MYER`S PSYCHOLOGY, 9

TH
EDITION
READINGS FOR PSY1101

PROLOGUE: THE STORY OF PSYCHOLOGY

PROLOGUE: THE STOR OF PSYCHOLOGY (p. 1- 17)
Psychology`s Roots
Psychology: the scientiIic study oI behaviour and mental processes.
Prescientific Psychology
Socrates and Plato concluded that the mind is separate Irom the body and knowledge is innate
Aristotle believed that soul is not separate Irom the body, and knowledge grows Irom experiences
Rene Descartes agreed with Socrates and Plato. He dissected animals and concluded Iluid in brain`s
cavities contained 'animal spirits, which Ilowed Irom the brain through nerves to muscles, provoking
movement. Memories opened muscles in the brain. He also believed that some ideas were innate.
Francis Bacon: 'the human understanding, Irom its peculiar nature, easily supposes a greater degree oI
order and equality in things than it really Iinds.
John Locke believed we were born a blank slate, believed in empiricism
Empiricism: the view that a) knowledge comes Irom experience via the senses, and b) science Ilourishes
through observations and experiments.
Psychological Science is Born
Psychology`s Iirst experiment: Wilhelm Wundt and associates tried to measure the lag between people`s
hearing a ball hit a platIorm and their pressing a telegraph key. Results: people responded about onetenth
oI a second to press a key when told to press the key when the sound was heard, and twotenths to press the
key when they were consciously aware oI perceiving the sound (to be aware oI one`s awareness takes a
little bit longer).
He created the Iirst psychology lab in 1879
Two historical routes of psychology are philosophy and biology
Thinking About the Mind`s Structure
Wundt`s student Edward BradIord Titchener introduced structuralism. Structuralism: an early school oI
psychology that used introspection to explore the elementary structure oI the human mind.
Titchener did this by selIreIlective introspection (looking inward), however this waned due to subjectivity
and inconsistency
Thinking About the Mind`s Functions
Functionalism: a school oI psychology that Iocuses on how mental and behavioural processes Iunction
how they unable the organism to adapt, survive, and Ilourish.
William James was a Iunctionalist who, inIluenced by Darwin, assumed thinking like smelling was
adaptive and consciousness serves as a Iunction. He encouraged exploration oI downtoearth emotions,
memories, etc. Wrote the book, !rinciple of !sychology.
Mary Calkins was the Iirst to earn a psychology PhD but was reIused. The Iirst to actually receive a
psychology PhD was Margaret Floy Washburn who synthesized animal behaviour research in The Animal
Mind
Psychological Science Develops
!sychology was first described as 'the science of mental life.` (until the 1920s)
atson most of all dealt with psychology as the scientific study of observable behaviour. Skinner wanted
to eliminate the implication of mental processes in analysis
John B Watson and B F Skinner redeIined psychology instead oI introspection as 'the scientiIic study oI
observable behaviour (behaviourists)
Humanistic psychology: historically signiIicant perspective that emphasized the growth potential oI healthy
people, used personalized methods to study personality in hopes oI Iostering personal growth (ex. Carl
Rogers and Abraham Maslow)
Contemporary Psychology
Psychology`s Big Debate
Naturenurture issue: the longlasting controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experiences
make to the development oI psychological traits and behaviours *see next reading*
Psychology`s Three Main Levels of Analysis
Levels oI analysis: the diIIering complementary views, Irom biological to psychological to socialcultural,
Ior analyzing given phenomenon.
The three levels are: biological inIluences (genes, mutations, genes responding to environment, natural
selection), psychological inIluences (learned Iears, emotional responses, cognitive processing, etc), and
socialcultural inIluences (presence oI others, culture, peers, media)
All come together Ior the biopsychosocial approach. Biopsychosocial approach: an integrated perspective
that incorporates biological, psychological and socialcultural levels oI analysis
Psychology`s current perspectives:
Neuroscience: how the body and brain enable emotions, memories and sensory experiences
Evolutionary: how the natural selection oI traits promotes the perpetuation oI one`s genes
Behaviour genetics: how much our genes and our environment inIluence our individual diIIerences
Psychodynamic: how behaviour springs Irom unconscious drives and conIlicts
Behavioural: how we learn observable processes
Cognitive: how we encode, process, store and retrieve inIo
Socialcultural: how behaviour and thinking vary across situations and cultures
Psychology`s Subfields
Basic research: pure science that aims to increase the scientiIic knowledge base
Applied research: scientiIic study that aims to solve practical problems
industrial/organizational psychology : behaviour in the workplace
Counseling psychology: a branch oI psychology that assists people with problems in living and in
achieving greater wellbeing
Clinical psychology: a branch oI psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological
disorders
Psychiatry: a branch oI medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who
sometimes provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy


















CHAPTER 1: THINKING CRITICALLY WITH PSYCHOLOGICALSCIENCE

THE NEED FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
Did We Know It All Along? Hindsight Bias
hindsight bias: the tendency to believe, aIter learning an outcome, that one would have Ioreseen it (also called the
Iknewitallalong phenomenon).

Overconfidence
we tend to think we know more than we do
asked how sure we are oI our answers to Iactual questions, we tend to be more conIident than correct.
in a survey done by Robert Vallone about the Iuture, on average students Ielt 84 conIident in making selI
predictions, though only 71 were correct
hindsight bias and overconIidence oIten lead us to overestimate our intuition, but science can help us siIt reality
Irom illusion

The Scientific Attitude
curiosity: a passion to explore and understand without misleading or being misled
empirical approach: letting the Iacts speak Ior themselves
humility: an awareness oI our own vulnerability to error and an openness to surprises and new perspectives

Critical Thinking
critical thinking: thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines
assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence and assesses conclusions

HOW DO PSYCHOLOGISTS ASK AND ANSWER QUESTIONS?
the scientiIic method is a selIcorrecting process Ior asking questions and observing nature`s answers
theory: an explanation using an integrated set oI principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviours oI
events
hypothesis: a testable prediction, oIten implied by a theory
operational deIinition: a statement oI the procedures (operations) used to deIine research variables. For example,
'human intelligence may be operationally deIined as what an intelligence test measures
replication: repeating the essence oI a research study, usually with diIIerent participants in diIIerent situations, to
see whether the basic Iinding extends to other participants and circumstances.

Description
The Case Study
case study: an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope oI revealing universal
principles

The Survey
survey: a technique Ior ascertaining the selIreported attitudes or behaviours oI a particular group, usually by
questioning a representative, random sample oI the group
Wording EIIects
subtle changes in order or wording oI questions can have major eIIects
Ex. people preIer 'not allowed over 'Iorbidden or 'censoring.
Random Sampling
population: all the cases in a group being studied, Irom which samples may be drawn (note: except Ior national
studies, this does not reIer to a country`s whole population)
random sample: a sample that Iairly represents a population because each membrane has an equal chance oI
inclusion
Natural Observation
natural observation: observing and recording behaviour in naturally occurring situations without trying to
manipulate and control the situation



Correlation
correlation: a measure oI the extent to which two Iactors vary together, and thus oI how well either Iactors predicts
the other
correlation coeIIicient: a statistical index oI the relationship between two things (Irom 1 to 1)
scatterplots: a graphed cluster oI dots, each oI which represents the values oI two variables. The slope oI the points
suggests the direction oI the relationship between the two variables. The amount oI scatter suggests the
strength oI the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation)
POSITIVE correlation as something increases, something else increases
NEGATIVE correlation as something increases, something else decreases
correlation indicates the possibility oI a causeeIIect relationship, but it DOES NOT PROVE CAUSATION.
Knowing that two events are associated need not tell us anything about causation.

Illusory Correlations
illusory correlation: the perception oI relationship where none exists.

Experimentation
experiment: a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more Iactors (independent variables) to
observe the eIIect on some behaviour or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment
oI participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant Iactors.

Random Assignment
random assignment: assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing pre
existing diIIerences between those assigned to the diIIerent groups.
doubleblind procedure: an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staII
are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo.
Commonly used in drugevaluation studies.
placebo eIIect: experimental results caused by expectations alone; any eIIect on behaviour caused by the
administration oI an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.
experimental group: in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version oI the
independent variable.
control group: in an experiment, the group that is NOT exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental
group and serves as a comparison Ior evaluating the eIIect oI the treatment

Independent and Dependent Variable
independent variable: the experimental Iactor that is manipulated; the variable whose eIIect is being studied
the dependent variable: the outcome Iactor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations oI the
independent variable

STATISTICAL REASONING IN EVERYDAY LIFE
doubt big, round, undocumented numbers. Rather than swallowing topoIthehead estimates, Iocus on thinking
smarter by applying simple statistical principles to everyday reasoning.

Describing Data
when viewing Iigures in magazines and on television, read the scale labels and note the range

Measures oI Central Tendency
mode: the most Irequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
mean: the arithmetic average oI a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number oI
scores

Measures oI Variation
range: the diIIerence between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
standard deviation: a computed measure oI how much scores vary around the mean score
normal curve: (normal distribution) a symmetrical, bellshaped curve that describes the distribution oI many types
oI data; most scores Iall near the mean (68 percent Iall within one standard deviation oI it) and Iewer and
Iewer near the extremes.
Making Inferences
When is an Observed Difference Reliable?
1) Representative samples are better than biased samples
2) Lessvariable observations are more reliable than those that are more variable
3) More cases are better than Iewer

When Is a Difference Significant?
statistical signiIicance: a statistical statement oI how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

CHAPTER 2: THE BIOLOGY OF MIND

biological psychology: a branch oI psychology concerned with the links between biology and behaviour (some
biological psychologists call themselves behavioural neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behaviour
geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists

Neural Communication
Neurons
NEURONS are the building blocks oI the nervous system. SENSOR NEURONS carry messages Irom the
body`s tissues and sensory organs inward to the brain and spinal cord, then the brain and spinal cord send
instructions outwards through the MOTOR NEURONS. Between them the inIormation is processed in the
brain`s internal communication system via INTERNEURONS.
Each neuron consists oI a cell body with branching Iibers called DENDRITES which receive inIo and conduct
messages. The cell`s AXON passes the message along neurons (axons speak, dendrites listen).
Neuron: a nerve cell; the basic building block oI the nervous system
sensory neurons: neurons that carry incoming inIormation Irom the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord
motor neurons: neurons that carry outgoing inIormation Irom the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
interneurons: neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the
sensory input and motor outputs
dendrite: the bushy, branching extensions oI a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell
body
axon: the extension oI a neuron, ending in branching terminal Iibres, through which messages pass to other
neurons or to muscles or glands
The electrical impulse is protected by cells called the myelin sheath (multiple sclerosis happens when this sheath
degenerates).
myelin sheath: a layer oI Iatty tissue segmentally encasing the Iibres oI many neurons; enables vastly greater
transmission speed oI neural impulses as the impulse hops Irom one node to the next
neurons transmit messages when stimulated by signals, this impulse is called 'action potential.
action potential: a neural impulse; a brieI electrical charge that travels down an axon
the movement oI impulse depends on an exchange oI ions. The Iluid interior oI a resting axon has an excess oI
negatively charged ions, while the outside has more positive ones. This diIIerences is called the RESTING
POTENTIAL. The membrane is SELECTIVEL PERMEABLE.
when a neuron Iires, the Iirst bit oI the axon opens its gates, and the positively charged sodium ions Ilood through
the membrane, DEPOLARIZING the section oI the axon which causes the next channel to open, and then
the next.
During a resting pause (THE REFRACTOR PERIOD), the neuron pumps the positively charged ions back
outside
Certain signals are EXCITATOR, others are INHIBITOR. II excitatory minus inhibitory signals exceed a
minimum intensity (THRESHOLD), the combined signals trigger an action potential. This is really an all
ornothing response
threshold: the level oI stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
a strong stimulus can increase the number oI times a neuron Iires

How Neurons Communicate
the axon terminal oI one neuron is separated by the receiving neuron by a SNAPTIC GAP (the meeting place
between neurons is called a SNAPSE). When an action potential reaches the terminals at the axon`s end,
it triggers the release oI chemical messengers called NEUROTRANSMITTERS which cross the synaptic
gap and bind to receptors on the next neuron. In a process called REUPTAKE, the sending neurons
reabsorbs the excess neurotransmitters.
synapse: the junction between the axon tip oI the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body oI the receiving
neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleIt.
neurotransmitters: chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the
sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving
neuron, thereby inIluencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.
reuptake: a neurotransmitter`s reabsorption by the sending neuron

How Neurotransmitters Influence Us
ACETLCHOLINE is one oI the bestunderstood neurotransmitters. In addition to its role in learning and
memory, ACh is the messenger at every junction between motor neuron and skeletal muscle. When Ach is
released to our muscle cell receptors, the muscle contracts. II ACh transmission is blocked, as happens
during some kinds oI anaesthesia, the muscles cannot contract and we are paralyzed.
Pert and Snyder used radioactive tracer on morphine and showed that it linked with mood and pain sensations
The brain produces its own naturally occurring opiates. ENDORPHINS are neurotransmitters released in response
to pain and vigorous exercise.
Endorphins: morphine within natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

How Drugs and Other Chemicals Alter Neurotransmission
When Ilooded with opiate drugs, the brain may stop producing its own natural opiates, and when the drug is
withdrawn, the brain is deprived oI these neurotransmitters, causing intense discomIort.
drugs and other chemicals aIIect synapses by ampliIying or blocking neurotransmitters activity
an AGONIST molecule may be similar enough to a neurotransmitter to mimic it or it may block its uptake
some 'ampliIy normal sensations oI arousal/pleasure
ANTAGONISTS block neurotransmitter`s Iunctioning. Example: Botulin, a poison that causes paralysis
by blocking ACh release

The Nervous System
The body`s speedy electrochemical communications network is the NERVOUS SSTEM, where the brain and
spinal cord Iorm the CENTRAL NERVOUS SSTEM (CNS) which communicates with the body`s
sensory receptors, muscles and glands via the PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SSTEM (PNS).
PNS inIormation travels through axons that are bundled into the electrical cables we know as NERVES
nervous system: the body`s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting oI all the nerve cells oI
the peripheral and central nervous systems.
central nervous system (CNS): the brain and spinal cord
peripheral nervous system (PNS): the sensory and motor neurons that connect to the central nervous system (CNS)
to the rest oI the body.
nerves: bundled axons that Iorm neural 'cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and
sense organs

The Peripheral Nervous System
our peripheral nervous system has two components somatic and autonomic. Our SOMATIC NERVOUS
SSTEM enables voluntary control oI our skeletal muscles. Our AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SSTEM
controls our glands and the muscles oI our internal organs, inIluencing such Iunctions as glandular activity,
heartbeat, and digestion.
The autonomic nervous system has two important, basic Iunctions.
The SMPATHETIC NERVOUS SSTEM arouses and expends energy (will accelerate heartbeat, raise
your blood pressure, slow your digestion, raise your blood sugar, and cool you with perspiration, making
you alert and ready Ior action).
The PARASMPATHETIC NERVOUS SSTEM produces opposite eIIects (conserves energy as it
calms you by decreasing heart rate, lowering blood sugar, and so Iorth).
somatic nervous system: the division oI the peripheral nervous system that controls the body`s skeletal muscles.
Also called the skeletal nervous system.
Autonomic nervous system: the part oI the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles oI
the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.
Sympathetic nervous system: the division oI the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its
energy in stressIul situations
Parasympathetic nervous system: the division oI the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its
energy

The Central Nervous System
the brain`s neurons cluster into work groups called NEURAL NETWORKS.
the SPINAL CORD is an inIormation highway connecting the peripheral nervous system to the brain.
reIlex: a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the kneejerk response

The Endocrine System
The ENDOCRINE SSTEM is interconnected with your nervous system. The endocrine system`s glands secrete
another Iorm oI chemical messengers, HORMONES, which travel through the blood stream and aIIect
other tissues, including the brain. When they act on the brain they inIluence our interest in sex, Iood and
aggression.
endocrine system: the body`s 'slow chemical communication system; a set oI glands that secrete hormones into
the blood stream.
hormones: chemical messengers that are manuIactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the blood stream,
and aIIect other tissues.
some hormones are chemically identical to neurotransmitters
DiIIerences in endocrine and nervous system: the endocrine system is much slower than the nervous system,
though the endocrine messages tend to outlast the eIIects oI the neural messages.
in a moment oI danger, the autonomic nervous system order the ADRENAL GLANDS on top oI the kidneys to
release epinephrine and norepinephrine (or adrenaline and noradrenaline). These hormones increase heart
rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar, providing us with a surge oI energy. ThereIore the hormones tend to
linger a while.
The most inIluential endocrine gland is the PITUITAR GLAND, a peasized structure located in the core oI the
brain, where it is controlled by an adjacent brain area, the hypothalamus. The pituitary releases hormones
that inIluence growth, and its secretions also inIluence the release oI hormones by other endocrine glands.
pituitary: the endocrine system`s most inIluential gland. Under the inIluence oI the hypothalamus, the pituitary
regulates growth and controis other endocrine glands.
adrenal glands: a pair oI endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and
norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times oI stress.

The Brain
The Tools of Discovery: Having Our Head Examined
we can now selectively LESION (destroy) tiny clusters oI normal or deIective brain cells, leaving the surrounding
tissue unharmed. Such studies have revealed that, Ior example, the damage to one area oI the
hypothalamus in a rat`s brain reduces eating, causing the rat to starve unless IorceIed. Damage in another
produces overeating. We can also electrically, chemically or magnetically stimulate various parts oI the
brain and take notes.
lesion: tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction oI brain tissue

Recording the Brain`s Electrical Activity
ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAM (EEG) is an ampliIied readout oI such waves. By presenting a stimulus
repeatedly and having a computer Iilter out brain activity unrelated to the stimulus, one can identiIy the
electrical wave evoked by the stimulus.
electroencephalogram (EEG): an ampliIied recording oI the waves oI electrical activity that sweep across the
brain`s surIace. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.
oIten used during a Iull night`s sleep. Most vivid dreams are during REM sleep.

Neuroimaging Techniques
the PET (POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPH) SCAN depicts brain activity by showing each brain area`s
consumption oI glucose. AIter a person receives temporarily radioactive glucose, the PET scan detects
where the glucose goes by locating the radioactivity.
PET: positron emission tomography scan, a visual display oI brain activity that detects where a radioactive Iorm oI
glucose goes while the brain perIorms a given task.
in MRI (MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING), the head is put in a strong magnetic Iield, which aligns the
spinning atoms oI brain molecules. Then a radio wave pulse momentarily disorients the atoms. When the
atoms return to their normal spin, they release signals that provide a detailed picture oI the brains` soIt
tissues.
MRI has revealed that largerthanaverage neural area in the leIt hemisphere is present in musicians who
display perIect pitch, while enlarged IluidIilled brain areas in some patients who have schizophrenia have
been noticed.
MRI: a techniques that uses magnetic Iields and radio waves to produce computergenerated images oI soIt tissues.
MRI scans show brain anatomy.
IMRI (FUNCTIONAL MRI) can reveal the brain`s Iunctioning as well as structure, by detecting blood Ilow in the
back oI the brain.
IMRI: a technique Ior revealing bloodIlow and thereIore brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans, which
can show brain Iunction

Older Brain Structures
The Brainstem
the brainstem is the brain`s oldest and innermost region. It begins where the spinal cord swells slightly aIter
entering the skull. This slight swelling is the MEDULLA. Here lie the controls Ior your heartbeat and
breathing.
the brainstem: the oldest part and central core oI the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the
skull; the brainstem is responsible Ior automatic survival Iunctions.
medulla: the base oI the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
Just above the medulla is the PONS, which helps coordinate movements.
Inside your brainstem between your ears lies the RETICULAR FORMATION, a Iingershaped network oI neurons
that extends Irom the spinal cord right up to the thalamus. As the spinal cord`s sensory input travels up the
thalamus, some oI it travels through the reticular Iormation, which Iilters incoming stimuli and relays
important inIormation to other areas oI the brain.
reticular Iormation: a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

The Thalamus
sitting at the top oI the brainstem is the thalamus. This joined pair oI eggshaped structures acts as the brain`s
sensory switchboard. It receives inIormation Irom all senses except smell and routes it to the higher brain
regions that deal with seeing, hearing, tasting and touching. The thalamus also directs messages to the
medulla and cerebellum.
thalamus: the brain`s sensory switchboard, located on top oI the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory
receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

The Cerebellum
extending Irom the rear oI the brainstem is the baseballsized cerebellum (meaning 'little brain), which enables
one type oI nonverbal learning and memory. It helps to judge time, modulate our emotions and
discriminate sounds and textures. It also coordinates voluntary movements.
cerebellum: the 'little brain at the rear oI the brainstem; Iunctions include processing sensory input and
coordinating movement output and balance.

The Limbic System
at the border between the brain`s older parts and the cerebral hemispheres the two halves oI the brain is the
limbic system. Our limbic system component the hippocampus processes memory. The limbic system
is also linked to emotions and basic motives.
the limbic system: neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the
cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives.

AMGDALA
two beansized neural clusters which inIluence aggression and Iear.
When Heinrich Kluver and Pauly Bucy surgically lesioned the part oI a rhesus monkey`s brain that included the
amygdale, the illtempered monkey became mellow.
amygdala: two lima beansized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion

THE HPOTHALAMUS
just below the thalamus, it inIluences hunger, thirst, body temperature and sexual behaviour
the hypothalamus both monitors blood chemistry and takes orders Irom other parts oI the brain.
includes reward centers/pleasure centers
hypothalamus: a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating,
drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to
emotion and reward.

The Cerebral Cortex
cerebral cortex: the intricate Iabric oI interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body`s
ultimate control and inIormationprocessing center

Structure oI the Cortex
glia cells: cells n the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons
The brain is divided into two hemispheres. Each hemisphere is divided into Iour lobes, geographic subdivisions
separated by prominent Iissures, or Iolds:
Irontal lobes: portion oI the cerebral cortex lying just behind the Iorehead; involved in speaking and
muscle movements and in making plans and judgements (contains the Broca`s area)
parietal lobes: portion oI the cerebral cortex lying at the top oI the head and toward the rear; receives
sensory input Ior touch and body position
occipital lobes: portion oI the cerebral cortex lying at the back oI the head; includes areas that receive
inIormation Irom the visual Iields
temporal lobes: portion oI the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas,
each receiving inIormation primarily Irom the opposite ear

Functions oI the Cortex
motor cortex: an area at the rear oI the Irontal lobes that control voluntary movements
leIt hemisphere controls the right side oI the body; right hemisphere controls the leIt side oI the body
body areas requiring precise control, such as the Iingers and mouth, occupied the greatest amount oI
cortical space
sensory cortex: area at the Iront oI the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement
sensations
receives messages Irom the body
association areas: areas oI the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory Iunctions; rather,
they are involved in higher mental Iunctions such as learning, remembering, thinking and speaking

The Brain`s Plasticity
plasticity: the brain`s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing aIter damage or by building
new pathways based on experience
severed neurons can never regenerate, but they can reorganize in response to damage.
CONSTRAINTINDUCED THERAP aims to rewire brains by restraining a Iully Iunctioning limb and Iorcing
use oI the 'bad hand or the uncooperative leg
neurogenesis: the Iormation oI new neurons
adult miceand humans can do this

Our Divided Brain
the brain`s two hemispheres serve diIIering Iunctions (lateralization)

Splitting the Brain
corpus callosum: the large band oI neural Iibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages
between them
Vogel and Bogen tried to cure seizure victims by separating both hemispheres
split brain: condition resulting Irom surgery that isolates the brain`s two hemispheres by cutting the Iibres
(mainly those oI the corpus callosum) connecting them
however, this caused the hemispheres to think independently oI each other.
leIt hemisphere is stronger in language while the right is stronger in spatial skills
10 oI people are leIthanded, most oI whom are male
Benjamin Franklin, Picassi and Marily Monroe were all leIthanded
in deaI people, the leIt hemisphere is used more because oI processing oI language
aphasia impairment oI language

Mortimer Mishkin and Donald Forgays conducted an experiment 50 years ago demonstrating that the leIt cerebral
hemisphere is specialized Ior word identiIication by native English speaker

German physician Karl Wernicke studied patients who could still speak but could not comprehend speech. The
part oI the brain known as Wenicke`s area can be Iound in the leIt hemisphere temporal lobe behind the auditory
complex

CHAPTER 6: SENSATION AND PERCPETION

prosopagnosia Iace blindness (inability to see Iaces)

Sensing the World: Some Basic Principles
sensation: the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies
Irom our environment
perception: the process oI organizing and interpreting sensory inIormation, enabling us to recognize meaningIul
objects and events
bottomup processing: analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain`s integration oI
sensory inIormation
topdown processing: inIormation processing guided by higherlevel mental processes, as when we construct
perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

Thresholds
psychophysics: the study oI relationships between the physical characteristics oI stimuli, such as their intensity,
and our psychological experience oI them

Absolute Thresholds
absolute thresholds: the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 oI the time
absolute thresholds vary with age; sensitivity to highpitched sounds declines with normal aging

Signal Detection
detecting a weak stimulus depends not only on our signal`s strength but on our motivation, experience, alertness
signal detection theory: a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence oI a Iaint stimulus (signal) amid
background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends
partly on a person`s experience, expectations, motivation and level oI Iatigue
ex. during war (like in Iraq), soldiers are more likely to Iire at or notice any noise

Subliminal Stimulation
subliminal: below one`s absolute threshold Ior conscious awareness
priming: the activation, oIten unconsciously, oI certain associations, thus predisposing one`s perceptions, memory
or response
- claims on subliminal stimulation create two assumptions: 1) we can unconsciously sense subliminal stimuli, and 2)
without our awareness, these stimuli have extraordinary suggestive powers
can we sense stimuli below our absolute thresholds? yes (remember absolute means only 50 oI the time)
can we be aIIected by stimuli so weak as to be unnoticed? yes, under certain conditions. Ex. subliminally Ilash
either emotionally positive or negative scenes an instant beIore participants viewed slides oI people. With
emotionally positive scene, people were perceived as nicer or happier.

DiIIerence Thresholds
diIIerence threshold: the minimum diIIerence between two stimuli required Ior detection 50 oI the time. We
experience the diIIerence threshold as a 'just noticeable diIIerence.
ex: iI you add 1 ounce to 10 ounces, you will detect a diIIerence. II you add 1 ounce to 100 ounces, you may not.
Weber`s Law: Ior their diIIerence to be perceptible, two stimuli must diIIer by a constant proportion not a
constant amount.

Sensory Adaptation
sensory adaptation: diminished sensitivity as a consequence oI constant stimulation
why is it that when we stare at something Ior a long time, it doesn`t disappear? eyes constantly moving
we perceive the world not exactly as it is, but as it is useIul Ior us to perceive it

Vision
our eyes receive light energy and transduce (transIorm) it into neural messages that our brain then processes into
what we consciously see.
transduction: conversion oI one Iorm oI energy into another. In sensation, the transIorming oI stimulus energies,
such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret

The Stimulus Input: Light Energy
- Light`s wavelength determines its hue. Intensity inIluences brightness.
wavelength: the distance Irom the peak oI one light or sounds wave to the peak oI the next. Electromagnetic
wavelengths vary Irom the short blips oI cosmic rays to the long pulses oI radio transmission
hue: the dimension oI colour that is determined by the wavelength oI light; what we know as the colour names
blue, green, and so Iorth.
intensity: the amount oI energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as
determined by the wave`s amplitude

The Eye
light enters the eye through the CORNEA, which protects the eye and bends light to provide Iocus
light then passes through the PUPIL, a small adjustable opening surrounded by the IRIS, a coloured muscle that
adjusts light intake. The iris dilates or constricts in response to light intensity and even to inner emotions.
Each iris is so distinctive that an irisscanning machine could conIirm your identity.
Behind the pupil is a LENS that Iocuses incoming light rays into an image on the RETINA, a multilayered tissue
on the eyeballs sensitive inner surIace. The lens Iocuses the rays by changing its curvature in a process
called ACCOMMODATION
the retina doesn`t 'see a whole image; its millions oI receptor cells convert particles oI light energy into neural
impulses and Iorward those to the brain. THERE, the impulses are reassembled into a perceived, upright
seeming image.
pupil: the adjustable opening in the center oI the eye through which light enters


The Retina
The retina`s buried receptor cells are called RODS and CONES. Light energy triggers chemical changes that spark
neural signals, activating neighbouring BIPOLAR CELLS. The bipolar cells in turn activate the
neighbouring GANGLION CELLS.
Axons Irom this network oI ganglion cells converge to Iorm the OPTIC NERVE that carries inIo to the brain
(where the thalamus will receive and distribute inIo).
iris: a ring oI muscle tissue that Iorms the coloured portion
oI the eye around the pupil and controls the size oI
the pupil opening
lens: the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes
shape to help Iocus images on the retina
retina: the lightsensitive inner surIace oI the eye, containing
the receptor rods and cones plus layers oI neurons
that begin the processing oI visual inIormation
accommodation: the process by which the eye`s lens
changes shape to Iocus near or Iear objects on the
retina

The optic nerve can send nearly 1 million messages at once through its nearly 1 million ganglion Iibres.
Where the nerve leaves the eye there are no receptor cells, creating a blind spot.





Visual Information Processing
light inIo in retina goes Irom cones and rods to bipolar cells to ganglion cells to optic nerve to brain (occipital lobe)

Feature Detection
David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel received the Nobel prize, demonstrated that neurons in the occipital lobe`s visual
cortex receive inIo Irom individual ganglion cells in the retina. These FEATURE DETECTOR cells derive
their name Irom their ability to respond to a scene`s speciIic Ieature to particular edges, lines, angles and
movement.
Ieature detectors: nerve cells in the brain that respond to speciIic Ieatures oI the stimulus, such as shape, angle or
movement.
Ieature detectors pass inIo to teams oI cells (supercell clusters) which respond to complex patterns. Ex: iI this area
damaged you can see Iorms but not recognize Iaces.

Parallel Processing
unlike most computers which do step by step serial processing, our brain engages in PARALLEL PROCESSING.
the brain divides a visual scene into subdimensions, such as colour, movement, Iorm an depth, and works one each
simultaneously.
recognizing a Iace requires 30 oI the cortex
parallel processing: the processing oI many aspects oI a problem simultaneously; the brain`s natural mode oI
inIormation processing Ior many Iunctions, including vision. Contrasts with the stepbystep (serial)
processing oI most computers and oI conscious problem solving

Colour Vision
1 in 50 people are colour blind
rods: retinal receptors that detect black, white and gray;
necessary Ior peripheral and twilight vision, when
cones don`t respond
cones: retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the
center oI the retina and Iunction in daylight or in
welllit conditions. The cones detect Iine detail and
give rise to colour sensations.
optic nerve: the nerve that carries neural impulses Irom the
eye to the brain
blind spot: the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye,
creating a 'blind spot because no receptor cells are
located there.
Cones cluster in and around the FOVEA, the retina`s area oI
central Iocus. Many oI these cones have direct relay
to the brain. Rods share bipolar cells with other rods
(cones have their own bipolar cells), thus share
combined messages. They are located on the edge
oI the retina (the periphery).
Iovea: the central Iocal point in the retina, around which the
eye`s cones cluster
oungHelmholtz trichromatic (three colour) theory: the theory that the retina contains three diIIerent colour
receptors one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue which, when stimulated in combination,
can produce the perception oI any colour
Colourblindness characterized lack Iunctioning red or green sensitive cones, or sometimes both.
Opponentprocess theory: the theory that opposing retinal processes (redgreen, yellowblue, whiteblack) enable
color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red, some vice versa.
Ex: aIter images (green and yellow Union Jack)

Hearing
audition: the senses or act oI hearing
Irequency: the number oI complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time
pitch: a tone`s experienced highness or lowness, depends on Irequency
absolute threshold Ior hearing is 0 dB. Normal talk is 60 dB, whisper is 20 dB. Subway train is 100 dB

The Ear
the OUTER EAR channels sound waves through the auditory canal to the EARDRUM, a tight membrane that
vibrates with the waves.
the MIDDLE EAR then transmits eardrum`s vibrations through a piston made oI three bones (hammer, anvil,
stirrup) to the COCHLEA, a snailshaped tube in the INNER EAR.
The incoming vibrations cause the cochlea`s membrane (the oval window) to vibrate, jostling the Iluid that Iills the
tube. The motion causes ripples in the BASILIAR MEMBRANE, bending the HAIR CELLS lining its
surIace.



Perceiving Pitch
Place theory: Hermann von Helmholtz`s theory; in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place
where the cochlea`s membrane is stimulated
Frequency theory: in hearing, the theory that the rate oI nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the
Irequency oI a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch

Locating Sounds
sound waves strike one ear sooner and more intensely than the other



Hair cells trigger impulses in the adjacent nerve cells,
whose axons converge to Iorm the
AUDITOR NERVE which goes to the
AUDITOR CORTEX.
middle ear: the chamber between the eardrum and
cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer,
anvil and stirrup) that concentrate the
vibrations oI the eardrum on the cochlea`s
oval window
cochlea: a coiled, bony IluidIilled tube in the inner
ear through which sound waves trigger nerve
impulses
inner ear: the innermost part oI the ear, containing the
cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular
sacs

Hearing Loss and DeaI Culture

problems with the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea cause CONDUCTION HEARING
LOSS. Damage to the cochlea`s hair cell receptors can cause a more common SENSORINEURAL
HEARING LOSS (or nerve deaIness).
one way to restore hearing in nerve deaIness is a cochlear implant translates sounds into electrical signals that,
wired into the cochlea`s nerves, convey some inIo about sound to the brain
conduction hearing loss: hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the
cochlea
sensorineural hearing loss: hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea`s receptor cells or to the auditory nerves;
also called nerve deaIness
cochlear implant: a device converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through
electrodes threaded into the cochlea

Other Important Senses
Touch
basic Ieelings oI touch are: pressure, warmth, cold and pain
only pressure has deIinable receptors
kinesthesis: the system oI sensing the position and movement oI individual body parts
important sensors in joints, tendons, bones, and ears
vestibular sense: the sense oI body movement and position, including the sense oI balance
Iound in your inner ear vestibular canal connected to cochlea to send message to cerebellum

Pain
there are diIIerent NOCICEPTORS sensory receptors that detect hurtIul temperatures, pressure or chemicals
gatecontrol theory: the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological 'gate that blocks pain signals or allows
them to pass on to the brain. The 'gate is opened by the activity oI pain signals travelling up small nerve
Iibers and is closed by activity in larger Iibers or by inIormation coming Irom the brain
to diminish pain, get large Iibers to spinal cord to close
in phantom limb syndrome, the brain can create pain
perceptions oI pain are inIluenced by socialcultural and psychological aspects
distraction and placebos can take away pain

Taste
taste is a chemical sense taste buds contain 50 to 100 taste receptors cells which respond to certain Ilavours
as we grow older, the number oI taste cells decreases
sensory interaction: the principle that one sense may inIluence another, as when the smell oI Iood inIluences its
taste

Smell
in our nasal cavity are olIactory receptor cells, which respond to certain odor molecules









CHAPTER 6 (CONT`D)
Perceptual Organization
A group oI German psychologists noticed that when given a cluster oI sensations, people tend to organize them
into a GESTALT, a German word meaning 'Iorm or 'whole. Famously said the whole may exceed the
sum oI its parts.
Gestalt: an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces oI inIormation
into meaningIul wholes.

Form Perception
Figure and ground
Iirst perceptual task is to perceive any object (Iigure) as distinct Irom its surroundings (the ground).
Figureground: the organization oI the visual Iield into objects (the Iigures) that stand out Irom their surroundings
(the ground)



Grouping
to bring order and Iorm to basic sensations, our minds Iollow certain rules Ior GROUPING stimuli together. These
rules, identiIied by the Gestalt psychologists and applied to even inIants, illustrate the idea that the perceive
whole diIIers Irom the sum oI its parts.
Grouping: the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups
1) PROXIMIT: we group nearby Iigures together

2) SIMILARIT: we group similar vertical columns together. We see the triangles and circles as horizontal rows
oI similar shapes, not as vertical columns oI dissimilar shapes.

3) CONTINUIT: we perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous patterns.

4) CONNECTEDNESS: we perceive linked objects as single units
5) CLOSURE: we Iill in gaps to create a complete, whole object.


Depth Perception
depth perception: the ability to see objects in 3D although the images that strike the retina are twodimensional;
allows us to judge distance.
Ex. Gibson and Walk placed inIants on edge oI a VISUAL CLIFF when the inIants` mothers coaxed them to
crawl out onto the glass, most reIused to do so, indicating that they could perceive depth.
visual cliII: a laboratory device Ior testing depth perception in inIants and young animals
inIants` wariness increases with their experiences in crawling, no matter when they begin to crawl
judging Irom what they reach Ior, 7month olds use the cast shadow oI a toy to perceive its distance while 5 month
olds don`t (depth perception grows with age)

Binocular Cues
binocular cues: depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use oI two eyes.
because eyes are 2.5 inches apart, our retinas receive slightly diIIerent image oI the world
when the brain compares these two images, the diIIerence between them their retinal disparity provides one
important binocular cue to the relative distance oI diIIerent objects
retinal disparity: a binocular cue Ior perceiving depth. By comparing images Irom the retina in the two
eyes, the brain computes distance the greater the disparity (diIIerence) between the images, the closer the
object.


Monocular Cues
to judge distance, we depend on monocular cues (available to each eye separately).
monocular cues: depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone.
horizontalvertical illusion our perceiving vertical dimensions as longer than identical horizontal dimensions


Motion Perception
normally your brain computes motion based partly on its assumption that shrinking objects are retreating (not
getting smaller) and enlarging objects are approaching.
however large objects appear to move slower than smaller objects at same speed
brain also perceives continuous movement in a rapid series oI slightly varying images stroboscopic movement
ex. graphic artists
phi phenomonenon: an illusion oI movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and oII in quick
succession.
Marquees and holiday lights are an example (moving arrow)

Perceptual Constancy
perceptual constancy: perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, lightness and colour) even
as illumination and retinal images change
Shape and Size Constancy
thanks to shape constancy, we perceive Iorm oI Iamiliar objects (pictures oI door closed and not closed we can
tell it`s the same door)
thanks to size constancy, we perceive objects as a constant size, even while our distance Irom them varies
we assume a car is large enough to carry people, even when we see its tiny image blocks away
Moon illusion moon looks halI larger when near horizon than high in the sky
Ponzo illusion see book Figure 6.39b

Lightness Constancy
we perceive an object as having constant lightness even while its illumination varies
Ex. white is still white in dim light
perceived lightness depends on RELATIVE LUMINANCE the amount oI light an object reIlects relative to its
surroundings.

Color Constancy
color constancy: perceiving Iamiliar objects as having consistent colour, even iI changing illumination alters the
wavelengths reIlected by the object.
colour is seen thanks to our brains` computations oI the light reIlected by any object RELATIVE TO ITS
SOURRINDING OBJECTS. Ex: monkeys raised under a restricted range oI wavelengths later have great
diIIiculty recognizing the same colour when illumination varies

Perceptual Interpretation
Immanuel Kant maintained that knowledge comes Irom our INBORN ways oI organizing sensory experiences
John Locke believed we LEARN to perceive the world

Sensory Deprivation and Restored Vision
Molyneux wondered iI a man born bind would, when an adult and not blind, be able to distinguish between objects
case studies like those with cataracts
people deprived oI the visual experience during childhood surpass the rest oI us at recognizing similarities in
Iaces they recognize parts oI Iaces as individual
43 year old man with sight restored 40 years aIter blindness could recognize people by hair colour and distinct
Ieatures but could not instantly recognize Iaces. He also lacked perceptual constancy (thought people
walking away were shrinking)
the eIIects oI visual experiences during inIancy in animals suggest that there is a CRITICAL PERIOD Ior normal
sensory and perceptual development.

Perceptual Adaptation
perceptual adaptation: in vision, the ability to adjust to an artiIicially displaced or even inverted visual Iield
Ex. turn the world at 45 degrees. Humans adapt to distorting lenses quickly, but chicks do not.

Perceptual Set
perceptual set: a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another
Ex. people perceive an adultchild pair as looking more alike when they are told they are parent and child
Ex. picture that could be sax players or woman
through experience we Iorm concepts, or SCHEMAS, that organize and interpret unIamiliar inIo

Context EIIects
a given stimulus may trigger radically diIIerent perceptions, partly because oI our diIIerent set, but also because oI
the immediate context.
Ex: person next to big person looks small. Or example: box with rabbits

Emotion and Motivation
perceptions are inIluences topdown not only by expectations and context but also by emotions.
Ex. walking destination seems Iather away when tired.
iI rewards were linked with seeing one category oI stimulus (such as Iarm animals rather than sea animal), then
aIter just a onesecond exposure to the drawing, viewers tended to see an example oI their hopedIor
category when shown an ambiguous picture

Perception and the Human Factor
human Iactors psychology: a branch oI psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how
machines and physical environments can be made saIe and easy to use
designers and engineers should consider human abilities and behaviours by designing things to Iit people, user
testing their inventions beIore production and distribution, and being mindIul oI the curse oI knowledge

Is There Extrasensory Perception?
extrasensory perception (ESP): the controversial claim that perception can occur apart Irom sensory input: includes
telepathy, clairvoyance and precognition.
nearly halI oI American believe that we are capable oI ESP
parapsychology: the study oI paranormal phenomenon, including ESP and psycokinesis.

Claims of ESP
TELEPATH or mindtomind communication one person sending thought sot another or perceiving another`s
thoughts
CLAIRVOANCE perceiving remote events, such as sensing that a Iriend`s house is on Iire
PRECOGNITION perceiving Iuture events, such as political leader`s death or a sporting event`s outcome
PSCHOKINESIS mind over matter

CHAPTER 3
CONSCIOUSNESS AND THE TWO-TRACK MIND

The Brain and Consciousness
at the very beginning, psychology Iocused on the study oI consciousness
cognitive neuroscience: the interdisciplinary study oI the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception,
thinking, memory and language)
we know that the upper brainstem contributes to consciousness because some children without a cerebral cortex
exhibit signs oI consciousness
woman in car accident showed no signs oI conscious awareness, but when asked to imagine playing tennis, IMRI
scans revealed brain activity like that oI the healthy volunteers.
scientists can now tell which oI 10 objects you are viewing (between a drill, hammer and so Iorth)
as deIined by the textbook, consciousness includes Iocused attention, sleeping and hypnosis

Dual Processing
dual processing: the principle that inIormation is oIten simultaneously processed on separate conscious and
unconscious tracks
The TwoTracked Mind
hollow face illusion. people will mistakenly perceive the inside oI a mask as a protruding Iace but they will still
reach into the mask and Ilick oII what seems to be a speck inside the mask
conscious processing is serial, while unconscious processing is parallel

Selective Attention
selective attention: the Iocusing oI conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
Ex: cocktail party eIIect
inattentional blindness: Iailing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere
Ex: experiment where you are supposed to watch people with white shirts... you Iail to see the gorilla
change blindness: Iailing to notice changes in an environment
Ex: aIter a brieI visual interruption, a Coke bottle will disappear on the scene and people won`t know it
choice blindness. example when Iemales asked which Iace on cards was more attractive. Though the card was
changed and asked later why they chose it, they still explained why they liked the Iace even though they
had rejected it beIore

Sleep and Dreams
EEG recordings conIirm that even during sleep your auditory cortex responds to sound stimuli
circadian rhythm: the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (Ior example, oI temperature and wakeIulness) that
occur on a 24hour cycle
REM sleep: rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also
known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except Ior minor twitching) but other bodily
systems are active.
alpha waves: the relatively slow brain waves oI a relaxed, awake state.
sleep: periodic, natural reversible loss oI consciousness as distinct Irom unconsciousness resulting Irom a coma,
general anaesthesia or hibernation
hallucinations: Ialse sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence oI an external visual stimulus
delta waves: the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep
during REM sleep, the body experiences increased heart rate, rapid breathing and genital arousal
sleep spindles predominate during Stage 2 oI sleep
one oI the eIIects oI sleeping pills is to decrease REM sleep

sleep deprivation increases hungerarousing hormone ghrelin and decreases leptin (huntersuppressing partner). It
also increases cortisol which stimulates the body to make Iat
the sleepwaking cycles oI young people who stay up too late typically are 25 hours in duration

NIGHT TERRORS are not nightmares, rather they are characterized by high arousal and an appearance oI being
terriIied
compared to their counterparts oI 80 years ago, teenagers today average 2 hours less sleep each night.

dreams: a sequence oI images, emotions and thoughts passing through sleeping person`s mind. Dreams are notable
Ior their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities and incongruities, and Ior the dreamer`s delusional
acceptance oI the content and later diIIiculties remembering it
maniIest content: according to Freud the remembered story line oI a dream
latent content: according to Freud, the underlying meaning oI a dream
REM rebound: the tendency Ior REM sleep to increase Iollowing REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated
awakenings during REM sleep)
people who heard unusual phrases prior to sleep were awakened each time they began REM sleep. The Iact that
they remembered less the next morning provides support Ior the inIormationprocessing theory oI dreaming
according to activationsynthesis theory dreaming represents the brain`s eIIorts to integrate unrelated bursts oI
activity in visual brain areas with the emotional tone provided by the limbic system
according to Freud, dreams are a symbolic IulIilment oI erotic wishes

hypnosis: a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain
perceptions, Ieelings, thoughts or behaviours will spontaneously occur
posthypnotic suggestion: a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out aIter the subject is no
longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviours
hypnosis can alleviate pain
dissociation: a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviours to occur simultaneously with
others
hypnosis is in part an extension oI the division between conscious awareness and automatic behaviour
hypnotic responsiveness is greater when people are led to expect it
those who believe that hypnosis is a social phenomenon argue that 'hypnotized individuals are merely acting out
a role

Drugs and Consciousness
psychoactive drug: a chemical substance that alerts perceptions and moods
tolerance: the diminishing eIIect with regular use oI the same dose oI a drug, requiring the user to take larger and
larger doses beIore experiencing the drug`s eIIect
withdrawal: the discomIort and distress that Iollow discontinuing the use oI an addictive drug
physical dependence: a physiological need Ior a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug
is discontinued
psychological dependence: a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions
addiction: compulsive drug craving and use, adverse consequence

Myths about drugs:
addictive drugs quickly corrupt; morphine given once Ior pain will turn someone into an addict Ialse
addictions cannot be overcome voluntary, therapy is required Ialse: some people recover on their own
we can extend the concept oI addiction to cover not just drug dependence but a whole spectrum oI pleasure
seeking behaviour we could, but should we?


Psychoactive Drugs
depressants: drugs such as alcohol and barbiturates and opiates that reduce neural activity and slow body Iunctions
alcohol has the most proIound eIIect on the transIer oI experiences to longterm memory
boys who are impulsive and Iearless at age 6 are more likely to drink as teenagers
laboratory mice have been selectively bred to preIer alcohol to water
adopted children are more susceptible iI one or both oI their biological parents have a history oI alcohol
dependence
barbiturates: drugs that depress the activity oI the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory
and judgement
opiates: opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin, they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening
pain and anxiety
stimulants: drugs (such as caIIeine, nicotine and the more powerIul amphetamines, cocaine and Ecstasy) that
excite the neural activity and speedup body Iunctions
cocaine and crack produce a euphoric rush by blocking the reuptake oI dopamine in brain cells
amphetamines: drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speededup body Iunctions and associated energy and
mood changes
methamphetamines: a powerIully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system with speededup body
Iunctions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels
Ecstasy (MDMA): a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with
shortterm health risks and longterm harm to serotonin producing neurons and to mood and cognition
hallucinogens: psychedelic drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence oI
sensory input
LSD a powerIul hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid
THC: the major active ingredient in marijuana, triggers a variety oI eIIects, including mild hallucinations
the byproducts oI marijuana are cleared Irom the body more slowly than are the byproducts oI alcohol
the lowest rates oI drug use among high school seniors is reported b y AIricanAmericans

eliminating smoking would have a greater impact on average liIe expectancy than eliminating obesity, sleep
deprivation or binge drinking

neardeath experience: an altered state oI consciousness reported aIter a close brush with death (such as through
cardiac arrest); oIten similar to druginduced hallucinations

CHAPTER 7: LEARNING

learing: a relatively permanent change in organized behaviour due to experience

HOW DO WE LEARN?
associative learning: learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical
conditioning) oI a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)
CONDITIONING is the process oI learning associations. In CLASSICAL CONDITIONING, we learn to
associate two stimuli and thus to anticipate events.
Ex: light thunder wincing at loud noise. Lightning expecting loud noise.
in OPERANT CONDITIONING, we learn to associate a response (our behaviour) and its consequences and thus
to repeat acts Iollowed by good results and avoid acts Iollowed by bad results.
Ex: iI you balance a ball on your noise, you can have Iood
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING is learning Irom others` experiences.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
classical conditioning: a type oI learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
Irom Pavlov
behaviourism: the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behaviour without
reIerence to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with 1 but not with 2
Pavlov laid the Ioundation Ior Watson`s ideas
Watson behaviourist
Skinner most associated with operant conditioning

Pavlov`s Experiments
unconditioning response (UR): in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the
unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when Iood is in the mouth
unconditioned stimulus (US): in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally naturally and
automatically triggers a response
conditioned response (CR): in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now
conditioned) stimulus (CS)
conditioned stimulus (CS): in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, aIter association with an
unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response
Ior the most rapid conditioning, a CS should be presented about onehalI second beIore the US.

Acquisition
acquisition: in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned
stimulus so that he neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning,
the strengthening oI a reinIorced response.
higherorder acquisition: a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired
with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (oIten weaker) conditioned stimulus. For ex: an animal that
has learned that a tone predicts Iood might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to
the light alone. (also called second order conditioning.
extinction: the diminishing oI a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned
stimulus (US) does not Iollow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response
is no longer reinIorced
spontaneous recovery: the reappearance, aIter a pause, oI an extinguished conditioned response



Generalization
generalization: the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, Ior stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus
to elicit similar responses
Discrimination
discrimination: in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and
stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

Extending Pavlov`s Understanding
Cognitive Processes
Rescorla and Wagner animals can learn the predictability oI an event
expectancy how likely it is that the UR will occur

Biological Predispositions
Kimble: each species` predispositions prepare it to learn the associations that enhance its survival
Domjan and colleagues report that such conditioning is speedier, stronger and more durable when the CS is
ecologically relevant something similar to stimuli associated with sexual activity in the natural environment
Ex: red enhances attraction to women

Pavlov`s Legacy
Iormer drug users Ieel carving when they are in drugusing context (people and surroundings) so they are advised
to steer clear oI these stimuli
classical conditioning works on body`s dieaseIighting immune system when taste accompanied by drug
inIluences immune responses, the taste by itselI can come to produce an immune response

Operant Conditioning
classical conditioning involves respondent behaviour
respondent behaviour: behaviour that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus
operant conditioning: a type oI learning in which behaviour is strengthened iI Iollowed by a reinIorce or
diminished iI Iollowed by a punisher.
operant behaviour: behaviour that operates on the environment, producing consequences
law oI eIIect: Thorndike`s principle that behaviours Iollowed by Iavourable consequences become more likely, and
that behaviours Iollowed by unIavourable consequences become less likely.
operant chamber: in operant conditioning research, a chamber (or Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an
animal can manipulate to obtain a Iood or water reinIorce; attached devices record the animal`s rate oI bar
pressing or key pecking
shaping: an operant conditioning procedure in which reinIorcers guide behaviour toward closer and closer
approximations oI the desired behaviour.
reinIorce: in operant conditioning, any event that STRENGTHENS the behaviour it Iollows
positive reinIorcement: increasing behaviours by presenting positive stimuli, such as Iood. A positive reinIorce is
any stimulus that, when presented aIter a response, strengthens the response
negative reinIorcement: increasing behaviours by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A
negative reinIorce is any stimulus that, when removed aIter a response, strengthens the response.
primary reinIorcer: an innately reinIorcing stimulus, such as one that satisIies a biological need
conditioned reinIorcer: a stimulus that gains its reinIorcing power through its association with a primary reinIorcer;
also known as secondary reinIorcer
continuous reinIorcement: reinIorcing the desired response every time it occurs
partial (intermittent reinIorcement): reinIorcing a response only part oI the time: results in slower acquisition oI a
response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinIorcement

cognitive map: a mental representation oI the layout oI one`s environment. For ex: aIter exploring a maze, rats act
as iI they learned a cognitive map oI it
latent learning: learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
instrinsic motivation: a desire to perIorm a behaviour eIIectively Ior its own sake
extrinsic motivation: a desire to perIorm a behaviour to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

the highest and most consistent rate oI response is produced by a variableratio schedule

Learning by Observation
observational learning: learning by observing others
modeling: the process oI observing and imitating a speciIic behaviour
mirror neurons: Irontal lobe neurons that Iire when perIorming certain actions or when observing another doing so.
The brain`s mirroring oI another`s action may enable imitation and empathy
prosocial behaviour: positive, constructive, helpIul behaviour. The opposite oI antisocial behaviour

CHAPTER 8: MEMORY
THE PHENOMENON OF MEMORY
memory: the persistence oI learning over time through the storage and retrieval oI inIormation

STUDYING MEMORY: INFORMATION-PROCESSIGN MODELS
encoding: the processing oI inIormation into the memory system Ior example, by extracting meaning
storage: the retention oI encoded inIormation over time
retrieval: the process oI getting inIormation out oI memory storage
a modern model oI memory (CONNECTIONISM) views memories as emerging Irom interconnected neural
networks. SpeciIic memories arise Irom particular activation patterns within these networks.
Older model Atkinson and ShiIIrin proposed that we Iorm memories in these three stages:
1) we Iirst record toberemembered inIo as a Ileeting SENSOR MEMOR
2) we process inIo into a SHORT TERM MEMOR bin, where we encode it by REHEARSAL
3) InIo moves into LONG TERM MEMOR Ior later retrieval
sensory memory: the immediate, very brieI recording oI sensory inIormation in the memory system
shortterm memory: activated memory that holds a Iew items brieIly, such as the seven digits oI a phone number
while dialling, beIore the inIorm is stored or Iorgotten
longterm memory: the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse oI the memory system. Includes knowledge,
skills and experiences
MODIFIED VERSION OF THE THREE STAGE PROCESSIGN MODEL OF MEMOR
some inIo skips the Iirst two stages and goes automatically to long term memory without conscious
awareness
WORKING MEMOR concentrates on active processing oI inIo in this intermediate stage. We Iocus
attention on certain incoming stimuli, process them in temporary working storage
working memory: a newer understanding oI shortterm memory that Iocuses on conscious, active
processing oI incoming auditory and visualspatial inIormation, and oI inIormation retrieved Irom long
term memory

ENCODING: GETTING INFORMATION IN
HOW WE ENCODE
AUTOMATIC PROCESSING
automatic processing: unconscious encoding oI incidental inIormation, such as space, time, and Irequency, and oI
welllearned inIormation, such as word learning
SPACE: ex, while studying you may remember the location oI what you were studying on the page
TIME: ex, you remember the sequence oI the day`s events
FREQUENC: ex, you remember how many times things happen ('That guy passed around here three times)
WELL LEARNED INFO: ex, seeing words in your native language on a delivery truck
things initially require eIIort but over time it becomes automatic (like reading)

EFFORTFUL PROCESSING
eIIortIul processing: encoding that requires attention and conscious eIIort
rehearsal: the conscious repetition oI inIormation either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it in storage
Ebbinghaus researched this
the amount remembered depends on the time spent learning
spacing eIIect: the tendency Ior distributed study or practice to yield better longterm retention than is achieved
through massed study or practice
MASSED PRACTICE (cramming) DISTRIBUTED STUD TIME (distributed better longterm recall)
serial position eIIect: our tendency to recall best the last and Iirst items in a list
last items are still in working memory (a recency eIIect) while but aIter a delay the recall is best Ior Iirst
items (a primacy eIIect)

WHAT WE ENCODE
LEVELS OF PROCESSING
visual encoding: the encoding oI picture images
acoustic encoding: the encoding oI sound, especially the sound oI words
sematic encoding: the encoding oI meaning, including the meaning oI words
sematic ~ acoustic or visual

VISUAL ENCODING
imagery: mental pictures, a powerIul aid to eIIortIul processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding
mnemonics: memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

ORGANIZIING INFORMATION FOR ENCODING
CHUNKING
chunking: organizing items into Iamiliar, manageable units; oIten occurs automatically

HIERARCHIES
like how the subtitles are done!

STORAGE: RETAINING INFORMATION
SENSORY MEMORY
iconic memory: a momentary sensory memory oI visual stimuli; a photographic or pictureimage memory lasting
no more than a Iew tenths oI a second
echoic memory: a momentary sensory memory oI auditory stimuli; iI attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can
still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

WORKING/SHORT-TERM MEMORY
at any given time, we can consciously process only a very limited amount oI inIormation

LONG-TERM MEMORY
capacity Ior storing longterm memories is essentially limitless

STORING MEMORIES IN THE BRAIN
SNAPTIC CHANGES
given increased activity in a particular pathway, neural interconnections Iorm or strengthen
observed such changes in Aplysia (slug)
when learning occurs, the slug releases more oI the neurotransmitter serotonin
longterm potentiation (LTP): an increase in a synapse`s Iiring potential aIter brieI, rapid stimulation. Believed to
be a neural basis Ior learning and memory
drugs that block LTP interIere with learning
mutant mice engineered to lack an enzyme needed Ior LTP can`t learn their way out oI a maze
rats given a drug that enhances LTP will learn a maze with halI the usual number oI mistakes

STRESS HORMONES AND MEMOR
arousal can sear certain events into the brain, while disrupting memory Ior neutral events around the same time
stress hormones make glucose Ior brain
amygdale stimulated
Ilashbulb memory: a clear memory oI an emotionally signiIicant moment or event

STORING IMPLICIT AND EXPLICIT MEMORIES
amnesia: the loss oI memory
implicit memory: retention independent oI conscious recollection (nondeclarative memory)
explicit memory: memory oI Iacts and experiences that one can consciously know and 'declare
hippocampus: a neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories Ior storage
temporal lobe neural center
leIt side :visual designs and locations
right side: verbal inIo
cerebellum implicit memory

RETRIEVAL: GETTING INFORMATION OUT
recall: a measure oI memory in which the person must retrieve inIormation learned earlier, as on a Iillintheblank
test
the least sensitive measure oI retention in triggering retrieval, out oI recall, recognition and relearning
recognition: a measure oI memory in which the person need only identiIy items previous learned, as on a multiple
choice test
relearning: a measure oI memory that assesses the amount oI time saved when learning material Ior a second time
priming: the activation, oIten unconsciously, oI particular associations in memory
dejavu: that eerie sense that 'I`ve experienced this beIore. Cues Irom the current situation may subconsciously
trigger retrieval oI an earlier experience
moodcongruent: the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one`s current good or bad mood

FORGETTING
Three sins oI Iorgetting:
absentmindedness: inattention to details leads to encoding Iailure
transience: storage decay over time
blocking: inaccessibility oI stored inIo (tip oI the tongue phenomenon)

Three sins oI distortion
misattribution: conIusing the source oI inIo
suggestibility: the lingering eIIects oI misinIormation ('Did Mr Jones touch your private parts? becomes Ialse
memory)
Bias: belieIcoloured collections

One sin oI intrusion
persistence: unwanted memories (being haunted by sexual assault)

RETRIEVAL FAILURE
proactive inIerence: the disruptive eIIect oI prior learning on the recall oI new inIormation
retroactive interIerence: the disruptive eIIect oI new learning on the recall oI old inIormation
repression: in psychoanalytical theory, the basic deIense mechanism that banishes Irom consciousness anxiety
arousing thoughts, Ieelings and memories

MEMORY CONSTRUCTION
misinIormation eIIect: incorporating misleading inIormation into one`s memory oI an event
source amnesia: attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or
imagined (also called source misattribution). Source amnesia, along with the misinIormation eIIect, is at
the heart oI many Ialse memories


OTHER:
in Sperling`s memory experiment, research participants were shown three rows oI three letters, Iollowed
immediately by a low, medium or high tone. The participants were able to report any oI the three rows oI
letters. At Iirst recall they could only remember halI, but when asked to recall a particular row aIter, their
recall was near perIect ( brieI photographic memory)
Jenkins and Dallenbach Iound that memory was better in people who were asleep during the retention interval,
presumably because interIerence was reduced
Lashley`s studies, in which rats learned a maze and then had various parts oI their brains surgically removed,
showed that the memory remained no matter which are oI the brain was tampered with
disruption oI memory that occurs when Iootball players have been knocked out provides evidence Ior the
importance oI consolidation in the Iormation oI new memories
generally speaking, memory Ior random digits is better than memory Ior random letters

CHAPTER 11: MOTIVATION AND WORK

MOTIVATIONAL CONCEPTS
motivation is best described as a state that energizes and directs behaviour

INSTINCTS AND EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY
instinct: a complex behaviour that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned
human behaviour exhibits certain unlearned Iixed patterns (inIantile reIlexes and sucking) but most psychologists
view human behaviour as directed both by physiological needs and by psychological wants

DRIVES AND INCENTIVES
when the original instinct theory oI motivation collapsed, it was replaced by drivereduction theory
drive reduction theory: the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates
an organism to satisIy the need
the physiological aim oI drive reduction is homeostasis
homeostasis: a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation oI any aspect oI
body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level
not only are we pushed by our 'need to reduce drives, we are also pulled by our incentives
incentives: a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behaviour
Ex: our learning, aroma oI good Iood
a diIIerence between a drive and a need is that needs are physiological states, while drives are psychological states
one problem with motivation as a drive reduction is that because some motivated behaviours do not seem to be
based on physiological needs, they cannot be explained in terms oI drive reduction

OPTIMAL AROUSAL
we are more than homeostatic systems, some behaviours INCREASE arousal. Ex: curiosity
human motivation aims not to eliminate arousal but to seek optimum levels oI arousal
humans are inIovores (aIter neuroscientists identiIied brain mechanisms that reward us Ior acquiring inIo)

HIERARCHY OF MOTIVES
hierarchy oI needs: Maslow`s pyramid oI human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must
Iirst be satisIied beIore higherlevel saIety needs and then psychological needs become active
at very top oI pyramid (not shown in lecture notes): selItranscendence needs need to Iind meaning and identity
beyond the selI (transpersonal)

HUNGER
Ex. extreme hunger in concentration camps during WWII. Families would Iight over a piece oI bread like dogs
Ancel Keys led experiment where 36 male volunteers (all objectors to war) were given just enough Iood to
maintain initial weight. Then Ior six months this Iood was cut in halI. The man began conserving energy,
appeared listless and apathetic. AIter dropping, body weights stabilized. All they talked about was Iood.

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF HUNGER
experimenter swallowed a balloon to measure stomach contractions. He Ielt hungry every time stomach contracted
however, rats with stomachs removed still Ielt hunger pangs like regular rats

BOD CHEMISTR AND THE BRAIN
glucose: the Iorm oI sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source oI energy Ior body tissues.
When its level is low, we Ieel hunger.
located hunger controls are in the hypothalamus. Two distinct areas inIluence eating: the lateral hypothalamus
(along the sides) brings on hunger by secreting orexin. The lower midhypothalamus (ventromedial
hypothalamus) depressed hunger.
set point: the point at which an individual`s 'weight thermostat is supposedly set. When the body Ialls below this
weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight
basal metabolic rate: the body`s resting rate oI energy expenditure

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF HUNGER
TASTE PREFERENCES: BIOLOG AND CULTURE
preIerences Ior sweet and salty are genetic and universal
Other preIerences are conditioned: people with high salted Ioods preIer excess salt, or taste aversion
Culture aIIects taste: Bedouins enjoy camel eye, and North Americans and Europeans shun horse, dog and rat
meat.
neophobia Ior unIamiliar tastes protected our ancestors Irom potentially toxic substances

THE ECOLOG OF EATING
situations control our eating
people eat more when surrounded by others (social Iacilitation)
unit bias: you eat more with a larger portion size

EATING DISORDERS
anorexia nervosa: an eating disorder in which a person (usually an adolescent Iemale) diets and becomes
signiIicantly (15 or more) underweight, yet, still Ieeling Iat, continues to starve.
bulimia nervosa: an eating disorder characterized by episodes oI overeating, usually oI highcalorie Ioods,
Iollowed by vomiting, laxative use, Iasting or excessive exercise
bingeeating disorder: signiIicant bingeeat episodes, Iollowed by distress, disgust or guilt, but without the
compensatory purging, Iasting or excessive exercise that marks bulimia nervosa.
culture inIluences body image in AIrican countries, plumper is better.
women in countries such as India, where thinness is not idealized, rate their body ideals closest to their actual
shape

OBESITY AND WEIGHT CONTROL
the tendency to overeat when Iood is plentiIul emerged in our prehistoric ancestors as an adaptive response to
alternating periods oI Ieast and Iamine
new research links women`s obesity to their risk oI lateliIe Alzheimer`s disease and brain tissue loss

THE SOCIAL EFFECTS OF OBESIT
can trigger lower selIesteem and lower respect in society iI one is obese

65 oI Americans are overweight
being overweight can decrease liIe expectancy
obesity can also aIIect selIesteem and social relationships. Women are less likely to be hired iI they are
overweight, as well as less likely to be married
the tendency to overeat when Iood is plentiIul emerged in our prehistoric ancestors as an adaptive response to
alternating periods oI Ieast and Iamine.
the immediate determinants oI body Iat are the size and number oI Iat cells. In an obese person, Iat cells may
swell to two or three times the average size. They may also divide and or trigger nearby immature cells to
divide. On a diet, Iat cells may shrink, but they never disappear.
in studies oI obese mice, researchers have Iound that some mice had a deIective gene Ior producing leptin, a Iat
detecting hormone.
research on genetic inIluences on obesity reveals that the body weight oI adoptees correlates with that oI their
biological parents.
the number oI Iat cells is inIluenced by genetic predisposition, childhood and adult eating habits
when obese patients restrict their calorie intake, oIten the body will go into starvation mode and start conserving
energy, making it harder to lose weight.
researchers overIed volunteers an extra 1000 calories a day Ior weight weeks. Those who lost the least weight
tended to spend extra caloric energy by Iidgeting more, as opposed to the larger volunteers who moved
less
with sleep deprivation, the levels oI leptin Iall and ghrelin rise

SEXUAL MOTIVATION
THE PHYSIOLOGY OF SEX
THE SEXUAL RESPONSE CCLE
sexual response cycle: the Iour stages oI sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson excitement,
plateau, orgasm, resolution
excitement phase genital areas engorge with blood, women`s vagina expands and secretes lubricant, breasts and
nipples may enlarge
plateau phase excitement peaks
orgasm muscle contractions
resolution during this phase, male enters reIractory period, lasting a Iew minutes to days
reIractory period: a resting period aIter orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve orgasm
sexual disorders: a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or Iunctioning
Ex: premature ejaculation, erectile dysIunction, orgasmic dysIunction

HORMONES AND SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR
estrogens: sex hormones, such as estradiol, secreted in greater amounts by Iemales than by males and contributing
to Iemale sex characteristics. In nonhuman Iemale mammals, oestrogen levels peak during ovulation,
promoting sexual receptivity
testosterone: the most important oI the male sex hormones. Both males and Iemales have it, but the additional
testosterone in males stimulates the growth oI the male sex organs in the Ioetus and the development oI the
male sex characteristics during puberty
women`s sexuality diIIers Irom that oI other mammalian Iemales in being more responsive to testosterone levels
than to oestrogen levels. II a woman`s natural testosterone level drops, as happens with removal oI ovaries
or adrenal glands, her sexual interest may wane.

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SEX
EXTERNAL STIMULI
men and women become aroused when they see, hear or read erotic material
some may Iind it pleasing or disturbing. With repeated exposure, people habituate
while viewing erotica, men and women diIIer in their activity levels oI the amygdala

IMAGINED STIMULI
people who, because oI a spinal injury, have no genital sensation, can still Ieel sexual desire
castration oI male rats results in reduced testosterone but no change in sexual interest
it`s all in the brain


ADOLESCENT SEXUALITY
teen intercourse rates are roughly similar in Western Europe and Latin America, but much lower in Arab and Asian
countries and among North Americans oI Asian descent
with regard to sex education, people`s attitudes, values and morals cannot be separated Irom the biological aspects
oI sexuality

TEEN PREGNANC
Compared with European teens, American tens have a lower rate oI contraceptive use and a higher rate oI teen
pregnancy and abortion
IGNORANCE: many American teens unaware oI STI`s and contraceptive use. Countering ignorance with
contraceptive sex education does not increase adolescent sexual activity, and may even delay rather than
hasten onset oI this activity
MINIMAL COMMUNICATION ABOUT BIRTH CONTROL: people who talk Ireely with parents and are in
exclusive relationships that are more open to communication are more likely to use contraception
GUILT RELATED TO SEXUAL ACTIVIT: 72 regret sex
ALCOHOL USE: sexually active teens are typically alcohol using teens and those who use alcohol prior to sex are
less likely to use condoms
MASS MEDIA NORMS OF UNPROTECTED PROMISCUIT: oIten sex displayed is between people unmarried
with no prior relationship without communication oI birth control

SEXUALL TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS
condoms oIIer little protection against skin to skin STI`s (though 80 eIIective against HIV transmittance)
Predictors oI sexual restraint:
High intelligence: teens with higher than average intelligence test scores oIten delay sex
Religious engagement: actively religious teens and adults oIten reserve sex Ior marriage
Father presence: absent Iathers lead to oItentimes sexually active teen daughters
Participating in service learning programs

SEXUAL ORIENTATION
sexual orientation: an enduring sexual attraction toward members oI either one`s own sex (homosexual orientation)
or the other sex (heterosexual orientation)
In Chile, 32 oI people say they think homosexuality 'is never justiIied, while it`s 50 in U.S. and 98 in
Kenya and Nigeria

SEXUAL OREINTATION STATISTICS
3 4 oI men and 1 2 oI women are homosexual
sexual orientation is not an indicator oI mental health
endurance oI homosexuality is most stable in men

ORIGINS OF SEXUAL ORIENTATION
homosexuality is NOT linked with problems in a child`s relationship with parents, such as domineering mother or
ineIIectual Iather, or a possessive mother or hostile Iather
homosexuality does not involve Iear or hatred oI people oI the other gender, leading individuals to direct their
sexual desires towards members oI their own sex
sexual orientation is not linked with levels oI sex hormones currently in the blood
as children, many were NOT molested, seduced or otherwise sexually victimized by an adult homosexual
HOWEVER, men who have older brothers are somewhat more likely to be gay (Iraternal birthorder eIIect)
samesex attraction is also Iound in animals
gay men and straight women have brain hemispheres oI similar size, whereas lesbian women and straight men
have a larger right hemisphere
in Iruit Ilies, one gene determines sexual orientation and behaviour. More complicated Ior humans
shared genetics and shared prenatural environments may be a Iactor
when pregnant sheep were injected with testosterone during a critical period oI Ioetal development,
Iemale oIIspring later showed homosexual behaviour
thereIore evidence makes a preliminary link between homosexuality and atypical prenatal hormones
exposure oI a Ioetus to the hormones typical oI Iemales between 2 and 5 months aIter conception may
predispose the developing human to become attracted to males

THE NEED TO BELONG
when asked what makes liIe meaningIul, most people Iirst mention satisIying relationships
our need to aIIiliate or belong to Ieel connected and identiIied with others had survival value Ior our ancestors`
chances, which may explain why humans in every society live in groups. Societies everywhere control
behaviour with the threat oI ostracism excluding or shunning others. When socially excluded, people
may engage in selIdeIeating behaviours (perIorming below their ability) or in antisocial behaviours
ostracism elicits increased activity in the brain area, the anterior cingulated cortex, that also seem to experience
social pain with the same emotional unpleasantness that marks physical pain

MOTIVATION AT WORK
the best predictor oI onthejob perIormance Ior all but lessskilled jobs is general mental ability
Ilow: a completely involved, Iocused state oI consciousness, with diminished awareness oI selI and time, resulting
Irom optimal engagement oI one`s skills
industrialorganizational psychology: the application oI psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human
behaviour in workplaces
to increase employee productivity, industrialorganizational psychologists advice managers to deal with employees
according to their individual motives

PERSONNEL PSYCHOLOGY
personnel psychology: a subIield oI I/O psychology that Iocuses on employee recruitment, selection, placement,
training, appraisal, and development
AT&T psychologist Mary Tenopyr developed a new selection instrument:
1) asked applicants to respond to various questions
2) Iollowed up later to assess which oI the applicants excelled on the job
3) she identiIied the individual items on the earlier test that best predicted who would succeed
Gallup researchers have argued that the Iirst step to a stronger organization is instituting a strengthsbased selection
system managers should identiIy group oI the most eIIective people in any role and compare them to the
least eIIective in the role (tests using this approach showed good candidates were strong in harmony and
responsibility)
researchers determined that all but lessskilled jobs showed that general mental ability best predicts onthejob
perIormance
subjective overall evaluations Irom inIormal interviews are more useIul than handwritten analysis but are
less inIormative than aptitude tests, work samples, job knowledge tests, and past job perIormance

THE INTERVIEWER ILLUSION
interviews disclose the interviewee`s good intentions, which are less revealing than habitual behaviours
interviewers more oIten Iollow the successIul careers oI those they have hired than the successIul careers
oI those they have rejected
interviewers presume that people are what they seem to be in the interview situation
interviewers` preconceptions and moods colour how they perceive interviewee`s responses
structured interviews: interview process that asks the same jobrelevant questions oI all applications, each oI whom
is rated on established scales
structured interviews have double the predictive accuracy oI unstructured interviews

APPRAISING PERFORMANCE
perIormance appraisal methods include:
checklists
graphic rating scales (Iive point scale, employer checks how oIten a worker is dependable)
behaviour rating scales
360degree Ieedback where you rate yourselI, your manager, and other colleagues, and they all do the same

ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: MOTIVATING ACHIEVEMENT
organizational psychology: a subIield oI I/O psychology that examines organizational inIluences on worker
satisIaction and productivity and Iacilitates organizational change
achievement motivation: a desire Ior signiIicant accomplishment; Ior mastery oI things, people, or ideas; Ior
rapidly attaining a high standard
selIdiscipline has been a better predictor oI school perIormance, attendance, and graduation honours than
intelligence scores have been
task leadership: goaloriented leadership that sets standards, organizes work, and Iocuses attention on goals
social leadership: grouporiented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conIlict, and oIIers support
have a democratic style
personnel psychologists work with organizations to devise selection methods Ior new employees, recruit and
evaluate applications, design and evaluate training programs, identiIy people`s strengths, analyze job
content, and appraise individual and organizational perIormance. Subjective interviews Ioster the
interviewer illusion; structures interviews pinpoint jobrelevant strengths and are better predictors oI
perIormance. Checklists, graphic rating scales, and behaviour rating scales are useIul perIormance
appraisal methods
organizational psychologists examine inIluences on worker satisIaction and productivity and Iacilitate
organizational change. Employee engagement tends to correlate with organizational success. Leadership
style may be goaloriented (task leadership), or grouporiented (social leadership) or some combination oI
the two

CHAPTER 12:
EMOTIONS, STRESS AND HEALTH

THEORIES OF EMOTION
emotion: a response oI the whole organism, involving 1) physiological arousal, 2) expressive behaviours and 3)
conscious experience
JamesLange Theory: the theory that our experience oI emotion is our awareness oI our physiological responses to
emotionarousing stimuli
CannonBard Theory: the theory that an emotionarousing stimulus simultaneously triggers 1) physiological
responses and 2) the subjective experience oI emotion
twoIactor theory: the SchachterSinger theory that to experience emotion one must be 1) physically aroused and 2)
cognitively label the arousal
emotions consist oI physiological reactions, behavioural expressions, and conscious Ieelings

EMBODIED EMOTIONS
EMOTIONS AND THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
autonomic nervous system stimulates Ilight or Iight response
the sympathetic division directs adrenal glands to release stress hormone epinephrine (adrenaline) and
norepinephrine. By these hormones, liver pours extra sugar into bloodstream. To help burn sugar,
respiration increases to supply needed oxygen. Heart rate and blood rate increase. Digestion slows,
diverting blood Irom internal organs to muscles. Pupils dilate and perspiration increases.
parasympathetic nervous system brings your body back to a calm state

PHYSIOLOGICAL SIMILARITIES AMONG SPECIFIC EMOTIONS
anger, sexual arousal, and Iear have very similar physiological responses
a graph oI the course oI positive emotions rise over the early hours and Iall during the day`s last several hours

PHYSIOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES AMONG SPECIFIC EMOTIONS
temperature and hormone secretions between Iear and range do sometimes diIIer
Iear and joy can prompt similar heart rates but lead to diIIerent Iacial muscles
emotions diIIer more in the brain circuits they use
disgust triggers more activity in the right preIrontal cortex than in the leIt
depression prone people and those with generally negative personalities show more right Irontal activity
positive moods tend to trigger more leIt Irontal lobe activity
this can be explained through dopamine levels the nucleus accumbens is a neural pathway that
increases dopamine levels that run Irom Irontal lobes to a nearby cluster oI neurons.
with regard to emotions, Darwin believed that the expression oI emotions helped our ancestors to survive, that all
humans express basic emotions using similar Iacial expressions and that these expressions retain elements
oI animals` emotional displays

COGNITION AND EMOTION
cognition can deIine emotion
Schachter and Singer aroused college men with injections oI epinephrine and made to watch someone
who was euphoric or irritated. Those who were injected and told the eIIects oI the drug simply attributed
emotional response to the drug those who weren`t told what the drug would do would 'catch the
apparent emotion oI the person they were with.
arousal Iuels emotion, cognition channels it
polygraph: a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several oI the physiological
responses accompanying emotions (such as perspiration and cardiovascular and breathing changes.)
'Guilty knowledge test

EXPRESSED EMOTION
much oI our communication is through the silent language oI the body. Even very thin (secondslong) Iilmed
slices oI behaviour can reveal Ieelings. Women tend to be better at reading people`s emotional cues
some gestures are culturally determined. Facial expressions, such as those oI happiness and Iear, are common the
world over. Cultures diIIer in the amount oI emotion they express
Expressions do more than communicate emotion to others. They also ampliIy the Ielt emotion and signal the body
to respond accordingly

EXPERIENCED EMOTION
Iear has adaptive value because it helps us avoid threats and, when necessary, cope with them. We are predisposed
to some Iears, and we learn others through conditioning and observation.
anger is most oIten evoked by events that are not only Irustrating or insulting but also interpreted as wilIul,
unjustiIiable, and avoidable. Blowing oII steam (catharsis) may be temporarily calming, but in the long run
it does not reduce anger. Expressing anger actually makes us angrier.
catharsis: emotional release. In psychology, the catharsis hypothesis maintains that 'releasing aggressive
energy (through action or Iantasy) relieves aggressive urges
technically would be most eIIective iI anger directed towards the person who angered you, speciIically
Ieelgood, dogood phenomenon: people`s tendency to be helpIul when already in a good mood
subjective well being: selIperceived happiness or satisIaction with liIe. Used along with measures oI objective
wellbeing (Ior ex. physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people`s quality oI liIe
additionallevel phenomenon: our tendency to Iorm judgements (oI sounds, oI lights, oI income) relative to a
neutral level deIined by our prior experience.
relative deprivation: the perception that one is worse oII relative to those with whom one compares oneselI
a good mood boosts people`s perceptions oI the world and their willingness to help others. The mood triggered by
the day`s good or bad events seldom last beyond the day. Even signiIicant good events, such as substantial
rise in income, seldom increase happiness Ior long. We can explain the relativity oI happiness with the
adaptionlevel phenomenon and relative deprivation principle. Nevertheless, some people are usually
happier than others, and researchers have identiIied Iactors that predict such happiness.

STRESS AND HEALTH
behavioural medicine: an interdisciplinary Iield that integrates behavioural and medical knowledge and applies that
knowledge to health and disease.
health psychology: a subIield oI psychology that provides psychology`s contribution to behavioural medicine.
one halI oI all deaths Irom the 10 leading causes oI death in the U.S. can be attributed to behaviour.
Ex: smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, insuIIicient exercise, use oI illicit drugs, poor nutrition

Stress and Illness
Stress and Stressors
4 in 10 people Irequently report experiencing stress
stress: the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as
threatening or challenging

The Stress Response System
medical interest in stress dates back to Hippocrates but it was not until the 1920`s that physiologist Walter Cannon
conIirmed that stress response is part oI a uniIied mindbody system.
Fight or Flight Response system
trigger by sympathetic nervous system oI outpouring oI stress hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine
Irom adrenal glands
arousal oI the sympathetic nervous system
increase in heart rate and respiration
diverts blood Irom digestion to skeletal muscles
dulls pain
release sugar and Iat Irom the body`s stores
Additional stress response system
on order Irom the cerebral cortex via the hypothalamus and pituitary gland, the outer part oI the adrenal
glands secrete glucocorticoid stress hormones such as cortisol.
works much slower. 'Epinephrine is the one handing out guns; glucocorticoids are the ones drawing up
blueprints Ior new aircraIt carriers needed Ior the war eIIort.
'Tend or beIriend reIers to an alternative to the 'Ilight or Ilight response that may be more common in women
Canadian scientist Hans Selye discovered that the body`s adaptive response to stress was very general
general adaptation syndrome (GAS): Selye`s concept oI the body`s adaptive response to stress in three stages
alarm, resistance, exhaustion.
PHASE 1: ALARM (mobilize resources)
sudden activation oI the sympathetic nervous system
heart rate increases, blood is diverted to skeletal muscles
PHASE 2: RESISTANCE (cope with stressor)
temperature, blood pressure, and respiration remain high, sudden outpouring oI hormones
iI persistant, stress may deplete body`s reserve during Phase 3
PHASE 3: EXHAUSTION (reserves depleted)
more vulnerable to illness
stress can cause shorter telomeres (death), shrunken hippocampus

StressIul LiIe Events
CATASTROPHES
in disaster`s wake, rates oI psychological disorders such as anxiety and depression rose 17
examples: 9/11, earthquake
SIGNIFICANT LIFE CHANGES
leaving home, job loss, etc.
DAIL HASSLES
rush hour
Stress and the Heart
coronary heart disease: the clogging oI the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause oI death in
many developed countries (leading cause oI death in North America)
study by Rosenman, Friedman and colleagues noticed women who consumed as much Iat as husbands were less
likely to develop heart attacks. They studied tax collectors, and during stressIul times their cholesterol and
clotting measures rose to dangerous levels.
stress predicted heart attack risk
Type A: Friedman and Rosenman`s term Ior competitive, harddriving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger
prone people.
Type B: Friedman and Rosenman`s term Ior easygoing, relaxed people
stress hormones accelerate the buildup oI plaque on the artery walls.
When challenged, active sympathetic nervous system redistributes bloodIlow to muscles and away Irom internal
organs like the liver (which removes Iat and cholesterol). This causes excess cholesterol and Iat deposited
around the heart.
reactive Type A`s are more 'combat ready. When stressed, Type A show a greater output oI stress hormones

Stress and Susceptibility to Disease
psychophysiological illnesses: literally, 'mindbody illnesses; any stressrelated physical illness, such as
hypertension and some headaches. Note: this is distinct Irom hypochondriasis (misinterpretation oI
diseases)
Stress and the Immune System
the immune system contains two kinds oI white blood cells called lymphocytes:
. lymphocytes Iorm in the bone marrow and release antibodies that Iight bacterial inIections
T. Lymphocytes Iorm in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, Ioreign
substancs
Macrophages identiIy, pursue, and digest harmIul invaders
II the immune system responds too strongly it can attack the body`s own tissues (arthritis or allergy)
underreacting, it can allow a dormant virus to erupt or cancer cells to multiply
women are immunologically stronger than men, making them less susceptible to inIections but more susceptible to
selIattacking diseases such as lupus and multiple sclerosis.
stress depresses the human system
wounds heal slower with stress
47 oI stressed people developed colds aIter a virus was dropped in their noses

Stress and AIDS
AIDS is the world`s Iourth leading cause oI death and number one killer in AIrica
stress may progress oI the HIV inIection to AIDS

Stress and Cancer
stress and negative emotions have been linked to cancer`s progression rate
stress aIIects the growth oI cancer cells by weakening the body`s natural resources and deIences
cancer occurs slightly more oIten than usual among those widowed, divorced or separated

Conditioning the Immune System
in one study, laboratory rats drank sweetened water with a drug that causes immune suppression. AIter repeated
pairings oI the taste with the drug, sweetened water alone triggered immune suppression.

Promoting Health
Coping with Stress
coping: alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive or behavioural methods
problemIocused coping: attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact
with that stressor. Ex: impatience leads to Iamily Iights talking to Iamily about it.
Use when we have a sense oI control.
emotionIocused coping: attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to
emotional needs related to one`s stress reaction. Ex: same as beIore Iriends Ior emotional support
not always eIIective. Ex: stressed students goes out to party to relieve stress instead oI studying

Perceived Control
Experiment with rats. One rat could stop shocks by turning the wheel. Another rat received the same shock
without this control. The rat with control was less likely to develop ulcers than the helpless one.
losing control provokes an outpouring oI stress hormones

Explanatory Style
Optimists respond to stress with smaller increases in blood pressure and recover quicker Irom bypass surgery

Social Support
some studies indicate that married people live longer, healthier lives than the unmarried
social support usually increases our ability to cope with stressIul events
a study in which people were asked to conIide troubled Ieelings to an experimenter Iound that participants
typically became physiologically more relaxed aIter conIiding their problem.
as a predictor oI health and longevity, religious involvement rivals nonsmoking and exercise.
having a coherent worldview is a buIIer against stress, they also have a stronger network oI social support

Managing Stress
Aerobic Exercise
aerobic exercise: sustained exercise that increases heart and lung Iitness; may also alleviate depression and anxiety
can reduce stress, depression and anxiety
exercise increase norepinephrine, serotonin, and endorphins
promotes the growth oI new brain cells (in mice exercising daily on runningwheel regimen)
modestly enhances cognitive abilities such as memory
exercise can also strengthen the heart, increase blood Ilow, keep blood vessels open, and lower blood pressure

BioIeedback, Relaxation, and Meditation
bioIeedback: a system Ior electronically recording, ampliIying, and Ieeding back inIormation regarding a subtle
physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension
at Iirst seeing one`s heart rate increase urged to decrease stress (under conscious control)
research later showed the eIIects as overblown
the accompanying relaxation is much the same as that produced by other, simpler methods oI relaxation
complementary and alternative medicine: unproven health care treatments not taught widely in medical schools,
not used in hospitals, and not usually reimbursed by insurance companies.
Examples are: acupuncture, aromatherapy, homeopathy