XvrShop REF

Contents
Loudspeaker Enclosure Analysis Program
Reference Manual
Release 5
CrossoverShop i
Reference Manual
Contents
LEAP CrossoverShop
Reference Manual
© 2002 - 2003 LINEARX SYSTEMS INC.

All Rights Reserved.
Tel: (503) 612-9565

Fax: (503) 612-9344
Printed in the United States of America.

February 25, 2003.
This document was produced on a Pentium-4 / 2GHz PC with Win2K using Adobe PageMaker 7.0, Adobe
Illustrator 8.0, Adobe PhotoShop 6.0, MathType 4.0 for mathematics typography, and SnagIt 5.2 for screen
captures. Final masters were produced using an Xerox Docutech image setter. Help files were composed and
compiled using Windows Help Designer 3.1.
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License Agreement and Limited Warranty

Carefully read all of the following terms and conditions of this agreement before opening and using the contents of this
package. The opening of this package indicates your acceptance of the terms and conditions of this license agreement. If
you are not willing to accept the terms and conditions of this agreement, then you should return the entire product, with the
package seal unbroken, to the place of purchase for a full refund of the purchase price.
■ Copyright Ownership
Both the program and the documentation are protected under applicable copyright laws. LinearX is the holder of this copyright. Your right to use the program
and the documentation are limited to the terms and conditions described herein. Use of the software unless pursuant to the terms and conditions of this
license, or as otherwise authorized by law, is an infringement of the copyright.
■ Limited Non-Exclusive License

You may: (a) use the enclosed program on a single computer, (b) physically transfer the program from one computer to another provided that the program is
used on only one computer at a time, and that you remove any copies of the program from the computer from which the program is being transferred, (c) make
copies of the program solely for backup or archival purposes. You must reproduce and include the copyright notice and label any backup copy.
You may not: (a) distribute copies of the program or the documentation to others, (b) lease, rent, grant sublicenses, or other rights to the program, (c) provide
use of the program in a computer service business, network, time-sharing multiple CPU or multiple users arrangement without the prior written consent of
LinearX, (d) translate or otherwise alter the program or related documentation without the prior written consent of LinearX.
■ Terms
Your license to use the program and the documentation will automatically terminate if you fail to comply with the terms of this agreement. Your license
terminates in the event that you receive a license for an updated version of the product that replaces this product. If a license expiration date is printed on your
documentation, or provided through other means such as a time limited electronic or software key, your license expires on the day as shown in the documen-
tation, or on the day that the electronic or software key expires. If this license is terminated you agree to destroy all copies of the program and documentation.
■ Limited Warranty
LinearX warrants to the original licensee that the disk(s) and or electronic key(s) on which the program is recorded will be free from defects in materials and
workmanship under normal use for a period of ninety (90) days from the date of purchase as evidenced by a copy of your receipt. If failure of the product
components has resulted from accident, abuse, or misapplication of the product, then LinearX or third party licensors shall have no responsibility to replace the
disk(s) or key(s) under this limited warranty.
This limited warranty and right of replacement is in lieu of, and you hereby waive, any and all other warranties, both expressed and implied, including but not
limited to warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose. The liability of LinearX or third party licensors pursuant to this limited warranty shall
be limited to the replacement of the defective disk(s) or key(s), and in no event shall LinearX or third party licensors be liable for incidental, indirect, punitive,
or consequential damages, including but not limited to loss of use, loss of profits, loss of data or data being rendered inaccurate, or losses sustained by third
parties even if LinearX or third party licensors have been advised of the possibility of such damages. This warranty gives you specific legal rights which may
vary from state to state. Some states do not allow the limitation or exclusion of liability for consequential damages, so the above limitation may not apply to you.
In addition to the foregoing, you should recognize that all complex software systems and their documentation contain errors and omissions. LinearX, its
distributors, and dealers shall not be responsible under any circumstances for providing information on or corrections to errors and omissions discovered at any
time in the product, whether or not they are aware of the errors or omissions. LinearX does not recommend the use of this product in applications in which
errors or omissions could result in loss of life, injury, or other significant loss.
This license agreement shall be governed by the laws of the state of Oregon and shall inure to the benefit of LinearX, its successors, administrators, heirs and
assigns or third party licensors.
■ United States Federal Government Restrictions

If this software is acquired by or on behalf of the U.S. Federal government or its agencies, this provision applies. Use, duplication, or disclosure of this software
is subject to restrictions set forth in the appropriate FAR 52.227-19 and DFAR 252.227-7013 documents, as applicable. The software is "commercial computer
software" and is licensed only with "Restricted Rights". Other Federal restrictions may also apply.
LinearX Systems Inc.

9500 SW Tualatin-Sherwood Rd.
Tualatin, OR 97062-8586 USA
TEL:(503) 612-9565 FAX:(503) 612-9344 WEB: www.linearx.com
Copyright 2002-2003, LinearX Systems Inc. All rights reserved. All other Trademarks are the property of their respective owners.
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Technical Support
LinearX provides detailed printed manuals and on-line help within the program as the primary
source for user information and assistance regarding the use of this product. If these sources do
not contain the answers to your questions, contact LinearX via any of the following methods:
Internet Forums: www.linearx.com/forums

Internet Email: support@linearx.com
Internet Web: www.linearx.com
Fax: (503) 612-9344
Tel: (503) 612-9565
Technical support is free and unlimited at this time, however we reserve the right to charge for
this service in the future as conditions, overhead, and support personnel requirements dictate.
When contacting us regarding a technical support issue, PLEASE follow these steps to aid us in
understanding and solving your problem:
(1) The About Box contains a procedure for generating a SYSCONFIG.TXT file. This file can be created by the user
through the About Box and contains all of the information about your computer system and operating system. If you
feel that your question could involve issues relating to your computer/operating system, please produce this file and
attach it along with your fax or Email question.
(2) If your question involves specific details or parameters unique to your project and problem, please include a copy of
your design files with the necessary data so that we can reproduce your problem. This is only possible if you are
communicating via an electronic means such as Email or uploading files directly to our web site.
(3) If the issue regards error messages from the program, please include an exact description of the error message
and/or address information that the program reports.
(4) If there are specific steps involved to reproduce the issue, please note these exact steps required so that we can
reproduce the problem.
Technical support hours are: Monday-Friday 9:00AM to 5:00PM Pacific Standard Time.
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Contents
Chapter 1: Installation 1
1.1 System Requirements .......................................................... 3
1.2 Software Installation ............................................................ 4
1.3 Authorization Key Installation ............................................... 5
1.4 Starting the Program ................................................................. 6
1.5 How to use the Manuals ........................................................... 7
Chapter 2: General Features 9

2.1 Tool Bars, Tool Buttons, & Control Bars .............................. 11
2.2 Graph Control Bar .................................................................. 12
2.3 Tracking Cursor .................................................................... 13
2.4 System & Guide Curve Libraries ............................................ 14
2.5 Graph Hot Spots & Popup Menus ......................................... 15
2.6 Quick View Window ................................................................ 16
2.7 Graph Scrolling & Panning ...................................................... 17
2.8 Circuit Editing .......................................................................... 18
2.9 Numeric Entry & Formats ....................................................... 21
2.10 Color Select Dialog ............................................................... 23
2.11 Font Select Dialog ............................................................ 26
Chapter 3: Graph Windows 29

3.1 Circuit Components ............................................................... 31
3.2 Circuit Schematic .................................................................. 32
3.3 SPL Response ...................................................................... 33
3.4 Voltage Response ............................................................... 34
3.5 Impedance Response .......................................................... 35
3.6 Delay Response ................................................................. 36
3.7 Transient Response .............................................................. 37
3.8 Polar Response ............................................................... 38
3.9 Ratio Response ............................................................... 39
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Chapter 4: Circuit Components 41
4.1 Component Editing ....................................................... 43
4.2 Wire Component .......................................................... 44
4.3 Dot Component ............................................................ 45
4.4 Text Component ........................................................ 46
4.5 Data Node Component ......................................................... 47
4.6 Ground Component .............................................................. 48
4.7 Resistor Component ............................................................ 49
4.8 Capacitor Component ........................................................... 52
4.9 Inductor Component ............................................................ 55
4.10 FDNR Component ............................................................. 58
4.11 Transformer Component .................................................... 59
4.12 Potentiometer Component ................................................. 60
4.13 Switch Component ............................................................ 62
4.14 Impedance Component ..................................................... 63
4.15 Opamp Component ............................................................ 66
4.16 Generator Component ........................................................ 69
4.17 Transfer Function Component ............................................. 73
4.18 Buffer Component .............................................................. 89
4.19 Summer Component ........................................................... 90
4.20 Switched Capacitor Network Component ............................... 91
4.21 FIR Filter Component ......................................................... 95
4.22 IIR Filter Component ......................................................... 101
4.23 Transducer Component ..................................................... 107
Chapter 5: File Menu 113

5.1 New ....................................................................... 115
5.2 Open ......................................................................... 116
5.3 Reopen ...................................................................... 117
5.4 Wizard ........................................................................... 118
5.5 Save ........................................................................... 125
5.6 SaveAs ...................................................................... 126
5.7 Revert ........................................................................ 127
5.8 Import Circuit Data ...................................................... 128
5.9 Convert LEAP4 DGL ........................................................ 129
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Chapter 5: File Menu (cont) 113
5.10 Open Graph Setup ............................................................. 133
5.11 Save Graph Setup ............................................................. 134
5.12 Print .............................................................................. 135
5.13 File Editor .......................................................................... 138
5.14 Preferences .................................................................... 140
5.15 Exit ................................................................................ 143
Chapter 6: Editor Menu 145

6.1 Cut ................................................................................. 147
6.2 Copy ................................................................................ 148
6.3 Paste ........................................................................... 149
6.4 Delete ........................................................................... 150
6.5 Select All ..................................................................... 151
6.6 Edit ......................................................................... 152
6.7 Undo ...................................................................... 153
6.8 Pack ...................................................................... 154
6.9 Add ........................................................................ 155
Chapter 7: Graph Menu 157

7.1 Parameters .................................................................. 159
7.2 System Curves ................................................................ 161
7.3 Guide Curves ................................................................ 165
7.4 Notes & Comments ........................................................... 171
Chapter 8: Circuit Menu 173

8.1 Parameters ........................................................... 175
8.2 Optimizer ................................................................. 179
8.3 Information ............................................................ 193
8.4 Z Scaling ............................................................... 194
8.5 Calculate .............................................................. 197
8.6 Thermal Analysis ........................................................... 199
8.7 Sensitivity Analysis ........................................................ 201
8.8 Monte Carlo Analysis ..................................................... 205
8.9 Potentiometer Analysis ................................................. 209
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Chapter 9: Synthesis Menu 213
9.1 Analog Passive: Allpole Filters ..................................... 215
9.2 Analog Passive: Elliptic Filters ....................................... 219
9.3 Analog Passive: Equalizer Networks ............................... 223
9.4 Analog Passive: Conjugate Networks ............................. 225
9.5 Analog Active: Allpole Filters ........................................ 229
9.6 Analog Active: Elliptic Filters ....................................... 235
9.7 Analog Active: Equalizers .............................................. 241
9.8 Analog Active: Realization ............................................. 243
9.9 Digital-IIR: Matched-Z Transform .................................. 245
9.10 Digital-IIR: Bilinear Transform ......................................... 247
9.11 Digital-IIR: Invariant Transform ....................................... 249
9.12 Digital-IIR: Convolution Transform ................................. 251
9.13 Digital-FIR: Window Filters ............................................. 253
9.14 Digital-FIR: Frequency Sampling ..................................... 255
9.15 Digital-FIR: Optimal Approximation .................................. 259
Chapter 10: Processing Menu 265

10.1 Unary Math Operations ................................................ 267
10.2 Binary Math Operations ................................................ 277
10.3 Minimum Phase Transform .......................................... 279
10.4 Group Delay Transform ................................................ 283
10.5 Delay Phase Transform ................................................ 285
10.6 Fast Fourier Transform .................................................. 289
10.7 Inverse Fast Fourier Transform ..................................... 291
10.8 Tail Correction ............................................................... 293
10.9 Curve Averaging ............................................................ 295
10.10 Polar Convertor ........................................................... 299
10.11 Data Transfer ............................................................ 305
10.12 Data Splice ............................................................... 307
10.13 Data Realign ............................................................... 309
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Chapter 11: Utilities Menu 311
11.1 Import Curve Data ............................................................ 313
11.2 Export Curve Data ............................................................... 315
11.3 Export Graphics ................................................................... 317
11.4 Copy Graphics to Clipboard ................................................... 323
11.5 Copy Component Data to Clipboard ..................................... 325
11.6 View Clipboard .................................................................... 327
11.7 Curve Capture ...................................................................... 329
11.8 Curve Editor ........................................................................ 335
11.9 Air Core Inductor Designer .................................................. 349
Chapter 12: Library Menu 351

12.1 Opamp Models ................................................................... 353
12.2 Potentiometer Tapers ........................................................ 361
Chapter 13: Scale Menu 367

13.1 Parameters ......................................................................... 369
13.2 Auto ................................................................................ 375
13.3 Up ...................................................................................... 377
13.4 Down .................................................................................. 379
Chapter 14: View Menu 381

14.1 Zoom In / Zoom Out ...................................................... 383
14.2 Zoom 1X / 2X / 4X / 8X ................................................. 385
14.3 Redraw / RedrawAll ......................................................... 387
Chapter 15: Window Menu 389

15.1 Tile Horizontal ............................................................. 391
15.2 Tile Vertical ................................................................. 393
15.3 Cascade All ................................................................ 395
15.4 Minimize All ................................................................ 397
15.5 Normal All ................................................................. 399
15.6 Arrange Icons ............................................................. 401
15.7 Graph Window List ....................................................... 403
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Chapter 16: Toolbars Menu 405
16.1 Show All ........................................................................ 407
16.2 Hide All .......................................................................... 409
16.3 Menu Toolbars ................................................................ 411
16.4 Status Bar ....................................................................... 413
16.5 ToolBox ......................................................................... 415
Chapter 17: Help Menu 417

17.1 Contents .................................................................... 419
17.2 Index ................................................................. 421
17.3 Glossary ................................................................. 423
17.4 About Modules ....................................................... 425
17.5 About Program ....................................................... 427
Appendix 429
Appendix A: SI Units ................................................................... 431
Appendix B: References .............................................................. 433
Appendix C: Key Not Found - Troubleshooting ............................. 437
Index 441
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Chapter 1 Installation
Installation 1
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Installation Chapter 1
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1.1 System Requirements
CrossoverShop is a highly intensive numerical application. The program contains

literally hundreds of numerical mathematics algorithms, some of which are ex-
tremely large and place very high demands on the CPU's floating point perfor-
mance.
CrossoverShop will use all of the speed your processor has to offer, and probably
want much more. Depending on the speed and type of CPU in your system, some
of the algorithms in this program can require seconds, minutes, hours, or even days
to run until completion.
CrossoverShop also uses extensive graphics. For best results a 1024 x 768 video
resolution is suggested with at least 64K (16-bit) color depth.
Minimum System Requirements:

■ Mouse and Keyboard
■ LPT port or USB port
■ Windows® 95, 98, SE, ME, NT4, 2000, XP
■ 250MB free Hard Drive space
■ 64MB RAM Memory
■ Pentium® II / 350 or equivalent
■ Video 800 x 600 Resolution / 256 Colors
■ TrueType® or Adobe® Fonts
Recommended System Requirements:

■ Windows® 2000 or Windows® XP
■ 300MB free Hard Drive space
■ 256MB RAM Memory or more
■ Pentium® III / 800 or equivalent
■ Video 1024 x 768 Res / 64K or 16M Colors
■ Adobe® Fonts with Adobe Type Manager®
Note: Due to the limitations of Win9X, not all of the program's features and/or
capabilities will be available in those operating systems.
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1.2 Software Installation
This software requires a full Win32 operating system such as Win9X (95/98/
SE/Me) or NT (4/2K/XP). It cannot be installed under Win32S (Win3.11).
This software requires version 4.72 or higher of the Windows common control
library COMCTL32.DLL. This will be checked during installation, and your
system will be upgraded if necessary.
Note: IMPORTANT !
If you are using NT, your user account must have Administrator rights.
Installation Instructions:
■ Place the distribution CD into your CD-ROM drive.
■ If the CD does not AutoRun, locate and run the Setup.Exe file.
■ Follow the instructions on the screen.
■ Select an electronic or manual Registration method.
The registration will prompt you for the product Serial Number, which can be
found on the bottom of the Authorization Key or the product box.
Note:
Memory and resource management under Win9X is very different than under
WinNT. This program is very large, and can consume substantial quantities
of memory ranging from 40MB to 200MB. NT (NT4,W2K,WXP) is much better
at running large programs than Win9X.
Running other applications along with this program places additional de-
mands on the operating system and resources. If you experience very slow
response from the program, or heavy disk drive caching activity, you should
probably close other applications, or close and restart this program.
For best results we suggest:

(1) 64MB or more is strongly recommended
(2) TheWindows swap file should be >2X your RAM.
(3) You should make the swap file size fixed.
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1.3 Authorization Key Installation
In order for the program to operate, the authorization key must be installed on your
computer. At his time only an LPT port key is offered, however in the near future
a USB type key will be an option.
Installing the Authorization Key:

■ Connect the key to one of your LPT parallel printer ports.
Do not place the key on a COM port. The key will not operate on a COM serial port,
it must be located on an LPT port.
LPT ports can be identified as a 25 pin female connector located on the back of your
computer. If you have a printer attached to your LPT port, just place the key
between your computer and printer cable. If you have other key devices on your
LPT port, the authorization key will work with these keys, and can be located in any
position before or after other keys.
The key contains the serial number (registration number) of your program. This
registration number is displayed in the About Box inside the program. If you wish
to obtain an extra key for operation on a second computer, or a site license for
multiple installations, please contact the factory or a dealer.
Note:
There are many other types of products which may also be installed on an LPT port
besides a printer; for example ZIP drives, Syquest drives, Tape drives, Scanners,
etc. The authorization key will not interfere with these products, however some of
these products may prevent the authorization key from working. Not all devices will
allow sharing of the LPT port. If this is the case, then a second LPT port may be
required. If you receive Key Not Found, please see Appendix-C.
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1.4 Starting the Program
Once the installation program has been completed, and the computer rebooted,
go to the Start Menu and locate the entry LinearX > LEAP > CrossoverShop.
If during installation you also chose to install a group folder of icons on your
desktop, you may also start the program from that location as well.
If you have installed the program to a different folder/directory than the default,
the tutorial files will not be automatically loaded when you start the program
the first time. You will need to select File | Open from the menu and locate the
files in the actual installation folder.
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1.5 How to use the Manuals
The remaining chapters of this Reference Manual contain detailed information on

the contents of the program: menus, dialogs, screens, and other operational areas
which the user will encounter. Use this manual when you wish to know more about
the operational details of the program.
All of the reference information is also available inside the program within the Help
system. Virtually all of the dialogs in the program contain a Help button which
provides context sensitive help. Clicking these buttons will open the Help window
and display all the reference information for that dialog.
The Application Manual contains several tutorials in addition to other example

designs contained in the application notes. The tutorials introduce you to the basic
operational features of the program. The application notes provide different
examples of how to integrate various features to accomplish more complex tasks.
Where to go from here:

- Read the following Chapter 2: General Features
- Read Tutorial-1 in the Application Manual
This is the recommended minimum. You should also read Tutorial-2, and if you are
working in the digital domain read Tutorial-3 and Tutorial-4.
Note: All users should read/work Tutorial-1
Due to the large number of features and capabilities contained in the program, it is
very difficult to demonstrate how to use all of these features together in every
possible situation.
If you have a question about how to accomplish a complex design task, try to find
an example of something similar in the Tutorials or Application Notes. We
anticipate writing additional app notes in the future and do appreciate any sugges-
tions for specific topics.
Enjoy!
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Chapter 2 General Features
General Features 2
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General Features Chapter 2
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2.1 Tool Bars, Tool Buttons, & Control Bars
There are 12 menus in the program, and over 100 tool buttons arranged on 12
moveable Toolbars. Essentially the functions given on a particular menu column
are provided as tool buttons on a single corresponding toolbar.
There are two (2) control bars (also known as trays) shown on the main screen.
These trays autosize to hold the toolbars, and have user selectable backgrounds like
the 'Marble' pattern shown below. One tray is fixed at the top of the screen below
the menu, and the second tray is known as the ToolBox and is a floating window.
Toolbars can be moved and rearranged simply by grabbing the handle on the left
of each toolbar. They can be docked into any of the three trays, or dragged onto the
screen by themselves as a single floating window. They can also be enabled or
disabled for display.
Toolbox
Toolbars
Status Bar
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2.2 Graph Control Bar

Below the top tray, is a line of 9 buttons known as the Graph Control Bar. This
program is an MDI application with 9 child windows. When any child window
is maximized, the Graph Control Bar will appear. You can press any one of
these buttons to switch to a different window. They effectively work very
much like the tabs in a dialog box.
The 9 MDI child windows contain: Components, Schematic, SPL, Voltage,

Impedance, Delay, Transient, Polar, and Ratio graphs showing various curve
values. The titles are self explanatory. Printing is done on the basis of these
9 windows.
Graph Control Bar
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2.3 Tracking Cursor
In the bottom tray, the cursor functions are shown. The cursor will track any System
or Guide curve based on the points in the curve. To move the cursor to another
frequency quickly, double click the left mouse button at the desired frequency. Use
the Left/Right or the Home/End keyboard arrow keys to move along a curve. Use
the Up/Down keyboard arrow keys to change to a different curve in the same curve
library. To change to a different curve library, use the buttons in the cursor toolbar.
The Absolute/Relative buttons select the cursor measurement mode. When you
press Relative another black cursor will appear at the current position. As you move
the cursor the displayed data will be calculated relative to the reference position.
Pressing the Absolute button will return to normal mode.
Cursor
Marker
Cursor Controls and Readouts
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2.4 System & Guide Curve Libraries
There are two different curve libraries provided in the program: System Curves
and Guide Curves. Each library can contain up to 99 curves of data. The System
library curves are generated by the analysis of your design. The Guide curve
library can contain any arbitrary data you wish to import, process, or copy from
the System library. No editing or processing can be executed on System curves
since these are exclusively generated by the program automatically.
You can select which curve is tracked by the cursor using the two library
buttons and Up/Down spin buttons in the Status Bar. The spin buttons will
increment/decrement through the 99 curves of the selected library. Only
curves enabled for display can be tracked.
Cursor Curve Selection
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2.5 Graph Hot Spots & Popup Menus
There are a number of regions defined in the graph artwork that respond to double
clicks with the left mouse button. These are hot spots that will activate various
dialogs depending on the region. For example, double clicking over a scale region
will open the Scale | Parameters dialog. The various regions are shown below.
There is also a popup menu available using the right mouse button which provides
a listing of similar various common dialogs.
Graph Parameters Cursor Control
Scale
Parameters
Data
Curves
Notes
Comments
Graph Parameters
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2.6 Quick View Window
There are many occasions where you may wish a tighter view of a particular
area of a graph. A common example is when the scale is setup to show the full
stopband region, but you then wish to see the small passband ripple near 0dB.
Rather than having to constantly change the scale factor for the graph, you can
drag a rectangle using the mouse over the range of interest. The Quick View
window will appear with a smaller scale factor and frequency range. There are
two options for determining the vertical scale as controlled in the File |
Preferences dialog. The frequency/time limits will be rounded to the nearest
major division, and the number of vert/horz divisions is the same as the main
graph. To close the Quick View, press ESC or right click the mouse button.
Quick View
Window
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2.7 Graph Scrolling & Panning
There are two scroll bars on each graph window, one for vertical scrolling and one
for horizontal scrolling. Either or both may or may not be present depending on the
zoom level of the graph window.
You can also drag or pan the graph window directly by use of the mouse. First press
and hold the SHFT key, and then while holding the left mouse button drag the
artwork. The normal mouse pointer will be changed to a hand symbol.
The schematic window also has auto panning, which occurs if a selected group of
components is dragged towards the edge of the window. The window will be
scrolled automatically.
Horizontal
Scroll Bar
Mouse Cursor Dragging Hand

Vertical
Scroll Bar
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2.8 Circuit Editing
A full featured graphical schematic editor for circuit entry and editing is
provided in the program. Circuit editing can only be performed when the
schematic window has focus. If you attempt to perform a circuit editing
operation on a different window, you will receive an error message.
The Editor menu and toolbar contains the tools and functions pertaining to
circuit editing. Many of the commonly used commands are located here, as
well as all the component types which can be added to the circuit.
A snap grid is always in effect during schematic editing. However, major and
minor grids can be displayed or disabled through the Circuit | Parameters
dialog. Printing of the grid can be enabled/disabled through the File |
Preferences dialog.
Editing or creating a circuit is very easy. The editor was designed as a single
mode editor, and with a minimum of command keys to remember. No function
keys are used and a common component editing architecture is used for all
components including wires. Many of the general editing functions are based
on the standard Windows text command key assignments.
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Editing Command Keys:
Select Component:
Click the left mouse button within the bounding box of a component.
Select Multiple Components:

Drag mouse rectangle around the bounding boxes of components.
The rectangle must fully enclose the component's bounding box.
Append Select Components:

Hold down the CTRL key, and do either of the above.
Copy Components:
Select component(s) and press CTRL-C.
Paste Components:
Press CTRL-V.
Move Components:
Hold left mouse button down inside bounding box of any selected component(s)
and drag.
Delete Components:
Press DEL key.
Add Components:
Pick a component from the Edit menu or toolbar.
Edit Component:
Right Click the mouse (or DoubleClick) while a single component is selected.
Move Wire Vertex:

Click on wire to select, then hold down left mouse button while over a wire vertex
and drag.
Delete Wire Vertex:

Click on wire to select, then hold down the ALT key and click the left mouse button
over the wire vertex.
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Add Wire Vertex:

Click on wire to select, then hold down the ALT key and click the left mouse
button where you desire a new vertex.
Note:
The ALT key has a dual function of adding/deleting vertex nodes. Also, vertex
nodes will always be added between existing nodes.
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2.9 Numeric Entry & Formats
The dynamic range of numeric values can be extremely large. To handle this wide
range efficiently, the program makes extensive use of engineering notation. These
are single character multiplier suffixes which appear at the end of a numerical
floating point (real number) value.
We are all familiar with the common usage of engineering notation for common
components such as a 10K resistor or a 1u Farad capacitor. Here, the "K" represents
1E+3 and the "u" represents 1E-6. While these are common SI suffixes that will be
familiar to most users, there are other SI suffixes that are less common. The full
list of supported SI multipliers are as follows:
Note that in virtually all of the

suffix chars, the following conven-
SI Multipliers tion is used: upper case is used for
Name Value Suffix Name Value Suffix multipliers greater than unity, and
lower case is used for multipliers
kilo 10+3 K,k milli 10-3 m smaller than unity. The only ex-
mega 10+6 M micro 10-6 u ception is the kilo suffix where
+9 -9
both cases are supported (K or k).
giga 10 G nano 10 n
tera 10+12 T pico 10-12 p Use of the exa suffix E can lead to
confusion since the standard scien-
peta 10+15 P femto 10-15 f tific notation uses the letter E as
exa 10+18 E atto 10-18 a well, e.g. 1.234E+5. The program
+21 -21
assumes that if the E character is
zeta 10 Z zepto 10 z the last character in the number, it
yotta 10+24 Y yocto 10-24 y is treated as the exa multiplier 10+18.
If additional numeric values fol-
low E then it is treated as scientific.
To avoid confusion component values are never displayed with the type of units.
For example, a capacitor value of 2.4f means 2.4 femto (2.4E-15). It does not mean
2.4 Farads. It is assumed that the user already knows what the units are for the given
component (e.g. Ohms, Henrys, Farads, etc.). Please keep this in mind when you
enter component values - you do not need to add the units.
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Entering Numerical Values

Floating point numbers can be entered in any of three forms: real number
format, scientific format, or engineering format. Examples are:
2400.75 (real)
2.40075E3 or 2.40075D3 (scientific)
2.40075K (engineering)
A floating point number must not contain spaces. Therefore do not place
spaces between suffixes or other digits. Note that the scientific format supports
the use of either the E or D character to separate the exponent, lower case also.
In many dialog locations throughout the program, the entry of the numeric
values is monitored and checked for range violations. For example, many
parameters will not permit either negative or zero values. If you enter such a
value in one of these locations it will be automatically corrected, typically to
a value of unity.
In some dialog locations additional constraints may be placed on the numeric

value that you enter. This is to maintain the validity of the inherent formulas
involved with the parameter.
For example, if you were entering one of the values involved with the equation
2+3=5, then some other value in the equation must be simultaneously adjusted
to maintain the validity of the equation. The program will perform many of
these tasks for you automatically.
Equation checking is performed when the focus leaves the current edit control.
This informs the program that you have finished editing a value. You can Tab
to another control or click the mouse in a different control to force the program
to check the parameter relationships.
Numerical Precision
The program uses the maximum Intel architecture 80-Bit extended floating
point format for all of the numeric data in the program. This results in
numerical precision of about 18 decimal digits. However it should be noted
that for many high order filters 80-Bit precision is inadequate. Some of the
internal numerical algorithms can easily require more precision than is avail-
able in the 80-Bit format for high order designs.
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2.10 Color Select Dialog
A special button control is located on many

dialogs throughout the program which pro-
vides for special editing of color selection.
Two examples of such buttons are shown here
on the right.
The center of the button displays the current color for the parameter. When you
click the button, another dialog will open to change the color.
The Color Select dialog provides many powerful and convenient features for color
selection and editing. Three different color models are supported, as well as live
mouse editing on a color wheel. Colors can be picked from presets, and new user
defined colors can be saved as well.
The dialog contains many small color pads which have the dual function of display
and selection. Clicking a color pad loads the color as the current selection. If the
current color matches one of the pads, than the pad will be highlighted.
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Standard Colors
These are the 20 standard Windows colors. Some of the black colors are
actually masking colors, but the remainder are generally the primary VGA 16
set. If your video mode is 16 or 256 color, then choosing one of these colors
will provide for solid color. Other special colors will require dithering which
may be undesirable. Clicking on one of the pads will select the color.
Extended Colors
There are 30 additional colors provided here for quick selection. Your video
mode will need to have more than 256 colors for solid display, or they will be
dithered. Clicking on one of the color pads will select the color.
Custom Colors
There are 20 additional locations provided here for user custom colors. When
the Add Custom button is clicked, the current color will be added to the array.
The array is auto incrementing, and when a color is added it will be assigned
to the next pad. These colors will persist as long as the program is running.
Clicking on one of the color pads will select the color.
Selection
These two pads display the current and original colors. This allows you to
compare the two, or to return to the original if desired. Clicking on the Original
Color pad will make it the current color.
Add Custom Button

Clicking this button will add the current color to the Custom Colors array. The
array is auto incremented so the next color pad will be used.
Model and Parameters

There are three color model choices:
- Hue-Saturation-Value (HSV)
- Red-Green-Blue (RGB)
- Cyan-Magenta-Yellow (CMY)
The model selection controls which set of parameters appear on the sliders.
The Hue slider has a range of 0 degrees to 360 degrees. This is the Hue of color
as specified radially around the HSV wheel. All other sliders range from 0%
to 100%.
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HSV Color Space

The large circle, or color wheel, in the center of the panel enables live color editing
by use of the mouse. While holding down the left mouse button, drag across the
wheel and the color at the point of the mouse is selected. If you go into the black
region, the last color at the edge is kept until you re-enter the circle. The color wheel
represents the polar coordinates of Hue as angle and Saturation as magnitude.
The vertical slider next to the wheel controls the Value parameter. This is
essentially the overall brightness of the entire wheel. As the slider is moved, the
Value of the wheel will change between 0% black and 100% full color brightness.
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2.11 Font Select Dialog
A special button control is located on many dialogs through-

out the program which provides for special editing of font
selection. An example of such a button is shown here. When
you click the button, a dialog will open for font selection.
Choosing a font and its size is completely up to the user. It is certainly possible
to select a font and/or size that is too large for the available space in the graphics.
However, with a little experimentation you will quickly see what is possible
and what will actually work. The program positions the text items automati-
cally either left, center, or right justified. By changing the size of a font you can
easily see how the program will position the text.
This program only utilizes vector fonts. This means that TrueType and/or
Adobe (ATM) fonts should be present. If you will be printing to a pen plotter,
you should choose a plotter stroke font such as Modern that does not require
fill, and can be easily drawn by a pen.
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TypeFace
In this panel the number of vector font families is shown, the type of font which is
currently selected, and a list of the available fonts.
TypeSize
The size of the font in points can be selected from the list box, incremented using
the spin buttons, or entered directly in the list box.
TypeStyle
Several check boxes are provided to control the style of the font. All or none of the
options can be combined.
TypeColor
This button displays and selects the color for the font. To change the color, click
the button and the Color Select dialog will be presented.
Sample Text
A text sample of the current selection is displayed in this panel. The background
color will be automatically set depending on the color of the font. A check box
allows you to view the font in actual size, or at a different size controllable by the
spin buttons at the lower right of the panel.
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28 CrossoverShop
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Chapter 3 Graph Windows
Graph Windows 3
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Graph Windows Chapter 3
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3.1 Circuit Components
The Components window displays the listing of the parameter values currently in
use by all components in the schematic. This data can be very extensive, filling a
large number of pages. In most cases the data is rarely printed or viewed. However
if you wish to obtain a complete listing of all data within the components, this listing
provides that data.
Depending on the size of the circuit, there may be more than one page of data. To
navigate through the other pages, use the ScaleUp, ScaleDown tool buttons or menu
functions.
The number of columns that will be shown per page depends on the font selection,
and the length of data produced for each line.
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3.2 Circuit Schematic
The Schematic window displays the circuit under evaluation, and also provides
direct editing. The sheet size represented can be A (11x8.5) through E (34x44).
The Circuit | Parameters dialog controls much of the appearance of the
schematic artwork, including grids, fonts, colors, and backgrounds. The grid
can be enabled/disabled for printing in the Preferences dialog.
Depending on the size of the schematic page, and the paper size of your printer,
you may need to print this artwork at reduced scale factors below 100%.
Components may be added from either the Editor | Add menu, or from the
Editor toolbar.
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3.3 SPL Response
The SPL graph displays the magnitude and phase of any enabled System or Guide
curves that contain SPL type data. The Graph Parameters dialog controls much of
the design and look of this graph including: number of vertical/horizontal major/
minor divisions, colors, fonts, lines, and backgrounds. The Scale Parameters
dialog controls the vertical scale and top value, as well as the linear or log frequency
axis.
A Map region is located below the grid area that lists the color assignments for Data
Curves. A Note region is also shown for user notes and comments.
The proprietary circuit simulator of this program performs both electrical and
acoustical dual domain computations. The Transducer components define the
acoustical data for each transducer, and this data is then combined with the
electrical transfer functions to produce the SPL response.
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3.4 Voltage Response
The Voltage graph displays the magnitude and phase of any enabled System or
Guide curves that contain Voltage type data. The Graph Parameters dialog
controls much of the design and look of this graph including: number of
vertical/horizontal major/minor divisions, colors, fonts, lines, and backgrounds.
The Scale Parameters dialog controls the vertical scale and top value, as well
as the linear or log frequency axis.
A Map region is located below the grid area that lists the color assignments for
Data Curves. A Note region is also shown for user notes and comments.
The circuit simulator of the program performs automatic computation of the

voltages present across the Transducer components. Given a flat output from
the generator(s), this then represents the transfer functions through the cross-
over sections. Thus the response of the network sections themselves is readily
available here.
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3.5 Impedance Response
The Impedance graph displays the magnitude and phase of any enabled System or
Guide curves that contain Impedance type data. The Graph Parameters dialog
controls much of the design and look of this graph including: number of vertical/
horizontal major/minor divisions, colors, fonts, lines, and backgrounds. The Scale
Parameters dialog controls the vertical scale and top value, as well as the linear or
log frequency axis.
The circuit simulator of the program performs automatic computation of the

impedances loading each generator in the circuit. Thus the input impedance of each
passive crossover section is produced as a curve. The program also automatically
combines these impedances in parallel to produce the total system impedance.
For this type of analog passive crossover simulation a separate generator is desirable
for each crossover section, setup with identical parameters. For active crossovers
the impedance information is unimportant and a single generator can be used to
reduce the number of impedance curves produced during analysis.
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3.6 Delay Response
The Delay graph displays the magnitude and phase of any enabled System or
Guide curves that contain Time vs. Frequency type data. The Graph Param-
eters dialog controls much of the design and look of this graph including:
number of vertical/horizontal major/minor divisions, colors, fonts, lines, and
backgrounds. The Scale Parameters dialog controls the vertical scale and top
value, as well as the linear or log frequency axis.
The circuit simulator of the program can perform automatic computation of the
SPL group delay when the circuit is analyzed. This is an option. You can also
compute Group Delay of any other curves you wish by using the Processing |
Group Delay transform.
Any curves which have the units of Time vs. Frequency will be displayed here.
Typically these are group delay curves, but could be any other type of time
curve as well.
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3.7 Transient Response
The Transient graph displays the magnitude and phase of any enabled System or
Guide curves that contain Voltage vs. Time type data. The Graph Parameters
dialog controls much of the design and look of this graph including: number of
vertical/horizontal major/minor divisions, colors, fonts, lines, and backgrounds.
The Scale Parameters dialog controls the vertical scale and top value, as well as the
horizontal time axis.
The most common types of curves displayed on this graph will be either Step or
Impulse response functions. While the circuit simulator of the program does not
automatically produce these curves, they can be generated by using the Processing
| Inverse Fourier Transform dialog.
There are too many conditional parameters which must be defined by the user in
order to generate Impulse/Step response data. For this reason the program cannot
make these choices for the user automatically.
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3.8 Polar Response
The Polar graph displays the magnitude and phase of any enabled System or
Guide curves that contain SPL vs. Angle type data. The Graph Parameters
dialog controls much of the design and look of this graph including: number
of vertical/horizontal major/minor divisions, colors, fonts, lines, and back-
grounds. The Scale Parameters dialog controls the vertical scale and top value,
as well as the horizontal angle axis.
While the circuit simulator of the program can automatically produce these
curves, they will only be meaningful if the user has defined imported off-axis
data for the Transducer components. All polar simulations are based on actual
off-axis transducer data supplied by the user.
The off-axis response of transducers is based not only on the driver itself, but
also the enclosure. Accurate polar system simulation requires actual measure-
ments of the off-axis response of the transducers on the enclosure. Note, this
type of simulation can be produced from the EnclosureShop program.
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3.9 Ratio Response
The Ratio graph displays the magnitude and phase of any enabled System or Guide
curves that contain dimensionless Ratio vs. frequency type data. The Graph
Parameters dialog controls much of the design and look of this graph including:
number of vertical/horizontal major/minor divisions, colors, fonts, lines, and
backgrounds. The Scale Parameters dialog controls the vertical scale and top
value, as well as the linear or log frequency axis.
Ratio data is primarily transfer functions. This can be produced from dividing two
curves of the same units, or by simply changing the units of a curve to Ratio. It is
a general purpose graph that has many uses.
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40 CrossoverShop
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Chapter 4 Circuit Components
Circuit Components 4
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Circuit Components Chapter 4
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4.1 Component Editing
There are 23 different types of circuit components supported in the program. Many
of these components have unique capabilities and were specifically created to
support advanced filter design and crossover analysis.
All components can be rotated in 90 degree increments and/or mirrored on the X/

Y axis. The nodes of the components are always snapped to a 100 x 100 ghost grid.
Components may be added from either the Editor | Add menu, or from the Editor
Toolbar as shown below. A common setup is to place this editor Toolbar in the
floating Toolbox, but it can be dragged out on the screen by itself as well.
To edit any component simply right click with the mouse on a single selected
component, or select Editor | Edit from the menu or Toolbar.
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4.2 Wire Component
This is the basic component for electrically connecting the nodes of other
components. Each wire can have up to 50 vertex nodes. Wire vertex points are
automatically locked to a ghost grid, and segments can have any angle.
The component editor displays the origin X/Y values, relative to the circuit
origin. All units are mils (1/1000 inch). A grid with the relative coordinates
of each vertex is listed below. Rotation and mirroring is not supported for wires
to avoid confusing coordinates for the vertex nodes.
Generally it is rare to enter the vertex X/Y values directly, since it is much easier
to graphically edit the nodes directly.
If a node of another component occurs along a segment of a wire between

vertex nodes, an error message will be displayed informing you of the
condition. You had probably intended for a vertex to exist at this location.
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4.3 Dot Component
A nonelectrical component which can be used to indicate a cross-point connection

of wires or other components. Can also be used for polarity or notation marking
purposes.
The component editor displays the origin X/Y values, relative to the circuit origin.
All units are mils (1/1000 inch). Rotation and mirroring are not supported for Dots,
since it is not relevant for a circle.
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4.4 Text Component
A nonelectrical component used to add text comments or notes to the sche-

matic. A choice of three fonts can be selected for each comment.
origin. All units are mils (1/1000 inch). The component can be rotated in 90
degree increments or mirrored against the X/Y axis.
The actual comment text can be changed in the editing field. The three font
selections are based on what is currently in use by the system for the Label,
Value, or Parameter fonts as defined in the Circuit | Parameters dialog.
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4.5 Data Node Component
This square marker placed at an electrical node/vertex of the circuit indicates that
the node will produce curve data. Up to 31 circuit data nodes can be plotted
simultaneously. A text description can be assigned as well, and will be used as the
name for the System Curve.
All units are mils (1/1000 inch). The component can be rotated in 90 degree
increments or mirrored against the X/Y axis.
The actual description text can be changed in the editing field.
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4.6 Ground Component
The bus connection for the electrical reference datum. Each circuit must
include at least one connection to ground, since all data node voltages are
calculated relative to ground.
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4.7 Resistor Component
The Resistor has value in Ohms, selectable precision/tolerance, temperature coef-

ficient, and a model. The precision is selectable in standard sets of 1%, 5%, 10%,
20%, or Any Value. The tempco is entered in PPM (parts per million per C0).
When the precision is 1, 5, 10, or 20 percent, the resistance value will be restricted
to the industry standard set for that precision. If you enter a different value, it will
be rounded to the nearest standard value. When the precision is Any Value, then
no restrictions are applied and the value entered is retained without rounding.
The spin buttons will step through the standard values up/down, or increment the
value by a 0.1% ratio if the Any Value selection is present.
The Global Editing check boxes

can be used to set various param-
eters for all of the same type
components in the circuit at once.
Three different Resistor models

are available: Ideal, Parasitic, and
Exponent. The following sec-
tion details the different models
and their operation.
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Ideal Model
A simple fixed resistance which is constant across all frequency.
Exponent Model
A resistance which changes with frequency. The exponent Ew is used to
control the log linear change of resistance vs. frequency. A positive exponent
produces increasing resistance with increasing frequency, while a negative
exponent produces decreasing resistance with increasing frequency.
The graph below shows an example using an R value of 1.00 Ohm and an Ew
value of 0.500. Note that the frequency dependent resistance will be equal to
the R value at a radian frequency of 1.0 (or 0.159 Hz).
R(w ) = R ◊ w Ew
w = 2p f
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Parasitic Model
This model includes additional series inductance (Ls) and parallel capacitance (Cp).
You can enter any of the Ls, Cp, Fo, or Q parasitic parameters shown above, and
the program will maintain the relationships for you automatically. For example: if
you enter the Q value, the Ls value will be calculated; if you enter the Cp value, the
Fo value and Q will be recalculated.
The graph below shows a typical parasitic resistance impedance curve across
frequency. The inductance and capacitance will produce a resistance peak at Fo.
The resonance frequency is produced by the Ls/Cp values, and the Q based on the
R loss.
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4.8 Capacitor Component
The Capacitor has value in Farads, selectable precision/tolerance, temperature

coefficient, and a model. The precision is selectable in standard sets of 1%, 5%,
10%, 20%, or Any Value. The tempco is entered in PPM (parts per mil per C0).
When the precision is 1, 5, 10, or 20 percent, the capacitance value will be

restricted to the industry standard set for that precision. If you enter a different
value, it will be rounded to the nearest standard value. When the precision is
Any Value, then no restrictions are applied and the value entered is retained
without rounding.
The spin buttons will step through the standard values up/down, or increment
the value by a 0.1% ratio if the Any Value selection is present.

Three different Capacitor mod-

els are available: Ideal, Parasitic,
and Exponent. The following
section details the different mod-
els and their operation.
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Ideal Model
A simple fixed capacitance which is constant across all frequency.
Exponent Model
A capacitance which changes with frequency. The exponent Ew is used to control
the log linear change of capacitance vs. frequency. A positive exponent produces
increasing capacitance with increasing frequency, while a negative exponent
produces decreasing capacitance with increasing frequency.
The graph below shows an example using an C value of 1.00 Farad and an Ew value
of 0.500. Note that the frequency dependent capacitance will be equal to the C value
at a radian frequency of 1.0 (or 0.159 Hz).
Note that increasing capacitance produces a decrease in impedance.
C (w ) = C ◊ w Ew
w = 2p f
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Parasitic Model
This model includes additional series inductance (Ls), series resistance (Rs),
and parallel resistance (Rp). You can enter any of the Ls, Rs, Fo, or Q parasitic
parameters shown above, and the program will maintain the relationships for
you automatically. For example: if you enter the Q value, the Ls value will be
calculated; if you enter the Rs value, the Fo value and Q will be recalculated.
The graph below shows a typical parasitic capacitance impedance curve across
frequency. The inductance and capacitance will produce an impedance null at
Fo. The resonance frequency is produced by the Ls/C values, and the null
based on Rs. Rp can be used to produce a limiting value on the impedance to
represent dielectric losses.
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4.9 Inductor Component
The Inductor has value in Henrys, selectable precision/tolerance, temperature

coefficient, and a model. The precision is selectable in standard sets of 1%, 5%,
10%, 20%, or Any Value. The tempco is entered in PPM (parts per million per C0).
When the precision is 1, 5, 10, or 20 percent, the inductance value will be restricted
to the industry standard set for that precision. If you enter a different value, it will
be rounded to the nearest standard value. When the precision is Any Value, then
no restrictions are applied and the value entered is retained without rounding.
The spin buttons will step through the standard values up/down, or increment the
value by a 0.1% ratio if the Any Value selection is present.

Three different Inductor models

are available: Ideal, Parasitic, and
Exponent. The following sec-
tion details the different models
and their operation.
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Ideal Model
A simple fixed inductance which is constant across all frequency.
Exponent Model
An inductance which changes with frequency. The exponent Ew is used to
control the log linear change of inductance vs. frequency. A positive exponent
produces increasing inductance with increasing frequency, while a negative
exponent produces decreasing inductance with increasing frequency.
The graph below shows an example using an L value of 1.00 Henry and an Ew
value of 0.500. Note that the frequency dependent inductance will be equal
to the L value at a radian frequency of 1.0 (or 0.159 Hz).
L (w ) = L ◊ w Ew
w = 2p f
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Parasitic Model
This model includes additional series resistance (Rs), and parallel capacitance (Cp).
You can enter any of the Cp, Rs, Fo, or Q parasitic parameters shown above, and
the program will maintain the relationships for you automatically. For example: if
you enter the Q value, the Cp value will be calculated; if you enter the Rs value, the
Fo value and Q will be recalculated.
The graph below shows a typical parasitic capacitance impedance curve across
frequency. The inductance and capacitance will produce a impedance peak at Fo.
The resonance frequency is produced by the L/Cp values. The minimum imped-
ance at low frequencies is controlled by Rs.
Although this model produces loss, it still

remains an over simplification to the
highly complex losses which occur in an
actual inductor. This is especially true for
iron or ferrite core inductors, where both
the inductance and resistance are strong
functions of frequency.
Therefore the values you choose for Rs and Cp should probably be defined based
on their effective values in the frequency range of interest.
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4.10 FDNR Component
The FDNR component is not a physical component,

but rather a theoretical component that is very useful
when modeling certain types of active filters. It
behaves much like a capacitor squared. To produce
the impedance characteristic of this component in an
actual circuit, a gyrator configuration is used which
replaces the FDNR component. In most cases one
terminal of the FDNR is grounded, which allows for a
much simpler gyrator circuit.
The FDNR (Frequency-Dependent-Negative-Resistor) has value in Farads

Squared, selectable precision/tolerance, and temperature coefficient. The
precision is selectable in standard sets of 1%, 5%, 10%, 20%, or Any Value.
The tempco is entered in PPM (parts per mil per C0).
When the precision is 1, 5, 10, or 20 percent, the FrdSq value will be restricted
to the industry standard set for that precision. If you enter a different value, it
will be rounded to the nearest standard value. When the precision is Any Value,
then no restrictions are applied and the value entered is retained without
rounding.
The Global Editing check boxes can be used to set various parameters for all
of the same type components in the circuit at once.
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4.11 Transformer Component
Since the transformer provides for electrical

isolation between the primary and secondary,
Data Nodes located in a non-ground referenced
section of circuitry would not have a point of
reference. If you need to obtain System Curves
from floating circuitry, use the Summer
component to obtain a perfect differential
measurement. The Summer output is ground
referenced.
The transformer has five interrelated parameters: primary inductance, secondary

inductance, mutual inductance, turns ratio, and coupling coefficient. With the
exception of mutual inductance, any of the other parameters can be entered by the
user and the program will maintain the proper relationship.
It is generally best to set the desired turns ratio first. The coupling coefficient cannot
be exactly unity, but is often very close to unity. All inductance values are in
Henrys.
The Global Editing check boxes can be used to set various parameters for all of the
same type components in the circuit at once.
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4.12 Potentiometer Component
The Pot component provides the ability to accurately model real-world

potentiometer controls. This is a tremendous improvement over the method
used in the past of discrete resistors with repeated value changes. When
complex tapers or taps are involved, this component eliminates countless hours
of tedious work.
The Pot has a definable taper which is loaded from the current Taper Library
in the program. It also can contain up to 3 taps, and these can be located at any
position along the rotation.
The Pot has value in Ohms, selectable precision/tolerance, and temperature

coefficient. The precision is selectable in standard sets of 1%, 5%, 10%, 20%,
or Any Value. The tempco is entered in PPM (parts per million per C0).
When the precision is 1, 5, 10, or 20 percent, the resistance value will be

restricted to the industry standard set for that precision. If you enter a different
value, it will be rounded to the nearest standard value. When the precision is
Any Value, then no restrictions are applied and the value entered is retained
without rounding.
Note:
The taper data is stored within the component itself, and saved in the design file.
Libraries can be changed at anytime without effecting existing component.
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The position of the wiper is selected in percent of rotation: 0% meaning the counter
clockwise (CCW) position and 100% representing the full clockwise (CW) posi-
tion. The value can be entered directly or adjusted by use of the slider. The
resolution is 0.1% increments.
To enable the use of taps, select the number of taps in the list box. The tap A, B,
C position edit fields will be enabled/disabled as needed.
The available tapers from the current library are shown in the data grid. To load a
new taper, select the taper in the grid and press the Load button. The taper currently
in use by the pot is shown in the Taper Data group box. The graph displays the
resistance ratio in percent of R1-2/ R1-3.
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4.13 Switch Component
The switch component has selectable positions from 1 to 26, and includes
parameters for ON resistance and OFF leakage capacitance.
The equivalent model for a 3-position switch

is shown here, with the ON State in the A
position.
The switch can also be placed in the NONE

state. All of the nodes of a switch must be
connected to another component in the cir-
cuit. They cannot be left hanging.
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4.14 Impedance Component
The Impedance Component provides the capability to import a complex impedance

curve as a two terminal device. This is very useful for working with the actual
measured impedance of inductors or other special components. The impedance
function can also be switched to a simple fixed resistance if desired. A short text
description can be entered which is also displayed inside the component symbol.
increments or mirrored against the X/Y axis. The Global Editing check box can be
used to set the parameters for all of the same type components in the circuit at once.
The Impedance Data group box has three different

tabs: Parameters, View Graph, View Data. The
parameter tab is used to define the impedance func-
tion. The View Graph displays the actual impedance
curve, and the View Data displays a tabular listing of
the actual frequency points contained in the curve.
The graph displays the curve based on the current

system analysis frequency range. This is not neces-
sarily the same frequency range defined by the
imported data points. The program performs data
interpolation automatically.
The operation buttons Guide, Cut, Copy, Paste, and

Delete are used to manage the curve data. The
impedance curve can be loaded from the Guide
Curve library or pasted from the Clipboard. It can
also be copied to the Clipboard.
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When the Guide button is pressed, another dialog will open to

allow an impedance curve to be selected. The data is copied
into the Impedance component. All impedance curve data is
stored within the Impedance component.
The View Graph panel will display the magnitude and

phase of the impedance curve data. The system analysis
frequency range is used, and the vertical scales are
chosen automatically.
The View Data panel will display a tabular listing of the

actual frequency data points stored within the Imped-
ance component.
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4.15 Opamp Component
The opamp component contains a mathematical model for AC analysis.

Parameters for input/output impedance, complex gain function, and voltage/
current noise are provided. Using a mathematical model, rather than a circuit
model, dramatically increases the speed of analysis. Model parameter sets are
selected and loaded from the opamp library.
There are 11 parameters that define the opamp model:
Name
A short text identifier. This is displayed inside the opamp symbol and is
generally the model name of the original device.
Description
Any additional notes about the model can be placed in this field.
DC Gain
The maximum open loop gain in dB that it reaches at 0Hz.
GBW
The gain bandwidth is the frequency where the open loop gain falls to 0dB.
Phase Margin
The difference in degrees between the phase at the GBW frequency and -180.
Rin
The open loop differential input impedance.
Rout
The open loop output impedance.
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Enoise
The mid/high frequency input noise voltage density in V/RtHz.
Inoise
The mid/high frequency input noise current density in A/RtHz.
Freq-En
The low frequency corner of the flicker noise voltage in Hz.
Freq-In
The low frequency corner of the flicker noise current in Hz.
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The available models from the current library are shown in the data grid. To
load a new model, select the model in the grid and press the Load button. The
model currently in use by the opamp is shown in the Model Curves group box
and the Component group box.
Note:
The model data is stored within the component itself, and saved in the design
file. Libraries can be changed at anytime without effecting existing component
data.
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4.16 Generator Component
The generator is the essential voltage/current source for all circuits. At least one
generator must be present in any circuit, but more than one generator is also
possible. This is common for analog passive crossovers, where a different
generator is used to drive each network section. The circuit simulator automatically
computes the impedance load on each generator and presents this data as a System
curve. It also generates another curve which is the combined impedance of all in
parallel.
The generator can produce a fixed or varying voltage based on the selections in the
dialog. It can also produce a fixed or varying output impedance. The Voltage &
Impedance Data group box has three different tabs: Parameters, View Graph, View
Data. The parameter tab is used to define the output voltage and impedance
function. The View Graph panel displays the actual voltage or impedance curve,
depending on which control had the previous focus in the Parameters tab. The View
Data panel displays a tabular listing of the actual frequency points contained in the
voltage or impedance curve.
The graph displays the curves based on the current system analysis frequency range.
This is not necessarily the same frequency range defined by the imported data
points. The program performs data interpolation automatically.
The operation buttons Guide, Cut, Copy, Paste, and Delete are used to manage the
curve data. The voltage and impedance curves can be loaded from the Guide Curve
library or pasted from the Clipboard. It can also be copied to the Clipboard.
The operation for voltage or impedance is selected based on which of the two combo
boxes is focused at the time the operation button is pressed.
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Note: The custom curve data is stored within the component itself, and saved
in the design file. System or Guide curves can be changed at anytime without
effecting existing component data.
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allow a voltage or impedance curve to be selected. The data
is copied into the Generator component. All curve data is
stored within the Generator component.
The View Graph will display the magnitude and phase

of either the voltage or impedance curve data. The
system analysis frequency range is used, and the verti-
cal scales are chosen automatically.
The View Data will display a tabular listing of the actual

frequency data points stored within the Generator com-
ponent, for either the Voltage or Impedance curves.
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4.17 Transfer Function Component
The Transfer Function component provides the ability to insert custom transfer
functions as a block into a circuit. The input and output of the TF component is
ungrounded which enables it to be utilized in floating applications.
The TF component can be used to produce all kinds of various isolated voltage/
current sources, controlled by voltage/current signals. It provides a group of
standard functions for selection and also supports arbitrary functions. The TF
component also has finite input and output impedance.
There are 14 built-in transfer functions provided.

These are generally 1st or 2nd order filter functions,
and are detailed later in this section. They provide a
quick means to imbed an ideal analog transfer func-
tion within a circuit.
The Parameters group box contains the editing fields

for the standard filter parameters, as well as controls
for Rin and Rout. Options are also provided to
reverse the phase or invert the transfer function.
To load an arbitrary curve transfer function, select

Curve and then the options in the lower group box
will be enabled. The operation buttons Guide, Cut,
Copy, Paste, and Delete are used to manage the curve
data. The Ratio (transfer function) curve can be
loaded from the Guide Curve library or pasted from
the Clipboard. It can also be copied to the Clipboard.
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The View Graph panel displays the actual Ratio (transfer function) response.
The View Data panel displays a tabular listing of the actual frequency points
contained in the Ratio curve. The standard functions are computed based on
the current system analysis frequency range to produce curve data.
The graph displays the curves based on the current system analysis frequency
range. This is not necessarily the same frequency range defined by the
imported data points. The program performs data interpolation automatically.

allow a Ratio curve to be selected. The data is copied into the
component. All curve data is stored within the component.

phase of the transfer function. The system analysis
frequency range is used, and the vertical scales are
chosen automatically.
The View Data panel will display a tabular listing of the

actual frequency data points stored within the compo-
nent.
The component editor displays the origin X/Y values,

relative to the circuit origin. All units are mils (1/1000
inch). The component can be rotated in 90 degree
The Global Editing check boxes can be used to set

various parameters for all of the same type components
in the circuit at once.
Note: The transfer function Ratio curve is stored within

the component itself, and saved in the design file.
System or Guide curves can be changed at anytime
without effecting existing component data.
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■ LP1 - 1st Order Lowpass Filter
Filter Parameters:
Fp = Frequency of the pole
Ao = Gain
Ao
H ( s) =
s
1+
wp
s = jw
w = 2p f
w p = 2p fp
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■ HP1 - 1st Order Highpass Filter
Filter Parameters:
Ao = Gain
Fz=Fp for this filter.
s
Ao
wp
H ( s) =
s
1+
wp
s = jw
w = 2p f
w p = 2p fp
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■ AP1 - 1st Order Allpass Filter
Filter Parameters:
Ao = Gain

The magnitude response of this filter is flat.
Ê s ˆ
Ao Á 1 -
Ë w p ˜¯
H ( s) =
s
1+
wp
s = jw
w = 2p f
w p = 2p fp
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■ LP2 - 2nd Order Lowpass Filter
Filter Parameters:
Fp = Frequency of the pole conjugate pair
Qp = Q of the pole conjugate pair
Ao = Gain
Ao
H ( s) =
s s2
1+ +
Qpw p w p 2
s = jw
w = 2p f
w p = 2p fp
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■ HP2 - 2nd Order Highpass Filter
Filter Parameters:
Ao = Gain
s2
Ao
H ( s) = w p2
s s2
1+ +
Qpw p w p2
s = jw
w = 2p f
w p = 2p fp
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■ AP2 - 2nd Order Allpass Filter
Filter Parameters:
Ao = Gain
Fz=Fp and Qz=Qp for this filter.

The magnitude response of this filter is flat.
Ê s s2 ˆ
Ao Á 1 - + 2˜
Ë Qpw p w p ¯
H ( s) =
s s2
1+ +
Qpw p w p2
s = jw
w = 2p f
w p = 2p fp
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■ BP1 - 1st Order Bandpass Filter
Filter Parameters:
Ao = Gain
Fz=Fp and Qz=Qp for this filter.

Bandpass and Bandreject filters are defined in terms of their pole pairs.
A 1st order Bandpass is a second order polynomial.
Ê s ˆ
Ao Á
Ë Qpw p ˜¯
H ( s) =
s s2
1+ +
Qpw p w p 2
s = jw
w = 2p f
w p = 2p fp
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■ BR1 - 1st Order Bandreject Filter
Filter Parameters:
Fz = Frequency of the zero conjugate pair
Ao = Gain
Bandpass and Bandreject filters are defined in terms of their pole pairs.
A 1st order Bandreject is a second order polynomial.
This filter supports asymmetrical Bandreject filters (Fz<>Fp).
Ê s2 ˆ
Ao Á 1 + 2 ˜
Ë wz ¯
H ( s) =
s s2
1+ +
Qpw p w p2
s = jw
w = 2p f
w p = 2p fp
w z = 2p fz
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■ LP½ - Half Order Lowpass Filter
Filter Parameters:
Ao = Gain
Ao
H ( s) =
s
1+
wp
s = jw
w = 2p f
w p = 2p fp
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■ HP½ - Half Order Highpass Filter
Filter Parameters:
Ao = Gain
s
wp
H (s) = Ao
s
1+
wp
s = jw
w = 2p f
w p = 2p fp
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■ LEQ - Lowpass Equalization Filter
Filter Parameters:
Fp = Frequency of the pole.
Ao = Boost/Cut Gain at low frequencies
Ï s ¸
Ô Ao + w p Ô
Ô , Ao ≥ 1 Ô
Ô 1+ s Ô
Ô wp Ô
Ô Ô
H ( s) = Ì ˝
Ô s Ô
Ô 1+ Ô
Ô wp
, Ao £ 1Ô
Ô 1 s Ô
Ô Ao + w p Ô
Ó ˛
s = jw
w = 2p f
w p = 2p fp
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■ HEQ - Highpass Equalization Filter
Filter Parameters:
Ao = Boost/Cut Gain at high frequencies
Ï s ¸
Ô 1 + Ao
Ô
wp
Ô , Ao ≥ 1Ô
Ô 1+ s Ô
Ô wp Ô
Ô Ô
H ( s) = Ì ˝
Ô s Ô
Ô 1+ Ô
Ô wp
, Ao £ 1Ô
Ô s Ô
Ô1 + Aow p Ô
Ó ˛
s = jw
w = 2p f
w p = 2p fp
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■ BEQ - Bandpass Equalization Filter
Filter Parameters:
Ao = Boost/Cut Gain at Fp frequency
Ï s s2 ¸
Ô 1 + Ao + Ô
Qpw p w p 2
Ô 2
, Ao ≥ 1Ô
Ô 1+ s + s Ô
Ô Qpw p w p 2 Ô
Ô Ô
H ( s) = Ì ˝
Ô 2 Ô
Ô 1+ s + s 2 Ô
Ô Qpw p w p
, Ao £ 1Ô
Ô s s2 Ô
Ô 1 + + Ô
ÓÔ AoQpw p w p 2 Ô˛
s = jw
w = 2p f
w p = 2p fp
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■ SINC - Sin(x)/x Sampling Filter
Filter Parameters:
Fs = Frequency of sampling
Ao = Gain
-s
sin (l ) 2 fs
H (s) = Ao e
l
w
l=
2 fs
s = jw
w = 2p f
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4.18 Buffer Component
The Buffer component can provide three precision functions: invert the polarity of
a signal, change the gain of a signal, or delay a signal. Both the input and output
are ground referenced and have finite impedance.
The gain and delay are specified in high precision. The gain can be entered in either
dB or by linear ratio. The delay can be entered in seconds or by frequency, with
the assumption that T=1/f. A check box for reversing the phase/polarity is also
provided.
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4.19 Summer Component
The Summer component enables signals to be added or subtracted. It has two

or three inputs, each with selectable polarity. The inputs and output have finite
impedance and are ground referenced. This component is useful for taking
differential measurements and/or producing single ended outputs from bal-
anced circuits.
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4.20 Switched Capacitor Network
Non-Inverting basic SC
resistor structure
The Switched Capacitor Network (SCN) models the

frequency domain sampling behavior of switched
capacitor resistor structures. There are two possible
polarities: positive (non-inverting) and negative (in-
verting). The typical types of structures represented
by the SCN are shown here on the right.
When bi-phase switches operate at the sampling

frequency Fs, the capacitor C is alternatively charged
Inverting stray insensitive SC
and discharged through the opposite terminals. resistor structure
This process gives rise to an average current flow

between the terminals as I=C*(V1-V2)*Fs. Rearranging the terms with respect to
the differential voltage yields the equivalent resistance R=1/(Fs*C).
However this resistance is an asymptotic value that is only approached at low

frequencies relative to the sampling frequency. Due to the discrete time sampling
process, both magnitude and phase change as the frequency is increased.
A typical application of the SCN is to form

an integrator as shown here. In this case a
negative SCN is used to reverse the polar-
ity. Since the opamp inverts the phase
again, the complete integrator has positive
polarity.
Integrator Application
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The circuit shown here uses two SCN's: one in

a voltage divider, and the other in an integra-
tor. If normal resistors were used, the voltage
divider output should ideally have a flat -6dB
output at all frequencies. Likewise, the inte-
grator would have a -20dB/Decade response
at all frequencies.
In the Magnitude graph below the actual re-

sponse using SCN components is shown for
both outputs. Each curve shows nulls occur-
ring at high frequencies. This is due to the
sampling process.
On the following page the Phase Response

Example of SCN use with Voltage Divider and Integrator and Group Delay graphs are shown. The
phase changes as frequency increases. Also
the group delay for both curves show a delay
of approximately 500uS for each output. This
is the expected delay of 1/2 the sample clock
period.
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In the Parameters group box, editing fields are provided for the equivalent
resistance R, the sampling clock frequency Fs, and the capacitance C. These
parameters are equation related and monitored by the program. Changes made
to any one parameter will cause the program to make corresponding changes
in another parameter. For example, if you enter the R and Fs the program will
calculate the C value.
The Polarity group box allows you to choose either Positive or Negative
polarity for the SCN (Non-Inverting/Inverting).
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4.21 FIR Filter Component
The FIR filter component models the frequency domain behavior of a digital FIR
filter. The FIR component can also perform an interpolation or decimation function
as defined by the M parameter. The schematic symbol displays the order of the filter
N, the sampling frequency Fs, and the sampling frequency ratio M.
Finite input and output resistance parameters are

also included to enhance the analog interface. The
FIR component provides a simulation of finite
coefficient effects on the response of the filter. This
can be useful in evaluating the precision require-
ments of a given filter, or for the comparison of
different filters.
FIR filters are created and loaded with coefficients

using the Synthesis menu operations, by entering
the values manually, or by importing the values
from a text file.
The Component group box includes the fields for

Rin and Rout. These values define a pseudo input
and output resistance for the block component
which can be useful for modeling loading effects
between stages, if so desired.
The FIR Data group box provides editing, process-

ing options, and viewing of the actual filter re-
sponse.
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Coefficients
The Coefficient panel offers display and editing of the
coefficients. The Parameters group box contains
fields for the Order (N), frequency sampling ratio (M),
and the filter sampling frequency (Fs). For M = 1, the
input and output sampling frequencies are equal. For
M = +2, an interpolator is defined where the input
frequency is 1/2 the output frequency. For M = -2, a
decimator is defined where the output frequency is 1/
2 the input frequency. Fs is always the highest sam-
pling frequency. The Statistics group box displays the
largest coef value and the sum of all coefs. This data
is sometimes useful for certain types of filters.
Processing
From this group box you can import/export coeffi-
cients, and perform processing operations. There are
seven different transformations provided in this panel.
The first processing operation is Scaling of the FIR
coefficients. The coefficients will be scaled by the
linear ratio given in the edit field. You can use the [...]
button to enter the value in dB as well. This feature is
very handy for scaling the filter’s amplitude up or
down, or changing the polarity.
The next processing operation is Zero. This option will

change all of the coefficient values to zero. Useful
when you wish to produce only a time delay by zeroing all coefficients, and
then entering a single coefficient as unity.
The Transform (ZN ) processing operation is Exponentiation. The FIR filter

will be raised to the integer power given in the edit field, thus multiplying the
order of the filter by this value. Very useful for generating interpolation filters.
The Change Sign of Odd Taps operation will mirror the filter's response around
the Fs/4 frequency. For example, this will produce an image Highpass filter
from a Lowpass filter.
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The Subtract Filter from Half Delay operation will mirror the filter's response
around the Fc frequency. It can only be applied to even order FIR filters, and only
has relevance for linear phase filters. For example, this operation will produce a
complementary Highpass filter from a Lowpass filter.
The Factor MinPhase and Factor MaxPhase buttons perform spectral factorization
of the FIR filter. The filter order must be even, and the resulting filter order will be
one-half the original order. The original filter must be linear phase and should have
a unipolar type response. However in many cases usable min/max phase filters can
be produced from the standard bipolar type.
Factoring a linear phase filter has much the same effect as taking the square root of
the filter's response. This means that the passband ripple and stopband attenuation
will be cut in half.
If you wish to create a min/max phase filter with the same ripple and attenuation
specifications as the original, you can either design the linear phase filter with
double order parameters (order, atten, ripple), or cascade two identical factored
stages. The two methods produce similar but not identical results.
View Graph
The View Graph panel display the magnitude and
phase of the FIR filter response. The system analysis
frequency range is used. The vertical scale is adjust-
able here, to allow better viewing of the stopband or
passband regions.
The component editor displays the Origin X/Y values, relative to the circuit origin.
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Export
The Export button opens a dialog as shown below.
Many options are provided here to export the coefficient
data in several different numeric formats as well as table
listing formats. Both floating point and fixed point
formats are supported, as well as Hex and Binary in
Two's Complement, Sign-Magnitude, and Offset Bi-
nary.
Scaling can also be performed for the fixed point for-

mats. The maximum scaling factor is precomputed
based on the values of the coefficients.
A preview window shows a sample of how the output

will appear. A header is also added to the file which is
not shown.
When the Ok button is pressed, another dialog will

be presented to select the file name/path to export.
The file select dialog is shown below.
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Import
The Import button opens a dialog as shown here.
You may choose the file containing the FIR filter
coefficients you wish to import. When the file is
selected, the dialog below is opened.
The contents of the file itself are presented in the

left window for easy viewing. The right window
shows a numerical preview listing of how the
coefficients would be interpreted and their values.
Because there are so many different ways that digital filter coefficients can be
written, you must define what kind of data is contained in the file. By viewing the
lower window, you can easily determine if the proper options have been selected.
If the format is not correct, you will see bad data in the right window.
Using the features of this dialog; Real, Integer, Hex, and Binary coefficients can all
be converted into their true floating point real form.
The listing formats supported are based around the formats exported by the similar
function previously described.
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Editor
The Editor button opens a dialog as shown here.
You may choose the file containing the FIR filter
data you wish to open with your favorite text or
code editor.
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4.22 IIR Filter Component
The IIR filter component models the frequency domain behavior of a digital IIR
filter. This component can represent a multi-section IIR, with the sections
configured in either Parallel or Cascade. The IIR component can also perform an
interpolation or decimation function as defined by the M parameter. The schematic
symbol displays the order of each filter section N, number of sections and
configuration, the sampling frequency Fs, and the sampling frequency ratio M.
Finite input and output resistance parameters are

also included to enhance the analog interface. The
IIR component provides a simulation of finite coef-
ficient effects on the response of the filter. This can
be useful in evaluating the precision requirements
of a given filter, or for the comparison of different
filters.
IIR filters are created and loaded with coefficients

using the Synthesis menu operations, by entering
the values manually, or by importing the values
from a text file.
The Component group box includes the fields for

Rin and Rout. These values define a pseudo input
and output resistance for the block component
which can be useful for modeling loading effects
between stages, if so desired.
The IIR Data group box provides editing, process-

ing options, and viewing of the actual filter re-
sponse.
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Coefficients
The Coefficient panel offers display and editing of the
coefficients. The Parameters group box contains
fields for the Order (N), frequency sampling ratio (M),
and the filter sampling frequency (Fs). For M = 1, the
input and output sampling frequencies are equal. For
M = +2, an interpolator is defined where the input
frequency is 1/2 the output frequency. For M = -2, a
decimator is defined where the output frequency is 1/
2 the input frequency. Fs is always the highest sam-
pling frequency. There are two coefficient columns,
one for the (A) numerator terms, and the other (B) for
the denominator terms. The coefficients based on the
order of each IIR section are shown here.
Processing
This panel provides controls for changing the (A)
numerator coefficients by a ratio. This feature is very
handy for scaling the filter's amplitude up or down, or
changing the polarity. The (A) coefficients in all of the
sections will be scaled.
Realization Transformation
This radio group displays the current type of IIR filter,
and allows you to transform the filter from one type to
another. When you select a different realization, you
will be prompted to confirm your choice.
In some cases it is not possible to represent a filter

function in all types. Identical poles are always a
problem for Parallel realizations. In these cases the
transformation may fail, and you should probably use
the Cancel button to abort your changes and retain the
original filter data.
View Graph
phase of the FIR filter response. The system analysis
frequency range is used. The vertical scale is adjust-
able.
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Export
The Export button opens a dialog as
shown below. Many options are pro-
vided here to export the coefficient data
in several different numeric formats as
well as table listing formats. Both float-
ing point and fixed point formats are
supported, as well as Hex and Binary in
Two's Complement, Sign-Magnitude,
and Offset Binary.
Scaling can also be performed for the

fixed point formats. The maximum
scaling factor is precomputed for both
the numerator and denominator.
A preview window shows a sample of

how the output will appear. A header is
also added to the file which is not shown.
When the Ok button is pressed, another dialog will

be presented to select the file name/path to export.
The file select dialog is shown below.
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Import
The Import button opens a dialog as shown here.
You may choose the file containing the IIR filter
coefficients you wish to import. When the file is
selected, the dialog below is opened.
The contents of the file itself are presented in the

top window for easy viewing. The bottom window
shows a numerical preview listing of how the
coefficients would be interpreted and their values.
Because there are so many different ways that digital filter coefficients can be
written, you must define what kind of data is contained in the file. By viewing
the lower window, you can easily determine if the proper options have been
selected. If the format is not correct, you will see bad data in the lower window.
Using the features of this dia-

log; Real, Integer, Hex, and
Binary coefficients can all be
converted into their true float-
ing point real form.
The listing formats supported

are based around the formats
exported by the similar func-
tion previously described.
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Editor/View File
The Editor button opens a dialog as shown here.
You may choose the file containing the IIR filter
data you wish to open with your favorite text
editor.
The component editor displays the Origin X/Y values, relative to the circuit origin.
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4.23 Transducer Component
The Transducer component is undoubtedly the most important component of the

electroacoustic circuit simulator. This component defines both the electrical and
acoustical properties of the transducer, and also specifies the 3-D coordinate
location of the transducer on the enclosure. Full support for dual-voice coil
transducers is also provided.
This component carries all the required measured SPL and Impedance data within
its own data structure. In reality each of these components is a virtual curve library
itself requiring up to 10MB of memory per circuit instance. Both On and Off axis
data can be contained within a Transducer component.
The simulation of system polar response requires the

availability of measured Off-axis SPL data for each
transducer in the system. The angular resolution of
this data is solely up to the user. If no polar simula-
tions are of interest, then Off-axis data for the trans-
ducer may be omitted. This is optional.
In the case of dual voice coils, the schematic symbol

will be drawn with four (4) terminals. Special dual
voice coil impedance data must be supplied to simu-
late this type of transducer correctly.
The component editor displays the Origin X/Y val-

ues, relative to the circuit origin. All units are mils (1/
1000 inch). The component can be rotated in 90
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Setup Panel
The Setup tab panel displays numerous parameter fields to
define the characteristics of the transducer. Understand-
ing their meaning and use is very important.
The Impedance and SPL curves for each driver are mea-
sured individually on the actual enclosure. The conditions
of those measurements are defined here.
Voice Coil Origin

This is the 3D coordinate of the transducer relative to the origin. The first
decision which must be made when starting any design is the location of the
enclosure origin. A point must be chosen as the X,Y,Z reference on which all
coordinates will be based. Generally this is somewhere on the surface of the
baffle board of the enclosure. Two common origins are either the center of the
tweeter or the center of the baffle board. The choice for the origin location is
entirely up to the user. However, keep in mind that the On-Axis and polar plot
computations will be calculated relative to this position. The On-Axis position
has a coordinate of [0,0,Z] with Z being the simulation distance. Horizontal
and Vertical polar angles are also taken relative to this location.
Note: SPL Magnitude Reference

Unless otherwise speci- These values define the conditions under which the SPL data was measured.
fied, all coordinates and The drive voltage and distance [0,0,Z] must be specified.
distances are relative to
the enclosure origin. SPL Phase At
There are two possible choices for the phase data contained in your SPL curves:
Voice Coil or Microphone. These choices denote the relative location for the
phase data. If the phase data contains no path delay, then the Voice Coil option
should be selected. This means the data represents the phase at the voice coil.
However, if the phase data contains the full path delay of the Mic Distance
parameter then the Microphone selection must be used. This means the data
contains the true phase at the actual measurement position.
Voice Coil
If you are simulating a dual voice coil transducer, select Dual otherwise select
Single. If you select Dual additional impedance data will be required.
Reverse
Checking this option will reverse the polarity of the transducer.
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SPL/Imp Curves
On this panel the required On-Axis SPL and Impedance
curves are input by the user. The curves can be supplied
from either the Guide Curve library or pasted from the
Windows Clipboard.
If a Single voice coil transducer is in use, only a single

pair of SPL/Impedance curves will be required. For a
dual voice coil transducer, one SPL curve and two
Impedance curves are needed.
Note: Before performing any button operations you must select one of the curve entries
The SPL curve here in the grid box. The operations you perform will control the data for that entry.
is the On-Axis data. These entries display the kind of data needed, the name of the curve, and the points
This data is taken at contained in the curve entry.
the the 0,0,Z coordi-
nate which is NOT Pressing the Guide button will open another dialog to select a curve from the Guide
necessarily the On- Curve library. You will need to have previously imported the data into the library.
Axis location for the
transducer itself. The Cut button will delete the Transducer data curve entry while copying it to the
Windows Clipboard.
i.e. The On-Axis SPL
curve for every trans- The Copy button will copy the curve entry to the Clipboard. The data could then
ducer in the enclo- be pasted into the Guide Curve library. This provides the means to transfer data out
sure must be taken at of the Transducer component.
the same physical lo-
cation. The Paste button will paste the data from the curve currently in the Clipboard into
the Transducer curve entry. This assumes that there is a previously copied curve(s)
already in the Clipboard. If not the button is grayed out.
The Delete button will delete the Transducer data curve entry.
Dual Voice Coil Data Curves

Special data is required for dual voice coil transducers. Two impedance curves are
taken with different coil configurations and one SPL curve. With this data the
program can then simulate response of the transducer under any drive conditions.
The two impedance curves are taken on one coil with the other coil open/shorted.
The SPL curve is taken driving one coil with the other open.
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SPL Off-Axis Curves

If you desire polar simulations then you will need to
supply data for this grid box as well. Up to 49 curves can
be utilized defining both the Horz and Vert response.
The angular resolution of the curves is up to the user.

You can supply Horz data, Vert data, or both. The type
of curve is selected by Clicking over the Axis column in
the grid, or by using the All H or All V buttons below.
Because many curves can be involved with Off-Axis data, one of the best ways
to input the curves is by Copy/Paste through the Windows Clipboard. Multiple
curve paste is supported. Once a group of curves is located in a curve library,
it may be copied as a block of curves and Pasted here at once together.
Note: To further automate the process, the curve names will be scanned for identifi-
You do not need to cation text. If you name the curves with values representing the angular
specify On-Axis (0Deg) position in degrees and an H or V for Horz/Vert, then these values will be
value curves here. picked up and setup in the appropriate fields automatically.
Regardless of your input method, the Axis and Degrees values in the grid
columns must be set to match the curves you supply.
Note: Remember that the Off-Axis angular values are relative to the enclosure
origin and not the origin of the transducer itself.
Before performing any curve button operations you must select one of the
curve entries in the grid box. The operations you perform will affect that entry.
Pressing the Guide button will open another dialog to select a curve from the
Guide Curve library. You will need to have previously imported the data into
the library. The Cut button will delete the Transducer data curve entry while
copying it to the Windows Clipboard. The Copy button will copy the curve
entry to the Clipboard. The data could then be pasted into the Guide Curve
library. This provides the means to transfer data out of the Transducer
component. The Paste button will paste the data from the curve currently in
the Clipboard into the Transducer curve entry. This assumes that there is a
previously copied curve already in the Clipboard. If not the Paste button is
grayed out. The Delete button will delete the Transducer data curve entry.
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View Graph
This panel will display a graphical view of any of the
data curves maintained within the Transducer compo-
nent. The curve displayed is based on any previously
focused curve entry in either of the preceding grid box
panels. To display a different curve, select it in one of
the grid boxes and then return to this tab panel.
The name of the curve being displayed is shown above

the graph.
View Data
This panel will display a tabular listing of the numeric
values in a data curve maintained within the Transducer
component. The curve displayed is based on any
previously focused curve entry in either of the preced-
ing grid box panels. To display a different curve, select
it in one of the grid boxes and then return to this tab
panel.
The name of the curve being displayed is shown above

the graph.
Note: All of the SPL and Impedance curves must contain valid phase data.
Note: Minimum Phase data curves are of the Voice Coil phase type.
Note: If you are not including Off-Axis data, then the measurement distance for the
On-Axis SPL data should ideally be the same as the simulation distance.
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File Menu 5
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5.1 New
The File | New menu item starts a new design. The

accelerator key CTRL-N can be used to activate this item
using the keyboard, or the tool button as shown above.
If your existing design has changes, and has not yet been
saved, you will be prompted to save it first.
File | New changes the name of the design to Untitled, and

initializes and/or clears some of the various system param-
eters. You will be required to set a real name before the
program will allow you to save the design file.
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5.2 Open
The File | Open menu item opens an existing design.

The accelerator key CTRL-O can be used to activate
this item using the keyboard, or the tool button as
shown above.
If your existing design has changes, and has not yet

been saved, you will be prompted to save it first.
File | Open presents a dialog to choose the design file

to open. Design files have an LCD extension.
Depending on the various options in the File | Preferences dialog, different

parameters can be updated from design files, or retained as global settings
across design files.
Note: By default the program always loads your last design when launched.
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5.3 Reopen
The File | Reopen menu item opens an existing design, by one of the previously
stored 12 paths. The sub menu adjacent to the drop down menu displays the possible
choices. These paths are updated based on your previously opened design files.
The tool button shown above can also be used, which will present a dialog with the
same path choices as shown below. Each path is listed on a button for selection.
If your existing design has changes, and has not yet been saved, you will be
prompted to save it first.
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5.4 Wizard
The File | Wizard menu item will open a series of dialogs which provide an
easy and quick means of designing a crossover. The accelerator key CTRL-W
can be used to activate this item using the keyboard, or the tool button as shown
above.
Prior to starting the crossover Wizard you must import all of the Impedance and
SPL curves necessary for your design. This data must already be located in the
Guide Curve library before starting the Wizard.
The Wizard will ask you a short series of simple questions, and then will
automatically layout the complete crossover circuit for you. It will also
optimize the crossover design. Using the Wizard is one of the easiest ways to
get an initial crossover setup.
However once the Wizard has completed its tasks, you can certainly edit,
change, or modify the design as you would any other design. The Wizard is
simply another means of starting a design. In some cases the results from the
Wizard may be very close to what you desire.
The Wizard was constructed to perform common crossover designs. It is not

meant to provide every possible design permutation and special exception. For
those situations you will need to modify the final Wizard design, or construct
your own design manually as normal.
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Step-1
The first step is to choose what type of cross-
over you desire, and define how many sec-
tions there will be. These choices will control
what parameters and other options will be
needed in the following steps.
The selections here are self explanatory.
Step-2
In this step the order and frequency points of
the crossover objectives are defined. These
are the alignments to which the response will
be optimized. There may also be some op-
tional crossover items available, depending
on the type of crossover design.
Only one of the four tabs will be available,

and this selection will be made for you based
on the type of design.
Enter the crossover frequencies you desire,

and choose the options you want for the
crossover design. The following describes
the various options.
Analog Passive
Order is the alignment objective order for the crossover sections.
Use Conjugate Networks will add special circuit elements which
compensate the transducer's impedance, to produce a nearly
resistive load for the networks. Optimize Filters for SPL will
enable optimization of the crossover sections for the flatest pos-
sible SPL response. Include Conjugates in SPL Optimization will
enable the conjugate components for optimization.
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Analog Active
Optimize Filters for SPL will enable optimization of the crossover
sections for the flatest possible SPL response.
Digital IIR
Optimize Filters for SPL will enable optimization of the crossover
sections for the flatest possible SPL response. Fs is the sampling
frequency to be used for the IIR transformation.
Digital FIR
With FIR filters the slope (dB/Oct) for each crossover section will
be different. The Transition Width selection controls a general
design parameter for the width of these crossover regions. Equal-
ize SPL Response will create another FIR filter designed to
produce a flat response from the system. The Time Align Z Offsets
will create delay sections to align the transducers. Fs is the
sampling frequency to be used for the FIR synthesis, and Atten is
the minimum attenuation desired in the stopbands.
Step-3
Here you will define the location of the data curves for each of the crossover
sections, the actual filter orders, and also the coordinates of each transducer.
Click through each of the five tabs for each

section to define all of the curve data. If a
particular section is not used, it will be grayed
out. Choose the proper SPL and Impedance
curve entries in the Guide Curve library where
you placed the transducer data.
The Order selection defines the actual filter

order to use for each crossover section in the
design. This is often not the same as the
optimization objective order for the align-
ment. The filter order is often less than the
objective order, due to the non-flat response
of the transducer itself.
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Voice Coil Origin X,Y,Z

This is the 3D coordinate of the transducer relative to the origin. The first
decision which must be made when starting any design is the location
of the enclosure origin. A point must be chosen as the X,Y,Z reference on which
all coordinates will be based. Generally this is somewhere on the surface of the
baffle board of the enclosure. Two common origins are either the center of the
tweeter or the center of the baffle board. The choice for the origin location is entirely
up to the user. However, keep in mind that the On-Axis and polar plot computations
will be calculated relative to this position. The On-Axis position has a coordinate
of [0,0,Z] with Z being the simulation distance. Horizontal and Vertical polar
angles are also taken relative to this location.
SPL Magnitude Reference

These values define the conditions under which the SPL data was measured. The
drive voltage and distance [0,0,Z] must be specified.
SPL Phase At
There are two possible choices for the phase data contained in your SPL curves:
Voice Coil or Microphone. These choices denote the relative location for the phase
data. If the phase data contains no path delay, then the Voice Coil option should be
selected. This means the data represents the phase at the voice coil. However, if
the phase data contains the full path delay of the Mic Distance parameter then the
Microphone selection must be used. This means the data contains the true phase at
the actual measurement position.
Step-4
When optimizing the crossover sections, the
frequency region where the optimization will
be performed must be specified. This is
shown as the Red line across a portion of the
transducer's response.
You can change the limits of the crossover

optimization frequency range by simply click-
ing the mouse near the ends of the Red line.
You can also use the Default button to initial-
ize the regions to a typically useful range.
The section to be controlled is selected by the

buttons shown above the graph.
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In most cases you will want to choose a portion of

the passband and stopband for each section. You
may need to run through the Wizard several times
using different frequency limits if there are optimi-
zation problems in one area. Trial and error is
probably the best approach.
Some regions of the transducer's response may not

be controllable by the crossover. For example the
tweeter resonance shown here at 25kHz is not
included in the optimization. There are no cross-
over components that could change this response.
Finished - Processing
After Step-4 is completed, the processing
begins. A summary dialog will be shown
which lists the tasks completed along with the
current task underway.
Other dialogs will also appear and disappear

depending on the type of crossover, the num-
ber of sections, and the options selected.
Note: No user intervention is required until

all of the dialogs are gone.
The processing may take anywhere from 30

seconds to 15 minutes or more depending on
the crossover design and the speed of your
computer. There can be many tasks required
to complete the design.
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When all the dialogs are gone the Wizard has finished. You should then inspect
the circuit and response graphs. Since so much of the processing is dependent
on user data and parameters, any number of things could go wrong with the
automated design process due to improper or incorrect data.
You may wish to repeat the Wizard any number of times, changing various
conditions or parameters. You may wish to save each design with a different
name to revisit them later.
Note: The Wizard deletes any and all existing circuitry in the schematic.
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5.5 Save
The File | Save menu item saves the current design under
its existing name. The accelerator key CTRL-S can be
used to activate this item using the keyboard, or the tool
button as shown above. If the design does not currently
have a name, you will be directed to the SaveAs dialog to
choose a name for the design.
If the design does not have changes since it was last saved,
this menu item and button will be grayed out. If the design
has changes since it was last saved, they will be enabled.
When saving design files, it is generally best to create a project folder under which
all of your files for that project can be placed. This can include imported/exported
data files, graphics files, etc.
Design files have an extension of LCD. You should always use the default
extension. It is not recommended that you use other extensions, or you may not
recognize the files in the future.
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5.6 SaveAs
The File | SaveAs menu item saves the current design

under a new name. The tool button as shown above
can also be used to activate this item. A dialog will be
presented to specify the file name and/or folder.
When saving design files, it is generally best to create

a project folder under which all of your files for that
project can be placed. This can include imported/
exported data files, graphics files, etc.
Design files have an extension of LCD. You should always use the default
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5.7 Revert
The File | Revert menu item allows you to abort the

current design file changes, and reload the last saved
version of the design. The tool button as shown above
can also be used to activate this item.
A dialog will be presented to ask you to confirm this

action. All changes to the design will be lost when the
previously saved version is reloaded.
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5.8 Import Circuit Data
The File | Import Circuit Data menu item allows you to

import just the circuit schematic data from another design
file into the current design . The tool button as shown
above can also be used to activate this item.
A dialog will be presented to allow you to choose the

design file to import. The schematic must be the currently
selected graph window.
The component labels of the imported circuit will automatically increment as

needed to comply with the existing circuit.
This feature essentially merges the imported circuit with the existing circuit design.
The existing circuit design will not be affected, but rather the imported circuit will
be appended. The incoming circuit will initially have all the new components group
selected. This enables easy positioning of the new group around the schematic
sheet.
Note: In order to use this feature, the schematic window must be focused.
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5.9 Convert LEAP4 DGL
The File | Convert LEAP4 DGL menu item per-

forms conversion of the LEAP-4 DGL file data into
the program. The dialog shown below will appear for
selection of the DGL file.
After you select the DGL file the file will be decoded
and the entry data shown as below. There are 20
possible entries in a DGL library. However, only
entries which have crossover type data will be en-
abled (with imported data, non TSL).
In LEAP-4 each entry was an individual crossover section, so you will need
to select those entries that comprise a multi-way system design. This could be
2,3,4 entries etc. depending on how many crossover sections there were. The
Design Creation option will create a new LCD file or use the current.
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Clicking the properties button at the end

of an entry will display a dialog as shown
above. This allows you to view the inter-
nal DGL data for that entry.
After you click Ok, the selected DGL

entries will be converted and a schematic
will be constructed as shown below.
The circuit components will be arranged

automatically by the program, and con-
nected with wires based on the node list
from the DGL PNL/AFL entry. The lay-
out will probably appear disorganized,
with many crossing wires. This is be-
cause LEAP-4 contains no physical lay-
out information for the schematic.
You will need to rearrange the circuit as needed to place the components in a
more logical and descriptive fashion. The Transducer components will be fully
loaded with the curve data from the DGL entries.
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The conversion routine will pull as much data as possible out of the DGL entries.
However you may still need to inspect, add, or modify parameters to complete the
design in a compatible way for this program.
If DGL corrective filters were used in the design, then these will appear as Transfer
Function or Buffer components in the schematic. This will negate the ability to
compute the section impedances, since these isolate the passive network circuitry
from the generators.
There are many parameters in this program that were not present in LEAP-4. For
example the X,Y,Z transducer coordinates need to be specified. Proper values in
these coordinates will eliminate the need for Buffer components and their delay, and
restore the ability to compute impedance.
Because of the substantial structural changes between LEAP-4 and this program,
perfect conversion of the DGL entries into this format is not always possible. For
example, the SPL phase data may contain delay which will not be suitable here, and
needs to be removed and handled by the transducer coordinates. There are many
other special situations which may arise and need to be handled by the user
manually.
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5.10 Open Graph Setup
The File | Open Graph Setup menu item opens a graph

setups file, and loads the configuration data into the
current design. The tool button as shown above can also
be used to activate this item. Graph setup files have an
FSG extension.
Graph setup files store configuration parameters such as

colors, lines, fonts, and scale data. You can save these
settings in a graph setup file, and then load them into
design files without affecting the circuit data.
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5.11 Save Graph Setup
The File | Save Graph Setup menu item saves a graph

setup file. The tool button as shown above can also be
used to activate this item.
Graph setup files store configuration parameters such

as colors, lines, fonts, and scale data. These are taken
from the current design and stored in the graph setup
file. You can save these settings in a graph setup file,
and then load them into design files without affecting
the circuit or target data.
File | Save Graph Setup presents a dialog to specify the graph file name and
folder to save. You may choose to save graph setup files on a project basis, or
place the files in the common Graph folder.
Graph files have an extension of FSG. You should always use the default
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5.12 Print
The File | Print menu item is used to print the main graph
window data. The accelerator key CTRL-P can be used to
activate this item using the keyboard, or the tool button as
shown above.
The Print item opens a dialog for printing control. From

here the artwork generated in the program can be printed
to any output device currently supported in your Windows
system.
The graphs used in the program have layouts of 10 inches wide by 8 inches high.
The Component Parameters text listing can have multiple pages depending on the
length of the data. Schematic pages can be one of five different sizes from 11x8½
inches up to 34x44 inches.
Printing at a scale factor of 100% will require landscape orientation on 8½ x 11 letter

size paper. This is the default mode for the printer setup. For portrait printing, use
a reduced scale factor such as 80% or less.
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Page(s) to Print
This group box provides check boxes to enable printing of the various graph
windows. Choose which pages you wish to print. The All On / All Off buttons
provide an easy means to enable/disable all of the check boxes at once. Note
that the schematic page can be larger than 11x8½. If you need to print this at
reduced scale factor from the other pages, you will need to print it separately
from the other standard letter size pages.
Printer Configuration
This group box displays the configuration for the currently selected printer.
When you start a print, this configuration will be used. To change the
configuration use the Setup button at the bottom of the dialog box.
Color Options
This group box provides two options which control how the graphics are
printed. If the Color/Gray option is selected, and you are printing to a Black
& White device, the colors in the artwork will be dithered to produce gray
levels.
When the Black & White selection is used, all colors in the artwork graphics
will be printed as black regardless of the printer. This is a very useful feature
when printing to a dot matrix device. Gray halftones of low resolution on small
lines or fonts may often result in unreadable graphics. Printing all colors as
black will eliminate this problem and produce better looking plots on low
resolution devices.
For printing on laser or ink jet printers where higher resolution is available, it
may be a matter of choice as to the representation of color. Gray lines of
varying density may help to produce more identity between multiple lines on
the graphs. With the low cost availability of color ink jet printers today,
printing in color will usually be the most popular choice.
Location Options
This group box provides two options which control where the graphics are
printed on the page. If you are printing in full size, neither option will be much
different since the artwork will mostly fill the page regardless. However, if the
graph is printed at reduce size, the image will appear either in the middle of the
page or in the top left corner.
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The Center of Page option positions the artwork in the center of the available
printing area. The printing area is dependent on the page size selected for the
printer. The Corner of Page option positions the artwork at a corner of the available
printing area. The printing area is dependent on the page size selected for the
printer, and the specific corner will vary depending on whether landscape or portrait
orientation is in use.
Scaling Options
This editing field allows you to specify the amount of enlargement or reduction in
the magnification of the printed image. The value is entered in percent. A full size
100% plot represents an artwork width of 10 inches and a height of 8 inches for the
standard sized graphs.
Setup Button
Use this button when you wish to change the selected printer, and/or configuration.
When this button is pressed another dialog will open to change the printer/port
selection. These dialogs are produced from the printer driver. The contents of these
dialogs will be different for various printers. An example is shown below.
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5.13 File Editor
The File | Editor menu item allows you to open and

view/edit a file with your currently selected text
editor. The tool button as shown above can also be
The default editor is set to NOTEPAD.EXE. How-

ever you can easily change this to your favorite text
editor through the File | Preferences dialog.
There are many occasions in the program where you may wish to view or edit
the contents of a text file. This arises frequently when you are importing/
exporting text data. All text files exported by the program have the default
extension TXT.
File | Editor presents a dialog to choose the file to open with the editor.
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The image above shows a text file opened with the MultiEdit editor.
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5.14 Preferences
The File | Preferences menu item opens a dialog that

contains additional parameter settings for the pro-
gram. These are parameters which are changed on a
less frequent basis, or provide optional behavior.
Preference parameters are stored in the LEAP_XVR.

INI file as global characteristics, and are not loaded
from design files.
Editor Path
This is the path to the editor you wish to use when
opening text files for viewing or editing inside the
program. The default choice is the Window's
NOTEPAD.EXE basic editing program. You can choose your own favorite
editor by using the Browse button, and selecting your editor's EXE file.
Cursor Style
The bitmap used for the tracking cursor can be selected here. There are several
possible choices. The blinking rate of the cursor can also be controlled by
entering a numeric value in the edit box.
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General
There are several check boxes which enable/disable general options in the program.
The Show Splash Screen option controls whether the initial introduction screen
appears when you start the program. The Graph Select Toolbar option controls
whether or not it will appear when a graph window is maximized. The Auto Backup
Design Files option will automatically create a BAK version of your design file each
time you save it. The Quick View Scale from Data option controls how the vertical
auto scale is generated for the QuickView graph. When disabled, the vertical scale
is produced by the major division values of the original graph. When enabled, the
scale is adjusted to fit the data within the bounds of the selection rectangle.
Schematic
The Show Component Nodes option enables display of the nodes of each component
in the schematic. It is rare to use this option, but can sometimes be useful. The
Component Transparent option controls whether the background and/or grid
shows through the solid regions of components. This is purely a visual preference.
The Print Grid option enables/disables printing of the grid, irrespective of whether
or not it is displayed on the screen window. Enable Double Click Editing is an
optional means to activate a component editor. Normally this is done by selecting
a component and using right mouse click. However, you can choose to use a left
mouse double click as well with this option.
Relative Cursor Mode Horz Data

When taking relative cursor measurements, this option provides two different
readout modes for the horizontal data. You can have the horizontal value represent
the absolute true value at the cursor, or the horizontal difference between the
reference point and the current position of the cursor. This would be similar to what
happens with the vertical data.
Optional Design File Data

These options determine whether some configuration parameters will be treated as
global or design specific. For example, when opening a design file one may wish
for the current graph fonts and color settings to remain unchanged. Likewise, one
may wish that the toolbar locations remain the same, and not be affected when a
design is opened. Conversely, if you want to restore all of the full configuration
elements by each design file when it is opened, you can enable these options.
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Optional Graph Setup File Data

These options determine whether some configuration parameters in the Graph
Setup files will be restored when the setup file is opened. For example, the
Scale Parameters option will reload the scale parameters from the saved graph
setup file data. Likewise, the View Parameters option will reload the graph
window display parameters from the saved graph setup file data. Using these
options you can control which aspects of the graph setup file data you wish to
use to restore previous settings.
Control Bar Texture

These are selectable back-
grounds which can be used in
the control bars located at the
top and in the Tool Box.
The color depth of these texture

patterns vary from 4-Bit to 24-
Bit. Depending on the mode of
your video system, some may
not be suitable for display.
You can create your own bit-

maps as well and place them
into the ControlBarTexture
folder. The program will auto-
matically load them for selec-
tion the next time it is started.
There is also a palette file

LEAP.PAL which should be
used if you are creating 256
color bitmaps. All files must be
BMP format.
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Chapter 5 File Menu
5.15 Exit
The File | Exit menu item is used to terminate the program.

The accelerator key CTRL-Q can be used to activate this
item using the keyboard as well.
When this option is selected the system checks to see if any

changes have been made since the design was last saved.
If changes have been made, then a dialog box will appear
with three options for exiting the program. If the current
design name is Untitled you will always receive this
message.
Use the YES button if you wish to save the design, and another dialog box will appear
to allow you to enter a new file name if the current name is Untitled. If the current
name is valid, the file will be updated. The program will exit after saving the file.
Use the NO button if you do not wish to save the current design as a file, or do not
wish to update the existing file on disk. The program will exit after pressing this
button.
Use the CANCEL button if you wish to abort the exiting process. You will be
returned to the program after this button is pressed.
Note:
When you exit the program, all of the configuration data is stored in the
LEAP_XVR.INI file and will be restored the next time you start the program.
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Chapter 6 Editor Menu
Editor Menu 6
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Editor Menu Chapter 6
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6.1 Cut
The Editor | Cut menu item copies and then deletes the currently selected
component(s) from the schematic. The accelerator key CTRL-X can be used to
activate this item using the keyboard, or the tool button as shown above.
Components which have been Cut can be undeleted by either of two means: (1)
Since the component was automatically copied prior to being deleted, it can be
pasted back to the circuit. (2) By using the Undo function. This assumes that the
circuit has not yet been packed since the component was removed. If the circuit has
been packed, then the component cannot be restored by this means.
Note: Activating any Editor command requires the Circuit Schematic window to be
in the foreground (focused).
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6.2 Copy
The Editor | Copy menu item copies the currently selected component(s) to the
internal copy buffer. The accelerator key CTRL-C can be used to activate this
item using the keyboard, or the tool button as shown above.
Components which have been copied can then be pasted back into the circuit
any number of times. The new components will have exactly the same
parameter values as the original component.
Note: Activating any Editor command requires the Circuit Schematic window
to be in the foreground (focused).
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6.3 Paste
The Editor | Paste menu item pastes the component(s) currently stored in the copy
buffer into the schematic. The accelerator key CTRL-V can be used to activate this
item using the keyboard, or the tool button as shown above.
If the copy buffer is empty, an error message will result. The component(s) pasted
on the schematic will be automatically selected as a group. This allows immediate
moving and placement of the new component(s).
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6.4 Delete
The Editor | Delete menu item deletes all of the currently selected component(s)
in the schematic. The accelerator keys DEL or CTRL-DEL can be used to
activate this item using the keyboard, or the tool button as shown above.
Components which have been deleted can only be undeleted by using the Undo
function. This assumes that the circuit has not yet been packed since the
component was removed. If the circuit has been packed, then the component(s)
cannot be restored by this means.
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6.5 Select All
The Editor | Select All menu item selects all of the components in the schematic.
The accelerator key CTRL-A can be used to activate this item using the keyboard,
or the tool button as shown above.
This item is most useful when you wish to move the entire schematic circuit together
as a single unit. You could also delete the entire circuit.
Note: To select a single component, simply mouse left click within the bounding box
of the component. To select a group of components, drag a rectangle around the
components with the mouse left button held down. Components can be added/
removed from the group by holding down CTRL while doing either of the previous.
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6.6 Edit
The Editor | Edit menu item opens an editor dialog for the currently selected
component. The accelerator key CTRL-E can be used to activate this item
using the keyboard, or the tool button as shown above. Also, the mouse right
click will open the component editor for a selected component, or the mouse
left double click if enabled in File | Preferences.
Only a single component can be edited at a time. If you have multiple

components selected and attempt to edit, you will receive an error message.
The component editor is different for each type of component.
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6.7 Undo
The Editor | Undo menu item will restore previously deleted component(s). The
accelerator key CTRL-Z can be used to activate this item using the keyboard, or the
tool button as shown above.
At this time the only operation which can be undone is component deletion. Due
to the highly complex nature of many of the components, and in some cases very
large data structures, undoing all previous operations is not possible at this time.
Perhaps in future versions additional undo operations will be supported.
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6.8 Pack
The Editor | Pack menu item will permanently remove previously deleted
component(s) from the delete buffer, and resequence the labels of all remaining
components. The tool button as shown above can also be used to activate this
item.
When components are deleted they are placed into an internal deletion buffer.
They can be undone as long as the circuit has not yet been packed. Once
packed, previously deleted components cannot be restored.
Resequencing of the components means continuous indexing. For example, if

we had three resistors R1/R2/R3 and then delete R2, R3 still retains its current
label. However, after the circuit is packed R3 is re-indexed and named as R2
to fill the previous location.
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6.9 Add
The Editor | Add sub menu items are used to add new components to the circuit.
The sub menu contains all of the available types of components. These component
items are also listed as tool buttons on the 2nd and 3rd tabs of the Editor toolbar.
When components are added to the circuit they are placed in the center of the
window, and initially selected. Of course you can also add components by copying
an existing component and pasting duplicates.
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Chapter 7 Graph Menu
Graph Menu 7
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Graph Menu Chapter 7
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7.1 Parameters
The Graph | Parameters menu item will open a dialog which controls the
appearance of graphs throughout the program. The tool button as shown above can
also be used to activate this item.
This dialog allows you to define the colors, lines, and fonts commonly used on the
graphs of the program. By using these parameters a very wide range of different
graph designs can be easily produced. Graphics dimensions are always given in
mils (1/1000 of an Inch). For example a 10 mil line is 0.010 Inches.
Frame Parameters
The Background color is applied across the entire area of the graph page. The Note
Underline controls the color and width of the lines under the user note text. The
Large Frame Line controls the color and line width of the border around the graph.
The Small Frame Line controls the color and line width of the sub divider border
lines between different sections of the title block, note block, and map block.
Grid Parameters
The Background color is applied inside the
region of the grid itself. The Border Line
controls the color and width of the border sur-
rounding the grid. The Major Div controls the
color, width, and line style of the major division
lines drawn on the grid. The Minor Div controls
the color, width, and line style of the minor
division lines drawn on the grid.
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Text Parameters
There are six tabs in this group box that control the fonts used in different
regions of the graph artwork. The titles are self explanatory. The color can be
changed directly by clicking the Color button, and the font can be changed by
clicking the Font button.
Note: Win9X has no support for line styles other than Solid when using line
widths larger than 1. WinNT4 does support this, however non-Solid line
drawing is extremely slow. PostScript printing/export is always supported.
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7.2 System Curves
The Graph | System Curves menu item will open a dialog which controls the
appearance of the System Curves in the program. The tool button as shown above
can also be used to activate this item, or the accelerator key F4. This is one of the
most frequently used dialogs in the program. The size of the dialog can be adjusted.
System Curves are analytic data calculated from the analysis of your design. There
is a maximum of 99 system curves. The active number of curves will depend on
your analysis options and the complexity of your design. System curves are
generated automatically and colored by the sequence of buttons shown at the top for
each type of curve data. Most system curve parameters are not editable.
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Grid Table
The large grid table displays the active System Curve entries. There are a
maximum of 99 entries. The points column informs you whether each entry
actually contains data or is empty. A library curve is actually a pair of curves,
with a left side vertical data type, and a right side vertical data type. In most
cases these represent magnitude and phase respectively.
The G column provides an array of check boxes which are used to select the
curve entry for display on the graph. The Name column can be edited to enter
a name for each curve entry.
The Info column provides access to some additional notes which can be
attached to each curve. The System Curves have a Date/Time stamp applied.
To modify the curve Info text, copy the curve into the Guide Curve library.
The Horz Data Range column provides an abbreviated message giving the
range of horizontal data. If it is a frequency axis, it will show the lowest and
highest frequency values in the curve.
The Left Vert and Right Vert columns show the type of data for each left/right
data set. The type of units defined here determine which scale set will be used
when drawing the curve, and on which graph the curve will appear.
The Points column displays the number of data points in the curve. The
maximum number of data points in a curve entry is 4096.
The Style, Width, and Color columns determine the line attributes used to draw
each curve. The width parameter is given in mils (1/1000 of an Inch). If the
Right Lighter check box is enabled, the right side curve (generally phase) will
be drawn with a lighter shade of the specified color.
Note: Win9X does not support drawing complex lines larger than 1 pixel width.
This means dash, dot, etc. WinNT is required to support these styles.
In general System Curves cannot be edited. For example, you can change the
color of an individual curve but it will be changed back to the previous color
after the next analysis, if Auto Color is enabled. Each time the circuit is
analyzed the existing system curves are deleted and a new set generated.
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The number of points, frequency range, and curve names cannot be changed in the
System Curve library. The only parameter that will be preserved after analysis is
curve Enable. Thus you can control which individual curves are displayed.
Keep in mind that the number of System Curves is very dynamic. If changes are
made to the circuit itself, or analysis parameters, the number of curves can easily
change. Since individual colors are assigned on an index basis, any specific curve
may not be located at the same index after the next analysis.
The curves are displayed on different graphs depending on their type of data. For
example, SPL curves appear on the SPL graph, Impedance curves appear on the
Impedance graph, etc.
If you wish to make changes to these curves, they must be copied and pasted into
the Guide Curve library where full editing is then possible.
System Curves & Naming Conventions

Curves generated by the system analysis are named automatically, and do not allow
for any user modification. Many curve names are derived from the labels given by
the user to the Data Node or Transducer components.
The System Curves are generated as groups in the following order:
• Impedance load on all generators individually (# of Generator components).

• Impedance of all in parallel (1).
• Voltages at any Data Nodes (# of Data Node components).
• SPL of each transducer (# of Transducer components).
• SPL of all transducers summed (1).
• Group Delay of SPL of each transducer (# of Transducer components).
• Group Delay of SPL of all transducers summed (1).
• Horz Polar SPL of each transducer (# of Transducer components).
• Horz SPL of all transducers summed (1).
• Vert Polar SPL of each transducer (# of Transducer components).
• Vert SPL of all transducers summed (1).
Depending on what analysis options you have chosen, some of these curves may not
be present. If you have a large design and enable many options the number of curves
can exceed the 99 curve capacity of the library. In that case some curves will be
dropped past the end of the library and you will need to reduce your options.
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Show All
This button will enable all curves for display. You can also toggle selected
curves for display by using CTRL-G.
Hide All
This button will disable all curves for display. You can also toggle selected
curves for display by using CTRL-G.
Copy
This button will copy all selected curves to the Clipboard. Before using this
button you will typically want to select one or more curves in the grid table.
Selection of multiple curves can be done by holding down the CTRL or SHFT
keys while clicking additional curve entries.
Auto Color Set

This is a master color table used to automatically color the curves. All curves
of the same data type will be assigned colors in this order. The color buttons
can be clicked to change their colors. The changes will affect the next curves
generated by analysis if the Auto Color option is enabled.
Auto Color
This option will enable automatic coloring of the curves during each analysis.
Normally this option is enabled, but can be disabled if you have some specific
color scheme you wish to preserve.
Right Lighter
This option will enable an automatic color variation for the Right vertical data
of all curves. The Right data is generally phase. Thus the phase curve line will
be given a lighter colored version of the magnitude color. This helps to
distinguish the left/right curve lines from each other. If disabled, the phase
curve line will have the same color as the magnitude line.
Note: If there are no Left (Magnitude)

curves using either the This option enables the Left (typically magnitude) curve line for display.
Left/ Right sides of a
graph, then the Scale on Right (Phase)
that side will not appear. This option enables the Right (typically phase) curve line for display.
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7.3 Guide Curves
The Graph | Guide Curves menu item will open a dialog which controls the
appearance of Guide Curves in all of the graphs of the program. The tool button as
shown above can also be used to activate this item, or the accelerator key F6. This
is a frequently used dialog, and its size can be adjusted as needed.
Guide Curves are arbitrary data that is transferred (copied) from the System Curves,
generated by processing functions, or externally imported into the program. There
are a maximum of 99 guide curves. A curve actually contains two data arrays, Left/
Right which generally hold magnitude and phase data respectively. The type of
units in the Left/Right vertical data arrays determine the graph used for display.
Since guide curves contain arbitrary data, they cannot be directly recalculated when
the system frequency range is changed. Therefore guide curves can contain data
which is not necessarily in the same frequency range as that of the system.
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Grid Table
The large grid table displays the curve entries. There are a maximum of 99
entries. The headers at the top give the title of each column. The columns may
be resized or rearranged in order by dragging them with the mouse.
The G column provides an array of check boxes which are used to select the
curve entry for display on the graph.
The Name column can be edited to enter a name for each curve entry.
The Info column provides access to some additional notes which can be
attached to each curve. Click the mini button to open the Curve Info dialog.
The Horz Data Range column provides an abbreviated message giving the
range of horizontal data. If it is a frequency axis, it will show the lowest and
highest frequency values in the curve. Click the mini button to open the Curve
Realign dialog. This dialog can be used to modify the curve's frequency range,
resolution, or to create flat line curves from empty curves.
The Left Vert and Right Vert columns show the type of data for each left/right
data set. The type of units defined here determine which scale set will be used
when drawing the curve, and on which graph the curve will appear.
The Points column displays the number of data points in the curve. The
maximum number of data points in a curve entry is 4096.
The Style, Width, and Color columns determine the line attributes used to draw
each curve. The width parameter is given in mils (1/1000 of an Inch). If the
Same Line Type check box is enabled, all curves will have the same style, width,
and color. If the Right Lighter check box is enabled, the right side curve
(generally phase) will be drawn with a lighter shade of the specified color.
Note: Win9X does not support drawing complex lines larger than 1 pixel width.
This means dash, dot, etc. WinNT is required to support these styles.
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Show All
This button will enable all curves for display. You can also toggle selected curves
for display by using CTRL-G.
Hide All
This button will disable all curves for display. You can also toggle selected curves
for display by using CTRL-G.
Copy
This button will copy all selected curves to the Window's Clipboard. Before using
this button you will typically want to select one or more curves in the grid table.
Selection of multiple curves can be done by holding down the CTRL or SHFT keys
while clicking additional curve entries.
Cut
The Cut button will first copy the selected curves to the Windows's Clipboard, and
then delete them from the library.
Paste
The Paste button will paste the copied curves from the Window's Clipboard starting
at the currently selected curve entry. If the block of copied curves extends past the
last entry, they will be wrapped around to the top of the library. This provides the
means to move or copy curves from one location to another. Since the clipboard
is used, a different library can be loaded and the curves pasted into that library.
The Paste button will only be enabled if one or more curves are present in the
clipboard. When a curve is present, the Paste button will show hint text containing
the name and parameters of the curve. For multiple curves, a list of the original
curve entry numbers will be displayed.
Delete
The Delete button will delete the selected curves from the library. Deleting all of
the curves at once can be performed by pressing CTRL-A and then using Delete.
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Same Line Type

This option will force the same line attribute settings for all guide curves. This
means color, width, and line style.
Right Lighter
This option will enable an automatic color variation for the Right vertical data
of all curves. The Right data is generally phase. Thus the phase curve line will
be given a lighter colored version of the magnitude color. This helps to
distinguish the left/right curve lines from each other. If disabled, the phase
curve line will have the same color as the magnitude line.
Note: If there are no Left (Magnitude)

curves using either the This option enables the Left (typically magnitude) curve line for display.
Left/ Right sides of a
graph, then the Scale on Right (Phase)
that side will not appear. This option enables the Right (typically phase) curve line for display.
Curve Info Dialog

When an ellipse mini button in the Info column is clicked, the Curve Info dialog
will appear as shown below. This dialog allows you to enter/edit additional
notes for each curve entry.
The Transfer options panel provides

some handy features for displaying
the curve info text on the graph page.
Since there are 8 text lines in the

graph notes, and only 4 lines in a
curve entry info, you may select
which side to place the text.
The two options Copy Info Text to

Left/Right Notes provide the selec-
tion. The text will be copied after Ok
is clicked.
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Curve Realign
When an ellipse mini button in the Horz Data
Range column is clicked, the Curve Realign
dialog will appear as shown here. This dialog
performs re-indexing of the horizontal data points
of a curve entry. It can also be used to create flat
line curves from empty curve entries.
In most cases the horizontal data is frequency, but it could also be time or angular
position information. This dialog reprocesses and interpolates the vertical data
based on a new linear or log array of horizontal values.
A common use for this operation is to reduce the resolution of a curve. For example,
a curve containing 500 data points can be realigned into a 100 point curve. This
could be within the same frequency range, or a different frequency range.
This routine can also be used to simulate higher resolution using quadratic or cubic
interpolation, and increasing the number of data points. Both of these methods will
produce curvature rather than straight line segments.
However, be aware that it is impossible to create data that was not originally present.
For example if the original frequency range was 100Hz-1kHz, and you realign the
data to 10Hz-1kHz, there is no original data below 100Hz. The result is a flat line
segment from 10Hz-100Hz at the value of the original 100Hz data point.
When changing the horizontal data from linear to log, there will be a loss of
resolution either at the low end or high end of the spectrum.
Since the curve's data will be altered you may wish to make a copy of the curve
before performing this operation. This will prevent loosing your original data curve
should you wish to run the operation again on the original data.
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7.4 Notes & Comments
The Graph | Notes & Comments menu item will open a dialog which allows
you to enter user defined notes and identification information. The tool button
as shown above can also be used to activate this item.
Left Page / Right Page

There are eight lines of possible notes which can be entered, four on each of
these two tabs. The note lines will appear on all of the graphs. The amount of
text which can be entered depends on the size of font currently selected.
Title Block Data

There are three fields provided to enter personal, company, and project names.
The fields could also be used for engineering project numbers, drawing
numbers or other record keeping data. The fields will appear in the title block
of all graphs.
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Chapter 8 Circuit Menu
Circuit Menu 8
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Circuit Menu Chapter 8
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8.1 Parameters
The Circuit | Parameters menu item will open a dialog which controls the circuit
analysis and the appearance of the circuit schematic artwork. The tool button as
shown above on the Circuit toolbar or the accelerator key F5 can also be used to
activate this item.
This dialog allows you to define the analysis and display of the circuit on two tab
panels. The Analysis Parameters panel lists the parameters which control the
analysis of the circuit. The Schematic Parameters panel lists the parameters which
control the display of the circuit.
Note:
The largest page sizes D and E are only available under NT. Win9X does not allow
these sizes due to the 16 bit coordinate limitations.
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Frequency
In this group box parameters for the frequency range, axis, and resolution are
provided. If the frequency axis is Log then the Min frequency cannot be zero.
Temperature
This is the Operating Temperature for analysis. Most of the components in the
system have a definable temperature coefficient parameter.
The Reference Temperature defines the temperature at which each component

has its stated value as shown on the schematic. This is given in the Preferences
dialog with a default value of 25°C which is seldom changed.
The two temperatures Operating and Reference are used in conjunction with
each component's temperature coefficient to compute each component's effec-
tive operating value during circuit analysis.
Acoustic
This group box provides parameters which control the acoustic analysis. SPL
Phase At provides two selections which control the acoustic phase data.
Choosing SPL Zero Distance will produce phase without the path length delay
of SPL Distance. The SPL Distance option will include the path phase delay.
Although using the SPL Distance option is the true phase at the simulation
point, it produces large phase rotation due to the delay. Since the phase delay
itself is generally of little interest, it is often more useful to obtain the phase at
zero distance. This displays the transfer function phase behavior more clearly.
SPL Summation controls how the individual acoustic responses will be

summed. The None option will disable the summation curve. Correlated is
generally the most common option, and indicates that a complex vector
summation will be used which includes the phase. Uncorrelated produces the
RMS response and does not include phase.
If the sources are tightly coupled together then the correlated selection is the
proper option to use. However if the transducers are relatively at large distance
from each other and in a reverberant field, then the uncorrelated option may be
more representative of the combined response.
The SPL Distance value is the radial distance from the enclosure origin where
the simulation will be calculated. Horz Angle and Vert Angle determine the
primary simulation location. Zero deg values are used for On-Axis.
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Polar
This group box provides parameters which control the polar analysis. Direction can
be None, Horz, or Vert. You cannot generate both Horz and Vert at one time since
the viewing of the combination on a single polar graph would be very difficult. You
can save the results of either set in the Guide Curve library for later use.
The Max and Min values determine the range of the polar simulation. In most cases
these are +/-90 deg if you only desire frontal coverage. If you desire full 360 deg
polars, then set the values to +/-180. However, this of course assumes that you have
imported data to define the transducers that cover this same polar range. The values
here should basically match the range of data you provide with the transducers.
The Points value is the number of polar data points calculated between the Max/Min
range limits. If your range is +/-90,then 90 points would give 2 deg resolution. The
program will interpolate values between your imported polar transducer data. This
will generally give you slightly higher resolution simulations than your original
polar transducer data. However there are limits to how far this can be enhanced. For
example, asking for 1 deg simulation resolution when you only provided 30 deg
transducer data is not realistic or meaningful. The original data is too sparse.
The Frequency List is the polar frequency curves which will be generated. You can
specify whatever frequencies you wish polar response for here.
Options
This group box provides additional options to control various curves or how they
are produced. Impedance of All in Parallel will enable the system impedance curve.
This is only important for analog passive crossovers.
SPL Group Delay Curves will enable the generation of group delay associated with
the SPL response curves.
The Voltage as Transfer Function option determines how any Data Node voltages
are represented. If this option is off, then the voltages at any Data Nodes are reported
directly as produced by the generator(s). With the option on, the voltages are
divided by the V1 generator output voltage. This then produces transfer functions
Enabling the Polar Curve Normalization option will divide the acoustic polar
response curves by their values at zero degrees. In this case the zero degree response
will always be at 0dB.
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The schematic grid system con-

sists of two different visible layout
grids, and one invisible ghost grid.
The ghost grid is 100x100 and is
always in active use for component
snap. The two visible layout grids,
Major 500x500 and Minor
100x100, have selectable line col-
ors, styles, and widths. They can
be enabled or disabled for screen
display. Printing of the Major/
Minor grids is controlled in the
Preferences dialog. If you only
wish to display the grids on screen,
printing can be disabled.
Note: Major / Minor Grid
Win9X has no support The Show checkbox will enable the grid. The LineStyle can be set for a variety
for line styles other than of different types. The Width value is the width of the grid lines in mils (1/1000
Solid when using line Inch), and the Color button defines the color of the grid lines.
widths larger than 1. NT
does support this, how- Bkgd
ever non-solid line This button controls the color of the schematic background. The Background
drawing can be ex- color is applied across the entire area of the schematic page.
tremely slow. PostScript
printing/export is always Comp /Wire Symbols
supported The component and wire symbols are drawn with the line width and color as
given by the parameters in these group boxes.
Page Size
There are six possible pages sizes which can be used for the schematic. When
printing the larger pages on standard letter size printers, you will probably wish
to print with a reduced scale factor. If you are changing from a large page size
to a smaller page size, make sure that all components in the schematic are
located within the bounds of the new page size before changing. Otherwise you
will need to change back to the larger page size to reach the components.
Component Parameters
Each component has three possible text items which can be displayed with
different fonts and colors. A sample is shown here. The Label is C1, the Value
is 1.0u, and the Parameter is 5%.
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8.2 Optimizer
The Circuit | Optimizer menu item will open a dialog for the optimization of
various component values to an arbitrary response curve. The tool button as shown
above on the Circuit toolbar or the accelerator key F3 can also be used to activate
this item.
The Circuit Optimizer is a powerful tool for optimizing the values of many circuit
components. By using this tool the required component values of a circuit can easily
be found that best approximates any arbitrary response objective.
Optimizations can be performed based on voltage, SPL, impedance, or group delay.

Optimizations based on magnitude squared or complex data are also supported.
The optimization can minimize either peak or average error. Individual enables are
provided for each of the available component values, as well as manual editing of
component values. Multiple memory storage is also provided to save and recall
previous component value sets.
The optimizer also supports both curve based as well as constraint based optimiza-
tion, through use of a pair of Max/Min curves. Additional features are provided to
control the exact frequency range for optimization, and the weight applied to any
portion of the frequency range.
Note:
The optimizer ignores the component's precision parameter during the optimiza-
tion process. Each component's final value will be rounded to the correct precision
when the optimization run is completed. This can cause a change in the final
response if the component precision is not set to Any Value.
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Optimizer
The Optimizer panel contains several buttons, and a large
data grid listing all of the available component parameters
which can be optimized. Two fields at the bottom of the
panel display the total number of parameters and the number
of parameters currently selected (active) for optimization.
The Clear All button can be used to disable optimization for
all parameters.
Another field at the top displays the current Error between

the system data curve and the objective. This value will be
updated after the optimization is complete. You can also
force a manual update by clicking the Update button. The
error level displayed depends on the choice of Ave or Peak
error. Average error will appear much lower than peak error.
For Impedance or Group Delay data, an equivalent scale is
produced and calculated into a dB like value.
The data grid displays each parameter's value, name of the component, the
parameter's units, an index, and whether or not it is selected for optimization.
You can manually change or enter values for the parameters in the grid, and
recalculate the circuit response manually using the Update button.
Five memorys are also provided. The Save button stores the current values of
all parameters. When the Recall button is pressed at a later time, the previously
saved values will be restored. This can be useful when you find a likeable
solution and think you may wish to return to it. You can then continue
optimizing without fear of loosing the previous solution.
The Optimize button starts the optimization process. A dialog will

appear which displays the current error, evaluation count, and
iteration count. You can abort the run by clicking the Stop button.
There may be a short time lag before the run actually stops
depending on the engine being used and the internal state.
If either the maximum iteration count is exceeded, or the error

limit is met, the run will terminate. The run will also be terminated
automatically if lack of progress is detected.
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Setup
The Setup panel contains all of the parameters necessary to
define the optimization process. There are two fundamental
types of optimization provided: Curve, and Constraint. An
example of each method is shown on the following page.
Curve & Constraint Optimization

Optimizing to a single curve is probably the most common,
and seeks to match a system response to a single Guide Curve
as tightly as possible. Constraint optimization uses two
Guide Curves, one as the max limit and the other as the min
limit. The optimizer seeks to produce a response which stays
between these max/min limits.
System Curve to Optimize

This list box selects which system curve is to be optimized.
The type of curve can be SPL, voltage, impedance, or group delay. Polar curves are
not allowed.
Iteration Limit
This is the maximum number of iterations allowed. When using the Hydra engine
this parameter has more importance, since the full number of iterations is generally
always used. However when the other two engines are being used, the optimization
run is almost always terminated due to lack of progress. If the optimizer senses that
no further improvement can be made, the run is stopped automatically.
Data
There are two different types of data which can be optimized: Scalar and Vector.
Scalar magnitude optimization is the most common used type of data. Vector
optimization is used when the phase is also important, as in the case of non minimum
phase filters like Allpass. This is the same as Scalar when using a group delay curve.
Engine
This option selects the algorithm and methodology used to perform the optimiza-
tion. Amoeba tends to be the best general purpose selection. For more details, see
the section on Optimization Engines.
Hi/Lo Frequency Limits

There are two sliders which control the region of frequency to be optimized. This
enables you to reduce the optimization range to less than the entire range.
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Weighting
The importance of the error at each frequency can be
increased using the features on this tab. Increasing the
weight at a given frequency forces the optimizer to reduce
the error relative to other areas where the weight is unity.
The grid shows a plot for a multi-segment line which

represents the weighting function. The horizontal frequency
axis is based on the current system frequency range. The
vertical axis displays the weighting scale and ranges from
1.0 to the maximum value selected in the Scale list box.
The initial weighting function will be a flat line at the bottom

of the grid, with vertex nodes shown between each line
segment. The number of line segments can be selected using
the Lines list box.
The weighting curve can be restored to a flat line of unity at any time using the
Reset button. Equal node spacing across the frequency range is produced.
Note:
Whenever the system frequency range is changed the weighting curve will be
automatically reset.
As the mouse is moved across the plot, the frequency and weight values are
displayed for the current location. To change the position of a node, simply
click and hold the left mouse button near the node and drag.
The frequencies of the two end nodes are fixed, allowing only the vertical
weight values to be changed. For any middle nodes, both the frequency and
weight can be changed with the frequency limited between adjacent nodes.
The true error function is multiplied by the weight at each frequency to

determine the effective error. This is most commonly used with Ave/Peak error
in a single Curve optimization. For Constraint optimization it has no effect.
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Objective Generator
This tab panel provides a very quick and easy means of
generating an objective curve for optimization. Both sec-
tional and system objective response curves can be gener-
ated with these features on this panel.
The capabilities offered here are designed to cover the

general needs of most crossover design requirements. If you
require more specialized objectives, they can be
createdthrough other analytic means using transfer function
blocks, or maually defined using the Curve Editor utility.
You can also import objective curves by numerical data or
capture them graphically from external sources using the
Curve Capture utility.
Function
In this group box the selection for the type of curve shape is chosen. For system
response the Flat option is generally used, and the Lowpass, Highpass, Bandpass for
individual section objectives.
Family
A common set of families are provided here which cover most applications. These
families are explained in detail in the Synthesis menu chapter.
Order
This group of radio buttons is used to select the filter order of the transfer function.
In the case of Lowpass & Highpass, the polynomial order is identical to the filter
order. For Bandpass, the polynomial order is twice the filter order.
Parameters
Data defines what type of objective curve is to be created. This should match the
System Curve being optimized. The Level defines the passband or flat amplitude.
The High and Low frequency values define the corner frequencies.
Guide Curves
The Generate Objective Curve will create the curve in the entry shown in the list
box, and with the curve color shown in the color button. Multiple objective curves
can be created in different entries and/or deleted.
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The graph below shows three objective curves generated for a 3-way crossover
with frequencies of 250Hz and 3kHz and a level of 91dB SPL.
During the optimization process you may find that the objective curves require
modification. The features provided here enable fast adjustment and quick
regeneraton of the objective curves.
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Curve Optimization
The objective Guide Curve can be optimized directly, or to the inverse of the curve
by using the Inverse check box .
The Error Limit edit box provides a stopping limit. In most cases this parameter
becomes almost a moot point. Generally any optimization is seeking the best
solution possible. From this perspective one could certainly argue that the error
limit should always be zero.
The Error radio group provides two choices: Peak or Average. Optimizing to the
peak option simply means that the worst case error is to be reduced. The average
option produces the least average error across the entire curve.
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Constraint Optimization
For the case of constraint optimization, there are only two requirements: the
max guide and the min guide. No other parameters are involved.
The real work comes in creating the two guide curves themselves. There are
many ways this can be done.
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One common means is to start with a calculated response curve, perhaps the initial
circuit response, and then use the Curve Editor to duplicate and then edit the curves
to produce a max/min pair.
A text editor could also be used to create the max/min curves as file data, and import
these into the program. Yet another means would be to print a blank graph with the
scale and frequency range to be used, and then draw the curve manually on the paper
with a colored pen/pencil. If you can scan your paper, you can then import it using
the Curve Capture utility.
There are many other ways as well. You could use a vector drawing program such
as Illustrator, or a bitmap editor such as PaintShop. The possibilities are limited
only by your imagination.
However when precision data is required, especially across a wide dynamic range,
then the best choices are the Curve Editor or manual file editing. In the example
graph just shown, the constraints change from a 140dB margin in the stop band,
down to a 0.2dB margin in the passband.
Constraint based optimization is very powerful for certain types of problems.

Elliptic filters are one such category. In this case the actual locations of the nulls
(zeros) in the stopband are relatively unimportant. The important aspect is that the
stopband does not exceed some maximum limit. Constraints are ideally suited.
However the fact that the nulls can dip down to infinite attenuation immediately
raises a problem with respect to the min limit guide.
To handle this situation, the program makes an important and logical assumption
regarding the min limit guide. If the level of the min guide is below -200dB, then
it treats any level below this as acceptable. This solves the zero problem.
If your response is expected to have zeros, then the min limit guide should have a
level which is below -200dB in these frequency regions.
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An Introduction to Optimization
The basic concept of optimization is relatively straightforward: adjust a set of
variables until a given error function is minimized. While this fundamental
objective appears elementary in principle, a practical implementation is not.
There are many different types of optimization problems. Depending on the

type of problem the optimization process may be very easy or very tough.
Unfortunately, the kind of optimization problem typically encountered in this
field of work falls into the latter category.
This type of optimization is known as: nonlinear, nonconvex, global optimiza-

tion. The following pictorials will serve to illustrate the general characteristics
for this class of optimization.
Convex Optimization NonConvex Optimization
A A
B B
F(x) Error Function
F(x) Error Function
Y
X
Z
Z
Variable (x) Variable (x)
Each of these two graphs show a simple error function in terms of a single
dimensional variable. The left graph shows an easy convex problem. If the
initial solution is started at points A or B, we can slide downhill from either to
reach the minimum at point Z. Point Z is the global minimum since it is the point
of lowest error anywhere on the curve. This is a simple downhill search.
Convex optimization is relatively easy. Since there is only one minima, it is the
global minima, and we can find it from any starting location.
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Now consider the graph on the right. Note that there are three minima at points X,
Y, and Z. Point Z is still the global minimum since it is the lowest, while points X
and Y are local minima.
If we start at point B, we again slide downhill and reach the global min. However,
if we start at point A we can only slide downhill to the local min at point X, and are
then trapped.
It should be obvious that we will never find the best solution at point Z if we start
from point A and simply follow the curve downhill. In order to find point Z from
point A, other more advanced search techniques must be employed.
Sitting at the local minimum of point X, there is no direct method for determining
the location, or even the existence, of point Z. For this reason virtually all global
search algorithms employ some form of hill climbing based on random search.
Error functions come in all kinds of shapes and flavors. Some have only a few
minima, while others look like virtual washboards of endless ripples. The problem
just illustrated was of a single variable - one dimension.
Real world problems involve many variables and produce unimaginably complex
error surfaces in N-dimensional hyperspace. As the number of variables increase
the problem becomes exponentially more difficult. This is known as the curse of
dimensionality.
To solve these problems efficiently, optimization algorithms typically employ a

combination of local downhill search with global random search. One of the keys
to success is to achieve a proper balance between these methods. Unfortunately all
problems are different, and no single method alone will provide the best results for
all possible situations.
For this reason, the program offers three entirely different optimization engines.
Each contains a different balance between local and global search power. Their
characteristics will be covered in a following section.
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Using an Optimizer
Regardless of how sophisticated any optimization algorithm is, they are in
reality little more than heuristically automated trial & error random analysis
tools. They proceed towards a solution by employing a very large number of
function evaluations, not by use of any high order intelligence. Optimization
can be a very time consuming process if the problem is large or ill defined.
There are two basic objectives for any optimization:
(a) Find the global min (the best solution).

(b) Find it using the fewest evaluations (as fast as possible).
There are many steps which the user can take to improve the situation for both
of these objectives. The amount of computational effort required to find a
solution, hopefully the best solution, can be dramatically reduced if the
problem is setup properly by the user. In some cases the difference is simply
success or failure. The following hints may be helpful:
■ Provide the best starting values possible for your variables

In theory optimization should be able to find the global min from any starting
location. However in practice this is often not the case, or it may come with a
huge penalty in terms of time. In general, the closer your initial starting point
is to the final solution, the higher the probability of finding that solution, and
using the least number of evaluations.
■ Select variables for optimization which produce a unique solution

It is often critically important to enable only those parameters which can
effectively control the response in the manner or frequency range needed, and
to choose parameters that yield a unique solution. Minimizing the number of
possible solutions greatly improves the speed of convergence.
For example, consider a single inverting opamp gain stage with two resistors.
The total gain of course is a function of both resistors. If you select both
resistors for optimization, the number of possible gain solutions is infinite.
Conversely, if you fix one resistor and optimize the other, there is only a single
unique gain solution for any specific gain.
Avoid selecting multiple parameters that produce identical changes. A simple

common sense approach is to think about what parameters you would change
manually yourself to achieve the desired response.
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■ Optimize the fewest number of parameters

As the number of variables increase, so does the computational burden but at a much
steeper rate. Optimizing 20 parameters at once requires far more time than
optimizing 10 parameters in two batches. Always try to reduce the number of active
parameters when possible.
■ Reduce the number of System Curve points to a minimum

For each error function evaluation, the circuit must be computed across the entire
frequency range, using the number of data points currently defined in the Circuit
Parameters dialog. If you reduce the density of data points, the speed of
optimization will increase proportionally. For example, if the current number of
data points is 500, but you could get away using 50, you can increase the speed of
optimization by an order of magnitude.
■ Reduce the number of Data Nodes

For each Data Node defined in the circuit, additional calculations must be per-
formed. You can reduce the computational burden somewhat by removing any
Data Node components which are not needed. For optimization only the Data Node
currently selected for optimization is required.
Note:
During the process of optimization, you may find that the optimizer has pushed some
parameters to very high or very low values. If a suitable solution was found, then
this means that the component had no effective use and can probably be eliminated
from the circuit.
However, if the solution still needs further optimization, and you feel that the
component should have realistic values, then manually edit the value into a proper
range prior to starting the optimization again. Optimizers generally find it difficult
to pull in a parameter that is completely out of range.
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Optimization Engines
Three different optimization algorithms are provided: Medusa, Amoeba, and
Hydra. Each of these algorithms utilize entirely different methodologies, and
offer a different balance between global and local search. Global search
requires much more time than local search, as such there is an associated
convergence speed trade-off between the methods.
■ Medusa: Fast speed, mostly local search

This algorithm is the fastest, and it is also the most local. If your initial starting
point is close to the final solution, or if the error function has relatively few
minima, this method will produce the fastest solution. The number of error
function evaluations is usually in the hundreds for 10 variables.
In most cases only a few iterations are needed to reach a solution, although it
may only be a local minimum. If your problem has many minima, or is highly
nonconvex, then the solution found will probably not be the best solution.
■ Amoeba: Medium speed, best mix of local and global search

This algorithm is the workhorse. It offers one of the best balances between
local search and global random search. If your initial starting point is in the
neighborhood of the global min, then this algorithm will usually find it.
The number of error function evaluations is often amazingly low, generally in

the high hundreds or few thousand for 10 variables. In most cases only a few
iterations are needed and an excellent solution is quickly found.
■ Hydra: Low speed, mostly global search

This algorithm is very slow, with the search highly random and global. It
requires the full run of iterations to complete. You do not want to abort this
algorithm before the full number of iterations has finished. Whatever the
number of maximum iterations you choose, you will need to let them finish.
The number of error function evaluations can run into the thousands or even
tens of thousands for problems with just 10 variables.
The best use of this algorithm is when you have a very poor initial starting point.
This algorithm will improve that, but may not find the actual global minimum.
One of the other methods may need to be run afterwards. If you have setup your
problem well, then you should have no need to resort to this method.
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8.3 Information
The Circuit | Information menu item will open a dialog which displays circuit and
component information. The tool button as shown above on the Circuit toolbar can
This dialog is probably used less than many others, but can be useful on occasion
to locate a component, change the origin of the entire circuit, or obtain a summary
of the components used in a circuit.
Circuit
This panel displays several fields regarding the type of circuit, and its origin
coordinate location. If it is a Synthesis circuit, all of the fields are disabled and
cannot be edited. For a Custom circuit, all fields will be enabled except for the Name
and Code fields which remain disabled.
The Name field displays the synthesis circuit name, or the name custom. The Code
field displays a unique catalog index number for a synthesis circuit, or zero if it is
a custom circuit. The Domain, Family, Description, and Order/Stages display
synthesis circuit information, or can be used for any other user data purpose if it is
a custom circuit. The X/Y Origin fields display the coordinate locations for the
entire circuit. Changing these values will move all components in the circuit.
Component
This panel contains a listing for each type of possible circuit components, and the
total number of each type of component in the circuit.
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The data grid displays each component: the label name, its type, and the X/Y
origin values. This display can be useful in locating a component if it is off the
page after reducing the schematic page size.
Below the data grid are two fields which display the total number of compo-
nents and the number of Data Nodes which will be analyzed.
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8.4 Z Scaling
The Circuit | Z Scaling menu item will open a dialog which enables the values of
many circuit components to be scaled by a common ratio. The tool button as shown
above on the Circuit toolbar can also be used to activate this item.
In many circumstances it is desirable to increase or decrease all of the component

values in a circuit. This can be useful in reducing resistor noise, or to achieve desired
loading for other stages. Reducing inventory can also be a goal by shifting some
special component such as capacitors or inductors into preferred values.
In order to maintain the basic response of the circuit while changing the overall
impedance levels of the components, resistors/potentiometers and inductors must
be increased/decreased in value, while capacitors/FDNRs must be reversed i.e.
decreased/increased. This dialog performs all of these tasks.
When the dialog is first opened, it scans the circuit to find a component with the most
restricted value range in the following order: 20%, 10%, 5%, 1%. It chooses this
component to produce the scaling steps used in the dialog.
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Scaling Parameters
The chosen Component is listed, along with its Precision. The Scaling Factor
is the current impedance ratio of change that will be applied to all supported
components. If all components in the circuit have Any Value precision, then
a default value of 0.1% will be used. The Scaling Factor can be increased or
decreased by use of the Spin buttons. The original value of this component and
the new value, based on the Scaling Factor, is displayed.
The supported components are Resistors, Potentiometers, Inductors, Capaci-

tors, and FDNRs. For capacitors and FDNRs, the value will be changed in the
opposite direction as the scaling ratio.
The values of all components will be rounded to their appropriate precision

values as defined for each component.
Note:
When scaling the components of a circuit which produces controlled imped-
ance such as a generalized impedance convertor (GICs), this operation will
change that designed GIC impedance. For these kinds of circuits you may wish
to use manual component editing.
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8.5 Calculate
The Circuit | Calculate menu item will force the program to analyze/calculate the
circuit and update the Data Curves. The tool button as shown above on the Circuit
toolbar or the accelerator key F9 can also be used to activate this item. This is one
of the most frequently used operations in the program.
If the circuit has schematic errors a dialog message will appear, after which the
component causing the error will be auto-selected on the schematic.
While the circuit is being calculated the cursor will change to the symbol shown
below. When the analysis is completed the cursor will change back to the pointer.
This makes it easy to tell when the analysis has finished. The number of data points
contained in the curves and the frequency range are controlled by the Circuit |
Parameters dialog.
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8.6 Thermal Analysis
The Circuit | Thermal Analysis menu item will open a dialog which generates a
family of circuit analysis curves at different temperatures. The tool button as shown
above on the Analysis toolbar can also be used to activate this item.
Parameters
The System Curve selected in this panel represents the response which will be
analyzed. The Lo/Hi Temperature limits of the temperature sweep can be defined,
as well as the circuit Reference Temperature. The number of curves generated is
controlled by the Steps parameter. The results of this operation are a family of
curves placed into the top of the Guide Curve array.
Component Temp Coef Enable

The temperature coefficients for each component are defined by editing the PPM
parameters in each component. However, the components can also be enabled/
disabled as a group, or by component type, in this panel as well.
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The graph below demonstrates a family of thermal analysis curves. The

actual operating temperature is listed in the name field of each Guide Curve.
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8.7 Sensitivity Analysis
The Circuit | Sensitivity Analysis menu item will open a dialog which produces
a text listing of the sensitivity values of the components, and their worst case
frequencies. The tool button as shown above on the Analysis toolbar can also be
Sensitivity analysis provides much the same kind of information as Monte Carlo
analysis. However sensitivity analysis yields information related to each individual
component, while Monte Carlo analysis shows the overall possible range of circuit
response variations, due to both the sensitivity of the components and their
precision. For sensitivity, a text listing of the S values is produced at the worst case
frequency for each component. Monte Carlo analysis produces a max/min curve
pair by varying all components randomly according to their precision.
Sensitivity is a ratio between the change in output response vs. the change in
component value. For example, if we had a component with a sensitivity value of
S=2.0, at a worst case frequency of 1kHz, this means that a 1% change in the
component value will produce a 2% change in the response at 1kHz. Since this is
the worst case frequency, the S value at all other frequencies is equal or lower.
To produce stable circuits with respect to component variations, it is obvious that

low S values are much better than high S values. The component sensitivity
depends very much on the circuit topology, and the target response which the
topology is designed to produce. For example, the same circuit topology designed
for a Chebyshev response will have much higher S values than if designed to a
Bessel response. Sensitivity is a function of both topology and response shape.
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When the S values are in the range of 2 or lower, this is generally considered
excellent design sensitivity resulting in a highly stable response. Values
between 2 and 5 usually indicate good to moderate stability. When the values
range from 5 to 10, this results in poor circuit stability. Relative to your circuit's
response, it is the equivalent of all your 1% components acting as if they had
only 5% to 10% precision.
For circuits with component S values greater than 10, it becomes extremely
difficult to produce a reliable response with standard components. These are
of course only general guidelines. Each application has its own requirements
and may be able to tolerate higher component sensitivity, or demand lower
component sensitivity.
In some cases you may find that most components in a particular circuit have
S values near unity, and that only a few components have high S values. This
information can be very important, and enables you to quickly determine
which components may demand high precision, while others are non critical.
The worst case frequency for most components usually occurs at one of three
possible locations: near the corner frequency, or at either the low/high ends of
the frequency range.
The sensitivity is always computed relative to a single circuit response curve.

In some cases S values of zero will be produced for different components . This
means that the component has no effect on the curve selected for analysis.
However, the component certainly does effect the output of other circuit nodes,
or response curves. Choosing different System Curves will typically produce
different sets of sensitivity values.
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Parameters
analyzed. The total number of components for analysis is also displayed.
Worst Case Sensitivity Data

When the dialog is opened, the frequency and sensitivity data is always cleared.
After you have selected the System Curve, click the Run Analysis button. When the
circuit analysis completes a run, the data grid will be loaded with new frequency
and sensitivity values.
Sensitivity values will be computed for the following component types:
- Resistor - Capacitor - Inductor

- Potentiometer - FDNR - SCN
- Buffer (Gain & Delay)
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If you wish to save the results of the analysis, you can write the contents to a
file by clicking the Save as Text File button. An example is shown below.
=======================================================
©1993-2002 LinearX Systems Inc
LEAP-CD (TM) Version=5.0.0.263
Date=Sep 10, 2002 Time=Tue 5:10 am
Design= D:\Program Files\Leap_cd\Projects-
Crossovers\TESTS\Audax2w_RefCtr\AUDAX2W_CTR.LCD
=======================================================
Note: Test Data
Note: Test Simulation of Audax 2-Way
Note: Ref Origin is Baffle Center
Note: Analyzed: Nov 22, 2000 Wed 3:34 pm
Note: Gray Curve is LMS measurement
Note: Color curve is LEAP simulation
Note:
Note:
=======================================================
Sensitivity Analysis:
System Curve= 9 SPL@1M,0H,0V Sum(C) Freq SPL
Phase False
=======================================================
Indx Name Value Freq(Hz) Sensitivity
=======================================================
1 L2 1.0387m 1.3506K 0.5199
2 C2 26.6860u 694.4720 0.0598
3 L3 332.0000u 1.3506K 0.1143
4 R3 20.0000 3.0382K 0.1192
5 C7 6.8100u 1.9635K 0.3423
6 L6 267.0000u 1.9231K 0.4283
7 R5 1.7800 40.0000K 0.3270
8 C8 3.2400u 20.5671K 0.4509
9 R6 3.0100 40.0000K 0.4814
10 C9 15.0000u 1.5950K 0.1383
11 R7 1.0000 40.0000K 0.1609
=======================================================
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8.8 MonteCarlo Analysis
The Circuit | Monte Carlo Analysis menu item will open a dialog which performs
multiple circuit analysis using random component values. The tool button as shown
above on the Analysis toolbar can also be used to activate this item.
Monte Carlo analysis provides much the same kind of information as Sensitivity
analysis. However sensitivity analysis yields information related to each individual
component, while Monte Carlo analysis shows the overall possible range of circuit
response variations, due to both the sensitivity of the components and their
precision. For sensitivity, a text listing of the S values is produced at the worst case
frequency for each component. Monte Carlo analysis produces a max/min curve
pair by varying all components randomly according to their precision.
Monte Carlo analysis is a random process. Each time you perform the analysis the
results can be slightly different but will in general be similar. The number of
randomization runs can be any number, but a value of 30 is often used. This is a large
enough statistical sample to show most of the circuit response variations.
During each analysis iteration, the component values are randomly adjusted around
their stated values up to the ± analysis precision. The analysis precision can be
different than the component precision.
Components can also be enabled/disabled by their type, which allows you to

examine the variations solely due to each component group alone.
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Parameters
analyzed. The Runs are the total number of random iterations to be performed.
Components
Each component type can be enabled/disabled as a group for randomization.
Select which component types you wish to include in the analysis.
Analysis Precision
These fields define the analysis precision to be applied during randomization.
The value of each enabled component is randomly adjusted across the ± range
of the analysis precision. The analysis precision can be different than the
component precision, and can be defined for each value class.
For example, in some cases you may have a component precision such as 10%
or 20% to limit the selection of standard values, but will choose to build the
circuit using higher precision components such as 1%. For these cases you can
assign the analysis precision to be different than the component precision.
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During the analysis the maximum and minimum values which occur at all
frequency points are retained. When the analysis is completed, two curves will be
written to the Guide Curve array. The two curves show the max/min range of circuit
response variations retained from the Monte Carlo analysis. The data is produced
for all of the seven graphs in the program.
The magnitude graph below shows a typical Monte Carlo result for a Lowpass filter.
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8.9 Potentiometer Analysis
The Circuit | Potentiometer Analysis menu item will open a dialog which
performs multiple circuit analysis while rotating the position of one or more
potentiometers. The tool button as shown above on the Analysis toolbar can also
be used to activate this item.
This processing feature is extremely useful for equalizer design and other applica-
tions where pots are typically used. It provides invaluable information which
enables easy and accurate selection of the proper taper.
Tapers are generally chosen to provide an even distribution of the control's

parameter range across its entire rotation. When incorrect tapers are used, the range
can be crowded into one region of the rotation, with the remaining rotation
providing little effective parameter change.
The type of taper required depends on many factors including: the parameter being
controlled, the circuit topology, and the loading on the wiper of the pot. There are
three primary taper families: linear, log, and reverse log. However, these basic
families come in many different shapes and contours. When loading considerations
and taps are involved, the variations become virtually infinite.
By analyzing the rotational sweep patterns of different combinations of tapers,

wiper loading, and tap loading, the best configuration can be accurately determined.
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Parameters
analyzed. The Steps are the total number of rotational positions to be analyzed.
The maximum number is 32.
Components
When the dialog is opened, the circuit is scanned to locate potentiometer
components. The pot components found will be listed in the data grid. Each
entry displays the pot name, value, and its taper. An index number and enable
check box are also provided.
All pots which are enabled will be rotated together. This simulates the ganging
of multi-section controls. When the analysis is complete, a family of curves
will be written to the Guide Curve array. Each Guide Curve name contains the
rotational position used to produce the curve.
The following two graphs display samples of potentiometer analysis. The first
graph shows the sweep characteristics of an incorrect taper selection. Note that
most of the change occurs at the center of the range, with the ends of the rotation
being crowded together.
The second graph was run with a different taper selection for the same pot in
the same circuit. Here the rotational sweep is much more evenly distributed.
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Chapter 9 Synthesis Menu
Synthesis Menu 9
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Synthesis Menu Chapter 9
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9.1 Analog: Allpole Filters
The Synthesis | Analog Passive | Allpole Filters menu

item will open a dialog which contains an extensive
catalog of explicit equation formulations and numeri-
cal solutions for the design of passive Allpole filters.
The tool button shown above on the Analog Passive tab
of the Synthesis toolbar will also activate this item.
Note: Using the Synthesis dialogs requires that the

Circuit Schematic window be active (has the focus).
The Allpole class of filters have no zeros in their stopband, with respect to the
characteristic Lowpass configuration. Since no finite design tables are used, a filter
with any desired parameters can be easily designed. For example, Chebyshev filters
can be designed with any passband ripple, and Linear Phase filters can be designed
with any group delay ripple.
The synthesis dialog receives your parameter values, designs a circuit fragment that
performs the filter function, and then pastes it onto the schematic for you. You can
then move the selected group of components to whatever position you like in your
overall circuit. You will then need to integrate the circuit fragment into the rest of
your circuit as needed.
Passive networks are designed for a particular load impedance. This will appear as
a resistor component in the circuit fragment. If your actual load is a transducer, you
will need to delete this resistor and replace it with your real transducer load.
The dialog also provides a picture of the circuit structure that will be designed. The
circuit structure will change based on your parameter values and/or selections in the
other dialog fields and controls.
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Order
This group of radio buttons is used to select the order of the
filter. In the case of Lowpass, Highpass, and Allpass filters
the polynomial order is identical to the filter order. For
Bandpass and Bandreject filters, the polynomial order is
twice the filter order.
When a low order is chosen, insufficient to represent the

family selected, the filter function will default back to the
Butterworth 3dB. For example, choosing a 1st order
Chebyshev has no meaning since the order has too few
degrees of freedom to produce this transfer function.
Family
The selections offered here cover a wide range of standard
and specialized Allpole characteristics. Each Family may
have a different number of parameters enabled or disabled
depending on its requirements. A following section provides
an explanation of each family's characteristics.
Transformation
The complete set of four transformations Lowpass, Highpass, Bandpass, and
Bandreject are provided. Depending on the selection, various other editing
fields will be enabled or disabled as required.
Transition Attenuation Level

This group box provides optional control to define the transition level, corner
or edge, of the filter. The common transition level is 3dB which comes from
the Butterworth family of filters. However, other filter families produce
different transition levels.
For example, consider a Chebyshev 0.1dB ripple filter. By strict definition the
passband covers frequencies within the 0.1dB ripple specification. The natural
transition frequency of the filter occurs at the end of the 0.1dB passband. This
would correspond to the Natural selection in the group box.
However if you wish to design the same filter based on the definition of a
transition level of 3dB, this can be done by choosing the Custom option and
entering 3.0 in the dB parameter field. Using this feature all filter families can
be generated based on identical transition levels of any value.
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Frequency
If the transformation type is Lowpass or Highpass then this parameter refers to the
corner frequency. If the transformation type is Bandpass or Bandreject, this
parameter represents the center frequency.
Total Q
This parameter will be enabled for Bandpass and Bandreject filters. It
controls the width of the passband/stopband respectively. This parameter
can be directly entered in terms of Q, or by using the [...] button entered as
a pair of edge frequencies or by octave width. This option will also
automatically recalculate the required center frequency and total Q. This
is very useful for 3-way or higher midband crossover sections.
Magnitude Ripple
If the family selected supports passband ripple, then this parameter will be enabled.
The Chebyshev families use this parameter. It is the zero to peak value of the ripple
in the passband.
Delay Ripple
If the family selected supports group delay ripple, then this parameter will be
enabled. The Linear Phase family uses this parameter. It is measured in terms of
peak to peak ripple in percent. This characteristic is only relevant for Lowpass.
R Load
This is the design load value for the passive network. Passive filters require this,
and will be designed based on this load. It is also of course assumed that the
components are lossless. In reality the load may be a transducer with a complex
impedance curve. In this case the response of the network will not perform to the
ideal designed response. Such is the need for optimization to adjust the circuit
components to produce the best overall response from the system.
Allpole Family Descriptions

The following provides a brief description of the primary characteristics for each
filter family. It is worth mentioning that you can easily explore many of their other
characteristics more fully by creating some filters yourself, and examining their
response in any of the numerous graphs.
■ Butterworth 3dB
This is the well known maximally flat family of allpole filters, with transition level
of 3 dB. The normalized transfer function has all roots on a unit circle.
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Note: The single 4th or- ■ Butterworth 6dB

der case is also com- This is a modified form of the standard Butterworth family which produces 6dB
monly known as transition levels. There are special complementary relationships that exist
Linkwitz-Riley, but the between the 3/6 families. The summation of the proper order and family in
general complete fam- theory yield ideal allpass functions. For example, an odd order 3dB Lowpass/
ily is given here. Highpass pair will sum to yield an Allpass filter, while an even order 6dB
Lowpass/Highpass pair will sum to yield an Allpass filter.
■ Chebyshev
The Chebyshev, or equal magnitude ripple family, produces equal ripple
response in the passband. The normalized roots lie on an ellipse, rather than a
circle. The family produces one of the steepest cutoff rates, but can also require
high Q values which may be difficult to realize in many circuits.
.
■ Bessel
The Bessel family produces a maximally flat group delay. It also has a very
slow rate of cutoff. It is commonly used in applications where transient
response or linear time delay is important. Gaussian and Linear Phase are also
similar equivalents.
■ Legendre
The Legendre family provides ripple free monotonic response like that of the
Butterworth, but with much steeper cutoff rates like the Chebyshev. It can be
a good compromise between the Butterworth and Chebyshev with respect to
cutoff rate and producibility.
■ Linear Phase
The Linear Phase, or equal group delay ripple family, produces equal ripple in
the passband frequency region of the group delay response. This family has
steeper cutoff than the Bessel or Gaussian still with linear phase behavior.
■ Synchronous
The Synchronous family is a simple array of identical poles. They are very easy
to build, and have near optimum transient response. However they also have
very poor selectivity with slow cutoff rates.
■ Gaussian
The Gaussian family is very similar to the Bessel, but has slightly slower cutoff
rate and a more shallow group delay knee. It is commonly used in applications
where transient response or linear time delay is important. Bessel and Linear
Phase are also similar equivalents.
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9.2 Analog Passive: Elliptic Filters
The Synthesis | Analog Passive | Elliptic Filters menu

item will open a dialog which contains a powerful
cal solutions for the design of passive elliptic filters.
The tool button shown above on the Analog Passive tab

The elliptic class of filters have zeros in their stopband, with respect to the
with any desired parameters can be easily designed. For example, passband ripple
as well as stopband attenuation can be custom designed for any elliptic filter.
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Order
filter. In the case of Lowpass & Highpass filters, the
polynomial order is identical to the filter order. For Bandpass
& Bandreject, the polynomial order is twice the filter order.
Family
The selections offered cover both the standard maximally
flat and equal ripple types, as well as MCP versions of both.
If the maximally flat types are selected, then the Passband
Ripple dB parameter is disabled. A following section pro-
vides an explanation of each family's characteristics.
If an MCP family is chosen, and the order is insufficient to

represent the filter, the filter function will default back to the
standard maximally flat or equal ripple families.
Transformation
The standard set of four transformations Lowpass, Highpass,
Bandpass, and Bandreject are provided. Depending on the
selection, various other editing fields will be enabled or
disabled as required.
MCP Factor
MCP is an abbreviation for Multiple Critical Pole. This class of filters uses
identical lower Q sections to replace the more usual single high order pole. The
factor is the number of duplicate poles: 2, 3, or 4. The filter must have high
enough order for a given factor selection, or it will be disabled.

This group box provides optional control to define the transition level, corner
or edge, of the filter. The common transition level is 3dB which comes from
the Butterworth family of filters. However, there are cases in elliptic filters
where the edge of the passband ripple may be selected as the transition
frequency.
For example, consider an equal ripple 0.1dB filter. By strict definition the
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However if you wish to design the same filter based on the definition of a transition
level of 3dB, this can be done by choosing the Custom option and entering 3.0 in
the dB parameter field. Using this feature all filter families can be generated based
on identical transition levels of any value.
Frequency
If the transformation type is Lowpass or Highpass, this parameter refers to the
corner frequency. If the transformation type is Bandpass or Bandreject, then this
parameter represents the center frequency.
Total Q
This parameter will be enabled for Bandpass/Bandreject filters. It controls
the width of the passband/ stopband respectively. This parameter can be
directly entered in terms of Q, or by using the [...] button entered as a pair
of edge frequencies, or by octave width. This option will also automati-
cally recalculate the required center frequency and total Q. This is very
useful for 3-way or higher midband crossover sections.
Passband Ripple
If the family selected is equal ripple type, then this parameter will be enabled. It is
the zero to peak value of the ripple in the passband.
R Load
This is the design load value for the passive network. Passive filters require this,
and will be designed based on this load. It is also of course assumed that the
components are lossless. In reality the load may be a transducer with a complex
impedance curve. In this case the response of the network will not perform to the
ideal designed response. Such is the need for optimization to adjust the circuit
components to produce the best overall response from the system.
Stopband Attenuation
The top of the stopband lobes, between the zeros, is determined by this parameter.
The cutoff rate is the direct result of this parameter as well. As the stopband
attenuation increases, the cutoff rate decreases, and the transition region grows.
Depending on the order of the filter, and the value of this parameter, some filter
solutions will not be possible. If a small attenuation is entered on a high order filter,
the transition region becomes extremely small. This requires very high Q values
and ultra critical zero frequencies. The solution will fail if Q values exceed 1000.
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Elliptic Family Descriptions

The following provides a brief description of the primary characteristics for
each filter family. It is worth mentioning that you can easily explore many of
their other characteristics more fully by creating some filters yourself, and
examining their response in any of the numerous graphs. There are many other
practical concerns such as Q requirement which can also be evaluated.
■ Maximally Flat
The Maximally Flat elliptic, also known as inverse Chebyshev or Chebyshev
II, has no ripple in the passband. Since it has no passband ripple, the natural
transition frequency occurs at the edge of the stopband. In most cases you will
probably wish to use a custom transition of 3dB or similar. This family is easy
to realize with low Q values.
■ Equal Ripple
The Equal Ripple elliptic, also known as Cauer, is the most commonly known
standard elliptic filter type. It has equal ripple in the passband, provides very
steep cutoff, with a very small transition region. However, there is a catch. It
typically requires very high Q in a single pole section, with very precise zero
frequencies. It is probably one of the most difficult filters to realize. The MCP
Equal Ripple family is a far more practical and very attractive alternative.
■ MCP Maximally Flat

The Multiple Critical Pole (MCP) Maximally Flat elliptic produces the same
kind of response as the standard maximally flat discussed above. However the
MCP version here uses multiple identical poles to reduce the Q values. This
repeated pole has the maximum Q of any in the filter. MCP filters require lower
Q than the original filters, and are highly realizable with excellent stability.
■ MCP Equal Ripple

The Multiple Critical Pole (MCP) Equal Ripple elliptic produces the same kind
of response as the standard equal ripple discussed above. However the MCP
version here uses multiple identical poles to reduce the Q values. This repeated
pole has the maximum Q of any in the filter. MCP filters require lower Q than
the original filters. For this reason MCP filters are highly realizable and stable.
Note: MCP filters will have slightly wider transition regions than the original
filter versions, and may require a slight increase in filter order. However the
producibility of the higher order MCP will typically be far superior to that of
the lower order standard filter.
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9.3 Analog Passive: Equalizer Networks
The Synthesis | Analog Passive | Equalizer Networks

menu item opens a dialog which contains a collection
of specialized equalizer functions. The tool button
shown above on the Analog Passive tab of the Synthesis
toolbar will also activate this item.

Equalizer circuits perform special tasks such as adjusting broadband level or

frequency response in a specific region. Several different circuits are provided here
for those purposes.
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L-Pad Attenuator
This circuit performs broadband attenuation of level. You can
enter the attenuation desired in dB and the load resistance in
Ohms. The input impedance will remain equal to the load
impedance. The needed values for R1 and R2 will then be
calculated.
This circuit is commonly used to attenuate tweeters or

midranges to lower levels to match their sensitivity to that of
more inefficient woofers.
RLC Parallel Tank

This circuit is typically used to perform as a bandreject filter
when used in series with a transducer. You can enter the
resonance frequency Fo, the Q value, and load resistance
which in this case means R1.
These circuits are generally used to produce a dip in the

response at a single frequency. Possibly to counteract a peak
in the transducer's response. The proper value for R1 will
depend on the transducer impedance and dip requirement.
Some trial and error is typically needed and/or optimization.
RLC Series Trap

This circuit is typically used to perform as a bandpass filter
when used in series with a transducer, or as a bandreject filter
when used in parallel. You can enter the resonance frequency
Fo, the Q value, and load resistance which in this case means
R1.
These circuits are generally used to produce a dip in the

response at a single frequency. Possibly to counteract a peak
in the transducer's response. The proper value for R1 will
depend on the transducer impedance and dip requirement.
Some trial and error is typically needed and/or optimization.
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9.4 Analog Passive: Conjugate Networks
The Synthesis | Analog Passive | Conjugate Net-

works menu item will open a dialog which performs
impedance equalization. The tool button shown above
on the Analog Passive tab of the Synthesis toolbar will
also activate this item.

Conjugate networks seek to cancel the reactive portion of a complex impedance to

yield a purely resistive impedance. Hence the name conjugate. They are often
described as Zobel networks. In practice a purely resistive result can only be
approximated.
The tradeoff may involve lowering the impedance to an unacceptably low level.
The complex impedance presented by a typical transducer requires a multistage
conjugate design. This dialog can create and optimize ultra high performance
multi-stage conjugates with any degree of flatness desired by the user.
Conjugate networks are designed to compensate a specific impedance curve. For

transducers the network must be connected directly in parallel across the transducer
terminals. System impedance conjugates are also possible which yield a resistive
load for the entire system. In this case the network is placed in parallel to the input
of the crossover network itself.
performs the network function, and then pastes it onto the schematic for you. You
can then move the selected group of components to whatever position you like in
your overall circuit. You will then need to integrate the circuit fragment into the rest
of your circuit as needed.
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Impedance Curve
The impedance function to compensate
can be obtained from any of three sources:
a Transducer component in the schematic,
a System Curve, or a Guide Curve. The
impedance curve will be displayed in the
graph to the left.
Resonance Threshold
The impedance function may contain
small or large resonance peaks in the
curve. This parameter controls the sensi-
tivity for detecting resonance locations.
Too much sensitivity can cause small

ripples in the curve to be incorrectly picked
up as resonance locations. Insufficient
sensitivity can cause larger resonance lo-
cations to be ignored. In most cases the
default value is adequate, but can be
changed if needed.
Design Impedance
The combination of a conjugate network always reduces the total impedance.
Achieving further flatness requres more reduction in the resulting impedance.
You can adjust the optimization process to achive 50-100% of the original
minimum curve impedance by adjusting this parameter.
Start Design
Click this button to start the processing. The impedance curve will be scanned
for resonance locations and a proper circuit structure created. The number of
resonance peaks found is given in the Res Peaks field. The circuit structure will
also then appear in the Conjugate Network group box.
A new curve will be drawn on the graph showing the total impedance with the
conjugate network. As the optimization continues, the total impedance will
become flatter. The amount of computation time required will depend on the
complexity of the circuit and curve data. When completed, you can click Ok
to place the network on the schematic.
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You can also Stop the optimization at

anytime and accept the design at that
stage of optimization.
The resulting impedance curve will gen-

erally have some amount of ripple. If you
wish a flatter curve, then you will need to
reduce the Design Impedance value.
Depending on your needs you may be

able to eliminate and/or combine some of
the components of the multistage conju-
gate network by manual circuit editing.
The need for impedance compensation depends on many factors. Crossover

networks can themselves be designed and optimized with or without impedance
compensation. Typical systems with modern power amplifiers and short cable runs
benefit little by impedance compensation.
However, if the amplifier output impedance is high or the cable impedance large,
the benefit can be substantial. A voltage divider is formed between the source and
the loudspeaker system. This divider transfer function will appear directly in the
acoustic response. If the loudspeaker impedance is flattened with impedance
compensation, the transfer function is merely uniform attenuation.
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9.5 Analog Active: Allpole Filters
The Synthesis | AnalogActive | Allpole Filters menu

cal solutions for the design of active Allpole filters.
The tool button shown above on the Analog Active tab

The Allpole class of filters have no zeros in their stopband, with respect to the
with any desired parameters can be easily designed. For example, Chebyshev filters
can be designed with any passband ripple, and Linear Phase filters can be designed
with any group delay ripple.
There are two forms of an analog active circuit; the generic transfer function form,
and the actual circuit realization form. Both forms are useful in different ways. This
dialog creates generic transfer function blocks which produce the required filter
functions. The Analog Active | Realization dialog can later be used to convert these
individual blocks into actual circuit realizations.
The synthesis dialog receives your parameter values, designs a combination of

transfer function blocks that perform the filter function, and then pastes it onto the
schematic for you. You can then move the selected group of components to
whatever position you like in your overall circuit. You will then need to integrate
the circuit fragment into the rest of your circuit as needed.
You can also inspect the properties of each transfer function block component to see
how the blocks are configured. The parameters of these blocks can be optimized
or manually modified without the need of working at the R/C level of individual
circuitry. When finalized these blocks can then be converted into realizations.
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The dialog also provides a picture of the circuit structure that

will be designed. The circuit structure will change based on
your parameter values and/or selections in the other dialog
fields and controls.
Order
filter. In the case of Lowpass, Highpass, and Allpass filters the
polynomial order is identical to the filter order. For Bandpass
and Bandreject filters, the polynomial order is twice the filter
order.
When a low order is chosen, insufficient to represent the family

selected, the filter function will default back to the Butterworth
3dB. For example, choosing a 1st order Chebyshev has no
meaning since the order has too few degrees of freedom to
produce this transfer function.
Family
The selections offered here cover a wide range of standard and
specialized Allpole characteristics. Each Family may have a
different number of editing field parameters enabled or dis-
abled depending on its requirements. A following section provides an
explanation of each family's characteristics.
Transformation
The complete set of five transformations Lowpass, Highpass, Allpass, Band-
pass, and Bandreject are provided. Depending on the selection, various other
editing fields will be enabled or disabled as required.
MCP Factor
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This group box provides optional control to define the transition level, corner or
edge, of the filter. The common transition level is 3dB which comes from the
Butterworth family of filters. However, other filter families produce different
transition levels.
For example, consider a Chebyshev 0.1dB ripple filter. By strict definition the
Frequency
If the transformation type is Lowpass, Highpass, or Allpass then this parameter
refers to the corner frequency. If the transformation type is Bandpass or Bandreject,
this parameter represents the center frequency.
Magnitude Ripple
If the family selected supports passband ripple, then this parameter will be enabled.
The Chebyshev and MCP Chebyshev families use this parameter. It is the zero to
peak value of the ripple in the passband.
Delay Ripple
If the family selected supports group delay ripple, then this parameter will be
enabled. The Linear Phase family uses this parameter. It is measured in terms of
peak to peak ripple in percent. This characteristic is only relevant for Lowpass or
Allpass transformations.
Total Q
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Allpole Family Descriptions

The following provides a brief description of the primary characteristics for
each filter family. It is worth mentioning that you can easily explore many of
their other characteristics more fully by creating some filters yourself, and
examining their response in any of the numerous graphs. There are many other
practical concerns such as Q requirement which can also be evaluated.
■ Butterworth 3dB
This is the well known maximally flat family of allpole filters, with transition
level of 3 dB. The normalized transfer function has all roots on a unit circle.
■ Butterworth 6dB
Note: The single 4th or- This is a modified form of the standard Butterworth family which produces
der case is also com- 6dB transition levels. There are special complementary relationships that exist
monly known as between the 3/6 families. For example, an odd order 3dB Lowpass/Highpass
Linkwitz-Riley, but the pair will sum to yield an Allpass filter, while an even order 6dB Lowpass/
general complete fam- Highpass pair will sum to yield an Allpass filter.
ily is given here.
■ Chebyshev
The Chebyshev, or equal magnitude ripple family, produces equal ripple
response in the passband. The normalized roots lie on an ellipse, rather than
a circle. The family produces one of the steepest cutoff rates, but can also
require high Q values which may be difficult to realize in many circuits.
.
■ Bessel
The Bessel family produces a maximally flat group delay. It also has a very
slow rate of cutoff. It is commonly used in applications where transient
response or linear time delay is important. Gaussian and Linear Phase are also
similar equivalents.
■ Legendre
The Legendre family provides ripple free monotonic response like that of the
Butterworth, but with much steeper cutoff rates like the Chebyshev. It can be
a good compromise between the Butterworth and Chebyshev with respect to
cutoff rate and producibility.
■ Linear Phase
The Linear Phase, or equal group delay ripple family, produces equal ripple in
the passband frequency region of the group delay response. This family has
steeper cutoff than the Bessel or Gaussian, with the linear phase behavior.
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■ Transitional 3dB, 6dB, 12dB

The Transitional family is essentially a splice of two other families: a Gaussian
response for the passband, and a Chebyshev response for the stopband. The
transition level at which the splicing occurs is represented by the three different sub
families. They produce more linear phase behavior in the passband while giving a
steeper rate of cutoff in the stopband.
■ Synchronous
The Synchronous family is a simple array of identical poles. They are very easy to
build, and have near optimum transient response. However they also have very
poor selectivity with slow cutoff rates.
■ Gaussian
The Gaussian family is very similar to the Bessel, but has slightly slower cutoff rate
and a more shallow group delay knee. It is commonly used in applications where
transient response or linear time delay is important. Bessel and Linear Phase are
also similar equivalents.
■ MCP Butterworth
The Multiple Critical Pole (MCP) Butterworth family produces a maximally flat
magnitude response using multiple identical poles. This repeated pole has the
maximum Q of any in the filter. MCP filters produce lower Q requirements than
■ MCP Chebyshev
The Multiple Critical Pole (MCP) Chebyshev family produces an equal ripple
magnitude response using multiple identical poles. This repeated pole has the
Many Chebyshev filters require a single very high Q pole, where the MCP uses
multiple lower Q poles at the same frequency to perform nearly the same function.
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9.6 Analog Active: Elliptic Filters
The Synthesis | AnalogActive | Elliptic Filters menu

cal solutions for the design of active Elliptic filters. The
tool button shown above on the Analog Active tab of the
Synthesis toolbar will also activate this item.

The elliptic class of filters have zeros in their stopband, with respect to the
with any desired parameters can be easily designed. For example, passband ripple
as well as stopband attenuation can be custom designed for any elliptic filter.

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The dialog also provides a picture of the circuit structure that

will be designed. The circuit structure will change based on
your parameter values and/or selections in the other dialog
fields and controls.
Order
filter. In the case of Lowpass & Highpass filters, the polyno-
mial order is identical to the filter order. For Bandpass &
Bandreject filters, the polynomial order is twice the filter order.
If an MCP family is chosen, and the order is insufficient to

represent the filter, the filter function will default back to the
standard maximally flat or equal ripple families.
Transformation
The standard set of four transformations Lowpass, Highpass,
Bandpass, and Bandreject are provided. Depending on the
selection, various other editing fields will be enabled or dis-
abled as required.
Family
The selections offered cover both the standard maximally flat and equal ripple
types, as well as MCP versions of both. If the maximally flat types are selected,
then the Passband Ripple dB parameter is disabled. A following section
provides an explanation of each family's characteristics.
MCP Factor
Frequency
If the transformation type is Lowpass or Highpass, this parameter refers to the
corner frequency. If the transformation type is Bandpass or Bandreject, then
this parameter represents the center frequency.
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This group box provides optional control to define the transition level, corner or
edge, of the filter. The common transition level is 3dB which comes from the
Butterworth family of filters. However, there are cases in elliptic filter design where
the edge of the passband ripple may be selected as the transition frequency.
For example, consider an equal ripple 0.1dB filter. By strict definition the passband
covers frequencies within the 0.1dB ripple specification. The natural transition
frequency of the filter occurs at the end of the 0.1dB passband. This would
correspond to the Natural selection in the group box.
Passband Ripple
If the family selected is equal ripple type, then this parameter will be enabled. It is
the zero to peak value of the ripple in the passband.
Stopband Attenuation
The top of the stopband lobes, between the zeros, is determined by this parameter.
The cutoff rate is the direct result of this parameter as well. As the stopband
attenuation increases, the cutoff rate decreases, and the transition region grows.
Depending on the order of the filter, and the value of this parameter, some filter
solutions will not be possible. If a small attenuation is entered on a high order filter,
the transition region becomes extremely small. This requires very high Q values
and ultra critical zero frequencies. The program will abort the solution if Q values
exceed 1000.
Total Q
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Even Order Filter Type

When designing even order elliptic filters, two different configurations are
possible. The number of zeros can be equal to the number of poles, or the
number of zeros will be two less than the poles. For example, a 6th order
Lowpass could be designed with 6 zeros (3 finite pairs), or 4 zeros (2 finite
pairs). These two filter solutions are shown in the graph below.
For the case of three zero pairs, the last zero occurs at a finite frequency of
3.6kHz. Therefore the attenuation at high frequencies is also finite. In the other
case of two zero pairs, the 3rd zero pair has been moved to infinity. The
attenuation at high frequencies is now also infinite.
Different types of circuit topologies will generally require one of the two types.
Active circuit topologies come in many forms, with both types commonly
being used. In many cases of cascaded Bandreject stages, it is more common
to see the full order Finite zero configuration. This allows all stages to have the
same topology.
Passive RLC ladders generally use the Infinite zero type. All of the even order
elliptic passive synthesis circuits in the program require this type.
Odd order elliptics always have one zero located at infinity.
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Elliptic Family Descriptions

The following provides a brief description of the primary characteristics for each
filter family. It is worth mentioning that you can easily explore many of their other
characteristics more fully by creating some filters yourself, and examining their
response in any of the numerous graphs. There are many other practical concerns
such as Q requirement which can also be evaluated.
■ Maximally Flat
The Maximally Flat elliptic, also known as inverse Chebyshev or Chebyshev II, has
no ripple in the passband. Since it has no passband ripple, the natural transition
frequency occurs at the edge of the stopband. In most cases you will probably wish
to use a custom transition of 3dB or similar. Easy to realize with low Q values.
■ Equal Ripple
The Equal Ripple elliptic, also known as Cauer, is the most commonly known
standard elliptic filter type. It has equal ripple in the passband, provides very steep
cutoff, with a very small transition region. However, there is a catch. It typically
requires very high Q in a single pole section, with very precise zero frequencies. It
is probably one of the most difficult filters to realize. The MCP Equal Ripple family
is a far more practical and very attractive alternative.
■ MCP Maximally Flat

The Multiple Critical Pole (MCP) Maximally Flat elliptic produces the same kind
of response as the standard maximally flat discussed above. However the MCP
version here uses multiple identical poles to reduce the Q values. This repeated pole
has the maximum Q of any in the filter. MCP filters produce lower Q requirements
than the original filters, and are highly realizable with excellent stability.
■ MCP Equal Ripple

The Multiple Critical Pole (MCP) Equal Ripple elliptic produces the same kind of
response as the standard equal ripple discussed above. However the MCP version
here uses multiple identical poles to reduce the Q values. This repeated pole has the
Note: MCP filters will have slightly wider transition regions than the original filter
versions, and may require a slight increase in filter order. However the producibil-
ity of the higher order MCP will typically be far superior to that of the lower order
standard filter.
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9.7 Analog Active: Equalizer Filters
The Synthesis | Analog Active | Equalizers menu item

opens a dialog which contains a collection of special-
ized equalizer functions. The tool button shown above
on the Analog Active tab of the Synthesis toolbar will
also activate this item.

Equalizer circuits perform special tasks such as correcting selected regions of

transducer response. Three different types of equalizers are provided: Lowpass
shelving (LEQ), Bandpass peaking (BEQ), and Highpass shelving (HEQ).

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Filter
There are three types of filters available: LEQ, BEQ, and HEQ.
The shape of these filters is denoted in their associated buttons.
The LEQ/HEQ filters have a corner frequency and a boost/cut
parameter value. The BEQ frequency is the center resonance
and there is also a Q value. Only a single transfer function block
is needed to produce these functions.
Q Factor
This parameter can be directly entered in terms of Q, or by using
the [...] button entered as a pair of edge frequencies, or by
octave width. This option will also automatically recalculate
the required center frequency and total Q.
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9.8 Analog Active: Realization
The Synthesis | Analog Active | Realization menu

item opens a dialog which contains a collection of
circuits to realize a wide range of generic transfer
function blocks. The tool button shown above on the
Analog Active tab of the Synthesis toolbar will also
activate this item.

There are two forms of an analog active circuit: the generic transfer function form,
dialog reads the configuration of a single transfer function block and designs an
equivalent R/C active circuit realization. This circuit fragment can then be used to
replace the original generic transfer function block.
It is assumed that you have one or more Transfer Function H block components
already in the schematic. By repeated use of this dialog all of the transfer function
blocks can be replaced with actual active circuit realizations. You may wish to save
a copy of your design in both forms.
It must be emphasised that active circuit design and realization is an entire subject
by itself. Many transfer functions can be realized by a wide variety of different
topologies. The circuit blocks designed by this dialog are limited to 1st and 2nd
order stages, and therefore the filters will be cascaded realizations. This dialog is
not intended to provide all possible realizations for any filter design. This is beyond
the scope of this program. However you are free to manually create any other circuit
topologies you need along with full optimization capability.
Note:
If you are generally working with active or digital filter design, FilterShop provides
far more extensive tools and synthesis capabilities for this class of circuitry.
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H Circuit Components
The large grid table displays the currently available H
transfer function block components in the cirucit. You
must choose one of these components to convert.
Parameters
Each circuit has an R1 component which will be used
as an impedance scaling factor for the design. There is
no way to predict what value may be best or desired in
advance for all possible circuits.
However you can repeat the process one or more times choosing the same H
block to explore different possibilities for R1.
The schematic below shows an example of an H component and its equivalent

circuit realization. After the circuit is placed on the schematic, you may wish
to change the tolerance of the component, assign a specific model to the opamp,
or add additional components.
Note:
This program does not support Noise
Analysis of the circuitry. If you are gen-
erally working with active or digital filter
design, FilterShop provides complete
detailed analysis of noise performance.
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9.9 Digital-IIR: Matched-Z Transform
The Synthesis | Digital-IIR | Match-Z Transform

menu item will open a dialog which provides a trans-
form method for conversion from analog to digital IIR
filters. The tool button shown above on the Digital-IIR
tab of the Synthesis toolbar will also activate this item.

All IIR transform methods require an analog prototype filter to exist in the circuit
as generic H transfer function blocks. This means that you actually start with an
analog active filter design, and then apply an IIR transform to produce the needed
tap coefficients.
The type of transformation to be used is very much dependent on the analog

prototype filter itself. Some transforms will work for all types of analog filters,
while others are only applicable to certain types of analog filters. In many cases
there will only be a slight difference between the results of the different transforms.
In other cases the difference will be success and outright failure.
In general, it is probably best to pick the transform that results in the closest match
to the original analog prototype. In other cases there may be special considerations
such as the requirement of integer coefficient values etc., that may dictate using one
method over another. Historically the Bilinear and Matched-Z transforms have
generally found the widest application. These transforms perform well on almost
any filter type.
There are two forms of an analog active circuit: the generic transfer function form,
dialog creates the Digital-IIR form from the generic transfer function block form.
You may wish to save a copy of the original H block form for later use.
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Realization Form
There are three different forms of IIR realizations which can be produced:
• Single full high order section
• Parallel combination of multiple 1st/2nd order sections
• Cascade combination of multiple 1st/2nd order sections
IIR filters are relatively sensitive to coefficient preci-

sion in high order configurations. For this reason
parallel or cascade multi-section configurations are
generally used. For some types of filters parallel is not
the best choice. This is generally true for analog
prototypes with identical poles. If the transform has a
problem with the filter and the selected form, an error
message will provide notification. If this happens,
choose another form.
Frequency Parameters
The sampling and normalizing frequencies directly
control the transform. The normalizing frequency is
used to match the gains between the analog and IIR
transfer functions, and is generally set to the corner or
center frequency of the analog prototype. However
other locations can also be used.
Zero Insertion Factor

This is an adjustable parameter that improves the transform results
of the Matched-Z method. Essentially it is another variable
warping control. In most cases a value of 10-15% has been shown
to be optimal. For some filters this parameter will have no effect.
By performing the transform a few times with changes to this
parameter, you will easily find the optimum value that suits your
particular filter.
You will need to select the H component(s) that define the specific
filter to be converted. For example, a 6th order Lowpass filter
would be comprised of three H blocks.
Click Ok and a new IIR component will be placed on the schematic as shown
here on the left. This component can then replace the original H blocks.
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9.10 Digital-IIR: Bilinear Transform
The Synthesis | Digital-IIR | Bilinear Transform


tap coefficients.

such as the requirement of integer coefficient values etc., that may dictate using one
any filter type.
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Realization Form

The warping and sampling frequencies directly con-
trol the transform. The warping frequency is generally
set to the corner or center frequency of the analog
prototype. However other locations can also be used.
Click Ok and a new IIR component will be placed on the schematic

as shown here on the left. This component can then replace the
original H block(s).
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9.11 Digital-IIR: Invariant Transform
The Synthesis | Digital-IIR | Invariant Transform


tap coefficients.

such as the requirement of integer coefficient values etc. that may dictate using one
any filter type.
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Realization Form

The sampling frequency directly controls the trans-
form.
Method
Three different types of invariant transform methods provided. Each has
slightly different characteristics. Invariant methods are best used for Lowpass
or Bandpass type filters.

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9.12 Digital-IIR: Convolution Transform
The Synthesis | Digital-IIR | Convolution Transform


tap coefficients.

such as the requirement of integer coefficient values etc. that may dictate using one
any filter type.
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Realization Form

The sampling frequency directly controls the trans-
form.
You will need to select the H component(s) that define the specific filter to be
converted. For example, a 6th order Lowpass filter would be comprised of
three H blocks.

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9.13 Digital-FIR: Window Method Filters
The Synthesis | Digital-FIR | Window Method Fil-

ters menu item will open a dialog which uses the
windowing method to design FIR filters. The tool
button shown above on the Digital-FIR tab of the
Synthesis toolbar can also be used to activate this item.

The window method is one of the oldest techniques for designing FIR filters. Due
to the power and flexibility of the equal ripple optimal methodology, windowing is
often seen as a much more restricted older method for FIR design.
However window filters have a particular characteristic for crossover design which
is very appealing. The response at the corner frequency is always 1/2 amplitude (
-6dB). Furthermore the filter response of the passband and stopband are mirror
images of each other. The Lowpass and Highpass duals are complimentary. This
is a very desireable shape for crossover work, since the sum of opposite sections will
always yield perfect unity.
Window filters come in two different types; adjustable windows and fixed win-
dows. This refers to whether or not the window has adjustable stopband attenuation.
Most windows are fixed. The adjustable windows are the Kaiser, Gaussian, Dolph-
Chebyshev, VanDerMaas, and Taylor Series.
There are a wide variety of different window functions cataloged in the dialog.
Some are common, and others are less common. If you are interested in the details
behind each of these specific window types, please consult one of the books in the
Reference Sources chapter. Most of their characteristics can be observed simply by
creating a filter with the particular window of interest.
Note: If you are generally working with digital filter design, FilterShop provides
far more extensive tools and synthesis capabilities for these types of filters.
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Window Function
This is the catalog of windowing functions. Most are fixed windows with no
adjustable stopband attenuation. If the window is adjustable, the Stopband
Atten field will be enabled.
Transformation
This radio button group selects
the type of filter transforma-
tion: Lowpass, Highpass,
Bandpass, or Bandreject.
Depending on the transforma-

tion different numeric fields
will be enabled in the frequency
parameters group box.
The most important parameter is, of course, the Sampling frequency. This
parameter should always be set to the correct value before attempting to edit
the other frequency parameters. The next field down will either have the label
Corner or Center frequency depending on the selected transformation.
Likewise, the next field below will either be labeled Passband or Stopband
frequency width, again depending on the selected transformation. This field
will only be enabled for Bandpass and Bandreject filters. The last field is the
Transition frequency width. Changing the transition frequency will cause a
recalculation of the Order of the filter. Conversely, changing the order of the
filter will cause a recalculation of the transition frequency width.
Amplitude Parameters
Since the Stopband Attenuation is only adjustable for a few window functions,
in most cases this field will be disabled. When it is disabled, it will display the
typical attenuation value for the selected window function. When the selected
window function is adjustable, the parameter can be edited. The Order can
always be changed to any value desired for all window functions.
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9.14 Digital-FIR: Frequency Sampling Filters
The Synthesis | Digital-FIR | Frequency Sampling

Filters menu item will open a dialog which designs FIR
filters that approximate an arbitrary response curve.
The tool button shown above on the Digital-FIR tab of
the Synthesis toolbar can also be used to activate this
item.

The methodology employed here uses a discrete sampling of points from the
objective curve to produce the FIR filter. This is really a polynomial interpolation
method, using the Inverse DFT. The Digital-FIR Optimal Approximation is another
similar method. Each may produce better or worse results than the other depending
on the particular shape of the arbitrary response curve.
In order to perform this operation you must have an objective response curve in
either the System Curve or Guide Curve libraries. The ability of the approximation
to follow details in the arbitrary response curve depends on the order chosen for the
FIR filter, and the shape of the objective response curve.
Phase resolution is very important to prevent aliasing errors which can cause invalid
amplitude data. An adequate quantity of curve data points must be used for fast
rotating phase functions. This is especially true for Log frequency axis data.
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Parameters
This group box contains the selections for the objec-
tive arbitrary response curve, the Order of the desired
FIR approximation, and the Sampling frequency.
The objective curve can be either in the System or
Guide curve arrays. In some cases you may have no
idea what order is required, and will simply need to
try different values. Increasing the order should
improve the approximation.
Symmetry
Normally positive symmetry is always used for general purposes. Negative
symmetry produces special filters such a Hilbert Transformers and
Differentiators. The combination of even/odd order and positive/negative
symmetry yields the four standard types of linear phase FIR filters.
Zero Phase Sample

This option provides the ability to choose two different sets of data points along
the objective curve for approximation. The fundamental difference is whether
or not a point at Zero frequency is included in the set, although all of the other
data points will also be different. In most cases you will simply need to try
either option and see which produces the best result for your purpose.
Filter Type
There are three types of FIR filters which can be produced. Min/Max phase
filters can generally approximate the curve using half the linear phase order.
Note:
Not all combinations of even/odd order and positive/negative symmetry can
produce all response shapes. If you are not familiar with the four types of FIR
filters, use even order and positive symmetry.
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Original Response
Approximation
Examples
The graph above shows an arbitrary response curve approximated with an order of
N=30. It is clear that the order of the filter is not adequate to match this objective
response curve using the Frequency Sampling approach.
The graph below shows the same objective response curve, this time a filter order
of N=100 is used to approximate the curve. The match is much improved.
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The graph above shows the relative match between the curves. It was produced
by dividing the approximation target response by the arbitrary response curve.
The approximation is clearly not equal ripple, as would generally be the result
from the Digital-FIR Optimal Approximation method. Here the target matches
the objective within about 0.3dB across most of the frequency range, with a
slight peak at the Fs/2 frequency limit.
Note:
Both the Optimal Approximation and Frequency Sampling methods will have
difficulty approximating any response in stopband regions. They are most
effectively used on passband or transition regions, anywhere the amplitude is
largely non zero. They are very effective for equalization.
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9.15 Digital-FIR: Optimal Approximation Filters
The Synthesis | Digital-FIR | Optimal Approxima-

tion Filters menu item will open a dialog which de-
signs optimal FIR filters that approximate an arbitrary
response curve. The tool button shown above on the
Digital-FIR tab of the Synthesis toolbar can also be

The methodology employed here uses optimal FIR processing to create a single
band type filter. The single band is treated as a passband. For this reason, the
method is most useful when the arbitrary response curve does not contain regions
of stopband style high attenuation. This method can be very effective for other
transfer function compensation or correction to produce flat response.
In order to perform this operation you must have an objective response curve in
either the System Curve or Guide Curve libraries. The arbitrary response curve
should be relatively smooth, without sharp transitions or discontinuities relative to
the order of the filter. This can raise havoc with equal ripple algorithms.
The data used by this method is solely magnitude. There is no importance to phase
or polarity. Both Linear and Log data can be used, but the filter resolution is of
course always linear and dependent on the order.
Another alternative for FIR approximation is the Frequency Sampling method.

Each method may perform differently for different arbitrary response curves. If you
find that one method does not suit the task, try the other.
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Note:
Both the Optimal Approximation and Frequency Sampling methods will have
difficulty approximating any response in stopband regions. They are most
effectively used on passband or transition regions, anywhere the amplitude is
largely non zero.
Filter Type
This group of radio buttons can be used to select the
type of FIR filter: Linear Phase, Minimum Phase, or
Maximum Phase. For details regarding the meaning
of each of these types, and some examples, see the
following section. Min/Max phase filters can gener-
ally approximate the curve using half the linear phase
order.
Parameters
This group box contains the selections for the objective arbitrary response
curve, the Order of the desired FIR approximation, and the Sampling
frequency. The objective curve can be either in the System or Guide curve
libraries. In some cases you may have no idea what order is required, and will
simply need to try different values. Increasing the order should generally
decrease the ripple.
Examples
The following pages show some comparisons between Optimal Approxima-
tion and the Frequency Sampling method.
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The graph above shows the arbitrary objective response in Blue, and a 30 order FIR
Optimal Approximation in Black. You can see the equal ripples of the Black
approximation curve around the objective.
The graph below shows the same objective curve, but this time approximated using
the Frequency Sampling method with a 30 order FIR filter. This method clearly
does not perform as well on this objective response for the same order filter.
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The graph below shows the same objective, but this time approximated using
a 100 order FIR with the Optimal Approximation method. The curves match
to within less than 0.1dB everywhere. Optimal Approximation is probably the
most efficient method for this type of response curve.
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Filter Type
The selection of filter type can be one of three different selections: Linear Phase,
Minimum Phase, or Maximum Phase. The Amplitude graph below shows unipolar
response in the Red and Blue curves which has stopband ripples that remain in the
positive region above zero. The green curve is the common bipolar response. The
Group Delay graph displays the response for maximum phase (Blue) , linear phase
(Grn), and minimum phase (Red) filter types.
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Chapter 10 Processing Menu
Processing Menu 10
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Processing Menu Chapter 10
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10.1 Unary Math Operations
The Processing | Unary Math Operations menu item will

open a dialog which performs mathematical operations on
a single curve. The tool button as shown above on the
Processing toolbar can also be used to activate this item.
Unary math operations involve only a single curve hence

the term unary. The result of the operation is returned in the
same curve entry. In some cases you may wish to copy the
curve into another entry, just in case you wish to reuse the
original data later.
Several different types of operations are provided: Magnitude Offset, Phase Offset,
Delay Offset, Exponentiation, Smooth Curve, Frequency Translation, Mul (jω),
Div (jω), Real (cos), Imag (sin).
The dialog use is straightforward. Simply select the library curve to process, the
operation, and enter the desired numeric value for the operation. Only the numeric
field for the selected operation will be enabled, with all other fields disabled.
The following examples demonstrate

some various applications of each
operation.
The Guide Curve list box provides

selection of the library curve for the
operation. This special list box shows
the type of data contained in each
curve. Any curve which is currently
being displayed on the graph is de-
noted by Red vertical lines between
the zones of each curve entry.
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■ Magnitude Offset
This operation simply adds the numeric dB value to the magnitude curve data.
It is the equivalent of scaling the magnitude response. You can also click the
units button and enter a linear ratio if desired.
This operation is commonly used to move the magnitude data to a specific

value, perhaps at a specific frequency. In the graph below, the Brown curve
was dropped -3.0dB so that the average level on the curve is 90dB. The result
is shown in the Red curve.
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■ Phase Offset
This operation simply adds the numeric Deg value to the phase curve data. It is the
equivalent of shifting the phase response. If the Zero check box is enabled, the curve
will be cleared to zero before the offset is applied.
This operation is commonly used to change the polarity of a curve, by entering a

value of +180 or -180 degrees. However, any other value can also be used for
unusual effects. For example, a quadrature response can be generated by shifting
the phase by 90 degrees.
In the graph below, the Blue curve was shifted by +180Deg to reverse the polarity
of the response. The result is shown in the Red curve.
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■ Delay Offset
This operation modifies the phase function of a curve to increase or decrease
the equivalent delay specified in the edit field. You can also click the units
button and enter a value in different units, including length based on the speed
of sound in air if desired. It is the equivalent of shifting the phase response by
a finite delay offset.
This operation is commonly used to move a response forward or backward in

time. However, many other purposes can be found for unusual effects. For
example, to move an SPL response backward by 1 Inch, offset the response
by 73uSec.
In the graphs below, the Blue curve was shifted by +500uSec, with the resulting
curve shown in Red. The Group Delay Transform was run on each curve, and
is shown in the second graph. The additional 500uS of delay is clearly visible.
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■ Exponentiation
This operation raises the curve to the exponent power specified by the numeric Pwr
value. This operation effects both magnitude and phase.
The operation is commonly used to square the response of a curve (Pwr=2.0), or

perhaps take the square root of a curve (Pwr=0.5). By using an exponent power of
-1.0 the curve can be inverted.
In the graph below, the Yellow curve is the square root (0.5) result of the original
Blue curve, the Red curve is the squared (2.0) result, and the Green curve is the
inverted (-1.0) result.
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■ Smooth Curve
This operation performs an averaging of the data to smooth the response by the
bandwidth specified in octaves. Each frequency data point becomes the
average of a group of points above and below, each spanning the specified
octave width of that curve's frequency range. This operation effects both
magnitude and phase.
The operation is generally used when you wish to remove excess noise or detail
from a response curve. In the graph below, the Black curve was smoothed by
a value of 0.5 Octaves as shown in the Red curve.
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■ Frequency Translation
The frequency translation operation shifts the frequency locations of the curve data
by a numeric Ratio value. This operation effects both magnitude and phase.
The operation is rarely used, but sometimes is necessary when producing digital
filters, and can also be used to correct imported measured data. Many other
applications are also possible.
In the graph below, the Black curve was frequency translated by a ratio of 0.50 as
shown in the Red curve.
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■ Multiply by jw
This operation multiplies the curve data by the complex radian frequency at
each point. This operation effects both the magnitude and phase. The phase
curve will also have +90 degrees added everywhere.
It is useful for converting inductance curves to impedance, or impedance

curves to inverse capacitance, and other applications.
In the graph below, the Red curve is the result of the operation applied to the
Blue curve.
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■ Divide by jw
This operation divides the curve data by the complex radian frequency at each point.
This operation effects both the magnitude and phase. The phase curve will also have
-90 degrees added everywhere.
It is useful for converting impedance curves to inductance, or inverse capacitance

curves to impedance, and other applications.
In the graph below, the Red curve is the result of the operation applied to the Blue
curve.
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■ Real (cos)
This operation returns the real portion of the complex curve data by applying
the cos() function to the phase and magnitude data. The resulting phase curve
will be either 0 or 180 degrees. This operation effects both magnitude and
phase. This operation can be useful in separating the resistance from complex
impedance, or other similar applications. In the first graph below, the Red
curve is the result of the operation applied to the Blue curve.
■ Imag (sin)
This operation returns the imaginary portion of the complex curve data by
applying the sin() function to the phase and magnitude data. This operation
effects both the magnitude and phase. The phase curve will be either +90 or
-90 degrees.
This operation can be useful in separating
the reactance from complex impedance, or
other similar applications.
In the graph below, the Red curve is the

result of the operation applied to the Blue
curve.
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10.2 Binary Math Operations
The Processing | Binary Math Operations menu item

will open a dialog which performs basic arithmetic opera-
tions on a pair of curves. The tool button as shown above
on the Processing toolbar can also be used to activate this
item.
Binary math operations involve two curves hence the term binary. The two operand
curves are selected from the Guide Curve library, and the result is placed into
another Guide Curve entry. The result curve will be given a default name which
denotes the operation performed. The fundamental operations of mul, div, add, and
sub can be performed on the two operand curves.
The frequency ranges in the two operand curves can be anything, but the result
curve is always created using the operand A curve frequency range. The program
performs automatic frequency translation for the operand curves.
The dialog use is straightforward. Simply select the math op, the two operand
curves, and the location for the result curve. The Mul and Div operations attempt
to keep track of the units when possible. For example, when dividing two curves
with identical units, the result curve will be given the Ratio type. If you are
multiplying impedance and current, the result curve will be voltage. If you are
dividing voltage by current, the result curve will be impedance, etc.
If you wish to change the type of

units on the curve, either operand,
or result curves, you can do so in
the curve library dialog. See the
chapter Graph | Curve Library.
Auto increment buttons are also

provided for repeated operations
on a block of similar curves.
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An example of using the Div operation is shown below. This operation is

frequently used to obtain the ratio between two curves. In this case we have two
voltage curves. Dividing the Bandpass filter (Blue) by the Highpass/Lowpass
(Black) curve, produces the ratio curve shown in the lower graph.
The result curve is always enabled for display after the operation is performed.
However often it will have different units then the operand curves and cannot
be shown on the graph simultaneously with the operand curves.
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7.3 Minimum Phase Transform
The Processing | Minimum Phase Transform menu item

will open a dialog which provides a method of generating
phase response data from magnitude only data. The tool
button as shown above on the Processing toolbar can also
The minimum phase transform is very valuable when you do not already have a
phase function for your magnitude data. In some cases this phase is more usable
than the measured phase produced by some analyzers and software due to errors or
other processing issues.
In other cases, magnitude only data may be imported into the program. This routine
can be used to construct a phase curve to provide full complex valued data. Once
the phase data is constructed, group delay and time domain data can also be
produced using other transforms on this menu.
Operating the transform is relatively simple. The most important factor is the
selection of the frequency range. In order for a minimum phase transform to
produce accurate results, all of the magnitude changes must be contained within the
system frequency range. The magnitude curve data should reach asymptotic
response at the low and high frequency limits. This means that the derivative ( or
slope) of the magnitude curve reaches a fixed constant at the frequency extremes.
Once the transform knows the as-

ymptotic slopes at the low and high
frequency limits, it can properly inte-
grate the entire magnitude response
from 0Hz to Infinity. Either Log or
Linear frequency axis can be used,
but Log is the most common.
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Parameters
The Guide Curve containing the magnitude data should be selected first. The
Guide Curve list box provides selection of the library curve for the operation.
This special list box shows the type of data contained in each curve. Any curve
which is currently being displayed on the graph is denoted by Red vertical lines
between the zones of each curve entry.
After this is selected the low/high slopes will be automatically calculated and
presented in the two editing fields with units of dB/Octave. The graph below
illustrates the asymptotic slope at both the low and high frequency limits. For
impedance curves, the Automatic Tail Correction and Mirroring provides
additional special advanced processing.
The calculated slope values may require adjustment. If the magnitude curve
contains ripple or noise, the slope near the frequency limits may not be stable.
In these cases you should adjust the values to represent the true asymptotic
slopes as the frequency goes to 0Hz and Infinity.
The asymptotic slope of a 1st order function is of course 6.02dB/Octave. If you

know the actual Lowpass and Highpass orders of the response represented in
the magnitude data, you can enter the appropriate values as multiples of 6.02.
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For example, in the previous graph the magnitude data was relatively rough, and
it was known that both the Lowpass and Highpass slopes should be 4th order. The
slopes were corrected to +24.08 and -24.08 dB/Octave. The resulting phase and
group delay are shown below.
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To demonstrate the accuracy of this minimum phase transform, an analytic

filter function was processed and compared to the known data. The magnitude,
phase, and group delay graphs below show the original analytic response in
Black, and the minimum phase transformed response in Blue. The generated
phase and group delay closely match those of the true analytic response.
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10.4 Group Delay Transform
The Processing | Group Delay Transform menu item will

open a dialog which provides a method of generating group
delay response data from phase response data. The tool
button as shown above on the Processing toolbar can also
The group delay transform is commonly used when you

wish to view a phase response in terms of its group delay
characteristics.
The phase response curve is specified as Right vertical data in the Source Curve
entry. The transform will write the resulting group delay response to the Left
vertical data of the Result Curve entry.
The curve list boxes provide selection of the library Guide Curve for the operations.
These special list boxes show the type of data contained in each curve. Any curve
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The first graph below shows the magnitude and phase response of a Highpass
filter. After the Group Delay Transform is applied to this data, the lower graph
of group delay is produced. The ripples in the response are due to the
measurement variations typical of empirical data. The group delay transform
is very much like a derivative, and accentuates any variations or instabilities in
the phase response.
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10.5 Delay Phase Transform
The Processing | Delay Phase Transform menu item will

open a dialog which provides a method of generating phase
response data from group delay data. The tool button as
shown above on the Processing toolbar can also be used to
activate this item.
The delay phase transform can be very useful when you do

not already have a matching phase function for your
magnitude data and wish to generate the phase based on known or a desired group
delay response. This situation often occurs when you are creating an arbitrary group
delay curve using the Curve Editor and wish to construct a corresponding phase
function.
This transform can also be used to create transfer functions with prescribed
magnitude response, but different group delay characteristics. For example, a
normal analog minimum phase type filter response could be generated in the target
system, and then a custom group delay curve created using the Curve Editor. The
new group delay response could be a simple flat line for linear phase. This transform
can then produce a new phase curve representing that linear phase response.
The group delay curve is specified as Left vertical data in the Source Curve entry.
The transform will write the resulting phase response to the Right vertical data of
the Result Curve entry. Generally you will have the magnitude that you wish to keep
already in the Result Curve entry.
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The curve list boxes provide selection of the Guide Curve library entry for the
operations. These special list boxes show the type of data contained in each
curve. Any curve which is currently being displayed on the graph is denoted
by Red vertical lines between the zones of each curve entry.
The graphs below demonstrate a linear phase example. A group delay curve
was created using the Curve Editor, which is merely a flat line of 40mS. After
the transform is run, the resulting phase is shown below.
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In this example the group delay was modified to include a tilt towards zero at the
higher frequencies. The resulting phase is shown below.
Using this transform, proper phase functions can be generated for almost any type
of desired group delay response.
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10.6 Fast Fourier Transform
The Processing | Fast Fourier Transform menu item will

open a dialog which performs an FFT on a time domain
library curve. The tool button as shown above on the
An FFT transforms a time domain response into a fre-

quency domain response. If the frequency domain result is
to represent a transfer function, then the time domain
response must be an Impulse type response.
The time domain entry to be transformed is specified in the Source Curve list box.
The resulting frequency domain response entry is selected in the Result Curve list
box.
When you choose the source curve, the number of data points will be shown above
the list box. The number of data points produced in the frequency domain result
curve will be 1/2 this value. The frequency axis will be linear.
The curve list boxes provide selection of the library curve for the operations. These
special list boxes show the type of data contained in each curve. Any curve which
is currently being displayed on the graph is denoted by Red vertical lines between
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The first graph below shows a typical Impulse response curve. The graph at
the bottom shows the FFT transformed response in the frequency domain. If
you compare this to the other frequency domain curve in the following Inv FFT
section, you will note that much of the low frequency resolution has been lost.
This is due to the linear frequency resolution and 4096 sample size.
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10.7 Inverse Fast Fourier Transform
The Processing | Inverse Fast Fourier Transform menu

item will open a dialog which performs an Inverse FFT on
a frequency domain library curve. The tool button as
shown above on the Processing toolbar can also be used to
activate this item.
An Inverse FFT transforms a frequency domain response

into a time domain Impulse response. This dialog also
provides convolution to automatically yield a Step re-
sponse as well.
Prior to performing the Inverse FFT, the frequency domain source curve must be
converted into a specific number of linear frequency data points. This process is
fully automatic, and the user only needs to specify how many linear frequency data
points are to be used. The list box at the top provides a list of available choices.
The frequency domain entry to be transformed is specified in the Source Curve list
box. The resulting time domain Impulse and Step response entries are selected in
the following two list boxes.
The curve list boxes provide selec-

tion of the library curve for the opera-
tions. These special list boxes show
the type of data contained in each
being displayed on the graph is de-
noted by Red vertical lines between
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The three graphs below show a sample frequency domain curve transformed
into the equivalent time domain Impulse and Step response curves. The
number of frequency data points used here was 2048.
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10.8 Tail Correction
The Processing | Tail Correction menu item will open a

dialog that provides a means to fix the low and high ends
of a curve so that the asymptotic slopes are precisely
defined. The tool button as shown above on the Processing
toolbar can also be used to activate this item.
Many of the process operations require data at frequencies beyond the range over
which the curve was originally measured. The Minimum Phase Transform is
particularly sensitive, and requires correct magnitude slopes at both the low and
high ends of the frequency range.
These routines extrapolate the response based on the slopes found at the ends of the
measured frequency range. Since practical measurements often have large varia-
tions in the response at the frequency extremes, Tail Correction provides the means
to reliably fix the tails of the response with a known asymptotic slope.
The library curve list box provides selection of the library curve for the operation.
This special list box shows the type of data contained in each curve. Any curve
When the curve entry is selected, the four numeric fields are updated. The initial
frequency values will be set at 50% above and below the lowest and highest points
in the curve.
The magnitude slopes of the curve are
also measured and their values pre-
sented in the other two fields. Once
you have selected your curve entry,
and the initial values have been calcu-
lated, you can then edit these values
as desired.
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Since the curve's data will be altered, you may wish to make a copy of the curve
before performing this operation. This will prevent loosing your original data
curve should you wish to run the operation again on the original data.
An example of Tail Correction is shown below. The two frequency thresholds

used here were 15Hz and 7kHz. The slopes were set to +24dB/Oct and -24dB/
Oct respectively.
The upper graph shows

the original data in Blue
and the corrected data
in Red. The lower graph
shows the phase as pro-
duced from the Mini-
mum Phase Transform
for both the original and
corrected curves.
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10.9 Curve Averaging
The Processing | Curve Averaging menu item will open

a dialog which performs averaging of multiple curves into
a single curve. The tool button as shown above on the
It is sometimes desirable to average multiple measure-

ments to come up with a single representative curve. Curve
Averaging can mathematically average up to 99 curves and
store the data in a separate library entry, or on top of one of
the data curves being averaged.
A common use for this utility is generating a true power response curve from
multiple curves taken at different off axis angles around a transducer. Other uses
include averaging of multiple curves to determine the mean, and then worst case
max/min variations from that average response.
Four different types of mathematical averaging are provided. The Guide Curve
Parameters group box shows a data grid with the 99 library curves. Each curve
entry can be enabled or disabled for averaging. A weighting value can also be
specified for each curve. Below the grid
is another selection box for the resulting
average curve. Two additional buttons
are provided for quickly enabling/dis-
abling all curves.
The Result Curve list box provides se-

lection of the library curve for the result
of the operation. This special list box
shows the type of data contained in each
being displayed on the graph is denoted
by Red vertical lines between the zones
of each curve entry.
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Note: The result curve entry can be the same as one of the data curves used to
construct the average. However, the original data will be overwritten when the
operation is completed.
The following is an exact description of each of the averaging methods:
■ Scalar AVE
This is a simple weighted arithmetic average of the magnitude data for each of
the curves. The phase is ignored in the averaging.
WT = Σ Wi SAVE = (1/WT) • Σ Wi • | vi|
■ Scalar RMS
This is an RMS weighted average of the magnitude data for each curve. The
phase is ignored in the averaging.
WT = Σ Wi SRMS = {(1/WT) • Σ Wi • | v i2 |}½
■ Vector AVE
This is a weighted average performed using vector mathematics in the complex
plane with the magnitude and phase at each data point. The phase is used in this
method.
WT = Σ Wi VAVE = (1/WT) • Σ Wi • v i
■ Vector RMS
This is an RMS average performed using vector mathematics in the complex
plane with the magnitude and phase at each data point. The phase is used in this
method.
WT = Σ Wi VRMS = {(1/WT) • Σ Wi • v i 2 }½
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The top graph shows an example of 12 SPL curves, representing the response of a
speaker at different angles of rotation. The bottom graph shows the resulting Scalar
RMS average of these curves.
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10.10 Polar Convertor
The Processing | Polar Convertor menu item will open a

dialog for compiling a group of frequency curves into polar
curves. The tool button as shown above on the Processing
This dialog is very useful for manually constructing polar

plot data, from a group of normal frequency response
measurements. Each frequency response curve is taken at
a different location radially around the transducer. Using
this dialog, the representative locations of each curve are entered, and then an
output list of curves is established with specific frequencies for which the polar
curves will be generated.
Since there are a maximum of 99 curve entries in a library, the total number of input
and output curves must fit within a single library. Typically there are many more
input curves than output curves. The process can be repeated while changing the
output polar frequencies, saving multiple libraries, thereby producing a larger
number of output polar curves.
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Only the Function and Deg or Freq column fields

require editing. The remaining columns reflect
the data of the curve library entries.
The Function field has three possible selections:

Not Used, Input Deg, and Output Freq.
The Not Used selection simply indicates that the

curve is not involved in the conversion.
The Input Deg selection is chosen for input curves

containing the normal frequency response curves
as measured at different radial locations around
the transducer. The position of each curve is then
specified in Degrees. The Deg values can be
entered as either ±180, or 0 to 360, but will be
automatically converted to the ±180 range.
The Output Freq selection is chosen for output

curves which will contain a polar response at a
specified frequency.
All Off
This button will reset the Function column to Not
Used, and set the Deg or Freq values to zero.
Standard 360
This button will produce a standard setup for 36
input curves covering 10 Deg radial resolution,
across the ±180 range. There will be 14 output
curves in 1/2 octave intervals from 40kHz and
lower.
Standard 180
This button will produce a standard setup for 36
input curves covering 5 Deg radial resolution,
Note: When you select Input Deg in the function across the ±90 range. There will be 14 output
column, the curve name will be scanned for special curves in 1/2 octave intervals from 40kHz and
text and if found the Deg Value will be set automati- lower.
cally. Naming the curves (eg. +45H or -15V) will
enable faster setup for their locations here.
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The standard setup buttons provide an example of how to setup the polar conversion
process and its parameters. However in many cases you will wish to modify or
change these values for your own specific purposes.
There is no particular order required for either the input or output curves. They can
be mixed or out of sequence in any order. The conversion routine reads the Function
and the Deg or Freq values to determine what is contained in each curve, and applies
automatic sorting to properly construct the polar response output curves.
■ Example of Polar Conversion

To illustrate how this utility can be used, an example is probably the best way to
demonstrate the process. The directivity characteristics of a 1/2 Inch microphone
are to be measured.
A series of ground plane

measurements were
made by rotating the mic
by 7.5 Degree incre-
ments through the entire
360 Degree circle. This
resulted in 48 frequency
response curves mea-
sured across 10Hz-
40kHz.
The curves were then

normalized to the on-axis
0 Degree curve. This
was accomplished by di-
viding all curves by the 0
Degree curve. In this way the response at each location around the transducer is
relative to the on-axis response.
It was desired to produce 5 polar curves for the higher frequencies of 2kHz, 5kHz,
10kHz, 20kHz, and 40kHz. Since there are 48 input curves, and 5 output curves are
required, it was decided that a couple of the input curves would be deleted. Since
the response near the 0 Degree on-axis location is relatively smooth, the deleted
curves were chosen to alternatively skip every other curve near 0 Deg. Thus the
resolution near the ±30 Degree on-axis region was 15 Degrees.
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The dialog view shown here

illustrates the setup for the in-
put curves, and the lower dia-
log below shows the output
curves. The order for some of
the input curves was mixed.
The Deg values for each input
curve were entered to match
their locations.
The frequency values for the

output curves were entered as
well for the last five entries.
When the Ok button is clicked,

the polar curves are generated.
This routine also enables the
polar curves for display auto-
matically when the processing
is completed, and disables the
input curves.
The graph view of the polar

curves is now shown on the
following page.
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The beam width, Q, and Directivity Index are also calculated on the graph for each
polar curve frequency The curves show the expected directivity increase with
frequency. At 40kHz the response is highly directional. At 2kHz and below the
response is virtually omni directional.
If the Polar Convertor dialog is now reopened, the output curve names appear as
shown on the following page. A view of the Curve Library is also shown.
The routine automatically provides names for the polar curves, and also places a
date/time stamp into the last Info field of the curves.
Since polar curves made by this process are of low resolution (a small number of
points), it can be helpful to use the Data Realign operation to increase the point
density. This process will produce much better interpolation than the simple
straight line segments which would normally be drawn by the graphing system. The
polar plot on the next page shows cubic interpolation for 400 points.
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10.11 Data Transfer
The Processing | Data Transfer menu item will open a

dialog that allows you to move individual vertical data
arrays from one curve to another. The tool button as shown
above on the Processing toolbar can also be used to activate
this item.
A library curve entry actually contains a pair of data arrays,

one for the Left vertical parameter and one for the Right
vertical parameter. In most cases the Left data represents the magnitude of a given
response, and the Right represents the phase of that response.
However it is possible to construct curves which contain a different pair of vertical

data arrays using this dialog. Probably the most common example of this is an SPL-
Z type curve entry. In this case the Left vertical data contains the SPL magnitude,
and the Right vertical data contains the Impedance magnitude.
This Data Transfer operation moves a single vertical data array from one curve
entry to another. The vertical data can be from either the Left or Right arrays, and
can be transferred to either the Left or Right arrays of the Result curve entry.
The curve list boxes provide selection of the library curve for the operations. These
special list boxes show the type of data contained in each curve. Any curve which
The example on the following page shows a normal SPL

curve graph, an impedance curve graph, and the resulting
SPL-Z combination curve graph.
If you are going to be working with double magnitude

curves, such as the type just described, you will probably
need to enable the Auto/Up/Dn Right Vertical Data item in
the File | Preferences dialog. In order for the right data to
respond to scaling commands, this feature must be enabled.
Otherwise only the Left scale will be controlled.
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10.12 Data Splice
The Processing | Data Splice menu item will open a dialog

that allows you to combine data from two curves into
another curve. The tool button as shown above on the
A splicing frequency is chosen by the user. Data below this

frequency will come from one curve, and data above the
frequency will come from the second curve. This can be
very useful for combining two curves taken under different
conditions into a final result curve.
One common example is combining near field measurements to cover the low
frequency region, with gated measurements to cover the mid and high frequency
regions. This operation allows a finished combined result to be produced using data
from both.
Both low/high data curves must be of the same type of units, these cannot be mixed.
The units of the result curve will be the same as those of the low/high data curves.
The frequency points will be the same as the low curve below the splice frequency,
and the same as those of the high curve above the splice frequency.
If the two low/high curves were not of the same frequency

range, then the result curve points will not have consistent
frequency density. This can be corrected by using the Data
Realign processing operation. This can be done directly in
the curve library or from the Processing menu.
The curve list boxes provide selection of the library curves

for the operations. These special list boxes show the type of
data contained in each curve. Any curve which is currently
being displayed on the graph is denoted by Red vertical lines
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The splice frequency should be chosen at a point where the curves have similar,
if not identical, values. The cursor system can be very helpful in selecting the
splice frequency.
In the top graph below, two SPL curves are shown. The curves cross in the
frequency region of 1500Hz. A splice frequency of 1550Hz was selected. The
resulting curve is shown in the bottom graph.
The minimum phase

response for this curve
could now be gener-
ated using the Mini-
mum Phase Transform.
Tail Correction might
also be useful prior to
generating the phase.
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10.13 Data Realign
The Processing | Data Realign menu item will open a

dialog which performs re-indexing of the horizontal data
points of a curve entry. The tool button as shown above on
the Processing toolbar can also be used to activate this
item.
In most cases, the horizontal data is frequency, but it could

also be time or angular position information. This dialog
reprocesses and interpolates the vertical data based on a
new linear or log array of horizontal values.
A common use for this operation is to reduce the resolution of a curve. For example,
a curve containing 500 data points can be realigned into a 100 point curve. This
could be within the same frequency range, or a different frequency range.
This routine can also be used to simulate higher resolution using quadratic or cubic
interpolation and increasing the number of data points. Both of these methods will
produce curvature rather than straight line segments.
However, be aware that it is impossible to create data that was not originally present.
For example, if the original frequency range was 100Hz-1kHz, and you realign the
data to 10Hz-1kHz, there is no original data below 100Hz. The result is a flat line
segment from 10Hz-100Hz at the value of the original 100Hz data point.
When changing the horizontal data from linear to log, there will be a loss of
resolution either at the low end or high end of the spectrum.
The curve list box provides selection of the

library curve for the operation. This special list
box shows the type of data contained in each
curve. Any curve which is currently being dis-
played on the graph is denoted by Red vertical
lines between the zones of each curve entry.
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Since the curve's data will be altered, you may wish to make a copy of the curve
before performing this operation. This will prevent loosing your original data
curve should you wish to run the operation again on the original data.
An example of data realignment is shown below. The first graph shows a 500
point log frequency SPL response from 10Hz - 40kHz. The second graph
shows the result of realigning the data to 100 points from 20Hz - 20kHz, again
with log resolution.
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Chapter 11 Utilities Menu
Utilities Menu 11
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Utilities Menu Chapter 11
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11.1 Import Curve Data File
The Utilities | Import Curve Data File menu item

will open a dialog which imports text file data into
Guide Curve library entries. The tool button as shown
above on the Utilities toolbar can also be used to
activate this item.
This dialog supports many different kinds of formats, and will generally operate in
a universal fashion for almost any kind of file data. The only requirement is that the
data be contained in ASCII columns of data points. It also provides many different
kinds of automatic translations during the import process.
The maximum number of data points allowed is 4096. If your file contains more
points than this, an error message will appear and truncation of data will result. The
data file format is relatively simple as follows:
• Lines starting with any char other than space or numeric are treated as comments
• Data lines have two or more columns as defined by the format.
• Each value in a data line can be delimited by space, commas, or tabs.
• If a line contains additional columns of data, they are ignored.
• If a line does not contain enough columns, zero values are assumed for the rest.
• Numeric real formats of both scientific and engineering are supported.
Note: It is best if comment lines start with a special character such as: /, *, or ;
The file to be imported is selected using the features in the File Path group box. You
can select the drive/folder in the left tree view, and the file itself in the right list view
windows. You can also view/edit the file with your external editor by clicking on
the editor button shown at the end of the file name field.
When you click the Execute button, data is processed from the file and placed into
the selected curve entry. You may also select multiple files which will be imported
in sequence starting at the selected curve entry. These files must have the same type
of units since they will be processed with the same settings.
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Horizontal, Left Vertical, and Right Vertical Data

Understanding the use of these three group boxes is key to the proper import
of external data. Each group box corresponds to the data in one of the file
columns. The general format is assumed to contain three data columns.
Typically this may be frequency, magnitude, and phase. If you have less than
three columns, such as frequency and magnitude, use the phase selection for
the third column anyway. This will automatically substitute zeros for the
missing column.
The type of data and units prefix is critically important to define what it is you
are importing. Always verify that the Units field displays the exact units that
the data column contains. For example, a voltage measurement could have a
magnitude column with data in units of Volts, dBV, or dBm. The program
treats each of these differently. Linear/Log would be used for Volts, and the
dB selection would be required for dBV or dBm. For dB units, the dB Ref value
then defines whether it is dBV (1.000V) or dBm (0.775V).
If your file contains an index column of numbers as the first column, then use
the Skip First Column option to ignore this column.
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11.2 Export Curve Data File
The Utilities | Export Curve Data File menu item

will open a dialog which exports text file data from
System or Guide curve library entries. The tool button
as shown above on the Utilities toolbar can also be
The type of data and the units to be exported are controlled entirely by the current
parameters in the scale system. In other words, the data is exported in exactly the
same units as it is currently being viewed on the graph.
For example, if a curve contains voltage data and is currently being displayed on the
graph in dBm units, the data is therefore exported in dBm units. If it was viewed
in Volts, it will be exported in Volts. This allows the user to automatically translate
and export data into whatever units are desired, simply by displaying the data in the
desired units on the graph. This is controlled by the Scale | Parameters dialog.
The export dialog displays the units for the

data curve that will be exported. The curve
list box provides selection of the library
curve for the operation. This special list
box shows the type of data contained in
each curve. Any curve which is currently
being displayed on the graph is denoted by
Red vertical lines between the zones of each
curve entry.
The File Path group box allows you to

choose the file to be exported. Use the tree
view on the left to select the drive/folder,
and the list view on the right to select the file
name, or enter it in the edit field.
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When you click the Execute button the file will be written. If a file of the same
name already exists, you will be prompted to confirm the overwrite of that file.
The sample listing below shows a typical file export. The columns are
delimited with commas for easy export into spreadsheet programs.
Note: Regional language settings can affect the format of the output. The
decimal point may be set to commas in some languages. This may
cause a problem for import in some programs. You may need to change
this setting to a decimal point in the Control Panel | Regional Options.
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11.3 Export Graphics
The Utilities | Export Graphics to File menu item

will open a dialog which produces graphical export of
the artwork from the graph window in the program.
The tool button as shown above on the Utilities
This dialog supports an extensive variety of both vector and raster image formats.
There are many different kinds of graphics applications. The type of file format to
use depends entirely on the application. Generally you will be opening or placing
the file in some other application program. Obviously a file format must be chosen
which is supported by the other program. The import capabilities of most programs
are constantly changing with each revision, so it is impossible to give any general
recommendations here. Please consult the documentation of the other program.
If your primary application is to embed the images as part of a word processing

document, then the EMF, WMF, and EPS formats are most commonly supported.
However using the EPS format generally requires printing to a PostScript printer to
obtain the full resolution. For non PostScript printing, use EMF or WMF formats.
The PDF format is very useful for email attachments and other general use.
If your primary application is for graphical editing, where you wish to modify the
graphics content, you will need to choose a format that your drawing or illustration
program supports. This could be any of the formats. Please consult the documen-
tation of the drawing/illustration program.
Artwork
The name of the graph is shown here as the title above the grid on the graph.
Format
When Raster is selected, the format, resolution, color, and compression controls
will be active. The raster image data will also be displayed in the fields at the bottom
of the group box. When Vector is selected, the only active control is the vector
format list box.
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Resolution DPI
Use the two stepper buttons to increase or
decrease this value. The value will be
changed in units of 8.
Color Format
The possible color choices are: B&W, 16
Color, 256 Color, 16M Color, 16 Gray,
256 Gray. Depending on the file format,
not all color choices may be available.
Compression
Some of the raster file formats have op-
tional compression. If so, you will be
able to choose either compressed or
uncompressed. For other file formats
this selection will be chosen for you.
File Path
This group box provides selection of the folder where you wish to export the
file, and an editing field to enter the file name. The program will automatically
add the proper extension for the selected file format. The default file extension
is controlled by the type of file format that will be exported. It is not
recommended that you change it.
Raster Images
Raster images are bitmap representations of the artwork. They are formed by
rows of pixels. They can be color or black & white. The resolution of the image
is fixed at the time it is created. While raster images are probably the most
portable form of graphic representation, they are very bulky and inefficient for
high precision resolution. Moreover, printing a low resolution raster image on
a higher resolution output device does not improve the image quality.
The following industry standard raster formats are supported:
■ BMP Windows Bitmap Format

■ JPG Joint Photo Experts Group
■ PCX ZSoft Picture Format
■ PNG Portable Network Graphics
■ TIF Tagged Image File Format
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If you desire other formats, use a paint type program to convert one of these into
the other format. There are many commonly available programs on the Internet as
shareware which can do the job. For more extensive editing capabilities, PaintShop
Pro or Adobe PhotoShop can most certainly be used.
Note: We do not provide native support for the GIF format due to patent (4,558,302)
issues involved with the Lempel Ziv Welch (LZW) compression algorithm owned by
Unisys Corporation.
When using raster images, you must choose a DPI (dots per inch) value which will
determine the resolution. With raster images it is very easy to produce extremely
large files. Be careful to note the Image Bytes parameter value given on the last line
of the group box. If you attempt to construct an image size that is larger than your
available resources permit, you will receive an error message or your system may
lock up.
Not all of the raster formats support all of the different color and compression
options. Also, some formats do not store the DPI information for absolute scaling.
If one format does not work for your application, just try another.
Vector Images
Vector images are mathematical formula representations of the artwork. They
contain coordinates and special commands unique to each format. They can be both
color or black & white. The resolution of the image is virtually infinite, and will
print with the full resolution of the final printing device. While vector images are
sometimes a less portable form of graphic representation, they are extremely
efficient and provide the highest quality resolution. The following industry
standard vector formats are supported:
■ WMF Windows Metafile Standard

■ WMF Windows Metafile Placeable
■ EMF Windows Enhanced Metafile
■ EPS EncapPostScript B&W & TIF
■ EPS EncapPostScript CMYK & TIF
■ AI Adobe Illustrator Format
■ PDF Acrobat Portable Document Format
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Fonts
When dealing with vector formats, the issue of fonts becomes very important.
If the file you are producing will only be used on your computer system, then
the font issue is somewhat irrelevant. However if the generated files are to be
viewed on other computers, then you must choose fonts for your designs which
will be available as well on those computers. Typically you will need to use
standard Windows TrueType fonts such as MS-Sans, Arial, etc.
Editing & Placing Vector Images

Vector formats provide the most powerful editing capabilities. You can
modify the content, change the colors, reassign fonts, or add/delete items from
the artwork. Unfortunately, they also produce the most trouble with portability
and have a nasty habit of locating any and all bugs in the other application's
import filters. However, with a little experimentation and testing you should
be able to determine which formats and applications will achieve the desired
results. For best editing, use the AI format with Adobe Illustrator.
WMF Formats
If you will be importing WMF files into other graphics applications, you may
often need to use the WMF-Placeable format, and not the WMF-Standard. The
placeable format contains an additional header which many applications
require. Both WMF formats contain full RGB color information. The fonts
used in your design must be available on the computer where the WMF file is
used.
Note:
Many applications do not handle rotated text correctly in the WMF format.
EMF Format
This is the new 32-Bit version of the previous 16-Bit WMF format. This
version has many improvements over the old WMF format. When possible,
use this format instead of the WMF. The EMF format contains full RGB color
information. The fonts used in your design must be available on the computer
where the file is used.
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EPS Formats
The EPS format is very popular for professional graphics. They contain PostScript
vector code to produce the final high resolution output, and also contain a low
resolution TIF raster image preview. The two EPS formats provide both gray scale
Black&White or full CMYK color. The fonts used in your design must be available
on the computer where the file is used.
AI Format
The Adobe Illustrator format technically requires Adobe fonts. If you have
assigned TrueType fonts in the program to some text items, you will receive a
warning message when you open the AI file in Adobe Illustrator of an unknown
font. However, you can easily reassign the font as needed in Illustrator or other
drawing programs. Other graphics programs often ignore the font name informa-
tion altogether. The fonts used in your design should be available on the computer
where the file is used.
PDF Format
The Adobe Acrobat PDF format is becoming heavily used on the Internet for
documentation download. The format is very powerful, very efficient, and
viewable by almost everyone using the free Acrobat Reader. The files also use ZIP
compression which makes them very small and easy to attach to emails.
While the PDF format contains the ability to embed the fonts directly, this function
is not supported at this time with this version of the program. Therefore, the fonts
used in your design should be available on the computer(s) where the file is used.
However, if the font is not available on the computer, Acrobat Reader will
substitute or synthesize the closest font automatically.
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11.4 Copy Graphics to Clipboard
The Utilities | Export Graphics to Clipboard menu

item will open a dialog which transfers the graph
artwork to the Windows Clipboard. The tool button
as shown above on the Utilities toolbar can also be
This function can be very useful when you wish to paste the graphics into another
open application program. The graphics can be stored in the clipboard in on eof
three different formats: EMF, WMF, or BMP. The EMF and WMF are vector
formats, while the BMP format is a raster image. Not all programs can place some
types of images, but most graphically oriented programs should take one of these.
It should be noted that the Windows Clipboard can only hold one item at a time.
When you transfer an item to the clipboard, the previous item is discarded.
When the dialog opens, the title of the active graph window appears.
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The example below shows a schematic transferred to the Clipboard, as seen in

the Clipboard Viewer.
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11.5 Copy Component Data to Clipboard
The Utilities | Copy Component Data to Clipboard

menu item will open a dialog which transfers the
circuit component data to the Windows Clipboard.
The tool button as shown above on the Utilities
Using this function allows you to paste the data into another program if needed.
Component data can be very extensive, with hundreds or even thousands of lines
of text. If you have a need for this data, this is probably the easiest way to obtain
a copy. The data is also contained in the LCD file itself.
When the dialog opens, the title of the active graph window appears. To copy the
data simply click Ok. An example of component data is shown on the next page.
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11.6 View Clipboard
The Utilities | View Clipboard menu item will open

a special viewing dialog which allows you to inspect
the contents of the Windows clipboard. The tool
button as shown above on the Utilities toolbar can also
The viewing window will be adjusted to the size of the program's client area. To
close the viewer simply click the Close button in the upper right corner.
The viewer will also display the format of the data within the clipboard in the title
caption. This may be text, a raster image, vector image, or a proprietary format.
Depending on the type of data the display may be text or graphical.
A sample of the viewer is shown on the following page.
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11.7 Curve Capture
The Utilities | Curve Capture menu item will open a

dialog which will capture a data curve from a raster
image file. The tool button as shown above on the
Utilities toolbar can also be used to activate this item.
It sometimes happens that you have a printed graph, or image file, that contains
curve data you would like to use in the program. Printed graphs can be transferred
to file form by use of a scanner. This dialog provides the capability to distill vector
curve data directly from a raster image.
In order to perform this operation, three basic requirements must be met:
• The image file must be a BMP format.

• The curve(s) in the image must be colored differently than other items.
• The graph axis should be square with the image boundary.
The first requirement can easily be achieved by use of a Paint program, which can
perform the needed file conversion. If the original file format was TIF, JPG, PCX,
GIF, etc. use of a Paint program is required to convert the file to BMP. Many such
programs are commonly available on the Internet as shareware.
The second requirement involves image color. The capture process picks the curve
out of the image by a color matching technique. The color of the curve must be
somewhat unique to enable it to be identified from other items in the image. For
handling images that are Black & White, they must be imported into a Paint
program where the curve can be colored manually as needed.
The last requirement is that the graph on the image not be rotated or skewed. The
processing routines assume that the graphical image is square with the edges.
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Graph Image
The large region displays the raster image currently loaded. The display is
always a 1:1 pixel ratio, and has scroll bars on both axis. The Load File button
will open a dialog to select the BMP file you wish to load. The path of the
currently loaded file is shown adjacent to the button.
Cursor Parameter Selection

There are four parameters which must be defined with the image: Lower Left
coordinate, Upper Right coordinate, the Left Curve Color, and the Right Curve
Color. The color panel next to the Curve buttons displays the currently selected
color for the curves. Two curves (Left/Right) will be captured from the image.
To set a parameter, click one of the four toggle buttons, and move the mouse
cursor over the image. A different cursor will appear which denotes the
parameter to be set. Click the left mouse button and the parameter will be
defined at that cursor location. The button will then reset. If you wish to cancel
a parameter, click the button again and it will reset.
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For curve color, the color panels will be updated with the color of the pixel at the
cursor location. For the two coordinates, a marker will be dropped on the image
at the cursor location.
Reference Data Point, Upper Right / Lower Left

Each of these two group box displays coordinate information based on two selected
points on the graph image. You must choose two points at opposite corners of the
graph: Lower Left, and Upper Right. Along with the X/Y coordinates of these two
reference points, you must define the represented horizontal and vertical parameter
values of the graph in the edit boxes. The horizontal value is usually frequency, but
the vertical values will depend on the type of graph curve being captured.
Horz Data, Left Vert Data, & Right Vert Data

Understanding the use of these three group boxes is key to the proper import of
external data. Each panel corresponds to a data parameter. Typically this may be
frequency, magnitude, and phase. If you have only frequency and magnitude, use
the phase selection for the Right Vert Data anyway.
The type of data and units prefix is critically important to define what it is you are
capturing. Always verify that the Units field displays the exact units that the image
contains. For example, a voltage measurement could have a magnitude curve with
data in units of Volts, dBV, or dBm. The program treats each of these differently.
Linear/Log would be used for Volts, and the dB selection would be required for dBV
or dBm. For dB units, the dB Ref value then defines whether it is dBV (1.000V)
or dBm (0.775V).
Note: Please pay close attention to whether you have linear or log axis data.
Library Curve
The data that is obtained from the capture process will be written to a Guide Curve
entry. The entry is selected from one of the 99 possible choices in this list box. The
default name given to the entry will be Capture: Filename, and the curve will be
enabled for display.
Scan Direction
The curve scanning process can be performed from either the Top Down or from the
Bottom Up. This can be significant if there are other colors on the image similar to
that of the curves. Scanning from either direction may avoid picking up other
similar colored pixels above or below the curve.
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Color Match
The slider controls a tolerance matching value in ±% for pixel colors scanned
in the image. The current value is displayed above. If the value is zero, then
pixels will only be selected as part of the curve if their color matches the exact
Curve Color selection described above. A higher tolerance value will allow
more latitude in pixel matching. The Preview button will run the curve
scanning process, and draw a sample curve on top of the image. This shows
you how the pixel curve colors will be mapped. The Clear button will erase the
preview curve. The small color button allows you to change the color used for
the preview curve and LL/UR markers.
Using the Capture Dialog

The first step is to load the desired file with the Load File button. Once the file
is loaded you should probably next go to the Horizontal and Vertical group
boxes to select the type of graph and the frequency axis.
The two LL/UR reference coordinates must now be defined. Click the Lower
Left button, and then select a reference point in the lower left corner of the
graph. A small LL marker will be placed on the image. Next do the same thing
for the upper right marker. A UR marker will be placed on the image. The two
graphics below illustrate this process.
Once the two reference point coordinates are defined, go to the editing fields
for the frequency/vertical parameters and enter the appropriate graph values at
these two locations.
Now the color representing the curve must be chosen.

Click the Curve button at the top, and then select a point
somewhere along the curve as shown here on the left. For
some images there may be many different shades of color
around the curve. The curve may have soft edges. Select-
ing different points on the curve may pick slightly differ-
ent colors.
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The last step is to choose a color matching tolerance on the slider. For a reasonable
starting value choose ±10%. The proper choice for this parameter depends on how
much color purity is in the image, or color noise.
You can now click the Preview

button and observe the curve map-
ping. For this example the curve
was captured perfectly with a tol-
erance of 10% as shown here on
the left.
If the slider is now changed to 5%

color matching, and the Preview
button clicked again, the resulting
curve shows downward spikes. The
tolerance was too tight, and the
mapping fell through to a similar
color below the desired curve.
Now if the slider is adjusted to 20%

color matching, the resulting curve
shows upward spikes. This is be-
cause the mapping process found
pixel colors above the desired curve
within the color tolerance. The scan-
ning was from top to bottom.
These examples illustrate the im-

portant use of the color matching
tolerance. It is a trial and error
process to discriminate between
color variations, color noise, and
the color of the desired curve. The
selection of curve color, adjust-
ment of the color matching slider,
and use of the scan direction, are
all filtering mechanisms to pull out
the desired curve from the back-
ground image.
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Once you are satisfied with the preview, you can click Ok to write the final data
to the selected Library Curve entry. In some cases where the image is very
dirty, you may not be able to remove all spikes from the captured curve. In
these cases you can use the Curve Editor utility to clean up the curve data
afterwards.
The final captured curve is shown below.
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11.8 Curve Editor
The Utilities | Curve Editor menu item will open a

dialog which provides graphical editing and creation
of curve data. The tool button as shown above on the
The Curve Editor is a specialized drawing program which allows you to modify or
create Guide Curves by editing an array of control points or nodes. This special edit
curve is drawn as an array of straight line segments between the nodes. Nodes can
be added, deleted, or moved to create virtually any desired curve shape.
The edit curve can also be created by reading the data of an existing Guide Curve
entry, or can be used to write a Guide Curve entry. The number of nodes on the edit
curve is typically different than a Guide Curve due to editing.
The Curve Editor is also equipped to display existing Guide Curves from the system
along with the edit curve. Many different alignment snap tools are provided for
editing the nodes. You can snap to the grid, guidelines, or existing curves. A scale
system is provided independent of the main system.
The Curve Editor operates on two different types of curves: Left Vertical, and Right
Vertical. An individual edit curve is provided for each of these types of data. You
may edit only a single curve, or both of the two curves depending on your
requirements.
The curve list box provides selection of the library curve for the read/write. This
special list box shows the type of data contained in each curve. Any curve which
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Curve Editor Screen

When the editor dialog window first appears, it is automatically sized to cover the majority of the program's
screen. This is a dialog window, and you cannot use other features outside this dialog while it is open.
The Curve Editor is virtually a program itself, with its own menu and toolbar. Vertical scale controls are
located on the toolbar along with several controls for reading/writing Library Curves located on the status
bar at the bottom.
The graph area displays a grid using the current system scale for the horizontal axis, and a vertical axis
dependent on scale settings and type of data. Two rulers are displayed in Black on the left and top sides
of the graph. The right and bottom sides contain scroll bars when necessary.
The graph displays the edit curve as straight line segments drawn between nodes which appear as dots.
When a node is unselected it is colored Gray. When a node is selected, it becomes Red. More than one
node can be selected simultaneously. Library Curves can also be shown on the graph, along with guidelines
pulled from the rulers.
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Control Menu
This menu contains operations similar to those listed on most File type menus.
However since the Curve Editor is part of the overall program, and does not handle
files directly, this menu is named Control.
New
This menu item will create/initialize a new set of the two graph edit curves using the
current system frequency range. The two edit curves will be given 10 nodes each
with flat line values at the center of the grids. This operation is generally used when
first starting an editing project, to move the nodes into the system frequency range.
Save
This menu item will save all the current settings and parameters of the Curve Editor
into an internal buffer. An initial Save is performed automatically when the dialog
is opened. This item can be used at any time during editing to update the internal
buffer with the latest parameters and settings. Both of the edit curves are saved, in
addition to guidelines and scale settings. A tool button is provided for this menu
item as well.
Revert
This menu item will restore all the previously saved settings and parameters of the
Curve Editor. An initial Save is performed automatically when the dialog is opened,
so the internal buffer always has at least the original data. A tool button is provided
for this menu item as well.
Cancel
This menu item reflects the usual Cancel button found on a dialog window. Using
this item exits the Curve Editor dialog without saving your changes. Using the Close
button in the right corner of the dialog is equivalent.
Ok
This menu item reflects the usual Ok button found on a dialog window. Using this
item exits the Curve Editor dialog and saves your changes. You must select this item
if you wish to and retain your changes to the edit curves when you exit the dialog.
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Graph Menu
This menu contains the two selections of the currently active editing graph.
You can move to a different graph to edit each of the different sets of edit nodes
for each of the different types of data. The scale and ruler values will change
to match each graph and type of data.
Node Menu
This menu provides the basic node operations of Insert, Delete, and Select All.
Tool buttons are also provided for each of these menu items.
Insert
This menu item begins an insert mode and changes the cursor to the node insert
icon. You can move the cursor to any location, click the left mouse button, and
a new node will be inserted. Nodes are always inserted between two closest
nodes.
To exit the insert mode, you can select the item again, press the ESC key, or
use the right mouse button and choose Edit Mode from the popup menu.
Note:
Another method of inserting nodes is also supported, while in the normal
editing mode. By simply pressing the Insert key a node will be placed at the
present cursor location.
Delete
This menu item begins a delete mode and changes the cursor to the node delete
icon. You can move the cursor to any existing node, click the left mouse
button, and the node will be deleted, whether or not it is selected. If you are not
within the capture range of a node, an error message will appear.
To exit the delete mode, you can select the item again, press the ESC key, or
use the right mouse button and choose Edit Mode from the popup menu.
Note:
Another method of deleting nodes is also supported, while in the normal editing
mode. By simply pressing the Delete key, all currently selected nodes will be
deleted. This is the fastest means to delete many nodes at once.
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Show Menu
This menu allows you to selectively enable/disable various items for display. When
displaying Library Curves, only those curves which are enabled for display on the
system graph will be shown.
Guidelines are pulled from the rulers and can be enabled/disabled using this menu
item. The Delete Guidelines menu item will destroy all of the guidelines.
Guidelines can also be deleted individually by moving them back to rulers. To

create a guideline, move the cursor over a ruler, click and hold the left mouse button,
and drag the guideline on to the graph. Guidelines can be repositioned at any time.
Snap Menu
This menu allows you to selectively enable/disable different objects to be used for
snap alignment. Snapping the cursor to an object occurs when moving a node or
guideline and the cursor is near the object. The cursor will jump to the object, and
remain on the object for small cursor movements. Large movements will break the
cursor away from the object.
The horizontal axis is typically frequency on both graphs. However, since the
vertical axis has different units for each graph, the vertical axis is given the generic
name of Value.
When snap is enabled both for a frequency (horizontal) object and value (vertical)
object, the cursor will be snapped to the common intersection whenever possible.
When snapping to a Library curve, tracking may become difficult if the slope of
the curve reaches high values. This can happen on the nulls of elliptic response or
similar sharp transitions. The vertical density of points may be too low to provide
continuous tracking.
Snapping to the grid occurs at both major and minor divisions. The number of
divisions on the Curve Editor graphs are the same as those defined for the main
system graph.
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View Menu
This menu provides different commands for changing the display scale factor.
The Zoom In and Zoom Out menu items will change the cursor icon and allow
you to drag a rectangle around a region of the graph to zoom. The Zoom NNN%
items provide instant zoom to the specified value. The center of the graph will
be maintained. Redraw will refresh the display. Tool buttons are provided for
each of these menu items.
Note:
An alternate method of instant zoom is also provided using the Add/Sub keys
in the numeric keypad on the keyboard. Add will ZoomIn and Sub will
ZoomOut.
Popup Menu
The popup menu is activated when you right click the mouse button. This menu
will appear locally at the cursor position. The first item Edit Mode is only active
when a mode other than edit is currently in operation, such as zoom or node
insert/delete. This item will change the mode back to edit and restore the
default cursor.
The Question item activates an information mode, and changes the cursor to a
question mark. When the cursor is moved to an object on the graph and clicked,
a message box will appear describing the object. This same function can be
activated by clicking on the [?] panel in the upper left hand corner of the graph.
This function is very useful if you wish to know the name of a curve on the
graph, or need to know its exact frequency or value. Clicking on a blank region
of the graph will display general information about the number of nodes and
guidelines. The frequency and value of the first and last nodes is also displayed.
The ZoomIn and ZoomOut provide instant zoom without changing the cursor.
Insert Node, Delete Node, and Select All perform identically to the functions
listed on the main menu. The same is true of Save and Revert.
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Tool Buttons
On the left of the toolbar, 16 tool buttons are located. These functions are identical
to the previously described menu items. Moving the cursor over each of the buttons
will display a hint which describes each button. The numeric field gives the number
of node points in the editing curve.
Scale and Smooth Buttons

A group of scale controls for the vertical value are located on the right side of the
toolbar. These operate in a similar fashion to the vertical graph controls in the Scale
Parameters dialog of the main program. The smooth button will cause the currently
selected points to be smoothed.
Guide Curve list box & Read/Write Buttons

The controls necessary to input/output data to the Guide Curve library are located
on the lower left of the status bar. The list box is used to select a single Curve for
reading or writing. When a guide curve is being displayed on the graph the separator
lines are shown in Red instead of the normal Gray. When the buttons are clicked
a dialog will be presented for operations on the selected curve.
Cursor Readouts
As the cursor is moved around the graph, the frequency and vertical value will be
displayed in the center of the status bar. The remainder of the status bar is used to
display system messages.
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Read Curve Dialog

This dialog appears when the Read
button is clicked. The group box at the
top gives the data for the currently
selected guide curve. The group box in
the center gives the data for the current
editing curve node points. The min/
max horizontal values and the number
of points (nodes).
The last group box provides three op-

tions for controlling how the guide curve
data will be read into the editing curve.
Automatic quadratic interpolation be-
tween guide curve points is provided.
Use Curve points
This option is probably the most commonly used. In this case a new editing
curve is created with horizontal values identical to the selected guide curve.
The number of node points will be the same as the number of points in the curve,
and with identical horizontal values.
Note: Some nodes may be off the graph if the horizontal range of the curve is
wider then the graph range. For example, if your curve has data from 10Hz-
40kHz and the graph only covers 20-20kHz then some nodes at the hi/lo
extremes of the range would not be visible for editing on the graph.
Keep existing Node points

This option will maintain the existing horizontal node locations, but read new
vertical values from the curve. This assumes that the current positions of the
editing curve nodes are meaningful for the data you are reading. This special
option is used in rare cases where you do not wish to change the horizontal
locations of the editing nodes.
Equal density across scale range points.

This option creates a new editing curve with even spacing (log or linear) of
horizontal values across the range currently shown on the graph. The number
of points is defined by the user in the adjacent edit field.
Note: This option is often used to read the guide curve and generate an editing
curve which is realigned to the current range of the graph.
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Write Curve Dialog

This dialog appears when the Write button
is clicked. The group box at the top gives
the data for the current editing curve. The
min/max horizontal values and the number
of points (nodes). The group box in the
center gives the data for the currently se-
lected guide curve.
The last group box provides three options

for controlling how the edit curve data will
be written into the guide curve. Automatic
quadratic interpolation between node points
is provided.
Keep existing Curve points

This option will maintain the existing horizontal guide curve locations, but read new
vertical values from the editing curve (nodes). This assumes that the current
positions of the guide curve points are meaningful for the data you are writing. The
scale units in the curve must match those of the graph. This option is used where
you do not wish to change the horizontal data within the guide curve.
Use Node points

This option is rarely used. In this case a new guide curve is created with values
identical to the nodes in the editing curve. The number of guide curve points will
be the same as the number of nodes, and with identical values.
Note: Due to editing of the nodes, the horizontal spacing may not be uniform. This
option will create a guide curve which is an exact copy of the nodes.
Equal density across scale range points.

This option creates a new guide curve with even spacing (log or linear) of horizontal
values across the range currently shown on the graph. The number of points is
defined by the user in the adjacent edit field.
Note: This option is often used to read the node edit curve and generate a guide
curve which is realigned to the current horizontal range of the graph, and with
uniform spacing of points.
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Question / Information
Clicking on the small square panel in the upper left corner of the graph activates
a query function. The cursor will be changed to a question mark. When you
then click on an object in the graph, or an empty area of the graph itself, a
message box will then display information about the object. An example is
shown above. Different kinds of information will be displayed depending on
the type of object selected.
Drag Scrolling
If you hold down the Shift key on the keyboard while clicking and
moving with the left mouse button, the graph page will be dragged
across the screen. The drag cursor will appear as shown here on the
left.
Note: Scrolling is disabled at 1X zoom since there are no scroll bars.
Guidelines
Guidelines can be pulled out of the rulers in the normal
fashion. Move the mouse cursor over a ruler, and then
click and hold the left mouse button. The guideline can
then be dragged out of the ruler on to the graph. Guidelines
can be repositioned at any time by dragging, and can be
removed by dragging them back into the rulers.
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Node Editing
Before a node can be moved it must first be selected. When a node is selected, its
color changes from Gray to Red. In order to select a single node the cursor must be
moved within the capture range of the node. When the cursor is in the capture range
it will change from the arrow to the crosshair as shown below. You can then Click
the left mouse button to select the node.
Nodes can be deselected by clicking on a different node, an

empty area of the graph, by rectangular selection of different
nodes, or by using the ESC key.
Multiple nodes can be selected by drawing a rectangle

around them, as shown here on the left. To append more
nodes to other currently selected nodes, hold down the CTRL
key while selecting more nodes by either the single click or
rectangle methods. Selected nodes can also be removed
from a group by the same method.
Once the nodes are selected, click and hold the left mouse
button over one of the selected nodes and move. All selected
nodes will be moved by the same change in cursor position.
When a move operation is started, the cursor is automatically
aligned to the centered of the primary node being dragged by
the mouse. The arrow keys can also be used to move the node.
Selected nodes can also be deleted using the DELETE key.

Using the INSERT key will add nodes between any two
existing selected or unselected nodes at the cursor position.
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Reading Library Curves

Reading an existing library curve is one means of obtaining reasonable starting
values for a set of editing nodes. In some cases you may desire all of the original
guide curve points, and in other cases you may wish to use a smaller number
of points for easier editing. The user must decide how much node density/
resolution is desired. The three samples below show a Library Curve being
read using 20, 40, and 80 points.
The choice of density depends on your application. In some cases you may
wish to transfer hundreds of data points, and in other cases only a few. You can
always add or remove points as well during the remaining editing.
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Writing Library Curves

Library curves can be written as an exact copy of the nodal edit curve data, or
realigned to a uniform spacing of different density/resolution. How the points are
written to the selected guide curve entry is controlled entirely by the user in the
Write Curve dialog. However special considerations apply regardless.
All nodes must have consecutive frequencies (horizontal data). With the exception
of the end nodes, each interior node must have adjacent nodes above and below.
The sample here shows a node backcrossing over a

lower frequency node. This is an invalid condition.
The program will check your node data when you
attempt to write a curve, and inform you if this
condition exists.
Although the Curve Editor is always reading/writing

with data in two different vertical arrays, you may
only be editing or interested in the data of
a single array, and ignoring the data in the
unneeded vertical array. It is not required
that you edit the nodes in both of the
vertical arrays, but only the array required.
When writing the curve data, you may or

may not have edit nodes which cover the
entire frequency range. If the end nodes
do not reach the ends of the frequency
range, the final end values will be ex-
trapolated in the library curve.
The sample here shows a node curve that

does not reach the low frequency limit,
and the resulting library curve after being
written. The end node value is used to
complete the curve to the end frequency.
After the curve is written, it is also en-

abled for display. If you have enabled the
Show Guide Curves in the menu, it will
immediately appear in the graph.
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11.9 Air Core Inductor Designer
The Utilities | Air Core Inductor Designer menu

item will open a dialog for the design of air core
inductors The tool button as shown above on the
Air core inductors are commonly used in passive crossovers. This dialog contains
built-in design formulations to produce coil designs based on a few simple
parameters. In most cases the design should turn out to be within about ±10% of
the desired value.
The Profile selection can be chosen for the internal radius equal to the height or
equal to twice the height. The Winding selection should be selected as loose for
hand wound coils or tight for machine wound coils. Then enter the desired
inductance value and the series resistance. Reducing the resistance will produce
larger coils with larger gauge wire.
The coil design data can then be read in the

fields below. The wire gauge is computed as
a decimal value which you will need to round
to the nearest standard value.
The picture displays the definitions of the

various parameters. The parameter usage
should be self explanatory.
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Chapter 12 Library Menu
Library Menu 12
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12.1 Opamp Models
The Library | Opamp Models menu item will open a dialog which manages the
opamp models used in the program. The tool button as shown above on the Library
Each opamp model is a set of nine numeric parameters which mathematically define
the fundamental AC characteristics of a particular opamp. These models can then
be assigned (loaded) into any opamp component in the circuit schematic. The use
of mathematical models, rather than sub-circuit models, dramatically increases the
speed of circuit analysis for large filter simulation.
Each opamp library is stored as an individual file on disk, and can contain up to 500
different models. The number of library files is unlimited. At any given time, a
single active library is loaded into the program. Models from the active library can
be loaded into circuit components. Since the model parameters are stored within
each component, changing the active library will not affect existing schematic
components.
Numerous opamp libraries are provided with the program, containing many
different types of industry standard devices. The libraries are generally organized
by manufacturer. However, additional opamps and libraries can be easily created
by the user.
The parameters needed for the opamp models are derived from common data sheets
found in most manufacturer's data books. In some cases the data may be found in
tables, while in others the data is provided in graph form.
It is not uncommon for some devices to have incomplete specifications which do

not provide all of the needed parameters. In these cases it is often helpful to consult
the data books of different manufacturers who also produce the same device. Not
all manufacturers provide the same quantity of data for each device. If no data can
be found for a particular parameter, you will probably need to use a best guess value.
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Opamp Library
This group box provides a large data grid, which displays the model data
contained in the currently active opamp library. The name of the active library
is shown directly below the grid. Each line represents one opamp model and
contains a name, description, and the various numeric parameters.
The data grid is equipped with powerful sorting capabilities. By clicking on the
column headers the data may be sorted by any parameter, either by increasing
or by decreasing value. Moreover, the column order can be changed simply by
dragging one of the column headers to a new location.
Opamp Data
In this group box a set of four graphs are shown, which display the numeric
parameter data of the selected model in curve form. When a different model
is selected in the data grid above, the graphs will be updated. The four graphs
are: Loop Gain, Phase Margin, Voltage Noise, and Current Noise. Viewing
these graphs provides additional validation of the model parameters.
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File Operations
The four buttons located at the lower right corner of the Opamp Library group box
handle library file operations. These include: Load, Save, Merge, and New. Library
files always have an extension of FSL and should reside in the ...\Library folder.
Other locations can be used, but it is probably best to keep all library files in a
common location.
Since there are different types of library files used by the system, all with the same
extension, it is best to start the file name with the word OpampXXX when you save
an opamp library file. This will allow you to easily determine the type of library in
the future.
Note:
The previously active library file will be automatically loaded each time the
program is launched. The library file must reside in the ...\Library folder.
Load Library
Clicking this button will present another dialog to select a library file to load as the
active library.
Save Library
Clicking this button will present another dialog which allows you to assign a file
name and save the active library to disk. If you have made changes to the active
library, you must use this option to save your changes to a library file on disk.
Note:
Closing the dialog with the Ok button retains your changes for the remaining
operation of the program, but does NOT save the changes to disk. Use Save.
Merge Library
Clicking this button will present another dialog to select a library file to merge with
the existing entries in the active library. The name of the active library will be
changed to OpampNewLib.Fsl, and should be renamed when you later save the
library to disk.
New Library
Clicking this button will delete all existing model entries in the active library, and
append a single default entry. The name of the active library will be changed to
OpampNewLib.Fsl, and should be renamed when you later save the library to disk.
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Adding/Copying/Deleting Models
The three buttons located at the lower left corner of the Opamp Library group
box handle the addition or removal of model entries. Each library can contain
a maximum of 500 models.
The changes you make to the active library are retained for the current
execution of the program, when you close the dialog with the Ok button.
However, they are not saved to disk, and will be lost when the program is
opened the next time. In order to make your changes to the library permanent,
you must use the Save button to update the file on disk.
Add Model
Clicking this button will append another entry at the bottom of the data grid.
The new entry will be given a temporary name and description, along with
default parameter values. You can then edit the names and values using your
actual data.
Copy Model
Clicking this button will copy the currently selected model, and append the
copy to another entry at the bottom of the data grid. The new name will have
an underscore placed in front. This is useful if you wish to create a new model
similar to an existing model. You can then edit the parameters as desired.
Delete Model
Clicking this button will delete the currently selected entry in the data grid.
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Entering Parameter Data

Parameters for the opamp model describe input/output impedance, the complex
gain function, and the voltage/current noise. A single dominant pole model is used
with additional delay. Most opamps behave in a similar manner, however high
frequency opamps can have a more complex transfer function.
In these cases the dominant pole model serves as an approximation to the actual gain
function. You can generally adjust the model parameters to match the most
important region of the frequency range.
The model parameters are defined as:
Name: A short text identifier. This is displayed inside the opamp symbol
and is generally the model name of the original device.
Description: Any additional notes about the model can be placed in this field.
DC Gain: The maximum open loop gain in dB that it reaches at 0Hz.
GBW: The gain bandwidth is the frequency where the open loop
gain falls to 0dB.
Phase Margin: The difference in degrees between the phase at the GBW
frequency and -180.
Rin: The open loop differential input impedance.
Rout: The open loop output impedance.
Enoise: The mid/high frequency input noise voltage density in V/RtHz.
Inoise: The mid/high frequency input noise current density in A/RtHz.
Freq-En: The low frequency corner of the flicker noise voltage in Hz.
Freq-In: The low frequency corner of the flicker noise current in Hz.
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The sample data sheet below demonstrates a typical specification for a

common opamp. The circled items shows the parameters which were chosen
for the model data. In the case of voltage gain, the value is given in linear units
of Volt/Volt (1500V/mV), and must be converted into dB (124dB).
It is also possible to create different model versions of the same opamp. This
can be used to represent temperature variations, grade differences, or voltage
supply variations.
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Many of the parameters also appear on graphs within the data sheet. The corner
frequencies of the voltage and current flicker noise are taken from the graph data
below. These parameters are probably the most difficult to find on some data sheets.
Opamps which are not specifically designed for low noise operation have limited
noise specifications, if any.
The phase margin is also often displayed on a graph. Typically a Bode plot of open-
loop gain and phase is provided. In the graph below the phase margin is clearly
described for the reader, and illustrates the difference between 180 Degrees and the
phase at the GBW frequency.
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The resulting dialog graphs are now shown below. The scale values are
calculated automatically by the program, depending on the parameter require-
ments of the model. The graphs provide a quick means of double checking the
data, and verify that the parameters are producing the correct response curves.
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12.2 Potentiometer Tapers
The Library | Potentiometer Tapers menu item will open a dialog which manages
the pot tapers used in the program. The tool button as shown above on the Library
Each pot taper curve consists of a set of straight line segments. The number of
segments is variable, depending on the detail required to represent the shape of the
actual curve. Each curve segment is defined using rotation/resistance control
points. A taper can be defined using up to 100 control points.
These tapers can then be assigned (loaded) into any pot component in the circuit
schematic. The taper curves can be very detailed, and accurately represent the true
characteristics of a particular taper. Real pots typically have dead zones near their
rotational ends, which are due to the landing pads of the end terminals.
Each taper library is stored as an individual file on disk, and can contain up to 500
different tapers. The number of library files is unlimited. At any given time, a single
active library is loaded into the program. Tapers from the active library can be
loaded into circuit components. Since the Taper parameters are stored within each
component, changing the active library will not affect existing components.
Numerous taper libraries are provided with the program, containing many different
types of industry standard curves. The libraries are organized by manufacturer.
However, additional tapers and libraries can be easily created by the user.
The control points needed for the taper curves must usually be derived by hand from
measuring printed charts found in most manufacturer's catalogs. In some cases the
data may be found in tables, but rarely with sufficient detail.
The process of measuring data from taper charts is more of an art than a science. The
stock libraries were built by scanning the pages of catalogs into raster image files,
and then processing these files in a paint program. The charts were aligned, and then
measurements taken directly via pixel coordinates.
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Taper Library
This group box provides a large data grid, which displays the taper entries
contained in the currently active taper library. The name of the active library
is shown directly below the grid. Each line represents one pot taper and
contains a name, description, and the number of control points.
The data grid is equipped with powerful sorting capabilities. By clicking on the
column headers the data may be sorted by any parameter, either by increasing
or by decreasing value. Moreover, the column order can be changed simply by
dragging one of the column headers to a new location.
Taper Data
This group box contains another data grid for editing/displaying the control
points, and a pictorial graph of the actual taper curve. When a different taper
is selected in the data grid above, the graph will be updated. Viewing the graph
provides visual validation of the control point data.
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File Operations
The four buttons located at the lower right corner of the Taper Library group box
handle library file operations. These include: Load, Save, Merge, and New. Library
files always have an extension of FSL and should reside in the ...\Library folder.
Other locations can be used, but it is probably best to keep all library files in a
common location.
Since there are different types of library files used by the system, all with the same
extension, it is best to start the file name with the word TaperXXX when you save
a taper library file. This will allow you to easily determine the type of library in the
future.
Note:
The previously active library file will be automatically loaded each time the
program is launched. The library file must reside in the ...\Library folder.
Load Library
Clicking this button will present another dialog to select a library file to load as the
active library.
Save Library
Clicking this button will present another dialog which allows you to assign a file
name and save the active library to disk. If you have made changes to the active
library, you must use this option to save your changes to a library file on disk.
Note:
Closing the dialog with the Ok button retains your changes for the remaining
operation of the program, but does NOT save the changes to disk. Use Save.
Merge Library
Clicking this button will present another dialog to select a library file to merge with
the existing entries in the active library. The name of the active library will be
changed to TaperNewLib.Fsl, and should be renamed when you later save the
library to disk.
New Library
Clicking this button will delete all existing taper entries in the active library, and
append a single default entry. The name of the active library will be changed to
TaperNewLib.Fsl, and should be renamed when you later save the library to disk.
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Adding/Copying/Deleting Tapers
The three buttons located at the lower left corner of the Taper Library group box
handle the addition or removal of taper entries. Each library can contain a
maximum of 500 tapers.
The changes you make to the active library are retained for the current
execution of the program, when you close the dialog with the Ok button.
However, they are not saved to disk, and will be lost when the program is
opened the next time. In order to make your changes to the library permanent,
you must use the Save button to update the file on disk.
Add Taper
Clicking this button will append another entry at the bottom of the data grid.
The new entry will be given a temporary name and description, and zero control
points. You can then edit the name and description to your actual data. Adding
control points is covered in the following section.
Copy Taper
Clicking this button will copy the currently selected taper, and append the copy
to another entry at the bottom of the data grid. The new name will have an
underscore placed in front. This is useful if you wish to create a new taper
similar to an existing taper. You can then edit the parameters as desired.
Delete Taper
Clicking this button will delete the currently selected entry in the data grid.
Note:
Choose a short taper name, since this will be displayed on the schematic in the
pot symbol. The stock libraries have the first letter of the manufacturer's name
assigned, and then R for rotary or S for slide.
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Editing Control Points

Three buttons are provided below the control point data grid: Add, Delete, and
Update. The Add button will append another control point to the end of the list. You
may then change the rotation or resistance values as needed. The Delete button will
remove a control point. The Update button transfers the control point data into the
active library above and updates the graph display.
Use the Update button when you have finished editing a series of control points and
wish to have the program read the list. The list will then be checked for errors and
sorted by rotation.
The resistance values must describe a monotonic curve. Values must progress from
0 to 100 and cannot back track below previous values. Also, both parameters must
contain entries for the ends of the range at 0 and 100. Duplicate rotation entries are
not allowed. The program will check for many different types of errors and inform
you of any problems.
Measuring Taper Charts

The sample chart here demon-
strates a typical specification
for a common potentiometer
taper. Actually, this graph
shows six different tapers.
These are all variations of Log
style tapers, and denote the re-
sistance percentage at 50% ro-
tation.
The chart was scanned and then

imported into a paint program.
Pixel measurements were taken
off the image to obtain control
points with suitable resolution.
The following six dialog graphs
illustrate the final results.
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Taper 5A Taper 10A
Taper 15A Taper 20A
Taper 25A Taper 30A
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Chapter 13 Scale Menu
Scale Menu 13
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13.1 Parameters
The Scale | Parameters menu item will open a dialog which controls all of the
horizontal and vertical scales used for the graphs in the program. This dialog allows
you to specify the range and resolution of each scale. The shortcut key F7 or tool
button as shown above on the Scale toolbar can also activate this item.
The Scale Parameters dialog consists of three principal groups of controls: Horizon-
tal Scales and Left Vertical and Right Vertical Scales. A different scale is defined
for each type of curve units. The horizontal group box provides control over the
frequency, time, or angle unit scales. The left vertical group box controls a wide
variety of different types of unit scales. The right vertical is defined for phase data.
Labeling of the scales is by default handled automatically. If you wish to perform

manual labeling, go to the File | Preferences dialog and disable Automatic Labels.
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Horizontal Freq Scale

This is one of the most commonly used scales in the program. You can choose
Linear or Log axis, rectangular or circular (polar) plots, the range, Units, and
the divisions. Nyquist type plots are produced by using the polar selection. For
Log scales, the Min Range value must not be zero.
Linear scales can use any value for the Lo/Hi frequency parameters. However
Log scales will have the Lo/Hi frequency values rounded towards their nearest
major division. This produces Log grids with much better readability. For
example, entering a value of 23k would be adjusted to 20k. You could choose
20k or 30k for the end frequency, but fractional values are not allowed. Using
the Prefix you can produce units of kHz, uHz, MHz etc.
When the scale is Linear the Major Div and Minor Div values will be enabled.
For Log grids only the minor division value is relevant.
A data grid is displayed with three buttons: Make, Clear, Sort. Once you have
selected the type of scale and the Lo/Hi end frequencies, clicking Make will
generate a suitable list of labels for the scale. The generated labels are then
listed in the data grid.
The auto generated labels are placed at major divisions for Linear scales, and
at 1-2-5 locations for Log scales. If you wish to delete the entire label list, click
the Clear button. Single labels can be deleted simply by erasing the text in the
desired entry.
Additional labels can be added using the empty locations further down the list.
Clicking the Sort button will sort the list based on the frequency represented in
the label text.
Note: The labeling controls will be disabled if the Automatic Labels option is
enabled in File | Preferences.
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Horizontal Time Scale

The time scale appears with the Transient tab data. The time scale is always Linear.
The Min and Max parameters define the ends of the scale. In most cases the Min
time is set to zero.
The Major Div and Minor Div values describe the design of the horizontal grid.
Using the Prefix you can produce units of mSec, uSec, nSec etc.
A data grid is displayed along with three buttons: Make, Clear, Sort. Once you have
defined the Min/Max time values, clicking Make will generate a suitable list of
labels for the scale. The generated labels are then listed in the data grid.
The generated labels are placed at the major divisions of the horizontal grid lines.
If you wish to delete the entire label list, click the Clear button. Single labels can
be deleted simply by erasing the text in the desired entry.
Clicking the Sort button will sort the list based on the time value represented in the
label text.
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Horizontal Angle Scale

The angle scale appears when displaying Polar tab data. The angle scale is
always Linear. The Min and Max parameters define the ends of the scale. These
are fixed at -180 deg and +180 deg.
The Major Div and Minor Div values control the design of the horizontal grid.
There are two different plotting choices: rectangular or circular. The circular
plot is most commonly used for polar plots, but rectangular plots are also used.
A data grid is displayed along with three buttons: Make, Clear, Sort. Once you
have defined the Min/Max time values, clicking Make will generate a suitable
list of labels for the scale. The generated labels are then listed in the data grid.
The generated labels are placed at the major divisions of the horizontal grid
lines. If you wish to delete the entire label list, click the Clear button. Single
labels can be deleted simply by erasing the text in the desired entry.
Clicking the Sort button will sort the list based on the time value represented
in the label text.
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Vertical Scales
There are seven different unit tabs which mainly follow the various left vertical
units and graph titles. A scale tab is defined for every possible type of vertical data
used within the program. The operation and use of the fields in these tabs are
essentially identical for all of them. For this reason, only the Voltage tab will be
described here as an example. All others are similar.
■ Axis
There are three choices for the type of axis: Linear, Log, and dB. If the Linear or
Log selections are used, the curves will be plotted in units of Volts. If the dB
selection is used, the curves are plotted in dBV or dBm, depending on the dB
Reference chosen.
■ Polarity
If you are using a Linear axis, then you have a choice of either: Bipolar, Positive,
or Negative scale range. A Bipolar scale means that zero is in the center of the scale,
and the range might be +1.0 to -1.0 volts. A Positive scale means that zero is at the
bottom and might contain a range such as +1.0 to 0.0 volts. A Negative scale means
that zero is at the top and might contain a range such as 0.0 to -1.0 volts.
■ Range
The Max and Min values here define the range of the scale. Depending on other
parameters in the tab, one of these parameters may be disabled. If you are using a
Log axis, the Min value cannot be zero or negative.
■ dB
When the dB axis is in use, two parameters here are enabled: dB per Division and
dB Reference. The number of dB per major division controls the resolution of the
scale. The dB reference defines the 0dB value. For volts it is either 1.000 (dBV)
or 0.775 (dBm). Different tab units have different dB reference choices.
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■ Divisions
When the axis is Linear or dB the Major Div and Minor Div values will be
enabled. For Log axis only the minor divisions are relevant.
■ Units
Using the Prefix you can produce units of mVolts, uVolts, nVolts etc. This is
only enabled when either Linear or Log axis is chosen. When a dB axis is in
use, this is disabled. The units field displays the total combined unit label for
the scale.
■ Labels
A data grid is displayed along with three buttons: Make, Clear, Sort. Once you
have defined the other parameter values, clicking Make will generate a suitable
list of labels for the scale. The generated labels are then listed in the data grid.
The generated labels are placed at the major divisions of the vertical grid lines.
If you wish to delete the entire label list, click the Clear button. Single labels
can be deleted simply by erasing the text in the desired entry.
Clicking the Sort button will sort the list based on the time value represented
in the label text.
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13.2 Auto
The Scale | Auto menu item provides automatic adjustment of the vertical scale in
the graph for the currently displayed units. The shortcut key F8 or the tool button
as shown above on the Scale toolbar can also be used to activate this item. This
feature is heavily utilized.
The Auto scale function analyzes the currently displayed library curves, and
determines the required Max/Min range parameters to display the highest levels of
any curve. This function is commonly used to quickly bring the curves into view.
The Left Vertical scale is always controlled by this function. However control of the
Right Vertical is optional depending on the setting of Auto/Up/Dn Right Vertical
Data in File | Preferences.
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13.3 Up
The Scale | Up menu item will increase the vertical scale range for the currently
displayed scale units. The tool button as shown above on the Scale toolbar can also
be used to activate this item. This feature is heavily utilized.
The Scale Up function instantly increases the display range. For dB scales, the Max
/Min ranges are increased by the value per division. For fixed scales, the range is
increased to the next appropriate increment.
Note: Increasing the scale moves curves down.
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13.4 Down
The Scale | Down menu item will decrease the vertical scale range for the currently
displayed scale units. The tool button as shown above on the Scale toolbar can also
be used to activate this item. This feature is heavily utilized.
The Scale Down function instantly decreases the display range. For dB scales, the
Max /Min ranges are decreased by the value per division. For fixed scales, the range
is decreased to the next appropriate decrement.
Note: Decreasing the scale moves curves up.
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Chapter 14 View Menu
View Menu 14
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View Menu Chapter 14
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14.1 Zoom In / Zoom Out
The View | Zoom In / Zoom Out menu items will change the display scale factor
on the currently active graph window. The tool buttons as shown above on the View
toolbar can also be used to activate these items, or the shortcut keys Shift+Add and
Shift+Sub. The shortcut keys Add/Sub are the +/- keys in the numeric keypad.
Each zoom operation increases or decreases the scale factor by 115%. The
maximum zoom level is 800%. The current zoom level is displayed in the Status
Bar, located at the bottom of the window. The center position of the graph will be
maintained during zoom changes.
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14.2 Zoom 1X / 2X / 4X / 8X
The View | Zoom 1X / 2X / 4X / 8X menu items will change the display scale factor
on the currently active graph window. The tool buttons as shown above on the View
toolbar can also be used to activate these items, or the shortcut keys Shift+F1,
Shift+F2, Shift+F4, and Shift+F8.
Each zoom operation forces the scale factor to a preset value of: 100%, 200%,
400%, or 800% respectively. The maximum zoom level is 800%. The current zoom
level is displayed in the Status Bar, located at the bottom of the window.
The center position of the graph will be maintained during zoom changes. However
when the 100% zoom level is selected, the graph alignment will be reset to the upper
left corner of the window.
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14.3 Redraw / Redraw All
The View | Redraw / Redraw All menu items will redraw the active graph window,
or all the graph windows respectively. The tool buttons as shown above on the View
toolbar can also be used to activate this item, or the shortcut key Ctrl+R or
Ctrl+Alt+R .
The Redraw functions are frequently called by other internal functions in the
program. Under normal conditions the graph window is redrawn as required
automatically. However this function can be used to redraw the window manually
if needed.
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Chapter 15 Window Menu
Window Menu 15
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Window Menu Chapter 15
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15.1 Tile Horizontal
The Window | Tile Horizontal menu item will arrange the

non-minimized graph windows into a horizontally tiled ar-
rangement. The tool button as shown above on the Window
Tile horizontal uses most of the horizontal pixel width for each
graph. Depending on the number of non-minimized windows,
vertical and horizontal tiling may perform similarly.
An example of horizontal tiling is shown on the following page.
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15.2 Tile Vertical
The Window | Tile Vertical menu item will arrange the non-
minimized graph windows into a vertically tiled arrangement.
The tool button as shown above on the Window toolbar can
Tile vertical uses most of the vertical pixel width for each
graph. Depending on the number of non-minimized windows,
vertical and horizontal tiling may perform similarly.
An example of vertical tiling is shown on the following page.
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15.3 Cascade All
The Window | Cascade All menu item will arrange the non-
minimized graph windows into an overlapping staircase ar-
rangement. The tool button as shown above on the Window
Cascading the child windows allows for easy viewing of their

title bars. An example of cascading windows is shown on the
following page.
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15.4 Minimize All
The Window | Minimize All menu item will minimize all of

the graph windows into icons, and arrange them along the
bottom of the main window. The tool button as shown above
on the Window toolbar can also be used to activate this item.
Minimizing all of the child windows can be helpful if you wish

to remove most of the windows from display, and then
normalize only a couple windows.
An example of minimizing the windows is shown on the following page.
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15.5 Normal All
The Window | Normal All menu item will normalize (restore)

all of the graph windows. The tool button as shown above on
the Window toolbar can also be used to activate this item.
Normalizing all of the child windows can be helpful if you

wish to restore many previously minimized graph windows.
When the windows are restored, their position may not be

optimal. You will typically need to use one of the tiling or
cascade functions to organize the windows as you desire.
An example of normalizing the windows is shown on the following page.
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15.6 Arrange Icons
The Window | Arrange Icons menu item will neatly arrange

all of the minimized graph window icons along the bottom of
the main window. The tool button as shown above on the
Window toolbar can also be used to activate this item.
This function has no effect if none of the graph windows are

minimized. Several of the other window organization func-
tions perform this operation automatically as well.
An example of arranging the icons of the graph windows is shown on the following
page.
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15.7 Graph Window List
The Window menu contains a listing at the bottom of all the

graph windows. These are MDI (Multiple Document Inter-
face) child windows, and only a single child window can be
active (focused) at any given time.
The active graph window has a check mark placed near the
item. You can change the active window to any other by
selecting one of the other windows in the list.
If the selected window is minimized, it will be highlighted but

not restored to its normal state. This can be done by clicking
on the title bar of the minimized graph window, and selecting
Restore.
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Chapter 16 Toolbars Menu
Toolbars Menu 16
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Toolbars Menu Chapter 16
406 CrossoverShop
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16.1 Show All
The Toolbars | Show All menu item will display all of the toolbars,
and the Toolbox. Toolbars can appear in any of three locations: the
top control bar, the Toolbox, or as single floating windows.
The location of each toolbar will be checked. If the toolbar is outside

the main program window, it will be brought within the bounds of
the program window.
This function along with the Hide All can be used to locate toolbars
which are off the screen, and force them back into view.
An example with all of the toolbars visible is shown on the following page.
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16.2 Hide All
The Toolbars | Hide All menu item will remove all of the toolbars,
and the Toolbox. Toolbars can be removed from any of three
locations: the top control bar, the Toolbox, or as single floating
windows.
When a toolbar is added or removed, the control bar (or tray) will
resize. When all of the toolbars are removed, the control bars will
collapse down to minimal height.
This function along with the Show All can be used to locate toolbars
which are off the screen, and force them back into view.
An example with all of the toolbars removed is shown on the

following page.
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16.3 Menu Toolbars
There are 12 toolbar items listed which correspond to the functions

provided on other menu columns. Each of these items will enable/
disable an associated toolbar. The various toolbars are shown
below.
Toolbars can be positioned at any of three locations: the top control

bar, the Toolbox, or as single floating windows.
When a toolbar is added or removed, the control bar (or tray) will
resize. When all of the toolbars are removed, the control bars will
collapse down to minimal height.
The user may arrange the toolbars in whatever fashion is desired.

Generally only the most heavily used functions have toolbars
enabled for display. Displaying all of the toolbars on small screen
size (800x600) can use up valuable pix-
els. If you have a large screen, then
more toolbars can probably be displayed
without difficulty.
Toolbars can be arranged in single rows

or multiple rows.
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16.4 Status Bar
The status bar is shown along the bottom of the main window. The bar is sub divided
into a number of different smaller panels. These panels will now be described from
left to right.
Zoom
This panel shows the current zoom level of the main graph in percent.
Abs/Rel
These two buttons are used to switch the tracking cursor between absolute and
relative readout mode. When the cursor is in switched to relative mode, a marker
is dropped at the current position of the cursor. When the cursor is moved, the
readouts display the relative difference between the reference position and the new
position.
Library
The two buttons System and Guide can be used to select the library containing the
curve to be tracked by the cursor. The curve select spin buttons and edit field will
pertain to entries in this library.
Curve Select Spin Button

This panel contains a spin button for changing which library curve the cursor is
tracking. When stepped, it will skip any curve numbers which are not currently
being displayed. You can also change the curve by using the keyboard arrow keys
Up/Dn.
Curve Name
This panel displays the name of the curve that the cursor is tracking. If the cursor
is not on a curve, then N/A will appear.
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Curve Line Sample

This panel contains a sample of the curve line as it is drawn on the graph. This
is the library curve that the cursor is tracking. When curves are drawn in
different colors, it is easy to indentify which curve the cursor is currently
tracking by this sample line segment.
Horizontal Data
This panel displays current horizontal value of the cursor at the present
position. Usually this is frequency.
Vertical Data
This panel displays current vertical value of the cursor at the present position.
Usually could be voltage, dB, SPL, Impedance etc.
Left/Right Vertical Data

These two buttons control which portion of the library curve to track, either the
Left or Right vertical data. Left data is generally magnitude and Right data is
typically phase.
Progress Meter
The next panel contains a progress meter that will show a 0% to 100% display
when an operation is in progress.
System Message
The final large field will display system messages as needed during program
operation.
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16.5 ToolBox
The ToolBox is a floating window which contains a control bar

or tray. This enables multiple toolbars to be dropped into the
control bar and moved as a group.
If the ToolBox contains no toolbars, the size is reduced to a

minimum as shown below. As toolbars are dragged and
dropped onto its control bar, the size is automatically in-
creased.
Using the ToolBox provides a means of creating a floating

toolbar array, rather than the fixed locations provided at the top
and bottom of the screen. There are countless ways that the
toolbars can be arranged in the program.
When the ToolBox is hidden, any toolbars contained within it

remain checked on the menu and the ToolBox is unchecked. If
you cannot find a toolbar, remember to check the ToolBox to
see if it is contained there.
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Chapter 17 Help Menu
Help Menu 17
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Help Menu Chapter 17
418 CrossoverShop
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17.1 Contents
The Help | Contents menu item will open the help system and
display the contents panel. This item can also be activated by
using the F1 shortcut key.
The contents panel provides a table of contents for the help file.
This function is most commonly used when you wish to browse
the help file by different subjects.
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17.2 Index
The Help | Index menu item will open the help system and
display the Index panel.
The index panel provides a listing of the topics which have

been indexed in the help file. This function is most com-
monly used when you wish to search for key words. The
Find panel can also be used for this purpose.
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17.3 Glossary
The Help | Glossary menu item will open the help system
and display the glossary selection buttons. The glossary is
an alphabetical listing of definitions for many of the terms
used throughout the program.
Clicking on a letter button will open a popup window with

a list of words beginning with that letter. Select one of the
words and another popup window will be displayed with
the definition.
The Glossary can also be accessed by clicking the Glos-

sary button in the toolbar.
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17.4 About Modules
The Help | About Modules menu item will display a dialog

which lists the binary modules used in the program. These
include the main EXE and any other special DLLs called
by the program.
This listing allows you to examine the date codes and

version numbers of each module. This can be important for
future upgrades and diagnostic troubleshooting.
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17.5 About Program
The Help | About Program menu item will display a dialog

which gives a wide array of different information. This
includes the user name and serial number, hardware system,
operating system, and program version.
A URL is also provided which will launch your web browser

and take you to the manufacturer's web site.
An Email address is also provided which will launch your

Email application and begin a message to our technical
support department.
The last function generates a text file which contains all of

the information which might be involved with technical
support issues. The file SYSCONFIG.TXT is written to the
program directory. This file may be requested when provid-
ing assistance. It can be attached to an Email or faxed.
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Appendix
Appendix
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Appendix
430 CrossoverShop
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Appendix
Appendix A: SI Units
Floating point numbers can be entered in any of three forms: real number format,
scientific format, or engineering format. Examples of each are:
2400.75 (real)
2.40075E3 or 2.40075D3 (scientific)
2.40075K (engineering)
A floating point number must not contain spaces. Therefore do not place spaces
between suffixes and other digits. Note that the scientific format supports the use
of either the E or D character to separate the exponent. Lowercase is also supported.
The engineering format is used entirely throughout the program for numeric
display. These are single character multiplier suffixes which appear at the end of
a floating point value.
Note that in virtually all of the suffix chars the following convention is used: upper
case is used for multipliers greater than unity, and lower case is used for multipliers
smaller than unity. The only exception is the kilo suffix where both cases are
supported (K or k). The entire list of SI multipliers is shown below.
Use of the exa suffix E can lead to

SI Multipliers
confusion since the standard scien-
Name Value Suffix Name Value Suffix tific notation uses the letter E as
well, e.g. 1.234E+5. The program
kilo 10+3 K,k milli 10-3 m
assumes that if the E character is
mega 10 +6
M micro 10 -6
u the last character in the number, it
is treated as the exa multiplier 10+18.
giga 10+9 G nano 10-9 n
If additional numeric values fol-
tera 10 +12
T pico 10 -12
p low E then it is treated as scientific
format.
peta 10+15 P femto 10-15 f
+18 -18
exa 10 E atto 10 a
zeta 10+21 Z zepto 10-21 z

+24 -24
yotta 10 Y yocto 10 y
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Appendix
432 CrossoverShop
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Appendix
Appendix B: References
The subject of filter design is very diverse with many specializations. Thousands
of books have been written on the subject. It is far beyond the scope of this program
to provide background information on all of the different types of filters, and their
theory. If you wish additional theoretical or application information regarding filter
design, please consult one or more of the excellent books available in this field.
The following pages contain a small sample of some of the books which may be
helpful. It should be noted that even classic engineering text books do not remain
in print forever. Many of the books listed may indeed be out-of-print.
However it is often the case that many of these books may still be found in various
technical bookstores around the world and in many university libraries. In other
cases similar books may be currently offered which are in-print.
■ Technical Book Stores

If you live in a large city you may have a technical bookstore in your area. If not,
there are many sources now available on the Internet where these types of books can
easily be found. The following sources may be helpful:
Amazon.com
P.O. Box 80185
Seattle, WA 98108-0185 USA (also England, Germany, etc.)
Internet: www.amazon.com
Powell's Technical Bookstore

40 NW 10th Avenue
Portland, OR 97209 USA
Tel: 503-228-3906
Internet: www.powells.com
Brian’s Books
P.O. Box 10026
120 Jersey Ave. Suite #301
New Brunswick, NJ 08906-0026 USA
Tel: 732-249-6492
Internet: www.briansbooks.com
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Appendix
■ Active Analog Filters
S. Natarajan, Theory and Design of Linear Active Networks

Macmillian Publishing, 1987
ISBN: 0-029-49730-2
G. Temes, S. Mitra, Modern Filter Theory and Design

John Wiley & Sons Inc., 1973
ISBN: 0-471-85130-2
S. K. Mitra, Analysis and Synthesis of Linear Active Networks

ISBN: 0-471-61180-8
M. G. Ellis, Electronic Filter Analysis and Synthesis

Artech House, 1994
ISBN: 0-890-06616-7
D. Lancaster, Active-Filter Cookbook

Sams, 1975.
ISBN: 0-672-21168-8
S. Niewiadomski, Filter Handbook

CRC Press, 1989.
ISBN: 0-849-37131-7
A. Williams, Electronic Filter Design Handbook

McGraw-Hill, 1981
ISBN: 0-070-70430-9
M. S. Ghausi, K. R. Laker, Modern Filter Design: Active RC & Switched Cap

Prentice-Hall, 1981.
ISBN: 0-135-94663-8
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Appendix
■ Passive Analog Filters
A. I. Zverv, Handbook of Filter Synthesis

ISBN: 0-471-98680-1
S. Niewiadomski, Filter Handbook

CRC Press, 1989.
ISBN: 0-849-37131-7
A. Williams, Electronic Filter Design Handbook

McGraw-Hill, 1981
ISBN: 0-070-70430-9
■ Switched Capacitor Filters
S. Natarajan, Theory and Design of Linear Active Networks

Macmillian Publishing, 1987
ISBN: 0-029-49730-2
M. S. Ghausi, K. R. Laker, Modern Filter Design: Active RC & Switched Cap

Prentice-Hall, 1981.
ISBN: 0-135-94663-8
P. V. Mohan, Switched Capacitor Filters

Prentice-Hall, 1995
ISBN: 0-138-79818-4
H. Baher, Microelectronic Switched-Capacitor Filters

ISBN: 0-471-95404-7
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Appendix
■ Digital Filters
S. K. Mitra, J. F. Kaiser, Handbook for Digital Signal Processing

ISBN: 0-471-61995-7
T. W. Parks, C. S.Burrus, Digital Filter Design

ISBN: 0-471-82896-3
D. F. Elliott, Handbook of Digital Signal Processing

Academic Press, 1987
ISBN: 0-122-37075-9
L. R. Rabiner, B. Gold, Theory & Application of Digital Signal Processing

Prentice-Hall, 1975
ISBN: 0-139-14101-4
E. C. Ifeachor, B. W. Jervis, Digital Signal Processing

Addison-Wesley, 1993
ISBN: 0-201-54413-X
A. Antoniou, Digital Filters: Analysis and Design

McGraw-Hill, 1979
ISBN: 0-070-02117-1
J. Candy, G. Temes, Oversampling Delta-Sigma Data Convertors

IEEE Press, 1992
ISBN: 0-879-42285-8
P. P. Vaidyanathan, Multirate Systems and Filter Banks

Prentice-Hall, 1993
ISBN: 0-136-05718-7
R. E. Crochiere, L. R. Rabiner, Multirate Digital Signal Processing

Prentice-Hall, 1983
ISBN: 0-136-05162-6
436 CrossoverShop
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Appendix
Appendix C: Key Not Found - Troubleshooting
Multi-Mode-Key (MMK) Troubleshooting

If you have received this error message when attempting to
start the program, then the program was not able to access the
authorization key. Please make sure the key is attached to an
LPT port.
If the key is attached to an LPT port, then some other problem

is preventing the program from accessing the key.
Problem Identification
While the robust MMK design has provided exceedingly good compatibility proven
over many years of use, problems with key access on an LPT port can never be
completely eliminated. This can be caused by a wide range of circumstances be-
yond our control. However in almost all cases these issues can be resolved easily
once the cause of the problem is identified.
The modern personal computer environment is very diverse with unlimited op-
tions and configurations, dependent on the operating system, computer, drivers,
external devices, and the user's own configuration and setup. It is especially im-
portant to be aware of any devices or drivers which may also be attempting to and/
or do utilize the LPT port.
The most common problem associated with a hardware lock is the display of an
application message: Key Not Found. The obvious problem is of course that the
key is attached to the computer. The possible reasons behind the application's lack
of ability to reach and properly communicate with the key is the subject of the
following sections. Unfortunately there is no single quick and easy answer that
will fit all situations. The different possibilities must be explored individually.
The following sections provide a catalog of causes which have occurred in the
past. Some of the items may not apply to your operating system, configuration, or
product. If specific notes are made regarding operating systems or products, then
that section only applies to the restrictions cited. If no restrictions are given, then
the section potentially applies in all circumstances. Please read or ignore the sec-
tions which do or do not apply to your individual situation.
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Appendix
Printer Drivers and operating modes

Some printer drivers may support multiple modes of operation such as bidi-
rectional, IEEE-1284, Polling, etc. It is possible that certain modes may cause
a problem. You may wish to visit the Printers/Properties dialog in the Control
Panel and try changing the configuration. Another method is to temporarily
reassign the printer to the port FILE which will remove it's activity from the
LPT port.
Printer Ports not Numbered in Sequence

Make sure that the LPT ports are given symbolic names in sequence without
gaps. For example, if you have two LPT ports they should be LPT1 and LPT2.
Port names such as LPT1, LPT3 will cause problems. You can change the
names in some OS's in the Control Panel / Device Manager.
LPT port may not have sufficient TTL Pull-Up current

The MMK derives it's power from the parallel port lines when they transition
to +5V. However some computers, often laptops, they have greatly reduced
pull-up current and fail to provide enough voltage to operate the key reliably.
Power saving modes can also cause this behavior. In these cases it may be
necessary to connect a printer through the key to the LPT port. Printers or
other port devices provide additional pull-up current from their LPT inputs.
Another driver has taken over the port.

Not all LPT devices are designed to share the port as a bus, but rather treat it
as their own dedicated connection. Some scanner drivers have been known to
poll their device continuously once every second, even when not in active use.
This causes corrupted data traffic for key access. If you have such a device
operating on the LPT port, try a test and disable that driver. If the other driver
is demanding full time use of the port, then you may have no choice but to
add another port to your computer.
LPT port set for ECP mode in CMOS

The MMK will operate in any of the Standard, EPP, or ECP parallel port modes.
However many other drivers do not handle ECP mode correctly. This can
leave the port in a state unusable by the MMK. If you are using ECP mode,
you may wish to try setting the port to EPP or Standard. These modes are
typically changed in the CMOS configuration of the computer.
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Appendix
Key Fails first try, then works on later trys

Typically there are two possible causes for this: (1) the MMK is not receiving enough
pull-up current on the LPT lines, (2) some other device is leaving junk data in the
LPT buffer. Try connecting a printer to the port. That will provide extra pull-up
current. Also, keep in mind that when you have failed port activity from some other
device, there is the potential for junk bytes to be left in the LPT buffer. That may
cause the next access to fail, but should be clear after that.
ERROR-6021..Key Found but has invalid PIN Check

If you receive this error every time you access the key, you should try the key on
another computer. If the same error is reported there, then the internal data of the
key has been corrupted. Contact the factory for repair procedures. This corruption
can sometimes be caused by launching the program while printing a document to
the LPT port. Launching the program opens the key, and then the simultaneous
printer traffic causes corruption. Under Win9X exclusive LPT access cannot be
secured, and thus this can be the result. Please avoid launching the program with
other LPT port traffic.
Verifying the 32-Bit NT Driver is loaded and running

To verify that the 32-bit kernel driver is loaded and running, go to the Start Menu,
select Run, and type in RegEdt32. Locate the following key:
HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Services\MMK_NTD. If
you do not find the MMK_NTD registry key, then reinstall the software. The key
will have a PortCount value, and is the number of LPT ports found indicating the
driver is loaded and running. For each port there will be a pair of values such as
PortBase0/PortSpan0, PortBase1/PortSpan1, etc. depending on the number of ports.
If your entries are similar than the driver is operating normally.
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440 CrossoverShop
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Index
Index
A ASCII columns 313
asymptotic slope 280
About Box 1iv, 5 asymptotic slopes 293
About Modules 423 Authorization Key 4, 5
About Program 425 Authorization Key Installation 5
Absolute 13 Auto Backup Design Files 141
AC analysis 66 Automatic Labels 367
active library 351 Automatic Tail Correction 280
Add 155 Axis 371
Add Components 19
Add Wire Vertex 20 B
Adding/Deleting Tapers 362
Adobe (ATM) 26 Background color 159
Adobe (ATM) fonts 26 backgrounds 142
Adobe Illustrator 319 BAK 141
AFL 130 BEQ 87
AI 319 Bessel 218, 232
algorithms 22 Binary 98, 103
Allpole 215, 229, 235 Binary Math Operations 277
Allpole filters 215, 229, 235 blinking rate 140
Amoeba 192 BMP 318
Amplitude Response 34 Bode plot 357
Analog: Allpole Filters 215 border 159
Analog: Approximation 225 BP1 81
Analog: Elliptic Filters 219 BR1 82
Analog: Inverse IIR Transform 223 Buffer Component 89
analytic data 161 Butterworth 3dB 217, 232
analyze/calculate 197 Butterworth 6dB 218, 232
Any Value 49
C
Any Value Precision 206
AP1 77 Capacitor Component 52
AP2 80 Capture Dialog 332
Append Select Components 19 Cascade 246
Application Manual 7 Cascade All 393
arbitrary data 165 Cauer 222, 239
arithmetic operations 277 CCW 61
Arrange Icons 399 Chebyshev 215, 218, 229, 232
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Index
Chebyshev II 222, 239 CPU 3

child windows 393 crosshair 343
Circuit | Calculate 197 cubic 169, 309
Circuit | Information 193 Current Noise 352
Circuit | Optimizer 179 cursor 13
Circuit | Parameters 175 Cursor Style 140
Circuit | Z Scaling 195 Curve Averaging 295
Circuit Components 39 Curve Capture 329
Circuit Editing 18 Curve Editor 335
Clipboard 323 Curve Editor Screen 336
Clipboard Viewer 324 Curve Line Sample 412
clockwise 61 Curve Select Spin Button 411
CMY 24 Custom circuit 193
Coefficient 96, 102 Custom Colors 24
coefficient precision 248 Cut 147
Color Format 318 CW 61
Color Match 332 Cyan-Magenta-Yellow 24
Color Select Dialog 23
Color Space 25 D
company name and personal name 171 Data Curves 161
complex impedance 63 Data Node Component 47
Component Editing 43 data points 197
Component Nodes 141 Data Realign 309
component snap 178 data realignment 310
Compression 318 data sheet 356
configuration data 133 data sheets 351
consecutive frequencies 345 Data Splice 307
Constraint Optimization 181 Data Transfer 305
control bar 407 dB per Division 371
Control Bar Texture 142 dB Reference 371
Control Bars 11 DC Gain 66, 355
convergence speed 192 Delay Offset 270
convex 188 Delay Phase Transform 285
Convex optimization 188 Delay Ripple 217, 231
Copy 148 Delete 150
copy buffer 149 Delete Components 19
Copy Components 19 Delete Wire Vertex 19
counter clockwise 61 denominator 102
coupling coefficient 59
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Index
Design File Data 141 Editor | Edit 152

DGL 129 Editor | Pack 154
differential input impedance 66 Editor | Paste 149
digital FIR filter 95, 101 Editor | Select All 151
Digital-FIR: Frequency Sampling Fil- Editor | Undo 153
ters 255 Editor Path 140
Digital-FIR: Optimal Approximation elliptic class 219, 235
Filters 259 Elliptic Family Descriptions 222
Digital-FIR: Window Method Filters 253 elliptic filter 219, 235
Digital-IIR: Bilinear Transform 247 Email 1iv, 425
Digital-IIR: Convolution Transform 251 EMF 317
Digital-IIR: Invariant Transform 243, 249 EncapPostScript 319
Digital-IIR: Matched-Z Trans- engineering 429
form 235, 241, 245 engineering format 22
display scale factor 383 engineering notation 21
distill vector curve data 329 Enhanced Metafile 319
division lines 159 Entering Numerical Values 22
DLLs 423 EPS 317
docked 11 Equal Ripple 222, 239
Dolph-Chebyshev 253 Error Limit 185
Dot Component 45 Even Order Filter Type 222
Double Click Editing 141 EXE 423
double clicks 15 Exit 143
downhill search 188 Exponentiation 96, 267, 271
DPI 319 Export 98
drag or pan 17 Export Curve Data File 315
Drag Scrolling 342 Export Graphics to Clip-
board 323, 325, 327
E Export Graphics to File 317
Edit 152 Extended Colors 24
Edit Component 19 F
Editing Command Keys 19
Editing Control Points 363 Factor MaxPhase 97
Editor 138 Factor MinPhase 97
Editor | Add 155 Family 216
Editor | Copy 148 Fast Fourier Transform 289
Editor | Cut 147 Fax 1iv
Editor | Delete 150 FDNR Component 58
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Index
ferrite core inductors 57 Frequency-Dependent-Negative-Resis-

File | Editor 138 tor 58
File | Exit 143 FSD extension 116
File | Import Circuit Data 128 FSG 134
File | Import Target Data 129
File | New 115 G
File | Open 116 gain function 66
File | Open Graph Setup 133 ganging 210
File | Preferences 140 gated measurements 307
File | Print 135 Gaussian 218, 233, 253
File | Reopen 117 GBW 66, 355
File | Revert 127 Generator Component 69
File | Save 118 ghost grid 178
File | Save Graph Setup 134 GIF 319
File | SaveAs 125, 126 global characteristics 140
Filter Type 263 Global Editing 49
finite coefficient effects 95, 101 global minima 188
Finite zero 238 global optimization 188
FIR approximation 259 Graph | Data Curves 161
FIR Filter Component 95 Graph | Guide Curves 165
fixed point formats 103 Graph | Notes & Comments 171
flicker noise 67, 355 Graph | Parameters 159
floating point 21, 103 Graph Control Bar 12
floating ToolBox 18 Graph Select Toolbar 141
floating window 11, 413 Graph Window List 401
floating windows 407 graph windows 395
focus 18 graphical editing 335
font 27 graphics applications 317
Font Select Dialog 26 Graphics dimensions 159
format, engineering 429 Grid Parameters 159
format, scientific 429 grids 18
Frame Parameters 159 Ground Component 48
Freq-En 355 Group Delay 33
Freq-In 355 group delay 279
frequency axis 33, 34, 35, 36, 39 group delay ripple 215, 229
frequency domain 291 Group Delay Transform 283
frequency, magnitude, and phase 314 Guide Curves 165
Frequency Sampling Filters 255 guidelines 335
Frequency Translation 267, 273
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Index
H Impulse response 290

inductance 59
halftones 136 Inductor Component 55
Help 7 Infinite zero 238
Help | About Modules 423 input/output impedance 66
Help | About Program 425 integrator 91
Help | Contents 417 Internet 1iv
Help | Glossary 421 interpolation 169, 309
Help | Index 419 Introduction to Optimization 188
HEQ 86 inverse Chebyshev 222, 239
Hex 98, 103 Inverse Fast Fourier Transform 291
hill climbing 189 inverted 271
Horizontal Angle Scale 370 isolated voltage/current sources 73
horizontal data points 169, 309 Iteration Limit 181
Horizontal Frequency Scale 368
Horizontal, Left Vertical, and Right Vertical J
Data 314
Horizontal Scales 367 JPG 318
horizontal scrolling 17 K
Horizontal Time Scale 369
Hot Spots 15 Kaiser 253
HP½ 84
HP1 76 L
HP2 79 Labeling of the scales 367
HSV 24 Labels 372
Hue-Saturation-Value 24 landscape 135
Hydra 192 LCD 116
I leakage capacitance 62
LEAP-4 131
icons 395 LEAP_CD. INI 140
identification information 171 LEAP_CD.INI 143
IIR Filter Component 101, 107 LEAP4 DGL 129
Imag (sin) 276 Left vertical 305
Impedance Component 63 Legendre 218, 232
Impedance Scaling 196 LEQ 85
Import Circuit Data 128 Library 349
Import Curve Data File 313 Library | Opamp Models 351
Import Target Data 129 Library | Potentiometer Taper 359
Impulse Response 36 line attributes 162, 166
CrossoverShop 445
Reference Manual
Index
linear 169, 309 MDI application 12

linear frequency resolution 290 Medusa 192
Linear Phase 215, 218, 229, 232 Menu Toolbars 409
Linear Phase Bipolar 263 Merge 353
Linear scales 368 Minimize All 395
LL/UR reference coordinates 332 Minimum Phase 263
Lo/Hi Temperature limits 199 Minimum Phase Transform 279
Load Library 361 Minimum System Requirements 3
local minima 189 minor 18
log 169, 309 Minor Div 159, 368
Log axis 368 Mirroring 280
Loop Gain 352 mirroring 44
LP½ 83 Model 68
LP1 75 monotonic 363
LP2 78 Move Components 19
LPT port 5 Move Wire Vertex 19
multi-section controls 210
M Multiple Critical Pole 230
magnification 137 Multiple Critical Pole (MCP) 222, 239
magnitude 162 multipliers 21
Magnitude Offset 267, 268 multipliers, SI 429
Magnitude Response 31 mutual inductance 59
Magnitude Ripple 217, 231 N
major 18
Major Div 159, 368 N-dimensional 189
Major/Minor grids 178 nalog: S Root Editor 229, 235, 241, 243
Map region 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39 near field measurements 307
marking 45 new design 115
mathematical operations 267 Node Editing 343
Maximally Flat 222, 239 nodes 44, 335
Maximum Phase 263 noise current density 67
maximum scaling factor 98 Noise Density 35
MCP Butterworth 233 noise voltage density 67
MCP Chebyshev 233 nonconvex 188
MCP Equal Ripple 222, 239 Normal All 397
MCP Factor 230 note lines 171
MCP Maximally Flat 222, 239 Note region 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39
MDI (Multiple Document Interface) 401 NOTEPAD.EXE 138, 140
446 CrossoverShop
Reference Manual
Index
Notes & Comments 171 Phase Offset, 267

number, real format 429 Phase Response 32
numerator 102 Phase Transform 279
Numeric Entry & Formats 21 pixel ratio 330
numeric values 21 plotter 26
Numerical Precision 22 PNG 318
Nyquist 368 PNL 130
point, Floating numbers 429
O Polar Conversion 301
Offset Binary 103 Polar Convertor 299
ON resistance 62 polar plots 370
on-line help 1iv Polarity 371
Opamp Models 351 polynomial order 216, 230
Opamp Component 66 Popup Menus 15
Opamp Data 352 Portable Document Format 319
opamp libraries 351 portrait 135
Open Graph Setup 133 PostScript 317
open loop 66 Pot 60
Optimal Approximation Filters 259 pot tapers 359
Optimization Engines 192 Potentiometer Tapers 359
Optimizer, Circuit 179 Potentiometer Component 60
Optimizer, Using an 190 PPM 49, 199
Order/Stages 193 precision 49
output impedance 66 Preferences 140
Prefix 372
P primary inductance 59
Print 135
Pack 154 Printer Configuration 136
packed 147 printer driver 137
Parallel 246 printer/port selection 137
parallel printer port 5 printing control 135
Passband Ripple 221, 237 Printing of the grid 18
Paste 149 Processing | Monte Carlo Analysis 205
Paste Components 19 Processing | Potentiometer Analysis 209
PCX 318 Processing | Sensitivity Analysis 201
PDF 319 Processing | Thermal Analysis 199
phase 162 program window 405
Phase Margin 66, 352
Phase Offset 269, 270
CrossoverShop 447
Reference Manual
Index
Q RGB 24
right mouse button 15
quadratic 169, 309 Right vertical 305
Question 340 Rin 66, 355
Quick View Scale from Data 141 Rotation 44
Quick View Window 16 rotation 61
QuickView graph 141 Rout 66
ruler 338
R
random search 189
S
Range 371 S values 202
Raster 317 Save Graph Setup 134
raster formats 319 Scalar AVE 296
Raster Images 318 Scalar RMS 296
real 429 Scale | Auto 373
Real (cos) 276 Scale | Down 377
Real, Integer, Hex, and Binary coeffi- Scale | Parameters 367
cients 99 Scale | Up 375
real number 21 scale factor 135
real number format 22 Scaling 137
Realization 95, 101 Scaling Factor 196
Realization Form 246 Scan Direction 331
Recommended System Requirements 3 scanner 329
record keeping 171 schematic page 178
rectangular or circular plots 368 Schematic Page Size 178
Red-Green-Blue 24 scientific 429
Redraw 385 scientific format 22
reference datum 48 SCN 91
Reference Temperature 176, 199 scrolled 17
References 431, 435 Scrolling & Panning 17
registration 4 segment 44
registration number 5 select a single component 151
Relative 13 Select All 151
Relative Cursor 141 Select Component 19
Resequencing 154 Select Multiple Components 19
Resistor Component 49 selected printer 136
resolution of a curve 169, 309 Serial Number 4
reverse log 209 serial number 5, 425
Revert 127
448 CrossoverShop
Reference Manual
Index
setup file 134 taps 61

sheet size 32 Target Align 14
Show All 405 Target Filters 213
SI multipliers 21 Taylor Series 253
SI suffixes 21 Technical Book Stores 431
Sign-Magnitude 98, 103 Technical Support 1iv
Sin(x)/x 88 Tel 1iv
SINC 88 tempco 49
Skip First Column 314 Temperature 178
Smooth Curve 267, 272 temperature coefficient 49, 176
snap 335 temperatures Operating and Reference 176
snap grid 18 terminate 143
Software Installation 4 Text Component 46
SPL-Z 305 text file data 313
Splash Screen 141 Text Parameters 160
square 271 TIF 318
square root 271 Tile Horizontal 389
Standard Colors 24 Tile Vertical 391
Start Menu 6 time domain 291
Status Bar 411 Title Block Data 171
Step Response 37 tolerance 49
Step response 292 Tool Bars 11
Stopband Attenuation 221, 237 Tool Buttons 11
Summer Component 90 Toolbars 405
Switch Component 62 ToolBox 11, 413
Switched Capacitor Network 91 Toolbox 405, 407
Synchronous 218, 233 Topology 209
Synthesis circuit 193 Total Q 217, 231
SYSCONFIG.TXT 1iv, 425 Tracking Cursor 13
System Requirements 3 tracking cursor 140
Transfer Function Component 73
T Transformation 216, 230
Tail Correction 293 Transformer Component 59
tap loading 209 Transition Attenuation Level 216
Taper Charts, Measuring 363 transition level 216, 231
Taper Data 360 Transitional 3dB, 6dB, 12dB 233
taper library 359 tray 407, 413
Tapers 209 trays 11
tapers 60 TrueType 26, 321
CrossoverShop 449
Reference Manual
Index
turns ratio 59 Window Function 254

Two's Complement 98, 103 Window List 401
TypeColor 27 Window Method Filters 253
TypeFace 27 Windows colors 24
TypeSize 27 Windows Metafile 319
TypeStyle 27 WinNT4 178
wiper 209
U wiper loading 209
Unary Math Operations 267 Wire Component 44
Underline 159 Wizard 118
Undo 147, 153 WMF 317
Units 314 Z
Units, SI 429
Untitled 115 Z Scaling 195
URL 425 Zero Insertion Factor 246
USB 5 Zoom 1X / 2X / 4X / 8X 383
Zoom In / Zoom Out 381
V zoom level 381
VanDerMaas 253
vector and raster image formats 317
Vector AVE 296
vector fonts 26
Vector Images 319
Vector RMS 296
vertex 44
vertical data arrays 305
Vertical Scales 367, 371
vertical scrolling 17
video resolution 3
visible layout grids 178
Voice Coil Origin 119
Voltage Noise 352
voltage/current noise 66
voltage/current source 69
W
Web 1iv
Win95 4
450 CrossoverShop
Reference Manual

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Contents

Loudspeaker Enclosure Analysis Program

© 2002 - 2003 LINEARX SYSTEMS INC.

Tel: (503) 612-9565

Printed in the United States of America.

License Agreement and Limited Warranty

■ Limited Non-Exclusive License

■ United States Federal Government Restrictions

LinearX Systems Inc.

TEL:(503) 612-9565 FAX:(503) 612-9344 WEB: www.linearx.com

Internet Forums: www.linearx.com/forums

Chapter 2: General Features 9

Chapter 3: Graph Windows 29

Chapter 5: File Menu 113

Chapter 6: Editor Menu 145

Chapter 7: Graph Menu 157

Chapter 8: Circuit Menu 173

Chapter 10: Processing Menu 265

Chapter 12: Library Menu 351

Chapter 13: Scale Menu 367

Chapter 14: View Menu 381

Chapter 15: Window Menu 389

Chapter 17: Help Menu 417

1.1 System Requirements

CrossoverShop is a highly intensive numerical application. The program contains

Minimum System Requirements:

Recommended System Requirements:

1.2 Software Installation

For best results we suggest:

1.3 Authorization Key Installation

Installing the Authorization Key:

1.4 Starting the Program

1.5 How to use the Manuals

The remaining chapters of this Reference Manual contain detailed information on

The Application Manual contains several tutorials in addition to other example

Where to go from here:

Note: All users should read/work Tutorial-1

2.1 Tool Bars, Tool Buttons, & Control Bars

2.2 Graph Control Bar

The 9 MDI child windows contain: Components, Schematic, SPL, Voltage,

Graph Control Bar

2.3 Tracking Cursor

Cursor Controls and Readouts

2.4 System & Guide Curve Libraries

Cursor Curve Selection

2.5 Graph Hot Spots & Popup Menus

Graph Parameters Cursor Control

2.6 Quick View Window

2.7 Graph Scrolling & Panning

Mouse Cursor Dragging Hand

2.8 Circuit Editing

Editing Command Keys:

Select Multiple Components:

Append Select Components:

Move Wire Vertex:

Delete Wire Vertex:

Add Wire Vertex:

2.9 Numeric Entry & Formats

Note that in virtually all of the

Entering Numerical Values

In some dialog locations additional constraints may be placed on the numeric

2.10 Color Select Dialog

A special button control is located on many