upward economic cycle in India is expected in short time to effectively address the short comings and bottlenecks of the infrastructure. The fast changing, seemingly chaotic and unsettled situation is much more hopeful and reassuring than the socialist morass that was the Nehru and Indira Gandhi legacy. This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product and foreign trade of India at market prices estimated [26] by Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation with figures in millions of Indian Rupees. See also the IMF database [27].
Year Gross Domestic Product Exports Imports US Dollar Exchange1 Inflation Index (2000=100) Per Capita Income (as % of USA) 1.26 1.64 2.01

810

2000 2005 2010 [28]

20,791,898 34,195,278 66,911,800

2,781,260 2,975,230 44.94 Indian Rupees 44.09 Indian Rupees 45.83 Indian Rupees

100 121 126

For purchasing power parity comparisons, the US Dollar is exchanged at 9.46 Rupees only. Despite steady growth and continuous reforms since the Nineties, Indian economy is still mired in bureaucratic hurdles from coast to coast. This was confirmed by a World Bank report published in late 2006 ranking Pakistan (at 74th) well ahead of India (at 134th) based on ease of doing business.[33] The Union government treasury reported annual revenue of 51-52 billion in 2005 thus registering an average annual growth of almost 22 per cent since 2000. India imported about 85 per cent of oil and 22 per cent of gas consumption by 2003.

References
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Economic history of India

[17] Indrajit Ray, "Identifying the woes of the cotton textile industry in Bengal: Tales of the nineteenth century," Economic History Review, Nov 5896, Vol. 62 Issue 4, pp 857-892 [18] His Fortune on TIME (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,868973,00. html?iid=chix-sphere) [19] One-sixth of Indians were urban by 1950 (http:/ / globalis. gvu. unu. edu/ indicator_detail. cfm?country=IN& indicatorid=30) [20] Rajat Kanta Ray, "Indian Society and the Establishment of British Supremacy, 1765-1818," in The Oxford History of the British Empire: vol. 2, The Eighteenth Century" ed. by P. J. Marshall, (1998), pp 508-29 [21] P.J. Marshall, "The British in Asia: Trade to Dominion, 1700-1765," in The Oxford History of the British Empire: vol. 2, The Eighteenth Century" ed. by P. J. Marshall, (1998), pp 487-507 [22] Redefining The Hindu Rate Of Growth (http:/ / www. financialexpress. com/ news/ redefining-the-hindu-rate-of-growth/ 104268/ ). The Financial Express [23] "Industry passing through phase of transition" (http:/ / www. tribuneindia. com/ 50yrs/ kapur. htm). The Tribune India. . [24] http:/ / www. econ. ucdavis. edu/ faculty/ gclark/ 210a/ readings/ One%20Polity. pdf [25] http:/ / earthtrends. wri. org/ text/ economics-business/ variable-638. html [26] http:/ / mospi. nic. in/ 2_macro_agg_curr. pdf [27] http:/ / www. imf. org/ external/ pubs/ ft/ weo/ 2006/ 01/ data/ dbcselm. cfm?G=2001 [28] Lawrence H. Officer, "Exchange rate between the United States dollar and forty other countries, 1913 -1999." Economic History Services, EH.Net, 2002. URL: http:/ / eh. net/ hmit/ exchangerates/ [29] One-fifth of Indians were urban by 1975 (http:/ / globalis. gvu. unu. edu/ indicator_detail. cfm?country=IN& indicatorid=30) [30] Lawrence H. Officer, "Exchange rate between the United States dollar and forty other countries, 1913 -1999." Economic History Services, EH.Net, 2002. URL: http:/ / eh. net/ hmit/ exchangerates/ [31] One-fourth of Indians were urban by 2000 (http:/ / globalis. gvu. unu. edu/ indicator_detail. cfm?country=IN& indicatorid=30) [32] "businessanticorruption | Judicial System" (http:/ / www. business-anti-corruption. com/ country-profiles/ south-asia/ india/ corruption-levels/ judicial-system/ ). Business-anti-corruption.com. . Retrieved 2010-07-28. [33] "Rankings - Doing Business - The World Bank Group" (http:/ / www. doingbusiness. org/ EconomyRankings/ Default. aspx?direction=asc& sort=1). Doing Business. . Retrieved 2010-07-28.

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Bibliography
Books Bardhan, Pranab. Awakening Giants, Feet of Clay: Assessing the Economic Rise of China and India by (Princeton University Press; 2010) 172 pages; Bowen, H. V. Business of Empire: The East India Company and Imperial Britain, 1756-1833 (2006), 304pp Datt, Ruddar & Sundharam, K.P.M. (1965). Indian Economy (51st Revised ed. (2005)). S.Chand. ISBN 81-219-0298-3. G. Balachandran, ed. India and the World Economy, 1850-1950 Oxford University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-19-567234-8. Chaudhuri, K. N.Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Ocean: An Economic History from the Rise of Islam to 1750 (1985) Das, Gurcharan. India Unbound: The Social and Economic Revolution from Independence to the Global Information Age (2002). Farnie, D. A. (1979), The English Cotton Industry and the World Market, 1815-1896, Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Pp. 414, ISBN0198224788 Frankel, Francine R. India's Political Economy, 1947-1977: The Gradual Revolution (1978). Ludden, David, ed. New Cambridge History of India: An Agrarian History of South Asia (1999). Habib, Irfan. Agrarian System of Mughal India (1963, revised edition 1999). Habib, Irfan. Atlas of the Mughal Empire: Political and Economic Maps (1982). Habib, Irfan. Indian Economy, 1858-1914 (2006). Larue, C. Steven. The India Handbook (1997) (Regional Handbooks of Economic Development). Kumar, Dharma and Meghnad Desai, eds. The Cambridge Economic History of India: Volume 2, c.1751-c.1970 (1983). Lal, Deepak. The Hindu Equilibrium: India C.1500 B.C.-2000 A.D. (2nd ed. 2005). Micklethwait, John & Wooldridge, Adrian (2003). The Company: a short history of a revolutionary idea. Modern library chronicles. ISBN 0-679-64249-8.

Economic history of India Jawaharlal Nehru, The Discovery of India Peers, Douglas M. (2006), India under Colonial Rule 17001885, Harlow and London: Pearson Longmans. Pp. xvi, 163, ISBN058231738. Raychaudhuri, Tapan and Irfan Habib, eds. The Cambridge Economic History of India: Volume 1, c. 1200-c. 1750 (1982). Robb, Peter (2004), A History of India (Palgrave Essential Histories), Houndmills, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. Pp. xiv, 344, ISBN0333691296. Roy, Tirthankar. The Economic History of India 1857-1947 (2002, 2006). Rudolph, Lloyd I. In Pursuit of Lakshmi: The Political Economy of the Indian State (1987). Sabhlok, Sanjeev. Breaking Free of Nehru (2008), Anthem Press. ISBN 9788190583589. Sankaran, S (1984). Indian Economy: Problems, Policies and Development (7th ed. (1994)). Margham Publications. Tomlinson, B. R. et al.The Economy of Modern India, 1860-1970 (1996) (The New Cambridge History of India) Max Weber, The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism Articles Dr. Nupam P. Mahajan, (1999) India's First Coinage (http://www.med.unc.edu/~nupam/ancient1.html). Retrieved Feb. 24, 2005. Papers Khanna, Vikramaditya S. (2005). The Economic History of the Corporate Form in Ancient India. (http://papers. ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=796464) University of Michigan. Pearce, H. Thomas (Spring 2003). Weber's study of the Hindu ethic and the caste system (http://www.mc. maricopa.edu/~pearce/pdfs/caste.pdf). News "Manmohan Singh's address at the Oxford in July 2005" (http://www.hindu.com/2005/07/10/stories/ 2005071002301000.htm). The Hindu (Chennai, India). 2005-07-10. Retrieved December 10, 2005. http://livesharemarkets.com/2008/04/04/inflation-at-3-years-hightouches-7-markets-down-by-490-points/ Limca Book of Records (1993). Bisleri Beverages Limited. ISBN 81-900115-6-1. This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents (http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/ cs/) of the Library of Congress Country Studies.

812

External links
Economic History of India (http://www.indohistory.com/economic_history_of_india.html) Precolonial times to present

813

Demographics
Demographics of India
Demographics of India

Population of India, 1961-2003 Population: Growth rate: Birth rate: Death rate: Life expectancy: male: female: Fertility rate: Infant mortality rate: 1,210,193,422 (2011 est.) (2nd) 1.41% (2009 est.) (93rd) 22.22 births/1,000 population (2009 est.) 6.4 deaths/1,000 population (2009 est.) 69.89 years (2009 est.) 67.46 years (2009 est.) 72.61 years (2009 est.) 2.68 children born/woman (2010 est.) (82nd) 30.15 deaths/1,000 live births (2009 est.) Age structure: 0-14 years: 15-64 years: 65-over: 31.1% (male 190,075,426/female 172,799,553) (2009 est.) 63.6% (male 381,446,079/female 359,802,209) (2009 est.) 5.3% (male 29,364,920/female 32,591,030) (2009 est.) Sex ratio: At birth: Under 15: 15-64 years: 65-over: 1.12 male(s)/female (2009 est.) 1.10 male(s)/female (2009 est.) 1.06 male(s)/female (2009 est.) 0.90 male(s)/female (2009 est.) Nationality: Major ethnic: See Ethnic Groups of India Language: Official: See Languages of India

Demographics of India The demographics of India are remarkably diverse. India is the second most populous country in the world, with over 1.21 billion people (2011 census), more than a sixth of the world's population. Already containing 17.5% of the world's population, India is projected to be the world's most populous country by 2025, surpassing China, its population exceeding 1.6 billion people by 2050.[1] [2] However, its population growth rate is only 1.41%, ranking 93rd in the world. India has more than 50% of its population below the age of 25 and more than 65% hovers below the age of 35. It is expected that, in 2020, the average age of an Indian will be 29 years, compared to 37 for China and 48 for Japan; and, by 2030, India's dependency ratio should be just over 0.4.[3] India has more than two thousand ethnic groups, and every major religion is represented, as are four major families of languages (Indo-European, Dravidian, Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman languages) as well as a language isolate (the Nihali language[4] spoken in parts of Maharashtra). Further complexity is lent by the great variation that occurs across this population on social parameters such as income and education. Only the continent of Africa exceeds the linguistic, genetic and cultural diversity of the nation of India.[5]

814

Salient features
India occupies 2.4% of the world's land area and supports over 17.5% of the world's population. India has more arable land area than any country except the United States,[6] and more water area than any country except Canada and the United States. Indian life revolves mostly around agriculture and allied activities in small villages, where the overwhelming majority of Indians live. As per the 2001 census, 72.2% of the population[7] lives in about 638,000 villages[8] and the remaining 27.8%[9] lives in more than 5,100 towns and over 380 urban agglomerations.[10]

Religious demographics
India contains the majority of the world's Zoroastrians, Sikhs, Hindus, Jains and Bah'. India is also home to the third-largest Muslim population in the world after Indonesia and Pakistan. Religious majorities vary greatly by state. Jammu and Kashmir and Lakshadweep are Muslim majority states; Nagaland, Mizoram and Meghalaya are Christian majority; Punjab is majority Sikh; It is to be noted that while participants in the Indian census may choose to not declare their religion, there is no mechanism for a person to indicate that he/she does not adhere to any religion. Due to this limitation in the Indian census process, the data for persons not affiliated with any religion may not be accurate. The table below summarizes the findings of the 2001 census with regards to religion in India: 1. All figures in %. 2. Others including Bah's, Jews, and Parsis. 3. Tribal Animists (and non religious) are grouped under Others after 1926 (1931 census onwards)

Demographics of India

815

Table 2: Census information for 2001*

Composition % total of population 2001 10-Yr Growth % (est '91'01) Sex ratio (avg. 944) Literacy rate (71.7% for Age 7 & above) Work Participation Rate Rural sex ratio [19] [19] [19] * Hindus 80.5% 20.3% 935 [20] 75.5 40.4 944 922 925 [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] Muslims Christians Sikhs Buddhist Jains Others 13.4% 29.5% 940 60.0 31.3 953 907 950 2.3% 22.6% 1009 90.3 39.7 1001 1026 964 1.9% 18.2% 895 70.4 37.7 895 886 786 0.8% 24.5% 955 73.0 40.6 958 944 942 0.4% 26.0% 940 95.0 32.9 937 941 870 0.6% 103.1% 1000 50.0 48.4 995 966 976

Urban sex ratio

Child sex ratio (06 yrs)

N.B. Table excludes Mao-Maram, Paomata and Purul subdivisions of Senapati District of Manipur state. * The data is "unadjusted" (without excluding Assam and Indian-administered Kashmir); 1981 census was not conducted in Assam and 1991 census was not conducted in Jammu and Kashmir. No. of females/1000 males.

List of States and Union territories by demographics

Rank State or union territory Uttar Pradesh Maharashtra Bihar West Bengal Andhra Pradesh Tamil Nadu Madhya Pradesh Rajasthan Karnataka Gujarat Orissa Kerala Jharkhand Assam Punjab Haryana Chhattisgarh Jammu and Kashmir Uttarakhand Population % [21] Rural [22] Pop. 131,658,339 55,777,647 74,316,709 57,748,946 55,401,067 34,921,681 44,380,878 43,292,813 34,889,033 31,740,767 31,287,422 23,574,449 20,952,088 23,216,288 16,096,488 15,029,260 16,648,056 7,627,062 Urban [22] Pop. 34,539,582 41,100,980 8,681,800 22,427,251 20,808,940 27,483,998 15,967,145 13,214,375 17,961,529 18,930,250 5,517,238 8,266,925 5,993,741 3,439,240 8,262,511 6,115,304 4,185,747 2,516,638 Area [23] km 240,928 307,713 94,163 88,752 275,045 130,058 308,245 342,239 191,791 196,024 155,707 38,863 79,714 78,438 50,362 44,212 135,191 222,236 Density (per km) 828 365 1102 1030 308 555 236 201 319 308 269 859 414 397 550 573 189 56 Area mi Density (per mi) 2146 815 2,855 2,666 797 1,437 610 519 826 798 698 2,225 1071 1029 1,425 1,485 489 146 Sex ratio 908 946 916 860 912 915 930 926 968 918 905 1,084 947 954 893 877 991 883

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

199,581,520 112,372,972 103,804,637 91,347,736 84,665,533 72,138,958 72,597,565 68,621,012 61,130,704 60,383,628 41,947,358 33,387,677 32,966,238 31,169,272 27,704,236 25,353,081 25,540,196 12,548,926

16.49% 9.29% 8.58% 7.55% 7.00% 5.96% 6.00% 5.67% 5.05% 4.99% 3.47% 2.76% 2.72% 2.58% 2.29% 2.09% 2.11% 1.04%

93,022.8 118,808.7 36,356.5 34,267.3 106,195.5 50,215.7 119,014.1 132,139.2 74,050.9 75,685.3 60,118.8 15,005.1 30,777.7 30,285.1 19,444.9 17,070.3 52,197.5 85,805.8

19

10,116,752

0.84%

6,310,275

2,179,074

53,483

189

20,649.9

490

963

Demographics of India

816
6,856,509 3,671,032 2,964,007 2,721,756 1,980,602 1,457,723 1,382,611 1,091,014 607,688 16,753,235 1,244,464 1,054,686 379,944 0.57% 0.30% 0.24% 0.22% 0.16% 0.12% 0.11% 0.09% 0.05% 1.38% 0.10% 0.09% 0.03% 5,482,319 2,653,453 1,864,711 1,590,820 1,647,249 677,091 870,087 447,567 480,981 944,727 325,726 92,120 239,954 595,581 545,750 454,111 575,968 342,787 670,577 227,881 441,006 59,870 12,905,780 648,619 808,515 116,198 55,673 10,486 22,429 22,327 16,579 3,702 83,743 21,081 7,096 11,297 479 114 8,249 123 350 132 122 119 394 17 52 86 9,340 2,598 9,252 46 21,495.5 4,048.7 8,659.9 8,620.5 6,401.2 1,429.4 32,333.4 8,139.4 2,739.8 572.6 184.9 44.0 3,185.0 319 907 342 316 309 1020 43 134 222 29,258 6,730 23,970 119 974 921 986 987 931 968 920 975 889 866 1,038 818 878

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 UT1 UT2 UT3 UT4

Himachal Pradesh Tripura Meghalaya Manipur Nagaland Goa Arunachal Pradesh Mizoram Sikkim Delhi Puducherry Chandigarh Andaman and Nicobar Islands Dadra and Nagar Haveli Daman and Diu Lakshadweep

UT5

342,853

0.03%

170,027

50,463

491

698

189.6

1,808

775

UT6 UT7

242,911 64,429

0.02% 0.01%

100,856 33,683 742,490,639

57,348 26,967 286,119,689

112 32 3,287,240

2,169 2,013

43.2 12.4

5,623 5,196 954

618 946 940

Total India

1,210,193,422 100.00%

382 1,269,210.5

Linguistic demographics
43% of the Hindus speak Hindi while the rest speak Assamese, Bangla, Gujarati, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Tamil, Telugu and other languages. Almost 45% of the Muslims speak Urdu while the rest speak Assamese, Bangla, Gujarati, Kashmiri, Malayalam, Tamil, Telugu and other languages. About one-third of the Christians speak Malayalam, one-sixth speak Tamil while the rest speak a variety of languages. In total, there are 1,652 languages and dialects spoken in India.[24]

Languages of India by number of native speakers as per the 2001 census[25]

Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Language Speakers Percentage

[26] 422,048,642 41.03% Hindi dialects Bengali Telugu Marathi Tamil Urdu Gujarati Kannada Malayalam Oriya Punjabi 83,369,769 74,002,856 71,936,894 60,793,814 51,536,111 46,091,617 37,924,011 33,066,392 33,017,446 29,102,477 8.11% 7.19% 6.99% 5.91% 5.01% 4.48% 3.69% 3.21% 3.21% 2.83%

Demographics of India

817
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 Assamese Maithili Bhili/Bhilodi Santali Kashmiri Nepali Gondi Sindhi Konkani Dogri Khandeshi Kurukh Tulu 13,168,484 12,179,122 9,582,957 6,469,600 5,527,698 2,871,749 2,713,790 2,535,485 2,489,015 2,282,589 2,075,258 1,751,489 1,722,768 1.28% 1.18% 0.93% 0.63% 0.54% 0.28% 0.26% 0.25% 0.24% 0.22% 0.20% 0.17% 0.17% 0.14% 0.13% 0.112% 0.105% 0.103%

Meitei (Manipuri) 1,466,705* Bodo Khasi Mundari Ho 1,350,478 1,128,575 1,061,352 1,042,724

N.B. The percentage of speakers of each language for 2001 has been worked out on the total population of India (excluding Mao-Maram, Paomata and Purul subdivisions of Senapati District of Manipur state due to cancellation of census results). * Excludes Mao-Maram, Paomata and Purul of Senapati District.

CIA World Factbook demographic statistics

The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Total Population 1,166,079,217 (July 2009 est. CIA)[28] 1,028.7 million (2001 Census final figures, March 1 enumeration and estimated 124,000 in areas of Manipur that could not be covered in the enumeration)

Chart showing the Total Fertility Rate of Indian states (SRS survey 1996-98)

[27]

Demographics of India

818

Rural Population 72.2%, male: 381,668,992, 360,948,755 (2001 Census) Age structure 014 years: 30.8%, male: 188,208,196, female: 171,356,024 1564 years: 64.3%, male: 386,432,921, female: 364,215,759 65+ years: 4.9%, male: 27,258,259, female: 30,031,289 (2007 est.) Median age 25.1 years Population growth rate 1.548% (2009 est.) Birth rate 21.76 births/1,000 population (2009 est.) Death rate 6.4 deaths/1,000 population (2009 est.)
Map showing the population density of each district in India.

female:

Literacy rate 71.7% (Age 7 & above) [20] Percent of the population under the poverty line 22% (2006 est.) Unemployment Rate 7.8% Net migration rate 0.05 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2007 est.) Sex ratio at birth: 1.12 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.098 male(s)/female 1564 years: 1.061 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.908 male(s)/female total population: 1.064 male(s)/female (2006 est.) Infant mortality rate total: 30.15 deaths/1,000 live births (2009 est.) male: 34.61 deaths/1,000 live births female: 25.17 deaths/1,000 live births
Map showing the literacy rate of each district in India.

Demographics of India Life expectancy at birth total population: 69.89 years male: 67.46 years female: 72.61 years (2007 est.) Total fertility rate 2.72 children born/woman (2009 est.) The TFR (Total number of children born per women) according to Religion in 2001 was : Hindus 2.0 Muslims 2.4 Sikhs 2.1 Christians 2.1 Buddhists 2.1 Jains 1.4 Animists and Others 2.99 Tribals 3.16 Scheduled Castes 2.89 Religions Hindu 80.5% Muslim 13.4% Christian 2.3% Sikh 1.8% Buddhists 0.8% Jains 0.4% others 0.7% unspecified 0.1% (2001 Census) [29] [30] [31] [32] Scheduled Castes and Tribes Scheduled Castes: 16.2% (2001 Census) Scheduled Tribes: 8.2% (2001 Census) Languages: See Languages of India and List of Indian languages by total speakers. There are 216 languages with more than 10,000 native speakers in India. The largest of these is Hindi with some 337 million (the second largest being Bangla with some 207 million). 22 languages are recognized as official languages. In India, there are 1,652 languages and dialects in total.[24] [33]

819

Population projections
India is projected to overtake China as the world's most populous nation by 2030. India's population growth has raised concerns that it would lead to widespread unemployment and political instability.[34] [35] Source:[36] 2020: 1,326,093,000 2030: 1,460,743,000 2040: 1,571,715,000 2050: 1,656,554,000

2020 Estimate
Source:[37]
Year Under 15 1564 65+ Total 2000 361 2005 368 2010 370 2015 372 2020 373 604 673 747 819 882 45 51 58 65 76 1010 1093 1175 1256 1331

Demographics of India

820

Ethnic groups
The national Census of India does not recognize racial or ethnic groups within India,[38] but recognizes many of the tribal groups as Scheduled Castes and Tribes (see list of Scheduled Tribes in India). It should be noted that Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Tibeto-Burman and Austro-Asiatic are mainly linguistic terms and denote speakers of these linguistic groups. For a list of ethnic groups in the Republic of India (as well as neighboring countries) see ethnic groups of the Indian subcontinent or the tree diagram above.

Genetics
Y-chromosome DNA
[39]

Y-Chromosome DNA Y-DNA represents the male lineage, The Indian Y-chromosome pool may be summarized as follows where haplogroups R1a, H, R2, L & NOP comprise generally more than 80% of the total chromosomes.[40] H ~ 30% R1a ~ 20% R2 ~ 15% L ~ 10% NOP ~ 10% (Excluding R) Other Haplogroups 15%

Mitochondrial DNA
[41]

Mitochondrial DNA mtDNA represents the female lineage. The Indian mitochondrial DNA, which is primarily made up of Haplogroup M[42] Haplogroup M ~ 60% Haplogroup UK ~ 15% Haplogroup N ~ 25% (Excluding UK)

Notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] BBC - India's population 'to be biggest' in the planet (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ 3575994. stm) United States Census Bureau - International Data Base (IDB) (http:/ / www. census. gov/ ipc/ www/ idb/ informationGateway. php) India's demographic dividend (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ south_asia/ 6911544. stm) SIL International. "Ethnologue report for Language Isolate" (http:/ / www. ethnologue. com/ show_family. asp?subid=90087). . Retrieved 2007-10-11. India, a Country Study (http:/ / lcweb2. loc. gov/ frd/ cs/ profiles/ India. pdf) United States Library of Congress, Note on Ethnic groups GM Crops Around the World an accurate picture (http:/ / www. gmfreeze. org/ uploads/ GM_crops_land_area_final. pdf) GM Freeze, Table 3 Rural-Urban distribution (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Census_Data_2001/ India_at_glance/ rural. aspx) Census of India: Census Data 2001: India at a glance >> Rural-Urban Distribution. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved on 2008-11-26. Number of Villages (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Census_Data_2001/ Census_data_finder/ A_Series/ Number_of_Village. htm) Census of India: Number of Villages Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved on 2008-11-26.

[8]

[9] Rural-Urban distribution (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Census_Data_2001/ India_at_glance/ rural. aspx) Census of India: Census Data 2001: India at a glance >> Rural-Urban Distribution. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved on 2008-11-26. [10] Urban Agglomerations and Towns (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Census_Data_2001/ Census_data_finder/ A_Series/ Urban_agglomerations. htm) Census of India: Urban Agglomerations and Towns. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner,

Demographics of India
India. Retrieved on 2008-11-26. [11] Office of The Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India, New Delhi-110011 2011, p.1. [12] "Tables: Profiles by main religions: Hindus" (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Census_Data_2001/ India_at_glance/ religion. aspx). Census of India: Census Data 2001: India at a glance >> Religious Composition. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. . Retrieved 2008-11-26. [13] "Tables: Profiles by main religions: Muslims" (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Census_Data_2001/ India_at_glance/ religion. aspx). Census of India: Census Data 2001: India at a glance >> Religious Composition. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. . Retrieved 2008-11-26. [14] "Tables: Profiles by main religions: Christians" (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Census_Data_2001/ India_at_glance/ religion. aspx). Census of India: Census Data 2001: India at a glance >> Religious Composition. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. . Retrieved 2008-11-26. [15] "Tables: Profiles by main religions: Sikhs" (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Census_Data_2001/ India_at_glance/ religion. aspx). Census of India 2001: Census Data 2001: India at a glance >> Religious Composition. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. . Retrieved 2008-11-26. [16] "Tables: Profiles by main religions: Buddhists" (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Census_Data_2001/ India_at_glance/ religion. aspx). Census of India: Census Data 2001: India at a glance >> Religious Composition. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. . Retrieved 2008-11-26. [17] "Tables: Profiles by main religions: Jains" (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Census_Data_2001/ India_at_glance/ religion. aspx). Census of India: Census Data 2001: India at a glance >> Religious Composition. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. . Retrieved 2008-11-26. [18] "Tables: Profiles by main religions: Other religions" (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Census_Data_2001/ India_at_glance/ religion. aspx). Census of India: Census Data 2001: India at a glance >> Religious Composition. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. . Retrieved 2008-11-26. [19] "Census of India." (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Census_Data_2001/ India_at_glance/ religion. aspx). Census of India. Census Data 2001: India at a glance >> Religious Composition. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. . Retrieved 2008-11-26. [20] http:/ / mospi. gov. in/ press_note_NSS_%20Report_no_532_19may10. pdf [21] "Ranking of States and Union territories by population size : 1991 and 2001" (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Data_Products/ Library/ Provisional_Population_Total_link/ PDF_Links/ chapter3. pdf). Government of India (2001). Census of India. pp. 56. . Retrieved 2008-12-12. [22] "Population" (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Census_Data_2001/ Census_Data_Online/ Population/ Total_Population. aspx). Government of India (2001). Census of India. . Retrieved 2008-10-26. [23] "Area of India/state/district" (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Census_Data_2001/ Census_Data_Online/ Administrative_Divisions/ Area_of_India. aspx). Government of India (2001). Census of India. . Retrieved 2008-10-27. [24] [[Mother Tongues (http:/ / www. languageinindia. com/ aug2002/ indianmothertongues1961aug2002. html)] of India According to the 1961 Census] [25] Abstract of speakers' strength of languages and mother tongues - 2000 (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Census_Data_2001/ Census_Data_Online/ Language/ Statement1. htm), Census of India, 2001 [26] includes Western Hindi, Eastern Hindi, Bihari languages, Rajasthani languages and Pahari languages. [27] National Population Policy of India (http:/ / www. unescap. org/ esid/ psis/ population/ database/ poplaws/ law_india/ indiaappend3. htm) [28] CIA World Factbook India (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ in. html) [29] Religious Composition (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Census_Data_2001/ India_at_glance/ religion. aspx) Census of India: Census Data 2001: India at a glance >> Religious Composition. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved on 2008-11-26. [30] International Religious Freedom Report 2007 India (http:/ / www. state. gov/ g/ drl/ rls/ irf/ 2007/ 90228. htm) International Religious Freedom Report 2007. U.S. Department of State. [31] CIA's The World Factbook India (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ in. html) [32] Bureau of South and Central [[Asia (http:/ / www. state. gov/ r/ pa/ ei/ bgn/ 3454. htm)]n Affairs Background Note: India] [33] Rupert Goodwins. Smashing India's language barriers (http:/ / news. zdnet. co. uk/ software/ 0,1000000121,39268336,00. htm). ZDNet UK. [34] http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ blogs/ thereporters/ soutikbiswas/ 2011/ 03/ indias_census_the_good_and_bad_news. html [35] http:/ / www. dailymail. co. uk/ news/ article-1371996/ India-set-overtake-China-worlds-populated-country-adding-180m-people-decade. html?ito=feeds-newsxml [36] (http:/ / www. census. gov/ ipc/ www/ idb/ informationGateway. php) [37] Based on P.N. Mari Bhat, "Indian Demographic Scenario 2025", Institute of Economic Growth, New Delhi, Discussion Paper No. 27/2001. [38] Kumar, Jayant. Census of India. 2001. September 4, 2006. Indian Census (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ ) [39] http:/ / www. pnas. org/ content/ 103/ 4/ 843. full [40] Hammer et al. 2005, S. Sahoo et al. 2006, R. Trivedi et al. 2007, Zhao et al. 2008 [41] http:/ / www. biomedcentral. com/ content/ pdf/ 1471-2148-5-26. pdf [42] Semino et al. 2000, Kivisild et al. 2003, Metspalu et al 2004, Rajkumar et al. 2005, Chandrasekar et al. 2007, Gonzalez et al. 2007

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Demographics of India

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References External links

Census of India (http://www.censusindia.gov.in/); government site with detailed data from 2001 census Census of India map generator (http://www.censusindiamaps.net/); generates maps based on 2001 census figures Demographic data for India (http://www.demographie.net/demographicdata/); provides sources of demographic data for India 2001 maps (http://www.demographie.net/atlas2001); provides maps of social, economic and demographic data of India in 2001 Population cartogram of India (http://www.worldmapper.org/countrycartograms/carto_ind.htm) Population of India 2011 map (http://populationindia.wordpress.com/2011/04/10/ population-of-india-2011-image/); distribution of population amongst states and union territories

Religion in India
India is the birth place of four of the world's major religious traditions; namely Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism. [1] Throughout its history, religion has been an important part of the country's culture. Religious diversity and religious tolerance are both established in the country by law and custom. A vast majority of Indians associate themselves with a religion. According to the 2001 census, Hinduism accounted for 80.5% of the population of India. Islam (13.4%), Christianity (2.3%) and Sikhism (1.9%) are the other major religions followed by the people of India. This diversity of religious belief systems existing in India today is a result of, besides existence and birth of native religions, assimilation and social integration of religions brought to the region by traders, travelers, immigrants, and even invaders and conquerors. Zoroastrianism and Judaism also have an ancient history in India and each has several thousand Indian adherents. India has the largest population of people adhering to Zoroastrianism and Bah' Faith anywhere in the world. [3] [4] Many other world religions also have a relationship with Indian spirituality, like the Baha'i faith which recognizes Lord Buddha and Lord Krishna as manifestations of God Almighty.
[2]

A statue of the Gautama Buddha in Tawang.

A statue of Shiva in Bangalore.

Indian diaspora in the West have popularized many aspects of Hindu philosophy like yoga (meditation), Ayurvedic medicine, divination, vegetarianism, karma and reincarnation to a great extend.[5] The influence of Indians abroad in spiritual matters has been significant as several organizations such as the Hare Krishna movement, the Brahma Kumaris, the Ananda Marga and others spread by Indian spiritual figures.

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The Muslim population in India is the third largest in the world. The shrines of some of the most famous saints of Sufism like Moinuddin Chishti and Nizamuddin Auliya are in India and attract visitors from all over the world.[6] India is also home to some of the most famous monuments of Islamic architecture like the Taj Mahal and the Qutb Minar. Civil matters related to the community are dealt with by the Muslim Personal Law, and constitutional amendments in 1985 established its primacy in family matters.[7] The Constitution of India declares the nation to be a secular republic that must uphold the right of citizens to freely worship and propagate any religion or faith (with activities subject to reasonable restrictions for the sake of morality, law and order, etc.).[8] [9] The Constitution of India also declares the right to freedom of religion as a fundamental right. Citizens of India are generally tolerant of each other's religions and retain a secular outlook, although inter-religious marriage is not widely practiced. Inter-community clashes have found little support in the social mainstream, and it is generally perceived that the causes of religious conflicts are political rather than ideological in nature.[10]

A statue of Jain prophet (or Jina) Bahubali in Karnataka.

History
A popular Bah' House of Worship in Delhi, India, located at 283311.46N 771535.10E

Evolution of Hinduism
Hinduism is often regarded as the oldest religion in the world,[11] with roots tracing back to prehistoric times,[12] or 5000 years.[13] Evidence attesting to prehistoric religion in the Indian "subcontinent" derives from scattered Mesolithic rock paintings depicting dances and rituals. Neolithic pastoralists inhabiting the Indus River Valley buried their dead in a manner suggestive of spiritual practices that incorporated notions of an afterlife and belief in magic.[14] Other South Asian Stone Age sites, such as the Bhimbetka rock shelters in central Madhya Pradesh and the Kupgal petroglyphs of eastern Karnataka, contain rock art portraying religious rites and evidence of possible ritualised music.[15]
"Priest King" of Indus The Harappan people of the Indus Valley Civilization, which lasted from 3300 to 1700 Valley Civilization BCE and was centered around the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra river valleys, may have worshiped an important mother goddess symbolising fertility.[16] Excavations of Indus Valley Civilization sites show seals with animals and "firealtars", indicating rituals associated with fire. A linga-yoni of a type similar to that which is now worshiped by Hindus has also been found.

Religion in India

824 Hinduism's origins include cultural elements of the Indus Valley Civilization, the Vedic religion of the Indo-Aryans, and other Indian civilizations. The oldest surviving text of Hinduism is the Rigveda, produced during the Vedic period and dated to 17001100 BCE.[][17] During the Epic and Puranic periods, the earliest versions of the epic poems Ramayana and Mahabharata were written roughly from 500100 BCE,[18] although these were orally transmitted for centuries prior to this period.[19]

Akshardham largest Hindu temple in the world.

After 200 CE, several schools of thought were formally codified in Indian philosophy, including Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva-Mimamsa and Vedanta.[20] Hinduism, otherwise a highly theistic religion, hosted atheistic schools; the thoroughly materialistic and anti-religious philosophical Crvka school that originated in India around the 6th century BCE is probably the most explicitly atheistic school of Indian philosophy. Crvka is classified as a nastika ("heterodox") system; it is not included among the six schools of Hinduism generally regarded as orthodox. It is noteworthy as evidence of a materialistic movement within Hinduism.[21] Our understanding of Crvka philosophy is fragmentary, based largely on criticism of the ideas by other schools, and it is no longer a living tradition.[22] Other Indian philosophies generally regarded as orthodox include Classical Samkhya and Purva Mimamsa.

Buddhist Mahabodhi Temple

Rise of Shramana Religions

Mahavira the 24th Jain Tirthankara (599527 BC, though possibly 549477 BC), stressed five vows, including ahimsa (non-violence) and asteya (non-stealing). Gautama Buddha, who founded Buddhism, was born to the Shakya clan just before Magadha (which lasted from 546324 BCE) rose to power. Buddha is said to be a descendant of Brahmin Sage Angirasa in many Buddhist texts.[23] His surname 'Gautama', some scholars like Dr. Eitel connect it to the Brahmin Rishi Gautama.[24] His family was native to the plains of Lumbini, in what is now southern Nepal. Indian Buddhism peaked during the reign of Asoka the Great of the Mauryan Empire, who patronized Buddhism following his conversion and unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE. He sent missionaries abroad, allowing Buddhism to spread across Asia.[25] Indian Buddhism declined following the loss of royal patronage offered by the Kushan Empire and such kingdoms as Magadha and

Palitana Jain Temples.

Kosala.

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Some scholars think between 400 BCE and 1000 CE, Hinduism expanded as the decline of Buddhism in India continued.[26] Buddhism subsequently became effectively extinct in India.

Advent of Islam
Though Islam came to India in the early 7th century with the advent of Arab traders, it started to become a major religion during the Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent. Islam's spread in India mostly took place under the Delhi Sultanate (12061526) and the Mughal Empire, greatly aided by the mystic Sufi tradition.[27]

The Jama Masjid in Delhi is one of the world's largest mosques.

Bhakti Movement
During the 14-17th centuries, when North India was under Muslim rule, The bhakti movement swept through Central and Northern India, initiated by a loosely associated group of teachers or sants. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Vallabhacharya, Surdas, Meera Bai, Kabir, Tulsidas, Ravidas, Namdeo, Tukaram and other mystics spearheaded the Bhakti movement in the North. They taught that people could cast aside the heavy burdens of ritual and caste, and the subtle complexities of philosophy, and simply express their overwhelming love for God. This period was also characterized by a spate of devotional literature in vernacular prose and poetry in the ethnic languages of the various Indian states or provinces. Bhakti movement spawned into several different movements all across North and South India. During the Bhakti Movement, many Hindu groups, regarded as outside the traditional Hindu caste system followed Bhakti traditions by worshipping/following saints belonging to their respective communities. For example, Guru Ravidas was a Chura of Uttar Pradesh, Guru Parsuram Ramnami was a Chamar of Chhatisgarh, Maharishi Ram Naval was a Bhangi of Rajasthan. Several of these saints in their lifetime, even went to the extent of fighting conversion from foreign missionaries and only encouraging Hinduism within their communities. For example, in Assam tribals were led by Gurudev Kalicharan Bramha of the Brahmo Samaj, in Nagaland by Kacha Naga, in Tamil Nadu by Ayya Vaigundar, in Central India by Birsa Munda, Hanuman Oaron, Jatra Bhagat and Budhu Bhagat. In North India, Bhakti movement is not differentiable from the Sufi movement of Shia Muslims of the Chisti fame. People of Muslim faith adopted it as a Sufism while Hindus as a stronger force within Vaishnava bhakti.

Sikhism
Guru Nanak (14691539) was the founder of Sikhism. The Guru Granth Sahib was first compiled by the fifth Sikh guru, Guru Arjan Dev, from the writings of the first five Sikh gurus and others saints who preached the concept of universal brotherhood, including those of the Hindu and Muslim faith. Before the death of Guru Gobind Singh, the Guru Granth Sahib was declared the eternal guru. Sikhism recognizes all humans as equal before Waheguru,[28] regardless of colour, caste or lineage.[29] Sikhism rejects the beliefs of idol worship and circumcision. Guru Nanak's preachings were directed with equal force to all humans The Harmandir Sahib, the cultural and spiritual centre of Sikhs in the city ofAmritsar regardless of their religion. Guru Nanak defines the transformation of man to a permanent union with God as part of his preaching against communalism summarized by the famous phrase, "There is no Hindu and no Muslim".

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Introduction of Christianity
Christianity was introduced in India in 1st Century by St. Thomas one of the twelve apostles of Jesus Christ. Christianity is the first foreign religion in India which was introduced to natives after been initially introduced to the Jewish diaspora in Kerala. Christianity in India has different denominations, like Roman Catholicism, oriental Orthodox Christianity and Protestantism. Roman Catholic is a denomination practiced by over 17.3 million people in India which represents less than 2% of the total population. Most Catholics reside in South India. Goa is home to Roman Catholics. The state known for its Christian population. [30] [31] [32] Christianity was introduced to Indians twice. Possibly in the 1st century by St. Thomas, and by Europeans. Europeans brought Catholicism in the 13. Century (Portuguese) and Protestantism in the 18. Century (British and American missionaries). It became popular following European colonisation and Protestant missionary efforts. [33]

Relationship of the Nasrani groups

Communalism
Communalism has played a key role in shaping the religious history of modern India. As an adverse result of the British Raj's divide and rule policy, British India was partitioned along religious lines into two statesthe Muslim-majority Dominion of Pakistan (comprising what is now the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and the People's Republic of Bangladesh) and the Hindu-majority Union of India (later the Republic of India). The 1947 Partition of India instigated rioting among Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs in Punjab, Bengal, Delhi, and other parts of India; 500,000 died as a result of the violence. The twelve million refugees that moved between the newly founded nations of India and Pakistan composed one of the largest mass migrations in modern history.[][34] Since its independence, India has periodically witnessed large-scale violence sparked by underlying tensions between sections of its majority Hindu and minority Muslim communities. The Republic of India is secular; its government recognises no official religion.

Religion in India

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Demographics
Hinduism is an arguably polytheistic religion (although Hinduism is diverse, with monotheism, henotheism, polytheism, panentheism, pantheism, monism, atheism, agnosticism, and gnosticism being represented[35] [36] [37] [38] ), and Hinduism is also the largest religious grouping in India; its 828 million adherents (2001) compose 80.5%[2] of the population. The term Hindu, originally a geographical description, derives from the Sanskrit, Sindhu, (the historical appellation for the Indus River), and refers to a person from the land of the river Sindhu.

Dharmacakra

Khanda

Faravahar

Aum

Ahimsa and Dharmacakra

Religion in India

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Allah

Nasrani Menorah

Islam is a monotheistic religion centred around the belief in one God and following the example of Muhammad. It is the largest minority religion in India. According to the 2001 census, India is home to 138 million Muslims,[39] the world's third-largest Muslim population after those in Indonesia (210 million)[40] and Pakistan (166 million); they compose 13.4% of the population.[41] Muslims represent the majority in Jammu and Kashmir and Lakshadweep,[42] and high concentrations in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, and Kerala.,[42] [43] There has been no particular census conducted in India with regards to sects, but sources suggest the largest denomination is Sunni Islam[44] with a substantial minority of Shiite Muslims. Indian sources like Times of India and DNA reported Indian Shiite population in mid 2005-2006 between 25% to 31% of entire Muslim population of India which accounts them in numbers between 40[45] to 50 million[46] of a total of 157 million.[44] [47] Christianity is a monotheistic religion centred on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in the New Testament; it is the third largest religion of India, making up 2.3% of the population. St. Thomas is credited with introduction of Christianity in India. He arrived in Malabar in AD 52.[48] [49] [50] Christians comprise a majority in Nagaland, Mizoram, and Meghalaya and have significant populations in North-East India, Goa and Kerala.

A set of 15th- or 16th-century palm-leaf manuscripts containing Tamil-language Christian prayers.

Jacobite Syrian Orthodox Church, Estd. in AD. 1550

Buddhism is a dharmic, nontheistic religion and philosophy. Buddhists form majority populations in the Indian states of Arunachal Pradesh, and the Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir and a large minority (40%) in Sikkim. Around 8 million Buddhists live in India, about 0.8% of the population.[39]

Religion in India

829 Jainism is a nontheistic dharmic religion and philosophical system originating in Iron Age India. Jains compose 0.4% (around 4.2 million) of India's population, and are concentrated in the states of Gujarat, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan.[42] Although Jainism is usually believed to be atheistic/non-theistic, Paul Dundas writes, "While Jainism is, as we have seen, atheist in the limited sense of rejection of a creator god and the possibility of the intervention of such a being in human affairs, it nonetheless must be regarded as a theist religion in the more profound sense that it accepts the existence of a divine principle, the parmatman, often in fact referred to as 'God' (e.g. ParPr 114-16), existing in potential state within all beings".[51] Paul Dundas writes that most British judges of the 19th century "had no doubts about the independent nature and origin of Jainism".[52] In 1847, one judge wrote that religious minorities like Jains, Parsis, and Sikhs "Had nothing or next to nothing in common with brahmanical worship".[52] Another judge noted in 1874 that Jains could not be subject to Hindu law because "the term Hindoos means persons within the purview of the shastras, which shastras are at the bottom of Hindu law. If a person is out of that purview, Hindoo law cannot be applied to him"[52] He does note, "the earliest censuses of India suggest that many Jains and members of other religious groups saw themselves as in fact constituting varieties of Hinduism and, according to the Census Report for the Punjab of 1921, 'in view of the unwillingness of large number of Jains and Sikhs to be classed separately from Hindus, permission was given to record such persons as Jain-Hindus and Sikh-Hindus".[52] He does recognize the "preconceptions of the census enumerators" influenced the census. Furthermore he adds the term "Jain-hindu" was an 'unhappy and artificial compromise".[52] Sikhism began in sixteenth century North India with the teachings of Nanak and nine successive human gurus. As of 2001, there were 19.2 million Sikhs in India. Punjab is the spiritual home of Sikhs, and is the only state in India where Sikhs form a majority. There are also significant populations of Sikhs in neighbouring New Delhi and Haryana.

The S Cathedral of Santa Catarina

The interior of the Paradesi Synagogue in Cochin.

Map of the British Indian Empire in 1909, shaded by prevailing religion.

As of the census of 2001, Parsis (followers of Zoroastrianism in India) represent approximately 0.006% of the total population of India,[53] with relatively high concentrations in and around the city of Mumbai. Parsis number around 61,000 in India with high Muslims praying in a mosque in Srinagar, Jammu concentrations in Mumbai according to 2001 census. There are and Kashmir. several tribal religions in India, such as Donyi-Polo. Santhal is also one of the many tribal religions followed by the Santhal people who number around 4 million but only around

Religion in India 23,645 follow the religion. About 2.2 million people in India follow the Bah' Faith, thus forming the largest community of Bah's in the world.[54] Judaism is also present in India, a monotheistic religion from the Levant. There is today a very small community of Indian Jews. There were more Jews in India historically, including the Cochin Jews of Kerala, the Bene Israel of Maharashtra, and the Baghdadi Jews near Mumbai. In addition, since independence two primarily proselyte Indian Jewish communities in India: the Bnei Menashe of Mizoram and Manipur, and the Bene Ephraim, also called Telugu Jews. Of the approximately 95,000 Jews of Indian origin, fewer than 20,000 remain in India. Some parts of India are especially popular with Israelis, swelling local Jewish populations seasonally. Around 0.07% of the people did not state their religion in the 2001 census.

830

Statistics
The following is a breakdown of India's religious communities (2001 census): Characteristics of religious groups
Religious group Population Growth % (19912001) Sex ratio (total) 931 936 1009 893 953 940 992 Literacy (%) Work participation (%) 40.4% 31.3% 39.7% 37.7% 40.6% 32.9% 48.4% Sex ratio (rural) 944 953 1001 895 958 937 995 Sex Sex ratio ratio (child)[] (urban) 894 907 1026 886 944 941 966 925 950 964 786 942 870 976

Hindu Muslim Christian Sikh Buddhist Jain Animist, others

80.46% 13.43% 2.34% 1.87% 0.77% 0.41% 0.65%

20.3% 36.0% 22.6% 18.2% 18.2% 26.0% 103.1%

65.1% 59.1% 80.3% 69.4% 72.7% 94.1% 47.0%

Irreligion
Though followed by a minor portion of the Indian population, irreligion (including atheists, agnostics, and humanists) has a strong tradition in India.[56] According to the Dentsu Communication Institute Inc, Japan Research Center (2006), 6.6 % of Indians stated that they had no religion.[57]

Law
The preamble to the Constitution of India proclaimed India a "sovereign socialist secular democratic republic". The word secular was inserted into the Preamble by the Forty-second Amendment Act of 1976. It mandates equal treatment and tolerance of all religions. India does not have an official state religion; it enshrines the right to practice, preach, and propagate any religion. No religious instruction is imparted in government-supported schools. In S. R. Bommai vs. Union of India, the Supreme Court of India held that secularism was an integral tenet of the Constitution.[58] The right to freedom of religion is a fundamental right according to the Indian Constitution. The Constitution also suggests a uniform civil code for its citizens as a Directive Principle.[59] This has not been implemented until now as Directive Principles are Constitutionally unenforceable. The Supreme Court has further held that the enactment of a uniform civil code all at once may be counterproductive to the unity of the nation, and only a gradual progressive change should be brought about (Pannalal Bansilal v State of Andhra Pradesh, 1996).[60] In Maharishi Avadesh v Union of India (1994) the Supreme Court dismissed a petition seeking a writ of mandamus against the government to

Religion in India introduce a common civil code, and thus laid the responsibility of its introduction on the legislature.[61] Major religious communities not based in India continue to be governed by their own personal laws. While Muslims, Christians, Zoroastrians, and Jews have personal laws exclusive to themselves; Hindus, Jains, Buddhists and Sikhs are governed by a single personal law known as Hindu personal law. Article 25 (2)(b) of the Constitution of India states that references to Hindus include "persons professing the Sikh, Jain or Buddhist religion".[62] Furthermore the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 defines the legal status of Jains, Buddhists and Sikhs as legal Hindus but not "Hindus by religion".[63] The only Indian religion exclusively covered under the secular ("civil") law of India is Brahmoism starting from Act III of 1872.

831

Aspects
Religion plays a major role in the Indian way of life.[64] Rituals, worship, and other religious activities are very prominent in an individual's daily life; it is also a principal organiser of social life. The degree of religiosity varies among individuals; in recent decades, religious orthodoxy and observances have become less common in Indian society, particularly among young urban-dwellers.

Rituals
The vast majority of Indians engage in religious rituals on a daily basis.[65] Most Hindus observe religious rituals at home.,[66] Observation of rituals greatly vary among regions, villages, and individuals. Devout Hindus perform daily chores such as worshiping puja,fire scrifice called Yajna at the dawn after bathing (usually at a family shrine, and typically includes lighting a lamp and offering foodstuffs before the images of deities), recitation from religious scripts like Vedas,Puranas singing hymns in praise of gods etc.[66]
A puja performed on the banks of the

A notable feature in religious ritual is the division between purity and overflowing Shipra River in Ujjain during the summer monsoon. pollution. Religious acts presuppose some degree of impurity or defilement for the practitioner, which must be overcome or neutralised before or during ritual procedures. Purification, usually with water, is thus a typical feature of most religious action.[66] Other characteristics include a belief in the efficacy of sacrifice and concept of merit, gained through the performance of charity or good works, that will accumulate over time and reduce sufferings in the next world.[66] Devout Muslims offer five daily prayers at specific times of the day, indicated by adhan (call to prayer) from the local mosques. Before offering prayers, they must ritually clean themselves by performing wudu, which involves washing parts of the body that are generally exposed to dirt or dust. A recent study by the Sachar Committee found that 3-4% of Muslim children study in madrasas (Islamic schools).[67]

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Diet
Dietary habits are significantly influenced by religion. Almost one-third of Indians practise vegetarianism;[68] it came to prominence during the rule of Ashoka, a promoter of Buddhism.[69] [70] Vegetarianism is much less common among Muslim, Sikhs and Christians.[71] Jainism requires monks and laity, from all its sects and traditions, to be vegetarian. Hinduism bars beef consumption, while Islam bars pork.

Ceremonies
Occasions like birth, marriage, and death involve what are often elaborate sets of religious customs. In Hinduism, major life-cycle rituals include annaprashan (a baby's first intake of solid food), upanayanam ("sacred thread ceremony" undergone by upper-caste youths), and shraadh (paying homage to a deceased individual).[72] [73] For most people in India, the betrothal of the young couple and the exact date and time of the wedding are matters decided by the parents in consultation with astrologers.[72] Muslims practice a series of life-cycle rituals that differ from those of A Hindu marriage. Hindus, Jains, and Buddhists.[74] Several rituals mark the first days of lifeincluding whispering call to prayer, first bath, and shaving of the head. Religious instruction begins early. Male circumcision usually takes place after birth; in some families, it may be delayed until after the onset of puberty.[74] Marriage requires a payment by the husband to the wife and the solemnisation of a marital contract in a social gathering.[74] On the third day after burial of the dead, friends and relatives gather to console the bereaved, read and recite the Quran, and pray for the soul of the deceased.[74] Indian Islam is distinguished by the emphasis it places on shrines commemorating great Sufi saints.[74]

Pilgrimages
India hosts numerous pilgrimage sites belonging to many religions. Hindus worldwide recognise several Indian holy cities, including Allahabad, Haridwar, Varanasi,Rameshwaram and Vrindavan. Notable temple cities include Puri, which hosts a major Jagannath temple and Rath Yatra celebration; Tirumala - Tirupati, home to the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple; and Katra, home to the Vaishno Devi temple. The Himalayan towns of Badrinath, Kedarnath, Gangotri, and Yamunotri compose the Char Dham (four abodes) pilgrimage circuit. The Kumbh Mela (the "pitcher festival") is one of the holiest of Hindu pilgrimages that is held every four years; the location is rotated among Allahabad, Haridwar, Nashik, and Ujjain.

The largest religious gathering ever held on Earth, the 2001 Maha Kumbh Mela held in Prayag attracted around 70 million Hindus from around the world.

Among the Eight Great Places of Buddhism, seven are in India. Bodh Gaya, Sarnath and Kushinagar are the places where important events in the life of Gautama Buddha took place. Sanchi hosts a Buddhist stupa erected by the emperor Ashoka. Several Tibetan Buddhist sites in the Himalayan foothills of India have been built, such as Rumtek Monastery and Dharamsala.

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For Muslims, the Dargah Shareef of Khwaza Moinuddin Chishti in Ajmer is a major pilgrimage site. Other Islamic pilgrimages include those to the Tomb of Sheikh Salim Chishti in Fatehpur Sikri, Jama Masjid in Delhi, and to Haji Ali Dargah in Mumbai. Dilwara Temples in Mount Abu, Palitana, Pavapuri, Girnar and Shravanabelagola are notable pilgrimage sites (tirtha) in Jainism. The Harmandir Sahib in Amritsar is the most sacred gurdwara of Sikhism, while the Thalaimaippathi at Swamithope is the leading pilgrim center for Ayyavazhi sect members. Lotus Temple in Delhi is a prominent house of worship of the Bah' faith.

Maramon Convention is the largest annual Christian gathering in Asia, organized by the Mar thoma Church

Religion and politics

Politics
Religious ideology, particularly that expressed by the Hindutva movement, has strongly influenced Indian politics in the last quarter of the 20th century. Many of the elements underlying India's casteism and communalism originated during the rule of the British Raj, particularly after the late 19th century; the authorities and others often politicised religion.[75] The Indian Councils Act of 1909 (widely known as the Morley-Minto Reforms Act), which established separate Hindu and Muslim electorates for the Imperial Legislature and provincial councils, was particularly divisive. It was blamed for increasing tensions between the two communities.[76] Due to the high degree of oppression faced by the lower castes, the Constitution of India included provisions for affirmative action for certain sections of Indian society. Growing disenchantment with the Hindu caste system has led thousands of Dalits (also referred to as "Untouchables") to embrace Buddhism and Christianity in recent decades.[77] In response, many states ruled by the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) introduced laws that made them more difficult; they assert that such conversions are often forced or allured.[78] The BJP, a Hindu nationalist party, also gained widespread media attention after its leaders associated themselves with the Ram Janmabhoomi movement and other prominent religious issues.[79] A well known accusation that Indian political parties make for their rivals is that they play vote bank politics, meaning give political support to issues for the sole purpose of gaining the votes of members of a particular community. Both the Congress Party and the BJP have been accused of exploiting the people by indulging in vote bank politics. The Shah Bano case, a divorce lawsuit, generated much controversy when the Congress was accused of appeasing the Muslim orthodoxy by bringing in a parliamentary amendment to negate the Supreme Court's decision. After the 2002 Gujarat violence, there were allegations of political parties indulging in vote bank politics.[80] During an election campaign in Uttar Pradesh, the BJP released an inflammatory CD targeting Muslims.[81] This was condemned by the Communist Party of India (Marxist) as playing the worst kind of vote bank politics.[82] Caste-based politics is also important in India; caste-based discrimination and the reservation system continue to be major issues that are hotly debated.[83] [84]

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Education
Several political parties have been accused of using their political power to manipulate educational content in a revisionist manner. During the Janata Party government (19771979), the government was accused of being too sympathetic to the Muslim viewpoint. In 2002, the BJP-led NDA government tried to change the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) school textbooks through a new National Curriculum Framework.[85] Some media referred to it as the "saffronisation" of textbooks, saffron being the colour of BJP flag.[85] The next government, formed by the UPA and led by the Congress Party, pledged to de-saffronise textbooks.[86] Hindu groups alleged that the UPA promoted Marxist and pro-Muslim biases in school curricula.[87] [88]

Conflicts
Communal conflicts have periodically plagued India since it became independent in 1947. The roots of such strife lie largely in the underlying tensions between sections of its majority Hindu and minority Muslim communities, which emerged under the Raj and during the bloody Partition of India. Such conflict also stems from the competing ideologies of Hindu nationalism versus Islamic fundamentalism and Islamism; both are prevalent in parts of the Hindu and Muslim populations. Alongside other major Indian independence leaders, Mahatma Gandhi Aftermath of Hindu-Muslim clashes in Calcutta following the 1946 Direct Action Day. and his shanti sainiks ("peace soldiers") worked to quell early outbreaks of religious conflict in Bengal, including riots in Calcutta (now in West Bengal) and Noakhali District (in modern-day Bangladesh) that accompanied Muhammad Ali Jinnah's Direct Action Day, which was launched on 16 August 1946. These conflicts, waged largely with rocks and knives and accompanied by widespread looting and arson, were crude affairs. Explosives and firearms, which are rarely found in India, were far less likely to be used.[89] Major post-independence communal conflicts include the 1984 Anti-Sikh riots, which followed Operation Blue Star by the Indian Army; heavy artillery, tanks, and helicopters were employed against the Sikh partisans inside the Harmandir Sahib, causing heavy damage to Sikhism's holiest Gurdwara. According to the Indian government estimations, the assault caused the deaths of up to 100 soldiers, 250 militants, and hundreds of civilians.[90] This triggered Indira Gandhi's assassination by her outraged Sikh bodyguards on 31 October 1984, which Many of Ahmedabad's buildings were set on fire during the 2002 set off a four-day period during which Sikhs were Gujarat violence. massacred; The Government of India reported 2,700 Sikh deaths however human rights organizations and newspapers report the death toll to be 10,000-17,000. In the aftermath of the riot, the Government of India reported 20,000 had fled the city, however the PUCL reported "at least" 50,000 displaced persons. [91] The most affected regions were neighborhoods in Delhi. Human rights organizations and the newspapers believe the massacre was organized.[92] The collusion of political officials in the massacres and the failure to prosecute any killers alienated normal Sikhs and increased support for the Khalistan movement. The Akal Takht, the governing religious body of Sikhism, most definitely considers the killings to be a genocide.[93]

Religion in India Other incidents include the 1992 Bombay Riots that followed the demolition of the Babri Mosque as a result of the Ayodhya debate, and the 2002 Gujarat violence that followed the Godhra Train Burningin the latter, more than 2,000 Muslims were killed.[94] Terrorist activities such as the 2005 Ram Janmabhoomi attack in Ayodhya, the 2006 Varanasi bombings, the 2006 Jama Masjid explosions, and the 11 July 2006 Mumbai Train Bombings are often blamed on communalism. Lesser incidents plague many towns and villages; representative was the killing of five people in Mau, Uttar Pradesh during Hindu-Muslim rioting, which was triggered by the proposed celebration of a Hindu festival.[94] Major religious riots, since Independence
Year 1984 Riot Anti Sikh riots State / Region Delhi Cause Assassination of Indira Gandhi Aftermath Government of India reported 2,700 Sikh deaths and 20,000 displaced. PUCL and newspapers report death toll to be 10,000-17,000 and "at least" [91] 50,000 displaced. 900 people dead

835

1992-1993 Bombay Riots 2002

Mumbai

Demolition of Babri Masjid Godhra train burning

Gujarat Riots Gujarat

1,044 people killed; 790 Muslims and 254 Hindus (including those killed in the Godhra train fire) Over 20 killed and over 12,000 displaced

2008

Kandhamal riots

Kandhamal district, Orissa

Murder of Swami Lakshmanananda

Notes
Citations
[1] Deka, Phani (2007). The great Indian corridor in the east (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=DPWGpVvBvx8C& pg=PA135). Mittal Publications. p.135. ISBN9788183241793. . [2] Census of India, 2001 (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Census_Data_2001/ India_at_glance/ religion. aspx) [3] Chary, Manish (2009). India: Nation on the Move: An Overview of India's People, Culture, History, Economy, IT Industry, & More (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=vjI6IZt8tuwC& pg=PA31). iUniverse. p.31. ISBN9041223158. . [4] Smith, Peter (2008). An introduction to the Baha'i faith (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=z7zdDFTzNr0C& pg=PA94). Cambridge University Press. p.94. ISBN9780521862516. . [5] P. 225 Essential Hinduism By Steven Rosen [6] Pg 80,81 The sacred and the feminine: imagination and sexual difference By Griselda Pollock, Victoria Turvey Sauron [7] Pg 156, Religious Politics and Secular States: Egypt, India, and the United States By Scott W. Hibbard - Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010 [8] The Constitution of India Art 25-28 (http:/ / lawmin. nic. in/ legislative/ Art1-242 (1-88). doc). Retrieved on 22 April 2007. [9] "The Constitution (Forty-Second Amendment) Act, 1976" (http:/ / indiacode. nic. in/ coiweb/ amend/ amend42. htm). . Retrieved 2007-04-22. [10] Pg 211, 21st Century India : View and Vision By By - A.P. Thakur & Sunil Pandey [11] P. 484 Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions By Wendy Doniger, M. Webster, Merriam-Webster, Inc [12] P. 169 The Encyclopedia of Religion By Mircea Eliade, Charles J. Adams [13] P. 22 The Complete Idiot's Guide to Geography By Joseph Gonzalez, Michael D Smith, Thomas E. Sherer [14] Heehs 2002, p.39. [15] "Ancient Indians made 'rock music'" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 3520384. stm). BBC News. 19 March 2004. . Retrieved 2007-08-07. Prayer flags above the buddhist monastery (gompa) of Tanze, in the Kurgiakh Valley. The wind is believed to propagate prayers printed on the flags.

Religion in India
[16] Fowler 1997, p.90. [17] Oberlies 1998, p.155. [18] Goldman 2007, p.23. [19] Rinehart 2004, p.28. [20] Radhakrishnan & Moore 1967, p.xviiixxi [21] Radhakrishnan & Moore 1967, pp.227249 [22] Chatterjee & Datta 1984, p.55. [23] The Life of Buddha as Legend and History, by Edward Joseph Thomas [24] P. 95 A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms By James Legge [25] Heehs 2002, p.106. [26] "The rise of Jainism and Buddhism" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ religion/ religions/ hinduism/ history/ history_2. shtml). Religion and EthicsHinduism: Other religious influences. BBC. 26 July 2004. . Retrieved 2007-04-21. [27] chandru. "SUFISM IN INDIA: Its origin, history and politics" (http:/ / www. southasiaanalysis. org/ \papers10\paper924. html). Southasiaanalysis.org. . Retrieved 2011-02-03. [28] Akal Ustat, Verse 85-15-1 [29] Akal Ustat, verse 3 to 4 [30] Israel J. Ross. Ritual and Music in South India: Syrian Christian Liturgical Music in Kerala. Asian Music, Vol. 11, No. 1 (1979), pp. 80-98 (http:/ / links. jstor. org/ sici?sici=0044-9202(1979)11:1<80:RAMISI>2. 0. CO;2-Z) [31] "The Story of India" (http:/ / www. bibleforu. com/ storyofindia. htm). www.bibleforu.com. . Retrieved 2008-03-13. [32] "Christianity" (http:/ / www. indianmirror. com/ religions/ reli6. html). India Mirror. . Retrieved 2008-03-13. [33] "Christianity in India" (http:/ / old. mbconf. ca/ mb/ mbh3509/ christin. htm). M.B. Herald, Vol. 35, No. 9. . Retrieved 2008-03-13. [34] Symonds 1950, p.74. [35] Rogers, Peter (2009). Ultimate Truth, Book 1 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=e3kf6GtwaT0C& pg=PA109). AuthorHouse. p.109. ISBN9781438979687. [36] Chakravarti, Sitansu (1991). Hinduism, a way of life (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=J_-rASTgw8wC& pg=PA71). Motilal Banarsidass Publ.. p.71. ISBN9788120808997. [37] "Polytheism" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-38143/ polytheism). Encyclopdia Britannica. Encyclopdia Britannica Online. 2007. . Retrieved 2007-07-05. [38] Pattanaik, Devdutt (2002). The man who was a woman and other queer tales of Hindu lore (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=Odsk9xfOp6oC& pg=PA38). Routledge. p.38. ISBN9781560231813. [39] "Census of India - Socio-cultural aspects" (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Census_Data_2001/ Census_Data_Online/ Social_and_cultural/ Religion. aspx). Censusindia.gov.in. . Retrieved 2011-02-03. [40] Hefner, RW (2000). Civil Islam: Muslims and Democratization in Indonesia (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=tc6AcVGgLsEC). Princeton University Press. pp.xviii. ISBN0-691-05047-3. . [41] "CIA Factbook: India" (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ in. html). CIA Factbook. . Retrieved 2007-05-27. [42] "Religion in India" (http:/ / www. webindia123. com/ religion/ indiafacts. htm). Religion, webindia123.com. Suni Systems (P) Ltd. . Retrieved 2007-04-18. [43] "Census of India 2001: Data on Religion" (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Census_Data_2001/ Census_data_finder/ C_Series/ Population_by_religious_communities. htm). Office of the Registrar General, India. . Retrieved 2007-12-31. [44] International Religious Freedom Report 2003 (http:/ / www. state. gov/ g/ drl/ rls/ irf/ 2003/ 24470. htm). By the United States Department of State. Retrieved on April 19, 2007. [45] "Shia women too can initiate divorce" (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ city/ lucknow/ Shia-women-too-can-initiate-divorce/ articleshow/ 334804. cms). The Times of India. November 6, 2006. . Retrieved 2010-06-21. [46] "Talaq rights proposed for Shia women" (http:/ / www. dnaindia. com/ india/ report_talaq-rights-proposed-for-shia-women_1062327). Daily News and Analysis, www.dnaindia.com. 5 November 2006. . Retrieved 2010-06-21. [47] "India Third in Global Muslim Population" (http:/ / twocircles. net/ 2009oct08/ india_third_global_muslim_population_1_57_bn. html). Twocircles.net. . Retrieved 2010-07-03. [48] "NSC NETWORK Early references about the Apostolate of Saint Thomas in India, Records about the Indian tradition, Saint Thomas Christians & Statements by Indian Statesmen" (http:/ / nasrani. net/ 2007/ 02/ 16/ st-thomas-tradition-the-indian-sojourn-in-foreign-sources/ ). Nasrani.net. . Retrieved 2011-02-03. [49] Stephen Andrew Missick. "Mar Thoma: The Apostolic Foundation of the Assyrian Church and the Christians of St. Thomas in India" (http:/ / www. jaas. org/ edocs/ v14n2/ missick. pdf) (PDF). Journal of Assyrian Academic studies. . [50] "St. Thomas the Apostle Catholic Church - Naperville, IL" (http:/ / www. stapostle. org/ index2. php?area=about& data=sthomasbio). Stapostle.org. . Retrieved 2011-02-03. [51] Dundas, P. 110-1 The Jains [52] Dundas, P. 5 The Jains [53] Bose, Ashish et al. (2004-12-04). Growth of the Parsi population in India. Mumbai: Government of India: National Commission for Minorities. p. 3

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[54] "The Bah's of India" (http:/ / www. bahaindia. org/ ). bahaindia.org. National Spiritual Assembly of the Bah's of India. . Retrieved 2007-04-18. [55] Office of The Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India, New Delhi-110011 2011, p.1. [56] Evans, Robert (12 February 2004). "Atheists, Humanists Push Campaign for 'Darwin Day'". Reuters. "In India, where humanism and atheism have a strong tradition and are not so distant from traditional Hindu thought, which rejects "ultimate truths," rationalists are alarmed at the rise of an aggressively militant version of Hinduism." [57] (Japanese) http:/ / www2. ttcn. ne. jp/ ~honkawa/ 9460. html English source requested [58] Swami, Praveen (1 November 1997). "Protecting secularism and federal fair play" (http:/ / www. hinduonnet. com/ fline/ fl1422/ 14220170. htm). Frontline 14 (22). . Retrieved 2007-04-17. [59] Constitution of India-Part IV Article 44 Directive Principles of State Policy [60] Iyer VRK (6 September 2003). "Unifying personal laws" (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ 2003/ 09/ 06/ stories/ 2003090600831000. htm). Opinion (The Hindu). . Retrieved 2007-04-19. [61] Lavakare, Arvind (21 May 2002). "Where's the Uniform Civil Code?" (http:/ / www. rediff. com/ news/ 2002/ may/ 21arvind. htm). rediff.com (Rediff.com India Limited). . Retrieved 2007-04-19. [62] Bakshi, P M (1996). Constitution Of India (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=QmxuAAAACAAJ). Universal Law Publishing Co.P Ltd.. p.41. ISBN9788175340039. . Retrieved 15 July 2010. [63] Diwan, Paras (1981). Modern Hindu law: codified and uncodified (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=-tPXOgAACAAJ). Allahabad Law Agency. . Retrieved 15 July 2010. [64] "Among Wealthy Nations ... U.S. Stands Alone in its Embrace of Religion" (http:/ / people-press. org/ reports/ display. php3?ReportID=167). The Pew Research Center for the People and the Press. 19 December 2002. . Retrieved 2007-06-03. [65] "Religious Life" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20050301062310/ http:/ / religionsofindia. org/ loc/ india_religious_life. html). Religions of India. Global Peace Works. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. religionsofindia. org/ loc/ india_religious_life. html) on March 1, 2005. . Retrieved 2007-04-19. [66] "Domestic Worship" (http:/ / lcweb2. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ query/ r?frd/ cstdy:@field(DOCID+ in0055)). Country Studies. The Library of Congress. September 1995. . Retrieved 2007-04-19. [67] Chishti S, Jacob J (1 December 2006). "Sachar nails madrasa myth: Only 4% of Muslim kids go there" (http:/ / www. indianexpress. com/ sunday/ story/ 17677. html). The Indian Express. . Retrieved 2007-04-21. [68] The food habits of a nation (http:/ / www. hinduonnet. com/ 2006/ 08/ 14/ stories/ 2006081403771200. htm) The Hindu [69] Thakrar, Raju (22 April 2007). "Japanese warm to real curries and more" (http:/ / search. japantimes. co. jp/ cgi-bin/ fl20070422x4. html). Japan Times. . Retrieved 2007-04-23. [70] Charlton 2004, p.91. [71] Yadav, Yogendra; Sanjay Kumar (August 14, 2006). "The food habits of a nation" (http:/ / www. hinduonnet. com/ 2006/ 08/ 14/ stories/ 2006081403771200. htm). hinduonnet.com (The Hindu). . Retrieved 2007-04-21. [72] "Life-Cycle Rituals" (http:/ / lcweb2. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ query/ r?frd/ cstdy:@field(DOCID+ in0056)). Country Studies: India. The Library of Congress. September 1995. . Retrieved 2007-04-19. [73] Banerjee, Suresh Chandra. "Shraddha" (http:/ / banglapedia. search. com. bd/ HT/ S_0516. htm). Banglapedia. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. . Retrieved 2007-04-20. [74] "Islamic Traditions in South Asia" (http:/ / lcweb2. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ query/ r?frd/ cstdy:@field(DOCID+ in0059)). Country Studies: India. The Library of Congress. September 1995. . Retrieved 2007-04-19. [75] Makkar 1993, p.141 [76] Olson & Shadle 1996, p.759 [77] "Dalits in conversion ceremony" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ south_asia/ 6050408. stm). BBC News. 14 October 2006. . Retrieved 2007-04-20. [78] "Constitution doesnt permit forced conversions: Naqvi" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070921113541/ http:/ / www. bjp. org/ today/ may_0106/ may_0106_p_30. htm) ( Scholar search (http:/ / scholar. google. co. uk/ scholar?hl=en& lr=& q=intitle:Constitution+ doesnt+ permit+ forced+ conversions:+ Naqvi& as_publication=BJP+ Today& as_ylo=& as_yhi=& btnG=Search)). BJP Today 15 (9). May 115, 2006. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. bjp. org/ today/ may_0106/ may_0106_p_30. htm) on September 21, 2007. . Retrieved 2007-04-20. [79] Ludden 1996, pp.6465 [80] Times News Network (25 March 2002). "Togadia wants parties to stop 'vote bank politics'" (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ articleshow/ 4806609. cms). indiatimes.com (Times Internet Limited). . Retrieved 2007-04-20. [81] "BJP protests in campaign CD row" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ south_asia/ 6538445. stm). BBC News. 9 April 2007. . Retrieved 2007-05-27. [82] "BJPs true colours exposed once again" (http:/ / pd. cpim. org/ 2007/ 0415/ 04152007_edit. htm). People's Democracy (Communist Party of India (Marxist)). 15 April 2007. . Retrieved 2007-05-27. [83] Chadha M (5 December 2006). Despair of the discriminated Dalits (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ south_asia/ 6211532. stm). BBC News. . Retrieved 2007-06-03. [84] Giridharadas A (22 April 2006). Turning point in India's caste war (http:/ / www. iht. com/ articles/ 2006/ 04/ 21/ business/ QUOTAS. php). International Herald Tribune. . Retrieved 2007-06-03.

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[85] Mukherjee M, Mukherjee A (December 2001). "Communalisation of education: the history textbook controversy" (http:/ / www. sacw. net/ India_History/ DelHistorians. pdf) (PDF). Delhi Historians' Group. . Retrieved 2007-06-03. [86] Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor (November 8, 2005). "International Religious Freedom Report 2005" (http:/ / www. state. gov/ g/ drl/ rls/ irf/ 2005/ 51618. htm). 2005 Report on International Religious Freedom. U.S. State Department. . Retrieved 2007-06-03. [87] Upadhyay R (21 August 2001). "The politics of education in India: the need for a national debate" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20051217091426/ http:/ / www. saag. org/ papers3/ paper299. html). South Asia Analysis Group. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. saag. org/ \papers3\paper299. html) on December 17, 2005. . Retrieved 2007-06-03. [88] Upadhyay R (26 February 2000). "Opposition in India: in search of genuine issues" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20051217072319/ http:/ / www. saag. org/ papers2/ paper107. html). South Asia Analysis Group. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. saag. org/ \papers2\paper107. html) on December 17, 2005. . Retrieved 2007-06-03. [89] Shepard 1987, pp.4546. [90] Nichols, B (2003). "The Politics of Assassination: Case Studies and Analysis" (http:/ / www. utas. edu. au/ government/ APSA/ BNichols. pdf) (PDF). Australasian Political Studies Association Conference. . [91] Mukhoty, Gobinda; Kothari, Rajni (1984). Who are the Guilty ? (http:/ / www. sacw. net/ aii/ WhoaretheGuilty. html). People's Union for Civil Liberties. [92] Watch/Asia, Human Rights; (U.S.), Physicians for Human Rights (1994-05). Dead silence: the legacy of human rights abuses in Punjab (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Dx7b8w6snbsC& pg=PA13). Human Rights Watch. p.10. ISBN9781564321305. . Retrieved 29 July 2010. [93] "1984 riots were 'Sikh genocide': Akal Takht - Hindustan Times" (http:/ / www. hindustantimes. com/ 1984-riots-were-Sikh-genocide-Akal-Takht/ Article1-572372. aspx). Hindustan Times. July 14, 2010. . Retrieved 17 July 2010. [94] Human Rights Watch 2006, p.265.

838

Footnotes
^:The data exclude the Mao-Maram, Paomata, and Purul subdivisions of Manipur's Senapati district. ^:The data are "unadjusted" (without excluding Assam and Jammu and Kashmir); the 1981 census was not conducted in Assam and the 1991 census was not conducted in Jammu and Kashmir. ^:Oberlies (1998, p. 155) gives an estimate of 1100 BCE for the youngest hymns in book ten. Estimates for a terminus post quem of the earliest hymns are far more uncertain. Oberlies (p. 158), based on "cumulative evidence", sets a wide range of 17001100 BCE. The EIEC (s.v. Indo-Iranian languages, p. 306) gives a range of 15001000 BCE. It is certain that the hymns post-date Indo-Iranian separation of ca. 2000 BCE. It cannot be ruled out that archaic elements of the Rigveda go back to only a few generations after this time, but philological estimates tend to date the bulk of the text to the latter half of the second millennium. ^:According to the most conservative estimates given by Symonds (1950, p. 74), half a million people perished and twelve million became homeless. ^:Statistic describes resident Indian nationals up to six years in age.

References
Charlton, SEM (2004). Comparing Asian Politics: India, China, and Japan (http://books.google.com/ ?id=ipZ56S3boE8C). Westview Press. ISBN0-813-34204-X Chatterjee, S; Datta, D (1984). An Introduction to Indian Philosophy (8th ed.). University of Calcutta. ASIN: B0007BFXK4 Fowler, JD (1997). Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices (http://books.google.com/?id=RmGKHu20hA0C). Sussex Academic Press. ISBN1-898-72360-5 Goldman, RP (2007). The Ramayana of Valmiki: An Epic of Ancient India. Princeton University Press. ISBN0-691-06663-9 Heehs, P (2002). Indian Religions: A Historical Reader of Spiritual Expression and Experience. New York: New York University Press. ISBN0-814-73650-5 Human Rights Watch (2006). Human Rights Watch World Report 2006 (http://books.google.com/ ?id=eXmogaDhd20C). Seven Stories Press. ISBN1-583-22715-6 Ludden, DE (1996). Contesting the Nation: Religion, Community, and the Politics of Democracy in India (http:// books.google.com/?id=jEUdPqYQjhoC). University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN0-812-21585-0

Religion in India Makkar, SPS (1993). Law, Social Change and Communal Harmony. ABS Publications. ISBN8-170-72047-8 Oberlies, T (1998). Die Religion des Rgveda. Wien Olson, JS; Shadle, R (1996). Historical Dictionary of the British Empire (http://books.google.com/ ?id=-YwDfm1pFF8C). Greenwood Press. ISBN0-313-29367-8 Radhakrishnan, S; Moore, CA (1967). A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy. Princeton University Press. ISBN0-691-01958-4 Rinehart, R (2004). Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual, Culture, and Practice. ABC-Clio. ISBN1-57607-905-8 Shepard, MA (1987). Gandhi Today: A Report on Mahatma Gandhi's Successors (http://books.google.com/ ?id=DQyPbvLvK_sC). Shepard Publications. ISBN0-93849-704-9 Symonds, R (1950). The Making of Pakistan. Faber and Faber

839

External links
Religions in India "History of Religions in India" (http://www.indohistory.com/religions.html). www.indohistory.com. Retrieved 2008-01-01. Statistics "Census of India 2001: Data on religion" (http://www.censusindia.gov.in). Government of India (Office of the Registrar General). Retrieved 2007-05-28. Reports "International Religious Freedom Report 2006: India" (http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71440.htm). United States Department of State. Retrieved 2007-05-28.

Languages of India

840

Languages of India
Languages of India Official language(s) Standard Hindi written in the Devangar script (the Indian Constitution recognises English as a subsidiary official language)
1. national language(s) = None

Regional language(s)

Assamese Bengali Bodo Chhattisgarhi Dogri Garo Gujarati Standard Hindi Kannada Kashmiri Khasi Kokborok Konkani Maithili Malayalam Manipuri Marathi Mizo Nepali Oriya Punjabi Sanskrit Santali Sindhi Telugu Tamil Urdu

The languages of India belong to several linguistic families, the major ones being the Indo-European languagesIndo-Aryan (spoken by 72% of Indians) and the Dravidian languages (spoken by 25% of Indians).[1] Other languages spoken in India belong to the Austro-Asiatic, Tibeto-Burman, and a few minor language families and isolates.[2] The principal official language of the Republic of India is Standard Hindi, while English is the secondary official language.[3] The constitution of India states that "The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script."[4] Neither the Constitution of India nor Indian law specifies a national language, a position supported by a High Court ruling.[5] However, languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian constitution are sometimes referred to, without legal standing, as the national languages of India.[6] [7] Individual mother tongues in India number several hundred;[8] the 1961 census recognized 1,652[9] (SIL Ethnologue lists 415). According to Census of India of 2001, 29 languages are spoken by more than a million native speakers, 122 by more than 10,000. Three millennia of language contact has led to significant mutual influence among the four language families in India and South Asia. Two contact languages have played an important role in the history of India: Persian and English.[10]

History
The northern Indian languages from the Indo-European family evolved from Old Indo-Aryan such as Sanskrit, by way of the Middle Indo-Aryan Prakrit languages and Apabhraa of the Middle Ages. There is no consensus for a specific time where the modern north Indian languages such as Hindi-Urdu, Bengali, Marathi, Gujarati, Saraiki, Punjabi, Assamese, Sindhi and Oriya emerged, but AD 1000 is commonly accepted.[11] Each language had different influences, with Hindi-Urdu (Hindustani) being strongly influenced by Persian. The Dravidian languages of South India had a history independent of Sanskrit. The major Dravidian languages are Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam.[12] Though Dravidian in origin, over eighty percent of words in Malayalam and Telugu are pure Sanskrit words.[13] [14] [15] [16] Telugu script can reproduce the full range of Sanskrit phonetics without losing any of the text's originality.[17] The Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman languages of North-East India also have long independent histories.

The Hindi-belt, including Hindi-related languages such as Rajasthani and Bihari.

Inventories

Languages of India Dialectologists distinguish the terms "language" and "dialect" on the basis of mutual intelligibility. The Indian census uses two specific classifications in its own unique way: (1) 'language' and (2) 'mother tongue'. The 'mother tongues' are grouped within each 'language'. Many 'mother tongues' so defined would be considered a language rather than a dialect by linguistic standards. This is especially so for many 'mother tongues' with tens of millions of speakers that is officially grouped under the 'language' Hindi. The Indian census of 1961 recognised 1,652 different languages in India (including languages not native to the subcontinent). The 1991 census recognizes 1,576 classified "mother tongues"[18] SIL Ethnologue lists 415 living "Languages of India" (out of 6,912 worldwide). According to the 1991 census, 22 'languages' had more than a million native speakers, 50 had more than 100,000 and 114 had more than 10,000 native speakers. The remaining accounted for a total of 566,000 native speakers (out of a total of 838 million Indians in 1991).[18] According to the most recent census of 2001, 29 'languages' have more than a million native speakers, 60 have more than 100,000 and 122 have more than 10,000 native speakers. The government of India has given 22 "languages of the 8th Schedule" the status of official language. The number of languages given this status has increased through the political process. Some languages with a large number of speakers still do not have this status, the largest of these being Bhili/Bhiladi with some 9.6 million native speakers (ranked 14th), followed by Gondi with 2.7 million speakers (ranked 18th) and Khandeshi with 2.1 million speakers (ranked 22nd). On the other hand, 2 languages with fewer than 2 million native speakers have recently been included in the 8th Schedule for mostly political reasons: Manipuri/Maithei with 1.5 million speakers (ranked 25th) and Bodo with 1.4 million speakers (ranked 26th).

841

Language families
The languages of India belong to several language families. The largest of these in terms of speakers is the Indo-European family, predominantly represented in its Indo-Aryan branch (accounting for some 700 million speakers, or 69% of the population), but also including minority languages such as Persian, Portuguese or French, and English as a lingua franca. Kashmiri and other Dardic languages, which form part of the Indo-Iranian, and arguably Indo-Aryan family, have some 4.6 million speakers in India. The second largest language family is the Dravidian family, accounting for some 200 million speakers, or 26%. Families with smaller numbers of speakers are Austro-Asiatic and numerous small Tibeto-Burman languages, with some 10 and 6 million speakers, respectively, together 5% of the population. The Ongan languages of the southern Andaman Islands form a fifth family; the Great Andamanese languages are extinct apart from one highly endangered language with a dwindling number of speakers. There is also a known language isolate, the Nihali language. The Shompen language or languages is/are poorly attested and unclassified. Sentinelese is entirely unknown. Most languages in the Indian republic are written in Brahmi-derived scripts, such as Devangari, Bengali, Telugu,Oriya, Tamil, Kannada, etc., though Urdu is written in a derivation of Arabic, and a few minor languages such as Santali have independent scripts.

Official languages
The official languages of the Republic of India are Standard Hindi and English. According to the article 343 (1), "The Official Language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script."[19] The individual states can legislate their own official languages, depending on their linguistic demographics. For example,the state of Maharashtra has Marathi as its sole official language, the state of Odisha has Odia as its sole official language, the state of Andhra Pradesh has Telugu as its sole official language, the state of Tamil Nadu has Tamil as its sole official language and the state of Karnataka has Kannada as its sole official language, while the state of Jammu and Kashmir has Kashmiri,

Languages of India Urdu, and Dogri as its official languages. Article 345 of the Indian constitution provides recognition to "official languages" of the union to include Standard Hindi or any one or more of the languages adopted by a state legislature as the official language. Until the Twenty-First Amendment of the Constitution in 1967, the country recognised 14 official regional languages. The Eighth Schedule and the Seventy-First Amendment provided for the inclusion of Sindhi, Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali, thereby increasing the number of official regional languages of India to 18.[20] Individual states, whose borders are mostly drawn on socio-linguistic lines, are free to decide their own language for internal administration and education. The following table lists the official languages, aside from English, set out in the eighth schedule as of May 2008:[21]
Language Family Speakers (2001, in [22] millions) 13 State(s)

842

Assamese/Axomiya

Indo-Aryan, Eastern Indo-Aryan, Eastern Tibeto-Burman Indo-Aryan, Northwestern Indo-Aryan, Western Indo-Aryan, Central

Assam, Arunachal Pradesh

Bengali

83 in India

West Bengal, Tripura, Andaman & Nicobar Islands and also few regions of Assam Assam Jammu and Kashmir

Bodo Dogri

1.4 2.3

Gujarati

46

Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu, Gujarat

Standard Hindi

unknown

[23]

Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Arunachal Pradesh, Bihar, Chandigarh, Chhattisgarh, the national capital territory of Delhi, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand Karnataka Jammu and Kashmir

Kannada Kashmiri

Dravidian Indo-Aryan, Dardic Indo-Aryan, Southern Indo-Aryan, Eastern

38 5.5

Konkani

2.5 (7.6 per Ethnologue) 12 (32 in India in 2000 per Ethnologue) 33 1.5

Goa, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Kerala

Maithili

Bihar

Malayalam Manipuri (also Meitei or Meithei) Marathi

Dravidian Tibeto-Burman

Kerala, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, Puducherry Manipur

Indo-Aryan, Southern Indo-Aryan, Northern Indo-Aryan, Eastern Indo-Aryan, Northwestern Indo-Aryan Munda

72

Maharashtra, Goa, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam

Nepali

2.9 in India

Oriya

33

Orissa

Punjabi

29 in India

Chandigarh, Delhi, Haryana, Punjab

Sanskrit Santhali

0.01 6.5

non-regional Santhal tribals of the Chota Nagpur Plateau (comprising the states of Bihar, Chattisgarh, Jharkhand, Orissa)

Languages of India

843
Indo-Aryan, Northwestern Dravidian Dravidian Indo-Aryan, Central 2.5 in India non-regional

Sindhi

Tamil Telugu Urdu

61 74 52 in India

Tamil Nadu, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Puducherry Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Puducherry Jammu and Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh, Delhi, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand

Official classical languages

In 2004, the Government of India declared that languages that met certain requirements could be accorded the status of a "Classical Language in India".[24] Languages thus far declared to be Classical are Tamil (in 2004),[25] Sanskrit (in 2005),[26] Kannada and Telugu (in 2008).[27] In 2005, Sanskrit, which already had special status in Article 351 of the Constitution of India as the primary source language for the development of the official standard of Hindi,[28] was also declared to be a classical language; this was followed by similar declarations for Kannada and Telugu in 2008, based on the recommendation of a committee of linguistic experts constituted by the Ministry of Culture, Government of India.[27] In a 2006 press release, Minister of Tourism & Culture Ambika Soni told the Rajya Sabha the following criteria were laid down to determine the eligibility of languages to be considered for classification as a "classical Language",[29]

High antiquity of its early texts/recorded history over a period of 1500-2000 years; A body of ancient literature/texts, which is considered a valuable heritage by generations of speakers; The literary tradition be original and not borrowed from another speech community; The classical language and literature being distinct from modern, there may also be a discontinuity between the classical language and its later forms or its offshoots.

Regional languages
In British India, English was the sole language used for administrative purposes as well as for higher education purposes. When India became independent in 1947, the Indian legislators had the challenge of choosing a language for official communication as well as for communication between different linguistic regions across India. The choices available were: Making "Hindi", which a plurality of the people (40%) identified as their mother tongue, the official language, though only a minority of these "Hindi" speakers spoke Hindi proper. Making English, as preferred by non-Hindi speakers, particularly Tamils, and those from Mizoram and Nagaland, the official language. See also Anti-Hindi agitations. Declare both Hindi and English as official languages and each state is given freedom to choose the official language of the state. The Indian constitution, in 1950, declared Hindi in Devanagari script to be the official language of the union.[30] Unless Parliament decided otherwise, the use of English for official purposes was to cease 15 years after the constitution came into effect, i.e., on 26 January 1965.[30] The prospect of the changeover, however, led to much alarm in the non Hindi-speaking areas of India, especially Dravidian-speaking states whose languages were not related to Hindi at all. As a result, Parliament enacted the Official Languages Act, 1963,[31] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] which provided for the continued use of English for official purposes along with Hindi, even after 1965.

Languages of India

844

Practical problems
Choosing Hindi as an official language presents serious problems to every person whose "mother tongue" is not Hindi. This may be a huge burden for children who have to learn Standard Hindi completely just to advance to the next level in education. This is because all the boards of education across India, recognized the 'need' of training people to one common language. There are many complaints that in North India, non-Hindi speakers undergo considerable difficulties on account of language.[37] Local official language commissions have been established and various steps are being taken in a direction to reduce tensions and friction.

Language conflicts
There are some significant conflicts over linguistic rights in India. The first major linguistic conflict, known as the Anti-Hindi agitations of Tamil Nadu took place in Tamil Nadu against the implementation of Hindi as the sole official language of India. Political analysts consider this as a major factor in bringing DMK to power and leading to the ousting and nearly total elimination of the Congress party in Tamil Nadu.[38] Strong cultural pride based on language is also found in other Indian states such as Kerala, Bengal, Maharashtra and in Karnataka. To express disapproval of the imposition of an alien language Hindi on its people as a result of the central government overstepping its constitutional authority, Maharashtra and Karnataka Governments made the state languages compulsory in educational institutions.[39] Recently anti-Hindi feelings have been expressed in Mumbai by Shiv Sena and Maharashtra Navnirman Sena[40] The Government of India attempts to assuage these conflicts with various campaigns, coordinated by the Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL), Mysore, a branch of the Department of Higher Education, Language Bureau, Ministry of Human Resource Development.

Writing systems
Various Indian languages have corresponding scripts for them. Marathi language is written with Devanagari. Most other languages are written using a script specific to them, such as Bengali with Bengali, Punjabi with Gurmukhi and Shahmukhi,Oriya with Utkal Lipi Gujarati with Gujarati etc. Urdu and sometimes Kashmiri, Saraiki and Sindhi are written in modified versions of the Perso-Arabic script. With this one exception, the scripts of Indian languages are native to India. (See ISO 15919 regarding Romanization of Indian languages)

Ashoka's 6th pillar edict, 3rd century BC

References
[1] https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ in. html#People [2] Nihali, Shompen languages, and the various Andamanese languages [3] "Presidential Order, 1960" (http:/ / www. rajbhasha. gov. in/ preseng. htm). Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. 27 April 1960. . Retrieved 4 February 2010. [4] See: PART XVII (OFFICIAL LANGUAGE) (http:/ / lawmin. nic. in/ coi/ coiason29july08. pdf) [5] There's no national language in India: Gujarat High Court (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ india/ Theres-no-national-language-in-India-Gujarat-High-Court/ articleshow/ 5496231. cms) [6] Andrew Simpson (2007). Language and national identity in Asia (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=F3XvBbdWCKYC). Oxford University Press. ISBN0199267480. . "... the languages of the Eighth Schedule, which have been referred to as the national languages of India since Nehru initiated such a practice ..." [7] James W. Tollefson (2002). Language policies in education: critical issues (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=4syP7jPzGSoC). Routledge. ISBN0805836012. . "... Despite negligible practical import, the symbolic significant of Schedule VIII inclusion is substantial ... Any language included in Schedule VIII is a national language of India ... the "national" languages of India, i.e., those in Schedule VIII ..."

Languages of India
[8] More than a thousand including major dialects. The 1991 census recognized "1576 rationalized mother tongues" which were further grouped into language categories ( Indian Census (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ )) [9] "Language in India" (http:/ / www. languageinindia. com/ aug2002/ indianmothertongues1961aug2002. html). Language in India. . Retrieved 2010-08-01. [10] Bhatia, Tej K and William C. Ritchie. (2006) Bilingualism in South Asia. In: Handbook of Bilingualism, pp. 780-807. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. [11] Shapiro, M: Hindi. [12] Encyclopdia Britannica. "Dravidian languages - Britannica Online Encyclopedia" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 171083/ Dravidian-languages). Britannica.com. . Retrieved 2010-08-01. [13] Narayan, Shyamala; Jha (1997). Non-fictional Indian prose in English, 1960-1990 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=ZqplAAAAMAAJ). Sahitya Akademi. ISBN9788126002948. . [14] Malayalam literary survey, Volume 15 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=k5JkAAAAMAAJ). Kraa Shitya Akkdami. 1993. p.76. . [15] Gupta, Balarama (2007). The Journal of Indian writing in English, Volume 35 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=EdpHAAAAYAAJ). p.8. . [16] Velcheru Narayana Rao; David Shulman, Classical Telugu Poetry (2 ed.), The Regents of the University of California, p.3 [17] Chenchiah, P.; Rao, Raja Bhujanga (1988). A History of Telugu Literature. Asian Educational Services. p.18. ISBN8120603133. [18] Indian Census (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ ) [19] 1. Oldenburg, Phillip (http:/ / www. columbia. edu/ cu/ lweb/ data/ indiv/ area/ idsas/ OLDENBURG,Philip. htm). (1997-2007) Encarta Encyclopedia "India: Official Languages." 2. United Kingdom, Foreign and Commonwealth Office: IndiaCountry Profile (http:/ / www. fco. gov. uk/ servlet/ Front?pagename=OpenMarket/ Xcelerate/ ShowPage& c=Page& cid=1007029394365& a=KCountryProfile& aid=1018965323192). 3. UNESCO: Education for AllThe Nine Largest Countries (http:/ / www2. unesco. org/ wef/ en-docs/ findings/ efa9. doc) Quote: "Hindi is the language of 30% of the population and the official language of India." (these do not refer to the same conception of Hindi) 4. United States Library of Congress, Federal Research Division, Country Profile: India (http:/ / lcweb2. loc. gov/ frd/ cs/ profiles/ India. pdf). 5 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Country Profile: India (http:/ / www. unhcr. org/ publ/ RSDCOI/ 3ae6a6400. html). [20] "Legislation: Legislation dealing with the use of languages" (http:/ / www. us-english. org/ foundation/ research/ olp/ viewResearch. asp?CID=54& TID=1). Constitution of India. Articles 29, 30, 120, 210, 343-351 as amended in the 21st and 71st Amendments. [21] Constitution of India (http:/ / lawmin. nic. in/ coi/ coiason29july08. pdf), page 330, EIGHTH SCHEDULE, Articles 344 (1) and 351]. Languages. [22] Official 2001 census data (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Census_Data_2001/ Census_Data_Online/ Language/ Statement1. htm) [23] The 2001 census records two figures, of 258 million and 422 million "Hindi" speakers. However, both figures include languages other than Standard Hindi, such as Rajasthani (ca. 80 million in independent estimates), Bhojpuri (40 million), Awadhi (38 million), Chhattisgarhi (18 million), and dozens of other languages with a million to over ten million speakers apiece. The figure of 422 million specifically includes all such people, whereas the figure of 258 depends on speaker identification as recorded in the census. For example, of the estimated 38 million Awadhi speakers, only 2 million gave their language as "Awadhi", with the rest apparently giving it as "Hindi", and of the approximately 80 million Rajasthani speakers, only 18 million were counted separately. Maithili, listed as a separate language in the 2001 census but previously considered a dialect of Hindi, also appeared to be severely undercounted. [24] "India sets up classical languages" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ south_asia/ 3667032. stm). BBC. 2004-09-17. . Retrieved 2007-05-01. [25] "Front Page : Tamil to be a classical language" (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ 2004/ 09/ 18/ stories/ 2004091806530100. htm). Chennai, India: The Hindu. 2004-09-18. . Retrieved 2010-08-01. [26] "National : Sanskrit to be declared classical language" (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ 2005/ 10/ 28/ stories/ 2005102809281200. htm). Chennai, India: The Hindu. 2005-10-28. . Retrieved 2010-08-01. [27] "Declaration of Telugu and Kannada as classical languages" (http:/ / pib. nic. in/ release/ release. asp?relid=44340). Press Information Bureau. Ministry of Tourism and Culture, Government of India. . Retrieved 2008-10-31. [28] Constitution of India, Part XVII.Official Language.Art. 351. Page 217 (http:/ / lawmin. nic. in/ coi/ coiason29july08. pdf) Quote: "It shall be the duty of the Union to promote the spread of the Hindi language, to develop it so that it may serve as a medium of expression for all the elements of the composite culture of India and to secure its enrichment by assimilating without interfering with its genius, the forms, style and expressions used in Hindustani and in the other languages of India specified in the Eighth Schedule, and by drawing, wherever necessary or desirable, for its vocabulary, primarily on Sanskrit and secondarily on other languages." [29] "CLASSICAL LANGUAGE STATUS TO KANNADA" (http:/ / pib. nic. in/ release/ rel_print_page1. asp?relid=19653). Press Information Bureau, Government of India. 2006-08-08. . Retrieved 2008-11-06. [30] "Constitution of India as of 29 July 2008" (http:/ / lawmin. nic. in/ coi/ coiason29july08. pdf). The Constitution Of India. Ministry of Law & Justice. . Retrieved 13 April 2011. [31] DOL (http:/ / www. rajbhasha. nic. in/ dolacteng. htm) [32] Commissioner Linguistic Minorities (http:/ / nclm. nic. in/ shared/ linkimages/ 35. htm) [33] Language in India (http:/ / www. languageinindia. com/ april2002/ officiallanguagesact. html) [34] THE OFFICIAL LANGUAGES ACT, 1963 (http:/ / www. indianrailways. gov. in/ RPF/ Files/ law/ BareActs/ officiallang1963act. htm) [35] National Portal of India : Know India : Profile (http:/ / india. gov. in/ knowindia/ official_language. php) [36] Committee of Parliament on Official Language report (http:/ / www. rajbhasha. gov. in/ khand8-eng7. pdf)

845

Languages of India
[37] The Pioneer > Columnists (http:/ / www. dailypioneer. com/ columnist1. asp?main_variable=Columnist& file_name=surya/ surya25. txt& writer=surya) [38] "Magazine / Columns : Hindi against India" (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ mag/ 2005/ 01/ 16/ stories/ 2005011600260300. htm). Chennai, India: The Hindu. 16 January 2005. . Retrieved 2010-08-01. [39] "Marathi a must in Maharashtra schools - India News" (http:/ / www. ibnlive. com/ news/ marathi-a-must-in-maharashtra-schools/ 28502-3. html). IBNLive. 2010-02-03. . Retrieved 2010-08-01. [40] "Abu Azmi slapped by MNS MLA for taking oath in Hindi" (http:/ / www. indianexpress. com/ news/ abu-azmi-slapped-by-mns-mla-for-taking-o. . . / 539149/ ). Indianexpress.com. 2009-11-09. . Retrieved 2010-08-01.

846

External links
Distribution of languages in India (http://www.mapsofindia.com/culture/indian-languages.html) http://www.languageinindia.com/ Languages of India (http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=IN) (SIL Ethnologue list) Languages and Scripts of India (http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/scripts.html) Reconciling Linguistic Diversity: The History and the Future of Language Policy in India (http://www.ling. upenn.edu/~jason2/papers/natlang.htm) by Jason Baldridge Titus - Languages of India (http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/didact/karten/indi/indicm.htm) Diversity of Languages in India (http://www.kamat.com/indica/diversity/languages.htm) Official webpage explains the chronological events related to Official Languages Act and amendments (http:// rajbhasha.nic.in/) A comprehensive federal government site that offers complete info on Indian Languages (http://www.ciil.org/) Ethnologue Ethnologue report on the languages of India (http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country. asp?name=IN) Technology Development for Indian Languages, Government of India (http://tdil.mit.gov.in/news.htm) The Official Portal of the Indian Government (http://india.gov.in/knowindia/india_at_a_glance.php)

References
[[Ka:Pq

South Asian ethnic groups

847

South Asian ethnic groups

The ethno-linguistic composition of the population of South Asia, that is the nations of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Maldives and Sri Lanka is highly diverse. The majority of the population fall within two large Linguistic groups, Indo-Aryan and Dravidian[1] . These groups are further subdivided into numerous sub-groups, castes and tribes. Indo-Aryans form the predominant ethno-linguistic group in Northern India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Dravidians form the predominant ethno-linguistic group in southern India and the northern and eastern regions of Sri Lanka, and a small pocket in Pakistan. Iranian peoples, grouped with Indo-Aryans in the Indo-Iranian language group, also have a significant presence in South Asia, the large majority of whom are located in Pakistan, with heavy concentrations in Balochistan, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa and Federally Administered Tribal Areas. Dardic peoples form a minority among the Indo-Aryans. They are classified as belonging to the Indo-Aryan language group,[2] though sometimes they are also classified as external to the Indo-Aryan branch.[3] They are found in northern Pakistan (Northern Areas and Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa) and in Jammu and Kashmir, India. Minority groups not falling within either large group mostly belong to the Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman language families, most of whom live around North-East India, Nepal, and the Chittagong Division of Bangladesh. The Andamanese (Sentinel, Onge, Jarawa, Great Andamanese) live on some of the Andaman Islands and speak a language isolate, as do the Kusunda in central Nepal[4] , the Vedda in Sri Lanka, and the Nihali of central India, who number about 5000 people. The people of the Hunza valley in Pakistan are another distinct population. They speak Burushaski, a language isolate. The traditions of different ethnic groups in South Asia have diverged, influenced by external cultures, especially in the northwestern parts of South Asia (where Turkic and Iranian peoples have had much influence) and in the border regions and busy ports, where there are greater levels of contact with external cultures. This is particularly true for many ethnic groups in the northeastern parts of South Asia who are ethnically and culturally related to peoples of the Far East. The largest ethno-linguistic group in South Asia are the Indo-Aryans, numbering around 1 billion, and the largest sub-group are the native speakers of Hindi languages, numbering more than 470 million.

South Asian ethnic groups

848

List of ethnic groups on the basis of language

Indo-Iranians languages
People who speak an Indo-Aryan language. Most of the North Indian population is of Indo-Aryan descent. The Ra1a1 gene haplotype is found in at least 50% of the populations from North/East India to Central Asia and Eastern Europe. Assamese people (i.e. the Assamese speakers of the Brahmaputra valley, not to be confused with the multi-ethnic people of Assam)[5] Parsi people Bengali people Bihari people Maithil Bhumihar Dhivehi people Gujarati people Saurashtra people Hindkis Hindkowans Konkani people Marathi people Mers Muhajir people

The extent of Indo-Aryan languages in the Indian subcontinent

Bihari Muslim Oriya people Paharis Dogra people Garhwali people Gurkha or Gorkha Khas Kumauni People or Kumaoni people Punjabi people Khatri people Jatt people Kamboj/Kamboh Punjabi Rajput Punjabi Shaikh Haral Dogar Labana Khattar

Awan Mughal (tribe) Arain

South Asian ethnic groups Rajasthanis Marwaris Seraikis Sinhalese people Sindhi people Sri Lankan Tamils Tharu people iyers iyengars

849

Iranian peoples Balochi people Hazaras Irani Kurdish people Parsi people Zoroastrians Pashtun people Lohani (Pashtun ethnic group)

Extent of Iranian languages in south and southwestern Asia

Tajik people Dardic peoples Note: The Dardic languages are largely seen as Indo-Aryan, but are sometimes seen as a separate Indo-Iranian branch. Nuristani people Chitrali people Shina people Kashmiri people

South Asian ethnic groups

850

Dravidian peoples
Kurukh (Oraon) Khonds Gondi people Kannadigas Badagas Kannadigas Kodava Malayalis Mappila Cochin Jews Syrian Malabar Nasrani Malto people Tamil people Indian Tamils

The extent of Dravidian languages in the Indian subcontinent

Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka Telugu people Toda people Tuluvas Irulas Brahui people

Austro-Asiatic peoples
Munda people Juang Kharia people Korku people Mundari people Santali Sora Khasi people Nicobarese people

South Asian ethnic groups

851

Tibeto-Burman peoples
Tibetans and Tibetan-speaking speaking peoples Bhutias Bhotiyas Sherpas Tibetan Ladakhis Monpa Takpa Tshangla Sherdukpen Aka Miji Tibetan Muslim

Burig Baltis Chepang Gurung Karbi people or Mikir Kirat people Rai Limbu Yakkha Lepcha people Magar people Manipuri or Meithei people Naga people Newar people Tamang Thakali Thami Tripuris Memba Khowa Nishi

Red: Sino-Tibetan languagesLight green: Indo-European languagesBlue: Dravidian languagesDark Green: Altaic LanguagesGrey: 3 groups; Japanese languageJaponic {possibly Altaic}, Korean languageKoreanic, {possibly Altaic}, and IndochinaIndochinese languages. Pink: Austronesian languages.

Altaic people
Turkish Indian Mughal (Moghul) Chughtai Barlas Qizilbash Hazaras (Altaic origins, but Iranian language) possibly Hunza (may be related to Yenisei Siberians) Muhajirs

South Asian ethnic groups

852

Austronesian people
Sri Lankan Malays

Semitic peoples
Indian Jews Cochin Jews (Malayali Jews) Bene Israel (Marathi Jews) Baghdadi Jews (Arab Jews in Bengal) Bnei Menashe (Mizo and Kuki Jews) Bene Ephraim (Telugu Jews) Syrian Malabar Nasranis are descendents of Jewish converts to Christianity Knanaya(a sub-group of Syrian Malabar Nasranis) Paradesi Jews (European Jews in India) Arabs or mixed Arab and Indo-Aryan or Dravidian Iranian Arabians Konkani Muslims (trace ancestry to Arab traders on the west coast of India) Mappila (trace ancestry to Arab traders in the State of Kerala, India) Sri Lankan Moors ( trace ancestry to Arab traders who settled in Sri Lanka) Muhajirs Iraqi biradri A community of Muslims in north India Deccan A community of Muslims in Southern and Northern parts of the Deccan Plateau such as Hyderabadi Muslims Labbay Arab traders who settled in South India (trace ancestry back to Egyptian traders) Memons Possibly the earliest Muslims to arrive in India,(trace ancestry to Syrians who came with Muhammad Bin Qasim) during the expedition of Sindh. Boras Trace ancestors to Arab traders and Merchants. Chaush Trace ancestors to traders from Yemen Punjabi Shaikhs Dawah workers that arrived in India

Tai peoples
Ahom people Tai Aiton Tai Khampti Tai Phake or Tai Phakial Tai Turung

South Asian ethnic groups

853

European/Eurasian peoples
Anglo-Burmese Anglo-Indian Burgher people

Afro-Asian
Sri Lanka Kaffirs Siddi

Linguistically isolate groups

Andamanese Hunza people Kusunda Nahali (Kalto)

Diaspora
Many South Asian ethnic groups and nationalities have substantial diasporas outside of South Asia. South Asian American Indian American Pakistani American Bangladeshi American Sri Lankan American South Asian Canadian Indo-Canadian Pakistani Canadian Sri Lankan Canadian Tamil Canadian Bangladeshi Canadian British Asian British Indian British Pakistani British Bangladeshi British Tamil Sri Lankans in the United Kingdom Nepalis in the United Kingdom British Indo-Caribbean community Mauritians in the United Kingdom Asian-Scots South Asian Australian Indian Australian Pakistani Australian Sri Lankan Australian Bangladeshi Australian Indo Kiwi Indians in Singapore

South Asian ethnic groups Malaysian Indian Tamil Malaysians Chitty Indian Indonesian Indo-Mauritian Bihari Mauritian Indo-Caribbean Indo-Trinidadian Indo-Jamaican Burmese Indians South Asians in Hong Kong South Asians in the Philippines Indians in Germany Indian South Africans

854

Tamil South Africans Indians in Botswana Indians in Kenya Indians in Madagascar Indo-Mauritian Indians in Mozambique Indo-Runionnaise Indo-Seychellois Indians in Tanzania Indians in Uganda Indians in Zambia Indians in Zimbabwe Indians in Iran Indians in Thailand Indians in the United Arab Emirates Indians in Vietnam Indians in Barbados Indians in Belize Indo-Guyanese Indo-Grenadians Indians in Guadeloupe Indians in Panama Indians in Belgium Indian diaspora in France Indians in Israel Indians in Italy Indians in Portugal Indian community in Spain Indo-Fijian Indians in New Caledonia

Hindoestanen

South Asian ethnic groups See also Punjabi diaspora, Bangladeshi diaspora, Tamil diaspora, Pakistani diaspora, Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora and Indian diaspora. Two (or possibly three) other people groups have ethnic and linguistic ties with the region: Dom people Romani people Lom people (who speak a language both related to Indo-Aryan and Armenian)

855

References
[1] According to https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ region/ region_sas. html (retrieved on October 2010), 98% of the population of Bengladesh are Bengali (Indo-Aryan), 72% of the population of India are Indo-Aryan and 25% are Dravidian, 44.68% of the population of Pakistan are Punjabi and 14.1% are Sindhi (two Indo-Aryan populations), and 73.8% of the population of Sri Lanka are Sinhalese (Indo-Aryan). Given the fact that India, Pakistan, Bengladesh and Sri Lanka represent a huge mass of population (1 508 851 998) compared to Afghanistan, Buthan, Nepal and the Maldives (58 051 568), the majority of the population of South Asia are Indo-Aryan or Dravidian. Moreover, Nepal and Bhutan probably have an important part of their populations which are also Indo-Aryan. Feel free to check. [2] G. Morgenstierne Irano-Dardica. Wiesbaden 1973; Morgenstierne, G. Indo-Iranian frontier languages. (Instituttet for Sammenlignende Kulturforskning. Publ. ser. B: Skrifter, no. 11, 35, 40) Oslo: H. Aschehoug, 1929 sqq, reprint Oslo 1973,C. Masica The Indo-Aryan languages, New York 1991, p. 21; R.L. Trail and G.R. Cooper, Kalasha Dictionary, Islamabad & High Wycombe 1999 p. xi; The Indo-Aryan languages, edited by George Cardona and Dhanesh Jain. London, New York : Routledge, 2003 [3] G.A. Grierson, The Pisaca Languages of North-Western India,Asiatic Society, London, 1906, repr. Delhi 1969, p. 4-6; still repeated in: History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Ahmad Hasan Dani, Vadim Mikhalovich Masson, Jnos Harmatta, Boris Abramovich Litvinovski, Clifford, 1999 [4] D.E. Watters, Notes on Kusunda (a language isolate of Nepal), Kathmandu 2005 [5] Yasmin Saikia. Fragmented Memories (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=p9PkFF3uq_8C& pg=PA5& d). .

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Culture
Culture of India
India's languages, religions, dance, music, architecture, food and customs differ from place to place within the country, but nevertheless possess a commonality. The culture of India is an amalgamation of these diverse sub-cultures spread all over the Indian subcontinent and traditions that are several millennia old.[1] Regarded by some historians as the "oldest living civilization of Earth", the Indian tradition dates back to 8000 BC[2] and has a continuous recorded history since the time of the Vedas for over 5,500 years.[3] Several elements of India's diverse culture such as Indian religions, yoga and Indian cuisine have had a profound impact across the world.

Bharatanatyam, one of eight designated classical dance forms of India

Religions and spirituality

India is the birth place of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, collectively known as Indian religions.[5] Indian religions, also known as Dharmic religions are a major form of world religions along with Abrahamic ones. Today, Hinduism and Buddhism are the world's third- and fourth-largest religions respectively, with over 2 billion followers altogether,[6] [7] [8] and possibly as many as 2.5 or 2.6 billion followers.[6] [9] India is also the birthplace for the Lingayat and Ahmadiyya faiths. India is one of the most religiously diverse nations in the world, with some of the most deeply religious societies and cultures. Religion still plays a central and definitive role in the life of many of its people. The religion of 80% of the people is Hinduism. Islam is practiced by around 13% of all Indians.[10] Sikhism, Jainism and especially Buddhism are influential not only in India but across the world. Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Judaism and the Bah' Faith are also influential but their numbers are smaller. Despite the strong role of religion in Indian life, atheism and agnostics also have visible influence along with a self-ascribed tolerance to other people.
Close-up of a statue depicting Maitreya at the Thikse Monastery in Ladakh, India. Dharmic religions, such as Hinduism and Buddhism, are [4] indigenous to India.

According to Eugene M. Makar, a respected industry consultant, traditional Indian culture is defined by a relatively strict social hierarchy. He also mentions that from an early age, children are reminded of their roles and places in society.[11] This is reinforced by the fact that many believe gods and spirits have an integral and functional role in

Culture of India determining their life.[11] Several differences such as religion divide the culture.[11] However, a far more powerful division is the traditional Hindu bifurcation into non-polluting and polluting occupations.[11] Strict social taboos have governed these groups for thousands of years.[11] In recent years, particularly in cities, some of these lines have blurred and sometimes even disappeared.[11] Important family relations extend as far as gotra, the mainly patrilinear lineage or clan assigned to a Hindu at birth.[11] In rural areas & sometimes in urban areas as well, it is common that three or four generations of the family live under the same roof.[11] The patriarch often resolves family issues.[11]

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Family
Family plays a significant role in the Indian culture. For generations, India has had a prevailing tradition of the joint family system. It is a system under which extended members of a family parents, children, the childrens spouses and their offspring, etc. live together. Usually, the eldest male member is the head in the joint Indian family system. He makes all important decisions and rules, and other family members abide by them. However, in recent times, many families especially in urban areas, in have stopped abiding by the extended family system and have started living as a nuclear family.

A bride during a traditional Hindu wedding ceremony in Punjab.

Marriage
For centuries, arranged marriages have been the tradition in Indian society. Even today, the vast majority of Indians have their marriages planned by their parents and other respected family-members, with the consent of the bride and groom. They also demand dowry, which has been outlawed by the Indian government, but Indian society and culture still promotes and maintains it. They get around the prohibition by not letting the authorities know the arrangements of money.[12] Arranged matches are made after taking into account factors such as age, height, personal values and tastes, the backgrounds of their families (wealth, social standing), their castes and the astrological compatibility of the couples' horoscopes. In India, the marriage is thought to be for life,[13] and the divorce rate is extremely low 1.1% compared with about 50% in the United States.[14] The arranged marriages generally have a much lower divorce rate, although divorce rates have risen significantly in recent years: "Opinion is divided over what the phenomenon means: for traditionalists the rising numbers portend the breakdown of society while, for some modernists, they speak of a healthy new empowerment for women."[15]

Namaste
Namaste, Namaskar or Namaskara or Namaskaram, Vanakkam (Tamil) or Asssalamu alaikum (Urdu / Persian) Sat Shri Akal (Punjabi) is a common spoken greeting or salutation in the Indian subcontinent. Namaskar is considered a slightly more formal version than Namaste but both express deep respect. It is commonly used in India and Nepal by Hindus, Jains, Buddhists and Sikhs, and many continue to use this outside the Indian subcontinent. In Indian and Nepali culture, the word is spoken at the beginning of written or verbal communication. However, the same hands folded gesture is made usually wordlessly upon departure. Taken literally, it means "I bow to you". The word is derived from Sanskrit (namah): to bow, obeisance, reverential salutation, and respect, and (te): "to you". As explained by an Indian scholar, in literal terms Namaste refers to 'That which is of God in me bows to that which is of God in you'.

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Festivals
India, being a multi-cultural and multi-religious society, celebrates holidays and festivals of various religions. The three national holidays in India, the Independence Day, the Republic Day and the Gandhi Jayanti, are celebrated with zeal and enthusiasm across India. In addition, many states and regions have local festivals depending on prevalent religious and linguistic demographics. Popular religious festivals include the Hindu festivals of Navratri, Diwali, Ganesh Chaturthi, Durga puja, Holi, Rakshabandhan and Dussehra. Several harvest festivals, such as Sankranthi, Pongal and Onam,"Nuakhai" are also fairly popular.

Radha and gopikas celebrating Holi, known as the "festival of colors".

Certain festivals in India are celebrated by multiple religions. Notable examples include Diwali, which is celebrated by Hindus, Sikhs and Jains, and Buddh Purnima, celebrated by Buddhists and Hindus. Islamic festivals, such Eid ul-Fitr, Eid al-Adha and Ramadan, are celebrated by Muslims across India. Sikh Festivals , such as Guru Nanak Jayanti, Baiskhi are celebrated with full fanfare by Sikhs and Hindu. Adding colors to the culture of India, the Dree Festival is one of the tribal festivals of India celebrated by the Apatanis of the Ziro valley of Arunachal Pradesh, which is the easternmost state of India.

Names and language

Indian names are based on a variety of systems and naming conventions, which vary from region to region. Names are also influenced by religion and caste and may come from the Indian epics. India's population speaks a wide variety of languages.

Animals
The varied and rich wildlife of India has had a profound impact on the region's popular culture. Common name for wilderness in India is Jungle which was adopted by the British colonialists to the English language. The word has been also made famous in The Jungle Book by Rudyard Kipling. India's wildlife has been the subject of numerous other tales and fables such as the Panchatantra and the Jataka tales.[16] In Hinduism, the cow is regarded as a symbol of ahimsa (non-violence), mother goddess and bringer of good fortune and wealth.[17] For this reason, cows are revered in Hindu culture and feeding a cow is seen as an act of worship.[18] ''

Cows depicted in the decorated goppuram of the Kapaleeshwarar temple in Chennai.

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Cuisine
The cuisine in India is classified into three major categories. Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas. Satva which stand for balance, Rajas stands for passion, and Thamas stands for indulgence. Food is consumed according to the lifestyle of the person. For example: A King has to be aggressive to defend his country, he would be taking food which would give much passion and that aggressiveness which is required. When a person tries to lead his life in want of self realisaiton, he would prefer a Satvic food or known as Sattvic diet, which would help to keep his mind in balance. Thamasic food or known as Static foods is to be taken only if its required, like consumption of Alcohol. This is the reason why in many Indians try to abstain drinking. The multiple varieties of Indian cuisine are characterized by their sophisticated and subtle use of many Spices and Herbs. Each family of this cuisine is characterized by a wide assortment of dishes and cooking techniques. Though a significant portion of Indian food is vegetarian, many traditional Indian dishes also include: chicken, goat, lamb, fish, and other meats. India is known for its love for food and spices, and it plays a role in everyday life as well as in festivals. Indian cuisine varies from region to region, reflecting the varied demographics of the country. Generally, Indian cuisine can be split into 5 categories northern, southern, eastern, western and north-eastern.
Kheer is a traditional Indian sweet dish.

Uttar Pradeshi thali (platter) with Naan bread, Daal, Raita, Shahi paneer, and Salad.

Despite this diversity, some unifying threads emerge. Varied uses of spices are an integral part of food preparation, and are used to enhance the flavor of a dish and create unique flavors and aromas. Cuisine across India has also been influenced by various cultural groups that entered India throughout history, such as the Persians, Mughals, and European colonists. Though the tandoor originated in Central Asia, Indian tandoori dishes, such as chicken tikka made with Indian ingredients, enjoy widespread popularity.[19] Indian cuisine is one of the most popular cuisines across the globe.[20] Historically, Indian Spices and Herbs were one of the most sought after trade commodities. The Spice trade between India and Europe led to the rise and dominance of Arab traders to such an extent that European explorers, such as Vasco da Gama and Christopher Columbus, set out to find new trade routes with India leading to the Age of Discovery.[21] The popularity of curry, which originated in India, across Asia has often led to the dish being labeled as the "pan-Asian" dish.[22]

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Clothing
Traditional clothing in India greatly varies across different parts of the country and is influenced immensely by local culture, geography and climate. Popular styles of dress include draped garments such as sari for women and dhoti or lungi for men; in addition, stitched clothes such as churidar for women and kurta-pyjama and European-style trousers and shirts for men, are also popular. In India, a person's social status is perceived to be symbolized by his or her attire. Indian dress etiquette discourages exposure of skin and wearing transparent or tight clothes.[23] Most Indian clothes are made from cotton which is ideal for the region's hot weather.[24] Since India's weather is mostly hot and rainy, majority of Indians wear sandals.[25] Worn by women on their forehead, the bindi is considered to be a highly auspicious mark in Hindu religion.[26] Traditionally, the red bindi (or sindoor) was worn only by the married Hindu women, but now it has become a part of women's fashion. Some Indian traditions consider the bindi to be representative of the third eye.[27] India's clothing styles have continuously evolved over the course of the country's history. Ancient Vedic texts mention clothes made from barks and leaves (known as phataka). The 11th century BC Rig-veda mentions dyed and embroidered garments (known as paridhan and pesas respectively) and thus highlights the development of Illustration of different styles of Sari & clothing sophisticated garment manufacturing techniques during the Vedic worn by women in India. age.[28] In 5th century BC, Greek historian Herodotus describes the richness of the quality of Indian cotton clothes.[29] By 2nd century AD, muslins manufactured in southern India were imported by the Roman Empire and silk cloth was one of the major exports of ancient India along with Indian spices.[30] Stitched clothing in India was developed before 10th century AD and was further popularized in 15th century by Muslim empires in India.[30] Draped clothing styles remained popular with India's Hindu population while the Muslims increasingly adopted tailored garments.[31] During the British Raj, India's large clothing and handicrafts industry was left paralyzed so as to make place for British industrial cloth. Consequently, Indian independence movement leader Mahatma Gandhi successfully advocated for what he termed as khadi clothing light colored hand-woven clothes so as to decrease reliance of the Indian people on British industrial goods.[32] The 1980s was marked by a widespread modification to Indian clothing fashions which was characterized by a large-scale growth of fashion schools in India, increasing involvement of women in the fashion industry and changing Indian attitudes towards multiculturalism. These developments played a pivotal role in the fusion of Indian and Western clothing styles.[33]

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Languages and literature

History
Time is always referred as Kaala Chakra in India. In Ancient India the time was divided in Four yugas. The calendar which most Indians follows goes in accordance to this. There by, measuring the dates of Vedas came in later days. With its oldest core dating back to as early as 1500 BC,[34] the Rigvedic Sanskrit is one of the oldest attestations of any Indo-Iranian language, and one of the earliest attested members of the Indo-European language family, the family which includes English and most European languages.[35] Sanskrit has had a profound impact on the languages and literature of India. Hindi, India's most spoken language, is a "Sanskritized register" of the Khariboli dialect. In addition, all modern Indo-Aryan languages, Rigveda (padapatha) manuscript in Devanagari, early Munda languages and Dravidian languages, have borrowed many 19th century. After a scribal benediction words either directly from Sanskrit (tatsama words), or indirectly ("rgayanama ;; Aum(3) ;;"), the first line has [36] via middle Indo-Aryan languages (tadbhava words). Words the opening words of RV.1.1.1 (agni ; ie ; originating in Sanskrit are estimated to constitute roughly fifty pura-hita ; yajasya ; deva ; tvija). The Vedic accent is marked by underscores and vertical percent of the vocabulary of modern Indo-Aryan languages,[37] overscores in red. and the literary forms of (Dravidian) Telugu, Malayalam and [36] Kannada. Part of the Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, the Bengali language arose from the eastern Middle Indic languages and its roots are traced to the 5th century BC Ardhamagadhi language.[38] [39] Tamil, one of India's major classical languages, descends from Proto-Dravidian languages which was spoken around the third millennium BC in peninsular India. Tamil literature has existed for over two thousand years[40] and the earliest epigraphic records found date from around the third century BC.[41] Another major Dravidian language, Kannada is attested epigraphically from the mid-1st millennium AD, and literary Old Kannada flourished in the 9th to 10th century Rashtrakuta Dynasty. Pre-old Kannada (or Purava HaleGannada) was the language of Banavasi in the early Common Era, the Satavahana and Kadamba periods and hence has a history of over 2000 years.[42] [43] [44] [45] The Ashoka rock edict found at Brahmagiri (dated to 230 BC) has been suggested to contain a word in identifiable Kannada.[46] According to 2001 India census, Hindi is the most spoken language in India, followed by Bengali, Telugu, Marathi and Tamil.[47] In contemporary Indian literature, there are two major literary awards; these are the Sahitya Akademi Fellowship and the Jnanpith Award. Seven Jnanpith awards each have been awarded in Kannada, six in Hindi, five in Bengali, four in Malayalam, three each in Marathi, Gujarati, Urdu and Oriya and two each in Telugu and Tamil,.[48]

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Epics
The Rmyaa and the Mahbhrata are the oldest preserved and well-known epics of India. Versions have been adopted as the epics of Southeast Asian countries like Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. The Ramayana consists of 24,000 verses in seven books (kas) and 500 cantos (sargas),[49] and tells the story of Rama (an incarnation or Avatar of the Hindu preserver-god Vishnu), whose wife Sita is abducted by the demon king of Lanka, Ravana. This epic played a pivotal role in establishing the role of dhrma as a principal ideal guiding force for Hindu way of life.[50] The Manuscript illustration of the Battle of Kurukshetra. earliest parts of the Mahabharata text date to 400 BC[50] and is estimated to have reached its final form by the early Gupta period (ca. 4th c. AD).[51] Other regional variations of these, as well as unrelated epics include the Tamil Ramavataram, Kannada Pampa Bharata, Hindi Ramacharitamanasa, and Malayalam Adhyathmaramayanam. In addition to these two great Indian epics, there are five major epics in the classical Tamil language Silappatikaram, Manimekalai, Civaka-cintamani, Valayapathi and flangdoodleing.

Performing arts
Dance
Indian dance too has diverse folk and classical forms. Among the well-known folk dances are the bhangra of the Punjab, the bihu of Assam, the chhau of Jharkhand,the Odishi of Orissa, the ghoomar of Rajasthan, the dandiya and garba of Gujarat, the Yakshagana of Karnataka and lavani of Maharashtra and Dekhnni of Goa. Eight dance forms, many with narrative forms and mythological elements, have been accorded classical dance status by India's National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama. These are: bharatanatyam of the state of Tamil Nadu, kathak of Uttar Pradesh, kathakali and mohiniattam of Kerala, kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh, manipuri of Manipur, odissi of the state of Odisha and the sattriya of Assam.[52] [53]

Drama and theatre

Indian drama and theatre has a long history alongside its music and dance. Kalidasa's plays like Shakuntala and Meghadoota are some of the Odissi performer from Odisha older dramas, following those of Bhasa. One of the oldest surviving theatre traditions of the world is the 2,000 year old Kutiyattam of Kerala. It strictly follows the Natya Shastra.[54] Ntychrya Mni Mdhava Chkyr is credited for reviving the age old drama tradition from extinction. He was known for mastery of Rasa Abhinaya. He started to perform the Kalidasa plays like Abhijnakuntala, Vikramorvaya and Mlavikgnimitra; Bhasa's Swapnavsavadatta and Panchartra; Harsha's Nagananda.[55] [56]

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Music
The music of India includes multiple varieties of religious, folk, popular, pop, and classical music. The oldest preserved examples of Indian music are the melodies of the Samaveda that are still sung in certain Vedic rauta sacrifices. India's classical music tradition is heavily influenced by Hindu texts. It includes two distinct styles: Carnatic and Hindustani music. The earliest account of Indian musical hymns is found in the 1000 BC Smaveda.[57] It proposed a tonal structure consisting of seven notes, which were named, in descending order, as Krusht, Pratham, Dwitiya, Tritiya, Chaturth, Mandra and Atiswr. These refer to the notes of a flute, which was the only fixed frequency instrument. Both the Hindustani classical music and the Carnatic classical music systems are based on the melodic mode (known as Rga), sung to a rhythmic cycle or tala. These principles were refined in the ntyastra (200 BC) and the dattilam (300 AD).[58] Purandaradasa is considered the "father of carnatic music" (Karnataka sangeeta pitamaha).[59] [60] [61] He concluded his songs with a salutation to Lord Purandara Vittala and is believed to have composed as many as 475,000 songs in the Kannada language.[62] However, only about 1,000 are known today.[59] [63] Prominent contemporary Indian musical forms included filmi and Indipop. Filmi refers to the wide range of music written and performed for mainstream Indian cinema, primarily Bollywood, and accounts for more than 70 percent of all music sales in the country.[64] Indipop is one of the most popular contemporary styles of Indian music which is either a fusion of Indian folk, classical or Sufi music with Western musical traditions.[65]

Visual arts
Painting
The earliest Indian paintings were the rock paintings of pre-historic times, the petroglyphst it was common for households to paint their doorways or indoor rooms where guests resided. Cave paintings from Ajanta, Bagh, Ellora and Sittanavasal and temple paintings testify to a love of naturalism. Most early and medieval art in India is Hindu, Buddhist or Jain. A freshly made coloured flour design (Rangoli) is still a common sight outside the doorstep of many (mostly South Indian) Indian homes. Raja Ravi Varma is one the classical painters from medieval India.
The Jataka tales from Ajanta Caves. Madhubani painting, Mysore painting, Rajput painting, Tanjore painting, Mughal painting are some notable Genres of Indian Art; while Nandalal Bose, M. F. Husain, S. H. Raza, Geeta Vadhera, Jamini Roy and B.Venkatappa[66] are some modern painters. Among the present day artists, Atul Dodiya, Bose Krishnamacnahri, Devajyoti Ray and Shibu Natesan represent a new era of Indian art where global art shows direct amalgamation with Indian classical styles. These recent artists have acquired international recognition. Jehangir Art Gallery, Mumbai, Mysore Palace has on display a few good Indian paintings.

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Sculpture
The first sculptures in India date back to the Indus Valley civilization, where stone and bronze figures have been discovered. Later, as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism developed further, India produced some extremely intricate bronzes as well as temple carvings. Some huge shrines, such as the one at Ellora were not constructed by using blocks but carved out of solid rock. Sculptures produced in the northwest, in stucco, schist, or clay, display a very strong blend of Indian and Classical Hellenistic or possibly even Greco-Roman influence. The pink sandstone sculptures of Mathura evolved almost simultaneously. During the Gupta period (4th to 6th century) sculpture reached a very high standard in execution and delicacy in modeling. These styles and others elsewhere in India evolved leading to classical Indian art that contributed to Buddhist and Hindu sculpture throughout Southeast Central and East Asia.
The 5th century Buddhist vishvakarma cave at Ellora, Maharashtra.

Marble Sculpture of female, ca 1450, Rajasthan

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Architecture
Indian architecture encompasses a multitude of expressions over space and time, constantly absorbing new ideas. The result is an evolving range of architectural production that nonetheless retains a certain amount of continuity across history. Some of its earliest production are found in the Indus Valley Civilization (26001900 BC) which is characterised by well planned cities and houses. Religion and kingship do not seem to have played an important role in the planning and layout of these towns. During the period of the Mauryan and Gupta empires and their successors, several Buddhist architectural complexes, such as the caves of Ajanta and Ellora and the monumental Sanchi Stupa were built. Considered to be an "unrivaled architectural Later on, South India produced several Hindu temples like [67] wonder", the Taj Mahal in Agra is a prime Chennakesava Temple at Belur, the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, example of Indo-Islamic architecture. and the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura, Brihadeeswara Temple, Thanjavur, the Sun Temple, Konark, Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam, and the Buddha stupa (Chinna Lanja dibba and Vikramarka kota dibba) at Bhattiprolu. Angkor Wat, Borobudur and other Buddhist and Hindu temples indicate strong Indian influence on South East Asian architecture, as they are built in styles almost identical to traditional Indian religious buildings. The traditional system of Vaastu Shastra serves as India's version of Feng Shui, influencing town planning, architecture, and ergonomics. It is unclear which system is older, but they contain certain similarities. Feng Shui is more commonly used throughout the world. Though Vastu is conceptually similar to Feng Shui in that it also tries to harmonize the flow of energy, (also called life-force or Prana in Sanskrit and Chi/Ki in Chinese/Japanese), through the house, it differs in the details, such as the exact directions in which various objects, rooms, materials, etc. are to be placed.

The Umaid Bhawan Palace in Rajasthan, one of [68] the largest private residences in the world.

With the advent of Islamic influence from the west, Indian architecture was adapted to allow the traditions of the new religion. Fatehpur Sikri, Taj Mahal, Gol Gumbaz, Qutub Minar, Red Fort of Delhi are creations of this era, and are often used as the stereotypical symbols of India. The colonial rule of the British Empire saw the development of Indo-Saracenic style, and mixing of several other styles, such as European Gothic. The Victoria Memorial or the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus are notable examples. Indian architecture has influenced eastern and southeastern Asia, due to the spread of Buddhism. A number of Indian architectural features such as the temple mound or stupa, temple spire or sikhara, temple tower or pagoda and temple gate or torana, have become famous symbols of Asian culture, used extensively in East Asia and South East Asia. The central spire is also sometimes called a vimanam. The southern temple gate, or gopuram is noted for its intricacy and majesty. Contemporary Indian architecture is more cosmopolitan. Cities are extremely compact and densely populated. Mumbai's Nariman Point is famous for its Art Deco buildings. Recent creations such as the Lotus Temple, and the various modern urban developments of India like Chandigarh, are notable.

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Sports and Martial arts

Field Hockey is the national Sport in India, and the India national field hockey team won the 1975 Men's Hockey World Cup and 8 gold, 1 silver and 2 bronze medals at the Olympic games. Cricket is the most popular Sport in India. The India national cricket team won the 1983 Cricket World Cup, the 2011 Cricket World Cup and the 2007 ICC World Twenty20, and shared the 2002 ICC Champions Trophy with Sri Lanka. Domestic competitions include the Ranji Trophy, the Duleep Trophy, the Deodhar Trophy, the Irani Trophy and the Challenger Series. In addition, BCCI conducts the Indian Premier League, a Twenty20 competition.

The annual Snake boat race is performed during Onam Celebrations on the Pamba River at Aranmula near Pathanamthitta.

India is the host of 2010 Commonwealth Games, played in New Delhi. It hosted a spectacular display of Indian culture and heritage to the entire world during the opening ceremony of the games. Chess is commonly believed to have originated in northwestern India during the Gupta empire,[69] [70] [71] [72] where its early form in the 6th century was known as chaturanga. Other games which originated in India and continue to remain popular in wide parts of northern India include Kabaddi, Gilli-danda, and Kho kho. Traditional southern Indian games include Snake boat race and Kuttiyum kolum.

Indian martial arts

One of the best known forms of ancient Indian martial arts is the Kalarippayattu from Kerala. This ancient fighting style originated in southern India in 12th century BC and is regarded as one of the oldest surviving martial arts.[73] In this form martial arts, various stages of physical training include ayurvedic massage with sesame oil to impart suppleness to the body (uzichil); a series of sharp body movements so as to gain control over various parts of the body (miapayattu); and, complex sword fighting techniques (paliyankam).[74] Silambam, which Kalarippayattu, one of the oldest and most was developed around 200 AD, traces its roots to the Sangam period in prominent forms of Indian martial arts. southern India.[75] Silambam is unique among Indian martial arts because it uses complex footwork techniques (kaaladi), including a variety of spinning styles. A bamboo staff is used as the main weapon.[75] The ancient Tamil Sangam literature mentions that between 400 BC and 600 AD, soldiers from southern India received special martial arts training which revolved primarily around the use of spear (vel), sword (val) and shield (kedaham).[76] In northern India, the musti yuddha evolved in 1100 AD and focussed on mental, physical and spiritual training.[77] In addition, the Dhanur Veda tradition was an influential fighting arts style which considered the bow and the arrow to be the supreme weapons. The Dhanur Veda was first described in the 5th century BC Viu Pura[73] and is also mentioned in both of the major ancient Indian epics, the Rmyaa and Mahbhrata. A distinctive factor of Indian martial arts is the heavy emphasis laid on meditation (dhyna) as a tool to remove fear, doubt and anxiety.[78] Indian martial arts techniques have had a profound impact on other martial arts styles across Asia. The 3rd century BC Yoga Sutras of Patanjali taught how to meditate single-mindedly on points located inside one's body, which was later used in martial arts, while various mudra finger movements were taught in Yogacara Buddhism. These elements of yoga, as well as finger movements in the nata dances, were later incorporated into various martial arts.[79] According to some historical accounts, Indian Buddhist monk Bodhidharma was one of the main founders of the Shaolin Kungfu.[80]

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Popular media
Television
Indian television started off in 1959 in New Delhi with tests for educational telecasts.[81] Indian small screen programming started off in the mid 1970s. At that time there was only one national channel Doordarshan, which was government owned. 1982 saw revolution in TV programming in India, with the New Delhi Asian games, India saw the colour version of TV, that year. The Ramayana and Mahabharat were some among the popular television series produced. By the late 1980s more and more people started to own television sets. Though there was a single channel, television programming had reached saturation. Hence the government opened up another channel which had part national programming and part regional. This channel was known as DD 2 later DD Metro. Both channels were broadcasted terrestrially. In 1991, the government liberated its markets, opening them up to cable television. Since then, there has been a spurt in the number of channels available. Today, Indian silver screen is a huge industry by itself, and has thousands of programmes in all the states of India. The small screen has produced numerous celebrities of their own kind some even attaining national fame for themselves. TV soaps are extremely popular with housewives as well as working women, and even men of all kinds. Some lesser known actors have found success in Bollywood. Indian TV now has many of the same channels as Western TV, including stations such as Cartoon Network, Nickelodeon, HBO, FX, and MTV India.

Cinema
Bollywood is the informal name given to the popular Mumbai-based film industry in India. Bollywood and the other major cinematic hubs (in Bengali, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Tamil, Punjabi and Telugu) constitute the broader Indian film industry, whose output is considered to be the largest in the world in terms of number of films produced and number of tickets sold. India has produced many critically acclaimed cinema-makers like K. Vishwanath, Bapu, Jagdaman Grewal, Satyajit Ray, Ritwik Ghatak, Guru Dutt, K. Vishwanath, Adoor Gopalakrishnan, Shaji N. Karun, Shooting of a Bollywood dance number. Girish Kasaravalli, Shekhar Kapoor, Hrishikesh Mukherjee, Shankar Nag, Girish Karnad, G. V. Iyer etc. (see Indian film directors). With the opening up of the economy in the recent years and consequent exposure to world cinema, audience tastes have been changing. In addition, multiplexes have mushroomed in most cities, changing the revenue patterns.

References
[1] Mohammada, Malika (2007). The foundations of the composite culture in India (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=dwzbYvQszf4C& printsec=frontcover). Aakar Books, 2007. ISBN8189833189. . [2] Arnett, Robert (2006-07). India Unveiled (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=Tmn91va2e4UC& printsec=frontcover). Atman Press, 2006. ISBN0965290042. . [3] Visnu, Swami. "Scientific Verification of Vedic Knowledge" (http:/ / www. archaeologyonline. net/ artifacts/ scientific-verif-vedas. html). archaeologyonline.net. . [4] Mark Kobayashi-Hillary Outsourcing to India (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=qcEwts3f26wC& pg=PA8& dq=india+ birthplace+ religions& as_brr=3& ei=vg3KSczJFIXGzAT0-KnjBA& client=firefox-a), Springer, 2004 ISBN 3-540-20855-0 p.8 [5] Nikki Stafford Finding Lost (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=waVCqzL8b4kC& pg=PA174& dq="dharmic+ religions"+ origin+ india& as_brr=3& ei=-F3BSaztOo_AywTq5aCDBQ& client=firefox-a), ECW Press, 2006 ISBN 1-55022-743-2 p. 174 [6] "45" (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=9XC9bwMMPcwC& pg=PA359& lpg=PA359& dq=hinduism+ one+ billion& q=hinduism one billion). What Is Hinduism?: Modern Adventures Into a Profound Global Faith. Himalayan Academy Publications. 2007. p.359. ISBN1934145009. .

Culture of India
[7] "Non Resident Nepali Speeches" (http:/ / www. nrn. org. np/ speeches/ rmshakya. html). Nrn.org.np. . Retrieved 2010-08-01. [8] "BBCVietnamese.com" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ vietnamese/ forum/ story/ 2008/ 03/ 080323_tibet_analysis. shtml). Bbc.co.uk. . Retrieved 2010-08-01. [9] "Religions of the world: numbers of adherents; growth rates" (http:/ / www. religioustolerance. org/ worldrel. htm). Religioustolerance.org. . Retrieved 2010-08-01. [10] "Religions Muslim" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060523201648/ http:/ / www. censusindia. net/ religiondata/ Summary+ Muslims. pdf) (PDF). Registrat General and Census Commissioner, India. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. censusindia. net/ religiondata/ Summary Muslims. pdf) on 2006-05-23. . Retrieved 2006-06-01. [11] Eugene M. Makar (2008). An American's Guide to Doing Business in India (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=0QB43fNiTKkC& printsec=frontcover). ISBN1598692119. . [12] Love vs arranged marriages (http:/ / www. jamaica-gleaner. com/ gleaner/ 20050215/ life/ life1. html), Keisha Shakespeare [13] "Post" (http:/ / www. thepost. co. za/ index. php?fSectionId=154& fArticleId=2613258). Post. . Retrieved 2010-08-01. [14] Divorce Rate In India (http:/ / www. divorcerate. org/ divorce-rate-in-india. html) [15] Divorce soars in India's middle class (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ worldnews/ asia/ india/ 1499679/ Divorce-soars-in-India's-middle-class. html) [16] Symbolism in Indian culture (http:/ / www. spectrumcommodities. com/ education/ commodity/ statistics/ cattle. html) [17] Peter J. Claus, Sarah Diamond, Margaret Ann Mills (2003). South Asian folklore (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ienxrTPHzzwC& printsec=frontcover). Taylor & Francis. ISBN0415939194. . [18] Peter H. Marshall Nature's web: rethinking our place on earth (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=p5SRPcoelt4C& pg=PA26& dq=cow+ symbolism+ hindu+ culture& lr=& as_brr=3& client=firefox-a) M.E. Sharpe, 1996 ISBN 1-56324-864-6 p. 26 [19] "Tandoori Village Restaurant Brisbane" (http:/ / www. asiarooms. com/ travel-guide/ australia/ brisbane/ what-where-to-eat/ indian-restaurants-in-brisbane/ tandoori-village-restaurant-brisbane. html). AsiaRooms.com. . [20] "Indian food now attracts wider market." (http:/ / www. accessmylibrary. com/ coms2/ summary_0286-19130531_ITM). Asia Africa Intelligence Wire. 2005-03-16. . [21] Louise Marie M. Cornillez (Spring 1999). "The History of the Spice Trade in India" (http:/ / www. english. emory. edu/ Bahri/ Spice_Trade. html). . [22] "Meatless Monday: There's No Curry in India" (http:/ / www. meatlessmonday. com/ site/ PageServer?pagename=dyk_curry). . [23] de Bruyn, Pippa (2010). Frommer's India (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=qG-9cwHOcCIC& printsec=frontcover). Frommer. ISBN0470556102. . [24] Kalman, Bobbie (2009). India: The Culture (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=UuDBEsOF6G4C& printsec=frontcover). Crabtree Publishing Company. ISBN0778792870. . [25] Shankar, Madhulika (2002). Becoming American, being Indian (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=jZsZKj0FrBgC& printsec=frontcover). Cornell University Press. ISBN0801488079. . [26] Chary, Manish (2009). India: Nation on the Move (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=vjI6IZt8tuwC& printsec=frontcover). iUniverse. ISBN1440116350. . [27] Kamat's Potpourri: The Significance of the holy dot (Bindi) (http:/ / www. kamat. com/ kalranga/ women/ bindi. htm) [28] Verma, S.P. (2005). Ancient system of oriental medicine (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=pAyz6c-pmrcC& printsec=frontcover). Anmol Publications PVT. LTD.. ISBN8126121270. . [29] Beveridge, Henry (1867). A comprehensive history of India. Blackie and son. ISBN8185418454. [30] Jayapalan, N. (2008). Economic History of India (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=TCKserudM2AC& printsec=frontcover). Atlantic Publishers & Distributors. ISBN8126906979. . [31] Tarlo, Emma (1996). Clothing matters: dress and identity in India (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=8wyM5heEc9gC& printsec=frontcover). C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN1850651760. . [32] Trivedi, Lisa (2007). Clothing Gandhi's nation: homespun and modern India (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=Z3idJ_IZWZ4C& printsec=frontcover). Indiana University Press. ISBN025334882X. . [33] Craik, Jennifer (1994). The face of fashion: cultural studies in fashion (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=8m2FwzNSUl8C& printsec=frontcover). Routledge. ISBN0203409426. . [34] Macdonell (2004:?) [35] Burrow (2001:?) [36] Stall 1963, p.272 [37] Chatterji 1942, cited in Stall 1963, p.272 [38] Shah 1998, p.11 [39] Keith 1998, p.187 [40] Zvelebil 1992, p.12: "...the most acceptable periodisation which has so far been suggested for the development of Tamil writing seems to me to be that of A Chidambaranatha Chettiar (19071967): 1. Sangam Literature 200BC to AD 200; 2. Post Sangam literature AD 200 AD 600; 3. Early Medieval literature AD 600 to AD 1200; 4. Later Medieval literature AD 1200 to AD 1800; 5. Pre-Modern literature AD 1800 to 1900" [41] Maloney 1970, p.610 [42] Kamath (2001), p. 56

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[43] (Wilks in Rice, B.L. (1897), p490) [44] Pai and Narasimhachar in Bhat (1993), p103 [45] Iravatham Mahadevan. "Early Tamil Epigraphy from the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century AD" (http:/ / www. hup. harvard. edu/ catalog/ MAHEAR. html). Harvard University Press. . Retrieved 2007-04-12. [46] The word Isila found in the Ashokan inscription (called the Brahmagiri edict from Karnataka) meaning to shoot an arrow is a Kannada word, indicating that Kannada was a spoken language in the third century BC (Dr. D.L. Narasimhachar in Kamath 2001, p5) [47] Abstract of speakers' strength of languages and mother tongues 2000 (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ Census_Data_2001/ Census_Data_Online/ Language/ Statement1. htm), Census of India, 2001 [48] "Narayan, Kelkar and Shastri chosen for Jnanpith award" (http:/ / 64. 233. 169. 132/ search?q=cache:Mm_exOSR818J:164. 100. 52. 41/ news. asp?cat=national& id=NN4268+ kunwar+ narayan+ jnanpith& hl=en& ct=clnk& cd=2& gl=us), All India Radio, November 22, 2008. [49] Dutt 2004, p.198 [50] Brockington 2003 [51] Van Buitenen; The Mahabharata 1; The Book of the Beginning. Introduction (Authorship and Date) [52] "South Asian arts: Techniques and Types of Classical Dance" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-65370) [53] "Indian Dance Videos: Bharatanatyam, Kathak, Bhangra, Garba, Bollywood and various folk dances" (http:/ / mudra. tv/ channel_detail. php?chid=2) [54] Mni Mdhava Chkyr (1996). Ntyakalpadrumam. Sangeet Natak Akademi, New Delhi. p.6. [55] K. A. Chandrahasan, In pursuit of excellence (Performing Arts), "[[The Hindu (http:/ / sites. google. com/ site/ natyacharya/ articles)]", Sunday March 26, 1989] [56] Mani Madhava Chakkyar: The Master at Work (film- English), Kavalam N. Panikar, Sangeet Natak Akademi, New Delhi, 1994 [57] Emmie te Nijenhuis (1974). Indian music, Part 2, Volume 6 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=NrgfAAAAIAAJ& printsec=frontcover). BRILL. ISBN9004039783. . [58] A Study of Dattilam: A Treatise on the Sacred Music of Ancient India, 1978, p. 283, Mukunda Lha, Dattila [59] Dr. Jytosna Kamat. "Purandara Dasa" (http:/ / www. kamat. com/ kalranga/ kar/ literature/ dasa. htm). Kamats Potpourri. . Retrieved 2006-12-31. [60] Madhusudana Rao CR. "Sri Purandara Dasaru" (http:/ / www. dvaita. org/ haridasa/ dasas/ purandara/ purandara. html). Dvaita Home Page. . Retrieved 2006-12-31. [61] S. Sowmya, K. N. Shashikiran. "History of Music" (http:/ / carnatica. net/ origin. htm). Srishti's Carnatica Private Limited. . Retrieved 2006-12-31. [62] "Purandara Vitala" (http:/ / www. dvaita. org/ haridasa/ dasas/ purandara/ p_dasa1. html). Dvaita.org. . Retrieved 2010-08-01. [63] Madhusudana Rao CR. "Sri Purandara Dasaru" (http:/ / www. dvaita. org/ haridasa/ dasas/ purandara/ p_dasa1. html). Dvaita Home Page (www.dviata.org). . Retrieved 2006-12-31. [64] "Plans to start India music awards" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ south_asia/ 8405891. stm). BBC News. 10 December 2009. . Retrieved 2 May 2010. [65] Asha Kasbekar (2006). Pop culture India!: media, arts, and lifestyle (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=Sv7Uk0UcdM8C& printsec=frontcover). ABC-CLIO. ISBN1851096361. . [66] Kamath (2003), p. 283 [67] Bindloss, Joe (2007). India (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=T7ZHUhSEleYC& printsec=frontcover). Lonely Planet. ISBN1741043085. . [68] Umaid Bhawan Palace, Famous Palace Stay at Umaid Bhawan in Jodhpur, Famous Palace Attractions in Jodhpur (http:/ / www. shubhyatra. com/ rajasthan/ umaid-bhawan. html) [69] Leibs (2004), p. 92 [70] Robinson & Estes (1996), p. 34 [71] Murray, H.J.R. (1913). A History of Chess. Benjamin Press (originally published by Oxford University Press). ISBN0-936317-01-9. OCLC13472872. [72] Bird 1893, p. 63 [73] Zarrilli, Phillip B. (1998). When the Body Becomes All Eyes: Paradigms, Discourses and Practices of Power in Kalarippayattu, a South Indian Martial Art. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN0195639405. [74] S.S. Rath (2005-05-01). Martial Arts: A Critical Analysis of Orissan (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=7uPsVGfBXMgC& printsec=frontcover). Gyan Books, 2005. ISBN8178352826. . [75] Raj, J. David Manuel (1977). The Origin and the Historical Developlment of Silambam Fencing: An Ancient Self-Defence Sport of India. Oregon: College of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, Univ. of Oregon. pp.44, 50, 83. [76] Thomas A. Green (2001). Martial arts of the world: en encyclopedia. R Z, Volume 2 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=v32oHSE5t6cC& printsec=frontcover). ABC-CLIO. ISBN1576071502. . [77] Jim Ollhoff (2008). Martial Arts Around the Globe (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=a9GmhwcHTRoC& printsec=frontcover). ABDO Group. ISBN1599289792. . [78] Sulaiman Sharif (2009). 50 Martial Arts Myths (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=BrttF8DY3JcC& printsec=frontcover). new media entertainment ltd. ISBN0967754623. . [79] J. R. Svinth (2002). A Chronological History of the Martial Arts and Combative Sports. (http:/ / ejmas. com/ kronos) Electronic Journals of Martial Arts and Sciences

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[80] Cephas, Shawn (Winter 1994). "The Root of Warrior Priests in the Martial Arts". Kungfu Magazine. [81] "A Snapshot of Indian Television History" (http:/ / www. indiantelevision. com/ indianbrodcast/ history/ historyoftele. htm). Indian Television Dot Com Pvt Ltd. . Retrieved 2006-06-01.

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Further reading
Auboyer, Jeannine (2002). Daily Life in Ancient India, from 200 BC to 700 AD. (originally published in French in 1961), Phoenix Press, London ISBN 1-84212-591-5 Basham A.L.(1954). The Wonder that was India. Sidgwick and Jackson, London. Bhalla, Prem P. (2006). Hindu Rites, Rituals, Customs & Traditions (http://books.google.com/ books?id=H31CPCsH-egC). Pustak Mahal. ISBN 812230902X. Gajrani, S. (2004). History, Religion and Culture of India: In 6 Volumes (http://www.google.com/ search?tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=+bibliogroup:"History,+Religion+and+Culture+of+India:+In+6+Volumes"& source=gbs_metadata_r&cad=8). Gyan Publishing House, New Delhi, India. ISBN 8182050626. Grihault, Nicki. India Culture Smart!: a quick guide to customs and etiquette. (ISBN 1-85733-305-5) Kamath, Suryanath U. (2001) [1980]. A concise history of Karnataka: from pre-historic times to the present. Bangalore: Jupiter books. OCLC7796041. LCCN809-5179. Naipaul, V.S. India: A Million Mutinies Now. (ISBN 0-7493-9920-1) Narasimhacharya, R (1988). History of Kannada Literature (http://books.google.com/ books?id=nOTmIt3wumwC). New Delhi, Madras: Asian Educational Services. ISBN81-206-0303-6. Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (2002) [1955]. A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar. New Delhi: Indian Branch, Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-560686-8. Rice, B.L. (2001) [1897]. Mysore Gazatteer Compiled for Government-vol 1 (http://books.google.com/ books?id=p0wSoEIub1YC). New Delhi, Madras: Asian Educational Services. ISBN81-206-0977-8. Tully, Mark. No Full Stops in India. (ISBN 0-14-010480-1) Ukil, Manjari Foreign Influence on Indian Culture (c.600 BC to AD 320), (ISBN 81-88629-60-X) Varma, Pavan K. Being Indian: Inside the Real India. (ISBN 0-434-01391-9) Vimalananda, Swamini; Krishnakumar, Radhika. In Indian Culture Why do We? (http://books.google.co.uk/ books?id=QugqFm2YyWsC).

External links
Indian Govt. Site devoted to preserving manuscripts and making them available (http://www.namami.org/ index.htm) Society for Promotion of Indian Art and Culture amongst Youth (SPIC MACAY) (http://www.spicmacay.com) Treasure House of India's Art and Culture (http://www.culturopedia.com) IndianCultureOnline.com Indian Culture Photos+Detail Information (http://www.indiancultureonline.com) North India Culture (http://www.rajasthan-holiday-tour.com/explore-culture.html) Culture Coverage (http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/Culture/culture.html) An Introduction to Indian Culture (http://www.kamat.com/indica/culture/)

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Sports
Sport in India
Sport in India includes cricket, chess, badminton, field hockey, tennis, association football and golf. Field Hockey is the official national sport in India, and the country has an impressive eight Olympic gold medals in field hockey, though cricket is the most popular sport in India. Other popular sports include football, tennis, volleyball, and badminton. After the 1982 Asian Games hosted in New Delhi, the capital city now has modern sports facilities, and similar facilities are also being developed in other parts of the country. Besides sports and games included in the international sporting agenda, there are many which have developed indigenously. Throughout the country a wide variety of sports are played. India is Cricket is the most popular sport in India home to several traditional sports which originated in the country and continue to remain fairly popular. These include kabbadi, kho kho, pehlwani and gilli-danda. The British rule brought many popular sports in India including football, rugby union, cricket, golf, tennis, squash, hockey, boxing, snooker, and billiards. India has hosted or co-hosted several international sporting events, such as the 1951 Asian Games and the 1982 Asian Games, the 1987 Cricket World Cup and 1996 Cricket World Cup, the 2003 Afro-Asian Games, the 2010 Hockey World Cup, the 2010 Commonwealth Games, and the 2011 Cricket World Cup. Major international sporting events annually held in India include the Chennai Open, Mumbai Marathon, Delhi Half Marathon and the Indian Masters. India is also scheduled to host the first Indian Grand Prix in 2011. India is also home to cricket's Indian Premier League, launched in 2008, and its fourth season of Indian Premier League has began on the 8th April 2011.

History
Before independence
The history of sports in India dates back to the Vedic era. Physical culture in ancient India was fed by a powerful fuel : religious rites. There were some well-defined values like the mantra in the Atharva-Veda, saying," Duty is in my right hand and the fruits of victory in my left". In terms of an ideal, these words hold the same sentiments as the traditional Olympic oath: "For the Honour of my Country and the Glory of Sport." Badminton probably originated in India as a grownup's version of a very old children's game known in England as battledore and shuttlecock, the battledore being a paddle and the shuttlecock a small feathered cork, now usually called a "bird." Games like chess, snakes and ladders, playing cards, and polo had originated as sports in India and it was from here that these games were transmitted to foreign countries, where they were further modernized.

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After independence
After the IX Asian Games in New Delhi in 1982, the capital city now has modern sports facilities. Such facilities are also being developed in other parts of the country. Besides sports and games included in the international sporting agenda, there are many which have developed indigenously. Among these are Wrestling and several traditional systems of Martial arts. The Ministry of Youth Affairs & Sports was initially set up as the Department of Sports in 1982 at the time of organisation of the IX Asian Games in New Delhi. Its name was changed to the Department of Youth affairs & sports during celebration of the International Youth Year, 1985.[1] India has hosted or co-hosted several international sporting events, such as the 1951 and the 1982 Asian Games, the 1987 and 1996 Cricket World Cup, the 2003 Afro-Asian Games, the 2010 Hockey World Cup and the 2010 Commonwealth Games. Major international sporting events annually held in India include the Chennai Open, Mumbai Marathon and the Indian Masters. The country is scheduled to host the 2011 Cricket World Cup and the first Indian Grand Prix in 2011.

Administration and funding

Political responsibility for sport in India is with the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports which is headed by a cabinet minister and managed by National Sport Federations.[2] Sports Authority of India the field arm of the Ministry , supports and nurtures talent in youth, and provides them with requisite infrastructure, equipment, coaching facilities and competition exposure.[3] Dorabji Tata with the support of Dr.A.G.Noehren then Director of YMCA established the Indian Olympic Association in 1927. IOA is responsible for the Indian contingents participation in the Olympic Games, Commonwealth Games, Asian Games(Outdoor-Indoor-Beach) and South Asian Games. Each Olympic and Non-Olympic Sport has a Federation at the National level .[4] The selection of the National teams is done by the respective National Federations and then recommend to IOA for official sponsorship for participation in the Games being conducted under the auspicious of the International Olympic Committee, Olympic Council of Asia, Commonwealth Games Federation and SAG. A special feature of the Indian Olympic Association is that, the National Federations and the State Olympic Associations are affiliated/recognised to it. The main task of the State Olympic Associations is to Promote the Olympic Sport and to ensure coordination among the State Sports Associations. In 2010-11, total Budget for sports and physical education schemes is 3117.69 crore rupees.[5] Hockey, in which India has an impressive record with eight Olympic gold medals, is officially the national sport. The Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna and the Arjuna Award are India's highest awards for achievements in sports, while the Dronacharya Award is awarded for excellence in coaching.

India at major international events

India first participated at the Olympic Games in 1900, with a lone athlete (Norman Pritchard) winning two medals in athletics. The nation first sent a team to the Summer Olympic Games in 1920, and has participated in every Summer Games since then. India has also competed at several Winter Olympic Games since 1964.India had won total 20 medals at Olympic Games. India won its first gold medal in Men's Field hockey in 1928 Amsterdam Olympic Games. Abhinav Bindra became the first Indian to win an individual gold medal at the Olympic Games and India's first gold medal since 1980, when the Men's Field Hockey Team won the gold.[6] [7]

The Indian Hockey team at the 1936 Berlin Olympics, later going on to defeat Germany 8-1 in the final

Sport in India India is remarkable among nations for having won very few Olympic medals despite a population exceeding a billion, around half of them under the age of 25. Numerous explanations have been offered for the dearth, including poverty, malnutrition, neglected infrastructure, the lack of sponsorship, the theft of money and equipment, political corruption, institutional disorganisation, social immobility, the predominance of cricket and other cultural factors.[8]
[9] [10] [11]

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According to several informal statistics, India is the country in the world with the lowest number of total Olympic medals per capita (of those countries that have actually won at least one medal).[12] [13]

Medalists
Medal Name Norman Pritchard* Games 1900 Paris Sport Athletics Event Men's 200 metres

Silver Norman Pritchard* 1900 Paris Athletics Men's 200 metre hurdles

Silver National team 1928 Amsterdam Field hockey Men's competition

Gold National team 1932 Los Angeles Field hockey Men's competition

Gold National team 1936 Berlin Field hockey Men's competition

Gold National team 1948 London Field hockey Men's competition

Gold National team 1952 Helsinki Field hockey Men's competition

Gold

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Khashaba Dadasaheb Jadhav 1952 Helsinki Wrestling Men's freestyle bantamweight

Bronze National team 1956 Melbourne Field hockey Men's competition

Gold National team 1960 Rome Field hockey Men's competition

Silver National team 1964 Tokyo Field hockey Men's competition

Gold National team 1968 Mexico Field hockey Men's competition

Bronze National team 1972 Munich Field hockey Men's competition

Bronze National team 1980 Moscow Field hockey Men's competition

Gold Leander Paes 1996 Atlanta Tennis Men's singles

Bronze Karnam Malleswari 2000 Sydney Weightlifting Women's 69kg

Bronze Rajyavardhan Singh Rathore 2004 Athens Shooting Men's double trap

Silver

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Abhinav Bindra 2008 Beijing Shooting Men's 10m air rifle

Gold Sushil Kumar 2008 Beijing Wrestling Men's 66 kg freestyle

Bronze Vijender Singh 2008 Beijing Boxing Men's 75 kg

Bronze

* IOC regards this medal is credited to India, and International committees credits to Great Britain.

Cricket
Cricket has a long history in India and is the de facto national and most popular sport by a wide margin in India. It is like a religion in India. Recently, it won the 2011 Cricket World Cup by defeating Sri Lanka in the final match hosted by India. played on local, national and international levels and enjoys consistent support from people in all parts of India. Its development has been closely tied up with the history of the country, mirroring many of the political and cultural developments around issues such as Caste, Religion and Nationality. The highest profile rival of the Indian cricket team is the Pakistan team. Cricket is the most popular Sport in India, but it is not the nation's official national Sport (a distinction held by Field Hockey). The governing body, BCCI, was formed in December 1928.It is headed by Shashank Manohar

Cricket match between India Blue and India Red in progress during NKP Salve Challenger Trophy 2006 at the M. A. Chidambaram Stadium, Chennai, India.

The India national cricket team won the 1983 Cricket World Cup the 2007 ICC World Twenty20, 2011 Cricket World Cup and shared the 2002 ICC Champions Trophy with Sri Lanka. Domestic competitions include the Ranji Trophy, the Duleep Trophy, the Deodhar Trophy, the Irani Trophy and the Challenger Series. In addition, BCCI conducts the Indian Premier League, a Twenty20 competition.

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Field hockey
Field hockey is the official national Sport in India. Hockey India, formed on 20 May 2009, is the new apex body of the country which has the sole mandate to govern and conduct all activities for both men's and women's hockey in India. Until the mid 20th century, India dominated international Hockey, winning 8 Olympic gold medals, the World Cup in 1975 and were runners-up in the 1975 World Cup. The Indian player Dhyan Chand, the most famous Indian hockey player, was described as a 'wizard' by the European press. However, India's recent performance have been below par and India is currently ranked 9th in the world.

The popular sector-42 Hockey stadium in Chandigarh

Football
Football It was introduced during the British occupation and in some areas of the country it is equally as popular as Cricket. India was an Asian powerhouse in the 1960s, finishing as runners up in the 1964 AFC Asian Cup, but gradually the standard of Football has gone down compared to other countries and India currently ranks 144 in the FIFA rankings as of 20 August 2010. The sport is, nevertheless, widely popular both as a Spectator Sport and as a Participation Sport and is controlled by the national team. The Yuva Bharati Krirangan in Kolkata is the second largest non-auto racing stadium in the world.

On the 23 June 1937 at the Army Headquarters, Simla, the All India Football Federation was formed at a meeting of the representatives of Football Associations of 6 regions where the game was very popular in those days. It is the present body of Football in India.

Sayed Rahim Nabi of East Bengal FC and Daniel of Chirag United SC during I league at Salt Lake Stadium.

Badminton
Badminton is a popular Sport in India. Indian shuttler Saina Nehwal is currently ranked second[14] in the world and has been named the Most Promising Player of 2008 by the Badminton World Federation. This is the first ever achievement by any Indian shuttler, after Prakash Padukone and Pullela Gopichand who both won the All England Open in 1980 and 2001 respectively.

Golf
Golf is a growing Sport in India. It is especially popular among the wealthier classes and has not yet caught on with others due to its expense. The most successful Indian Golfer is Jeev Milkha Singh who has won 3 titles during the European Tour, 4 during the Japan Golf Tour and 6 during the Asian Tour. Although his current world ranking is 36, his highest ranking has been 28 (in March 2009). Sing has won the Asian Tour order of merit 2 times. Other Indians who have won the Asian tour order of merit are Jyoti Randhawa in 2002 (the first Indian to achieve this) and Arjun Atwal, who went on in 2010 to become the first India-born player to become a member of, and later won the U.S.-based PGA Tour.

Sport in India There are numerous golf courses all over India. There is an Indian Golf Tour. India's men's golf team won gold at the 1982 Asian Games and silver at the 2006 Asian Games. Lakshman Singh won the individual gold at the 1982 Asian Games.

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Chess
Chess has risen in popularity in India in the last few decades primarily due to its star player GM Vishwanathan Anand. He is the current World Champion and he has revolutionized the popularity of this Sport in India. Also it is believed that the game originated from India.

Vishwanathan Anand is an Indian chess Grand Master and the current World Chess Champion.

Motorsports
Motorsport is a popular Spectator Sport in India, although there are relatively few competitors compared to other sports due to the high costs of competing. On 1 February 2005, Narain Karthikeyan became India's first Formula One racing driver. On March 2007, he also became the first ever Indian-born driver to compete in a NASCAR Series. He debuted in the NASCAR Camping World Truck Series in the Kroger 250.[15] Force India F1 is a Formula One motor racing team. The team was formed in October 2007, when a consortium led by Indian businessman Vijay Force India drivers at the 2008 Canadian [16] Grand Prix. Mallya and Michiel Mol bought the Spyker F1 team for 88 million. After going through 29 races without a point, Force India won their first Formula One World Championship points and podium place when Giancarlo Fisichella finished second in the 2009 Belgian Grand Prix.[17] New Delhi is scheduled to host the Indian Grand Prix in 2011 at Jaypee Group Circuit in Greater Noida, 50km from New Delhi. Karun Chandhok currently drives for the Hispania Racing in 2010 Formula One season.

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Tennis
Tennis is a popular Sport among Indians in urban areas. However, India's fortunes in the Grand Slams singles have been unimpressive although Leander Paes and Mahesh Bhupathi have won many Men's Doubles and Mixed Doubles Grand Slam Titles. Sania Mirza is the only notable Indian woman Tennis player, having won a WTA title and breaking in to the Top 30 WTA rankings. On the men's side, young Somdev Devvarman and Yuki Bhambri are flying India's flag on ATP Tour. Yuki is the current Australian Open junior singles champion.

Other sports (nationally played)

Volleyball
Volleyball is a Sport played all over India, both in rural as well as team-partner Mahesh Bhupati (right), has won urban India. It is a popular recreation Sport. India is ranked 5th in Asia seven tennis Grand Slam doubles titles. and 27th in the world. Doing doing well in the youth and junior levels, India came in second in the 2003 World youth championships. Currently, a major problem for the sport is the lack of sponsors. Indian senior men's team is currently ranked 46th in the world.[18]
Leander Paes (left), along with his former

Basketball
Basketball is a popular Sport in India. It is played in almost every schools, although very few people take it professionally. India has both a men's and women's national teams in Basketball. It also made 1 Olympic appearance in Basketball and appeared 20 times in the Asian Championship. India is currently ranked 41st in the world in Basketball.

Floorball
Floorball is a Sport which is gaining popularity in India. The Floorball Federation of India was started in 2001 and since then it has expanded rapidly. There has been 4 national Floorball championships held with Uttar Pradesh being the champions. Women's Floorball has also expanded alongside men and Mumbai is the first national Floorball champion of India. Currently, India is a provisional member of International Floorball Federation. India has participated in many international friendlies and steps are being taken to make India an Ordinary member of Floorball.[19]

Rugby union
Like other Sports founded in England and introduced during the British Raj such as Cricket, Rugby union has a long history in India. The first recorded match was played on Christmas day in 1872, at CFC in Kolkata. Although low in profile as compared to Cricket or Field Hockey, some Indian sporting clubs are embracing the game. It is considered the second most popular winter Sport, after Football in India. Currently, there are 22,282 registered players in the country and the Indian national team are ranked 75th out of 95 nations in the IRB World Rankings. The home of Rugby in India is considered to be Kolkata.[20]

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Bandy
India does have a bandy team. Bandy Federation of India takes care of Bandy in India. Its headquarters is in Mandi district in Himachal Pradesh. Bandy is generally played in northern India where there is generally snow and ice. India is one of 5 countries in Asia and in total 27 to be a member of Federation of International Bandy. BFI will send a team to the Asian Winter Games in Astana-Almaty 2011.[21]

Netball
Netball is a popular Sport in India among Indian women. India's national team is ranked 22nd in the world and has played only very few matches. The team has failed to qualify for any of the Netball World Cups. Recently they have played 8 matches in total. In the 2010 Commonwealth Games, in Delhi, India, Netball was included as a medal sport. However the Indian team failed to win a medal.

Ice hockey
Ice hockey is a popular sport in India, mainly in the Himalayan region of Ladakh in Jammu and Kashmir. In the winter, ice hockey is extremely popular and there are more than 25 clubs and villages that play the sport. However, due to lack of artificial freezing, the game is limited to the cold winter months of December, January and February which facilitate natural freezing of lakes and ponds. However, the first artificial ice hockey rink was inaugurated in Dehradoon, Uttarakand, in March 2009. The rink has an international sized surface of 60 by 30 metres and also offers a small practice rink. The Ice Hockey Association of India just concluded the fourth National Ice Hockey Championships in Leh from 22 to 29 January 2009. The Ladakh Scouts Regimental team won the finals. The Ice Hockey Association of India also selected its national team, which represented India in the Asian Challenge Cup to be held in Abu Dhabi, UAE, in March 2009.

Handball in India
India has a handball team, although it hasn't made any impact at World stage. Indian Handball Federation manages handball in India. Handball is a popular sport in India, played at local level in India but hasn't made it big in domestic level. India has yet to make an impact at international level and the World Cup.

Throwball
Throwball is gaining popularity in India as a competitive sport and Indian authorities of the game was instrumental in organizing Asian level and later, World level Association for the sport. Throwball is a popular sport, played in gym class, colleges, and clubs throughout Asian countries such as India, Sri Lanka, Korea, Thailand, Malaysia, Japan, China, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh. It is also slowly taking popularity up by other countries such as France, Australia, Brazil, Canada and the United Kingdom.

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Kabaddi

Kabaddi match in progress in Haryana

Kabaddi is a popular sport in India. It is one of the most popular sports in India played mainly among people in villages. It is regarded as a team-contact sport as a recreational form of combat training. Two teams occupy opposite halves of a small field and take turns sending a raider into the other half, in order to win points by tagging/wrestling members of the opposing team; the raider then tries to return to his own half while holding his breath and chanting "kabaddi, kabaddi, kabaddi" during the whole raid. India has taken part in four Asian Games in Kabaddi, and won gold in all of them. There are 3 forms of kabaddi played in India are Amar, Suranjeevi, and Gaminee. Amar is generally played in Punjab, America, Canada, and other parts of the world. Suranjeevi is the most played form of Kabaddi in India and the world. This is the form used in international matches generally and played in Asian Games. India won the Kabaddi World Championship in 2007 beating Iran 29-19.[22]

Korfball
Korfball is a game played by over 50 countries in the world. It is not as popular in India as other sports, but is still played by a significant amount of people. India came third 2 times in the Asia-Oceania Korfball Championships.

Lacrosse
Lacrosse is a fairly new sport in India which was introduced in 2006. It is now being played by schools in Shillong, Meghalaya and mostly unknown in the rest of the country.

Polo
India is considered the cradle of modern polo. Babar, the founder of the Mughal dynasty in the 15th century, firmly established its popularity. The period between the decline of the Mughal dynasty and the upsurgence of the British Imperial rule, Polo almost vanished from the mainland India. Fortunately the game survived in a few remote mountainous enclaves of the subcontinent, notably Gilgit, Chitral, Ladakh and Manipur. In India, the popularity of polo has waned and risen many time. However, it has never lost its regal status. In the last few decades, the emergence of privately owned teams has ensured a renaissance in Indian polo. Today, polo is not just restricted to the royalty and the Indian Army

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Baseball and softball

Baseball has recently started to show up in India. Softball is played at school and university level. Two Indian pitchers were selected after the Million Dollar Arm competition to play in the USA. A talent hunt kind of competition was conducted byMLB to find baseball talents in India and found the teenagers Rinku Singh and Dinesh Patel. They were taken to the USA and received good coaching.[23] Now these two players are selected to play for Pittsburgh Pirates minor league organisations.Rinku Singh will play for the Canberra Cavalry of the Australian Baseball League for the competition's inaugural 2010-11 season.[24]

Boxing
Boxing is one of the most enjoyable profiled sports in India. India has not produced a world champion in any weight class, although it is a regular medal-holder at Asian Games and Commonwealth Games. In November 2007, India's Mary Kom won the best boxer title and also secured a hattrick of titles. During the 2008 Beijing Olympics, Vijender Kumar won a bronze medal in the middleweight boxing category and Akhil Kumar and Jitender Kumar qualified for the quarterfinals. Akhil Kumar, Jitender Kumar, A.L.Lakra and Dinesh Kumar each won a bronze medal at the 2008 world championship. Vijender Kumar is current world number 1 on middleweight class.

Vijender prepairing for a boxing match on a television show.

Cycling
The history of cycling in India dates back to 1938. The Cycling Federation of India takes care of the sport. Cycling is unknown as a professional sport in India, but popular as a common recreational sport and it is a good way to keep fit

Table tennis
Table tennis is a popular indoor recreation sport in India, which has caught on in states like West Bengal and Tamil Nadu. The Table Tennis Federation of India is the official sports body. India, which is currently ranked 90 in the world, has produced a single player ranked in the top 50, Sharat Kamal.

Equestrian sports
India also has a wide following in various equestrian sports like showjumping, eventing, dressage, endurance and tentpegging. Supported by the Equestrian Federation of India, eventing is the most popular of the five, with teams representing the country at most Asian games, winning a bronze medal in the 2006 and 2002 games. India has been represented at the Olympics twice, by Wing Commander I.J.Lamba, and Imtiaz Anees.

Kayaking
Flat water and sea kayaking Indian flat water kayakers are emerging powerhouse in the Asian circuit. Aside from professional flat waterkayaking, there is very limited recreational kayaking. Potential to generate interest in flat water kayaking is held by leisure resorts located near the sea or other water bodies. But more often than not, Indian tourists consider kayaking a one-time activity and not a sport to be pursued.

Sport in India Whitewater kayaking Whitewater kayaking has its rabid enthusiasts concentrated in the north towards Himalayas and some in the south in Bangalore in Karnataka. Most of these enthusiasts are or were Whitewater Raft guides who took to the sport of whitewater kayaking. Some of the prominent whitewater kayakers include Abhinav Kala, Shalabh Gahlaut and John Pollard. Many of them have notched first descents (similar to Climbing Ascents) on rivers in India and Nepal. 'Bangalore Kayakers' are India's first amateur group of white water kayakers. Based out Bangalore, they currently explore rivers around Western Ghats.[25] Gear availability is another problem that plagues the sportsmen and sportswomen. While the global designs for whitewater boats and paddles change annually, Indian kayakers have to pay high fees if they want to import any kind of gear or they have to buy used gear in Nepal. More often than not, one will see Indian kayaking guides riding down the river in a Perception Amp or Piroutte or Dancer kind of design while the kayakers from abroad in their new design, planing hull, centered volume kayaks from Riot, Pyranha or Wave Sport.Due to increasing media coverage, more people do kayaking every season.

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Mountain biking
Mountain biking is becoming a popular sport. For the last six years, MTB Himachal has been organized regularly by HASTPA, an NGO. It is attended by a number of national and international participants, such as Indian Army, Indian Air Force, ITBP and a number of young and energetic MTB individual riders from cities like Pune, Bangalore, Delhi and Chandigarh. Last year, the government of Sikkim (Department of Tourism) introduced its own MTB race with South East Asia's biggest prize money. The second edition saw 48 professional participants from across the globe. Tour of Nilgiris is a major non-competitive/non-commercial touring event in South Asia today, that covers 1000 kilometres in under ten days.[26]

Rock climbing
Annual competitions promoting rock climbing are growing in strength. Some events draw over fifty participants and hundreds of viewers, which is relatively good for an evolving sport. Along with the increasing interest, multiple climbing walls are sprouting around the country. These walls probably number less than 30, most of them single walls with one or two routes at most. A growing number of climbers have entered the climbing scene in India, particularly in Mumbai, Delhi, Bangalore, Kangla Wall of MMTA (Manipur) Shillong, Kolkata and Indore. For locations to climb in India, see Climbing locations in India.

Sepak takraw
Sepak Takraw is not very well known in India, although it was a demonstration sport at the Delhi Asiad in 1982.[27] The Sepak Takraw Federation with its headquarters in Nagpur, Maharashtra, was founded on 10 September 1982. It is recognised by the Indian Olympic Association and Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports since 2000.[28] So far, the Federation has conducted 14 Senior, seven Junior and six Sub-Junior National Championship in different cities and is also conducting Federation Cup Tournament and zonal National Championship. The game is very popular in the north eastern state of Manipur and some of the best players hail from there. In the 22nd Kings Cup International Sepak Takraw Tournament held at Bangkok, the India men team lost in the semifinals and claimed bronze in the team event. In doubles event, the women team lost in the semifinals, but bagged bronze medals.[29]

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Winter sports
Snow sports are uncommon in India due to a lack of snow except in the extreme north. Ski tournaments take place every winter in Gulmarg, Kashmir. Winter sports are generally more common in the northern states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh. Skiing, snow rugby, snow cycling and snow football are few of the common sports played in India. Skiing is more popular although India has taken part in Luge in winter olympics since 1998. Shiva Keshavan is the only India to have won a medal in international meet in winter sports.

Archery
An ancient game in India, archery is making rapid strides in the country, with more and more youngsters opting for it. Archery Association of India (AAI) is the national governing body of archery in India. Young talents like Jayant Talukdar, Tarundeep Rai and Rahul Banerjee are making waves at the big stage. With international laurels pouring thick and fast, India is emerging as an archery powerhouse. The country is all set to break the Korean stranglehold on the World Archery Championship. The fact that India finished second to the mighty Koreans at the 2005 World Championship is a solid proof of the growing International stature of Indian archers and the sport of archery back home. In the present time, archery has found favor among a wider section of the Indian society, with the introduction of modern and sophisticated equipments for the sport. Moreover, the Archery Association of India (AAI) is taking special efforts in providing infrastructure and proper training to the sports-persons, who have taken archery as their event. Moreover, job opportunities are opening up in a big way for the sport's stars. Traditionally dominated by champion archers from tribal communities, today, a major lot of the archers come from non-tribal areas with good educational backgrounds. In the present time, archery in India has emerged as a sport with considerable recognition and has managed to score success.

Athletics and triathlon

In India, athletics has come a long way since the initial years, but it still is a minor sport in India. Even though Indian athletics has witnessed improvements in terms of facilities and infrastructure, the general standard of competition still leaves scope for a lot of improvement. However, some athletes like Anju Bobby George, Jyotirmoyee Sikdar, Milkha Singh, Norman Pritchard, P. T. Usha and T. C. Yohannan, have done India extremely proud, with their brilliant game and made a mark at the Olympics as well. In recent years, the females have been doing better in Asian competitions

Weightlifting and powerlifting

The headquarters of Indian Weightlifting Federation is at New Delhi. The Federation is affiliated to the Indian Olympic Association (Delhi) and is also a member of Asian Weightlifting Federation (Tehran) and International Weightlifting Federation (Budapest). The present General Secretary of Indian Weightlifting Federation is Balbir Singh. The International Weightlifting Federation banned the Indian Weightlifting Federation from participating in all international competitions for one year, as three Indian women weightliftersS Sunaina, Sanamacha Chanu and Pratima Kumari, were accused of doping offences in various international competitions in a single year.

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Billiards and snookers

India has been a force to reckon with in world billiards competitions. An impressive assembly of great champions like Wilson Jones, Michael Ferreira and Geet Sethi has underlined the powerhouse status of the country. Snooker Federation of India, the apex body, play a proactive role in popularizing the game. Many such efforts have been done by the Billiards and Snooker Federation of India in the recent past to enhance the popularity of the game in the country. Several training camps for identifying budding talent and providing them regional and state sponsorship have been organised by the Billiards and Snooker Federation in various parts of the country.

Wrestling
Considered as one of the most ancient and oldest sports in the world, wrestling in India has glorious past. The game of Wrestling started its journey in India several centuries back, during the middles ages. Wrestling is counted amongst the most prestigious and oldest events in the Olympic Games, as it was included in the Olympics in 708 BC. In the ancient times, Wrestling in India was mainly used as a wonderful way to stay physically fit. It was also used as a great way of military exercise without any weapons. Wrestling in India is also known as `dangal` and it is the basic form of a wrestling tournament. Wrestling in India is most famously known as Malla-Yuddha. Some forms of Mallayuddha were practiced in India even before the invasion of the Aryan. The famous Indian epic, Mahabharata has a huge mention about the game of Wrestling in India. One of the premier characters in Mahabharata, Bhima was considered to be a great Wrestler of that time and some of the other great wrestlers included Jarasandha, Duryodhan, Karna etc. In the other Indian epic, Ramayana also mentions about Wrestling in India and Hanuman is described as one of the greatest wrestlers of that time. The thirteenth century Malla Purana has the reference of a group of Gujarati Brahmin wrestlers known as Jyesthimallas.

Gymnastics
Gymnastics came of age in India, when at the 2010 Commonwealth Games, Ashish Kumar won the first-ever medal in gymnastics for India, he also won a bronze medal.[30] However soon after the win the President of the Gymnastics Federation of India, controversially asked Ashish's Chief Coach from the erstwhile Soviet Union, Vladimir Chertkov: "Is this all that you can deliver, a bronze?", the comment was widely reported in the press. Later the coach also revealed that "In Aug 2009, we had no equipment. Ashish trained on hard floor till Feb 2010, and then we got equipment around 20 years old." Also the Federation announced that no Indian team would travel to Rotterdam for the World Championships in October which would mean that Indian gymnasts automatically not qualify as a team for the 2012 Olympics.[31] [32]

Regional and other sports

Gilli-danda
It is a sport played using one small stick (gilli) and a large stick (danda) like cricket with ball being replaced by gilli. It is still played in villages of Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,Bihar, Maharashtra etc. states of India only as a recreational sport among boys. also is played in very warm weather.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilli-danda

Kancha
It is played using marbles (kancha) in cities as well as villages by small boys only as gully sport. The winner gets the kancha of other boys.

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Kite-flying
It is played by many people in India in cities as well as villages. The festival of Makar Sankranti is marked with competitions of this sport.

Other sports
Other sports and games namely air sports , atya patya, bridge, carrom, cycle polo, fencing, gymnastics, judo, karate, kho-kho, mallakhamb, roller skating, rowing, shooting ball, soft tennis, squash, swimming, taekwondo, ten-pin bowling, tennikoit, tug of war, yachting, have dedicated following and their own national sports federations.[33]

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Sport in India
[32] "No Worlds for India: Coach Blasts Federation" (http:/ / www. intlgymnast. com/ index. php?option=com_content& view=article& id=1973:no-worlds-for-india-coach-blasts-federation& catid=2:news& Itemid=166). International Gymnast Magazine. 10 October 2010. . [33] http:/ / yas. nic. in/ writereaddata/ linkimages/ 8940703031. htm

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External links
Throwball Federation of India (http://www.throwball.co.in) Ice Hockey Association of India (http://www.icehockeyindia.com) The mystery of the missing medals (http://www.sportstaronnet.com/tss2738/stories/20040918005300800. htm) Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports (http://yas.nic.in/) Budget for Sports in India (http://indiabudget.nic.in/ub2010-11/eb/dg105.pdf) Indian and International football (http://www.kolkatafootball.com/) A website with details of India stadia (http://www.worldstadiums.com/asia/countries/india.shtml) The Sports Mirror (http://www.thesportsmirror.com/)

Article Sources and Contributors

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Article Sources and Contributors

India Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=428538346 Contributors: (, -- April, 0, 007ketan, 100110100, 190319m9, 1pezguy, 1to0to-1, 200.191.188.xxx, 334a, 400smush, 49danesway, 5603965, @pple, A Werewolf, A i s h2000, A suyash, A-giau, A-kshay, A. 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Xstill.illx, Yadavmahesh, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yanamad, Yann, Yarnalgo, Yash chauhan2, Yash512, Yasirian, Yayay, Yellow, YellowAssessmentMonkey, YellowMonkey, Yelyos, Yin61289, Yksin, Yoenit, Yogagates, Yogesh Khandke, Yom, Yosarian, Yossarian, Youonlylivetwice, Yoursvivek, Youssefsan, Yoyoyo111, Zac28, Zachlipton, Zachorious, Zaf, Zahid Abdassabur, Zaindy87, Zalgo, Zameenzad, Zaslav, Zazou, Zeeshani, Zeimusu, Zen611, ZenMondo, Zeno Gantner, Zephyrmaten, Zerokitsune, Zetawoof, Zhonghuo, Zidan007, ZimZalaBim, Zinjixmaggir, Zip600001, Zkazim, Zmelan94, Zoicon5, Zondor, Zoomanjee, Zora, Zscout370, Zuggernaut, Zurkhardo, Zvn, Zzuuzz, , , , , 4538 anonymous edits Names of India Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=427369444 Contributors: 08cv74, 10 of swords, AHO, Abhilasha09, Aditya, Aeusoes1, Aidoor, AjaxSmack, Aksi great, Ant, Anthony Appleyard, AnthroExpert1, Apparition11, Arl123wiki, Arvind Iyengar, Arvindn, Athenapyros, Auntof6, BD2412, Bakasuprman, Bbanerje, Bhadani, 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Maximov, Tuncrypt, Umar420e, Uncle Milty, Utcursch, Vanished User 1004, Vegaswikian, Veinor, Wasted Time R, Wik, William Avery, Woohookitty, World8115, Wowbhopal, Yann, YellowMonkey, 533 anonymous edits Maharashtra Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=428546589 Contributors: 128.101.45.xxx, 18.25, 195.186.255.xxx, 200.191.188.xxx, 93gregsonl2, AMbroodEY, Aalapk, Abecedare, Abhijeet22, Abhijitsathe, Adam.J.W.C., Adiyuva, AdjustShift, Advandana, Ae-a, Aeusoes1, Ajaxkroon, Akkida, Akradecki, Akshat2, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Ale jrb, Ali, Amanhanda, Ambuj.Saxena, Ameya.potadar, Amitrc7th, Amolsable, Anandks007, Anchitk, Ando228, AndrewHowse, Angusmclellan, Anilkirti, Anish7, Ankurem, Anshuman.jrt, Anthony, Anwar saadat, Armeria, Arteyu, Arunkrish, Arunsingh77, Arvindn, Ashurockstarboy, Ashycool, Asrghasrhiojadrhr, Asro 21, Atulkaluskar, Avenue, Avinashmane, Ayelkawar, BD2412, Babbage, Baronnet, Ben Ben, Bidngrab, Biglovinb, Bikehorn, Bkngp, Blah28948, Blurpeace, Bobby H. 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File:Flag of India.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_India.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp File:Emblem of India.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Emblem_of_India.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Abhishekjoshi, BRUTE, Beao, Bender235, Cheguthan, Editor at Large, Eugenio Hansen, OFS, Faizhaider, Fred the Oyster, Fry1989, Havang(nl), Jappalang, Jed, Jmabel, Jovianeye, Kintetsubuffalo, Klemen Kocjancic, Legoktm, Leit, Miljoshi, Nightstallion, Roland zh, Str4nd, Vaishu2, Xiengyod, Zscout370, 32 anonymous edits File:India (orthographic projection).svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:India_(orthographic_projection).svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Ssolbergj File:Increase2.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Increase2.svg License: unknown Contributors: Sarang Image:Indian Rupee symbol.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Indian_Rupee_symbol.svg License: unknown Contributors: User:Orionist File:Speaker Icon.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Speaker_Icon.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Blast, G.Hagedorn, Mobius, 2 anonymous edits File:Indischer Maler des 6. 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File:Welcome to Tivim Goa.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Welcome_to_Tivim_Goa.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: abcdz2000 File:Margao railwaystation.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Margao_railwaystation.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Kalervo Kinnunen Image:Goa Memorial.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Goa_Memorial.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Nikhil Kulkarni File:Taj Fort Aguada Beach Resort Hotel Goa 3.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Taj_Fort_Aguada_Beach_Resort_Hotel_Goa_3.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Drmarathe File:Vagatore beach.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vagatore_beach.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Philanthropist 1 Image:Shantadurga temple.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Shantadurga_temple.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: User:Nkodikal File:Fruitseller at Vasco.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fruitseller_at_Vasco.JPG License: Free Art License Contributors: Kalervo Kinnunen File:India Goa Portuguese Villa.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:India_Goa_Portuguese_Villa.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Zerohund File:Fontainhas - Portugese Houses.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fontainhas_-_Portugese_Houses.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Andean Condor from Goa, India Image:GoaUniversity.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GoaUniversity.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Fredericknoronha, Roland zh, Wouterhagens, 1 anonymous edits File:Gujarat Montage.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gujarat_Montage.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: User:Bhaumik J File:Seal of Gujarat.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seal_of_Gujarat.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Hardymk File:India Gujarat locator map.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:India_Gujarat_locator_map.svg License: unknown Contributors: Planemad File:Gujarat locator map.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gujarat_locator_map.svg License: unknown Contributors: Planemad Image:Bombay Prov north 1909.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bombay_Prov_north_1909.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Hunter, William Wilson, Sir, (1840-1900), Cotton, James Sutherland, (1847-1918) ed. Burn, Richard, Sir, (1871-1947) joint ed. Meyer, William Stevenson, Sir, (1860-1922). joint ed. New edition, published under the authority of His Majesty's secretary of state for India in council. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1908-1931 [v. 1, 1909] Image:Bombay Prov south 1909.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bombay_Prov_south_1909.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Hunter, William Wilson, Sir, (1840-1900), Cotton, James Sutherland, (1847-1918) ed. Burn, Richard, Sir, (1871-1947) joint ed. Meyer, William Stevenson, Sir, (1860-1922). joint ed. New edition, published under the authority of His Majesty's secretary of state for India in council. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1908-1931 [v. 1, 1909] Image:Mahadev Desai and Gandhi 2 1939.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mahadev_Desai_and_Gandhi_2_1939.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dpkpm007, Jkelly, Jusjih, Kenb215, Mattes, Miljoshi, RegentsPark, Roland zh, Yann, 4 anonymous edits Image:Gujarat Gulfs.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gujarat_Gulfs.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Denniss, Jungpionier, Man vyi, Roland zh, Thuresson, J Image:Map Guj Nat Parks Sanctuary.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Map_Guj_Nat_Parks_Sanctuary.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: User:Sting Image:Panthera leo persica male.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Panthera_leo_persica_male.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Altaileopard, Pitert, Winterkind File:Saputara.jpg Source: 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File:DLF Gatweway Tower.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DLF_Gatweway_Tower.png License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: User:Common Good, User:Manaspunhani File:Marutisuzuki.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Marutisuzuki.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Tntboy21 File:Green farms of Jats in Haryana.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Green_farms_of_Jats_in_Haryana.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Last Emperor File:Toll Gate.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Toll_Gate.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: User:GurgaonShoppingMalls.com File:Chandigarh Monument.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chandigarh_Monument.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Aviad2001, FlickreviewR, Indianhilbilly, Mattes, Pruneau, Roland zh File:Pgims.jpg Source: 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File:vishnu file.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vishnu_file.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Jrsanthosh Image:Tipu Sultan BL.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tipu_Sultan_BL.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anetode, Mj.manu018, Redtigerxyz, Roland zh File:karnataka declaration.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Karnataka_declaration.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Jrsanthosh Image:Jog Rani.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jog_Rani.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: User:Sarvagnya Image:Karnataka districts-new.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Karnataka_districts-new.svg License: unknown Contributors: Chethanp11, Naveenbm, Radiant chains, Vivianjoseph03, 7 anonymous edits Image:Soudha.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Soudha.jpg License: Creative 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Image:Sunset at Varkala Beach Kerala India.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sunset_at_Varkala_Beach_Kerala_India.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Salvatore Barbera from Amsterdam, The Netherlands Image: Thiruvathirakali_kerala.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thiruvathirakali_kerala.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Syam Subramanian from Bangalore, India File:Paddy fields of Kerala thrissur dist.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Paddy_fields_of_Kerala_thrissur_dist.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Ramesh NG File:Oppana.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oppana.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Kerala Tourism Image:Kerala houseboat.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kerala_houseboat.jpg License: Creative Commons 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Tilak.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:B._G._Tilak.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Arianna, Innotata, Mu Image:Pune India .jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pune_India_.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Sunder Iyer Image:Mahad Maharashtra.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mahad_Maharashtra.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Belasd, FlickreviewR, Indianhilbilly Image:India Animals.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:India_Animals.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: supersujit Image:Mumbai skyline.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mumbai_skyline.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Amol.Gaitonde, Arria Belli, Belasd, Ekabhishek, FlickreviewR, Indianhilbilly, J o, Roland zh Image:Mh elections.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mh_elections.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Fundamental metric tensor Image:Highcourt.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Highcourt.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Michael Siegel AKA michaelj-siegel File:Young students, Mumbai.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Young_students,_Mumbai.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Bgag File:Clock Tower Mumbai University.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Clock_Tower_Mumbai_University.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Steve Evans Image:IITB Main Building.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IITB_Main_Building.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Ambuj.Saxena, Roland zh, 1 anonymous edits File:Gsb.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gsb.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Hesvjti4 Image:Maharashtra Districts.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Maharashtra_Districts.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Abhijitsathe Image:Mumbai Skyline1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mumbai_Skyline1.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Deepak Image:Pune ShaniwarWada DelhiGate.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pune_ShaniwarWada_DelhiGate.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: User:QuartierLatin1968 Image:Zero mile nagpur.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Zero_mile_nagpur.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Dr. Tarique Sani Image:Kalaram mandir.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kalaram_mandir.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Happysiddhant, Roland zh Image:Aurangabad .jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aurangabad_.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Gaurhav H. 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Image:Mumbai Airport.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mumbai_Airport.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Alex Graves from Lugano, Switzerland Image:Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (Victoria Terminus).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chhatrapati_Shivaji_Terminus_(Victoria_Terminus).jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Jovianeye Image:Kailasha temple at ellora.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kailasha_temple_at_ellora.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: User:Pratheepps Image:Ajanta (63).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ajanta_(63).jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: Belasd, Fagairolles 34, Nichalp, Soman, 1 anonymous edits Image:India-Elephanta-Outside.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:India-Elephanta-Outside.jpg License: Public 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http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kanglasha.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Mongyamba Image:The Kangla Gate.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Kangla_Gate.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Mongyamba Image:Singda.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Singda.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Mongyamba Image:Barak River.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Barak_River.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Mongyamba Image:Hill Slope.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hill_Slope.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Mongyamba Image:Landscape of Manipur1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Landscape_of_Manipur1.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Mongyamba Image:The Dzukou Valley.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Dzukou_Valley.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Mongyamba Image:Manipur Monsoon.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Manipur_Monsoon.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Mongyamba Image:Pakhangba.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pakhangba.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Mongyamba Image:St. Joseph's Cathedral.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:St._Joseph's_Cathedral.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Mongyamba Image:Chorus Repertory Theater.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chorus_Repertory_Theater.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Mongyamba Image:Ras Lila.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ras_Lila.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Mongyamba Image:The Shrine at Chorus.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Shrine_at_Chorus.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Mongyamba Image:Mukna.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mukna.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: ahinsajain Image:Hiyangtannaba 1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hiyangtannaba_1.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Mongyamba Image:People playing Kang in Manipur.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:People_playing_Kang_in_Manipur.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Mongyamba Image:Cheiraochingkaba.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cheiraochingkaba.jpg License: Creative 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Kintetsubuffalo, Melesse, Polly, Skier Dude File:India Meghalaya locator map.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:India_Meghalaya_locator_map.svg License: unknown Contributors: Abhijitsathe, Planemad File:Meghalaya locator map.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Meghalaya_locator_map.svg License: unknown Contributors: w:user:Planemad Image:Cachimbo- Khasi.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cachimbo-_Khasi.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Frank C. Mller, Roland zh, Utcursch, 1 anonymous edits Image:Umiam Lake Meghalaya.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Umiam_Lake_Meghalaya.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:RMehra Image:Workers Outside Coalmine.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Workers_Outside_Coalmine.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: RMehra, Roland zh Image:Cherrapunji.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cherrapunji.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Hedwig in Washington, RMehra, Roland zh Image:Cement Plant MCL.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cement_Plant_MCL.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: User:dkonwar Image:Nepenthes khasiana.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nepenthes_khasiana.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was JeremiahsCPs at en.wikipedia Image:IIMSHILLONG.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IIMSHILLONG.jpg License: Free Art License Contributors: User:Sarvshwet Image:Shillong from Shillong Peak.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Shillong_from_Shillong_Peak.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Aadri Image:Shillong golf course2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Shillong_golf_course2.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Babulgogoi Image:Nohkalikai fall.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nohkalikai_fall.JPG License: unknown Contributors: Sohel78bd Image:Megaliths cherra.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Megaliths_cherra.JPG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Bogman File:Aizawl.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aizawl.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Ngcha File:Seal of Mizoram.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seal_of_Mizoram.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Zscout370 File:India Mizoram locator map.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:India_Mizoram_locator_map.svg License: unknown Contributors: Planemad image:Mizoramdistrictsmap.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mizoramdistrictsmap.png License: unknown Contributors: User:Joy1963 File:Seal of Nagaland.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seal_of_Nagaland.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Nagaland Governent. 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File:India Nagaland locator map.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:India_Nagaland_locator_map.svg License: unknown Contributors: Planemad File:Nagaland locator map.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nagaland_locator_map.svg License: unknown Contributors: w:user:Planemad Image:Nagalandmap.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nagalandmap.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Wikigringo File:Seal of Orissa.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seal_of_Orissa.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: After Midnight, Dn9ahx, Faizhaider, Kintetsubuffalo, Nagy, Skier Dude, Utcursch, 1 anonymous edits File:India Orissa locator map.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:India_Orissa_locator_map.svg License: unknown Contributors: Abhijitsathe, Planemad File:Orissa State map.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orissa_State_map.svg License: unknown Contributors: user:Jayantanth File:Gudahandi.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gudahandi.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Digpatra File:Kalinga battlefield daya river dhauli hills.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kalinga_battlefield_daya_river_dhauli_hills.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Cheeni File:Hatigumfa.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hatigumfa.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Amitava Original uploader was Windrider24584 at en.wikipedia File:Konark Temple.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Konark_Temple.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Sujit kumar File:Huma Hota.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Huma_Hota.jpg License: Free Art License Contributors: Chinmay Kumar Hota File:Chilka lake.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chilka_lake.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: [ User:gppande] / [ User_talk:gppande] File:Mahanadi River.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mahanadi_River.JPG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Sujit kumar File:Human Development Index for Indian states in 2001.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Human_Development_Index_for_Indian_states_in_2001.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Nichalp File:GhumuraDance.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GhumuraDance.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Digpatra File:Westindischer Maler um 1550 001.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Westindischer_Maler_um_1550_001.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ranveig, Tsui Image:Bikalkar rasagola.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bikalkar_rasagola.gif 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File:Punjab Montage India.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Punjab_Montage_India.PNG License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: User:RaviC File:Seal of Punjab.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seal_of_Punjab.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Faizhaider, Kintetsubuffalo, Rohithanda, Skier Dude, 1 anonymous edits File:India Punjab locator map.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:India_Punjab_locator_map.svg License: unknown Contributors: Planemad, 1 anonymous edits File:Punjab locator map.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Punjab_locator_map.svg License: unknown Contributors: Planemad, Roland zh, 1 anonymous edits Image:Blackbuck male female.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Blackbuck_male_female.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: Mr Raja Purohit File:Ranjitsingh.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ranjitsingh.gif License: 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Mller, Rlbberlin, Roland zh, Shakko, Shakti, Tohma, 3 anonymous edits Image:Ranjit Singh's golden throne.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ranjit_Singh's_golden_throne.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was VAwebteam at en.wikipedia File:Punjab 1909.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Punjab_1909.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Abhishekjoshi, Bjh21, Ekabhishek, Geagea, Innotata, Roland zh, Timichal File:Punjab flag.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Punjab_flag.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Himasaram Image:Southall station sign.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Southall_station_sign.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: User:Tintazul Image:Niper research block.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Niper_research_block.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dvratnam Image:Guru Nanak Dev University3.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Guru_Nanak_Dev_University3.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: http://flickr.com/photos/gopal1035/ Image:PUP GGSB.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PUP_GGSB.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Markande Image:LightsMohali.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LightsMohali.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was The strokes at en.wikipedia Image:QuarkCity.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:QuarkCity.png License: Public Domain Contributors: The strokes Image:Punjab district map.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Punjab_district_map.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Wikigringo File:MotiBaghPalace.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MotiBaghPalace.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Rohit Markande File:Harminder sahib5.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Harminder_sahib5.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Real Jsu Image:India Train.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:India_Train.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: FlickreviewR, Indianhilbilly, NVO, Roland zh Image:Dhol players.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dhol_players.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: John Pannell File:Seal of Rajasthan.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seal_of_Rajasthan.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Beao, Dn9ahx, Faizhaider, Kintetsubuffalo, Skier Dude File:India Rajasthan locator map.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:India_Rajasthan_locator_map.svg License: unknown Contributors: Planemad File:Rajasthan locator map.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rajasthan_locator_map.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: w:User:MkeranatMkeranat File:Chittorgarh Fort.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chittorgarh_Fort.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Abbysingh Image:Mehrangarh Fort.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mehrangarh_Fort.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Knowledge Seeker Image:RajaRaviVarma MaharanaPratap.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RajaRaviVarma_MaharanaPratap.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ekabhishek, Praveenp, Roland zh, Utcursch, 3 anonymous edits File:Hawa Mahal 2011.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hawa_Mahal_2011.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Sfu Image:Aravalli.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aravalli.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: User:Nataraja File:Dsert-du-Thar.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dsert-du-Thar.jpg License: Creative Commons Sharealike 1.0 Contributors: Crux, Davepape, Jungpionier, PM, Roland zh, Samulili, 5 anonymous edits File:View from Jaigarh Fort, Rajasthan, India - 20061001.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:View_from_Jaigarh_Fort,_Rajasthan,_India_-_20061001.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Belasd, Jacklee, Roland zh, Vssun File:Market in Kuchaman, Rajasthan.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Market_in_Kuchaman,_Rajasthan.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Docu, Roland zh, Wknight94

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File:Sogra Cuisine.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sogra_Cuisine.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Vipingoyal Image:Jodhpurplant.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jodhpurplant.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Emperor Genius Image:UmaidBhawan Exterior 1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:UmaidBhawan_Exterior_1.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Ghirlandajo, Mentifisto, Roland zh, 6 anonymous edits Image:Worshippers leaving the temple in Ranakpur.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Worshippers_leaving_the_temple_in_Ranakpur.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Christopher Walker File:Thar Khuri.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thar_Khuri.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: user:Flicka File:Decorated Indian elephant.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Decorated_Indian_elephant.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Ekabhishek, Mattes, Ranveig File:Rajasthani Dolls.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rajasthani_Dolls.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Kanithapithan File:Rajasthan folk dance.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rajasthan_folk_dance.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Sahil File:Seva Mandir non-formal education center.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seva_Mandir_non-formal_education_center.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: GiveWell Image:Chinkara.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chinkara.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: Hartebeest, Kilom691, Shyamal, 2 anonymous edits Image:Sonchiriya.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sonchiriya.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was LRBurdak at en.wikipedia File:Seal of Sikkim color.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seal_of_Sikkim_color.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Government of Sikkim, India. 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http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mamallapuram_view.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/pnglife/ File:rajendra map new.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rajendra_map_new.png License: unknown Contributors: Original uploader was Venu62 at en.wikipedia File:Brahadeeswara Temple,Thanjavur.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Brahadeeswara_Temple,Thanjavur.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Aruna at ml.wikipedia File:Thirumalai-Nayak-Palace-Madurai.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thirumalai-Nayak-Palace-Madurai.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: Roland zh, SPK, Vadakkan File:Fort Dansborg.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fort_Dansborg.JPG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Esben Agersnap File:Tamil Nadu topo deutsch mit Gebirgen.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tamil_Nadu_topo_deutsch_mit_Gebirgen.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Jungpionier File:Agasthiyamalai range and Tirunelveli rainshadow.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Agasthiyamalai_range_and_Tirunelveli_rainshadow.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: w:user:PlaneMad Image:Niltahr.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Niltahr.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Rajeshdxb at en.wikipedia Image:Emerald dove444.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Emerald_dove444.jpg License: unknown Contributors: User:Benjamint444 Image:bharatanatyam male.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bharatanatyam_male.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Thoreaulylazy at en.wikipedia Image:Gloriosa Superba.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gloriosa_Superba.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Challiyil Eswaramangalath Vipin from Chalakudy, India File:Neerarum Kadaludutha.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Neerarum_Kadaludutha.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:L.vivian.richard Image:Kabaddi.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kabaddi.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Doha 2006

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File:Palm Tamil Nadu.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Palm_Tamil_Nadu.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: .Bala from Seattle, USA File:TN Districts Numbered 2009.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TN_Districts_Numbered_2009.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:BishkekRocks, User:SwiftRakesh File:Tamil Nadu Secretariat.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tamil_Nadu_Secretariat.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:12afser12 File:AnnaMKMGR.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AnnaMKMGR.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: BishkekRocks, Ranveig, Roland zh, Sundar, Vadakkan File:Tn.pop.pyramid.2001.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tn.pop.pyramid.2001.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Anwar saadat File:Iitm maingate logo.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Iitm_maingate_logo.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Jcb, Magog the Ogre, Minivalley, Roland zh File:Nitt.adblock.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nitt.adblock.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Allagappan.gnu File:Anna-university.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anna-university.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Infrogmation, Loopstation, Roland zh, Sebastian Wallroth File:Kolam outside a house in tamil nadu.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kolam_outside_a_house_in_tamil_nadu.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Durga, Mattes, PMG, Ranveig, Roland zh, Vadakkan, File:Maduraitemple.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Maduraitemple.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: McKay Savage from Chennai, India File:Vailankanni Basilica1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vailankanni_Basilica1.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was BrownyCat at en.wikipedia File:ERWADIshariff ultimate.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ERWADIshariff_ultimate.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Wasifwasif File:Madurai-alanganallur-jallikattu.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Madurai-alanganallur-jallikattu.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: User:Iamkarna Image:Thungapuram Ayyannar Ther.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thungapuram_Ayyannar_Ther.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Silambarasan Physics File:Nagaswaramplayers.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nagaswaramplayers.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: User:Badagnani File:Bharatanatyam danseuse.jpg Source: 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Grbetaler, Kprateek88, Lupo, Marku1988, Quatro Valvole, Roland zh, 1 anonymous edits File:Tig2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tig2.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Abujoy, FlickreviewR, King Zebu, Marcus334, Roland zh File:Racing action in Coimbatore.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Racing_action_in_Coimbatore.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Fort5000 at en.wikipedia File:Viswanathan Anand 08 14 2005.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Viswanathan_Anand_08_14_2005.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: -jha-, BanyanTree, Conscious, Fred J, Nard the Bard, Stepshep, Ygrek File:Hogenakkal Tamil Nadu.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hogenakkal_Tamil_Nadu.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: User:L.vivian.richard File:Udhagamandalam Botanical Gardens.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Udhagamandalam_Botanical_Gardens.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Ghost Particle File:Vendor at Seafront - Kanyakumari - India.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vendor_at_Seafront_-_Kanyakumari_-_India.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Adam63 File:Seal of Tripura.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seal_of_Tripura.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Govt. of Tripura File:India Tripura locator map.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:India_Tripura_locator_map.svg License: unknown Contributors: Abhijitsathe, Planemad Image:Bandera Tripura1.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bandera_Tripura1.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Abhishekjoshi, Nichalp, Roland zh, Walden69 Image:tierecke tripura1.jpg Source: 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File:IITKLibrary.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IITKLibrary.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: User:AmarChandra File:IIMLucknow.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IIMLucknow.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Flyinggenius1965 at en.wikipedia File:La Martiniere3-Lucknow.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:La_Martiniere3-Lucknow.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: User:Nichalp File:Tcs lucknow campus.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tcs_lucknow_campus.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Einstein90 File:honda plant greater noida.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Honda_plant_greater_noida.jpg License: Creative Commons Zero Contributors: Vujn File:A Busy road in Main Market.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:A_Busy_road_in_Main_Market.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Makks2010 File:Sabmall.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sabmall.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Original uploader was Angry s0ul at en.wikipedia Image:JKTemple.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JKTemple.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Sunshineroshan Image:Kumbh Mela2001.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kumbh_Mela2001.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: User:Yosarian Image:Taj Mahal in March 2004.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Taj_Mahal_in_March_2004.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: User:Deep750, user:jaknudsen Image:Varanasiganga.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Varanasiganga.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Babasteve Image:MadanMohanmandir.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MadanMohanmandir.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was GourangaUK at en.wikipedia Image:TombSalimChisti.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TombSalimChisti.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: SK Desai Image:Itmad.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Itmad.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Lallsons Image:AgraFort.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AgraFort.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Calame, Poco a poco, Ppntori, Shakti, Shimgray, 2 anonymous edits Image:The Panch Mahal in Fatehpur Sikri.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Panch_Mahal_in_Fatehpur_Sikri.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Original uploader was Isewell at en.wikipedia Image:NorthIndiaCircuit 100.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NorthIndiaCircuit_100.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: SK Desai Image:LDAkbarTombCenter.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LDAkbarTombCenter.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was LinguisticDemographer at en.wikipedia Image:Adnanwiki.badaimambada1.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Adnanwiki.badaimambada1.JPG License: Creative Commons Sharealike 1.0 Contributors: shoaib husain Image:Chhotaimambara.adnan.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chhotaimambara.adnan.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Faizhaider, Moonwiki Image:Sarnath1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sarnath1.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Ekabhishek, Geofrog, Nataraja, Olivier2, ~Pyb Image:Kushinara1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kushinara1.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: myself Image:Ziarat Shareef.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ziarat_Shareef.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Shujakhan15 File:Kanpur Central.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kanpur_Central.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Future Perfect at Sunrise, Shashwatei, Urprakhar, 4 anonymous edits File:DND Flyway.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DND_Flyway.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Angry s0ul at en.wikipedia File:bridge2.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bridge2.JPG License: unknown Contributors: Jaimehta321, Sdrtirs, Shariq81, 3 anonymous edits File:PIETRA DURA - 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Original uploader was Apalaria at en.wikipedia File:United Provinces 1903.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:United_Provinces_1903.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Roland zh, Taichi File:Nanda devi.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nanda_devi.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Anirban c8 File:Valley of flowers uttaranchal full view.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Valley_of_flowers_uttaranchal_full_view.JPG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Esculapio, Gryffindor, Kdhenrik, Mircea, 4 anonymous edits File:Himalaya Panorama Alok Prasad.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Himalaya_Panorama_Alok_Prasad.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: www.flickr.com/alokprasad. Original uploader was Alokprasad at en.wikipedia File:Than Gaon village woman and her billy goats.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Than_Gaon_village_woman_and_her_billy_goats.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Ekabhishek, Mattes, Roland zh, Steven Walling File:Great stupa in Mindroling.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Great_stupa_in_Mindroling.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Abhishekjoshi, Ekabhishek, Platonides, Roger roger, Roland zh, Tsui, 1 anonymous edits File:UttarakhandDistricts numbered.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:UttarakhandDistricts_numbered.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:GDibyendu Image:Evening Aarti at Har-ki-Pauri, Haridwar.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Evening_Aarti_at_Har-ki-Pauri,_Haridwar.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: NID chick Image:Rishikesh-laxman-jhula-lg.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rishikesh-laxman-jhula-lg.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Lesto101, 1 anonymous edits Image:Nainital-lake-lg.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nainital-lake-lg.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Lesto101 File:Evening view of Har-ki-Pauri, Haridwar.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Evening_view_of_Har-ki-Pauri,_Haridwar.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Sanatansociety Picture provided by Peter and Chris Marchand, provides free information for promotional purpose File:Kedarnathji-mandir.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kedarnathji-mandir.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Atarax42 File:Badrinathji temple.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Badrinathji_temple.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Atarax42 File:Gangotri temple.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gangotri_temple.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Atarax42 File:Yamunotri temple and ashram.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yamunotri_temple_and_ashram.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Atarax42 Image:Hemkunt-003.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hemkunt-003.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Satbir 4 Image:Fri.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fri.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Torarne

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Image:SGCmussoorie.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SGCmussoorie.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: Ekabhishek, Manorite1221 Image:Main(Administrative)Building IIT-Roorkee.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Main(Administrative)Building_IIT-Roorkee.JPG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Sidbij File:Seal of West Bengal.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seal_of_West_Bengal.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Dn9ahx, Faizhaider, Kintetsubuffalo, Skier Dude File:India West Bengal locator map.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:India_West_Bengal_locator_map.svg License: unknown Contributors: Planemad, 2 anonymous edits File:West Bengal locator map.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:West_Bengal_locator_map.svg License: unknown Contributors: Nichalp, Planemad, 1 anonymous edits File:Raja Ram Mohan Roy.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Raja_Ram_Mohan_Roy.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Rueben lys at en.wikipedia File:Subhas Bose.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Subhas_Bose.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Sidha at en.wikipedia File:Westbengalimap.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Westbengalimap.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Zakuragi File:Kalinagar Floods B.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kalinagar_Floods_B.JPG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Soumyasch at en.wikipedia File:Teestavalley.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Teestavalley.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Mircea, Nichalp Image:A tiger in Pilibhit Tiger Reserve.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:A_tiger_in_Pilibhit_Tiger_Reserve.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Mayankkatiyar Image:White-throated Kingfisher (Shankar).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:White-throated_Kingfisher_(Shankar).jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: AshLin, Bidgee, Conscious, Keith Edkins, Leoboudv, Lin1, MBisanz, MPF Image:Alstonia scholaris.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alstonia_scholaris.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: User:AmarChandra Image:Flower & flower buds I IMG 2257.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flower_&_flower_buds_I_IMG_2257.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:J.M.Garg Image:Panthera tigris tigris.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Panthera_tigris_tigris.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Zwoenitzer Image:Arabari.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Arabari.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: Antorjal at en.wikipedia Image:Sun set in neora valley.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sun_set_in_neora_valley.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Amartyabag, Kimse, Kved, Meno25, Paulbe, Pymouss, Roland zh File:Calcutta High Court.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Calcutta_High_Court.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Herzi Pinki, Roland zh Image:Sucistalin03-102.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sucistalin03-102.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Soman File:WestBengalDistricts numbered.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WestBengalDistricts_numbered.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Antorjal at en.wikipedia Later version(s) were uploaded by Deeptrivia at en.wikipedia. 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File:Flag of Mongolia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Mongolia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp File:Flag of France.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_France.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp, User:SKopp, User:SKopp, User:SKopp, User:SKopp, User:SKopp file:IndiaPondicherry.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IndiaPondicherry.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Nichalp Image:Pondicherry map.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pondicherry_map.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Aaker, Aotearoa, Doodledoo, Roland zh, 1 anonymous edits Image:Pondicherry Legislative Assembly.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pondicherry_Legislative_Assembly.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Bsskchaitanya at en.wikipedia File:Indian states by political parties corrected.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Indian_states_by_political_parties_corrected.png License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: User:Sudoman Image:Diplomatic missions of India.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Diplomatic_missions_of_India.PNG License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Avala File:Dmitry Medvedev in India 4-5 December 2008-13.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dmitry_Medvedev_in_India_4-5_December_2008-13.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Presidential Press and Information Office File:Cross hall India USA.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cross_hall_India_USA.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Official White House Photo by Chuck Kennedy File:1st BRIC summit Ekaterinburg.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1st_BRIC_summit_Ekaterinburg.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Presidential Press and Information Office Image:Jawaharlal Nehru Trust Port.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jawaharlal_Nehru_Trust_Port.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Jaxer (talk) Original uploader was Jaxer at en.wikipedia File:53bogra nehru.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:53bogra_nehru.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Rama's Arrow Image:Malabar 07-2 exercise.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Malabar_07-2_exercise.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Avron, Chanakyathegreat, Docu, KTo288, Limkopi, Marcd30319, Mattes File:Sukarno with children and Nehru.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sukarno_with_children_and_Nehru.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Arsonal, Djoehana, Gunkarta, Roland zh, 1 anonymous edits Image:070905-N-9076B-231.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:070905-N-9076B-231.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Chief Mass Communication Specialist Don Bray Image:Chinese Expedition Army boarding planes for India.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chinese_Expedition_Army_boarding_planes_for_India.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: IJA military reporter File:Cristina.kirchner.enindia.2009.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cristina.kirchner.enindia.2009.jpg License: Creative Commons AR-Presidency Contributors: Presidencia de la Nacin Argentina File:Brazil-India leaders.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Brazil-India_leaders.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Domingos Tadeu/PR

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Image:India-geology-map.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:India-geology-map.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Nichalp Image:182619562 00d6f703b6 b.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:182619562_00d6f703b6_b.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/94088966@N00/182619562/ Image:Plates tect2 en.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Plates_tect2_en.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: USGS Image:India Geology Zones.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:India_Geology_Zones.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Jeroencommons, Roland zh, Shizhao Image:SouthIndiaGeology.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SouthIndiaGeology.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: L. 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File:Cumulative Current Account Balance.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cumulative_Current_Account_Balance.png License: unknown Contributors: Emilfaro, SBC-YPR, 2 anonymous edits File:RBI-Tower.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RBI-Tower.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: User:Nichalp File:Gini Coefficient World CIA Report 2009-1.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gini_Coefficient_World_CIA_Report_2009-1.png License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Hysohan, User:Narfsort File:Mumbai Skyline1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mumbai_Skyline1.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Deepak File:World Map Index of perception of corruption 2010.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:World_Map_Index_of_perception_of_corruption_2010.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Talkstosocks File:Private and public industry employment in India(2003).png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Private_and_public_industry_employment_in_India(2003).png License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Pamri File:Madras Port In 1996.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Madras_Port_In_1996.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Ipsingh File:Mumbai Pune ExpresswayDec2007.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mumbai_Pune_ExpresswayDec2007.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Original uploader was Nikkul at en.wikipedia File:Kochi India slums.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kochi_India_slums.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: k r ranjith. 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