Video Games Localization

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VIDEO GAMES LOCALISATION: POSING NEW CHALLENGES TO THE

TRANSLATOR
Carmen Mangiro Hevian a
a
Centre for Translation and Textual Studies, Dublin City University,
Online Publication Date: 24 July 2007
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306
VIDEO GAMES LOCALISATION:

POSING NEW CHALLENGES TO THE TRANSLATOR
Carmen Mangiron Hevia, Centre for Translation and Textual Studies,

Dublin City University
carmen.mangiron@dcu.ie
Abstract
Video games localisation is an emerging type of translation that has deserved very little attention
from a translation studies perspective to date. This article discusses what is involved in video game
localisation, what assets need to be localised, what the different localisation models are and what
translator competence is required in order to localise video games successfully. It also emphasises
the need to encourage the study of this new discipline and the training of translators who have the
skills and competence required to face the challenges posed by this new translation field.
Key words: Video games; video games localisation; localisation models; translator’s
competence; global pop culture.
Introduction
In less than three decades, the interactive software entertainment industry, known
popularly as the video games industry, has become a worldwide phenomenon,
Downloaded At: 23:31 18 February 2009
which generated global sales of 24,792.4 millions of Euro in 2006 and is expected
to keep growing in the next years (IDATE).
Video games are today a mainstream entertainment option. Already in 2002,
one in three Europeans played video games regularly for an average of six hours
a week, their ages typically ranging from 20 to 30 years (ISFE). Together with
music, movies and books, video games form the basis of global pop culture, and
it must be pointed out that video games sales currently generate more revenue
per annum than the cinema box office in the US (Newman 2004: 3).
This new form of electronic entertainment is very closely linked to techno-
logical developments, which have allowed video games to come a long way
since SpaceWar, the first video game, made of simple dots and lines, was devel-
oped at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1962. New consoles appear
regularly in the market, and the latest ones, known as the seventh generation
consoles, are very different from the first 8-bit consoles that used cartridges and
had very limited graphics, sound and storage capabilities.
The transition from fifth generation consoles, such as PlayStation, Nintendo
64 and Sega Saturn, which used CD ROMs as a storage medium, to sixth
generation ones, such as PlayStation 2, Xbox and Sega Dreamcast, which
replaced CDs with DVDs, a medium with a much larger storage capability, was
a great breakthrough in video games history. The increased storage capacity
allowed, for the first time, the incorporation of recorded scripts by voiceover
actors into video games. This enabled games evolve into something approaching
an interactive movie.
Today’s games are full of cutting-edge graphics, elaborate soundtracks,
and witty and fast-flowing dialogues. These features allow the players to
enjoy a much more intense and real gaming experience. This experience has
recently been taken a step further with the introduction of the latest consoles,
such as Microsoft Xbox 360, Sony PlayStation 3, and Nintendo Wii. The latter
0907-676X/06/04/306-12 $20.00 © 2006 Carmen Mangiron Hevia
Perspectives: Studies in Translatology Vol. 14, No. 4, 2006
Mangiron. Video Games Localisation 307
is equipped with a wireless controller that can detect motion and rotation in
three dimensions, making it possible for gamers to control their videogame
movements with their own hand when they are fighting their sworn enemies or
competing against their tennis opponents.
It is widely acknowledged that one of the main causes of the success of games
is their internationalisation and globalisation, a process in which localisation
has played a key role. In order to maximise their profits, most game developers,
which are mainly based in Japan, the US and the UK, translate – or localise,
the term used in the industry – their games into other languages (Mangiron &
O’Hagan 2006). Some games are even said to make almost 50% of their revenues
from international sales (Chandler 2006).
This paper focuses on video games localisation, referred to as games localisation
hereafter, the different localisation models, and the role of the localiser, the key
agent of the localisation process. It will examine the different tasks s/he has to
perform, the different text types s/he has to translate, and the challenges s/he
has to face during the localisation process, such as the translation of cultural
references, humour and intertextual allusions. It also tries to identify the abilities
and the translator competence required to localise a video game successfully.
This should become the basis for specialised courses in video games localisation
that would provide a theoretical background, as well as training and practical

skills, to students of translation and professional translators willing to specialise
in this new field. This, in turn, would ensure the quality of games localisation and
would continue to support the growth of this emerging type of translation.
What is a video game?

According to Frasca (2001: 4), video games are “computer-based entertainment
software, either textual or image-based, using any electronic platform, such
as personal computers or consoles and involving one or multiple players in
a physical or networked environment”. This definition mainly refers to PC
(including massive multiplayer online games, also known as MMOG) and
console games, and it can also be extended to games for mobile phones. However,
it does not really include old-style arcade games, which are not software-based
and are usually not localised, mainly due to the fact that they do not contain
much text.
However, as the challenges involved in localising console or PC games are
rather different to those involved in localising a game for mobile phones or a
massive multiplayer online game, in this paper when I refer to video games I
will mainly refer to console games, and more specifically role playing games
(RPGs). RPGs are the most interesting to analyse from a translation studies
perspective, as they contain more text and text-types, due to their more elaborate
and intricate stories.
From a translation studies perspective, a video game could be defined as
an interactive multimedia text that combines words, images and sound, and
whose main objective is to entertain. A video game is made up of a series of
components of varying nature, also called assets, namely, in-game text assets,
art assets, audio assets, cinematic assets and printed materials (Chandler 2005:
51). Despite the fact that the translation of all these elements brings into play
several translation skills, the different assets must be localised and integrated
308 2006. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology. Volume 14: 4
harmoniously, so that they form an engaging game that feels like an original
and meets the players’ expectations.
Text assets include all in-game text-only messages that make up the user
interface, such as menus, drop-down lists, help messages, system messages,
tutorials and dialogue messages that are not voiced over. Art assets are all the
images and graphics that need to be redesigned by the graphic artist; that is,
new graphics need to be created for each localised version for items such as
maps, shop boards, signs, etc. which incorporate text in a given language. For
consistency, it is advisable to localise all graphics in a fully localised version of
a game, unless they are in a different language in the original game as well and
used to convey an ‘exotic’ atmosphere. However, the lack of time or a planning
oversight may result in some art assets not being localised. Audio assets and
cinematic assets include those components with sound, such as songs, voiceovers
for the script, and cut-scenes, the movie-like elements that appear in action,
adventure and RPGs and provide players with elaborate animated scenes that
contribute to the development of the story line. It must be pointed out that scripts
are not always voiced-over. Sometimes, due to financial and time constraints, the
voiced-over script is left in English and simply subtitled into other languages.
This is often the case when localising Japanese games, although it also applies
to some games originally developed in English, which are only subtitled into
other languages, such as the Grand Theft Auto Series in Spanish. Finally, printed
materials include all those elements on paper that accompany the game, such as
the packaging and the instructions manual.
Games localisation
The term games localisation is used as an analogy to software localisation, because
the translation of the game needs to conform to the local standards of the
target culture and has to be integrated within the game software. In order to
be successful internationally, it is very important that publishers develop their
games keeping localisation in mind from the beginning, in order to minimise
the amount of reengineering work needed for the localised versions.
For example, it is necessary to allow for special and extended characters,
and for the conversion from languages which use double-byte character
encoding, such as Japanese, to single-byte characters, such as English. Even
when translating from English into Romance languages, text boxes should be
designed so that they will be expandable, as Romance languages usually take
up more space than English, in order to avoid truncations. Chandler (2005:
9) states that ideally an extra space allocation of 30% should be made for all
localised versions of a game.
Another way to overcome the strict space limitations present in a game’s user
interface, particularly in menu and battle screens, consists of using scrollable
windows, which can stretch either horizontally or vertically. This allows the
use of longer strings of text in the localised versions, without having to resort to
the use of abbreviations or having to omit important elements of information.
Localisers can concentrate more on their creativity and their wording if they
are not constrained by a strict character and line limit and an imperious need to
condense their message.
This creative factor is one of the main differences between software
(particularly business applications) and games localisation. Even though

these two types of translation share some features, one of the main differences
between the two lies in the fact that while business software must primarily
be effective and useful, video games must entertain and provide pleasure to
players while submerging them in a virtual reality environment. Players of the
translated versions should experience the game as if it were an original game
designed for them. The idea is that most players should be able to enjoy the
same gameplay experience irrespective of their origin and cultural background
(Mangiron & O’Hagan 2006).
For this reason, when a localiser is assigned a project, s/he is practically given
carte blanche to make any changes deemed necessary, especially regarding the
language, the cultural references and the humour, all of which are key elements
in games. Localisers may even go as far as to request graphics, design and even
story line changed if they feel it is necessary to truly localise the game for their
target users. Thus, games localisation distinguishes itself from other types of
translation in that it allows for a high degree of customisation of the translated
versions, to the point that localisers have the freedom to make and request
changes not only to the dialogue or verbal messages, but also to the graphics,
images and story line, in a fashion unknown in any other type of translation. It
could be said that games localisation goes further than ordinary translation, to
the point that it practically becomes transcreation (Mangiron & O’Hagan 2006).
All these aspects will be examined in more detail in the ‘Translator competence’
section below.
The only aspect that developers are keen to keep standard in all versions
of a localised game is the names of the main characters and scenarios in the
game. This is mainly due to marketing reasons and the rationale behind it is that
players from all over the world can recognise, identify and have discussions
about the game and its characters in Internet forums.
Having said this, exceptions can be made when considered necessary.
Mangiron & O’Hagan (2006) use the example of the Japanese name ジタン, the
main character of Final Fantasy IX, which was transliterated as Zidane in the
US localised version. However, European translators felt this name was not
appropriate for the European versions, as it is the name of the world-famous
French footballer Zinedine Zidane. Using the name Zidane could imply legal
complications, as well as introducing incorrect connotations into the game. For
these reasons, it was decided to transliterate the name into the different languages
in a way that would closely resemble the original Japanese pronunciation. Thus,
for example, Zidane became Djidane in the French version and Yitán in the
Spanish one.
Liesl Liery, senior localisation strategist for the ENLASO group (cited in
Chandler 2005: 96) mentions the case of the localisation into Swedish of the
game series Nancy Drew. This series is based on the famous American 1930’s
teenage detective novel series, which is still popular in the United States and
Europe today. In the translated Swedish novels, the protagonist’s name was
Kitty Drew, and therefore, if the game series were to be localised into Swedish,
the name of the main character would have had to be adapted accordingly.
Games localisation models

There are two main games localisation models, namely outsourcing and in-
house localisation. Outsourcing consists of handing a localisation kit with all the
relevant instructions and reference materials, and all the assets to be translated,
to an agency, which is then responsible for the whole localisation process,
including the recording of the script in a studio and the integration of the
localised versions. In this model, the role of the localiser is limited to translating
the script and in-game written messages.
As the deadline for publishing the game is usually very tight, localisers start
working while the game is still being developed, which means that the source
text is unstable and often subject to change. Moreover, localisers must translate
all the game assets without having access to the original game, and therefore
the possibility of committing errors is quite high, especially when translating
isolated strings, without any context. For example, if a Spanish localiser has
to translate a string that only consists of the preposition “for”, s/he will have
to opt for one of the possible translations into Spanish. Although the most
common translations would be “por” or “para”, other translations would also
be possible. In this case, the localisation specialist must opt for the translation
s/he thinks is less risky, that is, the one that has a higher possibility of being
correct in most contexts. In this case, “para” would probably be the more likely
translation, although chances of making a mistake are obviously high without
having access to the full sentence or sentences in which this preposition appears
in the game.
A notorious example of a mistranslation due to lack of contextual information
is the translation of the noun “party” in the Spanish version of the game Final
Fantasy VII as “fiesta” rather than “grupo” (group), which is the most common
usage in games. This example reconfirms the perilous practice of translating
without reference to the source text. It also evidences a lack of familiarity with
video games jargon on the part of the localisers, as the term party is often used
with that meaning in games.
Despite its drawbacks, outsourcing is the localisation model that has been
used mostly, and it continues to be the model chosen by most European and
US developers, who primarily for marketing reasons tend to opt for the sim-ship
model (simultaneous shipment). This means that the original game and all the
localised versions are published at the same time, usually on the same disk, that
contains the different language options. Outsourcing the localisation allows
them to start the localisation process before the game is finished, and have it
ready at the same time the original version is finished.
In-house localisation is the model chosen by the bigger Japanese developers,
such as Nintendo or Square-Enix. In this model, the company that develops the
game (referred to as “a games developer”) is also in charge of the localisation.
They usually have a localisation department which employs a few translators
and hires additional freelance translators for bigger projects or when they are
handling several projects simultaneously. The company assigns a localisation
coordinator who gathers a team of translators, who are usually required to work
at the company premises, and acts as an intermediary between the localisers’
team and the original development team. The involvement of localisers in
this model is much higher than in the outsourcing model, as translators must
familiarise themselves with the game. They also review and cross-check other
translators’ work, and they participate in the testing and quality assessment
process once the game has been localised.
Once the translation process starts, localisers have constant access to the
game, which they can consult in case of doubt or when they need contextual
information. This model of localisation requires more time and is therefore more
expensive, as localisation does not start until the original version is finished
or almost finished. The main reason for this is to ensure that the localisation
process runs smoothly; few changes will have to be made to the localised
versions, as the original version of the game will have been fixed at that stage.
In addition, once the development team have finished working on the original
version, they will have more time to spend on the localised versions. Despite
the time lag between the release of the original and the localised versions, this
approach guarantees higher quality localised versions, as access to contextual
information reduces considerably the amount of contextual errors. This model
also facilitates the quality assessment of the localised version, as there are fewer
bugs and errors to be found.
Translator competence
As previously mentioned, games are made of assets of a very different nature,

which require several translation skills to localise, depending on the text types
associated with them. In order to localise a game successfully, it is important that
translators are familiar with the specific features of video games localisation,
some of which are common to software localisation and audiovisual translation
(Mangiron & O’Hagan 2006). It is important to identify these skills in order
to be able to provide training for translators and translation students wanting
to specialise in this field. In this section, the different skills and competences
required from the translator will be examined in more detail.
1. Knowledge of general software terminology and specific games platform terminology

Messages such as “Insufficient free space on memory card (8MB) (for
PlayStation®2) in MEMORY CARD slot” and “Save error” are common in
games. For general terminology, such as save, delete, cancel, press, etc., standard
Microsoft software terminology is most commonly used. For specific hardware
terminology, each first-party publisher, be it PlayStation (Sony), GameCube
(Nintendo) or Xbox (Microsoft), has its own official terminology, and all games
to be published for their platform must strictly adhere to it. Failure to do so could
result in the game failing the quality requirements of the first-party publisher
and the need to resubmit it once the necessary changes and adjustments have
been made. Localisers need to be aware of these terminology variations and also
the need to comply with them.
Moreover, these kind of messages, such as system messages, warning
messages, and help messages, must be brief, clear and user-friendly, as their
main function is to facilitate a smooth gameplay experience, without interfering
with it by introducing long and complicated messages.
2. Familiarity with the specific features of screen translation

The localisation of audio and cinematic assets ideally requires that the translator
is familiar with the specific features of dubbing and subtitling. Regarding

dubbing, they have to be aware of issues such as lip synch, adjusting the time
available for a character’s intervention, and matching the translated text with the
image (if the localisers have access to the original game). In relation to subtitling,
a localiser has to be able to condense a message and keep the semantic unit
intact whenever possible, although this aspect is not given as much importance
in games as in movie subtitles.
However, there are also considerable differences between traditional screen
translation and subtitling for games (Mangiron & O’Hagan 2006). For example,
labels with the name of the character who is speaking are sometimes present,
and information relevant for gameplay, such as place, object and character
names is often highlighted in a different colour to help players advance in the
game. Also, subtitles appear on screen at a slightly faster speed than subtitles
on a movie, and players have the possibility to control the subtitles (pause
them, restart them and even skip them if they so wish), something impossible
in traditional subtitling but possible in new media such as DVD.
3. Mastering of natural and idiomatic language

Language plays a crucial role in games, especially RPGs, and the use of natural,
fluent and idiomatic language is essential to convey the gameplay experience

and allow players to fully enjoy the game, as unnatural or too literal language,
known as translationese, may deter their enjoyment.
In many action, adventure and RPG games, the kind of language used is
colloquial, cool street-speak slang, and it is very important to get the right tone
in the localised versions as well. When localising a game for younger kids, for
example, a video game based on the popular Bratz dolls, the localiser must aim
to reflect the way 10 year-old girls speak in his/her country in order to make the
game appealing to them.
4. Creativity
Game localisers need to be very creative in order to be able to produce an
exciting game that will engage players. Games must be quirky and fun to play,
and for that reason localisers have to be very creative when translating names
of weapons, objects, ability and commands, for example.
Humour is also a defining element in many games rich in jokes, puns and
wordplay. These can seldom be translated literally and have to be recreated
in order to keep the comic effect in the target community. Moreover, localisers
often take their creativity a step further and introduce new jokes and puns in
places where no humour is present in the original.
The RPG series Final Fantasy is a good example of this, as the US localised
versions are littered with jokes and puns which are actually absent in the
original. For example, in one of the opening scenes of Final Fantasy X, the main
character, Tidus, drifts into a ruined temple in the middle of the sea. Things
are not looking too good and he is feeling very cold. In the Japanese original,
the narrator states: 事態はどんどん悪くなっていく…夢も希望もありません..., which
literally means “The situation was getting worse... I had no dreams nor hopes”.
This was translated in the US version as “I had made it out of the frying pan...
and into the freezer” playing, of course, on the idiom “out of the frying pan and
into the fire”. Another of many examples can be found in the translation of the
following battle message, when one of the characters attacks the enemy using a
fire spell. The original Japanese says 炎よ、踊りなさい, literally, “Dance, Flame”.
It was translated into English as “Need a light?”, as if asking somebody for a
light for a cigarette.
A similar thing happens with cultural references and the introduction in
localised versions of regional accents to characterise some characters, in order
allow gamers to identify themselves with the game and feel that it is an original
game developed for their benefit and enjoyment. For example, one of the main
characters of FFX, Wakka, has no special accent in the Japanese original version,
but he was dubbed using a Hawaiian accent in the American one, in order to
give the game a more local flavour.
This is another example of transcreation, as translators are introducing new
elements absent in the original game in order to further localise it, adapt it to the
target culture and bring it closer to the players.
Traditionally, the notion of “translation loss” has been central in translation
studies. Even though the idea that loss is an inevitable and intrinsic part of the
translation process is widely shared, the notion of “translation gain” has not yet
been explored in much detail. Games localisation, due to the high amount of
creativity and rewriting that is associated to it, provides a good basis for further
exploring the concept of translation gain, as localised games are sometimes as
good as or even better than their originals.
5. Cultural awareness
The role of any translator goes beyond simply rendering words from one
language into another, as translators act as cultural mediators, bridging the gap
and bringing closer the two cultural communities between which they operate.
In the case of games localisation, translators have to be able to pick up any
cultural references from the original and render them appropriately, either by
maintaining them, adapting them or suppressing them in their translation.
They also must be alert to recognise any other sensitive issues that could have a
negative impact on the localised version and may have been overlooked by the
developers, who may have very little knowledge of the cultures into which their
games are going to be localised.
The German example, with its national rating board, the USK (Unterhaltungs-
software SelbstKontrolle) is often quoted, as Germany, together with Australia,
is one of the countries with strict control and censorship over games. They
examine thoroughly the game code, the packaging, the manual, the cheat codes
and the walkthroughs for the use of profanity, symbols related to racial hatred
and Nazism, and blood and gore (Chandler 2005: 33). However, Di Marco (2006)
discusses the example of the Japanese game Final Fantasy VIII, in which one of
the villains, Seifer Almasy, wears a long overcoat with a left-facing swastika
symbol, which is a symbol of good luck in Buddhism and Hinduism. Localisers
into European languages pointed out that the use of the swastika, even if it was
not the right-facing Nazi swastika, could be considered offensive in Europe. If
localisers had not noticed it and the graphics had not been changed, it could even
have led to the game being banned in Germany. For this reason, the developers
agreed to change the symbol and used a Christian cross, similar to the Fleur-de-
Lis cross, for the European and American versions of the game.
Kehoe and Hickey (2006: 29) also present some interesting examples of
cultural adaptation in games. One of them, from the game Crash Bandicoot, led to
the modification of the main character model for the Japanese localised version,
as he only has three fingers and a thumb in the US and European versions. They
explain that for various reasons, it was decided to redesign the main character
for the Japanese market, so that he would have four fingers and a thumb, in all
graphics, animations, and marketing materials. Even though these authors do
not go into detail about the motivations behind this change, Japanese sources
(O’Hagan quoted in Reidy 2006, and personal communication) confirm that this
is because of various negative associations likely to arise from a missing finger
for a Japanese audience.
These authors mention another example related to the differences between
Oriental and Western cultures that had to be taken into account when localising
the game Warcraft III into Korean. In this occasion it was not the graphics, but the
story line that needed to be modified in order for the game to be allowed to be
released in Korea. They claim the reason was that in the story a son betrayed his
father, something morally unacceptable in Korean society due to the importance
of honour and respect for one’s parents and ancestors. The Confucian and
Buddhist concept of filial piety is deeply engrained in Oriental cultures. It is so

predominant in Korean culture that a game portraying the betrayal of a father
by his son would more than likely flop in the Korean market. Western cultures,
however, are acquainted with the concept of family betrayal, which is recorded,
for example, in the Bible and Shakespeare’s King Lear.
Another crucial aspect that needs to be considered when localising a game
into another language is the different classification and rating systems that ap-
ply in different countries. Often what is acceptable for a certain age group in a
given country is not appropriate in another one. For example, the rating system
in Japan is quite loose in comparison with the European and US systems, and it
is possible to find references to sex, homosexuality, transvestites, etc. in games
that are rated for the general public. However, these references would not be
acceptable for a similar rating in Europe and the US, which means that either
the rating needs to be changed, which would reduce the original target audience
in the localised versions, or the controversial dialogues or graphics need to
be altered or removed in the Western versions. Di Marco (2006) mentions the
example of one of the latest Nintendo Super Mario games, in which three sisters
appear, and in one particular scene they discuss the sex change operation of one
of them. As this game was aimed at the general public in Japan, after considering
all the options available, it was decided to modify the dialogue in that scene,
rather than removing the scene or changing the classification for the game.
6. Familiarity with games culture

Being familiar with games culture is another crucial skill a games localiser
should have in order to be able to transfer the gameplay experience into the
localised version of the game and meet the target players’ expectations.
There is a certain degree of repetition and intertextuality in games, as some
abbreviations, techniques and objects appear recurrently in many of them. For
example, the abbreviation HP can be found in most RPGs, action and fighting
games. A frequent gamer will immediately know that it refers to the health
points that indicate how healthy a character is and how much damage s/he has
received during a battle. In the case of RPGs, most of this terminology originates
in board RPGs, which in turn derive from epic and fantasy novels, such as
Tolkien’s renowned trilogy The Lord of the Rings. Another example can be found
in the use of the fictional metal mithril, a creation by Tolkien which features
prominently in many RPGs, such as Oblivion, King of Chaos, Kingdom Hearts and
the Final Fantasy Series.
Also, in the case of serialised games, such as Final Fantasy or The Legend of
Zelda, there is a certain element of repetition in the names of characters, weapons,
objects, abilities, etc. For that reason, it is important to be familiar with the series
and its terminology. Most translation agencies use translation memory tools,
such as Trados, which facilitate and speed up enormously the localiser’s task,
although many developers who opt for the in-house localisation model still do
not use these tools.
Tony Van, executive producer of Ubisoft (cited in Chandler 2005: 54-56)
mentions a very interesting example about the localisation of the Japanese RPG,
Story of Thor, which was re-titled to Beyond Oasis in English. He explains that
the English translation was so bad that it was almost impossible to understand
the plot of the game. As the launch date for the game was fast approaching,
he did not have enough time to query the Japanese developer or to have the
game retranslated. Hence he decided to rewrite the story and all the dialogues,
using all the point plots he could understand as reference and writing what
sounded good to him when he did not understand them. He claims nobody ever
commented or complained about it, which means his rewriting was effective. It
obviously worked due to his long-standing experience in the games field and
his thorough knowledge of players’ expectations of what that type of game
should be like. Whether this should be followed as a model is another question,
although it is clear that localisers should have a thorough knowledge of the
game domain in order to be able to provide high quality localisation.
This is the reason why sometimes job specifications for localisation specialists
do not require previous experience in this field, only some previous translation
experience, experience as a gamer, and knowledge of the gaming world. It is
also possibly the reason why fan translations have on occasion received higher
praise than the official ones, such as the English translation of the Japanese RPG
Final Fantasy IV, because fan translators, as gamers, know what the game should
be like in order to appeal to other gamers like themselves.
In fact, gamers are very harsh and severe critics of the quality of the localisation
of a given game. As soon as a new game is out, it is analysed in detail by habitual
gamers in their discussion forums, and their verdict can influence other players’
decision to buy or not buy the game. Sometimes, when voiced loudly enough,
opinions of fans are heard by developers, who usually take their comments into
account. This was the case with the Japanese developer Square, currently Square-
Enix, who opted for the in-house localisation model after the European versions
of their best-selling game Final Fantasy VII received an incredible bashing by
fans. They moved from the outsourcing to the in-house model in order to gain
more control and guarantee the quality of their localised games and maintain
their first-class RPG developer image in the rest of the world.
7. Familiarity with global pop culture

In order to localise games successfully, familiarity with global pop culture is
also an advantage, as there are often allusions to other games, books, comics
and movies.
Several examples of such intertextuality can be found in the graphic adventure
series Monkey Island, with quotes from Star Wars and Indiana Jones, such as the
line “That diamond belongs in a museum!”, from Indiana Jones and the Last
Crusade, amongst others.
Many video games derive from comics, books and movies, such as The Lord of
the Rings, Shrek, Harry Potter, The Godfather and Spiderman, to quote but a few. In
the Japanese context, there also seems to be a connection between manga, anime
and videogames (O’Hagan 2006), as they use the same type of language and
humour, and many manga, like Dragonball, have become anime, and subsequently
video games.
More recently, there is also a trend to produce movies based on videogames,
such as Resident Evil, Tomb Raider and Final Fantasy VII: Advent Children.
It is important to keep the consistency between these different genres of
entertainment based on the same original, in order to avoid something similar
to what happened with the Japanese subtitles of the first instalment of The Lord
of the Rings trilogy, The Fellowship of the Ring. O’Hagan (2003) explains that die-
hard Japanese fans of the original story were so outraged by the inadequacy of
the translation partly due to the lack of understanding of Tolkien’s work by the
subtitler that they decided to complain to the distributor. When the latter did
not respond to them, they appealled to the director, Peter Jackson, who in turn
said that he would ask for a different subtitler for the next two movies. This case
emphasises the need for the translators to be familiar with global pop culture, and
more specifically the works or the sources of the works they are working with.
It is also another example of how translation users are increasingly becoming
more interested in the outcome of the translation process, as they become stricter
and more demanding of quality. The Internet, through discussion forums and
mailing lists, has provided fans of global pop culture with a strong voice that
can reach the relevant people in the industry.
Conclusion
Games localisation is an emerging field of translation that is gaining momentum
and will undoubtedly continue to do so, as new games and electronic platforms
are being constantly developed in order to enhance the gameplay experience of
the ever-growing worldwide community of gamers.
A good quality localisation, which succeeds in maintaining the gameplay
experience and the look and feel of the original, is the main goal of the
localisation process. In order to achieve this, games localisation allows for the
possibility of tailoring the target product to the target market. It is probably the
only translation genre in which the source text is so flexible and malleable that
it can be modified to the extent of changing images, graphics or story lines to fit
in the target culture.
It is therefore crucial that localisers are familiar with the localisation process
and the different kind of assets that form a game and possess the skills required
to translate them, as games are made up of a diversity of texts, such as technical
messages, witty dialogues, songs and literary passages, which have to be

translated differently.
To date, very little research about games localisation has been carried out from
a translation studies perspective, and the number of universities that include
this new translation genre in their curriculum is still very limited. It is important
to embrace the study of this new discipline and the training of translators who
have the skills and competence required to face the challenges posed by this
new translation field. This, in turn, will ensure that localised versions of games
provide their users with as many hours of enjoyment and entertainment as the
original ones.
318
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Naruto (2006). Episode 178. English fansubs by Dattebayo (www.narutofan.com).
Ōtomo, Katsuhiro (director and co-writer) and Izō Hashimoto (co-writer) 1988. Akira.
Dubbed and subtitled VHS videos released in England by Manga Entertainment
1991. Translation credits: English subtitles uncredited; English adaptation Michael
Haller. DVD released in America by Pioneer Entertainment 2001. Translation credits:
translation and subtitle timing David Fleming.
Takahata Isao (director and writer) 1988. Hotaru no Haka. Shinchōsha/Ghibli. DVD released
in America by Central Park Media 1998, entitled Grave of the Fireflies. Translation:
Neil Nadelman. Japanese DVD with uncredited English subtitles released in 2000 by
Warner Home Video.
Watanabe, Takashi (director) and Jirō Takayama & Katsumi Hasegawa (writers) 1997.
Slayers Try. TV Tokyo/SOFTX. Subtitled VHS video released in America by Software
Sculptors 2000, entitled The Slayers Try: Majestic Journey. Translation: Neil Nadelman.
Subtitled VHS video released in France by I.D.P. (date of release unstated), entitled
Slayers Try 1. Translation credits: adaptation Delphine Gesland.

Video Games Localization

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VIDEO GAMES LOCALISATION: POSING NEW CHALLENGES TO THE

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VIDEO GAMES LOCALISATION:

Carmen Mangiron Hevia, Centre for Translation and Textual Studies,

that would provide a theoretical background, as well as training and practical

What is a video game?

(particularly business applications) and games localisation. Even though

Games localisation models

As previously mentioned, games are made of assets of a very different nature,

1. Knowledge of general software terminology and specific games platform terminology

2. Familiarity with the specific features of screen translation

is familiar with the specific features of dubbing and subtitling. Regarding

3. Mastering of natural and idiomatic language

fluent and idiomatic language is essential to convey the gameplay experience

Buddhist concept of filial piety is deeply engrained in Oriental cultures. It is so

6. Familiarity with games culture

7. Familiarity with global pop culture

messages, witty dialogues, songs and literary passages, which have to be

Pérez, M. C. (eds.) Apropos of Ideology. Translation Studies on Ideology – Ideologies in

Comics Conquer the German Market]. Comixene 11 (June/July). 9-11.

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