Software Laboratory Assignment No.

1 Title of Assignment: Design suitable data structures and implement pass-I of a two-pass assembler for b bit microprocessor/psedo-machine. Implementation should consist of a few instruction from each category and few assembler directives Problem Statement : Implement one pass-I of TWO Pass assembler with hypothetical Instruction set using C language. Instruction set should include all types of assembly language statements such as Imperative, Declarative and Assembler Directive. While designing stress should be given on a) How efficiently Mnemonic opcode table could be implemented so as to enable faster retrieval on op-code. b) Implementation of symbol table for faster retrieval. ( Concepts in DSF should be applied while design) Relevant Theory: Explain what is meant by pass of an assembler. Explain the need for two pass assembler. Explain terms such as Forward Reference and backward reference. Explain various types of errors that are handled in two different passes. 5. Explain the need of Intermediate Code generation and the variants used. 6. State various tables used and their significance in the design of two pass Assembler. Implementation Logic: Tasks performed by the passes of two-pass assembler are as follows: Pass I: 1. Separate the symbol, mnemonic opcode and operand fields. 2. Determine the storage-required for every assembly language statement and update the location counter. 3. Build the symbol table and the literal table. 4. Construct the intermediate code for every assembly language statement. List of hypothetical instructions: Instruction Opcode Assembly mnemonic Remarks 1. 2. 3. 4.

Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 1

Software Laboratory 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 STOP stop execution ADD first operand modified condition code set SUB first operand modified condition code set MULT first operand modified condition code set MOVER register memory MOVEM memory register COMP sets condition code BC branch on condition code DIV analogous to SUB READ first operand is not used. PRINT first operand is not used.

Algorithm/Pseudo code: Pass I Algorithm (Assembler First Pass) a. loc_cntr := 0; (default value) pooltab_ptr :=1; POOLTAB[1]:=1; littab_ptr:=1; b. While next statement is not an END statement a) If label is present then { this_label:= symbol in label field; Enter(this_label, loc_cntr) in SYMTAB. } b) If an LTORG statement then { i Process literals LITTAB[POOLTAB[pooltab_ptr]LITTAB[lit_tab_ptr-1] to allocate memory and put the address in the address field. Update location counter accordingly. ii pooltab_ptr := pooltab_ptr +1; iii POOLTAB[pooltab_ptr]:=littab_ptr; } c) If START or ORIGIN statement then { loc_cntr := value specified in the operand field; } Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 2

Software Laboratory d) If an EQU statement then { i. this_addr := value of <address_spec>; ii. Correct the symbtab entry (this_label,this_addr). }

for

this_label

to

e) If a declaration statement then { i. code:= code of the declaration statement; ii. size := size of memory are required by DC/DS iii. loc_cntr := loc_cntr + size; iv. Generate IC (DL, code) } f) If an imperative statement then i. code:= machine opcode from OPTAB; ii. loc_cntr := loc_cntr + instruction length from OPTAB; iii. If operand is a literal then { this_literal := literal in operand field; LITTAB[littab_ptr]:= this_literal; littab_ptr= littab_ptr +1; } else (i.e. operand is a symbol) { this_entry := SYMTAB entry number of operand Generate IC (IS,code)(S,this_entry); } 3. a) Perform step 2(b). b) Generate IC(AD, 02). c) Go to Pass II. Testing: SAMPLE PROGRAM Input START 200 READ A READ B MOVER AREG, ='5' Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 3

Software Laboratory MOVER AREG, A ADD AREG, B SUB AREG, ='6' MOVEM AREG, C PRINT C LTORG MOVER AREG, ='15' MOVER AREG, A ADD AREG, B SUB AREG, ='16' DIV AREG, ='26' MOVEM AREG, C A DS 1 B DS 1 C DS 1 STOP END Symbol Table ------------------------------------------------------------Symb Addr Decl Used Val Len ------------------------------------------------------------A 216 1 1 0 1 B 217 1 1 0 1 C 218 1 1 0 1 ------------------------------------------------------------Total Errors: 0 Total Warnings: 0 Literal Table -----------------------------------Lit# Lit Addr -----------------------------------00 ='5' 208 01 ='6' 209 02 ='15' 220 03 ='16' 221 04 ='26' 222 -----------------------------------Pool Table -------------------Pool# Pool Base -------------------00 0 01 2 -----------------------Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 4

Software Laboratory INTERMEDIATE CODE Intermediate Code (AD, 00) (C, 200) (IS, 09) (S, 00) (IS, 09) (S, 01) (IS, 04) (0) (L, 00) (IS, 04) (0) (S, 00) (IS, 01) (0) (S, 01) (IS, 02) (0) (L, 01) (IS, 05) (0) (S, 02) (IS, 10) (S, 02) (AD, 04) (IS, 04) (0) (L, 02) (IS, 04) (0) (S, 00) (IS, 01) (0) (S, 01) (IS, 02) (0) (L, 03) (IS, 08) (0) (L, 04) (IS, 05) (0) (S, 02) (DL, 01) (C, 01) (DL, 01) (C, 01) (DL, 01) (C, 01) (IS, 00) (AD, 01) Conclusion: Thus we have implemented the one pass-I of II pass Assembler using C language.

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Software Laboratory Assignment No. 2 Title of Assignment: Implement pass-II of a two-pass assembler for 8 bit microprocessor/pseudo-machine. The output of assignment-1 (intermediate file and symbol table) should be input for this assignment. Problem Statement(s) : Implement one pass-II of TWO Pass assembler with hypothetical Instruction set using C language. Instruction set should include all types of assembly language statements such as Imperative, Declarative and Assembler Directive. While designing stress should be given on a) How efficiently Mnemonic opcode table could be implemented so as to enable faster retrieval on op-code. b) Implementation of symbol table for faster retrieval. ( Concepts in DSF should be applied while design) Relevant Theory: 1 .Explain what is meant by pass of an assembler. 2. Explain the need for two pass assembler. 3. Explain terms such as Forward Reference and backward reference. 4. Explain various types of errors that are handled in two different passes. 5. Explain the need of Intermediate Code generation and the variants used. 6. State various tables used and their significance in the design of two pass Assembler Implementation Logic : Pass II Algorithm It has been assumed that the target code is to be assembled in the named code_area. 1. code_area_address := address of code_area; Pooltab_ptr :=1; Loc_cntr:=0; 2. While next statement is not an END statement (a) Clear machine_code_buffer; Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 6

Software Laboratory

b) If an LTORG statement (i) Process literals in LITTAB[POOLTAB[pooltab_ptr]] LITTAB[POOLTAB[pooltab_ptr+1]]-1 similar to processing of constants in a DC statement i.e. assemble the literals in machine_code_buffer. (ii) size := size of memory area required for literals; (iii) pooltab_ptr:= pooltab_ptr +1; (c) If a START or ORIGIN statement then (i) loc_cntr := value specified in operand field; (ii) size:=0; (d) If a declaration statement (i) If a DC statement then Assemble the constant in machine_code_buffer. (ii) size: = size of memory area required by DC/DS; (e) If an imperative statement (i) Get operand address from SYMTAB or LITTAB. (ii) Assemble instruction in machine_code_buffer. (iii) size: = size of instruction; (f) if size not equal to 0 then (i) Move contents of Machine_code_buffer to the address code_area_address + loc_cntr; (ii) loc_cntr := loc_cntr + size; 3. (Processing of END statement) (a) Perform steps 2(b) and 2(f). (b) Write code_area into output file. Implementation Logic : Data structures required for II PASS Assembler Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 7

Software Laboratory char OPTAB[][6] = { "STOP","ADD","SUB","MULT","MOVER","MOVEM", "COMP","BC","DIV","READ","PRINT"}; char REGTAB[][5] = { "AREG","BREG","CREG","DREG"}; char CONDTAB[][4] = { "LT","LE","EQ","GT","GE","ANY"}; char ADTAB[][7] = { "START","END","ORIGIN","EQU","LTORG" }; Error Handling to be done: Forward reference (Symbol used but not defined): This error occurs when some symbol is used but it is not defined into the program. Duplication of Symbol (Multiple declaration): This error occurs when some symbol is declared more than once in the program. Mnemonic error (Invalid instruction): If there is invalid instruction then this error will occur. Register error (Invalid register): If there is invalid register then this error will occur. Operand error: This error will occur when there is an error in the operand field. Pass II: Synthesize the target code by processing the intermediate code generated during Testing: Testing: SAMPLE PROGRAM Input START 200 READ A READ B MOVER AREG, ='5' MOVER AREG, A ADD AREG, B SUB AREG, ='6' MOVEM AREG, C PRINT C LTORG MOVER AREG, ='15' MOVER AREG, A Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 8

Software Laboratory ADD AREG, B SUB AREG, ='16' DIV AREG, ='26' MOVEM AREG, C A DS 1 B DS 1 C DS 1 STOP END Symbol Table ------------------------------------------------------------Symb Addr Decl Used Val Len ------------------------------------------------------------A 216 1 1 0 1 B 217 1 1 0 1 C 218 1 1 0 1 ------------------------------------------------------------Total Errors: 0 Total Warnings: 0 Literal Table -----------------------------------Lit# Lit Addr -----------------------------------00 ='5' 208 01 ='6' 209 02 ='15' 220 03 ='16' 221 04 ='26' 222 -----------------------------------Pool Table -------------------Pool# Pool Base -------------------00 0 01 2 -------------------INTERMEDIATE CODE Intermediate Code (AD, 00) (C, 200) (IS, 09) (S, 00) (IS, 09) (S, 01) (IS, 04) (0) (L, 00) (IS, 04) (0) (S, 00) (IS, 01) (0) (S, 01) Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 9

Software Laboratory (IS, 02) (0) (L, 01) (IS, 05) (0) (S, 02) (IS, 10) (S, 02) (AD, 04) (IS, 04) (0) (L, 02) (IS, 04) (0) (S, 00) (IS, 01) (0) (S, 01) (IS, 02) (0) (L, 03) (IS, 08) (0) (L, 04) (IS, 05) (0) (S, 02) (DL, 01) (C, 01) (DL, 01) (C, 01) (DL, 01) (C, 01) (IS, 00) (AD, 01) PASS II OUTPUT Target Code 200) + 09 0 216 201) + 09 0 217 202) + 04 0 208 203) + 04 0 216 204) + 01 0 217 205) + 02 0 209 206) + 05 0 218 207) + 10 0 218 208) + 00 0 005 209) + 00 0 006 210) + 04 0 220 211) + 04 0 216 212) + 01 0 217 213) + 02 0 221 214) + 08 0 222 215) + 05 0 218 216) 217) 218) 219) + 00 0 000 220) + 00 0 015 221) + 00 0 016 222) + 00 0 026 Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 10

Software Laboratory Conclusion: Thus we have implemented the one pass-II of II pass Assembler using C language.

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Software Laboratory Assignment No. 3 Title of Assignment: Design suitable data structures and implement pass-I of a two-pass macro-processor. Problem Statement(s) : Implement the program for pass-I of a two pass macro-processor using c language. Relevant Theory: 1. Explain what is meant by pass of macro-processor. 2. Explain the need for one-I of two pass macro-processor. 3. Explain macro, macro definition, macro call, macro expansion, conditional macro expansion. 4. Explain various types of errors that are handled in two different passes. 5. Explain positional arguments, keyword arguments. 6. State various tables used and their significance in the design of two pass macro-processor. 7. Define the term macro. 8. Distinguish between macro and a subroutine 9. Define and Distinguish between parameters that can be used in Macros. 10. State various tables used in processing the macro. 11. Explain the role of stack in nested macros Macro facility: An assembly language macro facility is to extend the set of operations provided in an assembly language. In order that programmers can repeat identical parts of their program Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 12

Software Laboratory macro facility can be used. This permits the programmer to define an abbreviation for a part of program & use this abbreviation in the program. This abbreviation is treated as macro definition & saved by the macro processor. For all occurrences the abbreviation i.e. macro call, macro processor substitutes the definition. Macro definition part: It consists of 1. Macro Prototype Statement - this declares the name of macro & types of parameters. 2. Model statement - It is statement from which assembly language statement is generated during macro expansion. 3. Preprocessor Statement - It is used to perform auxiliary function during macro expansion. Macro Call & Expansion: The operation defined by a macro can be used by writing a macro name in the mnemonic field and its operand in the operand field. Appearance of the macro name in the mnemonic field leads to a macro call. Macro call replaces such statements by sequence of statement comprising the macro. This is known as macro expansion. Macro Facilities: 1. Use of AIF & AGO allows us alter the flow of control during expansion. 2. Loops can be implemented using expansion time variables. Implementation Logic : 1. Definition processing - Scan all macro definitions and for each macro definition enter the macro name in macro name table (MNT). Store entire macro definition in macro definition table (MDT) and add auxiliary information in MNT such as no of positional parameters (#PP) no of key word parameters (#KP), macro definition table position (MDTP) etc. 2. Macro expansion - Examine all statement in assembly source program to detect the macro calls. For each macro call locate the macro in MNT, retrieve MDTP, establish the correspondence between formal & actual parameters and expand the macro. Data structures required for macro definition processing Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 13

Software Laboratory 1.Macro Name Table [MNT] - Fields- Name of Macro, #PP (no of positional parameters), #KP( no of keyword parameters), MDTP ( Macro Definition Table Pointer), Keyword Parameters Default Table Position (KPDTP), 2.Parameter Name Table [PNTAB] - Fields - Parameter Name 3.Keyword parameter Default Table [KPDTAB] - Fields - Parameter Name, Default value 4.Macro Definition Table [MDT] Model Statement are stored in the intermediate code from as: Opcode, Operands. Algorithm/Pseudo code: Before processing any definition initialize KPDTAB_ptr, MDT_ptr to 0 and MNT_ptr to -1. These table pointers are common to all macro definitions. For each macro definition perform the following steps. A one-pass macro processor that alternate between macro definition and macro expansion in a recursive way is able to handle recursive macro definition. Because of the one-pass structure, the definition of a macro must appear in the source program before any statements that invoke that macro. Algorithm: begin {macro processor} EXPANDING : = FALSE while OPCODE END do begin GETLINE PROCESSLINE end {while} end {macro processor} procedure PROCESSLINE begin search NAMTAB for OPCODE if found then EXPAND else if OPCODE = MACRO then DEFINE else write source line to expanded file end {PROCESSLINE} Algorithm: procedure EXPAND Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 14

Software Laboratory begin EXPANDING : = TRUE get first line of macro definition {prototype} from DEFTAB set up arguments from macro invocation in ARGTAB write macro invocation to expanded file as a comment while not end of macro definition do begin GETLINE PROCESSLINE end {while} EXPANDING : = FALSE end {EXPAND} procedure GETLINE begin if EXPANDING then begin get next line of macro definition from DEFTAB substitute arguments from ARGTAB for positional notation end {if} else read next line from input file end {GETLINE} Algorithm for Macro Definition Processing: 1. Initialize PNTAB ptr to 0 & fields of MNT, # pp, # kp to 0 and increment MNT_ptr by 1. 2. For macro prototype statement from MNT entry. a. Enter name into name field. b. For each position parameter field i. Enter name in parameter name table. ii. Increment PNTAB ptr by 1. iii. Increment # pp by 1. c. KPDTP KPDTAB - ptr d. For each keyword parameter i. Enter name & default value (if any) in KPDTAB[KPDTAB ptr]. ii. Increment KPTAB ptr by 1. iii. Enter name in PNTAB & increment PNTAB ptr by 1. iv. Increment # kp by 1. Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 15

Software Laboratory e. MDTP MDT ptr ( current MDT_Ptr) 3. While not a MEND statement Read next statement a. Model statement i. For parameter generate specification (p, # n). ii. Record intermediate code in MDT. iii. Increment MDT - ptr by 1. end b. If MEND statement Begin Enter MEND in MDT, increment MDT_ptr by 1. If #kp == 0 then KPDTP = 0 Return to main logic i.e. step 6 of main logic. Data structures required for expansion processing :1. Actual parameter table: APTAB 2. Macro expansion counter : MEC. Algorithm for macro expansion: 1. Initialization i. MEC MDTP from MNT. ii. Create APTAB with # pp & # kp entries and set APTAB ptr accordingly. iii. Copy keyword parameter defaults from KPDTAB in APTAB[pp] to APTAB[#pp + #kp -1]. iv. Process actual positional parameters in call and copy them in APTAB from 0 to # pp-1. v. For keyword parameter specification search name in parameter name field of KPDTAB, get matching entry in q & enter value in APTAB [ #pp + q KPDTP ]. 2. While Statement pointed by MEC in MDT is not MEND. i. If model statement then replace operands of the form (p, #n) by values in APTAB. ii. Increment MEC by one. iii. Write the model statement on expanded code file. 3. Exit from macro expansion 4. Main Program Logic : 1. Initialize KPDTAB_ptr, MDT_ptr to 0 and MNT_ptr to -1. These table pointers are common to all macro definitions ( There could be more than one macro definition in program) Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 16

Software Laboratory 2. Read the statement from source file, one line at time 3. Separate the words from that line and count the no of words. Save the separated words in the array say word which is a array of strings 4. If count for words in a line is one then check if that only word matches with MACRO keyword, if MACRO keyword found then performs Macro definition processing routine. 5. If it does not match then check whether first word of the line matches with any of the entries in the macro name table. (Search the complete macro name table for presence of macro call), if so then perform Macro expansion routine. 6. If no Macro call or no definition then enter the line as it is in the expanded code file. 7. If not end of file go to step 3. Testing: The assembly language program with macro definitions & macro calls MACRO MAC1 MOVER AREG, M ADD BREG, M MOVEM CREG, M MEND MACRO EVAL &X,&Y,&Z MOVER AREG, &X SUB AREG, &Y ADD AREG, &Z MOVER AREG, &Z MEND MACRO CALC &X,&Y,&OP=MULT,&LAB= MOVER AREG, &X &OP AREG, &Y MOVEM AREG, &X MEND START MOVEM AREG, B EVAL A, B, C ADD AREG, N MOVEM AREG, N CALC P, Q, LAB=LOOP: Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 17

&LAB

Software Laboratory MOVEM AREG, N MAC1 CALC P,Q,OP=DIV, LAB=NEXT DS 1 DS 5 DS 1 DS 1 DS 1 DS 1 DS 1 END

M A B C N P Q

Sample output: Macro name Table Name MAC1 EVAL CALC #p p 0 3 2 #kp mdt p 0 0 0 4 2 9 kpdt p 0 0 1

MACRO DEFINITION TABLE Index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Statements of the macros MOVER AREG, M ADD BREG, M MOVEM CREG, M MEND MOVER AREG, (P,0) SUB AREG, (P,1) ADD AREG, (P,2) MOVER AREG, (P,2) MEND (P,3) MOVER AREG, (P,0) (P,2) AREG, (P,1) MOVEM AREG, (P,0) MEND Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 18

Software Laboratory Expanded code with no macro definition & macro calls. START MOVEM AREG, B + MOVER AREG, A // expanded code of EVAL +SUB AREG, B +ADD AREG, C +MOVER AREG, C ADD AREG, N MOVEM AREG, N + LOOP MOVER AREG, P // expanded code for CALC +MULT AREG, Q +MOVEM AREG, P MOVEM AREG,N +MOVER AREG, M // expanded code for MAC1 +ADD BREG, M +MOVEM CREG, M + NEXT MOVER AREG, P // expanded code for CALC +DIV AREG, Q +MOVEM AREG, P A DS 5 B DS 1 C DS 1 N DS 1 P DS 1 Q DS 1 END Students are supposed to display PNTAB and APTAB also. Instructions regarding testing of the program: 1. Students are expected to take minimum two macro definitions 2. Positional & keywords parameters are to be handled. 3. The code generated from macro expansion should be preceded with + sign. 4. Students should write about error handling. At least following errors should be handled a. Positional parameters must precede the keyword parameters b. Mismatch in total no of parameters in formal and actual parameters. 5. Students should write about error handling. 6. Students are supposed to write assumptions, limitations if any Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 19

Software Laboratory Conclusion: Thus we have implemented pass-I of two pass Macro processor using C

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Software Laboratory Assignment No. 4 Title of Assignment : Design suitable data structures and implement pass-II of a twopass macro-processor. Problem Statement: Write a program in C for a pass-II of two pass macro processor for implementation of Macro Processor. Following cases to be considered a) Macro without any parameters b) Macro with Positional Parameters c) Macro with Key word parameters d) Macro with positional and keyword parameters. ( Conditional expansion , nested macro implementation not expected) Relevant Theory / Literature Survey: 1. Define the term macro. 2. Distinguish between macro and a subroutine 3. Define and Distinguish between parameters that can be used in macros. 4. State various tables used in processing the macro. 5. Explain the role of stack in nested macros. Macro facility: An assembly language macro facility is to extend the set of operations provided in an assembly language. In order that programmers can repeat identical parts of their program macro facility can be used. This permits the programmer to define an abbreviation for a part of program & use this abbreviation in the program. This abbreviation is treated as macro definition & saved by the macro processor. For all occurrences the abbreviation i.e. macro call, macro processor substitutes the definition. Macro definition part: It consists of 1. Macro Prototype Statement - this declares the name of macro & Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 21

Software Laboratory types of parameters 2. Model statement - It is statement from which assembly language statement is generated during macro expansion. 3. Preprocessor Statement - It is used to perform auxiliary function during macro expansion. Macro Call & Expansion: The operation defined by a macro can be used by writing a macro name in the mnemonic field and its operand in the operand field. Appearance of the macro name in the mnemonic field leads to a macro call. Macro call replaces such statements by sequence of statement comprising the macro. This is known as macro expansion. Macro Facilities: 1. Use of AIF & AGO allows us alter the flow of control during expansion. 2. Loops can be implemented using expansion time variables. Testing: The assembly language program with macro definitions & macro calls MACRO MAC1 MOVER AREG, M ADD BREG, M MOVEM CREG, M MEND MACRO EVAL &X,&Y,&Z MOVER AREG, &X SUB AREG, &Y ADD AREG, &Z MOVER AREG, &Z MEND MACRO CALC &X,&Y,&OP=MULT,&LAB= MOVER AREG, &X &OP AREG, &Y MOVEM AREG, &X MEND START Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 22

&LAB

Software Laboratory MOVEM AREG, B EVAL A, B, C ADD AREG, N MOVEM AREG, N CALC P, Q, LAB=LOOP: MOVEM AREG, N MAC1 CALC P,Q,OP=DIV, LAB=NEXT DS 1 DS 5 DS 1 DS 1 DS 1 DS 1 DS 1 END

M A B C N P Q

Sample output: Macro name Table Name MAC1 EVAL CALC #p p 0 3 2 #kp mdt p 0 0 0 4 2 9 kpdt p 0 0 1

MACRO DEFINITION TABLE Index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Statements of the macros MOVER AREG, M ADD BREG, M MOVEM CREG, M MEND MOVER AREG, (P,0) SUB AREG, (P,1) ADD AREG, (P,2) MOVER AREG, (P,2) MEND (P,3) MOVER AREG, (P,0) (P,2) AREG, (P,1) MOVEM AREG, (P,0) MEND Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 23

Software Laboratory Expanded code with no macro definition & macro calls. START MOVEM AREG, B + MOVER AREG, A // expanded code of EVAL +SUB AREG, B +ADD AREG, C +MOVER AREG, C ADD AREG, N MOVEM AREG, N + LOOP MOVER AREG, P // expanded code for CALC +MULT AREG, Q +MOVEM AREG, P MOVEM AREG,N +MOVER AREG, M // expanded code for MAC1 +ADD BREG, M +MOVEM CREG, M + NEXT MOVER AREG, P // expanded code for CALC +DIV AREG, Q +MOVEM AREG, P A DS 5 B DS 1 C DS 1 N DS 1 P DS 1 Q DS 1 END Students are supposed to display PNTAB and APTAB also. Instructions regarding testing of the program: 1. Students are expected to take minimum two macro definitions 2. Positional & keywords parameters are to be handled. 3. The code generated from macro expansion should be preceded with + sign. 4. Students should write about error handling. At least following errors should be handled a. Positional parameters must precede the keyword parameters b. Mismatch in total no of parameters in formal and actual parameters. 5. Students should write about error handling. Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 24

Software Laboratory 6. Students are supposed to write assumptions, limitations if any Conclusion: Thus we have implemented pass-II of two pass Macro processor using C.

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Software Laboratory Assignment No. 5 Title of Assignment : DLL Creation Problem Statement: Write a program to create Dynamic Link Library for any mathematical operation and write an application program to test it Relevant Theory / Literature Survey: 1. Explain the need of dll. 2. Explain the console application 3.Explain the various library which is need for creating the dll 4.Explain the method of declaration and definition of method Design Analysis/ Implementation Logic: Creating a dll In this assignment we will consider two sections : 1. create a dll containing four basic mathematical functions 2. create a console application in Visual C++ which links with the dll just created and uses the function stored in the dll Part 1 : create a dll Follow the steps given below : 1. open visual c++ from the start menu 2. From the file menu choose New option. 3. In the New window that appears choose win-32 Dynamic Link library, give a valid project name for. E.g. say calc_dll and choose a valid project location if required. 4. In the next windows choose dll project type as a simple dll 5. Then click ok. Visual C++ editor opens up the project related basic files. 6. From the left bottom window choose file view instead of class view . 7. Double click calc_dll.cpp file to open it in the editor from the le7t side Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 26

Software Laboratory Window. 8. include header file stdexcept as #include <stdexcept> 9. Also mention the standard namespace. Using namespace std; 10. Now declare the function which will be contained in the dll. Here we will just define a divide function which will accept two numbers and return their division. Syntax : extern C __declspec(dllexport)double divide(double,double); This syntax tells the compiler that this function will be exported with its formal parameters and the return type. 11. Let the default DllMain () function remains as it is. 12. Now define the function declared above. For e.g. double divide(double x, double y) { if (y==0) { Throw invalid argument (Divide by zero error !!); } else { return x/y; } } 13. Now click on the Build icon in standard toolbar or press F7 to build the dll. 14. It should be built without any error or warning part II : create console application to use a dll 1. Create one more project from file->new option. Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 27

Software Laboratory 2. Choose project type as a win32-console application 3. Provide a name and location of the project for .e.g. calc 4. Click OK. In the next window when asked to specify the type of console application as a simple hello world application. 5. Click OK. The Visual C++ editor opens up basic required files. 6. Choose file view instead of class view. 7. Double click calc.cpp to open it in the editor. 8. Now make changes to the code. 9. now first include iostream #include<iostream> and the default namespace as : using namespace std; 10. Declare the function which we will be using by linking to the dll we just created. 11. Remember that syntax (formal parameters and return type) of the function declared here and in the dll must be same. 12. type the function declaration : extern C __declspec(dllimport)double divide(double, double); 13. now in the main function use this function as following : double x,y,result; //read the two numbers cin>>x>>y; result=divide(x,y); 14. Here by making a call to the divide function, the division of the two numbers is done and the result is stored in the result variable.

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Software Laboratory 15. Now as we have not defined the divide () function in this program rather we are using by linking to a dll . 16. For linking our calc program with the dll calc_dll we will make use of the library file created with our calc_dll. 17. Go to the project directory of calc_dll. for e.g. it may be : C:\program files\Microsoft visual studio\my projects\calc_dll 18. in this folder go to the debug folder and copy two files calc_dll.dll and calc_dll.lib . 19. paste these two files in our current project directory s debug folder which path could be like : C:\program files\Microsoft visual studio\my projects\calc\debug 20. Note that by now the debug folder in the calc project directory should contain our two required files calc_dll.dll and calc_dll.lib. 21. For linking our program calc with the calc_dll we need to include the calc_dll.lib file into our current project. 22. Select from Project ->Add to Project ->Files. 23. Select the file type as all file types from the file type drop down window. 24. Browse to debug folder of our current project and select the calc_dll.lib. 25. Now click on Build option button or press F7 26. The project should compile successfully. 27. Now run the application by clicking Run button or press CTRL+F5. Conclusion: Thus we have studied dll creation using console application

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Software Laboratory Assignment No. 6 Title of Assignment : Deadlock avoidance using Banker's Algorithm. Problem Statement(s) : Implement Banker Algorithm for Deadlock avoidance. Relevant Theory / Literature Survey: 1. Define Deadlock with an example 2. Resource allocation Graph 3. Wait-for-Graph 4. The Banker's algorithm 5. Safe and Unsafe States 6. Deadlock Characterization 7. Deadlock Prevention 8. Deadlock Avoidance 9. Bankers Algorithm 10. Limitations Design Analysis/ Implementation Logic: Data Structures for the Bankers Algorithm Let n = number of processes, and m = number of resources types. Available: Vector of length m. If available [j] = k, there are k instances of resource type Rj available. Max: n x m matrix. If Max [i,j] = k, then process Pi may request at mostk instances of resource type Rj. Allocation: n x m matrix. If Allocation[i,j] = k then Pi is currently allocated k instances of Rj Need: n x m matrix. If Need[i,j] = k, then Pi may need k more instances of Rj to complete its task. Need [i,j]= Max[i,j] Allocation [i,j]. Safety Algorithm 1. Let Work and Finish be vectors of length m and n, respectively. Initialize: Work = Available Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 30

Software Laboratory Finish [i] = false for i - 1,3, , n. 2. Find and i such that both: (a) Finish [i] = false (b) Needi<=Work If no such i exists, go to step 4. 3. Work = Work + Allocationi Finish[i] = true go to step 2. 4. If Finish [i] == true for all i, then the system is in a safe state. Resource-Request Algorithm for Process Pi Request = request vector for process Pi. If Requesti [j] = k then process Pi wants k instances of resource type Rj. 1. If Requesti <=Needi go to step 2. Otherwise, raise error condition, since process has exceeded its maximum claim. 2. If Requesti <=Available, go to step 3. Otherwise Pi must wait, since resources are not available. 3. Pretend to allocate requested resources to Pi by modifying the state as follows: Available= Available - Requesti; Allocationi = Allocationi + Requesti; Needi = Needi Requesti;; If safe state the resources are allocated to Pi. If unsafe state Pi must wait, and the old resource-allocation state is restored Testing:
Available system resources are:

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Software Laboratory
ABCD 3112 Processes (currently allocated resources): ABCD P1 1 2 2 1 P2 1 0 3 3 P3 1 1 1 0 Processes (maximum resources): ABCD P1 3 3 2 2 P2 1 2 3 4 P3 1 1 5 0

Can the following request be served by the Resource allocation state? 1. P3(0,0,3,0) 2. P2(0,1,0,0) Safe sequence is not unique. A different safe sequence may also be possible. Conclusion: Hence we have implemented bankers algorithm for deadlock avoidance.

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Software Laboratory Assignment No. 7 Title of Assignment : Simulation of following CPU scheduling algorithms Problem Statement(s) : Implement following programs to simulate following CPU scheduling algorithms a. FCFS b. SJF (preemptive and non-preemptive) c. Priority Scheduling (preemptive and non-preemptive) d. Round Robin Scheduling Relevant Theory: Uniprocessor Scheduling Types of Scheduling Long term scheduling Medium Term Scheduling Short term Scheduling Non-preemptive Scheduling Preemptive Scheduling Explain the following points for each of the Scheduling algorithms: FCFS, SJF, Priority, Round Robin Algorithm Advantages Disadvantages Example (Preemptive and Non Preemptive as per relevance) Implementation Logic : 1. Choose how to represent a process and how to keep track of different parameters of all processes. 2. Choose with which rules the scheduler will choose the next process Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 33

Software Laboratory 3. Design an algorithm that applies the above rules. Take into consideration arrival time, priority, quantum, etc. appropriately. 4. Implement the algorithm. Suggested fields in the structure to represent a Process: 2. Burst_Time 3. Arrival_Time 4. Priority 5. Waiting_Time 6. Turn_A_Time 7. Remaining_Time An array/linked list of such a structure will store the set of processes for which CPU scheduling can be applied. A queue or priority queue using array / linked list has to be appropriately maintained to implement the algorithms. Testing: For the given data [Consider relevant of data depending on the scheduling algorithm] Process Arrival Time Burst Time Priority A 0 3 2 B 2 6 3 C 4 4 4 D 6 5 5 E 8 2 1 Apply the scheduling algorithms like FCFS, (Both Preemptive & Non Preemptive) SJF, Priority, Round Robin (quantum = 2 ms) Conclusion: Thus we have learnt and implemented following programs to simulate the CPU scheduling algorithms like a. FCFS b. SJF (preemptive and non-preemptive) c. Priority Scheduling (preemptive and non-preemptive) d. Round Robin Scheduling

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Software Laboratory

Assignment 8
Title of Assignment : Simulation of Page replacement algorithms ( FIFO, Optimal) Problem Statement: Implement Page replacement algorithms ( FIFO, LRU, Optimal) Relevant Theory / Literature Survey: 1. Concept of Virtual memory 2. Paging 1. Need of Paging 2. 3. Page fault Page Replacement Algorithms (FIFO, LRU, Optimal, Algorithm Advantages Disadvantage LRU,

Clock) of the 4. Belady's Anomaly 4. Address Translation in Paging System 5. Thrashing 6. Local and Global Page Replacement algorithm 6. Working set Model Design Analysis/ Implementation Logic: FIFO: Simplest page replacement algorithm 1) Associate a timestamp with each frame 2) Assigned when a page is brought into memory 3) Always throw out the oldest pages Can also be implemented with a simple FIFO queue to hold all pages in memory 1) Add new pages by inserting them at the tail Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 35

3. Quality of Page replacement algorithm

Software Laboratory 2) Always replace the page at the head LRU(Least Recently Used) : 1. LRU policy replaces the page in memory that has not been referenced for the longest time. 2. The LRU algorithm performs better than FIFO. The LRU algorithm belongs to a larger class of stack replacement algorithms. When more real memory is made available to the executing program, stack algorithm therefore do not suffer from Beladys anomaly. Optimal Page Replacement: 1. Belady's optimal algorithm for the minimum number of page faults. 2. Replace the page that will be referenced furthest in the future or not at all. Testing: Reference String: 4 3 2 1 4 3 5 4 3 2 1 5 No of Frames: 3 or 4 Conclusion: Hence we have implemented the page replacement algorithms.

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Software Laboratory

Assignment 9
Title of Assignment : Multithreading Concept Problem Statement: Implement Producer-Consumer using multi-threading concept. Relevant Theory / Literature Survey: 1. Unix Concurrency Mechanism (Pipes, Messages, Shared memory, Semaphores, Signals) 2. Producer-consumer Problem 3. Bounded Buffer and Unbounded buffer Problem 4. Unnamed and Named pipes 5. Explain the following functions 1. dup(), dup2(), pipe(), 2. popen(), 3. pclose(), Design Analysis/ Implementation Logic: Algorithms for Producer-consumer problem (Bounded and Unbounded buffer) #DEFINE N 50 typedef int semaphore; semaphore mutex=1; semaphore empty=N; semaphore full=0; void producer(void) { int item; while(TRUE) { item=producer_item( ) down(&empty); down(&mutex); insert_item(item); up(&mutex); up(&full); } } void consumer(void) { Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 37

Software Laboratory int item; while(TRUE) { down(&full); down(&mutex); item=remove_item( ); up(&mutex); up(&empty); consume_item(item); } } Conclusion: Inter-process Communication for Producer-Consumer problem in UNIX (Pipes or Shared Memory) has been implemented.

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Software Laboratory Assignment No. 10 Title of Assignment : Multithreading Concept. Problem Statement: Implement Reader-Writer problem using multi-threading concept. Relevant Theory / Literature Survey: 1. Concept of Mutual Exclusion 2. Semaphores ( 3. Monitors 4. Reader-Writer problem 5. Dining philosophers problem 6. POSIX Library Design Analysis/ Implementation Logic: Algorithms for reader-Writer problem typedef int semaphore; semaphore mutex=1 semaphore db=1 int rc=0; void reader(void) { while(TRUE) { down(&mutex) rc=rc+1; if(rc==1) down(&db) up(&mutex); read_data_base( ); down(&mutex); rc=rc-1; if(rc==0) up(&db); up(&mutex); use_data_read( ) } } void writer (void) { Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 39

Software Laboratory while(TRUE) { think_up_data( ); down(&db); write_data_base( ); up(&db); } } Conclusion: Implement Mutual Exclusion and Synchronization of threads using POSIX Semaphores has been implemented.

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Software Laboratory Assignment No. 11 Title of Assignment : Linux Kernel Compilation Problem Statement: Linux Kernel Compilation Download a raw Linux Kernel(www.kernel.org) compile it and boot the machine through newly compiled Relevant Theory / Literature Survey: Steps of Compilation Step 1: Get Latest Linux kernel code Visit http://kernel.org/ and download the latest source code. File name would be linux-x.y.z.tar.bz2, where x.y.z is actual version number. For example file inux-2.6.25.tar.bz2 represents 2.6.25 kernel version. Use wget command to download kernel source code: $ cd /tmp $ wget http://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/v2.6/linux-x.y.z.tar.bz2 Note: Replace x.y.z with actual version number. Step 2: Extract tar (.tar.bz3) file Type the following command: # tar -xjvf linux-2.6.25.tar.bz2 -C /usr/src # cd /usr/src Step 3: Configure kernel Before you configure kernel make sure you have development tools (gcc compilers and related tools) are installed on your system. If gcc compiler and tools are not installed then use apt-get command under Debian Linux to install development tools. # apt-get install gcc Now you can start kernel configuration by typing any one of the Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 41

Software Laboratory command:

$ make menuconfig - Text based color menus, radiolists & dialogs. This option also useful on remote server if you wanna compile kernel remotely. $ make xconfig - X windows (Qt) based configuration tool, works best under KDE desktop $ make gconfig - X windows (Gtk) based configuration tool, works best under Gnome Dekstop.

For example make menuconfig command launches following screen: $ make menuconfig You have to select different options as per your need. Each configuration option has HELP button associated with it so select help button to get help. Step 4: Compile kernel Start compiling to create a compressed kernel image, enter: $ make Start compiling to kernel modules: $ make modules Install kernel modules (become a root user, use su command): $ su # make modules_install Step 5: Install kernel So far we have compiled kernel and installed kernel modules. It is time to install kernel itself. # make install It will install three files into /boot directory as well as modification to your kernel grub configuration file:

System.map-2.6.25 config-2.6.25 Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 42

Software Laboratory

vmlinuz-2.6.25

Step 6: Create an initrd image Type the following command at a shell prompt: # cd /boot # mkinitrd -o initrd.img-2.6.25 2.6.25 initrd images contains device driver which needed to load rest of the operating system later on. Not all computer requires initrd, but it is safe to create one. Step 7: Modify Grub configuration file - /boot/grub/menu.lst Open file using vi: # vi /boot/grub/menu.lst title root kernel initrd Debian GNU/Linux, kernel 2.6.25 Default (hd0,0) /boot/vmlinuz root=/dev/hdb1 ro /boot/initrd.img-2.6.25

savedefault boot Remember to setup correct root=/dev/hdXX device. Save and close the file. If you think editing and writing all lines by hand is too much for you, try out update-grub command to update the lines for each kernel in /boot/grub/menu.lst file. Just type the command: # update-grub Step 8: Reboot computer and boot into your new kernel

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Software Laboratory Just issue reboot command: # reboot Conclusion: Linux Kernel Compilation has been studied.

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Software Laboratory

Assignment 12
Title of Assignment : System Calls Problem Statement: Study UNIX system calls like ps, fork, join , exec family ,wait for process management. Relevant Theory / Literature Survey: ps: Process Status

ps [-eflu] Will display, on the standard output, information about the processes running on the system at that time. -e : display every process running, as well as the CPU time used by each one. -f : display more information about every process running, such as the user running it, when it started, etc. -l : display the long version, including the sizes of the jobs, in 4k pages. -u : must be followed by a login/user name. The result will display all processes run by user. In the following example, the user is logged on to the console, and has no jobs running, except for his/her shell and of course the command itself. >ps PID TTY 14304 ttyq2 13943 ttyq2 TIME COMD 0:00 ps 0:02 tcsh

The next example shows a user using a windowing interface (in this Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 45

Software Laboratory case, SunView):

> ps PID TT STAT TIME COMMAND 1338 co IW 0:00 /bin/sh /home/nrccsb2/cantin/bin/sunview

1339 co IW 0:04 /usr/bin/sunview -background /home/nrccsb2/cantin/img/space 1342 co S 1343 co S 1345 co S 3:59 textedit -Wp 479 98 -Ws 673 764 -WP 840 0 -Wi 0:28 clock -Wp 497 32 -Ws 210 47 -WP 704 0 -Wi -S 1:30 perfmeter -Wp 976 0 -Ws 170 69 -WP 0 0 -v cpu

1340 p0 D 1:34 cmdtool -Wp 0 0 -Ws 673 471 -WP 0 0 -Wl $<<$ CONSOLE $>>$ 1341 p0 S 1427 p0 S 1438 p0 R 1347 p1 S 1348 p1 IW 1351 p1 S 1352 p1 S 0:12 -bin/csh (csh) 0:24 perfmeter nrccsb2 0:00 ps 1:38 cmdtool -Wp 0 350 -Ws 673 550 -WP 772 0 -Wi 0:06 -bin/csh (csh) 0:02 rlogin nrccsb2 0:02 rlogin nrccsb2

This user has many processes running, each of them taking some CPU time. Some of the programs running are the windowing system (sunview), textedit (a full screen ``point-and-click" editor), a clock, a performance meter, a C shell, two windows (cmdtool), a remote logon to node nrccsb2, and the ps program. The first column of the output is the process id, the second column is the control terminal (co = console, Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 46

Software Laboratory p0 = ttyp0, p1 = ttyp1), the third column is the state of the job (I = idle process, W = swapped out, S = sleeping, D = in disk waits, R = runnable). The next column displays the CPU time used by the process so far, in minutes: seconds, and finally, the last column displays the command used. fork(); fork - create a new process SYNOPSIS

DESCRIPTION The fork () function creates a new process. The new process (child process) is an exact copy of the calling process (parent process) except as detailed below.

The child process has a unique process ID. The child process ID also does not match any active process group ID. The child process has a different parent process ID (that is, the process ID of the parent process). The child process has its own copy of the parent's file descriptors. Each of the child's file descriptors refers to the same open file description with the corresponding file descriptor of the parent. The child process has its own copy of the parent's open directory streams. Each open directory stream in the child process may share directory stream positioning with the corresponding directory stream of the parent. The child process may have its own copy of the parent's message catalogue descriptors. The child process' values of tms_utime, tms_stime, tms_cutime and tms_cstime are set to 0. The time left until an alarm clock signal is reset to 0. All semadj values are cleared. File locks set by the parent process are not inherited by the child process. The set of signals pending for the child process is initialised to the empty set. Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 47

Software Laboratory

Interval timers are reset in the child process. If the Semaphores option is supported, any semaphores that are open in the parent process will also be open in the child process. If the Process Memory Locking option is supported, the child process does not inherit any address space memory locks established by the parent process via calls to mlockall() or mlock(). Memory mappings created in the parent are retained in the child process. MAP_PRIVATE mappings inherited from the parent will also be MAP_PRIVATE mappings in the child, and any modifications to the data in these mappings made by the parent prior to calling fork() will be visible to the child. Any modifications to the data in MAP_PRIVATE mappings made by the parent after fork() returns will be visible only to the parent. Modifications to the data in MAP_PRIVATE mappings made by the child will be visible only to the child. If the Process Scheduling option is supported, for the SCHED_FIFO and SCHED_RR scheduling policies, the child process inherits the policy and priority settings of the parent process during a fork() function. For other scheduling policies, the policy and priority settings on fork() are implementation-dependent. If the Timers option is supported, per-process timers created by the parent are not inherited by the child process. If the Message Passing option is supported, the child process has its own copy of the message queue descriptors of the parent. Each of the message descriptors of the child refers to the same open message queue description as the corresponding message descriptor of the parent. If the Asynchronous Input and Output option is supported, no asynchronous input or asynchronous output operations are inherited by the child process.

The inheritance of process characteristics not defined by this document is implementation-dependent. After fork(), both the parent and the child processes are capable of executing independently before either one terminates. A process is created with a single thread. If a multi-threaded process calls fork(), the new process contains a replica of the calling thread and its entire address space, possibly including the states of mutexes and other resources. Consequently, to avoid errors, the child process may only execute async-signal safe operations until such time as one of the Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 48

Software Laboratory exec functions is called. Fork handlers may be established by means of the pthread_atfork() function in order to maintain application invariants across fork() calls. join: NAME join - join lines of two files on a common field SYNOPSIS Join [OPTION]... FILE1 FILE2 DESCRIPTION For each pair of input lines with identical join fields, write a line to standard output. The default join field is the first, delimited by whitespace. When FILE1 or FILE2 (not both) is -, read standard input. -a SIDE print unpairable lines coming from file SIDE -e EMPTY replace missing input fields with EMPTY -i, --ignore-case ignore differences in case when comparing fields -j FIELD (obsolescent) equivalent to `-1 FIELD -2 FIELD' -j1 FIELD (obsolescent) equivalent to `-1 FIELD' -j2 FIELD (obsolescent) equivalent to `-2 FIELD' -o FORMAT obey FORMAT while constructing output line -t CHAR use CHAR as input and output field separator -v SIDE like -a SIDE, but suppress joined output lines -1 FIELD join on this FIELD of file 1 -2 FIELD join on this FIELD of file 2 --help display this help and exit Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 49

Software Laboratory --version output version information and exit Unless -t CHAR is given, leading blanks separate fields and are ignored, else fields are separated by CHAR. Any FIELD is a field number counted from 1. FORMAT is one or more comma or blank separated specifications, each being `SIDE.FIELD' or `0'. Default FORMAT outputs the join field, the remaining fields from FILE1, the remaining fields from FILE2, all separated by CHAR. SEE ALSO The full documentation for join is maintained as a Texinfo manual. If the info and join programs are properly installed at your site, the command info join should give you access to the complete manual.

exec family: NAME environ, execl, execv, execle, execve, execlp, execvp - execute a file SYNOPSIS

#include <unistd.h>

extern char **environ; int execl(const char *path, const char *arg0, ... /*, (char *)0 */); int execv(const char *path, char *const argv[]); int execle(const char *path,

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Software Laboratory const char *arg0, ... /*, (char *)0, char *const envp[]*/); int execve(const char *path, char *const argv[], char *const envp[]); int execlp(const char *file, const char *arg0, ... /*, (char *)0 */); int execvp(const char *file, char *const argv[]);

DESCRIPTION The exec functions replace the current process image with a new process image. The new image is constructed from a regular, executable file called the new process image file. There is no return from a successful exec, because the calling process image is overlaid by the new process image. When a C-language program is executed as a result of this call, it is entered as a C-language function call as follows:

int main (int argc, char *argv[]);

where argc is the argument count and argv is an array of character pointers to the arguments themselves. In addition, the following variable:

extern char **environ;

is initialised as a pointer to an array of character pointers to the environment strings. The argv and environ arrays are each terminated by a null pointer. The null pointer terminating the argv array is not counted in argc. Conforming multi-threaded applications will not use the environ variable to access or modify any environment variable while any other Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 51

Software Laboratory thread is concurrently modifying any environment variable. A call to any function dependent on any environment variable is considered a use of the environ variable to access that environment variable. The arguments specified by a program with one of the exec functions are passed on to the new process image in the corresponding main() arguments. The argument path points to a pathname that identifies the new process image file. The argument file is used to construct a pathname that identifies the new process image file. If the file argument contains a slash character, the file argument is used as the pathname for this file. Otherwise, the path prefix for this file is obtained by a search of the directories passed as the environment variable (see XBD specification, Environment Variables ). If this environment variable is not present, the results of the search are implementation-dependent. If the process image file is not a valid executable object, execlp() and execvp() use the contents of that file as standard input to a command interpreter conforming to system(). In this case, the command interpreter becomes the new process image. The arguments represented by arg0, ... are pointers to null-terminated character strings. These strings constitute the argument list available to the new process image. The list is terminated by a null pointer. The argument arg0 should point to a filename that is associated with the process being started by one of the exec functions. The argument argv is an array of character pointers to null-terminated strings. The last member of this array must be a null pointer. These strings constitute the argument list available to the new process image. The value in argv[0] should point to a filename that is associated with Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 52

Software Laboratory the process being started by one of the exec functions. The argument envp is an array of character pointers to null-terminated strings. These strings constitute the environment for the new process image. The envp array is terminated by a null pointer. For those forms not containing an envp pointer (.Fn execl , execv(), execlp() and execvp()), the environment for the new process image is taken from the external variable environ in the calling process. The number of bytes available for the new process' combined argument and environment lists is {ARG_MAX}. It is implementation-dependent whether null terminators, pointers, and/or any alignment bytes are included in this total. File descriptors open in the calling process image remain open in the new process image, except for those whose close-on-exec flag FD_CLOEXEC is set. For those file descriptors that remain open, all attributes of the open file description, including file locks remain unchanged. Directory streams open in the calling process image are closed in the new process image. The state of conversion descriptors and message catalogue descriptors in the new process image is undefined. For the new process, the equivalent of:

setlocale(LC_ALL, "C")

is executed at startup. Signals set to the default action (SIG_DFL) in the calling process image Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 53

Software Laboratory are set to the default action in the new process image. Signals set to be ignored (SIG_IGN) by the calling process image are set to be ignored by the new process image. Signals set to be caught by the calling process image are set to the default action in the new process image (see <signal.h>). After a successful call to any of the exec functions, alternate signal stacks are not preserved and the SA_ONSTACK flag is cleared for all signals. After a successful call to any of the exec functions, any functions previously registered by atexit() are no longer registered. If the ST_NOSUID bit is set for the file system containing the new process image file, then the effective user ID, effective group ID, saved set-user-ID and saved set-group-ID are unchanged in the new process image. Otherwise, if the set-user-ID mode bit of the new process image file is set, the effective user ID of the new process image is set to the user ID of the new process image file. Similarly, if the set-group-ID mode bit of the new process image file is set, the effective group ID of the new process image is set to the group ID of the new process image file. The real user ID, real group ID, and supplementary group IDs of the new process image remain the same as those of the calling process image. The effective user ID and effective group ID of the new process image are saved (as the saved set-user-ID and the saved set-group-ID for use by setuid(). Any shared memory segments attached to the calling process image will not be attached to the new process image. Any mappings established through mmap() are not preserved across an exec. If _XOPEN_REALTIME is defined and has a value other than -1, any named semaphores open in the calling process are closed as if by appropriate calls to sem_close(). Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 54

Software Laboratory If the Process Memory Locking option is supported, memory locks established by the calling process via calls to mlockall() or mlock() are removed. If locked pages in the address space of the calling process are also mapped into the address spaces of other processes and are locked by those processes, the locks established by the other processes will be unaffected by the call by this process to the exec function. If the exec function fails, the effect on memory locks is unspecified. Memory mappings created in the process are unmapped before the address space is rebuilt for the new process image. If the Process Scheduling option is supported, for the SCHED_FIFO and SCHED_RR scheduling policies, the policy and priority settings are not changed by a call to an exec function. For other scheduling policies, the policy and priority settings on exec are implementation-dependent. If the Timers option is supported, per-process timers created by the calling process are deleted before replacing the current process image with the new process image. If the Message Passing option is supported, all open message queue descriptors in the calling process are closed, as described in mq_close(). If the Asynchronous Input and Output option is supported, any outstanding asynchronous I/O operations may be canceled. Those asynchronous I/O operations that are not canceled will complete as if the exec function had not yet occurred, but any associated signal notifications are suppressed. It is unspecified whether the exec function itself blocks awaiting such I/O completion. In no event, however, will the new process image created by the exec function be affected by the presence of outstanding asynchronous I/O operations at the time the exec function is called. Whether any I/O is cancelled, and which I/O may be cancelled upon exec, is implementation-dependent. The new process also inherits at least the following attributes from the Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 55

Software Laboratory calling process image: nice value (see nice()) semadj values (see semop()) process ID parent process ID process group ID session membership real user ID real group ID supplementary group IDs time left until an alarm clock signal (see alarm()) current working directory root directory file mode creation mask (see umask()) file size limit (see ulimit()) process signal mask (see sigprocmask()) pending signal (see sigpending()) tms_utime, tms_stime, tms_cutime, and tms_cstime (see times()) resource limits controlling terminal interval timers All other process attributes defined in this document will be the same in the new and old process images. The inheritance of process attributes not defined by this specification is implementation-dependent. A call to any exec function from a process with more than one thread results in all threads being terminated and the new executable image being loaded and executed. No destructor functions will be called. Upon successful completion, the exec functions mark for update the st_atime field of the file. If an exec function failed but was able to locate the process image file, whether the st_atime field is marked for update Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 56

Software Laboratory is unspecified. Should the exec function succeed, the process image file is considered to have been opened with open(). The corresponding close() is considered to occur at a time after this open, but before process termination or successful completion of a subsequent call to one of the exec functions. The argv[] and envp[] arrays of pointers and the strings to which those arrays point will not be modified by a call to one of the exec functions, except as a consequence of replacing the process image. The saved resource limits in the new process image are set to be a copy of the process's corresponding hard and soft limits. RETURN VALUE If one of the exec functions returns to the calling process image, an error has occurred; the return value is -1, and err no is set to indicate the error. Wait: NAME wait, waitpid - wait for a child process to stop or terminate SYNOPSIS #include <sys/wait.h> pid_t wait(int *stat_loc); pid_t waitpid(pid_t pid, int *stat_loc, int options); DESCRIPTION The wait () and waitpid() functions shall obtain status information pertaining to one of the caller's child processes. Various options permit status information to be obtained for child processes that have terminated or stopped. If status information is available for two or more child processes, the order in which their status is reported is Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 57

Software Laboratory unspecified. The wait() function shall suspend execution of the calling thread until status information for one of the terminated child processes of the calling process is available, or until delivery of a signal whose action is either to execute a signal-catching function or to terminate the process. If more than one thread is suspended in wait () or waitpid() awaiting termination of the same process, exactly one thread shall return the process status at the time of the target process termination. If status information is available prior to the call to wait (), return shall be immediate. The waitpid() function shall be equivalent to wait() if the pid argument is (pid_t)-1 and the options argument is 0. Otherwise, its behavior shall be modified by the values of the pid and options arguments. The pid argument specifies a set of child processes for which status is requested. The waitpid() function shall only return the status of a child process from this set:

If pid is equal to (pid_t)-1, status is requested for any child process. In this respect, waitpid() is then equivalent to wait(). If pid is greater than 0, it specifies the process ID of a single child process for which status is requested. If pid is 0, status is requested for any child process whose process group ID is equal to that of the calling process. If pid is less than (pid_t)-1, status is requested for any child process whose process group ID is equal to the absolute value of pid.

The options argument is constructed from the bitwise-inclusive OR of zero or more of the following flags, defined in the <sys/wait.h> header: WCONTINUED The waitpid() function shall report the status of any continued child process specified by pid whose status has not been reported since it continued from a job control stop. WNOHANG Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 58

Software Laboratory The waitpid() function shall not suspend execution of the calling thread if status is not immediately available for one of the child processes specified by pid. WUNTRACED The status of any child processes specified by pid that are stopped, and whose status has not yet been reported since they stopped, shall also be reported to the requesting process. If the calling process has SA_NOCLDWAIT set or has SIGCHLD set to SIG_IGN, and the process has no unwaited-for children that were transformed into zombie processes, the calling thread shall block until all of the children of the process containing the calling thread terminate, and wait() and waitpid() shall fail and set errno to [ECHILD]. If wait() or waitpid() return because the status of a child process is available, these functions shall return a value equal to the process ID of the child process. In this case, if the value of the argument stat_loc is not a null pointer, information shall be stored in the location pointed to by stat_loc. The value stored at the location pointed to by stat_loc shall be 0 if and only if the status returned is from a terminated child process that terminated by one of the following means: 1. The process returned 0 from main (). 2. The process called _exit() or exit() with a status argument of 0. 3. The process was terminated because the last thread in the process terminated. Regardless of its value, this information may be interpreted using the following macros, which are defined in <sys/wait.h> and evaluate to integral expressions; the stat_val argument is the integer value pointed to by stat_loc. WIFEXITED(stat_val) Evaluates to a non-zero value if status was returned for a child process that terminated normally. WEXITSTATUS(stat_val) If the value of WIFEXITED (stat_val) is non-zero, this macro evaluates to the low-order 8 bits of the status argument that the Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 59

Software Laboratory child process passed to _exit() or exit(), or the value the child process returned from main(). WIFSIGNALED(stat_val) Evaluates to a non-zero value if status was returned for a child process that terminated due to the receipt of a signal that was not caught (see <signal.h>). WTERMSIG(stat_val) If the value of WIFSIGNALED (stat_val) is non-zero, this macro evaluates to the number of the signal that caused the termination of the child process. WIFSTOPPED(stat_val) Evaluates to a non-zero value if status was returned for a child process that is currently stopped. WSTOPSIG(stat_val) If the value of WIFSTOPPED (stat_val) is non-zero, this macro evaluates to the number of the signal that caused the child process to stop. WIFCONTINUED (stat_val) Evaluates to a non-zero value if status was returned for a child process that has continued from a job control stop. It is unspecified whether the status value returned by calls to wait() or waitpid() for processes created by posix_spawn() or posix_spawnp() can indicate a WIFSTOPPED(stat_val) before subsequent calls to wait() or waitpid() indicate WIFEXITED(stat_val) as the result of an error detected before the new process image starts executing. It is unspecified whether the status value returned by calls to wait() or waitpid() for processes created by posix_spawn() or posix_spawnp() can indicate a WIFSIGNALED(stat_val) if a signal is sent to the parent's process group after posix_spawn() or posix_spawnp() is called. If the information pointed to by stat_loc was stored by a call to waitpid() that specified the WUNTRACED flag and did not specify the WCONTINUED flag, exactly one of the macros WIFEXITED(*stat_loc), WIFSIGNALED(*stat_loc), and WIFSTOPPED(*stat_loc) shall evaluate to a non-zero value. If the information pointed to by stat_loc was stored by a call to waitpid() that specified the WUNTRACED and WCONTINUED flags, exactly one of the macros WIFEXITED(*stat_loc), WIFSIGNALED(*stat_loc), Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 60

Software Laboratory WIFSTOPPED(*stat_loc), and WIFCONTINUED(*stat_loc) shall evaluate to a non-zero value. If the information pointed to by stat_loc was stored by a call to waitpid() that did not specify the WUNTRACED or WCONTINUED flags, or by a call to the wait() function, exactly one of the macros WIFEXITED(*stat_loc) and WIFSIGNALED(*stat_loc) shall evaluate to a non-zero value. If the information pointed to by stat_loc was stored by a call to waitpid() that did not specify the WUNTRACED flag and specified the WCONTINUED flag, or by a call to the wait() function, exactly one of the macros WIFEXITED(*stat_loc), WIFSIGNALED(*stat_loc), and WIFCONTINUED(*stat_loc) shall evaluate to a non-zero value. If _POSIX_REALTIME_SIGNALS is defined, and the implementation queues the SIGCHLD signal, then if wait () or waitpid() returns because the status of a child process is available, any pending SIGCHLD signal associated with the process ID of the child process shall be discarded. Any other pending SIGCHLD signals shall remain pending. Otherwise, if SIGCHLD is blocked, if wait () or waitpid() return because the status of a child process is available, any pending SIGCHLD signal shall be cleared unless the status of another child process is available. For all other conditions, it is unspecified whether child status will be available when a SIGCHLD signal is delivered. There may be additional implementation-defined circumstances under which wait () or waitpid() report status. This shall not occur unless the calling process or one of its child processes explicitly makes use of a non-standard extension. In these cases the interpretation of the reported status is implementation-defined. If a parent process terminates without waiting for all of its child processes to terminate, the remaining child processes shall be assigned Third Year Computer Engineering G.H.R.C.E.M, Wagholi 61

Software Laboratory a new parent process ID corresponding to an implementation-defined system process. RETURN VALUE If wait () or waitpid() returns because the status of a child process is available, these functions shall return a value equal to the process ID of the child process for which status is reported. If wait () or waitpid() returns due to the delivery of a signal to the calling process, -1 shall be returned and errno set to [EINTR]. If waitpid() was invoked with WNOHANG set in options, it has at least one child process specified by pid for which status is not available, and status is not available for any process specified by pid, 0 is returned. Otherwise, (pid_t)-1 shall be returned, and errno set to indicate the error Design Analysis/ Implementation Logic: 1. Steps followed to execute the respective command and function by considering the example. Conclusion: Thus system call has been studied.

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