Biology 20 GATE

Biology 20 GATE
Instruction on Problems, Concepts & Applications
1 SHR – Biology 20

SHR – Smith & Huber Residence

This is a publication of the Smith & Huber Family
members of the Smith & Huber Residence
Copyright © Smith & Huber Residence 2007. All Rights Reserved
This document is electronically protected to prevent editing or copying.
Some portions and images of this document were taken from other sources.
We do not credit all document content as our own.
Care has been taken to trace ownership of copyright material contained in this text.
The publishers will gladly accept any information that will enable them to rectify any
reference or credit in subsequent printings.
The information and activities in this textbook have been carefully developed and
reviewed by professionals to ensure safety and accuracy. However, the publisher shall
not be liable for any damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the reader’s use of
the material. Although appropriate safety procedures are discussed and highlighted
throughout the textbook, the safety of students remains the responsibility of the
classroom teacher, the principal, and the school board district.
Instruction on Concepts, Problems and Applications 2

CONTENTS:
PREFACE TO BIOLOGY 20............................................................................................. 6
THE CELL MEMBRANE................................................................................................ 7
Passive Transport ........................................................................................................ 8
Active Transport ......................................................................................................... 9
DIGESTION AND HUMAN HEALTH .......................................................................... 10
MACROMOLECULES AND LIFE ............................................................................... 10
Carbohydrates ........................................................................................................... 10
Lipids ........................................................................................................................ 11
Proteins ..................................................................................................................... 11
Nucleic Acids............................................................................................................ 12
Vitamins and Minerals.............................................................................................. 12
Enzymes.................................................................................................................... 13
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM ANATOMY ................................................................................ 14
The Three Categories of Digestion ........................................................................... 14
Physical Digestion .................................................................................................... 14
Chemical Digestion – The Stomach ......................................................................... 15
Chemical Digestion and Absorption – The Small Intestine...................................... 16
Excretion – The Large Intestine................................................................................ 20
THE HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM .................................................................... 21
THE HEART.................................................................................................................. 21
Blood Vessels............................................................................................................ 22
Pace of the Circulatory System Via Heartbeat ......................................................... 23
Blood Pressure .......................................................................................................... 23
Cardiac Output .......................................................................................................... 23
Pathways Of The Circulatory System....................................................................... 23
BLOOD ......................................................................................................................... 25
Red Blood Cells ........................................................................................................ 25
White Blood Cells..................................................................................................... 25
Platelets ..................................................................................................................... 26
Blood’s Functions ..................................................................................................... 26
Circulation & Capillaries .......................................................................................... 27
Blood Disorders ........................................................................................................ 27
THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM ......................................................................................... 28
Lymphatic Defense System ...................................................................................... 28
Blood Types .............................................................................................................. 30
Immune System Disorders........................................................................................ 31
THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM...................................................................... 32
STRUCTURE OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM........................................................ 32
BREATHING AND RESPIRATION .............................................................................. 34
The Mechanics of Breathing..................................................................................... 34
Respiratory Volume .................................................................................................. 34
Gas Exchange and External Respiration................................................................... 35
RESPIRATORY HEALTH ............................................................................................. 35
CELLULAR RESPIRATION........................................................................................... 37
AEROBIC CELLULAR RESPIRATION STEPS............................................................ 37
Oxygen’s Importance................................................................................................ 39
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION ....................................................................................... 40
FERMENTATION ......................................................................................................... 40
Lactic Fermentation .................................................................................................. 40
Ethanol Fermentation................................................................................................ 40
PHOTOSYNTHESIS........................................................................................................ 41
The Light Dependent Reactions of Photosynthesis ...................................................... 41
....................................................................................................................................... 42
The Light Independent Reactions of Photosynthesis.................................................... 43
MUSCLE CONTROL ...................................................................................................... 44
SKELETAL MUSCLE ................................................................................................... 45
Skeletal Muscle Cooperation .................................................................................... 45
Skeletal Muscle Fibers.............................................................................................. 45
How Muscle Fibers Contract .................................................................................... 46
Creation of Energy Required for Muscle Contraction.............................................. 48
MUSCLES AND HEALTH............................................................................................ 48
Common Ailments of Muscles ................................................................................. 49
Muscle Twitch .......................................................................................................... 49
Slow Twitch and Fast Twitch ................................................................................... 49
THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM ......................................................................................... 50
ANATOMY OF THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM ............................................................... 50

The Kidney................................................................................................................ 50
URINE PRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 52
Proximinal Tubule .................................................................................................... 52
Loop of Henle ........................................................................................................... 52
Distill Tubule ............................................................................................................ 53
Collecting Duct ......................................................................................................... 53
Summary ................................................................................................................... 54
MAINTAINING THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM .............................................................. 55
Salt Reabsorption ...................................................................................................... 55
Maintaining Blood pH .............................................................................................. 55
Renal Insufficiency ................................................................................................... 56
Dialysis ..................................................................................................................... 56
ENERGY TRANSFER IN THE BIOSPHERE ................................................................ 57
ENERGY ENTERS THE BIOSPHERE ......................................................................... 57
The Sun Provides Energy.......................................................................................... 57
Life Under The Sea................................................................................................... 58
Consumers................................................................................................................. 58
Energy in the Biosphere............................................................................................ 59
ENERGY TRANSFER WITHIN THE BIOSPHERE...................................................... 59
Ecosystems Within the Biosphere ............................................................................ 59
Food Chains and Webs ............................................................................................. 60
Biomass Pyramids..................................................................................................... 61
CYCLES OF MATTER.................................................................................................... 62
THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE................................................................................... 62
Water at the Chemical Level..................................................................................... 62
Water Within the Ecosystem and Biosphere ............................................................ 63
Uses of Water............................................................................................................ 64
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES .................................................................................... 65
The Carbon and Oxygen Cycles ............................................................................... 65
The Sulfur Cycle ....................................................................................................... 66
The Nitrogen Cycle................................................................................................... 66
The Phosphorous Cycle ............................................................................................ 67
Final Notes ................................................................................................................ 67
PREFACE TO BIOLOGY 20
The cell is the smallest unit of life known in living creatures. In order to gain an
appreciation and understanding for modern day Biology, we need to first understand the
structure and functions of the microcellular components, and how the cells interact.
Both plants and animals, as well as some bacteria and fungi, are made of eukaryotic cells,
or cells with a nucleus. Although the plant cell has some organelles specific to only
itself, the animal cell organelles are the same for any cell. Below is a diagram of a
animal cell, and its components:
The cell membrane is a structure on the outside of the cell that acts as a semi-permeable
barrier between the outside world and the inside of the cell. It also controls the transport
of particles into and out of the cell.
All the organelles of the cell live in a gel like substance cytoplasm which is comprised of
the chemicals required to sustain life, and minerals that can be absorbed for energy.
Alike a City Hall, the nucleus is the command center of the cell. It contains the
imprinting of DNA in order to create the proteins responsible for cellular functions, the
basic components of life. It is surrounded by a double layer of membrane to protect it
from radioactivity. The chromatin is the unchained DNA strands within the nucleus.
The nucleus requires the ability to take in macromolecules and send ribosome out.
Nuclear pores serve that function.
Ribosome help to build proteins and are comprised of two tiny structures working
together.

Endoplasmic Reticulam (ER) are thin tubes and sacs of membrane that extend from the
nucleus outwards. Rough ER synthesizes proteins due to the fact that it is studded with
ribosome and smooth ER with transports macromolecules to other points in the cell.
The Golgi Apparatus receives the macromolecules from the smooth ER, and package
them into vesicles, using proteins and lipids and prepares them for secretion out of the
cell via the cell membrane.
A very important organelle, the mitochondrion receives carbohydrates and other

particles of food, and converts it into useable energy which is released for the cell. In
contrast, the lysosome breaks down old and damaged or expended cell parts. The
peroxisome also acts as a digester, handling toxic waste products, such as alchohal.
The centrosome ensures the even distribution of cell organelles in the event of cell
duplication. Its dual centrioles and close proximity to the nucleus help facilitate this.
There are two different types of transport “containers” within the cell, varying on the
size. Vesicles are small sacs that move small amounts of particles inside or outside of the
cell. The vacuole is a massive fluid filled sac that serves as a storage facility for food,
sugar energy and waste.
The cytoslekeleton ensures that the cell retains a useable shape, through a system of
three fibers, actin filament, micro filament and microtubules.
THE CELL MEMBRANE
The Cell membrane

serves a key purpose,
it acts as a guard
against contaminated
particles, and as a
receiver for energy
and food for each cell.
Usually, the cell
membrane is two
layers thick, with the
inside being
comprised of lipids
(fat particles that are
not dissolvable in
water). The lipids
have a sperm-like design, with a head and a tail. The head dissolves easily and readily in
water, while the tail is insoluble. Primarily, the tails are touching inwards in the cell
membrane, so that the outside of the membrane is porous to water, and the inside can be
semi-permeable.
Other particles in the cell membrane facilitate transport of macromolecules into the cell,
and create passageways for water to flow.
Particles and ions can cross the membrane of the cell in a variety of ways. These
methods can be either classified as passive, where heat energy is used to move the
particles, or active; where both heat and energy from sugars are used.
Passive Transport
Passive transport refers to molecules moving from areas of greater concentration to areas
of lesser concentration. This is also known as movement with the concentration
gradient. All methods of passive transport move with the concentration gradient, and
therefore do not require energy from sugars.
One method of passive transport, diffusion,

works on the natural principal of particles and
ions to move naturally from areas of greater
concentration to areas of lesser concentration,
across the semi-permeable cell membrane
(imagine dumping food coloring into water,
such as the figure right).
Many molecules, such as oxygen are able to move via diffusion, and cannot be readily
stopped by the cell membrane, due to its permeability.
The diffusion of a solvent, such as water is known with a special term, osmosis. Which
direction osmosis occurs depends once again on the concentration gradient. If there is an
equal concentration of solvent particles inside and outside of the cell, (isotonic) there is
no osmosis occurring. If the cell is hypertonic, that means that there is more water
inside the cell then outside, and water flows freely out of the cell. Likewise, if the cell is
hypotonic, water flows in, as there is less water inside the cell then outside.
Facilitated diffusion
permits molecules that are
too large to simply diffuse
through the membrane into
the cell. Glucose
molecules enter the cell
through utilizing special
carrier proteins (see figure
left), which facilitate the diffusion. The carrier proteins will only
accept a non-charged molecule with a certain shape. Charged
ions pass through tunnels, known as channel proteins, which will
only fit certain sized ions, in order to help them diffuse into the
cell (see figure right).

Active Transport
Active transport requires one of the photospheres in ATP (adenosine Triphosphate) sugar
created for the cells be split in order to release energy, which can then be applied to
actively transporting materials the opposite direction from the concentration gradient.
The cell membrane can fold, and create vesicles to take in particles which usually would
not fit inside of it. The process where the cell membrane folds in order to take in a
molecule (such as cholesterol) is known as endocytosis. Endocytosis has three forms,
pinocytosis,
phagocytosis and
receptor assisted
endocytosis.
Pinocytosis refers
to the movement
of small liquid
particles, whereas
phagocytosis is the movement of larger droplets of intercellular fluid, bacteria or organic
matter. Receptor assisted endocytosis involves using a special membrane receptor
protein that will latch onto the molecule it is made for and transport it into the cell. All
three methods of endocytosis are shown in the figure right.
Exocytosis removes cell wastes from the cell by having a vesicle transport the waste to
the cell membrane, and then latching onto the membrane, and opening to release the
waste into the fluidic space between the cells.
DIGESTION AND HUMAN HEALTH
Within the body lies the cells. In between the cells is fluid and blood. And within that
fluid are thousands of different particles. Some, such as water and oxygen, are simple
enough. Other large complicated collections of molecules, known as macromolecules are
grouped into four categories: carbohydrates, lipids (such as fats), proteins, and nucleic
acids. Many macromolecules form polymers, long chain of repeating chemicals that
control the most important functions of the body.
MACROMOLECULES AND LIFE
Macromolecules are assembled in much the same way.

Chains are created by removing a –OH group from one
subunit of the chain, and an H atom from the other subunit
on the chain. This results in a loss of a water molecule,
H2O. Hence, this reaction is called dehydration.
Disassembly is a direct opposite, a –OH molecule is added
to one subunit and a H atom is added to the other, breaking
down the link. Disassembly is called hydrolysis which is
Greek for “water” and “break”. The process of creating
and destroying these bonds is carried out by a special class
of proteins called enzymes, spoken about later on in this
section.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are macromolecules that contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and
usually in the same proportions (two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom for each atom
of carbon). Carbohydrates provide short or long term energy storage for a creature.
There are two main types of carbohydrates. Simple sugars are made up of three to seven
carbon atoms, and the
corresponding number
of hydrogen and
oxygen atoms. On
their own, simple
sugars are known as
monosaccharides
while in pairs they are called disaccharides. Simple sugars are synthesized and
desynthesized according to the process noted above, and shown in the figure left. The
disaccharide, maltose, is commonly found in alcoholic beverages.

Carbohydrates that carry more then two simple sugars are
known as polysaccharides. Some common examples of
polysaccharides are starch, which performs an energy
storage function in plants, glycogen, which performs the
same function in animals. Plants also have access to a
third polysaccharide, cellulose, which is found in their
cell walls. Highly rich in nutrients, cellulose only has a
few organisms known to possess the ability to break the
down. Herbivores such as rabbits must host theses
organisms in order to harvest the energy from cellulose,
while humans (who do not host these organisms) cannot access this energy. All three of
the above polysaccharides, glycogen, starch and cellulose are shown in structure on the
right. How are they different?
Lipids
Lipids are a group of macronutrients that are not soluble in water. They have many
functions, including forming cell membranes, storing energy and fat (they store 2.25
times more energy then carbohydrates) or forming steroids, which are sex hormones
estrogen and testosterone.
Lipids exist in our food as fats, such as those in solid or liquid form. Fats are solid at
room temperature, and are found in butter and many other dairy products (among other
things), while oils are liquid at room temperature, and are found in salad dressing and
other liquids.
The formation of fats is actually quite interesting. The glycol molecule reacts with three
fatty acids to form a triglyceride (see figure left). Triglycerides are composed similarly,
however the fatty acids may be difference in size or in saturation. Saturated fats are
triglycerides where the fatty acids does not have a covalent bond between its carbon
atoms, which means that it
contains all the hydrogen ions
that it could possibly bond
with. Unsaturated fats do
have double bonds between
the hydrogen atoms.
Saturated fats are usually
solid at room temperature,
while unsaturated fats are
usually liquid. Next time you purchase a food product from the store, see if you can spot
the saturated fats content on the label!
Proteins
Proteins are a highly unique component of the macromolecule family, due to the vast
variety of configurations that can exist. Proteins exist in your cells, coordinating
operations, control your muscles, make up your
hair and fingernails and connect your bones.
The reason that they can have such diversity has
to do with their composition. Like other
macromolecules, proteins are assembled into
subunits. These subunits are known as amino
acids and are comprised of a central carbon
atom bonded to a hydrogen atom and three other
groups of atoms, an amino group (-NH2), an acid group (carboxyl - -COOH) and
an R group. The R group is one of twenty-three different potential items that distinguish
the amino acid from another. The human body can only synthesize 11 of the 23 groups.
The others must come into the human body from your diet, and are thus termed essential
amino acids.
Amino acids join

together forming
peptide bonds in
order to become
proteins. A peptide
bond is alike the one shown in the figure, above. In dehydration synthesis, two amino
acids form a bond called a dipeptide. The R group does not participate in the bonding.
The different amino acids of the chain repel and attract each
other, forming a coil, such as the one in the computer generated
picture to the right. This gives the protein specific
functionality and a three dimensional structure. The protein’s
solubility in water is also determined by its R group. Water
soluble R groupings, such as those within enzymes and
hemoglobin, are on the outside of the chain and are usually
electrically charged. Non-water soluble R groupings, with no
charge, alike the proteins in your fingernails, are coiled on the inside of the protein.
Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are the building blocks of life. Their configurations and subunits determine
the order and production of the proteins that run all bodily functions. RNA (ribonucleic
acid) and DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) are two kinds of nucleic acids. DNA contains
genes, and copies over the genes to RNA to produce proteins. Nucleotides are the
different subunits that DNA and RNA are made up of, and only four are known to exist.
Vitamins and Minerals
Vitamins and Minerals are key components of many cell reactions, and are usually
utilized as a important tool to run cellular operations. Specifically, vitamins are organic
compounds, of which very little are needed for the body. They are coenzymes, which
help with the production of the enzymes. Vitamins also assist in keeping our skin tissue

intact. Minerals are non-organic compounds, which assist with many chemical reactions
such as building bones and cartilage, and are components of hemoglobin, hormones and
enzymes.
Enzymes
Lastly on our brief biological chemistry tour, are enzymes. Enzymes act as catalysts in
chemical reactions, speeding them up thousands of times then their usual pace if
performed in a laboratory. While temperature can increase the speed of reactions in the
body (for example, the reason you get a temperature when you have the flu, is because
the body is trying to speed up all the biochemical reactions and eliminate the infection
quicker), it can also cause proteins to become denatured, or in other words lose their three
dimensional shape.
So, how do
enzymes speed
reaction times?
Well, enzymes are
made like puzzle
pieces, so that
they fit perfectly
with the specific
substrate, or
molecule that the
reaction time is
being increased. By fitting perfectly, the bonds on the substrate become weaker, and are
more easily broken, and more ready to react. Enzymes have a limited life span, and must
be synthesized by cells on occasion.
Enzymes can be inhibited by

changes in temperature or pH.
When the temperature becomes
too low, enzyme bonds become
too brittle to fit the substrates.
When the temperature becomes
too high, the bonds are too weak
to work well with the substrates.
Similarly with pH, enzymes
usually work best between 6 and 8 on the pH scale (although
some enzymes work much better under much more acidic conditions, like stomach
enzymes). Inhibitors can also hinder substrates and enzymes from connecting, by
blocking the path to the enzyme’s active site. Competitive inhibitors attach directly to
the active site, and compete for the enzyme with the substrate. Non-competitive
inhibitors attach elsewhere on the enzyme and alter its shape and chemical structure,
making it far less effective because it no longer perfectly fits the substrate.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM ANATOMY
Multicellular organisms, like mammals

and more specifically: humans cannot
simply have their cells collect food and
use it for cellular operations. Instead,
we use our digestive system to take in
food, and digest the useful components
of the food, breaking them down into
nutrients that can be transported to our
cells via the blood stream, and then
utilized for cellular operations. This
gigantic and daily task is worked on by
our own digestive system. Some of the
key organs in our digestive system are
shown on the right.
Imagine simply how large this system

is. There are 8 meters worth of tubing
from your esophagus to your anus. And food and nutrients pass down this trail every
single day. We’re going to learn about the process the food follows in this section.
The Three Categories of Digestion
Digestion occurs in three distinct ways:

1. Physical Digestion which is where the food is
broken up into pieces physically. This usually
occurs in your mouth, with your teeth.
2. Chemical Digestion which is where chemicals
break the food down into its key components.
Your saliva, your stomach and your intestines
take care of this.
3. Excretion is the removal of the excess from your
body, either via solid or fluid.
Physical Digestion
Physical digestion begins immediately when you take

food in. Your teeth begin to chew the food, as your tongue moves the food around your
mouth. Saliva moistens the food, and amylase from the saliva helps to break the
chemical bonds in food to make it easier to chew. Eventually, the tongue and teeth make
the food into a squishy lumpy substance called bolus which your tongue pushes to the
back of your throat.
At the back of your throat there are two tubes, one is the trachea, which connects to your
lungs. The other is the esophagus, where your food is swallowed and travels down to

your stomach. To prevent food from escaping down your trachea, the epiglottis, a small
piece of cartilage, and the trachea jut together, sealing off your windpipe when you
swallow. Your “Adam’s apple” can be felt as it pushes upwards when you swallow,
sealing your windpipe.
Secretion Site of Function

Production
Saliva Mouth Contribute to digesting starch, by the creation of
amylase.
Lubricates food to help with swallowing.
Mucus Mouth, stomach, Protects the cells lining the digestive tract from erosion
small intestine, by acidic chemicals, lubricates
and large
intestine
Enzymes Mouth, stomach, Assists in digestion of molecule so that they can be
small intestine broken down into nutrients that can be absorbed into
and pancreas the blood stream.
Acid Stomach Promotes digestion of protein
Bile Liver (stored in Suspends fats in water using basic salts and
gall bladder) cholesterol, to assist in emulsification in the small
intestine.
Sodium Pancreas and Neutralizes stomach acid when it reaches the small
bicarbonate small intestine intestine.
Hormones Stomach, small Stimulate the production of bile, acid, enzymes and
intestine and bicarbonate and their release in order to help oversee
pancreas peristalsis.
Your esophagus moves the bolus from

your mouth to the esophageal sphincter
(a circular muscle that acts as a valve,
opening to admit bolus into the stomach,
but remaining shut so that the acid in
your stomach does not escape up into
your throat) partially via gravity and
partially via routine contractions in the
esophagus’s longitudinal muscle. The
diagram to the right shows this.
Chemical Digestion – The Stomach
The bolus has now passed through the

esophageal sphincter entered the
stomach. Your stomach is alike an
accordion, comprised of many folds of
muscle that can unfurl and expand when
the demand is needed.
At its smallest point, the stomach is able to hold about 50 mL of food. After it expands, it
can hold 2-4 L of food. Amazing!
The stomach is an enclosed system, with a true sphincter muscle, known as the pyloric
sphincter located at the bottom, leading to the entrance to the small intestine. Inside the
stomach, the bolus is tossed around, via contractions and expansions about the smooth
muscle folds in the stomach, and mixed with gastric juices in order to assist in digestion.
Your stomach produces 2-3 L of gastric

juices a day. Primarily, these juices are
comprised of hydrochloric acid, enzymes,
mucus, salts and water. The pH of this
substance varies between 1 and 3, making
the stomach highly acidic. The pH is part of
the reason the stomach has the sphincter
muscles at either end; so that acid cannot
escape and begin to erode the small
intestine. Acid does escape into your
esophagus, as the esophageal sphincter is
not a real sphincter; causing it to feel raw
(this is commonly known as heartburn).
This is the function that also allows you to
vomit.
Your stomach has three levels of production to ensure that its acidity does not erode the
stomach walls. First, the hormones that cause the secretion of gastric juices do not
activate very much until food is present. Secondly, the mucus secreted by the stomach
protects the muscle walls from being attacked by the acid. Thirdly, the stomach’s
enzyme for digestion – pepsin remains inactive until the presence of hydrochloric acid is
detected, only then does it create polypeptides which begin to digest protein prior to the
entrance into the small intestine.
Chemical Digestion and

Absorption – The Small Intestine
The small intestine, although small

in diameter, is four times the length
of the large intestine. It is
primarily responsible for the
digestion of food and its absorption
into the blood stream.
Segmentation of the small intestine
occurs via the contractions of the
muscles in the intestine, sloshing

the chyme back and forth through the intestine, while still feeling the pull of peristalsis.
Overall, the small intestine can be

divided into three regions. The first,
the duodenum is approximately 25
cm long. Ducts from the liver and
the pancreas both enter into the small
intestine at this point. The walls of
the small intestine are covered with
small villi, finger like projections.
On the villi are tiny hairs known as
microvilli. Each of these structures
is directly connected to the circulatory system, and they are responsible for moving useful
nutrients from the intestine into the bloodstream.
The second and third regions of the small intestine, the jejunum and the ileum
respectively, have similar functions to the duodenum. The 2.5m jejunum contains
additional folds and more secretion glands the duodenum. The ileum, which is 3m long
contains less villi and glands, and is mainly designed to absorb the last of the available
nutrients, and push the chyme into the large intestine.
Supplementary Organs
The small intestine has a large variety of

supplementary organs that assist in digestion
including the pancreas, liver and gal bladder.
The pancreas delivers approximately 1 L of

pancreatic fluid to the duodenum daily.
Pancreatic fluid includes: trypsin and
chemotrypsin, which digest protein, pancreatic
amylase which digests starch not already handled by the salivary amylase and lipase,
which digests fat.
The enzymes released from the pancreas are not activated immediately, not until a certain
enzyme is released from the hairs on the duodenum. Proteins are then digested into
smaller polypeptides, polysaccharides into simple sugars and fats into fatty acids and
other products. Pancreatic fluid also contains sodium bicarbonate, which neutralizes the
chyme from the stomach, returning it to a stable pH of 8, which helps to increase the
effectiveness of the other enzymes in the small intestine.
The liver is the largest organ in the adult body. One of its many purposes in the body is
to produce bile, the byproduct of destroyed red blood cells. Although the components of
the cells (known as bile pigment) are useless and are eventually excreted from the body,
the salts that is also produced in bile are hugely useful as an emulsifier – a chemical that
breaks down fat molecules into smaller molecules so that they can be more easily
absorbed into the blood stream.
The liver does not store the bile between meals. Instead, the gall bladder, which is
connected to the same duct as the liver, stores the bile and secretes it upon activation
from the duodenum hairs.
Digestion & Absorption
Digestion occurs, depending on the type of nutrient, by a different enzyme.

Carbohydrases dissolve carbohydrates, lipases dissolve fats, proteases dissolve larger
polypeptides and nucleases dissolve other nucleic acids. The below image and table
show you the different macromolecules being digested, and how they are digested.

Specific Digestion by Nutrient
Carbohydrates and starch are digested

via amylase. This digestion starts in the
mouth, with the salivary amylase.
Amylase works best at a pH of eight
(about neutral) so the harsh acidity of
the stomach results in the digestion of
starch ceasing. When the chyme enters
the small intestine (pH of about 8), the
amylase can again begin its work.
Pancreatic amylase, which is secreted
into the small intestine, also assists in
digestion. Starch is reduced to
disaccharides and then are further broken down by other carbohydrates into glucose,
galactose and fructose (monosaccharide). These monosaccharides are then absorbed via
active transport into the villi, who transfer it to the liver, which converts the sugar to
glucose and circulates it throughout the bloodstream.
Protein is digested mostly in the

stomach, by the polypeptides secreted
via pepsin. The peptide and the
undigested protein enter into the small
intestine, where trypsin and
chymotripsin are both secreted,
hydrolyzing the polypeptide bonds and
forming small chains of peptide. The
protein is fully digested, and another
enzyme secreted by the pancreas
breaks the peptide back down to its
core elements and are then absorbed
into the bloodstream for processing by the liver. The liver determines the function of the
pepsin, either utilizing it in energy releasing reactions to create sugar, or distributing it to
the cells to perform a wide variety of functions.
Fat is first emulsified in the

small intestine by the lipases.
This reaction is physical, not
chemical, although the fat is
split up, it still remains the
same chemical composition
and can now simply diffuse
across the villi. Once inside,
fat is coated with proteins and
is reorganized back into triglycerides and are transported into the chest area by the
lymphatic vessels. The protein is then stripped, and the fat goes back into the
bloodstream to be circulated around the body.
Nucleic acids are digested in a very similar fashion, with nucleodiases breaking them
down into their bases, sugars and phosphates, which are moved into the bloodstream via
active transport.
Excretion – The Large Intestine
The large intestine is much smaller in length then the small intestine (confusing, I know).
It is only 1.5 m long and its primary function is to ready all the leftover chyme that was
not digested for excretion. On an average day, the large intestine takes 500 mL of unused
material and squishes it down to a 150 mL waste product. The undigested chyme passes
through the colon, which removes any water that remains in the chyme so that the body
does not become dehydrated while anaerobic bacteria break down the last nutrients in the
chyme, usually generating Vitamin K and Vitamin B-12. The feces that are generated
from the leftover chymen, and pass into the rectum – the last 20 cm of the large intestine.
The rectum has three folds, one which allows it to pass gas, another which you control
when you want the rectum to empty, and the third which allows the feces to exit the body
by peristalsis, when full.

THE HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Multicellular organisms require a complex structure of specialized cells carrying out

specific functions in order to maintain day to day operations. In humans, this is taken
care of by the circulatory system. Primarily, the circulatory system has three functions:
1. Transport of gasses (from the respiratory system), nutrients (from the digestive
system) and wastes (from the excretory system)
2. Regulates the production of hormones to stimulate certain cells in the body; causing
key operations within the body, and controlling temperature and pH level.
3. Protection against blood loss, and against toxins entering the body system.
THE HEART
The heart is a key component of the circulatory system, ensuring the flow of blood
throughout the body, and also facilitating the reoxidization of blood from the respiratory
system. It also ensures that blood can only travel in one direction by putting an immense
amount of pressure on the blood, over a lifetime enough pressure is exerted to lift a
battleship through the water.
Approximately the size of two fists, the human heart is located just of to the left in the
chest. It contains four chambers, two atria (singular: atrium), on the top, which take in
oxidized blood from the lungs and deoxidized blood from elsewhere in the body, and the
ventricles in the lower portion of the heart, that take the blood from the atria and pump it
to the lungs or to the body.
The heart is made of strong cardiac muscle that involuntarily contracts rhythmically for
the duration of a
life. You cannot
consciously cease
or alter your heart
beat. In between
the left and right
atrium is a thick
muscle wall called
the septum.
The right atrium of the heart receives deoxidized blood from the body. The Superior
Vena Cava receives deoxidized blood from the lungs, chest and head area. The Inferior
Vena Cava collects blood from the lower portions of the body. All the collected blood
flows downward into the right ventricle before passing into the pulmonary trunk, and
then into the pulmonary arteries for transport to the lungs.
The Pulmonary Veins on the left side of the heart take the oxidized blood from the lungs,
and pass it through the atrium. After passing through the left ventricle, the blood is
pumped up through the largest blood vein in the body – the aorta.
The heart is made up of four
different valves, as shown on the
right. The atrium and ventricle
are separated by the
atrioventricular valves, the
bicuspid (left side) and the
tricuspid (right side. The other
valves, the pulmonary and aortic
semilunar valves permit blood
flow from either the body
(deoxidized blood) or the lungs
(oxidized blood).
Blood Vessels
The body contains three major blood vessels, one is the arteries (which carries oxygen
rich blood to the other parts of the body away from the heart). Veins carry oxygen
deprived blood back to the heart for reoxidization. Capillaries are the small blood vessels
that connect the arteries and veins, and where nutrients, minerals and wastes are
transferred into the bloodstream.
• As shown in
the diagram
on the right,
arteries are
stretchy and
expandable.
This is
especially
useful when
the heart
sends a large
jolt of blood
up against
gravity (for example to the head region). Veins are not elastic, but are brittle and
cannot be expanded. However, veins do have one way valves, to prevent blood from
flowing backwards.
• Capillaries transfer blood from the arteries to the veins. Capillaries are very small,
about ten stacked side by side (width wise) would have the diameter of a human hair.
They are small enough that
only one red blood cell can
pass through them at a time,
which helps to ensure that
nutrients and other materials

for the respiratory system are carried efficiently in the blood.
Pace of the Circulatory System Via Heartbeat
The SA Node, which is a clump of nerve endings located on the right atrium of the heart,
is referred to as the pacemaker of the heart, as its stimuli forces the heart muscle to
contract and relax rhythmically. The electric signal from the SA node results in the two
aorta contracting almost simultaneously. The signal next spreads down the heart to the
atrioventricular node which spreads the connection out to conductive Purkinje fibers,
which initiate the simultaneous contractions of the ventricles.
Blood Pressure
When the heart beats, more blood flows into the arteries, pushing up against the artery
walls and the muscles. When the ventricles in the heart contract to the maximum, it is
called systolic pressure. The lowest pressure is the diastolic pressure. Blood pressure
is measured in mmHg, or millimeters of mercury, which can be converted to kilopascals
upon desire. Blood pressure is measured as systolic pressure divided by diastolic
pressure, represented in a fraction.
Cardiac Output
Cardiac output refers to the overall ability of the heart to supply blood and oxygen to the
muscles, permitting the body to do work. It is usually in the units mL/mm (milliners per
millimeter). Cardiac output is calculated based upon the following formula:
Heart Rate
Cardiac Output =
Stroke Volume
Heart Rate is the number of times your heart beats per minute, while Stroke Volume is
the amount of blood that is pushed with each beat. Stroke volume is based upon the
amount of blood that enters the atrium, and the strength of the ventricular contractions.
Pathways Of The Circulatory System
The circulatory system moves the blood

throughout the body. There are three
different pathways the blood may follow,
the pulmonary pathway, which delivers
blood that is oxygen poor to the lungs where
it is released of its carbon dioxide and given
new oxygen, via the respiratory system. The
systemic pathway moves oxygen rich blood
from the left ventricle of the heart into the
body tissue for utilization and waste
disposal. The coronary pathway is solely
dedicated to keeping the heart equipped with blood. The diagram on the left helps depict
these paths.
The below cycle chart shows an abbreviated version of oxygen movement in the body,
that you’ve learned about thus far:
Oxygen Flows
poor through
blood vena cava
returns to to right
Blood heart from atrium
travels
through Heart contracts,
the veins and blood is
back to pumped into the
right ventricle.
Heart contracts,
Blood delivers and blood is
payload of oxygen, pumped into the
and receives waste. pulmonary
arteries
Pulmonary
arteries lead to
Blood is transferred lungs
throughout the
body via the
arteries
Gas exchange takes

Heart contracts, place in the
blood is pumped capillaries,
into systemic oxidizing blood
system.
Heart
contracts, Blood continues into
blood pulmonary veins
Heart
enters left
contracts,
ventricle
blood
enters left
atrium

BLOOD
Blood is considered to be one of the major connecting

apparatuses in the body. It carries oxygen to the muscles and
cells, and removes their carbon dioxide. It transports these
materials back and forth and participates in gas exchange in
the lungs. But this is not the only function of the blood.
Blood is fluidic, or at least fluidic in appearance. It contains

both a fluid and a solid portion. The fluid is the plasma of
the blood, which contains water, dissolved gasses, hormones,
vitamins and minerals. The solid blood or the formed portion
consists of the white and red blood cells and platelets . The
formed portion of the blood is produced in the bone marrow.
The tube on the right shows the percentages that each part of
the blood makes up of the whole.
Red Blood Cells
Red Blood Cells or erythrocytes, carry oxygen throughout the body. The amount of
oxygen that can be moved depends on the quantity of the red blood cells, and the amount
of hemoglobin they contain. Hemoglobin, a respiratory pigment, has special properties
that allow it to pick up and transport oxygen, then release it via diffusion to the cells that
need it. There are more then 280 million hemoglobin cells in each red blood cell.
Hemoglobin also assists in the transport of waste materials. When carbon dioxide enters
the blood a portion of it is picked up by the hemoglobin.
Anemia is the condition where there is a lack of red blood cells in the body either for the
reason that there is not enough iron intake in the diet, or due to another reason. People
with anemia, may suffer from fatigue, and have pale skin.
White Blood Cells
White blood cells or Leucocytes are comprised of three main items granulocytes,
monocytes, and lymphocytes. Granulocytes consist of neutrophils, basophils, and
eosinophils, each of which is specialized. Monocytes leave the bloodstream and attack
certain bacteria. Granulocytes, like monocytes engulf and destroy foreign bodies within
the blood stream. Lymphocytes serve as antibodies who incapacitate pathogens.
Platelets
Platelets facilitate blood clotting, which prevents excessive blood loss in the event of a
breach into the blood vessels. The process for clotting to occur is as follows:
1. Blood rushes to the area of injury.
2. Platelets release series of chemicals to form enzyme thromboplastin.
3. In the prescience of calcium, a reaction with prothrombin creates thrombin.
4. Thrombin reacts with fibrinogen (another plasma protein) to produce fibrin.
Fibrin makes an insoluble material that is insoluble. This is the “scab” of your wound.
Blood’s Functions
Blood has many functions. One of the functions, as we’ve learned, is transport. Blood
transports nutrients absorbed in the capillaries of the digestive tract, as well as nutrients
that are synthesized in other areas. Blood also takes gasses from the respiratory system.
Blood also works to transport waste materials from the cells, such as uric acid and carbon
dioxide. The bloodstream also transports hormones, chemical messages that instruct the
body to do certain things.
Blood and the Regulation of Temperature

Blood also plays an important role in the regulation of temperature in the
body. Blood from the internal body passes through the skin in order to
lose heat. When the body environment is too warm, blood pumps from
the insides of the body out to the external skin portions of the body,
which are cooler and help the blood to lose heat. The arteries nearest to
the edge of the skin dilate in a process known as vasodilatation (see
figure on the right). Sweating, and other mechanisms help the skin to
lose the excess heat.
Vasoconstriction is the outer blood veins constricting in order to

conserve body heat when the body is cold. This usually leads to waves
of muscle contractions, or shivering.
Several factors lead to vasodilatation or vasoconstriction, such as blood pressure. The

brain is able to regulate blood pressure by dilating or constricting the outer blood veins.
Metabolic activity, and exercise can also lead to vasodilatation
Countercurrent is the principal that makes this system of regulation possible. As warmer
blood flows from the core of the body, it flows along a deep artery, that runs deep inside

the body, not near the surface of
the skin. This ensures that heat is
kept to the extreme dies. Once the
capillaries transfer the blood into
the veins, the blood can either flow
via the deep or surface veins,
depending on the temperature regulation.
Circulation & Capillaries
Capillaries are very important to blood circulation because they provide the only
apparatus where exchange of materials in blood can take place. Capillaries exist near
most cells and in high concentrations in the lungs to facilitate the exchange of materials.
A bed of capillaries lies between a artery

and a vein, as per the image on the left.
Not always are all the capillaries open.
Sometimes, if necessary, the blood can
bypass the capillaries and flow directly
from artery to vein, through the opening
and closing of tiny sphincter muscles.
Exchange of materials in the capillaries

takes place through the interstitial fluid.
Within the capillaries, exchange of materials takes place via the concentration gradient.
For example, if the blood is deoxidized, the concentration gradient will automatically
result in the diffusion of oxygen into the blood stream. The need of hemoglobin to have
oxygen also contributes to this movement. It also works the same way with the giving of
waste products. Blood pressure becomes lower then that of the arteries in the capillary
beds, and is lower yet still in the veins, in order to facilitate blood flowing through the
capillaries, which it does at a slower rate of speed then its speed through the veins.
Blood Disorders
Some major diseases of the blood include hemophilia, which is a lack of clotting platelets
in the blood. People who suffer from severe hemophilia are in danger of bleeding to
death, and are treated with a substance called Factor VIII, which stimulates the blood to
produce more platelets.
Leukemia is cancer of the white blood cells. Mytoid leukemia is the prescience of too
many leukocytes, which are too immature to fight infections and crowd out the red blood
cells. Lymphoid leukemia is a cancer of the lymphocytes. Treatment of leukemia
requires the transfusion of new red blood cells into the affected persons body, and new,
healthy white blood cells, as well as radiation therapy.
THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
The lymphatic system works alongside the circulatory

system, primarily to regulate the amount of fluid that
is distributed to the body. As the blood passes through
the capillaries, some plasma bleeds out into the
interstitial fluid. The lymph system collects this
plasma, and takes it back to the heart for reintegration
into the circulatory system. The Lymph nodes also
facilitate the growth of the white blood cells, which
protect the body against infection. Infections or
illness cause the body to increase the number of lymph nodes, and their size. Some
people can feel the swelling on their jawbone, or in their armpits.
Lymphatic Defense System
The body is an excellent growing place for many pathogens and other bacteria. The body
defends itself by either refusing their entry, or attacking them inside. There are three
methods of defense the body employs:
The first is a physical barrier provided by the skin to stop entry of pathogens. The oil in
the skin, and the acidity of sweat all are hostile to the life and reproduction of bacteria
and pathogens.
Cell Mediated Immunity is created by three types of white blood cells, and is the second
level of defense. Macrophages, neutrophills and monocytes all work together to destroy
pathogens. The later two utilize phagocytosis, swallowing the offending pathogens
whole. Macrophages use phagocytosis, and swallow cells that have already been infected
with pathogens, or with cancer.
Specific Anti-Body Mediated Immunity, uses specific protein antibodies that are created
either through exposure to the pathogen previously, or through genetic makeup in order
to help rid the body of the infection. Lymphocytes are the active portion of the white
blood cells that participate in the removal of diseases and are divided into B and T cells,

the former of which matures in bone marrow, and the latter in the thymus gland, near to
the heart.
How do these cells know what to attack? Your body has a catalogue of what should be
inside of it, and these cells have access to that catalogue. In addition, antigens, special
receptor cells on the edges of pathogens are specific to the antibody attacking. The
antibody enzyme latches directly onto the antigen.
B Cells function to create the specific antibodies required to thwart off the infection. The
B cells split into memory B cells, and plasma cells. The plasma cells pump out massive
amounts of antibodies to fight the infection, while the memory B cells wait into the blood
stream to produce more plasma cells should a second wave of the pathogen become
present after all the plasma cells and antibodies have been used up.
T Cells facilitate the removal of macrophages which have become infected after
destroying part of the pathogen. Helper T Cells recognize the presence of the antigen on
the macrophage cells, and stimulate chemically the Killer T Cells, which puncture a hole
in the cell membrane of the macrophage, destroying the infected cell. Supporter T Cells
ensure that regular tissue is not destroyed by the Killer T Cells. Memory T Cells send
new chemical signals if all the other T Cells have been used up and the pathogen remains.
Blood Types
Blood
transfusions in
early days
were very
unsuccessful,
because
scientists did
not know that
specific blood
types carry
different
antigens to
blood
receptors.
The
prescience of
the type A or
type B
antigens on
the surface of
the person’s
blood cells
determines the
type of blood
they have.
The presence
of Type A
antigens
means you
have type A
Blood, alike
type B.
Type A also contains anti-A antibodies in the

plasma. When blood of different types comes
together, it causes agglutination, or massive clotting
of the circulatory system which leads to severe
damage of organs and death. The table on the right
summarizes human blood types.
RH is another factor of blood type. People who do

have RH antigens are considered RH positive, while people who do not are RH negative.
In human pregnancy, if the mother is RH negative, and the father is RH positive, the
child will likely be RH positive. While in the uterus, the mother’s body will be begin to
develop RH antibodies, and on subsequent pregnancies, this can cause severe problems.
Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn (HDN) is the destruction of a newborn’s red blood
cells due to the attack of the RH antibodies on the fetus. Jaundice, a newborn condition
is caused when RH has destroyed so much of the red blood cells that the liver has now
begun to produce bilruben, a yellowish substance, in massive quantities. This tinges the
newborn’s skin yellow, as the billruben flows through the circulatory system. This
problem is medically solved by injecting RH negative women with a antibody
preparatory inhibitor within 72 hours of the birth of her first child.
Immune System Disorders
Rheumatoid arthritis is the killer T Cells attacking the joints of the body, causing server
damage, inflammation of the joints and a lot of pain for the individual. Drugs such as
Tylinol can be taken to reduce the pain, and more severe disease modifying
antiartheumatic drugs slow the overall progress of the system.
Allergies are caused by an unreasonable response by the immune system. Immediate

response usually occurs within thirty minutes of infection, and results in blood rushing to
the area of contact, making it red and swollen. This also causes side effects such as
runny nose, or watery eyes.
Asthma, a chronic condition in North America, occurs when the bronchitis of the lungs
become overly sensitive, and trigger massive spasms or coughing fits. Stimuli can be
extremely simple, such as the inhaling of cold air, or the prescience of certain pollens.
Asthma can be treated by anti-inflammatory drugs, which ease the suffering of the
bronchitis openings.
Delayed response to allergies is caused due to the creation of helper T cells, which take
some time to create. These allergies can occur to the prescience of jewelry or certain
cosmetics.
THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Cellular respiration is the main function of the human respiratory system and ensures that
we, as humans are able to take in oxygen and expel carbon dioxide. There are two main
requirements for respiration to take place:
1. Respiration must have enough surface area to take place at a speed to meet the body’s
needs.
2. Respiration must take place in a moist environment.
The stages of cellular respiration are as follows:

1. Breathing – involving two basic functions, inspiration (inhalation or breathing in)
and expiration (exhalation or breathing out).
2. External Respiration – facilitates the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the
air and blood.
3. Cellular Respiration – is a process that takes place in the cells that creates the
energy sources required to facilitate cellular reactions utilizing the oxygen provided.
STRUCTURE OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The lungs are the key component of the

respiratory system, and are located deep inside
the body, protected by the ribcage and the
thoracic cavity. How does air come to the
lungs?
Well, air begins its journey at the nasal and

mouth. Air usually enters via the nose, but can
enter via the mouth when a rapid exchange is
needed. The nasal cavity cleans the air,
removing toxins and other bacteria. The nose is
lined with little hairs known as cilia, which move foreign particles to the back of the nose
for coughing or sneezing out. The nose also has cells that secrete mucus, which catch
foreign cells within its sticky substance.
Thin bones protect the back of the nose, turbinate, which increase the surface area for the
cilia to be attached to. The heat from the blood in the nose and the mucus also serve to
warm the air, and moisten it. The air must be warmed and moistened in order to protect
the delicate structures of the respiratory system.
The pharynx or the throat is the passageway air follows down to the lungs. The epiglottis
is a thing flap of membrane that ensures that food and other particles that are going to the
digestive tract do not go down the tube in to the lungs. The epiglottis does this by closing
over the trachea, or the glottis, which is the windpipe. Food thus goes down the
esophagus and into the stomach instead of into the lungs.

The larynx, or vocal cords, regulates the pitches that can be created by your voice.
During breathing, the cords are usually spaced very wide together. But, when you speak,
they come together and the air that passes through causes them to vibrate. Longer vocal
cords usually create lower pitches, while shorter ones create longer pitches.
After passing the larynx, the air passes down the trachea, which is structured by strong
semi lunar rings of cartilage. The open portion of the trachea faces the esophagus so that
the former can contract, permitting the later to expand when food is swallowed.
The trachea branches into two smaller pathways, the bronchi. The bronchi enter the left
and right lungs, and have C-shaped cartilage rings, like the trachea, that provide support
and stability to the lungs. The bronchi divide into bronchioles, tinier tubes. Both the
bronchi and bronchioles contain cilia, tiny hairs that sweep the air through the respiratory
tract, and also clean it.
The lungs are surrounded by a double layer of membrane, known as the pleural
membrane. The outside of the membrane is stuck to the chest wall, while the inter
portion of the membrane attachés to the lungs. Fluid fills the space in between the
membranes. This allows the lungs and chest to expand and contract uniformity, without
causing tearing or friction between the membranes.
At the end of each bronchiole are tiny sacs known as alveoli. This is where the actual gas
exchange takes place. The wall of the alveoli, known as the alveoli wall, is filled with
tiny capillaries, which connect the veins and arteries of the body togther. Oxygen and
carbon dioxide can diffuse into the bloodstream directly through these capillaries.
The arrangement of bronchioles and alveoli is kept relatively constant with elastic
connective tissue between them. Lubricating film is also used to keep the alveoli from
collapsing or from sticking together.
BREATHING AND RESPIRATION
In order to regulate air pressure and breathing, two different muscles are used. The
diaphragm is a dome shaped muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal
cavity. The rib muscles exist between the ribs and extend down to the diaphragm.
The Mechanics of Breathing
Inhalation starts with the contraction of the

diaphragm and the the rib muscles upwards and
outwards. The size of the thoracic cavity increases,
and the air pressure between the plural membranes of
the lungs decreases. Since the lungs are sensitive to
this pressure change, they begin to expand, and the
difference in concentration of air particles from the
outside environment and the inside of the lungs
causes air to rush into the lungs.
Exhalation occurs in the opposite way. The diaphragm

and the rib muscles expand decreasing the size of the
thoracic cavity, and increasing the air pressure. The
lungs contact, and the air pressure between the external
environment equalizes, by air shooting out of the lungs.
Respiratory Volume
How “much” air you can

breath in and out, exhale and
inhale, is calculated using a
system known as respiratory
volume. A spriograph (left) is
used to show a person’s
respiratory volume. Here is
what some of the terms on it
mean:
• Tidal volume is the amount

of air that is inhaled and
exhaled during normal breathing in the body.
• Inspiratory reserve volume is the amount of air that can be pushed into the lungs after
a normal breath (tidal volume).

• Expiratory volume is the amount of air that can be pushed out of the lungs after a
normal breath (tidal volume).
• Vital capacity is the total lung capacity a person has. It can be calculated by adding
tidal volume to either the expiratory volume or the inspiratory volume.
• Residual volume is the amount of gas that remains in the respiratory system. No
amount of force can push this out: it remains there to ensure that the lungs and
thoracic cavity remain inflated.
Gas Exchange and External Respiration
External respiration is the transfer of oxygen and carbon dioxide

between the capillaries and the alveoli. Because the capillaries are
only one cell thick, diffusion can move oxygen and carbon dioxide
particles across the membrane, because diffusion works with the
concentration gradient (in other words, moves the oxygen and carbon
dioxide to where there is a less concentration from an area where there
is higher concentration).
Oxygen is also transferred by way of facilitated diffusion, by special

molecules that carry the oxygen across the cell membrane. This
requires no additional energy, as the oxygen is still moving with the concentration
gradient, instead it just increases the speed of the diffusion.
After being exchanged here, the oxygen is transported to the cells, where it is again
exchanged for carbon dioxide, which is brought back to the capillaries and the alveoli.
The oxygen, as you learned previously, is carried by the hemoglobin. Approximately

99% of oxygen is carried by the hemoglobin, while the other 1% dissolves into the blood
plasma and is carried using that method.
Carbon dioxide, on the other hand, is carried through a variety of methods. 23% is
carried by the hemoglobin, 7 percent is carried by the blood plasma. The other 70% is
carried as bicarbonate ions (HCO3-). When carbon dioxide and water react, they form
carbonic acid, H2CO3. As the carbonic acid enters the blood stream, a hydrogen atom
disassociates from the carbonic acid and is absorbed into the hemoglobin. The
bicarbonate diffuses into the plasma, and is carried to the lungs where this process is
reversed, and the carbon dioxide diffuses through the capillaries into the alveoli and out
of the respiratory system.
RESPIRATORY HEALTH
Briefly, are a couple ailments that can affect the respiratory system. Recall that the
respiratory system, like the digestion system, exists in coordination with the external
environment and are therefore susceptible to a number of ailments.
Upper Respiratory Ailments
• Tonsillitis is the viral or bacterial infection of the tonsils (located in the back of the
pharynx. They can be removed surgically if breathing becomes impaired, or if they
become super prone to infection.
• Laryngitis is the viral or bacterial infection of the larynx (vocal cords). Usually this
results in the cords being unable to vibrate normally, causing speech to be difficult,
and the throat to be sore.
Lower Respiratory Ailments

• Bronchitis is the inflammation of the bronchi, due to a high volume of mucus (filled
with foreign particles) needing to be coughed out regularly. Acute bronchitis usually
resolves quickly, but chronic bronchitis is not curable, and is usually caused by the
loss of the cilia, the hair that scrubs the air and removes foreign pathogens. Chronic
bronchitis can be managed with various medications, exercise and staying away from
smokers (or quitting smoking yourself).
• Pneumonia is fluid filling the alveoli, interfering
with gas exchange and thus starving the body
for oxygen. Lobular pneumonia affects a
specific region or lobe of the lungs. Bronchitis
pneumonia interferes with various particles
throughout the lungs.
• Pleurisy is the infection and swelling of the membranes that surround the lungs, and
is usually accompanied by sharp chest pain. It can be caused by bacterial or viral
infections, a blood clot in the lungs, or cancer.
• Emphazema is the reduction in elasticity of the alveoli, which reduces the speed at
which gas exchange takes place, laboring breathing. Various medications, such as
inhalers or low-flow oxygen tanks can assist in making breathing easier. There are
also experimental surgeries known as Lung Volume Reduction surgery, which take
out the affected parts of the lung, and increase the efficiency of the parts that are
working well.
• Cystic Fibrosis is caused by a rogue gene that causes the cells in the lining of the
lungs to not function correctly, creating too much mucus. Particles that are trapped
by the mucus cannot be expelled, and therefore result in continued infection.
Currently, cystic fibrosis is treated through mucus thinning medications.
Experimental gene modification treatments are also being worked on.
• Asthma is the over-sensitization of the bronchi and bronchiole in the lungs to certain
triggers, for example pollen, dust or cigarette smoke. When these are breathed in, the
tubes become inflamed and result in swelling or an asthmatic attack where the person
cannot breathe. Dry and forced inhalers work to reduce swelling in the bronchi and
bronchiole by either forcing gaseous chemicals down the throat that relieve the
swelling, or having the person inhale rapidly to force a powder down. There are also
nebulizers which are masks that are worn over the face to administer the drug by mist.
• Lung cancer is the rapid multiplication of abnormal cells in the lungs, leading to
tumors or carcinomas. Carcinogens are substances that are cancer causing, such as
cigarette smoke, exposure to asbestos or longer term exposure to radon, a heavily
gaseous radioactive element found in rocks and soil that collects in buildings.

CELLULAR RESPIRATION
Cellular respiration is the process by which glucose is oxidized

into carbon dioxide, via the chemical removal of hydrogen ions
and elections from glucose, releasing carbon dioxide and
producing water. Cellular respiration is the opposite process to
photosynthesis, which occurs through the addition of hydrogen
ions and elections into glucose. A graphical representation of
cellular respiration is provided to the right.
The summary equation for cellular respiration is as below:

C6H12O6(s) + O2(g) → 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) + energy (ATP)
There are three different methods that organisms can utilize for cellular respiration, some
of which have the same steps involved. Organisms that utilize oxygen, known as oxic
organisms, use aerobic cellular respiration while organisms where oxygen is not
required use anaerobic cellular respiration. The third process, for releasing energy
from food sources is called fermentation. Yeast, and the bacteria that sours milk, are
two examples of fermentation.
AEROBIC CELLULAR RESPIRATION STEPS
Aerobic Cellular Respiration has the ultimate goal of transforming the high energy
elections from the glucose to a carrier oxygen molecule. It does this through four distinct
processes, which shall be summarized here and then further explained in the next bit.
Glycolosis does not require oxygen to commence (it is actually an anaerobic process, so
both aerobic and anaerobic organisms perform it). Glycolosis is the chemical breakdown
of glucose into two three-carbon pyruvate ions. Glycolosis generates a small amount of
ATP, the energy source utilized by bodily cells. In anaerobic organisms, the leftover
pyruvate from glycolosis proceeds to fermentation.
In aerobic organisms, the next step from glycolosis is an entrance into the Krebs cycle,
through the loss of a carbon atom, which bonds with an O2 molecule to form carbon
dioxide. It also loses a hydrogen atom, and gives it to NAD+, which become NADH, a
transport molecule. The loss of the carbon ion permits the pyruvate to bond with
Coenzyme A and enter into the Krebs cycle via NADH.
Within the Krebs cycle is to transform the power of the carbon atoms into power
chemicals NADH and FADH2. Finally, the Krebs cycle provides high energy elections
for the Election Transport System, which generates a high volume of ATP.
Confused? We were too. Lets take a look at this in detail…
Step 1: Glycolosis
Glycolosis occurs outside of the mitochondrion of the

cell, in the cytoplasm. As you learned above, glycolosis
splits the glucose molecule (a six carbon molecule) into
two three-carbon pyruvate molecules. 2 ATP molecules
are required in order to make this reaction take place, as
glucose actually needs energy added to break in two.
However, at the conclusion of glycolosis, four ATP
molecules are gained, leading to an overall increase of 2
ATP molecules.
Step 2: Coenzyme A Reaction & Entrance into the Krebs Cycle
Pyruvate undergoes one additional reaction before entering the Krebs cycle. Pyruvate
loses a carbon atom and a hydrogen atom. The carbon atom leads to bonding with an
oxygen molecule, forming carbon dioxide, which is then expelled as waste. The
hydrogen bonds with a NAD+ to form NADH. Coenzyme A and pyruvate form acetyl
CoA, which then enters the Krebs cycle.
Step 3: The Krebs Cycle
The Krebs cycle starts off with a six-carbon

molecule, two of the carbons being provided
by the acetyl CoA, from the previous step.
As sown in the figure, a six carbon molecule
moves around the Krebs cycle, losing a
carbon each time to move NAD+ to NADH.
2 molecules of carbon dioxide are also
produced as waste. During the Krebs cycle,
a further 2 ATP molecules are produced.
Step 4: Election Transport
Election transport is the final stage in

aerobic cellular respiration. In the
mitochondria, high energy elections are
passed through a chain of election carrying
molecules. Each time the election is passed, a small amount of energy is released, in the
form of a simple hydrogen pump, which helps push the molecules across the
intermembrane space (space between the two membranes of the mitochondrion). This
creates a hydrogen ion concentration gradient. The energy of the concentration gradient
is then harnessed to bond a phosphate group to ADP and form ATP. This is called
chemiosmosis and creates thirty-two ATP molecules during each transport of the
elections. Oxygen is the final election receptor, and in this capacity is the only one that
requires oxygen in the whole aerobic breathing process.

The below image summarizes aerobic respiration within a cell:
Oxygen’s Importance
Remember that oxygen is the key component of aerobic respiration. Even in such a small
capacity, being the last election
receptor, the election transport
system, and subsequently the
Krebs cycle could not take place
without it.
How important is oxygen? Well,

without it, we would only form 2
ATP molecules. With oxygen, we
form thirty-six. The flow chart to
the right summarizes the
production of ATP through aerobic
cellular respiration.
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
Anaerobic Respiration works virtually the same as aerobic respiration, except that it does
not include the Krebs cycle, and uses a different receptor then oxygen at the end of the
election transport cycle. For this reason, it is highly inefficient, and only produces 2 ATP
molecules, due to gylcolosis.
FERMENTATION
For organisms that cannot take in oxygen, or for tissues in the human body where oxygen
is not present in large enough quantities, fermentation takes place. Fermentation includes
glycolosis and two reactions that reduce NADH to NAD+ by reducing pyruvate to other
compounds.
There are two types of fermentation. Lactic fermentation and ethanol fermentation.
Lactic Fermentation
During extraneous exercises, where your muscles

are without oxygen for times, or have inadequate
oxygen sources, your muscles produce lactate, by
synthesizing pyruvate to a molecule called lactate
(lactic acid) through NADH. The resulting NAD+
is recycled to continue this process. This builds up
an oxygen debt, as your pyruvate cannot be broken
down fast enough by the Krebs cycle or the election transport system. The build up of
lactic acid leads to fatigue and cramps in your muscles until oxygen is present again, and
the oxygen is converted back to pyruvate.
Ethanol Fermentation
Ethanol fermentation is used by organisms

utilizing anaerobic respiration. It is also utilized
in baking, with the yeast found in many baking
products. Barley, sugars and other ingredients are
also fermented with this process to produce beer.
Depending on the organism, other things then
lactic acid and ethanol can be produced during
fermentation. Ethanol fermentation can also be
used to produce fuel. Today, many manufacturers are converting to partial ethanol usage,
in order to save on gasoline.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis is the transfer of energy from sunlight into chemical energy.

Photosynthesizing organisms are able to produce about 1.4x1015 kg of energy-storing
glucose yearly. Other organisms such as humans depend on the abilities of
photosynthesizing plants in many ways:
The basic reaction of photosynthesis utilizes the following formula:

6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) + energy → C6H12O6(s) + O2(g)
The reaction itself may seem simple, but for the arrow to go from carbon dioxide and
water to glucose and oxygen, requires over 100 distinct reactions. Overall, these
reactions can be classified into two categories. In Light-Dependent Reactions, solar
energy is trapped and used to produce ATP and NADPH. In Light Independent
Reactions ATP and NADPH are used to reduce carbon dioxide to glucose.
The Light Dependent Reactions of Photosynthesis
The Light-Dependent Reactions of photosynthesis result in different pigments within the
plant absorbing different wavelengths of light.
Photosystems are arrangements of the different

pigments that take in light, and their connection
to send the absorbed energy to an electron
absorbing chlorophyll or a reaction center where
an election becomes excited and passes off to an
election receiving molecule. A water molecule
splits and replaces the missing election from the
reaction center (and the leftover oxygen from
the reaction is excreted by the plant). The
election that went away is carried through its
own election transport system where at each
transport mechanism, the election releases a
precise, small amount of energy that pushes it
through the thylakoid membrane to the area
inside of the thylakoid.
As this occurs, energy is released to begin the
synthesis of ATP.

The next step, chemiosynthesis takes place in the thylakoid, where the movement of the
hydrogen ions causes a concentration gradient that serves to release ATP molecules.
The Light Independent Reactions of Photosynthesis
When an ample amount of NADPH and ATP occur in the stomata and the chloroplasts,
the energy goes through the Calvin-Benson cycle to form glucose. The Calvin-Benson
cycle can be summarized as follows:
The first stage is to fix carbon dioxide, where the carbon from the carbon dioxide is
bonded to another molecule in the stomata called ribulose bisphosphate. The resulting
six-carbon compound immediately breaks down into two three carbon compounds
The second stage is to reduce.

The two three carbon compounds
are activated by ATP then
reduced by NADPH resulting in
PGAL. (PGAL is short for
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate.)
Some of the PGAL is used
outside of the cycle to synthesize
glucose, while other portions of
it move to stage three.
The third stage is to use PGAL to

reform the four carbon molecule
ribulose bisphosphate.
The Calvin-Benson cycle must be completed six times in order to synthesize one
molecule of glucose. Of the 12 PGAL molecules created during six cycles, 10 are used to
reproduce ribulose bisphosphate and two are glucose.
MUSCLE CONTROL
The muscle cells work to convert chemical energy from cellular respiration to kinetic
energy, the energy of motion. There are three different types of muscle cells.
Smooth Muscle Cells are long and tapered at each end. Their contractions are
involuntary; you cannot control your smooth muscles. They are found in the stomach,
many blood vessels, and in the iris of the eye. In each location, smooth muscle is
responsible for controlling the shape and size of the muscles. Although contractions of
the smooth muscle are slower then those of the skeletal muscle (see below), smooth
muscle can contract for much longer without fatiguing.
Cardiac Muscles are unique to the heart. They are tubular and strained and only have
one nucleus throughout. Contractions are involuntary.
Skeletal Muscles are what we think of when one says muscles. They control the
movement of the human body, and are voluntarily moved. With over six hundred
throughout the human body, skeletal muscles can produce a wide variety of movements.
Multiple nuclei control the large and long series of a muscle and a great amount of energy
are needed to run skeletal muscles.
This image below summarizes the three different types of muscles.

SKELETAL MUSCLE
The main functions of skeletal muscle are as follows:

• Support and Straighten the Body. Skeletal muscles go against the force of gravity,
and help us to stand upright.
• Make the Bones Move. Skeletal muscle contractions help to move our bones and
hence cause movements in our arms, legs and facial expressions among others.
• Maintain constant body temperature. Skeletal muscle contractions result in ATP
breakdowns, releasing significant energy in the form of heat into the body.
• Protects the Bonds, and Connects the Joints. Skeletal muscle helps protect the
bones by providing a pad for the bones to rest on. As well, the tendons of the skeletal
muscle
Skeletal Muscle Cooperation
Muscle contraction results in a shortening of

the muscle – which exerts a pull (not a push).
The work of the muscle is done during its
contraction, when it is not contracted, the
muscle is relaxed. In order to provide a force
to contract one muscle, another must relax.
Muscle contractions, therefore, are always
done in pairs, one muscle contracting while
the other is relaxing. A sample image of the
bicep illustrates this point to the right.
Skeletal Muscle Fibers
Each muscle in
the body lies
along a bone,
with two thick
tendons on
either end
connecting the
muscle to
different bones.
Muscle fibers,
the main portion
of the skeletal
muscle, are
organized into
many bundles, with layers of connective tissue wrapping around them, and with
connective tissue wrapping around the other connective tissue, an then a protective layer
wrapping around the muscle itself. Blood vessels run between the fibers of the muscles,
providing power and oxygen for the muscles, and taking the carbon dioxide away.
Nerves near to the blood vessels trigger contractions.
Most of the volume of the muscle fiber comes from the myofibrils, and the thinner
myofilaments. The rest of the volume consists of mitochondria. The below table
summarizes the muscle tissue.
How Muscle Fibers Contract
Skeletal muscle contraction is due to the efforts of two myrofibrils, actin and myosin.
Actin is a thin filament with two strands of protein intertwined that looks alike two sets of
balls strung together and wrapped around one another. Myosin is two thin tubes twisted
together, and at the end it has a head like protrusion extending from either tube.

During a contraction, the heads of the myosin myrofilament touches the actin
myrofilament and moves in the direction of the contraction. This causes the actin to
move as well, because it is chemically bonded with the myosin. As each head touches
the actin and moves down, ATP is released. This is known as the sliding filament model
and is depicted below:
The Z line is an anchor to each myrofilament, and as the myosin pulls the actin along, the
z line anchor is pulled too, contracting the whole muscle uniformly.
Calcium ions (Ca++) regulate the muscle contractions. Binding of the myosin heads to the
actin myrofilamnets cannot take place without a high amount of calcium, because without
it tropomyosin forms – a natural inhibitor for the chemical bonds that need to take place
in order for contraction to occur. The complex of tropomyosin shifts away from the areas
where the bonding sites are located in the presence of high calcium intake.
Creation of Energy Required for Muscle Contraction
ATP is acquired through three methods, creatine phosphate breakdown, aerobic cellular
respiration and fermentation. The first and third methods can be completed without
oxygen, while aerobic cellular respiration requires oxygen to take place.
Creatine phosphate is a high energy compound that is made

in the muscle while it is at rest. Creatine phosphate is
activated with the sliding of the filaments, and provides
about eight seconds of high energy burst. Creatine phosphate forms ATP through the
reaction shown on the right.
Aerobic cellular respiration can occur when the delivery of oxygen commences to the
muscle cells, but also when oxygen is stored in the myoglobin, a compound alike
hemoglobin that is synthesized in the muscle cells. Glycogen and
fats can also be stored in the muscles, and therefore fibers can use
glucose and fatty acids from the stores to produce ATP.
Fermentation is the production of lactic acid from glucose to form

ATP. Fermentation changes the pH of the muscle, and after a
given amount of time, leads to cramping and fatigue. An oxygen
debt occurs, causing the person to continue to breathe heavy after
exercise.
MUSCLES AND HEALTH
Muscles are susceptible

to a variety of injuries
including simple lack of
use. Atrophy is a
reduction in size, tone
and power of a muscle.
People who do not exert a
muscle, or stop exerting a
muscle even for a short
period can experience
atrophy. Over time
atrophy can be permanently damaging. Hypertrophy is the opposite, the enlargement of
a muscle due to regular exercise done upon it.

Common Ailments of Muscles
The below table summarizes some common ailments of muscles:
Muscle Twitch
Electrolytic stimulus can take place on a muscle and

result in a systematic contraction. A muscle will not
contract until the exact amount of electricity required to
pass its threshold is exerted, and then the muscle
contracts then relaxes. (See the figure to the left).
Stimulus that is replied repeatedly, not giving the muscle
time to relax, results in an increased contraction until the
tetanus point, where the muscle can no longer contract,
and then relaxes at fatigue.
Slow Twitch and Fast Twitch
Different muscles twitch at different speeds.

Slow twitch require a higher amount of
electricity to twitch, but have a greater
endurance time. Fast twitch muscles require
less electricity, but fatigue quickly.
THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM
The excretory system seeks to maintain the volume and composition of the various fluids
within the body. Waste within the human body is any substance that is produced within
the body in excess, for example sodium (Na+) ions, chloride (Cl-) ions and hydrogen ions
(H+). Wastes, in large quantities can post a risk to human health, particularly those types
of waste that have an extreme pH (either highly acidic or highly basic).
The excretion system is the apparatus which removes these wastes from the body. It
works to separate them from the bodily fluids, package them appropriately for removal,
and then secrete them back into the external environment.
ANATOMY OF THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM
Almost every human has two fist shaped organs

known as kidneys, located in the small of their back
beneath a thick layer of protective fat. Urine, the
product of the kidneys, is released into two 28cm
tubes known as ureters and down through them via
peristalsis to the urinary bladder. Drainage of the
bladder (in liquid form) is handled by two pyloric
sphincter muscles, both of which must be relaxed in
order for excretion to occur. The first is controlled
involuntarily by the brain. The second we learn to
control in childhood. Urine is secreted from the body via the urethra. The Urethra is 20
cm long in males, and combines with the Vas Deferens (of the reproductive system) in
order to exit the body into the external environment. In females, the tube is only about 4
cm long and has a separate opening from the reproductive tract.
The Kidney
The kidney
begins with a
flap of tissue
that leads to the
renal pelvis, an
apparatus with
cap like
extensions that
receives urine
from the renal
tissue. This
tissue is divided
into two
sections, the
renal cortex and the inner renal medulla.

Embedded within the renal cortex and the medulla millions of structures known as
nephrons. The nephrons are closely associated with a group of blood vessels that filter
various substances from the blood in order to prepare for waste production. Nephrons are
organized as follows:
1. The Filter: the filtration structure is also known as the Borman’s capsule, and within
it the renal artery splits into a fine network of capillaries known as the glomerulus.
The capillaries have walls that are impenetrable to larger particles, save red blood
cells. While it prevents larger particles from seeping through, water, urea, small
molecules and ions are able to pass through at will. The filtered substances that
proceed from the Borman’s capsule are called filtrate.
2. A Tubule. The Bowman’s capsule is connected to a tubule known as the Loop of

Henle. Its function is similar to the small intestine, absorbing nutrients that could be
useful to the body. It also secretes substances into the surrounding tissues.
3. The final Duct. The Loop of Henle empties into a duct known as the collecting duct.
The duct serves to collect the water that was not already reabsorbed into the body.
The fluid that is left is now called urine.
URINE PRODUCTION
There is a four step production method

to urine production. It is, as follows:
1. Glomerular Filtration moves
water and solutes, except proteins,
from blood plasma into the
nephron.
2. Tubular Reabsorption is the
removal of useful substances from
the filtrate, and their subsequent
return to the blood.
3. Tubular Secretion is the removal
of additional wastes from the blood
into the filtrate.
4. Water Secretion removes water
from the filtrate to maintain body
systems.
Two factors contribute to the forced filtration (glomerular) are the permeability of the
membranes: their size and shape ensure that only desired particles can get through them
back into the bloodstream. The second factor is blood pressure. The pressure within the
glumeulus is about four times higher then the other locations in the body, leading to the
forced filtration.
Proximinal Tubule
About 65% of the filtrate that

passes through the proximinal
tubule and the loop of Henle is
passed back into the body. The
proximinal tubule is filled with
mitochondria that use their ATP
production process in order to
force Na+ and glucose ions back
into the bloodstream via active
transport. Negative ions pass
over passively, attracted to the
positive Na+ ions. Water also
moves over via osmosis.
Loop of Henle
The Loop of Henle is responsible for the reabsorption of water and other ions from
glomerular filtrate. As the loop of Henle swirls down towards the lower medulla region,
the saltiness of the external environment increases, and the water simply diffuses (via

osmosis) through the semi permeable membranes of the Henle into the medulla region.
The membrane of the lower portion of the Loop of Henle is not permeable to ions
however, it is not until the loop curls back up that the ions can be diffused though the
membrane into the kidney.
As the filtrate reaches the highest thickest point of the loop of Henle, the ions are
remove3d via active transport.
The transport of ions out of the loop of Henle helps to replenish the salty environment in
the medulla, ensuring that the water can be reabsorbed. It also reduces the concentration
of the filtrate.
Distill Tubule
The distil tubule is responsible for the

reabsorption and secretion, as to the
body’s needs. The body “tops up” on
nutrients and other ingredients it requires
to live (reabsorption). It also dumps
excess (secretion).
Collecting Duct
As the filtrate enters the collecting duct, it

is still highly concentrated with water.
Depending on the dehydration level of the
person, the concentration of the ions and the saltiness of the surrounding deep medulla
that the collecting duct is held in, increases or decreases to proportionally increase or
decrease the amount of reabsorpiton and collection of water via osmosis.
Summary
What is left is a filtrate that is about 1% of its original volume, and is now called urine.
The below table summarizes the different portions of the nephron.

MAINTAINING THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM
The Kidney’s maintain the excretory system by controlling the amount of water that is
absorbed. Osmotic pressure refers to the force generated by water in the concentration
gradient. The kidneys ensure that enough water gets into the body systems by regulating
the osmotic pressure. When you are water deficient, osmoreceptors within your brain
become aware of the situation and send ADH (antidiuretic hormones) through the
bloodstream to the kidney, where the permeability of the distill tubule and the collecting
duct is increased, permitting increased water retention. It also works in reverse, with a
reduction in the production and release of ADH.
Salt Reabsorption
The hormone aldostone regulates the kidneys in such a way to control the reabsorption of
Na+ ions by stimulating the distill tubule and the collecting duct to retain more sodium
ions.
Maintaining Blood pH
Blood pH is regulated by three things – the acid-

base buffer system (involving carbonic acid and
bicarbonate ions) where the reaction is shown on
the left, and a system that involves breathing rate and the generation of carbon dioxide.
The Kidneys work with these two systems in a more powerful way, secreting H+ ions to
make the blood more basic, and HCO3- ions to make the blood more acidic.
Renal Insufficiency
Renal insufficiency means that the kidneys cannot sustain balance in the body due to
damage to their nephrons. Some causes of nephron damage are:
• kidney infection
• high blood pressure
• diabetes mellitus
• trauma from a blow to the lower back or constant vibration from machinery
• poisoning (either from skin contact, inhalation of fumes, or ingestion of contaminated
food) by heavy metals such as mercury and lead or solvents such as paint thinners
• atherosclerosis (which reduces blood flow to the kidneys)
• blockage of the tubules
Kidneys can work with severe problems. 75% of the nephrons need to be seriously
damaged before homeostasis cannot take place, and a person must go on the blood
cleansing process dialysis.
Dialysis
Dialysis is the movement of dissolved substances through semipermable membranes

from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration. Hemodialysis uses
an artificial membrane in an external device, an artificial kidney in other words, to
cleanse the blood, which runs out of a person’s arm through a series of tubes through a
machine. Peritoneal Dialyses uses the lining of the intestine to perform the dialysis, an
area called the peritoneum, which is rich with capillaries.

ENERGY TRANSFER IN THE BIOSPHERE
Organisms utilize the transfer of energy to remain alive. While most organisms utilize
cellular respiration in order to release energy. The release of carbohydrates occurs
within the cellular structure of animals, plants and humans which allows us to remain
alive. The chemical equation for cellular respiration is as follows:
C6H12O6(s) + 6O2(g) → 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) + energy

Carbohydrates + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + energy
(sugars and starches)
Some types of organisms, such as plants, algae and some bacteria can utilize the sun’s
energy in a process known as photosynthesis in order to create the energy required to
live. The equation for photosynthesis is:
6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) + light energy → C6H12O6(s) + 6O2(g)

carbon dioxide + water + light energy → carbohydrates + oxygen
(sugars and starches)
Organisms that utilize photosynthesis are known as producers (or, scientifically

autotrophs) because they create their own energy to survive. Other organisms that eat
plants or animals to survive are known as consumers (or, scientifically heterotrophs),
because they take the energy of other organisms in order to live.
ENERGY ENTERS THE BIOSPHERE
The Sun Provides Energy
You recall, of course, that the sun is the source of

energy for all producers that grow on the earth’s
surface. Energy from the sun goes many places, as
summarized by the figure, right, and by the below.
On average, about thirty percent of the radiant energy

from the sun is shone directly back into space.
Albdedo is a term that refers to how much energy is
reflected back into space in any given spot on the Earth.
Although in different areas, Earth’s Albedo varies from
spot to spot, with it being highest in thick cloud cover,
or when there is light colored reflective surfaces, and it
being its lowest over forest canopies which suck in the
radiant energy.
Approximately 19 percent of the energy is absorbed by gasses and liquids, such as water
vapor and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Some of this energy heats the atmosphere,
and some radiates back into space.
The other 51 percent of the energy reaches the surface, warming the land and the water
on earth. Some is absorbed, and other soaks back into the atmosphere and back into
space.
Only about one or two percent overall actually reaches the producers on the ground.
However, the impact of this small percentage is highly significant. Producers create over
150 billion tons of matter each year. This matter sustains the rest of the life on earth.
Life Under The Sea
Scientists, diving deep under the Galapagos

Islands wanted to discover more about the
deep sea vents at 2500 meters below ground.
What they discovered was remarkable: signs
of deep sea life. Because the organic life at
that level had no access to light, they could
not utilize photosynthesis to produce their
own energy. Instead, small bacteria that
lived on the creatures split the hydrogen-
sulfide molecules that spewed from the deep
sea vent. This gave them the energy they required to live, with sulfuric acid as a
byproduct (instead of oxygen in photosynthesis). Scientists were marveled, and named
the process they’d discovered chemosynthesis.
Chemosynthesis does not only occur underwater. In the soil that we tread on, lives a
similar type of bacteria that converts the ammonia to a nitrogen based compound. This
type of bacteria is called nitrifying bacteria.
Consumers
We know that only producers can produce energy for themselves through the sun.
Consumers are creatures that eat other creatures in order to gain energy for themselves to
live. Primary consumers are usually
herbivores, because they are the first eaters
of plants. Secondary consumers are
carnivores which usually eat herbivores.
Tertiary consumers are carnivores that eat
herbivores and other carnivores.
Decomposers are creatures who obtain their

energy by consuming the dead material of
organisms, such as their feces or, when they
die, their bodies. By consuming them,
decomposers slowly return the mater they
consume back to the biosphere and ensure
that the producers have matter to utilize
when creating energy. In essence,

decomposers are the matter recyclers of the ecosystem.
Energy in the Biosphere
Earth is a closed system, which does not permit matter to enter or leave it. Due to the
process outlined above, our Earth’s natural biosphere ensures that matter is recycled so
that it can be reused infinite times. While matter is recyclable, energy is not. Energy
enters the biosphere on a one way path only.
Recall the first law of thermodynamics from your previous studies “Energy cannot be
created or destroyed. It can only be converted from one form to another or transferred
from one object to another.” Energy entering the biosphere is utilized by organisms in
order to perform work. The energy that is used does not “disappear”, but is simply
converted into another form of energy and transferred from one object to another (for
example, energy is transferred from a creature as it moves across the land to the land).
However, this conversion process is not 100% effective. Some energy is always lost in
the environment. For example, when you drive in an automobile, energy is transferred
from the fuel into the kinetic energy to move the vehicle, sound energy from the engine
and some thermal (heat) energy that is lost randomly into the environment. This relates
to the second law of thermodynamics which is “With the conversion of energy, there is
always less energy left available for useful work”.
The second law of thermodynamics also relates to cells. Cells require energy constantly
to continue their operations. With the loss of available energy, the cells cannot continue
their operations, and cease to life (they die). That is why producers are so important to the
biosphere, because they are able to produce the energy that other organisms cells need to
survive.
ENERGY TRANSFER WITHIN THE BIOSPHERE
Ecosystems Within the Biosphere
An ecosystem (or ecological system) is

the combination of the organisms that
live within an area, and the physical
environment of the area. An ecosystem
is the combination between the living
(biotic) and non-living (abiotic). The
living component of the ecosystem
consists of organisms, and their products
and wastes whereas the non-living
component is the water, inorganic
substances such as minerals and the
sunlight within the area. Within an
ecosystem is an intensely complicated transfer energy transfer mechanism.
Understanding this transfer is a major component of ecology.
Relationships between organisms that consume one another for energy are described as
tropics. The flow chart (left) demonstrates these relationships.
Tropic levels identity organisms on the basis of how they get the food they need to eat.
We’ve already learned the classification of “herbivore” and “carnivore”. The flowchart
also shows the classifications of “primary consumer”, “secondary consumer” and so on.
However, Tropic levels introduce a new element into the equation. They also explain the
energy that is transferred throughout the ecosystem.
The first tropic is given to creatures who create the chemical energy in order to feed all
other tropic levels. All higher levels consist of organisms that feed on each tropic below
them. Decomposers can feed on any tropic level.
Food Chains and Webs
You might notice that the tropic levels, and their

subsequent classifications are much alike food chains
that you’ve seen in previous studies. The concept of the
food chain was originally accredited to Charles Elton
who set out from the Oxford University in England in
order to study arctic creatures that lived off the coast of
Norway.
Food Chains show linear progressions of food and

energy transfer between organisms. (A sample food
chain is shown on the right hand side). Elton realized
quickly however, that food chains could not adequately
describe the complex relationships of energy transfer. A
Food web allows for a more realistic interpretation of the
transfer of energy and food within the ecosystem.
Food webs can only extend through so many tropics, due to the second law of
thermodynamics. Loss of energy in each tropic ranges between 80-90 percent. (In other
words, when energy is transferred from one tropic to another through the consumption of
an organism, only 10-20% of the energy within the organism is actually transferred).
Ecologists refer to the “Rule of 10” which states that, for general use, only 10% of energy
is transferred in the tropics.
Elton also developed another key concept with

respect to food webs and chains. He also noted,
through the high visibility of population numbers
in organisms in the tundra, that as the tropics grew
higher and higher, the number of animals grew
lower and lower. This is sensible, because of the

Rule of 10. The Rule of 10 can be applied when we say that in order to keep an animal
alive in a tropic one degree higher then the one below it requires the energy of 10 animals
in the tropic below. This explains why the populations become smaller as you raise up
the tropic scale.
Biomass Pyramids
Biomass is the measure of dry mass (usually in g/m2) that an organism or group of
organisms have. Biomass has also been worked into the structure of the Eltonian
pyramid to properly identify the differences in mass between the organisms of each tropic
level. Hence, a Biomass pyramid is a structure that incorporates the tropic levels, and
also gives estimations on the total biomass of each tropic. A biomass pyramid is pictured
below:
An inverted biomass pyramid is generated in many undersea ecosystems. For example,

when you compare the biomass pyramid of the phytoplankton and the zooplankton the
biomass of the phytoplankton is, at times, far less then that of the zooplankton in the
tropic above it. How is this possible? The reproductive systems of the phytoplankton
give them the ability to be reproduced fast enough to be immediately consumed by the
zooplankton, and hence enough energy remains to
keep the ecosystem working, while still resulting
in an inverted biomass pyramid.
Energy pyramids remove the exception of the

zooplankton, because there cannot be less energy
in a tropic lower then another tropic. Hence,
energy pyramids are always upwards, and never
inverted. An example of an energy pyramid is
shown to the right hand side of this page.
CYCLES OF MATTER
On a hot day, the human body perspires in order to cool itself. The water that is created
through the bodies pores is cycled back into the environment, either through evaporation
off the skin or by run off into a water culvert. Consider where the water may go when it
has reentered the biosphere. Perhaps it went into the atmosphere, and rained down during
a storm? Perhaps after this storm it ran off into the drinking water system that we use.
Consider where the water that you release today goes in the environment. The cycle that
water and other chemicals take through the biotic and abiotic components of the
environment is called the biogeochemical cycle. This section will instruct you on
various cycles in the ecosystem.
THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
The hydrological
cycle is the
scientific name for
the water cycle,
which deals with all
phases that water on
earth goes through.
The hydrologic
cycle helps to
connect ecosystems
across vast
distances on the
earth.
Approximately 97% of water in the biosphere exists in liquid form, due to water’s
relatively high boiling point. Water vapor exists in the atmosphere, primarily due to
evaporation. Water vapor is also a greenhouse gas, and remains in the atmosphere; as it
rises it moves towards the poles and distributes heat away from the equator.
Liquid water, in the seas also works to spread out the heat evenly throughout its body.
Warmer water can also heat the air, and moderate the temperature of nearby landforms.
Water at the Chemical Level
Specific reasons water can transfer thermal energy, and dissolved minerals are:
• Water is a universal solvent.
• Water has a relatively high boiling point and melting point.
• Water has special adhesive and cohesive properties.
• Water has a high heat capacity.
What makes water an excellent carrier of dissolved substances? A water molecule,

consists of two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to an oxygen atom. The hydrogen end

of the molecule gives off a slightly positive charge, while the oxygen end gives of a
slightly negative charge. This is referred to as a polar molecule, because it has
differentially charged sides (poles).
Because water is a polar molecule, it can easily attach

itself to other water molecules via an attraction of
opposite poles. For example, the negative pole of one
water molecule attracts to the positive side of another
water molecule. This forms a weak bond known as a
hydrogen bond.
The structure of the water molecule, including its

polarity and the fact that it can readily form a
hydrogen bond makes it very useful in dissolving both molecular and ionic compounds.
The hydrogen bond itself is very weak. When water is in a substance form, individual
hydrogen bonds between molecules break and reform rapidly. However, when the
number of molecules of water and the number of hydrogen bonds formed increases, he
overall strength of the substance increases rapidly. Because the bonds can break and
reform rapidly, water cannot boil until all the bonds have been broken. This unique
property of the hydrogen bond helps us to explain why waters boiling point is so high
when compared to other substances which do not
form hydrogen bonds.
The unique properties of hydrogen bonding also

explain water’s density. Unlike most substances,
water has a lower density in frozen form then in
liquid form. When water freezes, the hydrogen bonds
expand, holding the structure together in a crystal
formation (see the figure on the right). Likewise,
when water melts, the structure compacts as the
crystal bonds break down.
Water’s point of maximum density is 4ºC. When water is melting, it heats up and slowly
becomes denser until it reaches this temperature. When it hits four degrees, the warmer
water sinks below, and cooler water from above is heated. Subsequently, the opposite
process occurs when water freezes, with cooler water sinking as it becomes less dense.
Water Within the Ecosystem and Biosphere
Water has interesting and positive consequences to organisms within the ecosystems. As
water rises and sinks, it cycles dissolved nutrients and oxygen through it. Water that
penetrates around rocks and other solid landforms, and then freezes weathers the
landforms releasing sediment, sand and other dissolved nutrients for use within the
ecosystem. In addition because solid water is less dense, it can freeze overtop of liquid
water, insulating it and preventing aquatic life from freezing or being frozen into a solid
form.
Cohesion is another unique property related to water’s hydrogen bond. Cohesion keeps
water molecules tense and stuck together, and permits many small insects to “walk on
water”. It also forces debris and other nutrients to the surface, permitting easier access to
them by aquatic creatures.
Adhesion permits water molecules to be attracted to other molecules. In a plant, the

phloem and xylem are responsible for transporting nutrients up to the leaves for
photosynthesis and then transferring the sugars created in photosynthesis to feed the rest
of the plant. Although the sugars fall through the phloem via gravity, how does the
xylem raise the water and nutrients up? Adhesion permits the water molecules to bond
together with the nutrients taken in by the roots of the plant. Because the water
molecules also have cohesion, transpiration removes the water molecules from the plant,
causing other molecules to rise and take their place. Together, cohesion and adhesion
permit water and nutrients to rise up the xylem into the leaves.
Water also has a high heat capacity. This means that water requires a relatively large
amount of energy to change its temperature, when compared to other substances. On a
organism level, this permits organisms with a higher water level in their bodies to
maintain a more moderate, constant, internal temperature. In a larger scale, water bodies
help regulate and moderate temperatures of the land masses they are adjacent. Water also
permits surface currents to distribute heat from the warm equator region to heat higher
latitudes.
Uses of Water
Living organisms depend on water and the hydrologic cycle daily. More then 50% of all
animal and plant tissue is comprised of water. 70% of the adult human is water, while
95% of the radish, a plant, is comprised of water. Water loss and gain, are parts of daily
life for many of earth’s organisms.
Water is also essential for human consumption, for

drinking, washing, bathing and cooking. It is also
used for crops and livestock. Water’s importance to
Alberta is clear: with two of our largest natural
disasters being draughts in the prairies during the
1930s and 1980s. If global warming is occurring,
then we may see an increase in quantity and
severity of draughts in the future.
Water quality is also a key issue. Water that cannot

be reused, due to contamination, is useless to
humans and cannot be released back into the environment without causing significant
damage to the ecosystem.

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
Consider the relation between autotrophs (organisms that create their own food) and
heteotrophs (organisms that consume autotrophs). Could the former survive without the
later? The answer is no, because heterotrophs provide nutrients required in order for
autotrophs to make food.
Throughout ecosystems, organisms store essential nutrients, before passing them on to

the water, soil or air. Places where essential nutrients can be stored (organisms, water,
soil or air) are known as nutrient reservoirs. Nutrients cycle rapidly, through a process
known as rapid cycling, passing
from producer to consumer to
decomposer and back into the
environment quickly.
Slow cycling is where nutrients

are stored and are unavailable to
organisms for an extended period
of time. Fossil fuels are one such
example, incomplete
decomposition under high
pressures far below the earth.
How does both rapid and slow
cycling intertwine? The figure to
the right explains.
The Carbon and Oxygen Cycles
Plants consume
tones of carbon
dioxide (CO2)
each year. The
overall amount of
consumption of
CO2 far exceeds
its secretion from
animals through
cellular
respiration. A
great percentage
of carbon dioxide
is secreted by
forest fires, and by the natural processes of decomposers, in addition to the secretions of
human industrial and personal waste. Plants and animals also play key roles in the rapid
cycling of oxygen, via the photosynthesis process.
Trees act as carbon sinks, taking in massive
amounts of carbon yearly, and storing it
within their trunks until they die, decompose
or are exterminated by a forest fire.
The rapid reproduction of photosynthetic

organisms in the deep ocean also helps to
produce a large amount of biomass, which is
then consumed by zooplankton, fish, whales and other hetertrophs. Over a long time, the
components not broken down by decomposers become part of fossil fuel deposits.
The ocean contains approximately 38000 Gt of carbon in the form of dissolved carbon
dioxide. A further 11000 Gt of carbon lies on the ocean floor in the form of methane
gas. Limestone rock also contains carbon, and as it is weathered small amounts are
eroded off into the atmosphere. Humans also have influences on the carbon-air content.
For example, during the Industrial Revolution, carbon in the air increased by 30%.
The Sulfur Cycle
The sulfur cycle works simply.

Organisms absorb sulfur into their
tissues and organs, and secrete it
back out when they die. The
sulfurous smell (rotten eggs etc.) is
an example of decomposers at
work with the sulfur compounds.
Some sulfur is taken out of the

rapid cycle via bacteria conversion
to forms that are layered down as
sediment. Sulfur dioxide reacts
with water vapor in the atmosphere
to form sulfurous acid an sulfuric acid. Acid
deposition is the result of these reactions and comes
in the form of acid rain, which returns sulfur to the
land and oceans. When people burn fossil fuels,
sulfur is released into the atmosphere.
The Nitrogen Cycle
The nitrogen cycle is essential to many organisms. However, many cannot use nitrogen
in its pure form and convert it to ammonia (ammonization). Ammonium is also
produced during decomposition (ammonification). Denitification is converting the
nitrogen or nitrate back into nitrogen gas.

The Phosphorous Cycle
Phosphorous does not cycle through the atmosphere. Instead, it is found within soil and
water, and weathering gradually releases it from rocks. Animals obtain it from
consuming milk, grain and meat. Scarcity of phosphorous helps to control crops, as it is
a requirement to survive. Algae blooms result in a high amount of organic matter in
aquatic regions – something that kills off fish and other specifies due to the loss of
oxygen. Phosphorous was discovered to be the key link causing the algae blooms, and
since that time laundry detergents and dish soaps have had their phosphorous removed to
prevent such happenings in future.
Final Notes
• Productivity is the rate at which an ecosystem’s producers capture and store energy
within organic compounds over a certain length of time.
• Stromatolites are rocks that have accumulated sediment minerals over time.
•

Biology 20 GATE

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Biology 20 GATE

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Biology 20 GATE

Instruction on Problems, Concepts & Applications

Copyright © Smith & Huber Residence 2007. All Rights Reserved

This document is electronically protected to prevent editing or copying.

Instruction on Concepts, Problems and Applications 2

Instruction on Concepts, Problems and Applications 4

Instruction on Concepts, Problems and Applications 6

A very important organelle, the mitochondrion receives carbohydrates and other

THE CELL MEMBRANE

The Cell membrane

One method of passive transport, diffusion,

Instruction on Concepts, Problems and Applications 8

MACROMOLECULES AND LIFE

Macromolecules are assembled in much the same way.

Instruction on Concepts, Problems and Applications 10

Amino acids join

Vitamins and Minerals

Instruction on Concepts, Problems and Applications 12

Enzymes can be inhibited by

Multicellular organisms, like mammals

Imagine simply how large this system

The Three Categories of Digestion

Digestion occurs in three distinct ways:

Physical digestion begins immediately when you take

Instruction on Concepts, Problems and Applications 14

Secretion Site of Function

Your esophagus moves the bolus from

Chemical Digestion – The Stomach

The bolus has now passed through the

Your stomach produces 2-3 L of gastric

Chemical Digestion and

The small intestine, although small

Instruction on Concepts, Problems and Applications 16

Overall, the small intestine can be

The small intestine has a large variety of

The pancreas delivers approximately 1 L of

Digestion & Absorption

Digestion occurs, depending on the type of nutrient, by a different enzyme.

Instruction on Concepts, Problems and Applications 18

Carbohydrates and starch are digested

Protein is digested mostly in the

Fat is first emulsified in the

Excretion – The Large Intestine

Instruction on Concepts, Problems and Applications 20

Multicellular organisms require a complex structure of specialized cells carrying out

Instruction on Concepts, Problems and Applications 22

Pace of the Circulatory System Via Heartbeat

Pathways Of The Circulatory System

The circulatory system moves the blood

Gas exchange takes

Instruction on Concepts, Problems and Applications 24

Blood is considered to be one of the major connecting

Blood is fluidic, or at least fluidic in appearance. It contains

Red Blood Cells

White Blood Cells

Blood and the Regulation of Temperature

Vasoconstriction is the outer blood veins constricting in order to

Several factors lead to vasodilatation or vasoconstriction, such as blood pressure. The

Instruction on Concepts, Problems and Applications 26

Circulation & Capillaries

A bed of capillaries lies between a artery

Exchange of materials in the capillaries

THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

The lymphatic system works alongside the circulatory