Pre Algebra

Pre-Algebra
Course No. 1200300
Bureau of Exceptional Education and Student Services Florida Department of Education 2005
This product was developed by Leon County Schools, Exceptional Student Education Department, through the Curriculum Improvement Project, a special project, funded by the State of Florida, Department of Education, Bureau of Exceptional Education and Student Services, through federal assistance under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), Part B.
Copyright State of Florida Department of State 2005 Authorization for reproduction is hereby granted to the State System of Public Education consistent with Section 1006.39(2), Florida Statutes. No authorization is granted for distribution or reproduction outside the State System of Public Education without prior approval in writing.
Pre-Algebra
Course No. 1200300
written and developed by Emily Landreth Donna McBee Sue Fresen
graphics by Rachel McAllister page layout by Jennifer Keele
Curriculum Improvement Project IDEA, Part B, Special Project
Exceptional Student Education
http://www.leon.k12.fl.us/public/pass/
Curriculum Improvement Project Sue Fresen, Project Manager Leon County Exceptional Student Education (ESE) Ward Spisso, Executive Director of Exceptional Education and Student Services Diane Johnson, Director of the Florida Diagnostic and Learning Resources System (FDLRS)/Miccosukee Associate Center Superintendent of Leon County Schools William J. Montford School Board of Leon County Sheila Costigan, Chair Joy Bowen Dee Crumpler Maggie Lewis Fred Varn
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments ................................................................................................... xi
Unit 1: Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations ................................... 1

Unit Focus ................................................................................................................... 1 Vocabulary ................................................................................................................... 3 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 11 Lesson One Purpose .................................................................................................... 11 Writing Whole Numbers ......................................................................................... 13 Special NumbersPerfect Squares ....................................................................... 15 Practice ....................................................................................................................... 16 Powers of 10 .............................................................................................................. 18 Exponential Form ..................................................................................................... 19 Practice ....................................................................................................................... 21 Using Square Roots .................................................................................................. 25 Practice ....................................................................................................................... 27 Evaluating Algebraic ExpressionsOrder of Operations ................................. 30 Practice ....................................................................................................................... 33 Lesson Two Purpose .................................................................................................... 37 Variables and Expressions ....................................................................................... 37 Practice ....................................................................................................................... 40 Evaluating Expressions ........................................................................................... 42 Practice ....................................................................................................................... 43 Lesson Three Purpose ................................................................................................. 48 Solving Equations by Guessing.............................................................................. 48 Practice ....................................................................................................................... 50 Properties ................................................................................................................... 51 Practice ....................................................................................................................... 52 Solving One-Step Equations ................................................................................... 55 Practice ....................................................................................................................... 57 Lesson Four Purpose ................................................................................................... 61 Negative Numbers ................................................................................................... 61 Adding Numbers by Using a Number Line ........................................................ 62 Practice ....................................................................................................................... 64 Graph of a Number .................................................................................................. 65 Practice ....................................................................................................................... 66 Opposites and Absolute Value ............................................................................... 68 Adding Positive and Negative Integers ................................................................ 70 Practice ....................................................................................................................... 72
Subtracting Integers ................................................................................................. 75 Practice ....................................................................................................................... 77 Multiplying Integers ................................................................................................ 80 Practice ....................................................................................................................... 81 Dividing Integers...................................................................................................... 84 Practice ....................................................................................................................... 87 Lesson Five Purpose .................................................................................................... 92 Comparing and Ordering Numbers ...................................................................... 92 Practice ....................................................................................................................... 94 Solving Inequalities.................................................................................................. 96 Practice ....................................................................................................................... 98 Unit Review Part A ................................................................................................ 102 Unit Review Part B ................................................................................................. 106
Unit 2: Measurement .......................................................................................... 109

Unit Focus ............................................................................................................... 109 Vocabulary ............................................................................................................... 111 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 121 Lesson One Purpose .................................................................................................. 121 Decimals and Fractions ......................................................................................... 122 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 126 Comparing Fractions and Decimals .................................................................... 131 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 135 Renaming Fractions and Mixed Numbers ......................................................... 138 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 143 Adding and Subtracting Fractions....................................................................... 146 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 155 Multiplying and Dividing Fractions ................................................................... 157 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 161 Adding and Subtracting Decimals ...................................................................... 169 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 170 Multiplying and Dividing Decimals ................................................................... 175 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 178 Lesson Two Purpose .................................................................................................. 181 Writing Numbers in Scientific Notation ............................................................. 182 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 184 Ratios and Rates ..................................................................................................... 186 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 189 Writing and Solving Proportions ......................................................................... 192 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 195
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Using Proportions .................................................................................................. 199 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 201 Lesson Three Purpose ............................................................................................... 205 Percents .................................................................................................................... 206 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 209 Solving Percent Problems with Equations.......................................................... 215 Using What We Know to Examine Percent Equations ..................................... 220 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 222 Discount and Sales Tax .......................................................................................... 225 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 227 Interest ..................................................................................................................... 232 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 235 Percent of Increase or Decrease ............................................................................ 237 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 239 Unit Review Part A ................................................................................................ 245 Unit Review Part B ................................................................................................. 249
Unit 3: Algebraic Thinking .............................................................................. 255

Unit Focus ............................................................................................................... 255 Vocabulary ............................................................................................................... 257 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 265 Lesson One Purpose .................................................................................................. 265 Solving Equations .................................................................................................. 266 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 268 Interpreting Words and Phrases .......................................................................... 271 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 272 Solving Two-Step Equations ................................................................................. 274 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 276 Special Cases ........................................................................................................... 280 Practice: .................................................................................................................... 284 Lesson Two Purpose .................................................................................................. 288 The Distributive Property ..................................................................................... 288 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 292 Simplifying Expressions ........................................................................................ 294 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 296 Equations with Like Terms ................................................................................... 299 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 301 Putting It All Together ........................................................................................... 306 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 309
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Lesson Three Purpose ............................................................................................... 314 Solving Equations with Variables on Both Sides ............................................... 314 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 317 Problems That Lead to Equations ........................................................................ 321 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 323 Lesson Four Purpose ................................................................................................. 339 Graphing Inequalities on a Number Line ........................................................... 339 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 343 Solving Inequalities................................................................................................ 345 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 348 Unit Review ............................................................................................................ 357
Unit 4: Geometry and Spatial Sense ........................................................... 365

Unit Focus ............................................................................................................... 365 Vocabulary ............................................................................................................... 367 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 383 Lesson One Purpose .................................................................................................. 383 Geometric Basics .................................................................................................... 384 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 387 Measuring and Classifying Angles ...................................................................... 392 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 398 More Special Angles .............................................................................................. 403 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 408 Exploring Parallel Lines ........................................................................................ 413 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 417 Angles Formed by a Transversal .......................................................................... 419 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 421 Lesson Two Purpose .................................................................................................. 424 Triangles .................................................................................................................. 424 Classifying Triangles .............................................................................................. 426 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 428 Similar Figures ........................................................................................................ 432 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 439 The Coordinate System ......................................................................................... 443 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 446 Pythagorean Theorem ........................................................................................... 451 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 455 Problem Solving with the Pythagorean Theorem ............................................. 457 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 458
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Lesson Three Purpose ............................................................................................... 461 Polygons .................................................................................................................. 462 Symmetry ................................................................................................................ 463 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 465 Perimeter of Polygons ........................................................................................... 470 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 474 Finding Areas of Special Shapes .......................................................................... 478 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 486 Circles ....................................................................................................................... 493 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 495 Circumference ......................................................................................................... 496 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 500 Lesson Four Purpose ................................................................................................. 506 Volume ..................................................................................................................... 506 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 512 Surface Area of Three-Dimensional Shapes ....................................................... 520 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 528 Problem Solving ..................................................................................................... 532 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 533 Unit Review Part A ................................................................................................ 548 Unit Review Part B ................................................................................................. 552
Unit 5: Data Analysis and Probability ....................................................... 559

Unit Focus ............................................................................................................... 559 Vocabulary ............................................................................................................... 561 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 571 Lesson One Purpose .................................................................................................. 571 Equations in Two Variables................................................................................... 573 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 578 Graphing Linear Equations .................................................................................. 582 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 586 Interpreting Data and Lines of Best Fit ............................................................... 591 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 593 Slope ......................................................................................................................... 602 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 607 Graphing Inequalities ............................................................................................ 612 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 616
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Lesson Two Purpose .................................................................................................. 619 Sequences ................................................................................................................ 619 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 621 Investigating Patterns in Polygons ...................................................................... 624 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 626 Lesson Three Purpose ............................................................................................... 632 Tree Diagrams ......................................................................................................... 632 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 635 Probability ............................................................................................................... 638 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 640 Probability of Independent Events ...................................................................... 645 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 647 Probability of Dependent Events ......................................................................... 650 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 652 Lesson Four Purpose ................................................................................................. 657 Measures of Central TendencyMean, Median, and Mode ........................... 657 Practice ..................................................................................................................... 662 Unit Review ............................................................................................................ 668
Appendices .............................................................................................................. 679

Appendix A: Table of Squares and Approximate Square Roots ...................... 681 Appendix B: Mathematical Symbols ................................................................... 683 Appendix C: Mathematics Reference Sheet ...................................................... 685 Appendix D: Graph Paper .................................................................................... 687 Appendix E: Index ................................................................................................. 689 Appendix F: References ......................................................................................... 693
Acknowledgments
The staff of the Curriculum Improvement Project wishes to express appreciation to the content writers and reviewers for their assistance in the development of Pre-Algebra. We also wish to express our gratitude to educators from Broward, Hillsborough, Leon, Okeechobee, Orange, Pinellas, Polk, Sarasota, St. Lucie, and Volusia county school districts for the initial Parallel Alternative Strategies for Students (PASS) Mathematics books. Content Writers Emily Landreth, Mathematics Resource Teacher Leon County Schools Adjunct Academic Support in Mathematics Tallahassee Community College Tallahassee, FL Donna McBee, Mathematics Resource Teacher Leon County Schools Tallahassee, FL
Review Team
Steven Ash, National Board of Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) Certified Mathematics Teacher Mathematics and Science Curriculum Developer Leon County Schools Tallahassee, FL Marilyn Bello-Ruiz, ProjectDirector Parents Educating Parents in the Community (PEP) Family Network on Disabilities of Florida, Inc. Clearwater, FL Janet Brashear, Home/Hospital Coordinator Indian River County School District Vero Beach, FL
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Vivian Cooley, Mathematics Dropout Prevention Teacher Second Chance School Tallahassee, FL Steven Friedlander, Mathematics Teacher Lawton Chiles High School Vice President, Leon County Council of Teachers of Mathematics (LCTM) Tallahassee, FL Debbie Gillis, Mathematics Teacher Department Chair Okeechobee High School Treasurer, Florida Council of Teachers of Mathematics (FCTM) Okeechobee, FL
Review Team continued Mark Goldman, Honors Program Chairman and Professor Tallahassee Community College Past President, Leon Association for Children with Learning Disabilities (ACLD) Parent Representative, Leon County Exceptional Student Education (ESE) Advisory Committee Tallahassee, FL Edythe M. MacMurdo, Mathematics Teacher Department Chair Seminole Middle School Plantation, FL Daniel Michalak, Mathematics Teacher Timber Creek High School Orlando, FL William J. Montford, Superintendent of Leon County Schools Executive Board of Directors, Past President, and 2002 Superintendent of the Year, Florida Association of District School Superintendents Tallahassee, FL Allison OConnor, Exceptional Student Education (ESE) Teacher St. Lucie West Centennial High School Port St. Lucie, FL Pamela Scott, Mathematics Teacher Department Chair Griffin Middle School Regional Director District 3, Florida Council of Teachers of Mathematics (FCTM) Tallahassee, FL Joyce Wiley, Mathematics Teacher Department Chair Osceola Middle School Past President, Pinellas Council of Teachers of Mathematics (PCTM) Seminole, FL Ronnie Youngblood, Executive Director Division of Communications and Community Involvement Leon County Schools Tallahassee, FL
Production Staff Sue Fresen, Project Manager Jennifer Keele, Text Layout Specialist Rachel McAllister, Graphic Design Specialist Curriculum Improvement Project Tallahassee, FL
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Unit 1: Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations

This unit emphasizes the effects of various operations on the real number system to solve problems.
Unit Focus
Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations Associate verbal names, written word names, and standard numerals with integers, rational numbers, irrational numbers, and real numbers. (MA.A.1.4.1) Understand the relative size of integers, rational numbers, and real numbers. (MA.A.1.4.2) Understand concrete and symbolic representations of real numbers in real-world situations. (MA.A.1.4.3) Understand that numbers can be represented in a variety of equivalent forms, including integers, fractions, decimals, percents, exponents, radicals, and absolute value. (MA.A.1.4.4) Understand and use the real number system. (MA.A.2.4.2) Understand and explain the effects of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division on real numbers, including square roots, exponents, and appropriate inverse relationships. (MA.A.3.4.1) Select and justify alternative strategies, such as using properties of numbers, including inverse, identity, and associative, that allow operational shortcuts for computational procedures in real-world or mathematical problems. (MA.A.3.4.2) Add, subtract, multiply, and divide real numbers, including square roots and exponents, using appropriate methods of computing, such as mental mathematics, paper and pencil, and calculator. (MA.A.3.4.3)
Use estimation strategies in complex situations to predict results and to check the reasonableness of results. (MA.A.4.4.1)
Vocabulary
Use the vocabulary words and definitions below as a reference for this unit. absolute value ................................ a numbers distance from zero (0) on the number line Example: The absolute value of both 4, written 4 , and negative 4, written 4 , equals 4.
4 units 4 units
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
additive identity ............................ the number zero (0), that is, adding 0 does not change a numbers value Example: 5 + 0 = 5 additive inverses ........................... a number and its opposite whose sum is zero (0); also called opposites Example: In the equation 3 + -3 = 0, 3 and -3 are additive inverses, or opposites, of each other. area (A) ............................................ the inside region of a two-dimensional figure measured in square units Example: A rectangle with sides of four units by six units contains 24 square units or has an area of 24 square units. associative property ...................... the way in which three or more numbers are grouped for addition or multiplication does not change their sum or product Example: (5 + 6) + 9 = 5 + (6 + 9) or (2 x 3) x 8 = 2 x (3 x 8) base (of an exponent) ................... the number that is used as a factor a given number of times Example: In 23, 2 is the base and 3 is the exponent.
Unit 1: Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations 3
commutative property .................. the order in which any two numbers are added or multiplied does not change their sum or product Example: 2 + 3 = 3 + 2 or 4 x 7 = 7 x 4 coordinate ....................................... the number paired with a point on the number line cube (power) .................................. the third power of a number Example: 43 = 4 x 4 x 4 = 64 decrease ........................................... to make less difference ........................................ the result of a subtraction Example: In 16 9 = 7, 7 is the difference. equation .......................................... a mathematical sentence that equates one expression to another expression Example: 2x = 10 equivalent (forms of a number) ...................... the same number expressed in different forms 3 Example: 4 , 0.75, and 75% estimation ....................................... the use of rounding and/or other strategies to determine a reasonably accurate approximation without calculating an exact answer exponent (exponential form) ...... the number of times the base occurs as a factor Example: 23 is the exponential form of 2 x 2 x 2. The numeral two (2) is called the base, and the numeral three (3) is called the exponent.
expression ....................................... a collection of numbers, symbols, and/or operation signs that stands for a number Example: 4r2; 3x + 2y; 25 Expressions do not contain equality (=) or inequality (<, >, , , or ) symbols. factor ................................................ a number or expression that divides exactly another number Example: 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, and 20 are factors of 20. fraction ............................................ any number representing some part of a a whole; of the form b Example: One-half written in fractional form is 1 2. graph of a number ........................ the point on a number line paired with the number increase ........................................... to make greater inequality ....................................... a sentence that states one expression is greater than (>), greater than or equal to (), less than (<), less than or equal to (), or not equal to () another expression Example: a 5 or x < 7 integers ........................................... the numbers in the set { , -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, } inverse operation .......................... an action that cancels a previously applied action Example: Subtraction is the inverse operation of addition. length (l) ......................................... a one-dimensional measure that is the measurable property of line segments
multiplicative identity ................. the number one (1), that is, multiplying by 1 does not change a numbers value Example: 5 x 1 = 5 multiplicative inverses ................ any two numbers with a product of 1; also called reciprocals 1 Example: 4 and 4 natural numbers ............................ the counting numbers {1, 2, 3, 4, } negative numbers ......................... numbers less than zero number line .................................... a line on which numbers can be written or visualized opposites ......................................... two numbers whose sum is zero -2 Example: -5 + 5 = 0 or 2 3 + 3=0
opposites opposites
order of operations ....................... the order of performing computations in parentheses first, then exponents or powers, followed by multiplication and division, then addition and subtraction Examples: 5 + (12 2) 2 3 x 2 = 5 + 10 2 3 x 2 = 5+56= 10 6 = 4 origin ............................................... the graph of zero (0) on the number line or the intersection of the x-axis and the y-axis in a coordinate plane, described by the ordered pair (0, 0) perfect square ................................ a number whose square root is a whole number Example: 25 is a perfect square because 5 x 5 = 25
6 Unit 1: Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations
point ................................................ a location in space that has no length or width positive numbers .......................... numbers greater than zero power (of a number) ..................... an exponent; the number that tells how many times a number is used as a factor Example: In 23, 3 is the power. prime factorization ....................... writing a number as the product of prime numbers Example: 24 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 = 23 x 3 prime number ................................ any whole number with only two factors, 1 and itself Example: 2, 3, 7, 11, etc. product ............................................ the result of a multiplication Example: In 6 x 8 = 48, 48 is the product. quotient ........................................... the result of a division Example: In 42 7 = 6, 6 is the quotient. radical .............................................. an expression that has a root (square root, cube root, etc.) Example: 25 is a radical Any root can be specified by an index number, b, in the form b a (e.g., 3 8 ). A radical without an index number is understood to be a square root.
root to be taken (index) radical sign root radicand radical
3
8=2
radical sign (
) ............................. the symbol ( ) used before a number to show that the number is a radicand
radicand .......................................... a number that appears under a radical sign Example: In 25 , 25 is the radicand. reciprocals ...................................... two numbers whose product is 1; also called multiplicative inverses 3 4 x3 = 1, the Example: Since 4 4 3 reciprocal of 4 is 3 . root ................................................... an equal factor of a number Example: In 144 = 12, 12 is the square root. 3 In 125 = 5, 5 is the cube root. rounded number ........................... a number approximated to a specified place Example: A commonly used rule to round a number is as follows. If the digit in the first place after the specified place is 5 or more, round up by adding 1 to the digit in the specified place ( 461 rounded to the nearest hundred is 500). If the digit in the first place after the specified place is less than 5, round down by not changing the digit in the specified place ( 441 rounded to the nearest hundred is 400). side ................................................... the edge of a two-dimensional geometric figure Example: A triangle has three sides.
de
side
e sid
si
simplest form ................................. a fraction whose numerator and denominator have no common factor greater than 1 3 is 1 Example: The simplest form of 6 2. simplify a fraction ........................ write fraction in lowest terms or simplest form simplify an expression ................. to perform as many of the indicated operations as possible solution ........................................... any value for a variable that makes an equation or inequality a true statement Example: In y = 8 + 9 y = 17 17 is the solution. solve ................................................. to find all numbers that make an equation or inequality true square .............................................. a rectangle with four sides the same length square (of a number) .................... the result when a number is multiplied by itself or used as a factor twice Example: 25 is the square of 5. square root (of a number) ............ one of two equal factors of a number Example: 7 is the square root of 49. square units .................................... units for measuring area; the measure of the amount of an area that covers a surface
standard form ................................ a method of writing the common symbol for a numeral Example: The standard numeral for five is 5. substitute ........................................ to replace a variable with a numeral Example: 8(a) + 3 8(5) + 3 sum .................................................. the result of an addition Example: In 6 + 8 = 14, 14 is the sum. unit (of length) .............................. a precisely fixed quantity used to measure measurement in inches, feet, yards, and miles, or centimeters, meters, and kilometers value (of a variable) ...................... any of the numbers represented by the variable variable ........................................... any symbol that could represent a number whole number ............................... any number in the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, } width (w) ........................................ a one-dimensional measure of something side to side
w l l w
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Introduction
As you get ready to study pre-algebra, you probably are thinking several things. Is this math going to be very different from what Ive already had? Is it Is this math going to be going to be hard? Will I be able to hard? use a calculator? How will prealgebra apply to everyday problems? Pre-algebra is best described as a link between arithmetic and algebra. You will make the transition from arithmetic, which is mostly numerical, to problems that require more advanced reasoning skills. You will be working with variables, or symbols that represent numbers. You will be learning how to handle very large and very small numbers in an efficient fashion. You will have many opportunities to become proficient with a calculator. Mastery of these skills is essential in our ever-changing technical world. Proficiency in pre-algebra will help you make the leap from numerical thinking to the more abstract thinking required in algebra and geometry.
Will I be able to use a calculator?
How will pre-algebra apply to everyday problems?
Lesson One Purpose

Associate verbal names, written word names, and standard numerals with integers, rational numbers, irrational numbers, and real numbers. (MA.A.1.4.1) Understand concrete and symbolic representations of real numbers in real-world situations. (MA.A.1.4.3)
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Understand that numbers can be represented in a variety of equivalent forms, including integers, fractions, decimals, exponents, and radicals. (MA.A.1.4.4) Understand and use the real number system. (MA.A.2.4.2) Understand and explain the effects of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division on real numbers, including square roots, exponents, and appropriate inverse relationships. (MA.A.3.4.1) Add, subtract, multiply, and divide real numbers, including square roots and exponents, using appropriate methods of computing, such as mental mathematics, paper and pencil, and calculator. (MA.A.3.4.3)
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Writing Whole Numbers

There are many ways to write whole numbers. A whole number is any number in the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, }. For example, to write a whole number, you may sometimes use an exponent, or the power of a number. Using Exponents Study the squares below. Each small square has four sides of the same unit length (l).
1 unit 1 unit 1x1= 1 square unit
2 units 2 units 2x2= 4 square units
3 units 3 units 3x3= 9 square units 4 units
4 units
4x4= 16 square units
One way to describe the area (A) of the squares above is by using exponents. The area is the inside region of a two-dimensional figure. The area is measured in square units. The area of each square above can be described using exponents. An exponent tells how many times the base occurs as a factor. See below. 1 x 1 is 2 x 2 is 3 x 3 is 4 x 4 is 1 1 or 12 2 2 or 22 3 3 or 32 4 4 or 42
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The numbers 12, 22, 32, and 42 on the previous page are numerical expressions in exponential form. Exponential form has two partsthe base and the exponent. For example, 25 is the exponential form of 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2. The numeral two (2) is called the base, and the numeral five (5) is called the exponent.
5
exponenttells the number of repetitions baseis the repeated factor
The value is 32 because 25 = 2 2 2 2 2 = 32. Exponential form can also be defined as the power of a number written as an exponent. The exponent is the number that tells how many times a base is used as a factor. A factor divides evenly into another number. For example: 32 can be written 25, or 2 to the fifth power. How to Read Powers These powers are read as follows: 62 103 74 110 six squared or six to the second power ten cubed or ten to the third power seven to the fourth power one to the tenth power Remember: The meaning of 103 is 10 10 10. Ten is used as a factor 3 times. The value is 1,000. The meaning of 43 is 4 4 4. Four is used as a factor 3 times. The value is 64.
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Special NumbersPerfect Squares

Numbers like 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, and 64 are called perfect squares because 12 = 22 = 32 = 42 = 52 = etc. 1 4 9 16 25
are the result of squaring a whole number. The square of a number is the result when a number is used as a factor twice. 25 is the square of 5 because 52 = 5 x 5 = 25
5 5
Here is another way to think of a perfect square. A perfect square is the product when a number is multiplied by itself. 25 is the square of 5 and a perfect square because it is the product of an integer { , -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, } multiplied by itself: 5 times 5. Here are other examples.
Perfect Squares
Number Square 1 1 2 4 3 9 4 16 5 25 6 36 7 49 8 64 natural numbers perfect squares
Numbers in the second row are called perfect squares. Perfect squares each have a square root that is a whole number.
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Practice
Complete the following chart. The first one has been done for you.
Exponential Form 1. 2. 3. 4. 83 34
Meaning 3333 10 x 10 x 10
Value 81
Verbal Description 3 to the fourth power
100
Answer the following. Show all your work. 5. Im thinking of a number. It is greater than 52. It is less than 152. Two and five divide my number. It is a perfect square. What is my number?
6. What is the largest number that you can write using only 2 digits? Hint: Think about powers because it is not 99.
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7. Wade the window washer hires himself out on the following basis: He charges 1 cent for the 1st window 2 cents for the 2nd window 4 cents for the 3rd window 8 cents for the 4th window 16 cents for the 5th window and so forth
Window Washing Rates

Rate 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.08 0.16 . . . ? Window 1 st 2 nd 3 rd 4 th 5 th . . . 32nd
At this rate, what would his cleaning bill be for the 32nd window?
Hint: Rewrite 2, 4, 8, and 16 in exponential form, with a base of 2. 20 = 1 21 = 2 22 = 4 23 = 8 Remember: Any number (except zero) to the zero power is defined as 1. So, 50 = 1 and 640 = 1.
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Powers of 10
If you multiply 10s together, the product is called a power of 10. An exponent can be used to show a power of 10. The exponent tells the number of times that 10 is a factor. 102 103 104 has a value of 100 has a value of 1,000 has a value of 10,000 Remember: The standard form of a number is a method of writing the common symbol for a numeral. The standard form for eight is 8. When the base of a number is 10, the exponent and the number of zeros for the standard form are the same. This is a nice shortcut. For example:
exponent base
10
= 10 10 10 10 = 10,000
4 factors of 10 4 zeros to represent the exponent 4 standard form
exponential form
factor form
10 48 10 is a factor 48 times and the standard form of the number has 48 zeros.
1,000,000,000,000 000,000,000,000 000,000,000,000 000,000,000,000
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Exponential Form
What if you are asked to write 512 in exponential form? You would need to do a factor tree to find the answer.
512 2 x 256 2 x 2 x 128 2 x 2 x 2 x 64 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 32 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 16 2 x2x 2 x2x 2 x 2x 8 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2x2 x 2 x 4 2 x 2x 2 x 2x 2 x 2x2 x 2x 2
The number 512 can be written as 29, or 2 to the ninth power.
This is 29. 29 is the exponential form of 512. Remember: A prime number is any whole number with only two factors, 1 and itself. 2 is a prime number. Dont stop until you have all prime numbers on the bottom of the factor tree. Here is a second example done two ways. You can start with any factor of 144.
144 2 72
144 12 12 3 4 3 4 3 22 3 2 2
This is 24 32.
2 2 36 2 2 2 18 2 2 2 2 9 2 2 2 2 3 3
This is 24 32.
24 32 is the exponential form of 144.
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You may also try upside down dividing. In this method, begin dividing by the smallest prime number that is a factor of the original number. Continue the process until the last quotient or the result of the division problem below is 1. For example:
2 )2,000 2 )1,000 2 ) 500 2 ) 250 5 ) 125 5 ) 25 5) 5 1
The smallest prime number factor of 2,000 is 2. The smallest prime number factor of 1,000 is 2. The smallest prime number factor of 500 is 2. The smallest prime number factor of 250 is 2. The smallest prime number factor of 125 is 5. The smallest prime number factor of 25 is 5. The smallest prime number factor of 5 is 5.
The prime factorization is the writing of a number as the product of prime numbers. The prime factorization of 2,000 includes each of these prime divisors: 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 5 x 5 x 5 = 24 x 53. 24 53 is the exponential form of 2,000.
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Practice
Answer the following. Show all of your work. 1. Write the following in exponential form. Use factor trees or upside down dividing. a. 81 = c. 56 =
b. 84 =
2. Write the letter of the correct answer. Which expression represents 53 104? a. 25 x 5 x 40 b. 15 x 40 c. 125 x 400 d. 5 x 5 x 5 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10
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3. The area (A) of your bedroom is 144 square feet. If the room is a square, find the length (l) and width (w).
l
area (A) = 144
length (l) =
144 square feet
width (w) =
4. Which is larger, 35 or 53? Explain why. Answer: Explanation: ______________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ 5. What is the value of 109? ____________________________________
22
Practice
Match each definition with the correct term. Write the letter on the line provided. ______ ______ ______ ______ 1. the number of times the base occurs as a factor 2. a rectangle with four sides the same length 3. the number that is used as a factor a given number of times 4. a collection of numbers, symbols, and/or operation signs that stands for a number 5. any number in the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, } 6. a one-dimensional measure that is the measurable property of line segments F. length (l) ______ 7. the inside region of a twodimensional figure measured in square units 8. the edge of a two-dimensional geometric figure 9. a number or expression that divides exactly another number A. area (A)
B. base (of an exponent)
C. exponent
D. expression
______ ______
E. factor
G. side
______ ______
H. square
I. square units
______ 10. a precisely fixed quantity used to measure measurement in inches, feet, yards, and miles; centimeters, meters, and kilometers ______ 11. units for measuring area; the measure of the amount of an area that covers a surface
J. unit (of length)
K. whole number
23
Practice
Use the list below to write the correct term for each definition on the line provided. cube (power) integers perfect square power (of a number) prime factorization prime number product quotient square (of a number) standard form width (w)
___________________________ 1. the numbers in the set { , -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, } ___________________________ 2. the result of a multiplication ___________________________ 3. writing a number as the product of prime numbers ___________________________ 4. the third power of a number ___________________________ 5. a method of writing the common symbol for a numeral ___________________________ 6. a number whose square root is a whole number ___________________________ 7. a one-dimensional measure of something side to side ___________________________ 8. the result when a number is multiplied by itself or used as a factor twice ___________________________ 9. any whole number with only two factors, 1 and itself __________________________ 10. the result of a division __________________________ 11. an exponent; the number that tells how many times a number is used as a factor
24
Using Square Roots

8
A checkerboard is a perfect square containing 64 little squares. Each side of a square has the same length and width. We know that 82 = 64, so each side of the checkerboard is 8 units. The opposite of squaring a number is called finding the square root (of a number). The square root of 64 or 64 is 8.
The square root of a number is shown by the symbol , which is called a radical sign or square root sign. The number underneath is called a radicand. The radical is an expression that has a root. A root is an equal factor of a number.
100 = 10 because 102 = 100

radical sign
100 radicand
radical
9 = 3 because 32 =
121 = 11 because 112 = 121
All the numbers used in this lesson so far have been easy. They have all been perfect squares. For example, 1, 4, 9, 16, 36, 49, 64, 81, and 100 are all perfect squares because their square roots are whole numbers. What do we do if the radicand is not a perfect square? We have three options to use to find the square root of a number: Option 1: We can refer to a square root chart. Below is a partial table of squares and square roots. See Appendix A for a more complete table.
6 2.449 This answer is rounded to the nearest thousandth.
Table of Squares and Approximate Square Roots n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 n2 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 100 n 1.000 1.414 1.732 2.000 2.236 2.449 2.646 2.828 3.000 3.162
Remember: The symbol, , means is approximately equal to. The symbol, , is used with a number that describes another number without specifying it exactly.
25
Option 2: We can use a calculator. Look for a key with the symbol. Enter 6, hit this key, and you will get 2.44948974278. This result is a decimal approximation of the 6 . You will have to round the number to the nearest thousandth.
6 = 2.44948974278 6 2.449
ON/C MRC
+
M + M OFF
CE
Option 3: We can estimate. We know
4 = 2 6 ? 9 = 3
6 is about half way between 4 and

would be 2.5.
, so a good guess
Note: Appendix B contains a list of mathematical symbols and their meanings and Appendix C contains formulas and conversions.
26
Practice
Use the Table of Squares and Approximate Square Roots in Appendix A to complete the following.
1. 2. 3.
33 80 49 =
Answer the following. 4. List all the perfect squares between 100 and 400. Remember: 100 is a perfect square because 102 = 100. ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ 5. Find the square root of 30 using the following three options. table of square roots: _________________________________________ calculator: __________________________________________________ estimation: _________________________________________________ Show all your work.
27
6. Your parents are planning to build a house with an area (A) of 1,600 square feet. A square house has more usable space than any other shape.
ON/C MRC
+
M + M OFF
CE
What would be the length (l) and width (w) of this house? Remember: Area equals length times width, A = lw.
1,600 square feet
length = width =
Find the perimeter (P) of this house. Remember: Perimeter is the distance around the house. P = 2l + 2w perimeter = _________________________________________________ Circle the larger number. 7. 8. 9. 3 4 or 121 169 or 14 74 or 2 3
2
Write the letter of the correct answer. 10. Which of the following approximates 256.48 ? a. b. c. d. 128.24 160.15 512.96 16.01
ON/C MRC
+
M + M OFF
CE
28
Use the Table of Squares and Approximate Square Roots in Appendix A to complete the following. 11. Using the table, run your finger down the column headed by n2 until you find 1,024. We now know that 322 = 1,024, so 1,024 = 32 . Use the table to find the following.
a. b. c. d. 5,041 = 3,249 = 2,025 = 9,801 =
12. Using the table, guess what 6,800 equals. Explain your reasoning. _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________
ON/C MRC
+
M + M OFF
Check yourself: Use a calculator to check your answer.
CE
29
Evaluating Algebraic ExpressionsOrder of Operations

Consider the following. Evaluate 5 + 4 3 = Is the answer 27 or is the answer 17? You could argue that both answers are valid, although 17 is the universally accepted answer. Mathematicians have agreed on the following order of operations. Rules for Order of Operations Always start on the left and move to the right. 1. 2. 3. 4. Do operations inside parentheses first. Then do all powers or roots. Next do multiplication or division, whichever comes first from left to right. Finally, do addition or subtraction, whichever comes first from left to right. ( ) , [ ], or x2 or x x or + or
x y
Note: The fraction bar sometimes comes in handy to show grouping. Example:
3x 2 + 8 2
= (3x + 8) 2
2
The order of operations makes sure everyone doing the problem will get the same answer. Some people remember these rules by using this mnemonic device to help their memory. Please Pardon My Dear Aunt Sally* Please .................... Parentheses Pardon ................... Powers My Dear ................. Multiplication or Division Aunt Sally .............. Addition or Subtraction * Also known as Please Excuse My Dear Aunt SallyParentheses, Exponents, Multiplication or Division, Addition or Subtraction.
30
Remember: You do multiplication or divisionwhichever comes first from left to right, and then addition or subtractionwhichever comes first from left to right. Study the following. 25 3 2 = There are no parentheses. There are no powers or roots. We look for multiplication or division and find multiplication. We multiply. We look for addition or subtraction and find subtraction. We subtract. 25 3 2 = 25 6 = 19 Study the following. 12 3 + 6 2 = There are no parentheses. There are no powers or roots. We look for multiplication or division and find division. We divide. We look for addition or subtraction and find addition. We add. 12 3 + 6 2 = 4+3= 7 If the rules were ignored, one might divide 12 by 3 and get 4, then add 4 and 6 to get 10, then divide 10 by 2 to get 5. Agreement is neededusing the agreed-upon order of operations.
31
Study the following. 30 33 = There are no parentheses. We look for powers and roots and find powers, 33. We calculate this. We look for multiplication or division and find none. We look for addition or subtraction and find subtraction. We subtract. 30 33 = 30 27 = 3 Study the following. 22 (5 + 24) + 7 6 2 = Please Pardon My Dear Aunt Sally Parentheses Powers Multiplication or Division Addition or Subtraction
We look for parentheses and find them. We must do what is inside the parentheses first. We find addition and a power. We do the power first and then the addition. There are no roots. We look for multiplication or division and find both. We do them in the order they occur, left to right, so the multiplication occurs first. We look for addition or subtraction and find both. We do them in the order they occur, left to right, so the subtraction occurs first. 22 (5 + 24) + 7 6 2 = 22 (5 + 16) + 7 6 2 = 22 21 + 7 6 2 = 22 21 + 42 2 = 22 21 + 21 = 1 + 21 = 22
22 (5 + 24) + 7 6 2 = 22 (5 + 16) + 7 6 2 = 22 21 + 7 6 2 = 22 21 + 42 2 = 22 21 + 21 = 1 + 21 = 22
32
Practice
Answer the following. Remember: Symbols of inclusionparentheses, ( ), or brackets, [ ]are used to tell which operation to do first. 1. 5 + 20 4 = 6. 100 [(5 2)2] + 3 = Hint: First do what is inside the parenthesis, then do what is inside the brackets.
2. 5 32 =
19 5 (3 1) 2+1
7. 3. 24 2 6 =
= Hint: Remember to simplify your answer.
4. 30 24 4 2 =
8. 102 2 (34 51) =
5. (6 + 2) 3 =
9. 10 23 2 =
Check yourself: Use the list of scrambled answers below and check your answers to problems 1-9 above. 3 4 6 10 18 24 42 45 72
33
10. Insert parentheses in the following so the answer is 10. 17 + 3 8 6 4 = 10 Use the list below to make each statement true. These numbers may only be used once per statement. 3 4 5 15
11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
+ +
= 12 = 20 = 25 = 23 = 3
Answer the following. 16. 6 + 4 5 2 = 18. 6 + 4 (5 2) =
17. (6 + 4) (5 2) =
19. (6 + 4) 5 2 =
34
Number the order of operations in the correct order. Write the numbers on the line provided. ______ 20. powers or roots ______ 21. multiplication or division ______ 22. addition or subtraction ______ 23. parentheses
35
Practice
Match each definition with the correct term. Write the letter on the line provided. ______ 1. the use of rounding and/or other strategies to determine a reasonably accurate approximation without calculating an exact answer 2. the order of performing computations 3. a number that appears under a radical sign 4. the third power of a number 5. the result of a multiplication 6. the number of times the base occurs as a factor 7. the symbol ( ) used before a number to show that the number is a radicand 8. the result when a number is multiplied by itself or used as a factor twice 9. the inside region of a twodimensional figure measured in square units F. order of operations G. product H. radical I. radical sign J. radicand K. root L. rounded number M. square (of a number) N. square root (of a number) A. area B. cube C. estimation D. exponent E. factor
______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______
______
______ 10. a number approximated to a specified place ______ 11. an expression that has a root ______ 12. a number or expression that divides exactly another number ______ 13. an equal factor of a number ______ 14. one of two equal factors of a number
36
Lesson Two Purpose

Associate verbal names, written word names, and standard numerals with integers, rational numbers, irrational numbers, and real numbers. (MA.A.1.4.1) Understand and explain the effects of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division on real numbers, including square roots, exponents, and appropriate inverse relationships. (MA.A.3.4.1) Add, subtract, multiply, and divide real numbers, including exponents, using appropriate methods of computing, such as mental mathematics, paper and pencil, and calculator. (MA.A.3.4.3)
Variables and Expressions

Suppose you are n years old today. In 4 years, your age can be described by the expression n + 4. Two years ago, your age would have been n 2. The letter n is a variable. A variable is any symbol that could represent a number. In this example, the variable represents your current age. Note that any letter of the alphabet or symbol can be used as a variable. A combination of operations, variables, and numbers is called a mathematical expression, algebraic expression, or simply an expression.
37
Here are sample phrases used to write mathematical expressions. Word Expression Addition: 5 increased by a number n a number y plus 2 a number t increased by 4 the sum of a number b and 5 10 more than a number m a number x minus 2 a number n less 3 5 less than a number t a number t less than 5 a number c decreased by 2 the difference of a number x and 5 Mathematical Expression 5+n y+2 t+4 b+5 m + 10 x2 n3 t5 5t c2 x5
Subtraction:
38
Word Expression
Mathematical Expression 4 x y, 4(y), 4 y, or 4y 3n 6t 2p 1 y 2

t 4 c 3 3 c
Multiplication: 4 times a number y (form used most often is 4y) the product of 3 and a number n 6 multiplied by a number t twice a number p 1 a number y 2 Division: a number y divided by 2 the quotient of t and 4 a number c divided by 3 3 divided by a number c the square of x the cube of a the fourth power of x
y 2
Power:
x2 a3 x4
Remember: 5n = 5 x n, 5(n), 5 n
x 3
=x3
39
Practice
Write a mathematical expression for each word expression. 1. 8 increased by a number y __________________________________ 2. 7 less than a number d _____________________________________ 3. 15 decreased by s __________________________________________ 4. 5 more than a number t ____________________________________ 5. the sum of a number y and 4 ________________________________ 6. 12 less a number x _________________________________________ 7. the product of 8 and a number d _____________________________ 8. 30 divided by a number b ___________________________________ 9. the sum of a number r and 10 _______________________________ 10. a number t minus 6 ________________________________________ 11. the quotient of 8 and a number c _____________________________ 12. 10 times a number y _______________________________________ 13. twice a number q __________________________________________ 14. the square of b ____________________________________________ 15. the cube of p ______________________________________________
40
Read the following.
Study These Expressions

Words three times x plus y three times the sum of x and y Symbols 3x + y 3(x + y)
In word expressions, look for key words that indicate that parentheses ( ) are to be used. Sometimes the words sum, difference, quantity, and total signal the use of parentheses. Write a mathematical expression for each word expression. Use parentheses ( ) where appropriate. 16. twice the sum of a number and 7 ____________________________ 17. one-half of the difference of a number x and 10 ________________ 18. twice a number increased by 8 ______________________________ 19. twice the total of a number and 5 ____________________________ Answer the following. 20. One of the following does not belong. Write a sentence explaining why. a. b. c. d. Multiply 5 and a number then subtract 7. Subtract the product of 5 and a number from 7. 5x 7 7 less than the product of 5 and a number.
_________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________
41
Evaluating Expressions
Here is how to evaluate mathematical expressions. Suppose you are 16, and we let your age be represented by the variable a. The variable a now has a given value of 16. Calculate your age as follows: a. in 4 more years b. divided by 2 c. twice your age increased by 2 d. the product of your age and 3 a + 4 = 16 + 4 = 20
a 2
16 2
=8
2a + 2 = 2(16) + 2 = 32 + 2 = 34 3a = 3(16) = 48
Suppose you are 16, and we let your age be represented by the variable a.
42
Practice
Use the given value of each variable below to evaluate each expression. x=6 1. x + 12 = y=8 z=2
6. 10 y =
2. y 5 =
7. x + y 2 =
3. x + z =
8. 20 y z =
4. x z =
9. x + x + x =
5. y x =
10. 10 + x x =
43
Practice
Use the given value of each variable below to evaluate each expression. x=6 1. 5y = y=8 6.
8 y
z=2 =
2.
y 2
7. 5y + 10 =
3. xz =
8.
20 z
x=
4.
y z
9. yz x =
5. 5xy =
10.
12 x
+ 12 =
44
Practice
Use the given value of each variable below to evaluate each expression. r=4 1. r increased by s s=5 t = 10 7. the product of r and s
2. the sum of r and t
8. s decreased by r
3. s less than t
9. the sum of s and t decreased by 9
4. t minus r
10. 12 divided by r, plus s
5. r more than 4
11. the cube of s increased by the sum of r and t
6. t divided by s
12. the square of s decreased by the quotient of t and s
45
Practice
Use the list below to write the correct term for each definition on the line provided.
decrease difference
increase sum
variable
____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
any symbol that could represent a number the result of an addition to make greater the result of a subtraction to make less
46
Practice
Match each definition with the correct term. Write the letter on the line provided. ______ 1. the result of a multiplication ______ 2. the result of a division ______ 3. a collection of numbers, symbols, and/or operation signs that stands for a number ______ 4. an exponent; the number that tells how many times a number is used as a factor ______ 5. the result when a number is multiplied by itself or used as a factor twice ______ 6. the third power of a number ______ 7. any of the numbers represented by the variable A. cube B. expression C. power (of a number) D. product E. quotient F. square (of a number) G. value
47
Lesson Three Purpose

Understand and explain the effects of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division on real numbers, including exponents and appropriate inverse relationships. (MA.A.3.4.1) Select and justify alternative strategies, such as using properties of numbers, including inverse, identity, and associative, that allow operational shortcuts for computational procedures in real-world or mathematical problems. (MA.A.3.4.2)
Solving Equations by Guessing

An equation is a mathematical sentence that equates one expression to another expression. For example, you know: 2+2 = 4 2 32 = 18 Now, consider this equation: 2(x + 3) = 14 What number could I use in place of the variable x, so that the left side is equal to the right side? We can guess. It must be a number that when multiplied by 2 equals 14. 2 x ? = 14 We know that 2 7 = 14, and we know that (4 + 3) = 7. Therefore 4 is a solution to this equation. 4 is the value of the variable x. x=4
48 Unit 1: Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations
The equation is solved by substituting or replacing x in the original equation with the value of 4. 2(x + 3) = 14 2(4 + 3) = 14 2(7) = 14 14 = 14 The solution of 4 makes the equation true. Finding the value of a variable that makes a mathematical sentence true is called solving the equation. The value of the variable is called the solution of the equation.
49
Practice
Guess the answers to the following. 1. x + 4 = 20 (Think: What number can you add to 4 to get 20?) x= x 4 = 20 (Think: What number can you subtract 4 from to get 20?) x= 4x = 20 (Think: 4 times what number is 20?) x=
x 4
2.
3.
4.
= 20 (Think: What number can you divide by 4 to get 20?) x=
5.
6(x + 3) = 48 x= 6x2 = 24 x= (2x)2 = 36 x=
6.
7.
Decide whether 5 is a solution to the following problems. Write yes if the solution is 5. Write no if the solution is not 5. __________ 8. 23 x = 6
__________ 9.
2x + 3x = 25
_________ 10.
130 x
= 26
50
Properties
Guessing is an acceptable way to solve simple equations, but we need to develop strategies which will help us solve harder equations. Before we do this, we need to examine some basic properties which will help us work with variables. These properties will help us make the leap from simple to more complex equations.
Order (Commutative Property) Commutative Property of Addition: Numbers can be added in any order and the sum will be the same. 10 + 2 = 2 + 10 x+2=2+x Commutative Property of Multiplication: Numbers can be multiplied in any order and the product will be the same. 2 10 =10 2 2 x= x 2
Grouping (Associative Property) Associative Property of Addition: Numbers can be grouped in any order and the sum will be the same. (5 + 3) + 2 = 5 + (3 + 2) (5 + x) + y = 5 + (x + y) Associative Property of Multiplication: Numbers can be grouped in any order and the product will be the same. (5 3) 2 = 5 (3 2) (5 x) y = 5 (x y)
Identity Properties Additive Identity: The sum of any number and zero is the number. 5+0=5 x+0=x Inverse Properties Additive Inverse: The sum of any number and its additive inverse is 0. 3 + -3 = 0 4x 3 and -3 are additive inverses, also called opposites.
1
Multiplicative Identity: The product of any number and one is the number. 51=5 x1=x
Multiplicative Inverse: The product of any number and its multiplicative inverse (reciprocal) is 1.
1 4
=1
4 and 4 are multiplicative inverses, also called reciprocals.
51
Practice
Answer the following. 1. Why are division and subtraction not listed as commutative operations? Give examples to show your reasoning. Answer:__________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Examples:
2. Unfortunately, little Ben has lost his calculator and needs to add 4 + 5 + 16 + 15. Since we can add in any order, what would be a quick way to group the numbers and get the sum? Answer:__________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ 3. Do the following calculation mentally by using the properties on the previous page, then explain your strategy. 25 16 4
Answer:__________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Explain: __________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________
52
Study the following examples on simplifying before attempting the problems that follow. To simplify an expression, perform as many of the indicated operations as possible. To simplify a fraction, write the fraction in lowest terms or simplest form. Example one (y + 2) + 3 = y + (2 + 3) = y+5 Example two (7 x) 3 = (x 7) 3 = x (7 3) = x 21 = 21 x = commutative property of multiplication associative property of multiplication commutative property of multiplication associative property of addition
Simplify each expression below using the properties from page 51. 4. (x + 3) + 4 = 7. 11 + (2 + x) =
5. (x 6) 5 =
8. (m 4) 7 =
6. 5 (4x) =
9. (1 x) 5 =
53
Answer the following. 10. Is 0 + xy the same as yx? Explain: __________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ 11. Is b + 9a the same as 9a + b? Explain: __________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ 12. Is 2x 5y the same as 5y 2x? Explain: __________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ 13. Is 15 3 the same as 3 15? Explain: __________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________
54
Solving One-Step Equations

Solving equations is very similar to keeping a see-saw balanced. For the see-saw to stay balanced, we know that we have to keep each side the same. Whatever we do to one side of an equation, we have to do to the other.
x+8 x + 8 -8 x+0 x 20 20 -8 12 12 subtract 8 from both sides
Remember: Our goal is to isolate the variable. Study the following examples.
Left Right a. x + 8 = 20 8 8 x + 0 = 12 x = 12 b. x 12 = 13 + 12 + 12 x + 0 = 25 x = 25 c. 5x
5x 5
1 5x 1 5
subtract 8 from both sides
Addition and subtraction are inverse (or opposite) operations. We were able to undo the adding by subtracting because 8 and -8 are additive inverses or opposites. We were able to undo the subtraction by adding.
add 12 to both sides
= 25 = = = =
25 5
5 25 15
divide both sides by 5
1x x d.
x 5 5 x 15 15 x 1 15
5 5
Multiplication and division are inverse operations. We can undo multiplication by dividing because 5 and 1 5 are multiplicative inverses, or reciprocals. We can undo division by multiplying.
= 10 = 5 10 = 5 10 = 5(10) = 50 = 50 = 50 multiply both sides by 5
x 1
1x 1x x
55
Remember: Multiplying a number by its reciprocal results in a product of 1. Any two numbers with a product of 1 are called multiplicative inverses. Here are some examples:
Number
7 8
Reciprocal
8 7 1 8 3 1
Product
7 8
8 7 1 8 3 1
=1 =1 =1
8
1 3
8x
1 3
Left e. 5
15
Right = 6 = 56 = 56 multiply both sides by 5 We can use the reciprocal of a fraction to isolate the variable.
1x 5 1 5x
1 x 1 15
1 1x = 30 1x = 30 x = 30 f.
7 3
17
3 7
x = 21
7 3
3 7x =
21
13 17 x 1 3
7 7 21 1 1 3
multiply both 7 sides by 3
Use the reciprocal of the fraction to isolate the variable.
1 1x = 49 1x = 49 x = 49
56
Practice
Solve these equations. Write each answer in simplest form. Show all stepslearning the procedure is as important as getting the solution. 1. 5 + x = 14 6.
x 4
=2
2.
1 3
x = 51
7. 6x = 2
3. 3x = 51
8. 2.5y = 37.5
4. x 16 = 7
9. n + 4.73 = 5.56
5.
3 4x
=9
57
Practice
Study the following examples. Then solve the equations below. Write each answer in simplest form. Show all steps.
Example 1 (x + 10) + 2 = 25 x + (10 + 2) = 25 x + 12 = 25 12 12 x = 13 Example 2 10 = x 5 x 5 = 10 flip the sides of the equation, if you wish 5 5 divide both sides by 5 x = 2 simplify by using associative property subtract 12 from both sides
1. 7.2 = 0.36y
4. (x + 2) + 9 = 12
2. x 8 = 7
5. (1 x) 5 = 20
3. (3x) 4 = 24
58
Practice
Match each definition with the correct term. Write the letter on the line provided. _______ 1. two numbers whose sum is zero _______ 2. a mathematical sentence that equates one expression to another expression _______ 3. two numbers whose product is 1; also called multiplicative inverses _______ 4. write fraction in lowest terms or simplest form _______ 5. any value for a variable that makes an equation or inequality a true statement _______ 6. the way in which three or more numbers are grouped for addition or multiplication does not change their sum or product Example: (5 + 6) + 9 = 5 + (6 + 9) or (2 x 3) x 8 = 2 x (3 x 8) _______ 7. the order in which any two numbers are added or multiplied does not change their sum or product Example: 2 + 3 = 3 + 2 or 4x7=7x4 _______ 8. to replace a variable with a numeral _______ 9. to perform as many of the indicated operations as possible _______ 10. to find all numbers that make an equation or inequality true I. solve A. associative property
B. commutative property
C. equation
D. opposites
E. reciprocals
F. simplify a fraction
G. simplify an expression
H. solution
J. substitute
59
Practice
Use the list below to write the correct term for each definition on the line provided.
additive identity additive inverses fraction inverse operation
multiplicative identity multiplicative inverses simplest form
____________________
1.
any number representing some part of a a whole; of the form b the number zero (0), that is, adding 0 does not change a numbers value a fraction whose numerator and denominator have no common factor greater than 1 a number and its opposite whose sum is zero (0) the number one (1), that is, multiplying by 1 does not change a numbers value any two numbers with a product of 1; also called reciprocals an action that cancels a previously applied action
____________________
2.
____________________
3.
____________________
4.
____________________
5.
____________________
6.
____________________
7.
60
Lesson Four Purpose

Understand that numbers can be represented in a variety of equivalent forms, including integers, fractions, decimals, exponents, and absolute value. (MA.A.1.4.4) Understand and use the real number system. (MA.A.2.4.2) Understand and explain the effects of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division on real numbers, including exponents and appropriate inverse relationships. (MA.A.3.4.1) Add, subtract, multiply, and divide real numbers, including exponents, using appropriate methods of computing, such as mental mathematics, paper and pencil, and calculator. (MA.A.3.4.3)
Negative Numbers
Numbers were invented by people. The positive numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, were probably invented first, and were used for counting. Eventually, there was a need for 3 numbers like 4.5 and 4 . Positive numbers are numbers greater than zero. Negative numbers were invented to represent things like temperatures below freezing, overdrawn bank balances, owing money, loss, or going backwards. Negative numbers are numbers less than zero. We frequently represent numbers on a number line.
-4
-3
-2
-1
Numbers to the left of zero (also called the origin or the beginning) are negative, numbers to the right are positive. The set of numbers used on the number line above is called the set of integers. This set can be written { , -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, }. The bigger the number, the farther it is to the right. The smaller the number, the farther it is to the left. A number is considered positive if it does not have a sign written in front of it.
Unit 1: Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations 61
Adding Numbers by Using a Number Line

We are going to get a visual feel for adding integers by using a number line and taking trips. Trip One: Add 2 + 3
-1
1. Start at 2. 2. Move 3 units to the right in the positive direction. 3. Finish at 5. So, 2 + 3 = 5.
-1 0 1
(start)
3 units
Trip Two: Add -2 + -3 1. Start at -2. 2. Move 3 units to the left in the negative direction. 3. Finish at -5. So, -2 + -3 = -5. -6 -5 -4 -3 -2
(start)
-1
3 units
62
Trip Three:
Add -5 + 2
1. Start at -5. 2. Move 2 units to the right in a positive direction. 3. Finish at -3. So, -5 + 2 = -3.
-5
(start)
-4
-3
-2
-1
2 units
Trip Four: Add 6 + -3 1. Start at 6. 2. Move 3 units to the left in a negative direction. 3. Finish at 3. So 6 + -3 = 3. -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
(start)
3 units
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Practice
Add the following by visualizing moves on the number line.
-14 -13 -12 -11 -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
1. 6 + -5 = 2. 7 + -3 = 3. 5 + -2 = 4. -4 + 1 = 5. -5 + 3 =
6. -1 + 4 = 7. -6 + -5 = 8. -12 + -1 = 9. 12 + -1 = 10. -5 + 5 =
Check yourself: Add all your answers for problems 1-10 above. Did you get a sum of -7? If yes, complete the practice. If no, correct your work before continuing. Write true if the statement is correct. Write false if the statement is not correct. If the statement is false, give an example to support your answer. _________ 11. The sum of two negative numbers is always negative. _________________________________________________ _________ 12. A negative number plus a positive number is always negative. _________________________________________________ _________ 13. A positive number plus a negative number is always positive. _________________________________________________
64
Graph of a Number
To graph a number means to draw a dot at the point that represents that integer. A point represents an exact location. The number paired with a point is called the coordinate of the point. The graph of zero (0) on a number line is called the origin. Below is a graph of {-3, -2, 0, 1, 4}. origin coordinate of 1 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
negative numbers
positive numbers
Number line shows coordinates of points -3, -2, 0, 1, and 4.
65
Practice
Complete the following. 1. Draw a number line and graph the integers 0, 4, -3, and 7.
Write the integer that represents each situation described. Problem 2 has been done for you. -50 feet 2. 50 feet below sea level______________________________________ 3. A loss of $5 _______________________________________________ 4. A gain of 10 pounds _______________________________________ 5. 3 degrees below zero _______________________________________ 6. An elevation of 1,000 feet ___________________________________ 7. A profit of $200 ___________________________________________ Order the following integers from least to greatest. 8. -1, 2, -2, 0, -4 ______________________________________________ 9. -7, -8, -9, 2, 3 ______________________________________________ 10. 6, 4, -4, 0, -5, 2 _____________________________________________
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Answer the following. 11. Is there a greatest positive integer? ___________________________ If so, name it. _____________________________________________ 12. Is there a least positive integer? ______________________________ If so, name it. _____________________________________________ 13. Is there an integer which is neither positive nor negative? _______ If so, name it. _____________________________________________
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Opposites and Absolute Value

We can visualize the process of adding by using a number line, but there are faster ways to add. To accomplish this, we must know two things: opposites or additive inverses and absolute value. Opposites or Additives Inverses 5 and -5 are called opposites. Opposites are two numbers whose points on the number line are the same distance from 0 but in opposite directions.
opposites
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
The opposite of 0 is 0.
Every positive integer can be paired with a negative integer. These pairs are called opposites. For example, the opposite of 4 is -4 and the opposite of -5 is 5. The opposite of 4 can be written -(4), so -(4) equals -4. -(4) = -4 The opposite of -5 can be written -(-5), so -(-5) equals 5. -(-5) = 5 Two numbers are opposites or additive inverses of each other if their sum is zero. For example: 4 + -4 = 0 -5 + 5 = 0
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Absolute Value The absolute value of a number is the distance the number is from the origin or zero (0) on a number line. The symbol | | placed on either side of a number is used to show absolute value. Look at the number line below. -4 and 4 are different numbers. However, they are the same distance in number of units from 0. Both have the same absolute value of 4. Absolute value is always positive because distance is always positiveyou cannot go a negative distance.
-4 4 units
= 4 The absolute value of a number is always positive. 4 units
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
The absolute value 0 is 0. -4 denotes the absolute value of -4. -4 = 4 4 denotes the absolute value of 4. 4 =4
The absolute value of 10 is 10. We can use this notation:

10 = 10
The absolute value of -10 is also 10. We can use this notation:
-10 = 10
Both 10 and -10 are 10 units away from the origin. Consequently, the absolute value of both numbers is 10. Now that we have this terminology under our belt, we can introduce two rules for adding numbers which will enable us to add quickly.
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Adding Positive and Negative Integers

There are specific rules for adding positive and negative numbers. 1. If the two integers have the same sign, keep the sign and add their absolute values. Example: -5 + -7 Think: Both signs are negative. -5 = 5 -7 = 7 5 + 7 = 12
The sign will be negative because both signs were negative. Therefore, the answer is -12. -5 + -7 = -12 2. If the two integers have opposite signs, subtract the absolute values. The answer has the sign of the integer with the greater absolute value. Example: -8 + 3 Think: Signs are opposite.
-8 = 8 3 =3 83=5
The sign will be negative because 8 has the greater absolute value. Therefore the answer is -5. -8 + 3 = -5
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Example: -6 + 8 Think: Signs are opposite.
-6 = 6 8 =8 86=2
The sign will be positive because 8 has a greater absolute value. Therefore the answer is 2. -6 + 8 = 2
Example: 5 + -7 Think: Signs are opposite.

5 =5 -7 = 7 75=2
The sign will be negative because 7 has the greater absolute value. Therefore the answer is -2. 5 + -7 = -2
Rules to Add Integers The sum of two positive integers is positive. The sum of two negative integers is negative. The sum of a positive integer and a negative integer takes the sign of the greater absolute value. The sum of a positive integer and a negative integer is zero if numbers have the same absolute value.
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Practice
Answer the following. 1. 14 + -6 = 11.
-6 =
2. 9 + -19 =
12. -(-6) =
3. -5 + -11 =
13. -6 + 6 =
4. -3 + 17 =
14. -6 + -6 =
5. -8 + 2 =
15. -(-(-(-6))) =
6. -7 + -9 =
16. -6 + -3 + 14 =
7. 7 + -9 =
17. -10 + -7 + 2 =
8. -7 + 9 =
18. -30 + 6 + 29 =
9. -9 + 7 =
19. -17 + 6 + -11 + 22 =
10. -26 + -74 = Check yourself: Use a calculator with a +/- sign-change key to check problems 16-19 above.
+
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For example, for -16 + 4, you would enter 16 +/answer -12.
4 = and get the
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Practice
Use the given value of each variable below to evaluate each expression. a = -2 1. 8 + a = b=5 c = -5 4. b + c + 10 =
2. 13 + c =
5. a =
3. a + b + c =
6. a + b =
Answer the following. Remember: Operations within absolute value signs must be done first.
7.
-5 + -7 =
10.
- -5 + - -7 =
8.
-5 + -7 =
11.
-(-5) + -(-7) =
9.
- -5 + -7 =
73
12. A submarine is 1500 meters below sea level descends an additional 1200 meters. How far below sea level is the submarine now?
13. Below is a magic square. The sum of the numbers in each row, column, and diagonal of a magic square are the same. Each has a sum of 0. Complete the square.
-3
-1
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Subtracting Integers
In the last section, we saw that 8 plus -3 equals 5. 8 + (-3) = 5 From elementary school we know that 8 minus 3 equals 5. 83=5 Below are similar examples. 10 + (-7) = 3 10 7 = 3 12 + (-4) = 8 12 4 = 8
These three examples show that there is a connection between adding and subtracting. As a matter of fact we can make any subtraction problem into an addition problem and vice versa. This idea leads us to the following definition: Definition of Subtraction a b = a + (-b)
Examples:
8 10 = 8 + (-10) = -2 12 20 = 12 + (-20) = -8 -2 3 = -2 + (-3) = -5
Even if we have
8 (-8), this becomes 8 plus the opposite of -8, which equals 8. 8 + -(-8) = 8 + 8 = 16
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And
-9 (-3), this becomes -9 plus the opposite of -3, which equals 3. -9 + -(-3) -9 + 3 = -6 Shortcut Two negatives become one positive! 10 (-3) becomes 10 plus 3. 10 + 3 = 13
And
-10 (-3) becomes -10 plus 3. -10 + 3 = -7
Generalization: Subtracting Integers Subtracting an integer is the same as adding its opposite. a b = a + (-b)
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Practice
Answer the following. 1. 12 20 = 7. 8 20 =
2. 15 (-21) =
8. 0 (-15) =
3. -30 (-7) =
9. -12 10 =
4. -40 30 =
10. -10 (-5) =
5. -2 (-8) =
11. 3 24 =
6. 135 (-165) =
12. -50 20 =
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Check yourself: Use a calculator with a sign-change key to check problems 9-12.
signchange key
For example, for 18 (-34), you would enter 18 34 +/= and get the answer 52.
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Practice
Answer the following. The first one has been done for you. Remember: Do operations within parentheses first. 1. 154 (-43 27) = 154 (-43 + (-27)) = 154 (-70) = 154 + 70 = 224 2. 300 (58 70) = 7. 2 9 =
8. 6 (-4) =
3. (33 45) (64 78) =
9. 9 6 + 5 =
4. 8 (-3) (4 (-6)) =
10. -14 + 3 8 =
5. 1 2 + 4 8 + 16 =
11. - -8 (-5) + 2 =
6. 200 195 + 71 66 + 18 29 =
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12. A football team gained 3 yards, lost 5 yards, and gained 12 yards. What was the result?
13. A mountain climber is located at 4000 meters above sea level. A submarine is located at 1000 meters below sea level. What is their difference?
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Multiplying Integers
What patterns do you notice? 3(4) = 12 24=8 1(4) = 4 04=0 -1(4) = -4 -2 4 = -8 -3(4) = -12 Ask yourself: What is the sign of the product of two positive integers? 3(4) = 12 24=8 positive What is the sign of the product of two negative integers? -1(-4) = 4 -2 -4 = 8 positive What is the sign of the product of a positive integer and a negative integer or a negative integer and a positive integer? 3(-4) = -12 -2 4 = -8 negative What is the sign of the product of any integer and 0? 04=0 0 -4 = 0 neither, zero is neither positive or negative You can see that the sign of a product depends on the signs of the numbers being multiplied. Therefore, you can use the following rules to multiply integers. 3(-4) = -12 2 -4 = -8 1(-4) = -4 0 -4 = 0 -1(-4) = 4 -2 -4 = 8 -3(-4) = 12
Rules to Multiply Integers The product of two positive integers is positive. The product of two negative integers is positive. The product of two integers with different signs is negative. The product of any integer and 0 is 0.
80
Practice
Answer the following. Alert: For emphasis, the symbol (+) has been used for positive numbers.
1. -5 0 = 2. -6 +4 = 3.
+
8. -9 -8 = 9. -3 +5 = 10. -6 -4 = 11. -12 +12 = 12. -15 -10 = 13. -16 +14 = 14.
+
9 +5 =
4. -3 -3 = 5. 6. 7.
+
70= 9 -9 = 4 -7 =
12 +12 =
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Check yourself: Use a calculator with a +/- sign-change key to check problems 11-14 above. x 7 +/= and get
For example, for -13 -7, you would enter 13 +/the answer 91.
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Practice
Use the given value of each variable below to evaluate each expression. a = -6 1. a + b = b = -3 c=0 3. ad = d = +8
2. c b =
4. d + c =
Check yourself: Use the list of scrambled answers below and check your answers to problems 1-4 above. -48 -9
+
Did you get numbers 1-4 above correct? If yes, complete the practice. If no, correct your work before continuing.
5. cb =
10. bb =
6. a + c =
11. b + d =
7. d b =
12. d a =
8. da =
13. a(b + c) =
9. a b =
14. ab + ac =
82
15. a(b c) =
18. a + (b + c) =
16. ab ac =
19. (a b) d =
17. (a + b) + c =
20. a (b d) =
83
Dividing Integers
Think: 1. What would you multiply +6 by to get +42?
+
6 ? = +42 Answer: +7 because +6 +7 = +42
2. What would you multiply -6 by to get -54? -6 ? = -54 Answer: +9 because -6 +9 = -54 3. What would you multiply -15 by to get 0? -15 ? = 0 Answer: 0 because -15 0 = 0 Remember: The result of dividing is a quotient. Example: 42 divided by 7 results in a quotient of 6.
42 7 = 6 quotient
To find the quotient of 12 and 4 we write: 4)12 or 12 4 or

12 4
Each problem above is read 12 divided by 4. In each form, the quotient is 3.

quotient divisor 3 4)12 divisor or 12 4 = 3 dividend quotient or dividend
12 4
=3
quotient
dividend
divisor
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In 12 4 , the bar separating 12 and 4 is called a fraction bar. Just as subtraction is the reverse of addition, division is the reverse of multiplication. This means that division can be checked by multiplication. 4)12 3 because 3 4 = 12
Division of integers is related to multiplication of integers. The sign rules for division can be discovered by writing a related multiplication problem. For example, same signs positive quotient (or product)
6 2 -6 -2
different signs negative quotient (or product)

-6 2 6 -2
= 3 because 3 2 = 6 = 3 because 3 -2 = -6
= -3 because -3 2 = -6 = -3 because -3 -2 = 6
Below are the rules used to divide integers.
Rules to Divide Integers The quotient of two positive integers is positive. The quotient of two negative integers is positive. The quotient of two integers with different signs is negative. The quotient of 0 divided by any nonzero integer is 0.
Note the special division properties of 0: 09=0
0 5
0 -9 = 0
0 -5
=0
=0
0 15) 0
0 -15) 0
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Remember: Division by 0 is undefined. The quotient of any number and 0 is not a number.
We say that
Likewise
0 0
+9
+5
0,
+ 15
0,
-9 -5 0, 0,
and
-15 0
are undefined.
is undefined.
For example, try to divide 134 0. To divide, think of the related multiplication problem. ? x 0 = 134 Any number times 0 is 0so mathematicians say that division by 0 is undefined.
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Practice
Give each quotient. 1.
+
20 + 2 =
4. -36 +9 =
2.
24 -3 =
5. -56 -7 =
3. -30 -5 =
Check yourself: Use the list of scrambled answers below and check your answers to problems 1-5 above. -8 -4 6 8 10
Alert: From this point on the raised plus sign (+) will not be used when writing a positive integer. 6. 14 -2 = 11.
36 -9
7. -64 -8 =
12.
49 -7
8. 0 7 =
13.
-36 -6
9. 28 -4 =
14.
0 10
10. -48 8 =
15.
-48 -6
87
16.
7 0
19.
0 12
17.
64 8
20.
-72 -9
18.
-45 9
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Check yourself: Use a calculator with a +/- sign-change key to check problems 16-20.
-54 9
For example, for answer -6.
, you would enter 54 +/- 9 = and get the
88
Practice
Answer the following. 1. 3 + 13 = 6. -45 + 20 =
2. 17 24 =
7. 48 -30 =
3. -9 12 =
8. 16 + -28 =
4. -10 -10 =
9. 3 -35 =
5.
10 -5
10.
35 -7
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Use the given value of each variable below to evaluate each expression. r = -48 11. s + r = s = 12 t = -6 19. u(t + s) = u=3
12. t r =
20. u(s t) =
13. ut =
21. s(t t) =
14.
r t
22.
r r
u u
15.
s u
23. s 2
s t
16. r st =
24. u2 + t 2 =
17.
r u
s=
25. r + s + t + u =
18. ts + tu =
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Practice
Use the list below to complete the following statements. absolute value coordinate graph a number negative numbers number line origin point positive numbers
1. 2.
are numbers greater than zero. are numbers less than zero. .
3. We frequently represent numbers on a 4. To represents that integer. 5. A represents an exact location.
means to draw a dot at the point that
6. The number paired with a point is called the of the point. 7. The graph of zero (0) on a number line is called the . 8. The of a number is the distance the
number is from the origin or zero (0) on a number line.
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Lesson Five Purpose

Understand the relative size of integers, rational numbers, and real numbers. (MA.A.1.4.2) Understand and use the real number system. (MA.A.2.4.2) Understand and explain the effects of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division on real numbers, including appropriate inverse relationships. (MA.A.3.4.1) Use estimation strategies in complex situations to predict results and to check the reasonableness of results. (MA.A.4.4.1)
Comparing and Ordering Numbers

Here is how to use the number line to compare two integers.
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
smaller to the left
larger to the right
Notice that values increase as you move to the right. The number line above shows that -4 < -1 and it shows that 3 > -4 1 > -2 0 > -4 (> is greater than) -1 < 2 0<3 (< is less than)
Each mathematical sentence above shows the order relationship between two quantities. The sentences compare two unequal expressions and use < (less than) and > (greater than) symbols. These sentences state one expression is less than or greater than another expression and are called inequalities.
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On the number line below, the integers graphed were used to write two inequalities.
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Since -5 is to the left of -1, we can write -5 < -1. Since -1 is to the right of -5, we can write -1 > -5. Remember: The is greater than (>) or is less than (<) symbols always point to the lesser number.
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Practice
Use the numbers in each word sentence to write an inequality. Use < (is less than) or > (is greater than) to make a true statement. 1. -5 is less than 10. __________________________________________ 2. 12 is greater than 8. ________________________________________ 3. -12 C is colder than -5 C. __________________________________ 4. 70 mph is faster than 50 mph. _______________________________ 5. $29.95 is more than $20.00. __________________________________ 6. 5 feet is taller than 3 feet. ___________________________________ Write <, >, or = in each blank to make a true statement. 7. 8. 3 2 6 -5 2 6 -2 -3 0 5 7 16. -3 -12 19 -19 19 -19 3
17. -17 18. 19. 17 17
9. -4 10. -5 11. 4
20. -17 21. 22. 23. 24.
12. -5 13. -3 14. -8 15. 0
-3
-3 6
-3
-6 -5
-5
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Practice
Order the numbers from least to greatest. 1. {7, 0, -3} __________________________________________________ 2. {10, -9, -1} ________________________________________________ 3. {0, -4, -8, -3} _______________________________________________ Use the list below to complete the following statements. greater greater than 4. All 5. All 6. 7. Zero is 8. A negative integer is integer. 9. A positive integer is integer. Circle the letter of the correct answer. 10. If -3 is multiplied by a number greater than 1, which of the following describes the results? a. b. c. d. A number between -3 and 3. A number greater than 3. A number less than -3. A number greater than -3. less negative positive zero
integers are greater than 0. integers are less than 0. is neither positive or negative than any negative integer. than any positive
any negative
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Solving Inequalities
An inequality is formed when an inequality symbol is placed between two expressions. Solving an inequality is similar to solving an equation. An inequality is any mathematical sentence that compares two unequal expressions using one of the following inequality symbols:
Inequality Symbol > < Meaning is greater than is greater than or equal to is less than is less than or equal to is not equal to
In inequalities, numbers or expressions are compared. These are inequalities.

2>9x is greater than 2+24 is greater than or equal to y3<4 is less than 8 x 4 50 is less than or equal to 6r 8 is not equal to
96
Examples:
A. x 3 <7 x3+3 <7+3 x < 10 B. y + 4 > 12 y + 4 4 > 12 4 y > 8 C.
d 3 d (3) 3 (3) d 3
add 3 to both sides simplify
subtract 4 from both sides simplify
5 5(3) 5(3) 15 14 14 2 14 2 7
multiply both sides by 3 3s cancel on the left side simplify
D.
2n
2n 2 2n 2
n E. 15 15 + 2 17
divide both sides by 2 2s cancel on left side simplify
>y2 notice that the variable is on the right > y 2 + 2 add 2 to both sides > y simplify
This solution may also be rewritten with the variable stated first. So instead of 17 > y, it reads y < 17. Remember: When the variable and the solution switch sides, the inequality symbol also changes to keep the solution the same. As y < 17, the solution states that any number less than 17 is a solution of the problem. In other words, three solutions could be as follows: -10, or 0, or 12. However, keep in mind that there are infinitely many more numbers that are solutions.
97
Practice
State two solutions for each inequality. 1. x < 5 2. y 12.5 3. 30 < x 4. x 10 5. y > 0
Solve each inequality. Show all steps. 6. a + 3 < 11 11. 13n < 52
7. y 2 > 9
12. y 14 16
8. 5t 40
13.
x 6
9. 14 t + 14
14.
y 2
100
10. 12 s 5
15.
a 1.5
1.5
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Write an inequality that represents the word sentence. Then solve the inequality. 16. Ten plus c is greater than or equal to nineteen.
17. The difference of y and 7 is less than 23.
18. Two times x is less than twenty-two.
19. The product of x and 2 is greater than 40.
20. Thirteen is less than or equal to the quotient of y and 5.
99
Practice
Use the list below to complete the following statements. cube (power) decrease exponent factor increase inequality product quotient square (of a number) sum
____________________
1.
the number of times the base occurs as a factor the result of a multiplication the result of a division a sentence that states one expression is greater than (>), greater than or equal to (), less than (<), less than or equal to (), or not equal to () another expression to make greater the result when a number is multiplied by itself or used as a factor twice the third power of a number the result of an addition to make less a number or expression that divides exactly another number
____________________ ____________________ ____________________
2. 3. 4.
____________________ ____________________
5. 6.
____________________ ____________________ ____________________
7. 8. 9.
____________________ 10.
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Practice
Match each definition with the correct term. Write the letter on the line provided. ______ 1. an exponent; the number that tells how many times a number is used as a factor ______ 2. the same number expressed in different forms ______ 3. any of the numbers represented by the variable ______ 4. a numbers distance from zero (0) on the number line ______ 5. numbers less than zero ______ 6. numbers greater than zero ______ 7. the inside region of a twodimensional figure measured in square units ______ 8. the order of performing computations in parentheses first, then exponents or powers, followed by multiplication and division, then addition and subtraction ______ 9. one of two equal factors of a number ______ 10. a fraction whose numerator and denominator have no common factor greater than 1 F. positive numbers C. equivalent (form of a number) A. absolute value
B. area (A)
D. negative numbers
E. order of operations
G. power (of a number)
H. simplest form
I. square root (of a number)
J. value (of a variable)
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Unit Review
Part A Match each word expression with its equivalent mathematical expression. Write the letter on the line provided. Note: Equivalent means the same number expressed in different forms. ______ 1. the cube of x divided by 10, plus y ______ 2. 15 less a number y ______ 3. the square of x ______ 4. the sum of a number x and 15 ______ 5. the quotient of 3 and a number x ______ 6. the product of 3 and a number x ______ 7. 15 less than a number y G. ______ 8. the cube of x increased by the sum of y and 10 ______ 9. the sum of x cubed and y divided by 10 ______ 10. a number x decreased by 3 A. x + 15 B.
3 x
C. x3 + (y + 10) D. y 15 E.
x3 10
+y
F. 15 y
x3 + y 10
H. x2 I. x 3 J. 3 x
102
Complete the following chart.
Exponential Form 11. 3

5
Meaning
Value
Verbal Description
12.
444
13.
121
14.
5 to the third power
15. Use a factor tree to write 36 in exponential form.
16. What is the value of 109? ____________________________________
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Use either a calculator or the Table of Squares and Approximate Square Roots in Appendix A to answer the following. Round to the nearest thousandth.
Numbers 17-19 are gridded-response items. Write answers along the top of the grid and correctly mark them below. 17. 89 Mark your answer on the grid to the right.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
18.
1,600 =
Mark your answer on the grid to the right.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
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19.
47 Mark your answer on the grid to the right.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
20. The area of a room is 289 square feet. If the room is a square, find the length and width. length (l) = width (w) =
Use the rules for the order of operations to find the answer. 21. 10 + 23 2 = 24. 100 10 2 =
22. 4 52 =
25. 10 + 100 2 =
23.
25 6(5 2) 4+3
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Unit Review
Part B Simplify the following expression. State the properties that you use. 26. (y 6) 4 =
Use the given value of each variable below to evaluate each expression. x = 10 27.
xy z
y = 12
z=2
5y =
28. 2y + 10 =
29. the square of x increased by the sum of y and z
30. the square of x decreased by the quotient of y and z
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Do not use your calculator to answer the following.
CE
31.
-10 =
35. -10 20 = 36. -10 (-20) = 37. (-10) (-5) =
32. -(-10) 33. 10 + -20 = 34. -10 + -20 =
Use the given value of each variable to evaluate each expression. a = 10 38. a(b + c) = b = -5 c = -4 d=0
40. bd + ba =
39. ab c =
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Solve the following. Write each answer in simplest form. Show all steps. 41. x + 8 = 24 44.
x 8
= 24
42. 8x = 24
45.
3 4x
= 24
43. x 8 = 24
46. (3x) 4 = 6
Write in each blank <, or >, or = to make a true statement.
47.
-(-4) -13 (-7) (-3)
48. -5 49.
35
50. State four possible solutions of the inequality below. y + 4 10 _________________________________________________________
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Unit 2: Measurement
This unit emphasizes the relationships between various types of numbers.
Unit Focus
Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations Understand the relative size of integers, rational numbers, and real numbers. (MA.A.1.4.2) Understand concrete and symbolic representations of real numbers in real-world situations. (MA.A.1.4.3) Understand that numbers can be represented in a variety of equivalent forms, including integers, fractions, decimals, percents, scientific notation, and exponents. (MA.A.1.4.4) Understand and use the real number system. (MA.A.2.4.2) Understand and explain the effects of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division on real numbers, including exponents, and appropriate inverse relationships. (MA.A.3.4.1) Select and justify alternative strategies, such as using properties of numbers, including inverse, that allow operational shortcuts for computational procedures in real-world or mathematical problems. (MA.A.3.4.2) Add, subtract, multiply, and divide real numbers, including exponents, using appropriate methods of computing, such as mental mathematics, paper and pencil, and calculator. (MA.A.3.4.3) Use estimation strategies in complex situations to predict results and to check the reasonableness of results. (MA.A.4.4.1)
Measurement Use concrete and graphic models to derive formulas for finding rate, distance, and time. (MA.B.1.4.2) Relate the concepts of measurement to similarity and proportionality in real-world situations. (MA.B.1.4.3) Solve real-world problems involving rated measures (miles per hour, feet per second). (MA.B.2.4.2)
Vocabulary
Use the vocabulary words and definitions below as a reference for this unit. additive inverses ........................... a number and its opposite whose sum is zero (0); also called opposites Example: In the equation 3 + -3 = 0, 3 and -3 are additive inverses, or opposites, of each other. canceling ......................................... dividing a numerator and a denominator by a common factor to write a fraction in lowest terms or before multiplying fractions Example:
15 24
35 = 5 2 2 2 31 8
common denominator .................. a common multiple of two or more denominators Example: A common denominator for 5 and 6 is 12.
1 4
common factor ............................... a number that is a factor of two or more numbers Example: 2 is a common factor of 6 and 12.
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cross multiplication ...................... a method for solving and checking proportions; a method for finding a missing numerator or denominator in equivalent fractions or ratios by making the cross products equal Example: To solve this proportion:
n 9 8 12
12 x n = 9 x 8 12n = 72 n = 72 12 n=6 Solution: 6 = 8

9 12
cross product .................................. the product of one numerator and the opposite denominator in a pair of fractions Example: 6 Is 2 equal to 15 ? 5
2 x 15 = 5 x 6 The cross products are
2 x 15 and 5 x 6.
2 ? 6 = 15 5 ?
30 = 30 Yes,
2 5 6 . = 15
Both cross products equal 30. The cross products of equivalent fractions are equal.
decimal number ............................ any number written with a decimal point in the number Example: A decimal number falls between two whole numbers, such as 1.5 falls between 1 and 2. Decimal numbers smaller than 1 are sometimes called decimal fractions, such as five-tenths is written 0.5.
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decimal point ................................. the dot dividing a decimal numbers whole part from its fractional part denominator ................................... the bottom number of a fraction, indicating the number of equal parts a whole was divided into Example: In the fraction 2 3 the denominator is 3, meaning the whole was divided into 3 equal parts. difference ........................................ the result of a subtraction Example: In 16 9 = 7, 7 is the difference. digit ................................................. any one of the 10 symbols 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9 divisor ............................................. a number by which another number, the dividend, is divided Example: In 7) 42 , 42 7, 42 7 , 7 is the divisor. equation .......................................... a mathematical sentence that equates one expression to another expression Example: 2x = 10 equivalent (forms of a number) ...................... the same number expressed in different forms 3 Example: 4 , 0.75, and 75% estimation ....................................... the use of rounding and/or other strategies to determine a reasonably accurate approximation without calculating an exact answer
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exponent (exponential form) ...... the number of times the base occurs as a factor Example: 23 is the exponential form of 2 x 2 x 2. The numeral two (2) is called the base, and the numeral three (3) is called the exponent. expression ....................................... a collection of numbers, symbols, and/or operation signs that stands for a number Example: 4r2; 3x + 2y; 25 Expressions do not contain equality (=) or inequality (<, >, , , or ) symbols. factor ................................................ a number or expression that divides exactly another number Example: 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, and 20 are factors of 20. fraction ............................................ any number representing some part of a a whole; of the form b Example: One-half written in fractional form is 1 2. greatest common factor (GCF) .... the largest of the common factors of two or more numbers Example: For 6 and 8, 2 is the greatest common factor. improper fraction .......................... a fraction that has a numerator greater than or equal to the denominator 5 or 3 are improper fractions. Example: 4 3
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integers ........................................... the numbers in the set { , -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, } interest ............................................ the amount of money paid for the use of money least common denominator (LCD) ............................................... the smallest common multiple of the denominators of two or more fractions 1 Example: For 3 4 and 6 , 12 is the least common denominator. mixed number ............................... a number that consists of both a whole number and a fraction is a mixed number. Example: 1 1 2 negative numbers ......................... numbers less than zero numerator ....................................... the top number of a fraction, indicating the number of equal parts being considered Example: In the fraction 2 3 , the numerator is 2. percent (%) ..................................... a special-case ratio in which the second term is always 100 Example: The ratio is written as a whole number followed by a percent sign, such as 25% which means the ratio of 25 to 100. percent of change .......................... the amount of change divided by the original amount amount of change Example: original amount
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percent of decrease ....................... the percent the amount of decrease is of the original amount; also called the discount Example: amount of decrease
original amount
percent of increase ........................ the percent the amount of increase is of the original amount amount of increase Example:
original amount
perimeter (P) .................................. the length of the boundary around a figure; the distance around a polygon place value ...................................... the position of a single digit in a whole number or decimal number containing one or more digits positive numbers .......................... numbers greater than zero prime factorization ....................... writing a number as the product of prime numbers Example: 24 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 = 23 x 3 prime number ................................ any whole number with only two factors, 1 and itself Example: 2, 3, 7, 11, etc. principal .......................................... the amount of money on which interest is paid product ............................................ the result of a multiplication Example: In 6 x 8 = 48, 48 is the product.
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proportion ...................................... a mathematical sentence stating that two ratios are equal Example: The ratio of 1 to 4 equals 1 25 = 100 . 25 to 100, that is 4 quotient ........................................... the result of a division Example: In 42 7 = 6, 6 is the quotient. rate/distance ................................... calculations involving rates, distances, and time intervals, based on the distance, rate, time formula (d = rt); a ratio comparing two different units Example: miles per hour ratio .................................................. the quotient of two numbers used to compare two quantities Example: The ratio of 3 to 4 3 is 4 . reciprocals ...................................... two numbers whose product is 1; also called multiplicative inverses 3 4 x3 = 1, the Example: Since 4 3 reciprocal of 4 is 4 . 3 remainder ....................................... the whole number left after one number is divided by another number
quotient 4 R 4 divisor 5 ) 24 dividend 20 remainder
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repeating decimal ......................... a decimal in which one digit or a series of digits repeat endlessly Example: 0.3333333 or 0.3 24.6666666 or 24.6 5.27272727 or 5.27 6.2835835 or 6.2835 rounded number ........................... a number approximated to a specified place Example: A commonly used rule to round a number is as follows. If the digit in the first place after the specified place is 5 or more, round up by adding 1 to the digit in the specified place ( 461 rounded to the nearest hundred is 500). If the digit in the first place after the specified place is less than 5, round down by not changing the digit in the specified place (441 rounded to the nearest hundred is 400). scientific notation ......................... a shorthand method of writing very large or very small numbers using exponents in which a number is expressed as the product of a power of 10 and a number that is greater than or equal to one (1) and less than 10 Example: The number is written as a decimal number between 1 and 10 multiplied by a power of 10, such as 7.59 x 105 = 759,000. It is based on the idea that it is easier to read exponents than it is to count zeros. If a number is already a power of 10, it is simply written 1027 instead of 1 x 1027.
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simplest form ................................. a fraction whose numerator and denominator have no common factor greater than 1 3 is 1 Example: The simplest form of 6 2. simplify a fraction ........................ write fraction in lowest terms or simplest form solution ........................................... any value for a variable that makes an equation or inequality a true statement Example: In y = 8 + 9 y = 17 17 is the solution. solve ................................................. to find all numbers that make an equation or inequality true substitute ........................................ to replace a variable with a numeral Example: 8(a) + 3 8(5) + 3 sum .................................................. the result of an addition Example: In 6 + 8 = 14, 14 is the sum. terminating decimal ..................... a decimal that contains a finite (limited) number of digits 3 Example: 8 = 0.375
2 5
= 0.4
unit ................................................... a precisely fixed quantity used to measure unit price ......................................... the cost of one unit of a particular item, expressed in the unit in which the product is generally measured
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unit rate ........................................... a rate with a denominator of 1; a rate for one unit of a given quantity Example: feet per second, miles per gallon, miles per hour, or cents per pound value (of a variable) ...................... any of the numbers represented by the variable variable ........................................... any symbol that could represent a number whole number ............................... any number in the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, }
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Unit 2: Measurement
Introduction
We will discover that numbers can be written in several 1 different ways. For instance, 2 can be written several different ways and still have the same value.
1 2
4 8
1 2
= 0.5
1 2
5 10
1 2
= 50%
It is important to know that the value of a number has not changed. Also, choosing which form is appropriate for a particular problem is important. With the presentation of numerous real-world situations, you will learn to choose among various methods of approaching and solving problems.
Lesson One Purpose

Understand the relative size of integers, rational numbers, and real numbers. (MA.A.1.4.2) Understand that numbers can be represented in a variety of equivalent forms, including integers, fractions, decimals, percents, and exponents. (MA.A.1.4.4) Understand and use the real number system. (MA.A.2.4.2) Understand and explain the effects of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division on real numbers, including exponents, and appropriate inverse relationships. (MA.A.3.4.1) Select and justify alternative strategies, such as using properties of numbers, including inverse, that allow operational shortcuts for computational procedures in real-world or mathematical problems. (MA.A.3.4.2) Add, subtract, multiply, and divide real numbers, including exponents, using appropriate methods of computing, such as mental mathematics, paper and pencil, and calculator. (MA.A.3.4.3)
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Decimals and Fractions

Before considering the relationship between decimals and fractions, lets briefly review place value. Place Value Place value is the position of a single digit in a whole number or decimal number. For example, the decimal 132.738 has three parts.
132.738
whole number part
132
whole number part
.
decimal point
738
decimal part
Use the chart below to see the place value of all the digits in the decimal 132.738.
1 hundreds 100 3 tens 10 2 ones 1 . decimal point 7 tenths
1 10
Writing or Reading Decimals To write or read a decimal in words: Write or read the whole number part in words. Write or read and for the decimal point. Write or read the decimal part in words as though it were a whole number. Write or read the place value of the last digit. In words, 132.738 is written or said as one hundred thirty-two and seven hundred thirty-eight thousandths.
738 As a fraction, 132.738 is written as 132 1,000 .
} }
decimal part decimal point
3 hundredths
1 100
8 thousandths
1 1,000
132.738
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Unit 2: Measurement
Other examples:
Decimal 0.3 0.51 0.07 0.007
Words three tenths fifty-one hundredths seven hundredths seven thousandths
Fraction
3 10 51 100 7 100 7 1,000
Simplifying Fractions: Writing in Lowest Terms or Simplest Form Frequently, we write decimals as fractions or as mixed numbers consisting of both a whole number and a fraction. Most times we are also asked to simplify fractions and show these answers in simplest form. When is a fraction in simplest form? Consider the fraction
9 24 .
Factor the numerator, 9, and the denominator, 24, of the fraction
9 24 .
Remember: A factor is a number that divides evenly into another number. First find the prime factorizations of 9 and 24 to write each number as the product of prime numbers. A prime number is a whole number that has only two factors, 1 and itself. 9 3 3 9=33 all prime numbers 24 3 8 3 24 3 2 22 24 = 2 2 2 3 3x3 = 2x2x2x3
3 8
numerator denominator
9 24
We cancel one 3 in the numerator and one 3 in the denominator and get 3 . 8
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Another way to simplify 24 and write in simplest form is to divide the numerator and denominator by their greatest common factor (GCF). Remember: The greatest common factor or GCF is the largest of the common factors of two or more numbers. Common factors are factors of two or more numbers.
93 = 24 3
3 8
To summarize: A fraction is reduced or in simplest form when the greatest number that divides both the numerator and denominator is 1. In other words, the fractions numerator and denominator have no common factor greater than 1. Another example: Reduce
28 40
.
28 40
Factor method:
2x2x7 = 2x2x2x5
7 10
Greatest common factor (GCF) method: 28 4 = 40 4 Converting Decimals to Fractions
7 10
Now that we have practiced writing fractions in simplest form, lets start with decimals and convert the decimals to fractions written in simplest form. Either the factor method or the greatest common factor method can be used to write the fraction in simplest form. Consider the following examples: 0.125 = 22.5 0.25
125 1,000
1 8
5 = 22 10 = 22 1 2
25 100
1 4
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Unit 2: Measurement
Converting Fractions to Decimals To change fractions to decimals we use long division. See below. In the 3 fraction 8 , the bar separating the 3 and the 8 is called the fraction bar, so is read as 3 divided by 8. In 3 2 , it is read as 3 divided by 2. Examples:
3 8
3 8
=?
0.375 8 )3.000 24 60 56 40 40 0
3 2
=?
1.5 2 ) 3.0 2 10 10 0
See the example below. The division does not come out evenlythe remainder is not 0. The quotient is a repeating decimal. A repeating decimal is a decimal in which one digit or a series of digits repeat endlessly. In this example, the answer was rounded to the nearest hundredth.
1 is a mixed number. The mixed number was first In the example below, 1 4 changed to its equivalent improper fraction before converting the fraction into a decimal using long division.
1 6
=?
0.166 = 0.17 6 )1.000 6 40 36 40 36 4
1 4
5 4
=?
1.25 4 ) 5.00 4 10 8 20 20 0
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Practice
Change each decimal to a fraction or mixed number. Write each answer in simplest form. 1. 0.25 7. 0.05
2. 0.02
8. 0.18
3. 0.2
9. 3.6
4. 0.625
10. 1.25
5. 2.6
11. 0.008
6. 0.5
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Change each fraction to a decimal. If necessary, round repeating decimals to the nearest hundredth. 12.
3 5
17.
5 4
13.
1 8
18.
7 6
14.
3 4
19.
11 20
15.
1 2
20. 1 5 8
16.
4 9
21.
2 3
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Complete the following. In figuring batting averages for softball and baseball players, we divide the players number of hits by the number of times the player is at bat. Batting averages are expressed as a decimal rounded to the nearest thousandth. Use the data for these top five softball players to figure their batting averages.
Top Five Name Number of Hits 6 6 6 5 8 Number of Times at Bat 16 18 20 14 20
Batting Average (in thousandths)
22. 23. 24. 25. 26.
Adkins Bruce George Miller Thomas
27.
Who had the best batting average?
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Practice
Use the list below to write the correct term for each definition on the line provided. decimal number decimal point digit factor place value simplest form fraction prime factorization whole number mixed number prime number 1. any number representing some part of a a whole; of the form b a fraction whose numerator and denominator have no common factor greater than 1 the dot dividing a decimal numbers whole part from its fractional part any number in the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ...} any number written with a decimal point in the number any whole number with only two factors, 1 and itself a number that consists of both a whole number and a fraction a number or expression that divides exactly another number any one of the 10 symbols 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9 writing a number as the product of prime numbers the position of a single digit in a whole number or decimal number containing one or more digits
129
____________________
____________________
2.
____________________
3.
____________________ ____________________
4. 5.
____________________
6.
____________________
7.
____________________
8.
____________________
9.
____________________ 10.
____________________ 11.
Unit 2: Measurement
Practice
Match each definition with the correct term. Write the letter on the line provided. ______ ______ ______ 1. the result of a division 2. the same number expressed in different forms 3. the bottom number of a fraction, indicating the number of equal parts a whole was divided into 4. write fraction in lowest terms or simplest forms 5. a number approximated to a specified place 6. the top number of a fraction, indicating the number of equal parts being considered 7. a number that is a factor of two or more numbers 8. the largest of the common factors of two or more numbers 9. a fraction that has a numerator greater than or equal to the denominator A. common factor B. denominator C. equivalent (form of a number) D. greatest common factor (GCF) E. improper fraction F. numerator G. quotient H. repeating decimal I. rounded number J. simplify a fraction
______ ______ ______
______ ______ ______
______ 10. a decimal in which one digit or a series of digits repeat endlessly
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Comparing Fractions and Decimals

Two boys played basketball over the weekend. George bragged that he sank 5 baskets out of 8. Jamaar boasted that he sank 3 baskets out of 4. Which boy really has bragging rights? This problem can be solved by finding which fraction is larger. Is 3 it 5 8 or 4 ? There are a few ways to tell, so lets examine three of them. Method 1: The Common Denominator Method
3 The fractions 5 8 and 4 obviously have different denominators. They need like denominators to be able to be easily compared. In this case, 4 is a factor of 8, therefore 8 is a common denominator of both fractions. We can change the appearance of 3 4 and keep its value.
Comparing Fractions
Look at the denominators.
5 8 3 4 5 8 3 4
Write equivalent fractions with a common denominator.
unlike denominators
2 2
6 8
like denominators
3 4
2 2
6 8
Think. What number times 4 equals 8? Answer: 2. To keep the equivalent 2 3 value of the fraction 4 and to change its denominator to 8, multiply it by 2 . 2 The fraction 2 is another name for the number 1. If you multiply a number by 1, nothing happens to itthe result is the original number. The number 1 is the identity element for multiplication, also called the property of multiplying by 1. See properties in Unit 1.
We say that same value.
6 8
and
3 4
are equivalent fractions. The fractions have the
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131
Now we have
5 8
and
6 8
which can be easily compared.

The fractions compare the same way the numerators compare.
Compare the numerators.

5 8 6 8
5<6
Since 5 < 6, 5 6 then 8 < 8 , therefore

5 8
<
3 4
For fractions with like denominators, the larger fraction is the one with the larger numerator. Therefore
5 8
<
6 8
or
5 8
<
3 4
or
3 4
>
5 8
Here is another example using the common denominator method: Which is larger?
8 9
or
7 8
? The denominators, 9 and 8, are both factors of
72. Lets rewrite both fractions so that they both have a like denominator of 72.
8 9 8 8
8 8
64 72
and
64 72
7 8
9 9 9 9
63 72
is another name for 1.
>
63 72
is another name for 1.
therefore
8 9
>
7 8
Tip: You may wish to draw a big one around fractions equivalent to one as a reminder of their value.
8 9
8 8
= or
64 72
8 9
7 8
9 9
63 72
7 8
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Unit 2: Measurement
Method 2: The Change Fractions into Decimals Method Lets go back to the original problem about George and Jamaar. Another way to compare fractions is to express them as decimals, and then compare the decimals. Remember: To change a fraction to a decimal, we divide the 3 denominator into the numerator. For example, the fraction 4 is 5 read as 3 divided by 4, and the fraction 8 is read as 5 divided by 8.
0.75 4 )3.0 28 20
0.625 8 )5.000 48 20 16 40
5 8
3 4
= 0.75 and
= 0.625
To compare decimals, use place value to compare the digits in the same place. The decimal 0.75 is the same as the decimal 0.750. Just because a decimal is longer than another decimal, do not assume that it is larger! 0.75 = 0.750 and 0.750 > 0.625 because 7 > 6 so
3 4
5 8
>
Comparing Decimal Numbers

Line up the numbers using their decimal points. Start at the left and compare digits in the same place value. compare place value Find the digits in the first place where they are different, and then compare. different digit in same place value
0.750 0.625
0.750 0.625
7>6
The decimal numbers compare the same way the digits compare.
Since 7 > 6, then 0.750 > 0.625. 0.750 > 0.625 or 0.625 < 0.750
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Unit 2: Measurement
Method 3: The Cross Products Method We can compare fractions by using cross products. Cross products are the product of one numerator and the opposite denominator in a pair of fractions. If the cross products are equal, the fractions are equivalent.
1
numerator denominator 3 4
2
5 8 numerator denominator
8x3 4x5 24 20 Since 24 > 20, then

3 4
>
5 8
Here is another example using cross products.
1
numerator denominator 7 25
2
3 8 numerator denominator
8x7 25 x 3 75 56 Since 56 < 75, 3 7 then 25 . < 8
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Unit 2: Measurement
Practice
Fill in the blank with >, <, or =.
1 5
3 10
1.
6.
1 8
0.29
2.
1 3
2 7
7. 6.58
58 6 100
3.
5 4
8 7
8.
1 2
0.59
4.
15 12
5 4
9.
69 1,000
6 100
5. 0.2
0.18
10. Your mom orders two large pizzas. She cuts one pizza into 6 parts, and your brother eats 4 pieces. She cuts the other pizza into 8 parts, and you eat 5 pieces. Who ate the most pizza and why? _____________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________
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Order these fractions from least to greatest.

11. 12.
1 3 1 3
, ,
1 2 2 9
, ,
1 4 2 5
13.
3 7
4 9
12 21
Fill in the blanks with <, >, or =. Use the given value of each variable below to evaluate each expression. a = -4
14.
c1 d+1 1 3
b = -5
c=3
15.
a+d c
d=9
a+b b
Remember: Rules for dividing integers
same signs
6 2 -6 -2
positive quotient =3 =3
different signs
-6 2 6 -2
negative quotient = -3 = -3
Complete the following. 16. Write each fraction on the correct point on the number line.
1 2
3 4
2 3
1 3
b.
d.
0 a.
136
1 4
1 c.
Unit 2: Measurement
7 17. Explain in your own words why - 8 is smaller than
-1 2
. _________
_________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ 18. In your own words, describe two different ways to compare and 0.8. _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________
7 8
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Renaming Fractions and Mixed Numbers

Simplifying a Fraction Previously, we reviewed the process of reducing or simplifying a fraction and writing it in simplest form. We reduced a fraction to its lowest terms so that its numerator and denominator have no common factor greater than 1 and then wrote it in simplest form. This extends to simplifying fractions in algebraic expressions as well. Reducing fractions is really just looking for ones! Study these examples:
Factor method Example: Example:
15 25
GCF method or
15 25 15 5 = = 25 5 3 5 3y 4x
53 55
3 5
12 x 3 y 2 16 x 4 y
43xxxyy 44xxxxy
Example:
-34 mn 68 m 2
-34 m n 34 2 m m
-1n 2m
-n 2m
Remember: -1n = -n We always reduce fractions and write them in simplest form if we can!
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Unit 2: Measurement
Renaming a Fraction In the last section we found that we could change the appearance of fractions by multiplying by one. The number 1 is the identity element for multiplication. Multiplying a number by 1 does not change a numbers value. Study the following examples:
5 7 2 2 = 10 14
2 3 2, 3
5 7
3 3 =
15 21
5 7
4 4 =
20 28
5 7
x x = 5 7
5x 7x
We know that know that

5 7
4 4
, and
x x
are all equal to 1. Multiplying

5 7 5x 7x
times any
of those fractions equal to 1 will not change the value of ,

10 14
. Therefore, we
15 , 20 21 28
, and
are all equivalent fractions.
Here is another example:

2x Change 9 y to an equivalent fraction that has 18y in the denominator.
9 x 2 = 18, so the 1 we should use should be

2x 9y 2 = 2 4x 18y
2 2
2x 9y
is equivalent to
4x 18y
Changing Improper Fractions to Mixed Numbers We say that these fractions are improper fractions:
7 5
11 , 15 , 50 6 8 7
Improper fractions are fractions where the numerator is larger than the denominator. There is nothing wrong with this, but sometimes rewriting these numbers can help us get a feel for their size.
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Study the following examples:

3 5 )18 15 3 2 10 )27 20 7 6 3 )18 18 0 4 8 )38 32 6 therefore, 18 5 =3
3 5
Example:
18 5
write remainder of 3 over divisor of 5
number of fifths left over therefore, 27 10 = 2

7 10
Example:
27 10
write remainder of 7 over divisor of 10
number of tenths left over therefore, 18 3 =6 no number is left over, so there is no remainder
6 therefore, 38 8 =48
Example:
18 3
Example:
38 8
but
6 8 38 8
23 24
3 4
=43 4
write remainder of 6 over divisor of 8 in simplest form 6 8 = We must reduce!
3 4
number of eighths left over
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Unit 2: Measurement
Reversing the Process: Writing Mixed Numbers and Whole Numbers as Fractions Mixed numbers like 8 1 2 are useful. They help us understand the size of a number. Most of us can understand that most letter-sized printer paper is 8 1 2 inches wide. However, we would have trouble visualizing how wide 17 2 inches would be. Yet both numbers represent the same amount. In the next few sections we will discover that while mixed numbers have their place in our world, they are difficult to deal with when we have to add, subtract, multiply, or divide them. Here the improper fraction is useful.
-14 24
15 24
1 24
1 4
2 4
3 4
1 2
or
17 2
inches
Study the example below to review how to change mixed numbers to improper fractions: 23 4
2
4x2=
3 4
8+3
= 11
Multiply 2 and 4. (This gives the number of fourths in 2.) Now add the answer 8 and 3. (This gives the number of fourths in 2 3 4 .)
3 4
Therefore,
3 24 = 11 4.
Or visualize it like this:
8 + 3 = 11
3 11 2+ x4 = 4
4x2=8
3 11 So, 2 4 = 4 .
Start with 4 times the 2, plus the 3, equals 11, and put the 11 over the first number.
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Study the example below to review how to change whole numbers to fractions. Suppose that we want to change the whole number 5 to fourths. Remember that 5 =
5 1
Since we do not change the value of the fraction, if we multiply the fraction by 1, we 5 4 can multiply 1 times 4 .
5 1
Remember 5 that 5 = 1 .
4 4
20 4
Notice we multiply both numerator and denominator by 4. Therefore, 5=

20 4 .
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Unit 2: Measurement
Practice
Change these whole numbers to eighths. 1. 2 2. 5 3. 7
Change these mixed numbers to fractions. 4. 5.
2
6
1 3
5 6
6. 5
3 4
Reduce each fraction and write in simplest form. 7. 8. 9. 10.

9 42 36 54 8 28
2xy 8y 2
11. 12. 13.
3x 2 y 18y
28p 2 q 2 42p 3 q 3
18mn 9mn
Write three fractions that are equivalent to the given fraction or whole number.
1 4 3 5
14. 15.
16.
10 24
17. 10
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Circle the letter of the correct answer.

7 15 ?
18. Which of the following is equivalent to a.

24 60
b.
3 5
c.
14 17
d.
21 45
19. Estimate the fraction of the rectangle that is not shaded. a.

5 6
b.
4 7
c.
3 4
d.
9 10
Answer the following. 20. I am a fraction less than one. I am reduced. My numerator and denominator are both prime numbers between 25 and 36. What am I? Remember: A prime number is any whole number with only two factors, 1 and itself. Answer:
144
Unit 2: Measurement
Practice
Use the list below to write the correct term for each definition on the line provided. common denominator cross product divisor estimation expression integers remainder value (of a variable) variable
____________________
1.
the whole number left after one number is divided by another number any symbol that could represent a number the product of one numerator and the opposite denominator in a pair of fractions a collection of numbers, symbols, and/or operation signs that stands for a number any of the numbers represented by the variable a number by which another number, the dividend, is divided the numbers in the set { , -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, } a common multiple of two or more denominators the use of rounding and/or other strategies to determine a reasonably accurate approximation without calculating an exact answer
____________________ ____________________
2. 3.
____________________
4.
____________________
5.
____________________
6.
____________________
7.
____________________
8.
____________________
9.
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Adding and Subtracting Fractions

Adding and Subtracting Fractions with Like Denominators We know that one quarter (one fourth) plus two quarters (two fourths) adds to three quarters (three fourths). Mathematically, this sentence translates to 1 2 = 3 4 + 4 4. To add (or subtract) fractions with like denominators: add (or subtract) the numerators write the sum (or difference) over the denominator write final answer in simplest form.
1 4 2 4
Addition
7 8
Since fractions have like denominators: Subtraction add numerators and keep denominators subtract numerators and keep denominators
7 8
+
10 8
3 8
= = =
3 8
= = =
52 42 5 4
factor (or divide) numerator and denominator reduced and in simplest form.
5
4 8 44 84 1 2
or 1 1 4
Remember: 4 is an improper fraction which has been simplified and reduced and is in simplest form. However, it 1 may also be renamed by writing it as 1 4 , which is called a mixed number in simplest form.
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Unit 2: Measurement
The rule for adding (or subtracting) fractions with like denominators can be thought of in this way: Add (or subtract) the top. Keep the bottom. Always reduce to simplest form. Study the next two examples and see if you can understand how the rule is used.
How to Add Fractions with Like Denominators Example:

5 8
1 8
= = =
6 8 32 42 3 4
denominators are the same, add numerators factor (or divide) numerator and denominator reduced and in simplest form
62 82 3 4
Example:
7 14
11 14
= = =
18 14 92 72 9 or 1 2 7 7
denominators are the same, add numerators factor (or divide) numerator and denominator reduced and in simplest form
18 2 = 14 2 9 or 1 2 7 7
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Here are several more examples that use the rule. How to Subtract Fractions with Like Denominators Example:
10 7 7 7
See if you can follow all the steps.
3 7
subtract numerators reduced and in simplest form
or 1
How to Add a Negative and a Positive Fraction Example:

-14 24
+
1 24
15 24
add numerators reduced and in simplest form
How to Add Mixed Numbers with Like Denominators Example:

5 +3 17 12 7 36 7 3 7 24 7 1 57
= =
rewrite as an improper fraction add numerators reduced and in simplest form
+ or
How to Subtract Mixed Numbers with Like Denominators Example:

1 2 64 25 4 3 4 11 4
= = = =
rewrite as an improper fraction subtract numerators factor (or divide) numerator and denominator reduced and in simplest form
14 2 42 7 2
14 4
27 22 7 2 1 or 3 2
1 or 3 2
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Unit 2: Measurement
Fractions and Equations Sometimes we have to deal with fractions when we solve equations. Equations are mathematical sentences that equate one expression to another. Study this example and see if you remember all the steps from Unit 1. How to Handle Fractions in Solving Equations
Example: x + x +
1 5 1 5 1 5
= =
7 5 7 5 6 5
1 5
x =
1 or 1 5
subtract
1 5
from both sides
reduced and in simplest form

or 1 1 5 make the equation true? To check,
Does the solution of substitute

x +
6 5 1 5 1 5 7 5 1 15
6 5
6 5
for the variable x in the original equation.

7 5 7 5
= =
7 = 5 or 1 = 15
It checks!
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Writing Negative Fractions Many times in algebra we have to deal with negative numbers and negative fractions. You need to be aware of the following: Negative fractions can be written in three ways.
5 -7
-5 , 7
5 and - 7
All of these fractions are equivalent. Here is an example which contains negative fractions: How to Add Negative Fractions with Like Denominators
Example:
5 -7 -5 7 -8 7
+ +
-3 7 -3 7
= =
since denominators are not the same, rewrite the fractions so the signs are in the numerators add numerators reduced and in simplest form
1 or -1 7
Note: When a negative improper fraction is written as a mixed number, the entire mixed number takes the negative sign.
-8 7 1 = -1 7
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Unit 2: Measurement
Adding and Subtracting Fractions with Unlike Denominators To add (or subtract) fractions with unlike denominators: rename all fractions so that there is a common denominator add (or subtract) the numerators write the sum (or difference) over the denominator always reduce to simplest form.
Addition
5 6
Since fractions have unlike denominators:

3 4
Subtraction
5 6
find the least common denominator (LCD) the LCD is 12
3 4
5 6
2 2
3 4
3 3
change to equivalent fractions and rename all fractions with common denominator add numerators and keep denominators subtract numerators and keep denominators reduced and in simplest form reduced and in simplest form
5 6
2 2
3 4
3 3
10 12
9 12
10 12
9 12
19 12
7 or 1 12
1 12
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Study the following examples. How to Add Fractions with Unlike Denominators
Example:
3 4 3 4
+ +
2 5 4 4 8 20
= find LCD = = rewrite with common denominators add numerators reduced and in simplest form
5 5
2 5 15 20
23 20
or
3 1 20
How to Subtract Mixed Numbers with Unlike Denominators Example:

1 3 82 17 2 2 2 34 4 19 4 3 4 15 4 15 4 15 4
= = = =
rewrite as an improper fraction find LCD rewrite with common denominators subtract numerators or rewrite to add using additive inverse of second fraction reduced and in simplest form
17 2
34 4
-15 4
3 or 4 4
19 4
3 or 4 4
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Unit 2: Measurement
How to Combine Negative Mixed Numbers
Example:
3 11 -3 7 3 -24 7 -24 7
= =
4 3 4 3
rewrite as improper fractions find LCD rewrite with common denominators subtract numerators or rewrite to add using additive inverse of second fraction reduced and in simplest form
-72 21 -100 21
3 3
7 7
= =
-72 21 -100 21
28 21
-28 21
16 or -4 21
16 or -4 21
How to Subtract Whole Numbers and Fractions

Example: 4
4 1 4 1 6 6 24 6 19 6 5 6 5 6 5 6 5 6
= = = =
rewrite the whole number as improper fraction find LCD rewrite with common denominators subtract numerators or rewrite to add using additive inverse of second fraction reduced and in simplest form
24 6 19 6
+ -5 6 =
1 or 3 6
1 or 3 6
On the following page, the last example requires us to use many skills. See if you can follow all the steps in solving the equation. You will have to remember skills from Unit 1.
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153
How to Solve Equations with Mixed Numbers Using Additive Inverse Remember: To solve an equation, you must get the variableor any symbol that can represent a numberalone on one side of the equals sign. To do this you need to undo any operations on the variable.
Example:
1 = 32 x + 56 3 1 1 = 32 1 x + 56 56 56 3 1 undo the addition of 5 6 1 subtract 5 6 from both sides
x x x x x x x
= = = = = =
11 3
31 6
rewrite mixed numbers as improper fractions and find LCD

31 6
11 2 3 2 22 6
rewrite with common denominators subtract numerators or rewrite to add using additive inverse of second fraction factor (or divide) numerator and denominator to write in lowest terms reduced and in simplest form x = x = x = x =
22 6
-9 6
31 6
+
-9 6
-31 6
3 -3 3 2 -3 2
-9 3 63 -3 2
= -1 1 2
x = -1 1 2
1 = 32 x + 56 3 1 + 51 = 3 2 -1 2 6 3 3 + -2 3 -2 3 3 31 6 31 6 31 6 22 6 4 36 2 33 2 = 33 2 = 33 2 = 33
substitute the solution for the variable rewrite mixed numbers as improper fractions and find LCD rewrite with common denominators add numerators reduced and in simplest form It checks!
Unit 2: Measurement
9 + -6
= = =
2 33 2 33 2 33
154
Practice
Answer the following. Write in simplest form.
5 6 5 8 7 9
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
+ + +
7 6 5 8 8 9 19 25 1 6 3 8
= = = = = =
24 25 4 9 4 5
+ +
1 3 = 54 + 14 3 1 = 84 32 -9 5
11 5
1 1 = 85 24
Solve these equations. Write each answer in simplest form. Show all your work.
2 3 7 2
11.
x+
12.
1 = x + 34 7
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155
13.
x+
3 8
1 = 22
14.
7 8
1 = 24
15. Find the perimeter (P) of this triangle. Remember: Perimeter means the distance around a figure or the sum of the length of the boundary. Answer: inches
he
in
inc
ch es
1 4
inches
156
Unit 2: Measurement
Multiplying and Dividing Fractions

Multiplying Fractions To multiply two fractions(if need be, rewrite mixed numbers as improper fractions)multiply the numerators and multiply the denominators. Always reduce! Study the following three examples to review multiplying fractions: How to Multiply Fractions
Example:
4 9
8 27
2 3
multiply numerators multiply denominators reduced and in simplest form
Example:
5 6
10 30
2 5
= = =
multiply numerators multiply denominators factor (or divide) numerator and denominator to write in lowest term reduced and in simplest form
1
10 x 1 10 x 3 1 3
10 10 30 10
3
1 3
How to Multiply Mixed Numbers Example:

1 ) 1 ) = (2 4 (1 3 9 4
rewrite as improper fractions multiply numerators multiply denominators reduced and in simplest form
36 12
4 3
or 3
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157
There is a shortcut called canceling that can be used when multiplying fractions. Canceling is dividing a numerator and a denominator by a common factor to write a fraction in lowest terms before multiplying fractions. You may use canceling to divide the numerator and the denominator of the same or different fractions. Study the following two examples of canceling fractions. How to Multiply Fractions
Example:
3 4
1
8 9 8 9
= =
3 2
cancel by dividing the opposite numerator and denominator (by 3) to write in lowest terms cancel by dividing the opposite numerator and denominator (by 4) to write in lowest terms multiply numerators multiply denominators reduced and in simplest form
1 33 44
3 4
84 93 3 84 3 2
1 4
8 3 2 3
1 44 2 3
How to Multiply Negative Mixed Numbers Example:

2 (-3 1 2 ) (4 3 ) = -7 2 -7 2
rewrite mixed numbers as improper fractions cancel by dividing numerator and denominator (by 2) to write in lowest terms multiply numerators multiply denominators (negative positive = negative) reduced and in simplest form
14 3 14 7 3
= =
1 -49 3
-7 22 1 -49 3
7 14 2 3
1 or -16 3
1 or -16 3
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Unit 2: Measurement
Dividing Fractions To divide fractions, multiply by the reciprocal of the divisor. Two numbers are reciprocals if their product is one. Since
13 15
3 5
5 1= 31
1,
5 3
is the reciprocal of is the reciprocal of
and .
5 3
3 5
For a fraction not equal to 0, find its reciprocal by inverting or turning the 5 fraction upside down, like 3 5 and 3 . In everyday language you could say the following: Flip the second fraction and multiply. Study the following three examples and see if you can see how the rule works. How to Divide Fractions and Whole Number
Example:
9 10 9 10 9 10
2
9 20 2 1 1 2
= = =
remember, 2 =
2 1
invert the second fraction (reciprocal) and multiply multiply numerator multiply denominator reduced and in simplest form
How to Divide Fractions Example:

3 4 3 4 9 8
2 3 3 2
= =
1 or 1 8
invert the second fraction (reciprocal) and multiply multiply numerator multiply denominator reduced and in simplest form
Unit 2: Measurement
159
How to Divide Mixed Numbers and Fractions Example:

2 25 12 5 12 5 3 12 5
8 15 8 15 15 8 15 8 2
= = = =
change mixed numbers to improper fraction invert second fraction and multiply cancel by dividing the opposite numerator and denominator (by 4) to write in lowest terms cancel by dividing the opposite numerator and denominator (by 5) to write in lowest terms multiply numerator multiply denominator reduced and in simplest form
3 12 4
55
15 5 84
=
2
3 15 9 2
15 3 2
3 55 9 2
15 5 3= 2
1 or 4 2
1 or 4 2
How to Solve Equations by Mulitplying Using Reciprocals Example:

3 4 14 3
x =
7 8
multiply both sides by the reciprocal of 3 4

7 8 2
14 3 x= 4 1 3
1 13
7 x=1 3 2 3 1
cancel by dividing the opposite numerator and denominator (by 4) to write in lowest terms cancel by dividing the opposite numerator and denominator (by 3) to write in lowest terms
4 4 3 x = 4 4 7 3 84 3 4 41
133
3 x= 3 1
7
2
x =
7 6
1 or 1 6
multiply numerator x = multiply denominator reduced and in simplest form
7 6
1 or 1 6
160
Unit 2: Measurement
Practice
Answer the following. Write each answer in simplest form. Show all your work.
1.
9 2
4 3
4.
1 3
3 4
2.
5 2
2 5
5.
5 8
4 5
3.
3 4
6.
3 2
1 4
Check yourself: Use the scrambled answers below and check your answers to problems 1-6 above.
1 4 3 8 1 2
1 4
Unit 2: Measurement
161
Answer the following. Write each answer in simplest form. Show all your work. 7.
-5 8
2 5
9.
7 -5 10 4
8.
-1 4
-1 4
10.
3 4
162
Unit 2: Measurement
Practice
1.
1 1 (2 2 ) (2 2 ) =
5.
2 1 (1 3 ) (2 2 ) =
2.
1 1 (1 2 ) (1 3 ) =
6.
3 (-2 8 ) (-4) =
3.
1 1 (2 4 ) (3 2 ) =
7.
1 1 (2 5 ) (-1 2 ) =
4.
1 3 (3 2 ) (1 4 ) =
3 -3 10 1 46 1 68 1 64 7 78 1 92
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163
8.
2 9
1 3
11.
3 4
2 3
9.
3 8
2 3
12.
2 3
4 =
10.
7 5
7 5
1 6 9 16 2 3 1 18
164
Unit 2: Measurement
Practice
1. 5
1 2 1 13
4.
52
1 3
2.
1 4
1 14
5.
1 22 2
3.
1 2
1 14 4 15 1 27 1 24 1 48
Unit 2: Measurement
165
Solve these equations. Write each answer in simplest form. Show all steps. Refer to page 160 as needed.
6.
2 5
x=
8 25
7.
3 4
x=11 2
8.
3) . Find the value of ( 4
166
Unit 2: Measurement
Practice
Match each definition with the correct term. Write the letter on the line provided. ______ ______ 1. a mathematical sentence that equates one expression to another expression 2. any value for a variable that makes an equation or inequality a true statement 3. to replace a variable with a numeral 4. the result of an addition 5. the result of a subtraction 6. to find all numbers that make an equation or inequality true 7. numbers less than zero D. solution E. solve F. substitute G. sum A. difference B. equation C. negative numbers
______ ______ ______ ______ ______
Unit 2: Measurement
167
Practice
Circle the letter of the correct answer. 1. When , you divide a numerator and a denominator by a common factor to write a fraction in lowest terms. a. b. c. canceling substituting placing .
2. Two numbers whose product is 1 are called a. b. c. unit rates variables reciprocals
3. A number and its opposite whose sum is zero (0) are a. b. c. additive inverses terminating decimals substitutes
4. The length of the boundary around a figure or the distance around a . polygon is called the a. b. c. sum perimeter (P) simplest form because they are the same number
5. 0.75 and 75% are expressed in different forms. a. b. c. equivalent remainders factors
6. LCD is an abbreviation for a. b. c. longest cross division length common decimal least common denominator
7. Numbers greater than zero are a. b. c.

168
negative numbers common factors positive numbers

Unit 2: Measurement
Adding and Subtracting Decimals

The following is important to remember when we add or subtract decimals: Write the decimals so that the decimals line up vertically ( ). Write whole numbers as decimal numbers by adding a decimal point and zeros. Place the decimal point in the sum or difference so that it lines up vertically with the decimal points in the problem. Add or subtract as with whole numbers. Bring the decimal point straight down into the sum or difference.
Add: 3.29 + 1.34
3.29 + 1.34 4.63 25.00 + 3.06 28.06
Line up decimals vertically.
Add: 25 + 3.06
Write the decimal point and two zeros. Line up decimals vertically.
Subtract: 8.8 2.5
8.8 2.5 6.3
Line up decimals vertically.
Subtract: 25 3.8
25.0 3.8 21.2
Write the decimal point and one zero. Line up decimals vertically.
Unit 2: Measurement
169
Practice
Add or subtract as indicated. Show all work. 1. 8.3 + 2.9 = 4. 20.64 + 5.6 + 4.28 =
2. 13 + 9.31 =
5. 32 + 5.4 + 2.6 =
3. 8.3 + 6.9 + 8.4 =
6. 5.43 0.18 =
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Unit 2: Measurement
7. 38.8 11.4 =
10. 24 15.6 =
8. 16 6.8 =
11. 9.06 4.44 =
9. 12.4 7 =
12. 78 72.75 =
Unit 2: Measurement
171
Practice
Use the examples below and the methods learned in Unit 1 to solve one-step equations involving decimals. Example: x + 2.8 = 12 x + 2.8 2.8 = 12 2.8 x = 9.2 y 5.6 = 8.5 y 5.6 + 5.6 = 8.5 + 5.6 y = 14.l subtract 2.8 from both sides
Example:
add 5.6 to both sides
Solve these equations. Show all steps. 1. a + 4.1 = 12 5. 0 = n 7.9
2. x 4.1 = 12
6. 30 = y + 22.38
3. y + 5.8 = 8.3
7. a 13.1 = 4.082
4. 22.7 = x + 2.4
8. d + 0.49 = 36
172
Unit 2: Measurement
Solve the following. Show all your work. 9. Find Jans total monthly cost of owning and maintaining an automobile if her expenses are as follows: Monthly car payment: Monthly insurance: Average cost of gasoline per month: Average maintenance cost per month: Answer: $375.50 $85.00 $65.00 $22.50
10. Joe bought a book for $34.58. If he paid with two $20 bills, what was his change? Answer:
11. Ians new eyeglasses costs a total of $385.89. The frames of the glasses are $129.95. Find the cost of the lenses. Answer:
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173
12. Aunt Nellies gardener plans to install a fence around her triangular-shaped flower garden. The sides measure 12.5 meters, 10.8 meters, and 8.3 meters. Calculate the amount of fence material needed. Answer:
13. Andy needs to build a fence for his new puppy. The space to be enclosed is a rectangular shape with a length of 20.5 feet and a width of 12.5 feet. What is the perimeter of the rectangular shape? Answer:
174
Unit 2: Measurement
Multiplying and Dividing Decimals

You may not think about it, but decimals are used a lot at a grocery store. For example, at the ABC Produce Market, fruits and vegetables are priced per pound. Use these typical prices per pound to work through the following examples: strawberries bananas grapes pears pole beans Example: To find the cost of 4 pounds of bananas, we can estimate by rounding $0.49 to $0.50 and think: 4 x $0.50 is $2.00. or We can calculate the exact cost by multiplying 4 x $0.49. Then we count the number of digits to the right of the decimal point.
$0.49 x 4 $1.96 2 digits to the right of the decimal point + 0 digits to the right of the decimal point 2 digits to the right of the decimal point
$1.25 $0.49 $0.99 $1.15 $1.29
per pound per pound per pound per pound per pound
Then count off the same number of digits in the product. Remember: Each place to the right of the decimal point is a decimal place. The number of decimal places in the product must equal the sum of the number of decimal places in the factors.
Unit 2: Measurement
175
When multiplying decimals: 1. Multiply as if the factors were whole numbers. 2. Count the number of digits (decimal places) to the right of the decimal point in each factor and add. 3. Count off the sum of the digits (decimal places) in the factors (from right to left) and insert a decimal point. (Sometimes you will need to add zeros as place holders in the product.) Example: Suppose we buy 3.5 pounds of pears. Find the cost by multiplying 3.5 x $1.15.
$1.15 x 3.5 575 345 $4.025 2 digits to the right of the decimal point + 1 digit to the right of the decimal point
3 digits to the right of the decimal point
$4.025 will have to be rounded to the nearest cent. So our cost would be $4.03.
Example: If Katie has $5.00, how many pounds of strawberries can she buy? Since each pound of strawberries is $1.25, we need to determine how many times $1.25 will divide into $5.00. Remember: When dividing by decimals, you always want to divide by a whole number. So sometimes you must multiply the dividend and the divisor by a power of 10, moving the decimal point to the right. Then divide as if you were dividing by whole numbers.
4. 1.25)5.00 Move both decimal points 2 places to the right and then divide. 500
Katie can buy 4 pounds of strawberries.
176
Unit 2: Measurement
Notice that some items are priced at $ 0.49, $ 0.99, and $1.29 per pound. We can estimate the number of pounds we can buy with a certain amount of money to the nearest 10 cents. Think: $0.49 .................. $0.50 $0.99 .................. $1.00 $1.29 .................. $1.30
If we have $3.00, a quick way to determine how many pounds of grapes (at $0.99 a pound) we can buy is to divide $3.00 by $1.00.
3. pounds of grapes 1.00)3.00 300
Unit 2: Measurement
177
Practice
Multiply or divide as indicated. For division problems, if necessary, carry out the division to the nearest thousandth. Then round the quotient to the nearest hundredth. Show all of your work. 1. 3.2 x 2 = 5. 0.004 x 0.14 =
2. 6.5 x 1.2 =
6. 27 x 1.4 =
3. 0.75 x 12 =
7. 1.025 5 =
4. 5.7 x 0.42 =
8. 358.4 56 =
178
Unit 2: Measurement
9. 616.2 6 =
13. 31.2 0.04 =
10. 6.1 7 =
14. 1.875 0.25 =
11. 74.2 30 =
15. 8.8 76 =
12. 3.75 0.5 =
Refer to the ABC Produce Market prices on page 175 for problems 16-20. Round to the nearest cent. Show all your work. 16. How much would 3.5 pounds of bananas cost? Answer:
Unit 2: Measurement
179
17. Calculate the cost of 5.5 pounds of pole beans. Answer:
18. Jenny needs 10 pounds of grapes for a picnic. Is a $10 bill enough? If so, how much change should Jenny receive? Answer: change
19. Joe has $20. If he buys 10 pounds of pears, how many pounds of strawberries can he buy without spending more than $20? Answer: pounds
20. Estimate the cost of 3 pounds of bananas and 3 pounds of grapes. Would a $5 bill cover the cost? Estimate: Answer:
180
Unit 2: Measurement
Lesson Two Purpose

Understand the relative size of integers, rational numbers, and real numbers. (MA.A.1.4.2) Understand that numbers can be represented in a variety of equivalent forms, including integers, fractions, decimals, percents, scientific notation, and exponents. (MA.A.1.4.4) Understand and explain the effects of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division on real numbers, including exponents, and appropriate inverse relationships. (MA.A.3.4.1) Select and justify alternative strategies, such as using properties of numbers, including inverse, that allow operational shortcuts for computational procedures in real-world or mathematical problems. (MA.A.3.4.2) Add, subtract, multiply, and divide real numbers, including exponents, using appropriate methods of computing, such as mental mathematics, paper and pencil, and calculator. (MA.A.3.4.3) Use estimation strategies in complex situations to predict results and to check the reasonableness of results. (MA.A.4.4.1) Use concrete and graphic models to derive formulas for finding rate, distance, and time. (MA.B.1.4.2) Relate the concepts of measurement to similarity and proportionality in real-world situations. (MA.B.1.4.3) Solve real-world problems involving rated measures (miles per hour, feet per second). (MA.B.2.4.2)
Unit 2: Measurement
181
Writing Numbers in Scientific Notation

In Unit 1, we learned to use exponents. When you multiply 10s together, the product is called a power of 10. Powers of 10 are used to represent very large quantities and extremely small quantities. Exponents can be used to show a power of 10. The exponent tells the number of times that 10 is a factor. Look at powers of 10 below and notice that we have extended our study to include negative exponents. 104 103 102 101 100 = = = = = 10,000 1,000 100 10 1
1 101 1 102 1 103 1 104
10-1 = 10-2 = 10-3 = 10-4 =
= = = =
1 10 1 100 1 1,000 1 10,000
= 0.1 = 0.01 = 0.001 = 0.0001
Scientific notation is a shorthand method of writing very large or very small numbers using exponents. The number in scientific notation is expressed as a product of a power of 10 and a number that is greater than or equal to 1 and less than 10. To change a number written in decimal notation to scientific notation, write it as a product of two factors: (a decimal greater than or equal to 1 and less than 10) x (a power of 10)
Where a is a decimal 1 and < 10
a 10 n
A power of 10where n is an integer {, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, }
Example 1: speed of light = 300,000,000 miles per second, written in scientific notation = 3.0 x 108 Example 2: light travels 1 meter in 0.0000000033 seconds, written in scientific notation = 3.3 x 10-9
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Unit 2: Measurement
Example: Write 51,000,000 and 0.000865 in scientific notation. Large Number 51,000,000 Small Number 0.000865
1. Count the number of places we move the decimal point to get a number between 1 and 10. Remember: Only one nonzero digit (a number from 1 to 9) can be to the left of the decimal point.
51,000,000. 7 places to the left 0.000865 4 places to the right
2. Write the number as a product of a number between 1 and 10 and a power of 10. 5.1 x 107
5.1 is a decimal 1 and < 10. Power of 10 with positive exponent 7.
8.65 x 10-4
8.65 is a decimal 1 and < 10. Power of 10 with negative exponent -4.
Consider these large quantities: 700,000,000 980,000 40,000,000 250,000,000,000 And these very small quantities: 0.0085 0.000009 0.000000556 0.0000302
In scientific notation: 7 9.8 4 2.5 x x x x 108 105 107 1011
In scientific notation: 8.5 9 5.56 3.02 x x x x 10-3 10-6 10-7 10-5
Unit 2: Measurement
183
Practice
Write in scientific notation. 1. 22,000 ____________________________________________________ 2. 500,000 ___________________________________________________ 3. 0.00075 ___________________________________________________ 4. 31,000 ____________________________________________________ 5. 0.00382 ___________________________________________________ 6. 0.00006 ___________________________________________________ 7. 2,110,000 _________________________________________________ 8. 0.0000085 _________________________________________________ 9. 8,080,000 _________________________________________________ 10. 21,000 ____________________________________________________ 11. 0.00021 ___________________________________________________ 12. 900,000,000 _______________________________________________
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Unit 2: Measurement
Notice in these word statements that the quantities are preceded by the word about. That means that we are dealing with estimates rather than exact quantities. Write each number in scientific notation. 13. The sun is about 4,600,000,000 years old. _________________________________________________________ 14. There are about 194,000,000 telephones in the United States. _________________________________________________________ 15. The thickness of a human hair is about 0.00388 of a foot. _________________________________________________________ 16. The length of an infrared light wave is about 0.0000037 of a meter. _________________________________________________________ 17. The distance traveled by light in one year is called a light-year. One light year is about 6,000,000,000,000 miles. _________________________________________________________ 18. Our local bookstore sold about 23,000 books last month. _________________________________________________________ 19. An influenza virus is about 0.00000012 of a meter in diameter. _________________________________________________________ 20. The Earth is about 93,000,000 miles from the sun. _________________________________________________________
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Ratios and Rates

The first question we ask is What is the difference between a ratio and a rate? A ratio is a comparison of two like quantities. A ratio is actually a fraction which can be written in the following ways. The ratio of 1 to 4 can be written 1 4 or 1 to 4 or Each one of these is read as one to four. 1:4. When writing ratios, order is important. All of these expressions are read one to four. If the colon notation is used, like in the last example above, the first number is divided by the second. The ratio of 5 to 11 is , not 11 or 5 5:11, not 11:5. Also, we usually express ratios in lowest terms. A ratio is said to be in lowest terms if the two numbers are relatively prime. You do not change an improper fraction to a mixed number if the improper fraction is expressed as a ratio. For example: The ratio of $25 to $15 is written
$25 $15 5 11
25 5 15 5
5 3
Note: We leave ratios as improper fractions in lowest terms and do not rewrite as mixed numbers.
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Unit 2: Measurement
Rates are used to compare different kinds of quantities. Note: We write rates as fractions in simplest form. Example 1: Suppose Jake ran 4 miles in 44 minutes. Find Jakes rate (or average speed). As a rate, we write Jakes distance (4 miles) over his time (11 minutes) as a fraction. Then we reduce and write in simplest form.
Rate = distance = 4 miles = 1 mile or 1 mile per 11 minutes 44 minutes 11 minutes time
(Always write the unitsor fixed quantityin your answer.) So, Jakes average rate of speed was 1 mile in 11 minutes. In reflection, this answer is reasonable because if Jakes average speed was 11 minutes per mile and he traveled 4 miles, it would have taken him 44 minutes. Example 2: You drive 300 miles in 5 hours. Find your rate (or average speed). Use the same formula of rate equals distance over time. Write in your distance (300 miles) over your time (5 hours) and reduce the fraction to simplest form.
distance = 300 miles = 60 miles or 60 miles per hour time 5 hours 1 hour
Rate =
So your average rate of speed was 60 miles per hour. In reflection, this answer is reasonable because if your average rate of speed was 60 miles per hour and you traveled for 5 hours, you would have gone 300 miles.
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We actually found a unit rate since we read 60 mi/hr as 60 miles per hour. A unit rate is a rate for one unit of a given quantity. A unit rate has a denominator of 1. Unit rates are used a lot in unit pricing. A unit price is the cost of a particular item, expressed in the unit in which the product is generally measured. A unit price enables us to find the better buy. For example, which package of soap below is the better buy?
4 bars of soap $0.99 First, determine the price per bar. 4 bars:
$0.99 4 4 4
5 bars of soap $1.15
$0.25 1 bar
or $0.25 per bar
Answer is reasonable because 4 bars at $0.25 equals $1.00. (The $0.25 was rounded to the nearest cent, that is why 4 bars did not equal $0.99.) 5 bars:
$1.15 5 5 5
$0.23 1 bar
or $0.23 per bar
Answer is reasonable because 5 bars at $0.23 equals $1.15.
The package containing 5 bars of soap is the better buy. Each bar of soap costs $0.23, which is less than each bar in the 4 bar-package. But be carefulbuying a package with more items in the package will not always result in the better buy. You must do the math to be sure.
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Unit 2: Measurement
Practice
Write each ratio as a fraction in lowest terms. Remember: Leave ratios as improper fractions written in lowest terms; do not rewrite in simplest form as mixed numbers. 1. 4 to 8 = 2. 18 to 12 = 3. 8 to 6 = 4. 16 to 36 = 5. 12:20 = 10. 14 centimeters to 20 centimeters = 11. 10 inches to 12 inches = 12. $32 to $100 = Write each rate as a fraction in simplest form. Remember: Write rates as fractions in simplest form. 13. 8 phone lines for 36 employees ______________________________ 14. 4 inches of rain in 18 hours _________________________________ 15. 8 flight attendants for 200 passengers ________________________ 16. 210 pounds of grass seed for 9 lawns _________________________ 17. 6 shrubs every 18 feet ______________________________________ 18. 8 laser printers for 28 computers _____________________________ 6. 24 to 18 = 7. 10:4 = 8. 9.
24 96 9 45
= =
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189
Write each rate as a unit rate. 19. 72 diapers for 12 babies ____________________________________ 20. 200,000 library books for 4,000 students ______________________ 21. 750 riders in 5 subway cars _________________________________
Find the unit rate. Check for reasonableness of results. Show all your work. Remember: rate = distance time 22. Dathan drove 225 miles in 5 hours. What was Dathans rate (or average speed)? Answer: miles per hour
23. Jenna reached her goal of running 3 miles in 30 minutes. What was Jennas rate (or average speed)? Hint: 60 minutes = 1 hour. Answer: miles per hour
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Unit 2: Measurement
Find each unit price and decide which is the better buy. Check for reasonableness of results. Round to the nearest thousandth (three decimal places). Show all your work. 24. Steak sauce at $2.29 for 12 ounces or $1.49 for 8 ounces $2.29 for 12 ounces = $1.49 for 8 ounces = Better buy: per ounce per ounce ounces of steak sauce
25. Olives at $1.89 for 32 ounces or $0.89 for 18 ounces $1.89 for 32 ounces = $0.89 for 18 ounces = Better buy: per ounce per ounce ounces of olives
26. Napkins at 100 for $0.59 or 180 for $0.93 100 for $0.59 = 180 for $0.93 = Better buy: package of each each napkins
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191
Writing and Solving Proportions

An equation showing that two ratios (or rates) are equal is called a proportion.
3 4
6 8
is a proportion.
We read this as 3 is to 4 as 6 is to 8. Also, we can see that the proportion

3 4
6 8
is true.
Look below. In the first set of circles, 3 out of 4 circles are shaded. In the second set, 6 out of 8 circles are shaded. And although the second set has more circles, the ratio of shaded circles to total circles is the same. That is, 3 6 4 = 8 . One ratio is equal to the other ratio, and is therefore called a proportion.
The ability to compare and produce equal ratios involves proportional reasoning. A common use of proportions is to make or use maps and scale models. There are two ways to find out whether a proportion is true. One method is to write each fraction in simplest form and compare them. Since
6 8
simplifies to
3 4
, we note that
3 4
6 8
is true.
Another way to determine if the proportion is true is to use cross products with cross multiplication. Cross multiplication is a method for solving and checking proportions.
3 4
6 8
8(3) = 4(6) When cross products are equal, the proportion is true. 24 = 24
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Unit 2: Measurement
If cross products are not equal, the proportion is false. We ask the following question. Is
2 3
4 9
a proportion?
2 3
4 9
Is Does
9(2) = 3(4)? 18 = 12? Of course not!

2 3
Therefore, Examples:
4 9
is not a proportion.
We use cross products to state whether each proportion is true or false.

a.
2 1 11 = 5
b.
2 3
5 6
c.
1 2
3 6
Is 5(2) = 11(1) ? 10 is not equal to 11 Answer: false
Is 6(2) = 3(5) ? 12 is not equal to 15 Answer: false
Is 6(1) = 2(3) ? 6 is equal to 6 Answer: true
As weve already seen, a proportion states that two ratios are equal. Frequently, proportions are presented as follows:
a b
c d
In words: a is to b as c is to d.
Also: d(a) = b(c)
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193
To solve a proportion when three parts are known, we use cross multiplication or the cross product property.
Solve:
x 3
1 6
use cross product property
6(x) = 3(1)
6x 3 6 = 6
divide each side by 6 reduced and in simplest form
x =
1 2
We can check our solution by substituting the proportion.
1 2
in the original
Since Is Is
1 2
1 2
1? 6
or
Is
1 2 0.5 3
= 0.5 =
1 6
(6) = 3(1)?
Is 0.5(6) = 3(1)? Is 3.0 = 3? Yes, our solution is correct.
Is (3) = 3? Yes, our solution is correct.
The cross product property only works when solving a proportion. It does not apply to doing operations with fractions, such as multiplying or dividing.
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Unit 2: Measurement
Practice
Write True if the proportion is equal. Write False if the proportion is not equal.
1.
15 9
5 3
3.
7 8
5 6
2.
7 12
4 7
4.
2 1
16 8
Write each sentence as a proportion. Then solve. 5. 8 is to 6 as 4 is to n.
6. 12 is to n as 2 is to 3.
7. n is to 18 as 4 is to 9.
8. 8 is to 15 as n is to 6.
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195
Solve each proportion. 9.

30 10
= 15 n
11.
2 1
n 3.5
10.
2 x
15 9
12.
n 3
18 54
ON/C MRC
+
M + M OFF
Check yourself. Use a calculator to check problems 9-12. For example,

35 10
CE
n 7
you would enter 35 x 7 10 = and get the answer 24.5.
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Unit 2: Measurement
Solve each proportion. 13.

y 0.6
0.05 12
15.
1 3
24 n
14.
0.2 0.7
8 n
16.
n 48
3 4
12
Unit 2: Measurement
197
Practice
Write True if the statement is correct. Write False if the statement is not correct. __________ 1. Scientific notation is the longhand method of writing numbers without exponents. The ratio of 1 to 4 can be written
1 4
__________ 2. __________ 3. __________ 4.
or 1 to 4 or 1:4.
When writing ratios, order is not important. Leave ratios as improper fractions and do not rewrite as mixed numbers. A unit is an estimated or approximate quantity used to measure. Rates are used to compare different kinds of quantities. Unit rates are used a lot in unit pricing, which enables us to find the better buy. Unit pricing is the cost of a particular item, such as one bar of soap. An equation showing that two ratios (or rates) are equal is called a proportion. One way to determine if the proportion is true or false is to use cross products with cross multiplication. If cross products are not equal, the proportion is true.
__________ 5.
__________ 6. __________ 7.
__________ 8.
__________ 9.
_________ 10.
_________ 11.
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Unit 2: Measurement
Using Proportions
Writing proportions is one of the most important skills we can learn. Courses in science, business, health, engineering and, of course, mathematics, require a solid foundation in handling proportions. Additionally, we use proportions in everyday situations. When we are given a specified ratio (or rate) of two quantities, a proportion can be used to find an unknown quantity. Example 1: On an architects blueprint, 1 inch corresponds to 6 feet. How long is a deck represented by a 3 1 2 inch line on the blueprint?
1 inch 6 feet
inches x feet
1 2
Note: If the left side of our proportion compares blueprint length to actual length, then the right side must also compare blueprint length to actual deck length. Use cross products:
1 6
1 2
1x = 6(3 2 ) x = 21 feet
1 6
3.5 x
or
1x = 6(3.5) x = 21 feet
1 2
Therefore, 21 feet is represented by 3
or 3.5 inches on the blueprint.
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199
Example 2: On a map of Anita Springs, 5 miles corresponds to 2 inches. How many miles correspond to 7 inches? Translate: Let n represent our unknown miles. Since 5 miles corresponds to 2 inches as n miles corresponds to 7 inches, we can write the proportion:
miles inches 5 2
n miles 7 inches
5(7) = 2n 35 = 2n 17 1 = n 2
So, 17
1 2
or
17.5 = n
5 miles
Anita Springs
or 17.5 miles corresponds to 7 inches on the map.
Example 3: The instructions on a bottle of cough syrup state that the patient should take 1 2 teaspoon for every 40 pounds (lbs) of body weight. At this rate, find the appropriate dose for a 120-pound woman.
teaspoons 2 x teaspoons pounds 40 = 120 pounds 1 2 (120) = 40x
1
0.5 40
x 120
or
0.5(120) = 40x 60 = 40x 1.5 = x
60 = 40x 11 = x 2
Thus, the 120-pound woman needs 1 1 2 or 1.5 teaspoons for each dose of cough syrup.
CO
UG H
200
Unit 2: Measurement
Practice
For each problem, set up a proportion and solve. Check for reasonableness of results. Show all your work. 1. If it takes Sandy 30 minutes to type and spell-check 4 pages on her computer, how long will it take her to type and spell-check 20 pages? Answer: minutes
F R UI T J UIC E
2. If a 2-liter bottle of fruit juice costs $3.98, how much would 6 liters cost? Answer:
3. Archies car averages 450 miles on a 12-gallon tank of gas. How many gallons of gas can Archie expect to use on a 2,025 mile trip? Answer: gallons
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201
4. After driving 7 hours, Jose had traveled 385 miles. If he continues to travel at the same rate, what distance will he have driven in 10 hours? Answer: miles
5. If a 12-pound turkey takes 4 hours to cook, how long will it take to cook an 18-pound turkey? Answer: hours
6. The standard dose of an antibiotic is 6 cc (cubic centimeters) for every 50 pounds of body weight. At this rate, find the standard dose for a 175-pound woman. Answer: cc
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Unit 2: Measurement
7. If 80 feet of rope weigh 20 pounds, how much would 100 feet of the same kind of rope weigh? Answer: pounds
8. On an architects blueprint, 1 inch corresponds to 8 feet. Find the 7 inches long on the length of a wall represented by a line 1 8 blueprint. Answer: feet
9. A photograph measures a width of 4 inches by a length of 6 inches. If the photograph is enlarged so that the width is 6 inches, what is the length of the enlarged photograph? Answer: inches
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203
10. Paul spent $18 for 12 gallons of gasoline. At that price, how many gallons could he buy for $15? Answer: gallons
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Unit 2: Measurement

Understand the relative size of integers, rational numbers, and real numbers. (MA.A.1.4.2) Understand concrete and symbolic representations of real numbers in real-world situations. (MA.A.1.4.3) Understand that numbers can be represented in a variety of equivalent forms, including integers, fractions, decimals, percents, scientific notation, and exponents. (MA.A.1.4.4) Select and justify alternative strategies, such as using properties of numbers, including inverse, that allow operational shortcuts for computational procedures in real-world or mathematical problems. (MA.A.3.4.2) Add, subtract, multiply, and divide real numbers, including exponents, using appropriate methods of computing, such as mental mathematics, paper and pencil, and calculator. (MA.A.3.4.3)
Unit 2: Measurement
205
Percents
In previous sections, we reviewed fractions and decimals. To change a fraction to a decimal, we divide the denominator into the numerator. Note: When setting up the division problem for the fraction 2 5 , it is helpful to remember that the fraction with its fraction bar reads 2 divided by 5.
2 5
0.4 5 )2.0
so
2 5
fraction 0.5 2 )1.0
= 0.4 decimal
1 2
so
1 2
fraction
= 0.5 decimal
To change a decimal to a fraction, simply count the decimal places and use the same number of zeros in the denominator.
4 0.4 = 10 = 2 5 2 0.002 = 1,000 = 1 500
one decimal place
one zero
three decimal places
three zeros
We know that we can express fractions as decimals, and decimals as fractions. We can also express fractions and decimals as percents. Percent literally means per 100, hundredths, or out of every hundred. The symbol % means percent. Its use dates back to the 1400s.
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Unit 2: Measurement
Look at the percents below. Each was changed from a percent to a fraction and then to a decimal.
5 5% = 100 = 0.05 16 16% = 100 = 0.16
6.2% =
6.2 100
62 1,000
= 0.062
525 10,000
1 54 % = 5.25% = 5.25 100 =
= 0.0525
200% = 200 100 = 2
Look for a pattern! Note how the decimal point shifts places when we change a percent to a decimal. Rule: To change a percent to a decimal, drop the percent sign, move the decimal point two places to the left, and insert zeros as placeholders if necessary. Remember: If you do not see a decimal point, it is at the end of the number. Examples:
17.% = 0.17 1 7 5 .% = 1.75 1 0 . 5 % = 0.105 30
1 2
% = 30.5%
= 0.305
23 4 % =
2.75% = 0.0275
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207
Rule: To change a decimal to a percent, move the decimal point two places to the right, insert zeros as placeholders as necessary, and then write the % sign. Examples:
0.03 = 3%
0.375 = 37.5% 0.66 7.

2 3
= 66
2 3
= 700%
Memory Trick: Here is an easy way to remember the two previous rules: Decimal starts with a D. Percent starts with a P. D comes before P in the alphabet.
right (To move from D to P in the P alphabet, move to the right)
To change a decimal to a percent, move the decimal point to the right 0.15 = 15%
left
(To move from P to D in the P alphabet, move to the left)
To change a percent to a decimal, move the decimal point to the left. 85% = 0.85
208
Unit 2: Measurement
Practice
Write as decimals. 1. 58% = 6. 4% =
2. 65.3% =
7. 0.1% =
1 3. 42 4 %=
8. 5 1 2%=
4. 180% =
3 9. 6 4 %=
5. 500% = Write as percents. 11. 0.77 =
10. 6.3% =
16. 0.1 =
12. 0.02 =
17. 8 =
13. 0.005 =
18. 1 =
14. 0.66 1 2 =
19.
3 5
15. 0.046 =
20.
1 8
Unit 2: Measurement
209
Practice
Solve each problem. Show all your work. Example: John answered 15 problems out of 20 on his last math test. What percent of the problems did he answer correctly?
First, make a fraction:
part 15 total 20
Reduce, by dividing both denominator and numerator by 5.

3 4
15 20
3 4
Second, change this fraction to a decimal: Third, change the decimal to a percent:
0.75 4 )3.00
0.75 = 75%
1. Jared has been at bat 48 times and has hit 20 times. What percent of the time does he make a hit? Round to the nearest tenth of a percent. Answer:
2. The down payment on a television is $150. The total price of the television is $750. The down payment is what percent of the cost of the television? Answer:
210
Unit 2: Measurement
3. Janice correctly spelled 20 words on a spelling test. There were 20 words on the test. What percent of the words did she spell correctly? Answer:
4. The postman delivered mail to 171 out of the 180 houses on Florida Street. What percent of the houses did not get a mail delivery? Answer:
5.
a. What percent of this rectangle is shaded? _________________ b. What percent of this rectangle is not shaded? _____________ c. What is the sum of these two percents?___________________
6. Which is larger, 15% or 0.145? Explain. Answer: Explanation: ______________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________
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211
7. Which is larger, 200% or 5? Explain. Answer: Explanation: ______________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ 8. In a survey of 3,000 people, 2,400 said that they regularly eat breakfast. What percent of the people surveyed eat breakfast? ____________ a. 8% b. 85% c. 87 1 2% d. 80%
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Unit 2: Measurement
9. There are certain fractions that appear very frequently in our lives that we need to memorize the relationships. Fill in the chart below and memorize it!
Fraction
1 4 1 2 3 4 1 5 2 5 3 5 4 5 1 8 3 8 5 8 7 8 1 3 2 3
Decimal
Percent
Continued on following page.
Unit 2: Measurement
213
Fraction 1
1 10 2 10 3 10
Decimal
Percent
0
1 6 5 6
214
Unit 2: Measurement
Solving Percent Problems with Equations

We will see that many problems involving percents require that we take some percent of a quantity. To do these problems, use the fundamental rule for percentage. PB = A percent of base= amount PB = A Example 1: Solve for the amount (A). Note: P is the percent, B is the base, and A is the amount.
5 percent of 20 is what number? Equation: Answer: 5% 0.05 1 x 20 = (20) = = A A A change 5% to a decimal and multiply So: 5% of 20 is 1.
Example 2: Solve for the base.
5 percent of what number is 20? Equation: 5% 0.05B

0.05B 0.05
= 20 = 20 =
0.20 0.05
change 5% to a decimal and multiply divide both sides by 0.05 So: 5% of 400 is 20.
Answer:
= 400
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215
Example 3: Solve for the percent.

What percent of 20 is 5? Equation: P(20) 20P
20P 20
= 5 = 5 =
5 20
use commutative property divide both sides by 20 change 0.25 to a percent for final answer So: 25% of 20 is 5.
P Answer: P
= 0.25 = 25%
Notice: Since our answer needs to be a percent, we write 0.25 as 25%, our final answer. Lets look at three more examples. Example 4:
What number is 15% of 60? Equation: A = A = A = A = 9 is 15% of 60 PB 15%(60) 0.15(60) 9
Answer:
Example 5:
change 15% to a decimal and multiply
15% of what number is 60? Equation: PB 15%B 0.15B = A = A = 60 0.15B 60 = 0.15 0.15 B = 400 15% of 400 is 60
change 15% to a decimal divide both sides by 0.15
Answer:
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Unit 2: Measurement
Example 6:
15 is what percent of 60? Equation: A = 15 =

15 60
PB P(60)
P(60) 60
divide both sides by 60 change 0.25 to percent for final answer
0.25 = 25% = Answer: 15 is 25% of 60

Example 7:
P P
Be careful with fractional percents. Instead of converting these percents to decimals, our work will be easier if we convert fractional percents to fractions. Equation: 16 2 % of 72 = A 3 First, change the fractional percent to an improper fraction.
2 16 3 %
= = = =
1
50 3 50 3 50 3 1 6
hundredths or x x
1 100 1 100 2
50 3
100
means
50 3
100
multiply by reciprocal cancel by dividing the opposite numerator and denominator (by 50) to write in lowest terms multiply numerator multiply denominator rewrite equation with fraction and multiply cancel by dividing the opposite numerator and denominator (by 6) to write in lowest terms multiply numerator multiply denominator reduced and in simplest form
2 % of 72 = A Therefore: 16 3 1 6 1 16
(72) = A
72 12 1 12 1
=A =A
12 = A
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217
In advertising, we may see signs stating 33 1 3 % off. Again, we need to convert our percent to a fraction rather than a decimal. Suppose a $480 stereo system is reduced 33 1 3 %. We want to know how much money we would save by taking advantage of the discount.
OFF
1 33 3 % =
change percent to a fraction change mixed number to an improper fraction and multiply by reciprocal cancel by dividing the opposite numerator and denominator (by 100) multiply numerator multiply denominator reduced and in simplest form rewrite equation with fraction and multiply cancel by dividing the opposite numerator and denominator (by 3) to write in lowest terms multiply numerator multiply denominator reduced and in simplest form
33
1 3
100
1 33 3 100 = 100 3
1
x x
1 100
100 3
1 = 100 1 1 3
Therefore: 33 3 % of $480 = A
1 3 1 1 3
(480) = A
480 1
160
=A =A
160 1
160 = A
We would save $160. Therefore, $480 = original cost 1 160 = 33 3 % off original cost $320 = sale cost
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Unit 2: Measurement
1 3 1 In the last assignment, we saw that fractions like 1 2 , 4 , 4 , and 5 convert to terminating decimals like 0.5, 0.25, 0.75, and 0.2 respectively. Terminating decimals contain a finite (limited) number of digits. Therefore,
3 1 fractional percents like 6 1 2 %, 3 4 %, and 12 4 % can easily be converted to decimals in our computations.
Examples: 61 2 % = 6.5%.. = 0.065 1 34 % = 3.25% = 0.0325

3 12 4 % = 12.75% = 0.1275
18 1 5 % = 18.2% However:
= 0.182
1 6 1 3 2 3
16 2 3 % = 33 1 3% =
(as explained on page 218)
Likewise:
2 66 3 % =
2 66 3
66 2 3% =
because
change percent to a fraction change mixed number to an improper fraction and multiply cancel by dividing the opposite numerator and denominator (by 100) to write in lowest terms multiply numerator multiply denominator reduced and in simplest form
100
2 66 3 100 = 200 3
2
x x
1 100 1 100 1 2 3
= =
200 3
Unit 2: Measurement
219
You may find it helpful to memorize the following chart of equivalent percents, decimals, and fractions. (See practice on pages 213 and 214 where you computed these equivalents.)
Equivalent Percents, Decimals, and Fractions 20% = 0.2 = 40% = 0.4 = 60% = 0.6 = 80% = 0.8 =
1 5 2 5 3 5 4 5
25% = 0.25 = 50% = 0.5 = 75% = 0.75 =
1 4 1 2 3 4
12 1 2 % = 0.125 = 37 1 2 % = 0.375 = 62 1 2 % = 0.625 = 87 1 2 % = 0.875 = 100% = 1
1 8 3 8 5 8 7 8
16 2 3 % = 0.16 = 33 1 3 % = 0.3 = 66 2 3 % = 0.6 = 83 1 3 % = 0.83 =
1 6 1 3 2 3 5 6
Most calculators have a percent key % . Depending upon your calculator, you may be able to use one of the following two key sequences to calculate the percent of a number.
Example: 64% of 75 64 % x 75 = or 75 x 64 %
The result should be 48.
Using What We Know to Examine Percent Equations

Sometimes it can help to examine mathematical steps using an equation to which we already know the answer. For example, if we know that 100% of 48 is 48, we also know that half or 50% of 48 is 24. Lets use the statement 50% of 48 equals 24 and reexamine the fundamental rule for percentage: percent of base = amount PB = A and look at solving for amount, base, and then for percent.
220 Unit 2: Measurement
First, solving for the amount (A)which we already know from above is 24: What number is 50% of 48? A = PxB A = 0.50 x 48 A = 24 Answer: 24 is 50% of 48 Second, solving for the base (B)which we already know from above is 48: 50% of what number is 24? PxB = A 0.50B = 24 24 0.50B = 0.50 0.50 B = 48 Answer: 50% of 48 is 24 Last, solving for the percent (P)which we already know from the previous page is 50%. 24 is what percent of 48? A = PB 24 = P(48) (P)(48) 24 48 48 = 0.50 = P 50% = P Answer: 24 is 50% of 48 If you come across an equation you are unsure of how to solve, go back to an equation you do know the answers to and plug those numbers in to help you retrace the steps to the solution.
Unit 2: Measurement
221
Practice
Set up equations and solve. Show all your work. 1. 25% of 8 is what number?
2. 30 is what percent of 20?
3. 12% of what number is 0.6?
4. 30 is 5% of what number?
222
Unit 2: Measurement
6. 125% of 36 is what number?
7. 40 is 33 1 3 % of what number?
8. 12 1 2 % of what number is 6?
9. 16 2 3 % of 60 is what number?
11. A stereo that costs $336 requires a down payment of $84. What percent of the total cost is the down payment? Answer:
Unit 2: Measurement
223
12. Jakes $360 paycheck had a 16 2 3 % deduction for federal income tax. How much money was withheld for income tax? Answer:
Jake Checkwriter 123 Money Drive Greenback, FL 20
13. 66 2 3 % of the seats on a bus are filled. There are 45 seats on the bus. How many seats are filled? Answer:
14. There were 60 questions on the test and Sam answered 90% of them correctly. How many questions did he answer correctly? Answer:
15. Which of the following is not equal to 9? a. b. c. d. of 12 75% of 16 50% of 18 (0.15) x (60)
3 4
Answer:
224
Unit 2: Measurement
Discount and Sales Tax
Most percent problems can be worked using the fundamental rule for percentage problems (PBA). percent of base = percent x base = or PxB = amount amount A
Example: A local shoe store offers a 15% discount on shoes if you bring a newspaper coupon. How much would the discount be on a $75 pair of running shoes? In this case, the percent (or rate) is 15% or 0.15 the base (total) is $75, the cost of the shoes. the amount you dont pay is the discount. P x B = A (0.15) x ($75) = A $11.25 is the discount or amount you do not pay. If the shoes once cost $75, and you dont pay $11.25, then the sales price will be cost discount = sales price $75 $11.25 = $63.75
50 % of
Most of us shop enough to know that stores frequently will have sales where they discount or mark down items. The discount is the part that you do not pay.
Unit 2: Measurement
225
Taxes It has been said that there are only two things certain in lifedeath and taxes. In some counties in Florida the residents pay a 7% sales tax. (This rate varies around the state.) Example: Lets go back to the running shoes in the last example. To figure the tax, we will use the same fundamental rule for percentage problems (PBA). percent x base = amount In this case, the percent is 7 % or 0.07 the base is $63.75, the cost of the shoes the amount is the tax that will be paid to the state of Florida.
P x
A amount (tax) tax (round to the nearest cent) tax (to be paid)
(0.07) x ($63.75) = $4.4625 = $4.46 =
Not only do we have to pay the store for the shoes ($63.75), but we also have to pay tax ($4.46). Our total bill will be cost + tax = total bill
$63.75 + $4.46 = $68.21 What if our countys sales tax was 6.5% or 0.065? How much would we have to pay on $63.75?
P x B = A amount (tax) tax (round to the nearest cent) tax (to be paid)
(0.065) x ($63.75) = $4.14375 = $4.14 =
cost
+ tax
= total bill
$63.75 + $4.14 = $67.89

226 Unit 2: Measurement
Practice
Find the discount on the following. Show all your work. 1. A $49 dress at 20% off has a discount of .
2. A $250 television at 25% off has a discount of

25% off
3. A $20 CD at 10% off has a discount of
10 off %
Find the sales tax on the following if the tax rate is 7%. Round to the nearest cent. Show all your work. 4. On a $49.50 sweater, the tax will be .
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227
5. On an $8,500 car, the tax will be
6. On a $1,500 big-screen television, the tax will be

0 $1,5 0.
00
Find the total cost on the following. Round to the nearest cent. Show all your work. 7. The regular price of a pair of jeans is $42. The jeans are now discounted 15%, and the tax rate is 6%. What is the total cost of the jeans? Answer:
8. Find the total cost of a $75 jacket which has been discounted 20%. The tax rate is 7.5%. Answer:
228
Unit 2: Measurement
Practice
Answer the following. Suppose you buy a $10 item for $8 on sale. What is the rate or percent of discount? First, $10 $8 = $2this is the discount. Now, use the fundamental rule of percentages (PBA). In this case, P is unknown B is the original or total price of the item A is the discount
rewrite and use commutative property divide both sides by 10 change decimal to percent for the final answer
PxB = A P x $10 = $2 10P = 2 10P 2 10 = 10 P = 0.2 P = 20%
Notice: Since we are looking for a percent, we need to change 0.2 to 20 % Find the discount rate for the following. Round to the nearest tenth of a percent. Show all your work. 1. A $15 necklace on sale for $10 has a discount rate of .
$10
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229
2. A $50 dress on sale for $42 has a discount rate of
$42
Solve the following. Round to the nearest cent. Show all your work. 3. A store advertises that everything is discounted 15%. You find that a $20 shirt is now $17. Is the store marking items correctly? Explain. Answer: Explanation: ______________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________
4. A customer bought a pen for $7.95. The sales tax was 5%. The customer gave the clerk a $10 bill. Will this be enough money to pay for the pen? Why or why not? Explain. Answer: Explanation: ______________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________
230
Unit 2: Measurement
5. At a used CD store, all CDs are sold at a reduced price of new price. This week, the store will take an additional 20% off the reduced price. How much would a CD cost that sold new at $15? Explain. Answer:
1 2
off the
Explanation: ______________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________
Unit 2: Measurement
231
Interest
Borrowing Money Banks and individuals lend money to people who qualify because they feel the money will most likely be repaid. The person who borrows money must pay a fee. Interest is the fee paid for the use of borrowed money. Usually the interest is some percent or rate of the borrowed money. The borrowed money is called the principal. The longer a person keeps the money, the bigger fee or greater interest he will pay. To compute interest, we use the following formula: I=pxrxt p is the principal; r is the rate (percent); t is the time in years interest = principal rate time Remember: Change the rate from a percent to a decimal. Example: Suppose that you need $6,000 for a used car. Your mom agrees to give it to you if you pay her back in 1 year. She also charges you 5% (0.05) annually (per year). How much will the car cost you? I= p x r x t I = ($6,000) x (0.05) x (1) I = $300 Remember: You still must repay your mom the original $6,000 plus the fee (interest) of $300: $6,000 + $300 = $6,300 $6,300 is the total amount repaid to your mom.
232
Unit 2: Measurement
Money Saving Also, when you deposit money into a savings account, you are actually agreeing to let the bank use your money. For this privilege, the bank pays you interest on your money. To figure this interest, we use the same formula as before: interest (I) = principal (p) annual rate of interest (r) time in years (t) I=pxrxt or I = prt Example: Suppose your mom decides to put her $6,300 in a savings account for 1 year. The bank that she uses pays a rate of 5 3 4 % (0.0575) on the principal, the amount in the savings account. I= p x r x t I = ($6,300) x (0.0575) x (1) I = $362.25 At the end of the year your mom still has the original $6,300 plus the $362.25 that she earned in interest. $6,300 + $362.25 = $6,662.25 principal + interest = new principal
KN
AB
When you deposit money into a savings account, you are actually agreeing to let the bank use your money.
Unit 2: Measurement
233
Example: Mr. Powell deposited $1,000 in his savings account. His account earns 61 2 % (0.065) annually. Unfortunately, Mr. Powell has to withdraw his money after 6 months. How much interest will he earn? To work this problem we have to deal with the time very carefully. If we use 6 for our t in the formula, we will get a large number which is not correct. This would be the answer for allowing the money to stay in the bank 6 years! To get the correct answer, we have to realize that 6 months is 1 2 year.
6 months 12 months in one year
1 2
I= p x r x t I = ($1,000) x (0.065) x (1 2) I = 32.50 $32.50 is the interest that Mr. Powell will earn.
234
Unit 2: Measurement
Practice
Solve the following. Show all your work. 1. Joe puts $3,500 in a savings account which pays 8 1 2 % annually. Find the amount of interest after 1 year. How much will Joe have in the bank at the end of the year?
2. Sue borrowed $5,000 from her dad at 6% annually. She repaid him after 9 months. What was the total amount that she repaid?
1 3. Find the interest on $50,000 at 5 4 % annually for 6 months.
Unit 2: Measurement
235
4. Laura deposits $100 in a savings account that pays 6% annual interest. The chart below is partially completed. Study the chart and figure out what Laura would have at the end of 3, 4, and 5 years. Then complete the chart. Round to the nearest cent.
p
Year 1 $100
x r
x t = I
then add $100 + 6 = $106
x 0.06 x 1 = $6,
Year 2
$106
x 0.06 x 1 = $6.36,
then add $106 + 6.36
= $112.36
Year 3
$112.36 x 0.06 x 1 =
, then add
Year 4
x 0.06 x 1 =
, then add
Year 5
x 0.06 x 1 =
, then add
236
Unit 2: Measurement
Percent of Increase or Decrease

In 2001, United States businesses sold 9.4 billion dollars worth of video games. This was up from 6.9 billion dollars worth sold in 1999. The new amount is more than the original amount. Find the percent of changein this case, the percent of increase. This is a percent of increase because the new amount is more than the original amount. To find the percent of changepercent of increase or decreasefollow these steps: Step 1: Subtract to find the amount of change or difference between the two amounts. Step 2: Write the amount of change over the original amount as a fraction and divide.
amount of change original amount
Remember: The denominator in the formula above is always the original amount, whether less than or greater than the new amount. Step 3: Change the answer to a percent. Example 1: Find out the percent of increase to solve the problem above.
Step 1: 9.4 6.9 = 2.5 Step 2:

2.5 6.9
subtract to find the amount of change write as a fraction:

amount of change (increase) original amount
0.36 = Step 3: 36%
divide and round to the nearest hundredt rewrite the answer as a percent
Answer: 36% increase
Unit 2: Measurement
237
Here is another example: Janet weighed 120 pounds when she entered 9th grade. At the end of the year she weighed 105 pounds. The new amount is less than the original amount. Find the percent of changein this case, the percent of decrease. This is a percent of decrease because the new amount is less than the original amount. In business, the percent of decrease is often called the discount. Example 2: Find the percent of decrease to solve the problem above.
Step 1: 120 105 = 15 Step 2:

15 120
subtract to find the amount of change write as a fraction:

amount of change (decrease) original amount
0.125 = Step 3: 12.5%
divide and round to the nearest hundredth rewrite the answer as a percent
Answer: 12.5% decrease
238
Unit 2: Measurement
Practice
Find the percent of change. Then write increase if it is a percent of increase or write decrease if it is a percent of decrease. Round to the nearest tenth of a percent if necessary. Show all your work. 1. original amount: $62; new amount: $68.50 Answer: % of
2. original amount: $75; new amount: $50.25 Answer: % of
3. original amount: $900; new amount: $1200 Answer: % of
4. When James bought his new car it was worth $22,000. Five years later its value was only $12,500. Find the percent of decrease. Answer: % of decrease
Unit 2: Measurement
239
5. Alvin bought a house in 1974 for $39,000. In 2001 he sold it for $98,000. Find the percent of increase. Answer: % of increase
6. A $440 boat is on sale for $390. Find the percent of decrease. Answer: % of decrease
7. In 1980, the population of Denton was about 43,200. In 1990 the population was about 40,100. What was the percent of decrease? Answer: % of decrease
8. In the past 3 decades the average new home has increased in size from 1,500 to 2,300 square feet. Find the percent of increase. Answer: % of increase
240
Unit 2: Measurement
9. Leon County had a population of about 100,000 in 1970. In 2000, the county had grown to around 220,000. Find the percent of increase. Answer: % of increase
Circle the letter of the correct answer. 10. Suppose you own 100 shares of stock. The value of each share is $12. After one year, the stock drops (falls) to $9 per share. What is the percent of decrease in the share price of the stock?
a. b. c. d.
25% 30% 12% 33 1 3%
Unit 2: Measurement
241
Practice
Use the list below to complete the following statements. amount denominator discount interest numerator original percent (%) percent of decrease percent of increase principal terminating decimals
1. To change a fraction to a decimal, we divide the denominator into the . 2. To change a decimal to a fraction, simply count the decimal places and use the same number of zeros in the 3. A .
is a fraction whose denominator is 100.
4. The fundamental rule for percentage problems (PBA) is percent x base = 5. Fractions like
1 2
.
1 4
3 4
, and
1 5
convert to
with a finite (limited) number of digits. 6. money. 7. Usually the interest is some percent or rate of the borrowed money and the borrowed money is called the . is the fee paid for the use of borrowed
242
Unit 2: Measurement
8. The percent the amount of decrease is of the original amount is called the or the .
9. The percent the amount of increase is of the original amount is called the .
10. The percent of change is the amount of change divided by the amount.
Unit 2: Measurement
243
Practice
Match each definition with the correct term. Write the letter on the line provided. ______ ______ ______ 1. a fraction that has a numerator greater than or equal to the denominator 2. any number representing some part of a a whole; of the form b 3. a fraction whose numerator and denominator have no common factor greater than 1 4. a mathematical sentence stating that two ratios are equal 5. any number written with a decimal point in the number E. mixed number ______ 6. a shorthand method of writing very large or very small numbers using exponents in which a number is expressed as the product of a power of 10 and a number that is greater than or equal to one (1) and less than 10 7. a number that consists of both a whole number and a fraction 8. the quotient of two numbers used to compare two quantities 9. a mathematical sentence that equates one expression to another expression A. decimal number
B. equation
C. fraction
______ ______
D. improper fraction
F. proportion
G. ratio
______ ______ ______
H. scientific notation
I. simplest form
244
Unit 2: Measurement
Unit Review
Part A Answer the following.
7 8 ? 24
1. Solve:
2. Write in simplest form:
24 32
3. Write in simplest form:
7x2 y 14 x y
4. Change the whole number 4 to sixths.
5. Change 3 2 5 to an improper fraction.
Unit 2: Measurement
245
6. Change
16 3
to a mixed number.
7. Change
7 8
to a decimal.
8. Change 0.008 to a fraction in simplest form.
Fill in the blank with >, <, or =.

5 4 17 12
9.
10.
1 2
0.54
246
Unit 2: Measurement
Add or subtract as indicated. Write each answer in simplest form. 11.

8 9
2 9
14.
1 11 = 34 2
12.
1 + 2 64
3 4
15. 8 + 3.6 + 2.45 =
13.
3 8
4 5
16. 18 6.2 =
Multiply or divide as indicated. Write each answer in simplest form. 17.

1 9
3 4
20.
1 2 = 62
18.
1 )(2 2 ) = (3 2 5
21. 6.3 x 0.21 =
19.
5 6
5 3
22. 2.75 0.5 =
Unit 2: Measurement
247
Write in scientific notation. 23. One ounce is equal to 0.000031104 metric tons. ________________ 24. A millennium has 31,536,000,000 seconds. ____________________
Write each ratio as a fraction in simplest form. 25. 14:20 _____________________________________________________ 26. 3 inches to 15 inches _______________________________________
248
Unit 2: Measurement
Unit Review
Part B Answer the following. Check for reasonableness of results. Show all your work. 27. James and Joel drove 200 miles in 5 hours. What was their rate (or average speed)? Answer: miles per hour
28. Rachel reached her goal of running 4 miles in 40 minutes. What was Rachels rate (or average speed)? Hint: 1 hour = 60 minutes Answer: miles per hour
29. Find the unit price of a 12-ounce package of chips which costs 78 cents. Round to the nearest cent. Answer: per ounce
24 30. Solve this proportion: 8 1 = n 4
Answer:
Unit 2: Measurement
249
31. Set up a proportion and solve: Marlon spent $18 for 12 gallons of gas. At that price, how many gallons could he buy for $22.50? Answer: gallons
Fill in the following chart.
Fraction 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37.

5 4 4 5
Decimal
Percent
0.016 120% 62% 0.08

1
250
Unit 2: Measurement
Set up an equation using the fundamental rule of percentages (PBA). percent of base is amount or PB = A Then solve each equation. Check for reasonableness of results. Show all your work. 38. What number is 15% of 120?
39. 15% of what number is 120?
41. Find the discount on an $80 dress which has been discounted 15%. Then determine the sale price of the dress. amount of discount: sales price:
Unit 2: Measurement
251
42. Find the sales tax on a television costing $160.50, if the tax rate is 7%. Then determine the total cost of the television including the tax. Round to the nearest cent. sales tax: total cost including tax:
Use the formula to figure interest for the following problem. Show all your work. Interest (I) = principal (p) x rate (r) x time (t) I=pxrxt
1 43. Emily deposited $10,000 in a bank that pays 5 4 % annual interest. She kept the money there for 9 months. How much interest was earned? What was the total amount that Emily received from the bank?
interest earned: total amount:
252
Unit 2: Measurement
Use original amount for the following problems. Check for reasonableness of results. 44. Carolyn bought a house 10 years ago and paid $80,000. She recently sold it for $100,000. Find the percent of increase. Show all your work. Answer:
amount of change
45. Jerry bought a new Buick for $20,000 in 1995. In 2001, his daughter wrecked the car and the insurance company totaled it out. He received a check in the mail for $7,000. Find the percent of decrease. Show all your work. Answer:
Unit 2: Measurement
253
Unit 3: Algebraic Thinking

This unit emphasizes strategies used to solve equations and understand and solve inequalities.
Unit Focus
Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations Understand the relative size of integers, rational numbers, irrational numbers, and real numbers. (MA.A.1.4.2) Understand that numbers can be represented in a variety of equivalent forms, including integers, fractions, decimals, percents, scientific notation, exponents, radicals, and absolute value. (MA.A.1.4.4) Understand and explain the effects of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division on real numbers, including square roots, exponents, and appropriate inverse relationships. (MA.A.3.4.1) Select and justify alternative strategies, such as using properties of numbers, including inverse, identity, distributive, associative, and transitive, that allow operational shortcuts for computational procedures in real-world or mathematical problems. (MA.A.3.4.2) Add, subtract, multiply, and divide real numbers, including square roots and exponents, using appropriate methods of computing, such as mental mathematics, paper and pencil, and calculator. (MA.A.3.4.3) Measurement Use concrete and graphic models to derive formulas for finding perimeter, area, surface area, circumference, and volume of two-dimensional shapes. (MA.B.1.4.1)
Algebraic Thinking Describe, analyze, and generalize relationships, patterns, and functions using words, symbols, variables, tables, and graphs. (MA.D.1.4.1) Use systems of equations and inequalities to solve realworld problems algebraically. (MA.D.2.4.2) Data Analysis and Probability Interpret data that has been collected, organized, and displayed in tables. (MA.E.1.4.1)
Vocabulary
Use the vocabulary words and definitions below as a reference for this unit. additive identity ............................ the number zero (0), that is, adding 0 does not change a numbers value Example: 5 + 0 = 5 additive inverses ........................... a number and its opposite whose sum is zero (0); also called opposites Example: In the equation 3 + -3 = 0, 3 and -3 are additive inverses, or opposites, of each other. angle ( ) .......................................... the shape made by two rays extending from a common endpoint, the vertex ray vertex; measures of angles are described in degrees () area (A) ............................................ the inside region of a two-dimensional figure measured in square units Example: A rectangle with sides of four units by six units contains 24 square units or has an area of 24 square units. associative property ...................... the way in which three or more numbers are grouped for addition or multiplication does not change their sum or product Example: (5 + 6) + 9 = 5 + (6 + 9) or (2 x 3) x 8 = 2 x (3 x 8) commutative property .................. the order in which any two numbers are added or multiplied does not change their sum or product Example: 2 + 3 = 3 + 2 or 4 x 7 = 7 x 4
ra y
257
consecutive ..................................... in order Example: 6, 7, 8 are consecutive whole numbers and 4, 6, 8 are consecutive even numbers. cube (power) .................................. the third power of a number Example: 43 = 4 x 4 x 4 = 64 cubic units ...................................... units for measuring volume decrease ........................................... to make less degree () ........................................ common unit used in measuring angles difference ........................................ the result of a subtraction Example: In 16 9 = 7, 7 is the difference. distributive property .................... for any real numbers a, b, and x, x(a + b) = ax + bx equation .......................................... a mathematical sentence that equates one expression to another expression Example: 2x = 10 equivalent (forms of a number) ...................... the same number expressed in different forms Example: 3 4 , 0.75, and 75% even number .................................. any whole number divisible by 2 Example: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12
258
expression ....................................... a collection of numbers, symbols, and/ or operation signs that stands for a number Example: 4r2; 3x + 2y; Expressions do not contain equality (=) or inequality (<, >, , , or ) symbols. graph of a number ........................ the point on a number line paired with the number increase ........................................... to make greater inequality ....................................... a sentence that states one expression is greater than (>), greater than or equal to (), less than (<), less than or equal to (), or not equal to () another expression Example: a 5 or x < 7 integers ........................................... the numbers in the set { , -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, } inverse operation .......................... an action that cancels a previously applied action Example: Subtraction is the inverse operation of addition. irrational number .......................... a real number that cannot be expressed as a ratio of two numbers Example: 2 length (l) ......................................... a one-dimensional measure that is the measurable property of line segments like terms ........................................ terms that have the same variables and the same corresponding exponents Example: In 5x2 + 3x2 + 6, 5x2 and 3x2 are like terms
Unit 3: Algebraic Thinking 259
measure (m) of an angle ( ) ....... the number of degrees () of an angle multiplicative identity ................. the number one (1), that is, multiplying by 1 does not change a numbers value Example: 5 x 1 = 5 multiplicative inverses ................ any two numbers with a product of 1; also called reciprocals 1 Example: 4 and 4 multiplicative property of -1 ...... the product of any number and -1 is the opposite or additive inverse of the number Example: -1(a) = -a and a(-1) = -a multiplicative property of zero ............................. for any number a, a 0 = 0 and 0 a = 0 negative numbers ......................... numbers less than zero number line .................................... a line on which numbers can be written or visualized odd number .................................... any whole number not divisible by 2 Example: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11 order of operations ....................... the order of performing computations in parentheses first, then exponents or powers, followed by multiplication and division, then addition and subtraction Example: 5 + (12 2) 2 3 x 2 = 5 + 10 2 3 x 2 = 5+56= 10 6 = 4
260
perimeter (P) .................................. the length of the boundary around a figure; the distance around a polygon positive numbers .......................... numbers greater than zero power (of a number) ..................... an exponent; the number that tells how many times a number is used as a factor Example: In 23, 3 is the power. product ............................................ the result of a multiplication Example: In 6 x 8 = 48, 48 is the product. quotient ........................................... the result of a division Example: In 42 7 = 6, 6 is the quotient. ratio .................................................. the quotient of two numbers used to compare two quantities Example: The ratio of 3 to 4 is 3 4 . rational number ............................ a real number that can be expressed as a ratio of two integers real numbers .................................. all rational and irrational numbers reciprocals ...................................... two numbers whose product is 1 3 4 x3 = 1, the reciprocal Example: Since 4 4 3 of 4 is 3 . rectangle ......................................... a parallelogram with four right angles side ................................................... the edge of a two-dimensional geometric figure Example: A triangle has three sides.
de si
sid e
side
261
simplify an expression ................. to perform as many of the indicated operations as possible solution ........................................... any value for a variable that makes an equation or inequality a true statement Example: In y = 8 + 9 y = 17 17 is the solution. solve ................................................. to find all numbers that make an equation or inequality true square .............................................. a rectangle with four sides the same length square (of a number) .................... the result when a number is multiplied by itself or used as a factor twice Example: 25 is the square of 5. square units .................................... units for measuring area; the measure of the amount of an area that covers a surface substitute ........................................ to replace a variable with a numeral Example: 8(a) + 3 8(5) + 3 substitution property of equality ...................................... for any numbers a and b, if a = b, then a may be replaced by b sum .................................................. the result of an addition Example: In 6 + 8 = 14, 14 is the sum.
262
symmetric property of equality ...................................... for any numbers a and b, if a = b, then b=a table (or chart) ............................... an orderly display of numerical information in rows and columns triangle ............................................ a polygon with three sides
variable ........................................... any symbol that could represent a number width (w) ........................................ a one-dimensional measure of something side to side
w l l w
263

Introduction
Algebraic thinking provides tools for looking at situations. You can state, simplify, and show relationships through algebraic thinking. Using algebraic thinking and algebraic symbols, you can record ideas and gain insights into situations. In this lesson you will use what you have learned about solving equations to solve equations involving positive and negative numbers. You have learned to solve equations such as these: y + 12 = 36 y 12 = 36 12y = 36
y 12
= 36
Lesson One Purpose

Understand and explain the effects of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division on real numbers, including square roots, exponents, and appropriate inverse relationships. (MA.A.3.4.1) Add, subtract, multiply, and divide real numbers, including square roots and exponents, using appropriate methods of computing, such as mental mathematics, paper and pencil, and calculator. (MA.A.3.4.3) Use concrete and graphic models to derive formulas for finding perimeter, area, surface area, circumference, and volume of two-dimensional shapes. (MA.B.1.4.1) Use systems of equations and inequalities to solve realworld problems algebraically. (MA.D.2.4.2)
265
Solving Equations
A mathematical sentence that contains an equal sign (=) is called an equation. In Unit 1 and Unit 2, we learned that an equation equates one expression to another expression. We also learned the rules to add and subtract and to multiply and divide positive numbers and negative numbers.
Rules to Add and Subtract Positive and Negative Integers
(+)
(+) =
(+)
(+)
= positive if first
number is greater, otherwise it is negative
()
() =
()
()
= negative if first
number is greater, otherwise it is positive
(+) ()
() = (+) =
use sign of integer with greatest absolute value
(+) ()
() (+)
= =
Rules to Multiply and Divide Positive and Negative Integers
(+) () (+) ()
(+) = () = () = (+) =
+ +
(+) () (+) ()
(+) () () (+)
= = = =
+ +
266
To solve the equation is to find the number that we can substitute for the variable to make the equation true. Study these examples. Each equation has been solved and then checked by substituting the answer for the variable in the original equation. If the answer makes the equation a true sentence, it is called the solution of the equation. Solve: n + 14 = n + 14 14 = n= n= -2 -2 14 -2 + -14 -16 Solve: y (-6) = y+66= y= y= Check: y -6 = -4 -6 = -4 + 6 = 2= 2 26 2 + -6 -4
Check: n + 14 = -2 -16 + 14 = -2 -2 = -2 It checks!
2 2 2 2 It checks!
Solve: -6x = -66

-6x -6
Solve: =
-66 -6 y -10 y (-10) -10
= 5 = 5(-10)
x = 11 Check: -6x = -66 -6(11) = -66 -66 = -66 It checks! Check:
y = -50
y -10 -50 -10
= 5
= 5 5 = 5 It checks!
267
Practice
Solve each equation and check. Show essential steps. 1. y + 12 = 2
2. a -2 = 2
3. r + 15 = -25
4. 0 = y + -46
5. 15y = -30
268
6.
y 15
= -2
7.
x 5
= -9
8. -9y = 270
9. m 9 = -8
10. 3 + x = -3
269
11.
n -5
= -2
12. -55 = -5a
13. 12 = -6 + x
14. t 20 = -15
270
Interpreting Words and Phrases

Words and phrases can suggest relationships between numbers and mathematical operations. In Unit 1 and Unit 2, we learned how words and phrases can be translated into mathematical expressions. (See pages 38-39 and page 215.) Appendix B also contains a list of mathematical symbols and their meanings. Relationships between numbers can be indicated by words such as consecutive, preceding, before, and next. Also, the same mathematical expression can be used to translate many different word expressions. Below are some of the words and phrases we associate with the four mathematical operations and with powers of a number.
Mathematical Symbols and Words
+
add sum plus total more than increased by
subtract difference minus remainder less than decreased by
x
multiply product times of twice doubled
divide quotient
power
power square cube
271
Practice
Write an equation and solve the problem. Example: Sixteen less than a number n is 48. What is the number? Remember: The word is means is equal to and translates to an = sign. 16 less than a number n = 48 n 16 = 48 n 16 + 16 = 48 + 16 n = 64 So 64 16 = 48 or 16 less than 64 is 48. 1. A number increased by 9 equals -7. What is the number? (Let d = the number). Note: To write 16 less than n, you write n 16.
2. A number times -12 equals -72. What is the number? ( Let x = the number.)
3. A number decreased by 5 equals -9. What is the number? (Let y = the number.)
272
4. A number divided by 7 equals -25. What is the number? (Let n = the number.)
5. In a card game, Ann made 30 points on her first hand. After the second hand, her total score was 20 points. What was her score on the second hand?
6. A scuba diver is at the -30 foot level. How many feet will she have to rise to be at the -20 foot level?
273
Solving Two-Step Equations

When solving an equation, you want to get the variable by itself on one side of the equal sign. You do this by undoing all the operations that were done on the variable. In general, undo the addition or subtraction first. Then undo the multiplication or division. Study the following examples. A. Solve: 2y + 2 = 30 2y + 2 2 = 30 2
2y 2
subtract 2 from each side divide each side by 2
28 2
y = 14 Check: 2y + 2 = 30 2(14) + 2 = 30 28 + 2 = 30 30 = 30 B. Solve: 2x 7 = -29 2x 7 + 7 = -29 + 7

2x 2
replace y with 14 It checks!
add 7 to each side divide each side by 2
-22 2
x = -11 Check: 2x 7 = -29 2(-11) 7 = -29 -22 7 = -29 -29 = -29 It checks! replace x with -11
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C. Solve:
n 7
n 7
+ 18 = 20 subtract 18 from each side multiply each side by 7 and cancel the 7s on the left
n (7) 7
+ 18 18 = 20 18 = 2(7) n = 14
Check:
n 7 14 7
+ 18 = 20 + 18 = 20 20 = 20 replace n with 14 It checks!
2 + 18 = 20
D. Solve:
t -2
+ 4 = -10 + 4 4 = -10 4
(-2) t -2
t -2
subtract 4 from each side multiply each side by -2 and cancel the -2s on the left
= -14(-2) t = 28
Check:
t -2 28 -2
+ 4 = -10 + 4 = -10 -10 = -10 replace t with 28 It checks!
-14 + 4 = -10
275
Practice
Solve each equation and check. Show essential steps. 1. 4x + 8 = 16
2. 4y 6 = 10
3. 5n + 3 = -17
4. 2y 6 = -18
5. -8y 21 = 75
6.
a 8
17 = 13
276
7. 13 +
x -3
= -4
8.
n 8
+1=4
9. -3b + 5 = 20
10. 6 =
x 4
14
11. -7y + 9 = -47
12.
n -6
17 = -8
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Use the list below to decide which equation to use to solve each problem. Then solve the problem.
Equation A: Equation B: Equation C: Equation D:
n 4
+ 2 = 10 2 = 10
n 4
4n + 2 = 10 4n 2 = 10
13. Two more than the product of 4 and Anns age is 10. Equation:
How old is Ann?
14. If you multiply Seans age by 4 and then subtract 2, you get 10. Equation:
What is Seans age?
278
15. If you divide Joes age by 4 and then add 2, you get 10. Equation:
What is Joes age?
16. Divide Jennys age by 4, then subtract 2, and you get 10. Equation:
What is Jennys age? Circle the letter of the correct answer. 17. The sentence that means the same as the equation 1 . 3 y + 8 = 45 is a. b. c. d. Eight more than one-third of y is 45. One-third of y is eight more than 45. y is eight less than one-third of 45. y is eight more than one-third of 45.
279
Special Cases
Reciprocals: Two Numbers Whose Product is 1 Note: 5
1 5
= 1 and
5 5
=1
1 5
Multiplying 5 by
and dividing 5 by 5, both yield 1.
1 We see that 5 is the reciprocal of 1 5 and 5 is the reciprocal of 5. Every number but zero has a reciprocal. (Division by zero is undefined.) Two numbers are reciprocals if their product is 1.
Here are some examples of numbers and their reciprocals: Number

-1 4
Reciprocal -4 1
-3 2
8 7
1
-2 3 7 8
-2
1 7
-1 2
7
1 x
Multiplication Property of Reciprocals

any nonzero number times its reciprocal is 1
1 x
=1
If x 0 Remember: When two numbers are reciprocals of each other, they are also called multiplicative inverses of each other.
280
Study the following two examples: Method 1: Division Method 5x 6 = 5x 6 + 6 = 5x = 5x 5 = x= 9 9+6 15

15 5
Method 2: Reciprocal Method 5x 6 = 5x 6 + 6 = 5x = 1 5 5x = x= 9 9+6 15 1 5 15 3
Both methods work well. However, the reciprocal method is probably easier in the next two examples, which have fractions: -1 5x1= 9 -1 5x1+1= 9+1 -1 5 x = 10 -5 - 1 5 x = -5 10 x = -50 Here is another equation with fractions: -3 4 x + 12 = 36 -3 4 x + 12 12 = 36 12 -3 4 x = 24
-4 3
multiply by reciprocal of
-1 5
which is -5
-3 4 x=
-4 3
24
4 multiply by reciprocal of - 3 4 which is - 3
1 x = -32 x = -32
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Multiplying by -1 Here is another equation which sometimes gives people trouble: 5 x = -10 Remember: 5 x is not the same thing as x 5. To work this equation we need to make the following observation: Property of Multiplying by -1
-1 times a number equals the opposite of that number
-1 x = -x This property is also called the multiplicative property of -1 which says the product of any number and -1 is the opposite or additive inverse of the number. For example: -1 5 = -5 -1 (-6) = 6
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Now lets go back to 5 x = -10 using the property of multiplying by -1. We can rewrite the equation as 5 1x = 5 1x 5 = -1x = -1x -1 = x= -10 -10 5 -15
-15 -1
subtract 5 from both sides to isolate the variable
15
This example requires great care with the positive numbers and negative signs: x= 11 1 9 1 11 9 x 11 = -1 9x= 1 -9 - 9 x = x= -45 -45 11 -56 -9 -56 504
subtract 11 from both sides to isolate the variable multiply by reciprocal of - 1 9 which is -9
Consider the following example: Remember: Decreased by means subtract, product means multiply, and is translates to the = sign. Five decreased by the product of 7 and x is -6. Solve for x.
Five decreased by the product of 7 and x is -6. 5 7x = -6 5 7x 5 = -6 5 -7x = -11 -7x = -11 -7 -7 x = 11 or 1 4 7 7
subtract 5 from both sides to isolate the variable
283
Practice:
Write the reciprocals of the following. 1. 10 2. -6 3.
5 6
9 4. - 10
5. 0
Solve the following. Show essential steps. 6.

1 5
x+3=9
9. 10 6x = 11
7.
1 4
x7=2
10. 15 x = 10
8. - 1 2 x 7 = 23
11.
1 8
x + 4 = -6
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12. -6 x = 10
14. 4
3 7
x = 10
13. 2 +
5 6
x = -8
Check yourself: Use the list of scrambled answers below and check your answers to problems 6-14. -80 -60 -16 -14 -12
- 1 6
5 30 36
Answer the following. 15. The difference between 12 and 2x is -8. Solve for x.
285
Practice
Match each definition with the correct term. Write the letter on the line provided. ______ 1. to find all numbers that make an equation or inequality true ______ 2. numbers less than zero ______ 3. a collection of numbers, symbols, and/or operation signs that stands for a number ______ 4. any value for a variable that makes an equation or inequality a true statement ______ 5. any symbol that could represent a number ______ 6. to replace a variable with a numeral ______ 7. a mathematical sentence that equates one expression to another expression ______ 8. numbers greater than zero ______ 9. two numbers whose product is 1 I. variable G. solve H. substitute A. equation B. expression C. negative numbers D. positive numbers E. reciprocals F. solution
286
Practice
Use the list below to write the correct term for each definition on the line provided. additive inverses decrease difference increase multiplicative inverses multiplicative property of -1 product
____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
any two numbers with a product of 1 the result of a multiplication to make greater to make less the product of any number and -1 is the opposite or additive inverse of the number the result of a subtraction a number and its opposite whose sum is zero (0); also called opposites
____________________ ____________________
6. 7.
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Lesson Two Purpose

Understand and explain the effects of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division on real numbers, including square roots, exponents, and appropriate inverse relationships. (MA.A.3.4.1) Select and justify alternative strategies, such as using properties of numbers, including inverse, identity, distributive, associative, and transitive, that allow operational shortcuts for computational procedures in real-world or mathematical problems. (MA.A.3.4.2) Add, subtract, multiply, and divide real numbers, including square roots and exponents, using appropriate methods of computing, such as mental mathematics, paper and pencil, and calculator. (MA.A.3.4.3) Use concrete and graphic models to derive formulas for finding perimeter, area, surface area, circumference, and volume of two-dimensional shapes. (MA.B.1.4.1) Use systems of equations and inequalities to solve realworld problems algebraically. (MA.D.2.4.2)
The Distributive Property

Consider 4(2 + 6). The rules for order of operations would have us add inside parentheses first. 4(2 + 6) 4(8) 32 = =
Remember: Order of operations 1. 2. 3. 4. parentheses powers (exponents) multiplication or division addition or subtraction
288
However, there is a second way to do the problem. 4(2 + 6) = 4(2) + 4(6) = 8 + 24 = 32 In this way, the 4 is being distributed over the addition. The second way of doing the problem illustrates the distributive property. The Distributive Property For any numbers a, b, and c, a(b + c) = ab + ac Also, it works for subtraction: a(b c) = ab ac This property is most useful in simplifying expressions that contain variables, such as 2(x + 4). To simplify an expression we must perform as many of the indicated operations as possible. However, in the expression 2(x + 4) =, we cant add first, unless we know what number x represents. The distributive property allows us to rewrite the equation: 2(x + 4) = 2x + 2(4) = 2x + 8 The distributive property allows you to multiply each term inside a set of parentheses by a factor outside the parentheses. Multiplication is distributive over addition and subtraction.
5(3 + 1) = (5 3) + (5 1) 5(4) = 15 + 5 20 = 20
5(3 1) = (5 3) (5 1) 5(2) = 15 5 10 = 10
289
Not all operations are distributive. You cannot distribute division over addition. 14 (5 + 2) 14 5 + 14 2 14 7 2.8 + 7 2 9.8 In Unit 1 we learned about other properties that help us work with variables. See page 51 and study the chart below.
Properties Addition Commutative: a + b = b + a Associative: (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) Identity: 0 is the identity. a + 0 = a and 0 + a = a Addition Distributive: a(b + c) = ab + ac and (b + c)a = ba + ca Distributive: Multiplication Commutative: ab = ba Associative: (ab)c = a(bc) Identity: 1 is the identity. a 1 = a and 1 a = a Subtraction a(b c) = ab ac and (b c)a = ba ca
These properties deal with the following: ordercommutative property of addition and commutative property of multiplication groupingassociative property of addition and associative property of multiplication identityadditive identity property and multiplicative identity property zeromultiplicative property of zero distributivedistributive property of multiplication over addition and over subtraction Notice in the distributive property that it does not matter whether a is placed on the right or the left of the expression in parentheses. a(b + c) = (b + c)a or a(b c) = (b c)a
290
The symmetric property of equality (if a = b, then b = a) says that if one quantity equals a second quantity, then the second quantity also equals the first quantity. We use the substitution property of equality when replacing a variable with a number or when two quantities are equal and one quantity can be replaced by the other. Study the chart and examples below describing properties of equality. Properties of Equality Reflexive: Symmetric: Transitive: Substitution: a=a If a = b, then b = a. If a = b and b = c, then a = c. If a = b, then a may be replaced by b.
Examples of Properties of Equality Reflexive: Symmetric: Transitive: Substitution: 8e=8e If 5 + 2 = 7, then 7 = 5 + 2. If 9 2 = 4 + 3 and 4 + 3 = 7, then 9 2 = 7. If x = 8, then x 4 = 8 4. x is replaced by 8. or If 9 + 3 = 12, then 9 + 3 may be replaced by 12.
Consider this expression to simplify. 5(6x 5(6x) 30x 30x and 6 + 2(4x 3) = use order of operations to multiply before adding, then distribute 2 over 4x and -3 use the associative property to associate 6 and -6 use the identity property of addition + 3) + 8 = + 5(3) + 8 = + 15 + 8 = + 23 use the distributive property to distribute 5 over 6x and 3 use the associative property to associate 15 and 8
6 + 2(4x) + 2(-3) = 6 + 8x + -6 = 8x + 0 8x =
291
Practice
Simplify by using the distributive property. Show essential steps. 1. 10(x + 9) 7. 4(3x + 7) 2
2. 16(z 3)
8. -6(x + 3) + 18
3. a(b + 5)
9. 30 + 2(x + 8)
4. 5(x + 3) + 9
10. x(x + 3)
5. 4(x 5) + 20
11. a(b + 10)
6. 5(3 + x) 9
292
Circle the letter of the correct answer. 12. Mrs. Smith has 5 children. Each fall she buys each child a new book bag for $20, a new notebook for $3.50, and other school supplies for $15. Which expression is a correct representation for the amount she spent? a. b. c. d. 5(20 + 3.50 + 15) 5 + (20 + 3.50 + 15) 5(20 3.50 15) 5 20 + 3.50 + 15
Number the order of operations in the correct order. Write the numbers 1-4 on the line provided. ______ 13. addition or subtraction ______ 14. powers (exponents) ______ 15. parentheses ______ 16. multiplication or division
293
Simplifying Expressions
Heres how to use the distributive property and the definition of subtraction to simplify the following expressions. Example 1: Simplify -7a 3a -7a 3a = -7a + -3a = (-7 + -3)a = -10a Example 2: Simplify 10c c 10c c = = = =
use the distributive property
10c 1c 10c + -1c (10 + -1)c 9c
use the distributive property
The expressions -7a 3a and -10a are called equivalent expressions. The expressions 10c c and 9c are also called equivalent expressions. Equivalent expressions express the same number. An expression is in simplest form when it is replaced by an equivalent expression having no like terms and no parentheses.
294
Study these examples. -5x + 4x = (-5 + 4)x = -x 5y 5y = = = = 5y + -5y (5 + -5)y 0y 0
multiplicative property of zero
The multiplicative property of 0 says for any number a, a 0 = 0 a = 0. Frequently, the following shortcut is used to simplify expressions. First change each subtraction to adding the opposite then combine like terms (terms that have the same variable) by adding. Simplify like terms 2a + 3 6 a 2a + 3 6a = 2a + 3 + -6a = -4a + 3
} change 6a to + -6a } combine like terms by adding } change b to + -1b and 6 to + -6 } combine like terms by adding
Simplify 8b + 7 b 6 like terms 8b + 7 b 6 = 8b + 7 + -1b + -6 = 7b + 1 like terms Simplify 7x + 5 + 3 x like terms = 10x + 5 combine like terms
295
Practice
Simplify by combining like terms. Show essential steps. 1. 5n + 3n 7. 4x + 11x
2. 6n n
8. 4x 11x
3. 8y 8y
9. -4x 11x
4. 7n + 3n 6
10. 10y 4y + 7
5. -7n 3n 6
11. 10y + 4y 7
6. 6n 3 + 7
12. 10y 4 7
296
13. 8c 12 6c
20. 20n 6n 1 + 8
14. 8c 12c 6
21. 12c 15 12c 17
15. -10y y 15
22. 12c 15c 12 18
16. -10y + y 15
17. 15x 15x + 6
18. 15x 15 + 8x
19. 20n 6 n + 8
297
Practice
Match each definition with the correct term. Write the letter on the line provided. ______ 1. a(b + c) = ab + ac ______ 2. a + b = b + a ______ 3. (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) ______ 4. a 1 = a ______ 5. a + 0 = a ______ 6. a 0 = 0 A. associative property B. commutative property C. distributive property A. additive identity B. multiplicative identity C. multiplicative property of zero A. substitution property of equality B. symmetric property of equality A. like terms
______ 7. if a = b, then b = a ______ 8. if a = b, then a may be replaced by b ______ 9. terms that have the same variables and the same corresponding exponents ______ 10. to perform as many of the indicated expressions as possible ______ 11. the order of performing computations in parentheses first, then exponents or powers, followed by multiplication and division, then addition and subtraction
B. order of operations
C. simplify an expression
298
Equations with Like Terms

Consider the following equation. 2x + 3x + 4 = 19 Look at both sides of the equation and see if either side can be simplified. Always simplify first by combining like terms.
2x + 3x + 4 5x + 4 5x + 4 4 5x
= = = = 5x 5 = x =
19 19 19 4 15
15 5
add like terms subtract 4 from each side divide each side by 5
Always mentally check your answer by substituting the solution for the variable in the original equation. Substitute 3 for x in the equation. 2x + 3x + 4 2(3) + 3(3) + 4 6+9+4 19 = = = = 19 19 19 19
It checks!
299
Consider this example: The product of x and 7 plus the product of x and 3 is 45. Remember: To work a problem like this one, we need to remember two things. The word product means multiply and the word is always translates to =.
The product of x and 7 plus the product of x and 3 is 45. 7x + 3x = 45 10x = 45 10x = 45 10 10 x = 4.5
Check by substituting 4.5 for x in the original equation. 7x + 3x 7(4.5) + 3(4.5) 31.5 + 13.5 45 = = = = 45 45 45 45
add like terms divide both sides by 10
It checks!
Here is another example which appears to be a little harder: 3x 2 x + 10 3x 2 1x + 10 3x 1x 2 + 10 2x + 8 2x + 8 8 2x = = = = = = 2x 2 = x= -12 -12 -12 -12 -12 8 -20
-20 2
remember: 1 x = x add like terms subtract 8 from both sides divide both sides by 2
-10
Check by substituting -10 into the original equation. 3x 2 x + 10 3(-10) 2 (-10) + 10 -30 2 + 10 + 10 -32 + 20 -12 = = = = = -12 -12 -12 -12 -12
It checks!
300
Practice
Solve these equations by first simplifying each side. Show essential steps. 1. 4x + 6x = -30 5. 3y y 8 = 30
2. -2x + 10x 6x = -12
6. x + 10 2x = -2
3. 12m 6m + 4 = -32
7. 13x + 105 8x = 0
4. 3 = 4x + x 2
8. 2x + 10 + 3x 8 = -13
Check yourself: Add all your answers for problems 1-8. Did you get a sum of -4 1 3 ? If yes, complete the practice. If no, correct your work before continuing.
301
Write an equation to represent each situation. Then solve the equation for x. Show essential steps. 9. The sum of 2x, 3x, and 5x is 50.
10. The difference of 3x and 8x is -15.
11. The sum of 6x, -2x, and 10x, decreased by 15 is 13.
12. Your neighbor hired you to baby-sit for $x per hour. Here is a record of last week:
1
Your total salary for the week was $198.00. How much do you earn per hour?
302
13. The perimeter (P) of the triangle is 48 inches. What is x? Remember: The perimeter of a figure is the length (l) of the boundary around a figure or the sum of the lengths of the sides.
4x 3x 5x
14. Use the answer from problem 13 to find the length of each side of the triangle. Do the sides add up to 48 inches?
15. The perimeter of the rectangle is 58 inches. What is x? 2x + 3
x+2
x+2
2x + 3
16. Use the answer from problem 15 to find the length and width (w) of the rectangle. Do the sides add up to 58 inches?
303
17. In any triangle, the sum of the measures (m) of the angles ( ) is always 180 degrees (). What is x?
(4x + 20)
(4x 10)
(2x + 20)
18. Using the answer from problem 17, find the measure of each angle. Do the angles add up to 180 degrees?
Circle the letter of the correct answer. 19. You and your friend go to a popular theme park in Central Florida. The admission for the two of you comes to a total of $70. Both of you immediately buy 2 hats to wear during the day. Later, as you are about to leave you decide to buy 4 more hats for your younger brothers and sisters who didnt get to come. The total bill for the day is $115.00. Which equation could you use to find the cost of a single hat? a. b. c. d. 6x = 115 70 + 2x + 4x = 115 70 6x = 115 70 + 2x = 115 + 6x
304
Complete the following. 20. A common mistake in algebra is to say that 3x + 4x = 7x2, instead of 3x + 4x = 7x. Let x = 2 and substitute into both expressions below. Remember: When you are doing 7x2 the rules for the order of operation require that you square before you multiply! x=2 3x + 4x = 7x 3x + 4x = 7x2
Are you convinced that 3x + 4x is not equal to () 7x2?
305
Putting It All Together
Guidelines for Solving Equations 1. Use the distributive property to clear parentheses. 2. Combine like terms. We want to isolate the variable. 3. Undo addition or subtraction using inverse operations. 4. Undo multiplication or division using inverse operations. 5. Check by substituting the solution in the original equation.
SAM =
Simplify (steps 1 and 2) then Add (or subtract) Multiply (or divide)
Example 1 Solve: 6y + 4(y + 2) = 88 6y + 4y + 8 = 88 10y + 8 8 = 88 8

10y 10
80 = 10 y = 8
use distributive property combine like terms and undo addition by subtracting 8 from each side undo multiplication by dividing by 10
Check solution in the original equation: 6y + 4(y + 2) 6(8) + 4(8 + 2) 48 + 4(10) 48 + 40 88 = = = = = 88 88 88 88 88
It checks!
306
Example 2 Solve: -1 2 (x + 8) = 10 -1 2 x 4 = 10 -1 2 x 4 + 4 = 10 + 4 -1 2 x = 14 1 (-2)- 2 x = 14(-2) x = -28 use distributive property undo subtraction by adding 4 to both sides
isolate the variable by multiplying each side by the reciprocal of - 1 2
Check solution in the original equation: -1 2 (x + 8) = 10 -1 2 (-28 + 8) = 10 -1 2 (-20) = 10 10 = 10 Example 3 Solve: 26 =

2 3 2 3
It checks!
(9x 6) use distributive property undo subtraction by adding 4 to each side undo multiplication by dividing each side by 6
26 = (9x) 2 3 (6) 26 = 6x 4 26 + 4 = 6x 4 + 4
30 6
6x 6
5 = x Check solution in the original equation: 26 = 26 =

2 3 2 3 2 3
(9x 6) (9 5 6) It checks!
307
26 = (39) 26 = 26
Example 4 Solve: x (2x + 3) = 4 x 1(2x + 3) = 4 x 2x 3 = 4 -1x 3 = 4 -1x 3 + 3 = 4 + 3 7 -1x = -1 -1 x = -7 use the multiplication property of -1 use the multiplicative identity of 1 and use the distributive property combine like terms undo subtraction undo multiplication
Examine the solution steps above. See the use of the multiplicative property of -1 in front of the parentheses on line two. line 1: line 2: x (2x + 3) = 4 x 1(2x + 3) = 4
Also notice the use of multiplicative identity on line three. line 3: 1x 2x 3 = 4
The simple variable x was multiplied by 1 (1 x) to equal 1x. The 1x helped to clarify the number of variables when combining like terms on line four. Check solution in the original equation: x (2x + 3) -7 (2 -7 + 3) -7 (-11) 4 = = = = 4 4 4 4
It checks!
308
Practice
Solve and check. Show essential steps.
1. 10(2n + 3) = 130
2. 4(y 3) = -20
3.
x -2
+ 4 = -10
4. 6x + 6(x 4) = 24
309
5. 6 =
2 3
(3n 6)
6. 10p 4(p 7) = 42
7. 28 =
1 2
(x 8)
8. x (3x 7) = 11
310
Solve and Check. Show essential steps. 9. Write an equation for the area of the rectangle. Then solve for x. Remember: To find the area (A) of a rectangle, multiply the length (l) times the width (w). A = (lw)
8 x+2
Area is 64 square units.
10. Write an equation for the area of the rectangle. Then solve for x. 3x 1 7
Area is 56 square units.
11. Write an equation for the measure of degrees () in the triangle. Then solve for x. Remember: For any triangle, the sum of the measures of the angles is 180 degrees. x + 4 2(3x + 5) 2(x + 2)
311
Practice
Use the list below to write the correct term for each definition on the line provided. angle area (A) degree () inverse operation length (l) measure (m) of an angle( ) perimeter (P) rectangle side square (of a number) square units sum triangle width (w)
____________________
1.
a one-dimensional measure that is the measurable property of line segments a parallelogram with four right angles a one-dimensional measure of something side to side the result of an addition the length of the boundary around a figure the shape made by two rays extending from a common endpoint, the vertex a polygon with three sides the inside region of a two-dimensional figure measured in square units the number of degrees () of an angle units for measuring area; the measure of the amount of an area that covers a surface
____________________ ____________________
2. 3.
____________________ ____________________ ____________________
4. 5. 6.
____________________ ____________________
7. 8.
____________________
9.
____________________ 10.
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____________________ 11. ____________________ 12.
common unit used in measuring angles the edge of a two-dimensional geometric figure an action that cancels a previously applied action the result when a number is multiplied by itself or used as a factor twice
____________________ 13.
____________________ 14.
313

Select and justify alternative strategies, such as using properties of numbers, including inverse, identity, distributive, associative, and transitive, that allow operational shortcuts for computational procedures in real-world or mathematical problems. (MA.A.3.4.2) Use systems of equations and inequalities to solve realworld problems algebraically. (MA.D.2.4.2) Interpret data that has been collected, organized, and displayed in tables. (MA.E.1.4.1)
Solving Equations with Variables on Both Sides

I am thinking of a number. If you multiply my number by 3 and then subtract 2, you get the same answer that you do when you add 4 to my number. What is my number? To solve this riddle, begin by translating these words into an algebraic sentence. Let x represent my number. If you multiply my number by 3 and then subtract 2 3x 2 you get the same answer = that you do when you add 4 to my number 4+x Putting it all together, we get the equation 3x 2 = 4 + x. Note that this equation is different from equations in previous units. There is a variable on both sides. To solve such an equation, we do what weve done in the past. Make sure both sides are simplified, and that there are no parentheses. Strategy: Collect the variables on one side. Collect the numbers on the other side.
314
Now lets go back to the equation which goes with our riddle. Solve: 3x 2 = 3x 2 = 3x 2 1x = 2x 2 = 2x 2 + 2 = 2x 2 = x= 4+x 4 + 1x 4 + 1x 1x 4 4+2
6 2
both sides are simplified multiplicative identity of 1 collect variables on the left combine like terms; simplify collect numbers on the right divide both sides by 2
Check solution in the original equation and the original riddle: 3x 2 = 332= 92= 7= 4+x 4+3 7 7
It checks!
Study the equation below. Solve: 2(3x + 4) = 6x + 8 = 6x + 8 5x = x+8= x+88= x= 5(x 2) 5x 10 5x 10 5x -10 -10 8 -18 distributive property variables on the left simplify numbers on the right
Check solution in the original equation: 2(3x + 4) = 2(3 -18 + 4) = 2(-50) = -100 = 5(x 2) 5(-18 2) 5(-20) -100
It checks!
315
Lets work this next example in two different ways. 1. Collect the variables on the left and the numbers on the right. Solve: 6y = 6y = 6y 20y = -14y -14 = y= 4(5y 7) 20y 28 20y 28 20y
-28 -14
distributive property variables on the left divide both sides by -14
Check solution in the original equation: 6y = 62= 12 = 12 = 4(5y 7) 4(5 2 7) 43 12
It checks!
2. Collect the variables on the right and numbers on the left. Solve: 6y = 6y = 6y - 6y = 0= 0 + 28 =
28 14
4(5y 7) 20y 28 20y 28 6y 14y 28 14y 28 + 28

14y
distributive property variables on the right simplify numbers on the left divide both sides by 14
= 14 2= y
We get the same answer, so the choice of which side you put the variable on is up to you!
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Practice
Solve each equation below. Then find your solution at the bottom of the page. Write the letter next to the number of that equation on the line provided above the solution. Then you will have the answer to this question: Which great explorers last words were, I have not told half of what I saw!
1.
2x 4 = 3x + 6
5.
-2x + 6 = -x
2.
2(-12 6x) = -6x
6.
7x = 3(5x 8)
3.
x 3 = 2(-11 + x)
7.
2(12 8x) = 1x 11x
4.
-7(1 4m) = 13(2m 3)
8.
19
-10 -16
-4
Check yourself: Use the answer above to check your solutions to problems 1-7. Did your solutions spell out the great explorers name? If not, correct your work before continuing.
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Solve and check. Show essential steps. 9. Six more than 5 times a number is the same as 9 less than twice the number. Find the number.
10. Twelve less than a number is the same as 6 decreased by 8 times the number. Find the number.
11. The product of 5 and a number, plus 17, is equal to twice the sum of the same number and -5. Find the number.
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Complete to solve the following. 12. -12 + 7(x + 3) = 4(2x 1) + 3 Remember: Always multiply before you add. -12 + + 7x + = = 8x +3
Now finish the problem.
13. -56 + 10(x 1) = 4(x + 3)
14. 5(2x + 4) + 3(-2x 3) = 2x + 3(x + 4) + + distributive property = 2x + + distributive property
x + 11 = x+ add like terms add like terms Now finish the problem.
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15. -16x + 10(3x 2) = -3(2x + 20) -16x + = distributive property distributive property Add like terms and finish the problem.
16. 6(-2x 4) + 2(3x + 12) = 37 + 5(x 3)
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Problems That Lead to Equations

Joshua presently weighs 100 pounds, but is on a diet where he gains 2 pounds per week. When will he weigh 140 pounds? The answer is 20 weeks. Lets use this simple problem to help us think algebraically.
140
Step 1: Read the problem and label the variable. Underline all clues. Joshua presently weighs 100 pounds, but is on a diet where he gains 2 pounds per week. When will he weigh 140 pounds? Let x represent the number of weeks. Step 2: Plan. Let 2x represent the weight Joshua will gain. Step 3: Write the equation. present weight 100 + gain = desired weight + 2x = 140
Step 4: Solve the equation. 100 + 2x = 140 100 + 2x 100 = 140 100 2x = 40 2x 40 2 = 2 x = 20 add -100 to both sides divide both sides by 2
Step 5: Check your solution. Does your answer make sense? 100 (now) + 2(20) weight gain = 140
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We will use this 5-step approach on the following problems. You will find that many times a picture or chart will also help you arrive at an answer. Remember, we are learning to think algebraically and to do that the procedure is as important as the final answer!
5-Step Plan for Thinking Algebraically

Step 1: Read the problem and label the variable. Underline all clues. Decide what x represents. Step 2: Plan. Step 3: Write an equation. Step 4: Solve the equation. Step 5: Check your solution. Does your answer make sense?
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Practice
Use the 5-step plan to solve and check the following. Show essential steps. 1. Leons television breaks down, and unfortunately he has only $100.00 in his savings account for emergencies. The repairman charges $35.00 for coming to Leons house and then another $20.00 per hour for fixing the television. How many hours can Leon pay for the repairman to work? a. Step 1: Read the problem and label the variable. Underline all clues. (Note: The clues have been italicized for you.)
Let x represent _______________________________________ . b. Step 2: Plan. Let 20x represent __________________________ ____________________________________________________ . c. Step 3: Write an equation. ______________________________
d. Step 4: Solve the equation.
e. Step 5: Check your solution. Does it make sense? __________
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2. Samantha charges $16.00 to deliver sand to your house, plus $3.50 per cubic foot for the sand that you buy. How much sand can you buy for $121.00? a. Step 1: Read the problem and label the variable. Underline all clues. Let x represent _______________________________________ . b. Step 2: Plan. Let x represent ______________________
____________________________________________________ . c. Step 3: Write an equation. ______________________________
f. If the installation of a childs sand box requires 29 cubic feet of sand, will you be able to complete this project for $121.00? Explain. ______________________________________________ _____________________________________________________
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3. Suppose that the gas tank of a car holds 20 gallons, 1 and that the car uses 10 of a gallon per mile. How far has the car gone when 5 gallons remain? a. Step 1: Read the problem and label the variable. Underline all clues. Let x represent _______________________________________ . b. Step 2: Plan. Let
1 10
x represent __________________________
____________________________________________________ . c. Step 3: Explain why the appropriate equation is 20

1 10
x = 5.
_____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ d. Step 4: Solve the equation.
325
4. Jared weighs 250 pounds and is on a diet where he loses 3 pounds per week. How long will it take him to weigh 150 pounds? a. Step 1: Read the problem and label the variable. Underline all clues. Let x represent _______________________________________ . b. Step 2: Let 3x represent _______________________________ . c. Step 3: Write an equation. ______________________________ _____________________________________________________ d. Step 4: Solve the equation.
326
5. Batman has $100.00 and spends $3.00 per day. Robin has $20.00 but is adding to it at the rate of $5.00 per day. When will they have the same amount of money? a. Step 1: Read the problem and label the variable. Underline all clues. Let x represent _______________________________________ . b. Step 2: Plan. 100 3x is what Batman will have after x days. How much will Robin have after x days? ______________________ _____________________________________________________ c. Step 3: Write an equation stating that Batmans money is the same as Robins money after x days. _____________________________________________________ d. Step 4: Solve the equation.
e. What does your answer mean? __________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________
f. Step 5: Check your answer. Does the answer make sense? _____________________________________________________
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6. Suppose you live in Tallahassee, Florida where the temperature is 84 degrees and going down 3 degrees per hour. A friend lives in Sydney, Australia where the temperature is 69 degrees and going up at a rate of 2 degrees per hour. How long would you and your friend have to wait before the temperatures in both places are equal? a. Step 1: Read the problem and label the variable. Underline all clues. Let x represent _______________________________________ . b. Step 2: Plan. Let Tallahassees temperature and represent Sydneys temperature. c. Step 3: Write an equation. Let the Tallahassee temperature equal Sydneys temperature. _________________________________ represent
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Practice
Use the 5-step plan to solve and check the following. Show essential steps. Sometimes a chart helps organize the information in a problem. 1. I am thinking of 3 numbers. The second number is 4 more than the first number. The third number is twice the first number. The sum of all 3 numbers is 28. Find the numbers. Algebraic Thinking: Step 1: Read the problem and label the variable. Underline all clues. (Note: The clues have been italicized for you.) What does x represent? Since the second and third numbers are described in terms of the first number, let x represent the first number. Step 2: Plan. See the table below.
Description first number x second number x + 4 third number 2x sum 4x + 4
Value = = = = 28
Step 3: Write an equation. 4x + 4 = 28
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Step 4: Solve the equation. a. The equation 4x + 4 = 28 will give you the value of only the first number. Substitute your answer back into the expressions in the table on the previous page to find the second and third numbers. b. solve equation to find the value of the first number: 4x + 4 = 28
c. substitute the first numbers value in the expression from the table on the previous page to get the value of the second number: x+4
d. substitute the first numbers value in the expression from the table on the previous page to get the value of the third number: 2x
Step 5: Check your solution. Does it make sense? e. Check solution in original equation.
f. Do your numbers add up to 28? Write an equation and solve to prove that the sum of the 3 numbers equal 28.
330
Sometimes a picture helps organize the information in a problem. 2. A triangle has a perimeter (P) of 30 inches. The longest side is 8 inches longer than the shortest side. The third side is 1 inch shorter than the longest side. Find the sides. Remember: The perimeter is the sum of all the lengths of all sides. Step 1: Read the problem and label the variable. Underline all clues. Hint: Let the shortest side be x inches long. Step 2: Plan. a. Draw a triangle. Label the shortest side x. Label the other two sides in terms of x.
b. Let up the sides of the triangle. Step 3: Write an equation.
represent adding
c. Use the fact that the perimeter is 30 inches to write an equation. _____________________________________________________
331
Step 4: Solve the equation. d. Find x by solving the equation.
Step 5: Check your solution. Does it make sense? e. Check solution in original equation.
f. Use the value of x to find the other 2 sides.
g. Do the sides add up to 30? Write an equation and solve to prove that the sum of the 3 sides of the triangle equals 30.
332
3. A rectangle has a perimeter of 38 inches and a width of x inches. The length of the rectangle is 4 more than twice the width. Label all 4 sides. Draw and label a rectangle and use the 5-step plan to find the dimensions of the rectangle.
4. The measure of the angles in any triangle add up to 180 degrees. Let the smallest angle be x degrees. The second angle is twice the smallest. The third angle is 30 degrees more than the second angle. Find all angles. Draw and label a triangle. Use the 5-step plan to find all angles.
333
5. Write an equation for the area of the rectangle. ________________ Remember: To find the area of a rectangle we multiply the length times the width. A = l w
5 2x 1
The area is 35 square inches.
Solve the equation for x, then substitute it in 2x 1 to find the length.
Is the product of the length and width 35 square inches? ________
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6. Consider the rectangle and the triangle below. What is the value of x if the area of the rectangle equals the perimeter of the triangle?
10 2x 1 Let _________________________________________________ equal the area of the rectangle.
4x
6x
5x + 20
Let _________________________________________________ equal the perimeter of the triangle.
Now set up an equation. Let the area of the rectangle equal the perimeter of the triangle. Solve for x.
335
7. A square is a four-sided figure with all sides equal. Find the value of x so that the figure is a square.
3x + 35 5(x + 3)
Circle the letter of the correct answer. 8. Mrs. Jones brings $142.50 to pay for the familys expenses to see Florida A&M University play football. She has to pay $10.00 to park. An adult ticket costs $45.00. She has 4 children who qualify for student tickets. She has $27.50 left at the end of the day. Which equation can you use to find the cost of a student ticket? a. 4x + 45 = $142.50 b. $27.50 + 4x + 45 = $142.50 c. $142.50 10 45 4x = $27.50 d. $142.50 10 45 + 4x = $27.50
336
Answer the following. Show essential steps. Consecutive even integers are numbers like 6, 8, and 10 or 14, 16, and 18. Note that you add 2 to the smallest to get the second number and 4 to the smallest to get the third number. Use this information to solve the following problem. 9. The sum of three consecutive even integers is 198. Find the numbers.
Description first number x second number x + 2 third number x+4 sum Value = = = = 198
Set up an equation and solve for x. Substitute your answer back into the table above to find all answers. Do the numbers add up to 198?
337
Practice
Use the list below to complete the following statements. consecutive even numbers integers square table
1. An orderly display of numerical information in rows and columns is called a or chart.
2. A rectangle with four sides the same length is called a . 3. Consecutive even and 10 or 14, 16, and 18. 4. 5. means in order. are any whole numbers divisible by 2. are numbers like 6, 8,
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Lesson Four Purpose

Understand the relative size of integers, rational numbers, irrational numbers, and real numbers. (MA.A.1.4.2) Understand that numbers can be represented in a variety of equivalent forms, including integers, fractions, decimals, percents, scientific notation, exponents, radicals, and absolute value. (MA.A.1.4.4) Describe, analyze, and generalize relationships, patterns, and functions using words, symbols, variables, tables, and graphs. (MA.D.1.4.1) Use systems of equations and inequalities to solve realworld problems algebraically. (MA.D.2.4.2)
Graphing Inequalities on a Number Line

In Unit 1 we compared numbers -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 using inequality symbols. We also solved simple inequalities and added numbers using a number line. In this unit we will graph inequalities on a number line. A graph of a number is the point on a number line paired with the number. Graphing solutions on a number line will help you visualize solutions.
339
Here are some examples of inequalities, their verbal meanings, and their graphs. Inequalities
Inequality a. x < 3 Meaning All real numbers less than 3. Graph
-5 -4
-3
-2 -1
Open circle means that 3 is not a solution. Shade to left. b. x > -1 All real numbers greater than -1.
-3
-2 -1
Open circle means that -1 is not a solution. Shade to right.
c. x 2
All real numbers less than or equal to 2.
-4
-3
-2 -1
Solid circle means that 2 is a solution. Shade to left.
d. x 0
All real numbers greater than or equal to 0.
-3
-2 -1
Solid circle means that 0 is a solution. Shade to right.
For each example, the inequality is written with the variable on the left. Inequalities can also be written with the variable on the right. However, graphing is easier if the variable is on the left. Consider x < 5, which means the same as 5 > x. Note that the graph of x < 5 is all real numbers less than 5.
-3
-2
-1
The graph of 5 > x is all real numbers that 5 is greater than.
-3
-2
-1
340
To write an inequality that is equivalent to (or the same as) x < 5, move the number and variable to the opposite side of the inequality, and then reverse the inequality.
x<5 5>x
x < 5 means the same as 5>x The inequality y -2 is equivalent to -2 y. Both inequalities can be written as the set of all real numbers that are greater than or equal to -2. The inequality 0 x is equivalent to x 0. Each can be written as the set of all real numbers that are greater than or equal to zero. Remember: Real numbers are all rational numbers and all irrational numbers.
Real Numbers rational numbers 0.16 -3 whole numbers
-3 7
irrational numbers
5 6
integers -7
0 1
natural numbers 8 0.09
0.010010001
120
0.83
-9
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Rational numbers can be expressed as a ratio of two integers.

rational numbers expressed as ratio of two integers 4
4 1
-3
3 4
0.250
1 4
0
0 1
0.333
1 3
- 15 4
Note: All integers are rational numbers.
A ratio is a quotient (the result of a division) of two numbers used to 8 compare two quantities. For example, a ratio of 8 to 11 is 11 .
342
Practice
Match each inequality with the correct graph. ______ 1. x -3 ______ 2. x 0 b. ______ 3. x > 4 ______ 4. 2 > x ______ 5. x -2 c. d.
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
a.
-3
-2 -1
-4
-3
-2 -1
e.
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Write an inequality for each graph.
6.
-3
-2 -1
7.
-3
-2 -1
8.
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
9.
-4
-3
-2 -1
343
Graph each inequality. 10. x -1
11. x < 0
12. x > 5
13. x -3
344
Solving Inequalities
We have been solving equations since Unit 1. When we solve inequalities, the procedures are the same except for one important difference. When we multiply or divide both sides of an inequality by the same negative number, we reverse the direction of the inequality symbol. Example: Solve by dividing by a negative number and reversing the inequality sign. -3x < 6 -3x 6 -3 > -3 x > -2 To check this solution, pick any number greater than -2 and substitute your choice into the original inequality. For instance, -1, 0, or 3, or 3,000 could be substituted into the original problem. Check with different solutions of numbers greater than -2: substitute -1 -3x < 6 -3(-1) < 6 3< 6 substitute 0 -3x < 6 -3(0) < 6 0< 6 substitute 3 -3x < 6 -3(3) < 6 -9 < 6 substitute 3,000 -3x < 6 -3(3,000) < 6 -9,000 < 6
divide each side by -3 and reverse the inequality symbol
It checks!
It checks!
It checks!
It checks!
Notice that -1, 0, 3, and 3,000 are all greater than -2 and each one checks as a solution.
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Study the following examples. Example: Solve by multiplying by a negative number and reversing the inequality sign. -1 3y 4 (-3) - 1 3 y 4(-3) y -12 multiply each side by -3 and reverse the inequality symbol
Example: Solve by first adding, then dividing by a negative number, and reversing the inequality sign. -3a 4 > 2 -3a 4 + 4 > 2 + 4 -3a > 6 -3a 6 -3 < -3 a < -2 Example: Solve by first subtracting, then multiplying by a negative number, and reversing the inequality sign.
y -2 y -2
add 4 to each side divide each side by -3 and reverse the inequality symbol
+5 0 subtract 5 from each side -5 (-5)(-2) multiply each side by -2 and reverse the inequality symbol y 10
+55 05
y -2 (-2)y -2
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Example: Solve by first subtracting, then multiplying by a positive number and not reversing the inequality sign.
n 2
+5 2 subtract 5 from each side multiply each side by 2, but do not reverse the inequality symbol because we multiplied by a positive number
n 2 (2)n 2
n 2
+55 25 -3 -3(2) n -6
When multiplying or dividing both sides of an inequality by the same positive number, do not reverse the inequality symbolleave it alone. Example: Solve by first adding, then dividing by a positive number, and not reversing the inequality sign. 7x 3 > -24 7x 3 + 3 > -24 + 3 7x > -21
7x 7
add 3 to each side divide each side by 7 do not reverse the inequality symbol because we divided by a positive number
> 7 x > -3
-21
347
Practice
Solve each inequality. Show essential steps. Then graph the solutions. 1. x + 5 2
2. y 1 5
3. 4 < n 1
4. 2 y 4
5. 5a 2 3
348
1 6. - 4 y>0
7. -2a -12
8.
a 3
3<1
9.
y 2
6 < -5
10.
a -3
+9<8
349
Practice
Solve the following. Show essential steps. 1. 2y + 1 4 4.
1 5
y+98
2. -
1a 3
4>2
5. -10 < 2b 14
3. -11a + 3 < -30
6. 10y + 3 8
350
Study the following. Many problems in everyday life involve inequalities. Example: A summer camp needs a boat with a motor. A local civic club will donate the money on the condition that the camp will spend less than $1,500 for both. The camp decides to buy a boat for $1,050. How much can be spent on the motor? Choose a variable. Let then let x = cost of the motor, x + 1,050 = cost of motor and boat,
and cost of motor + cost of boat < total money. Write as an inequality: x + 1,050 < 1,500 solve x + 1,050 1,050 < 1,500 1,050 x < $450 Interpretation of solution: The camp can spend any amount less than $450 for the motor. (Note: The motor cannot cost $450.) For the following: choose a variable set up an inequality solve interpret your solution.
351
7. If $50 is added to 2 times the amount of money in a bank, the result is less than $150. What is the greatest amount of money that could be in the bank?
Interpretation of solution: __________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________
8. Hamburgers cost $2.50 and a soft drink is $1.50. If you want to buy one soft drink, what is the greatest number of hamburgers you could also buy and spend less than $10.00?
352
9. Annie baby-sits on Friday nights and Saturdays for $3.00 an hour. Find the fewest number of hours she can baby-sit and earn more than $20.00 a week.
353
Practice
Write True if the statement is correct. Write False if the statement is not correct. __________ 1. Graphing solutions on a number line will help you visualize solutions. An inequality can only be written with the variable on the right. The graph below of x < 5 is all real numbers greater than 5.
__________ 2.
__________ 3.
-3
-2
-1
__________ 4. __________ 5.
Real numbers are all rational and irrational numbers. A ratio is a quotient of two numbers used to compare two quantities. To write an inequality that is equivalent to x < 5, move the number and variable to the opposite side of the inequality, and then reverse the inequality. When we multiply or divide each side of an inequality by the same negative number, we reverse the direction of the inequality symbol. There are no problems in everyday life that involve inequalities. An inequality is a sentence that states one expression is greater than, greater than or equal to, less than, less than or equal to, or not equal to another expression.
__________ 6.
__________ 7.
__________ 8.
__________ 9.
354
Practice
Use the list below to write the correct term for each definition on the line provided. decrease difference equation increase reciprocals simplify an expression solve sum
____________________ ____________________
1. 2.
the result of a subtraction to find all numbers that make an equation or inequality true to make less a mathematical sentence that equates one expression to another expression to make greater two numbers whose product is 1 the result of an addition to perform as many of the indicated operations as possible
____________________ ____________________
3. 4.
____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________
5. 6. 7. 8.
355
Practice
Match each definition with the correct term. Write the letter on the line provided. ______ 1. a sentence that states one expression is greater than, greater than or equal to, less than, less than or equal to, or not equal to another expression ______ 2. the length of the boundary around a figure ______ 3. the point on a number line paired with the number ______ 4. a one-dimensional measure that is the measurable property of line segments ______ 5. an orderly display of numerical information in rows and columns ______ 6. the number of degrees () of an angle ______ 7. a polygon with three sides ______ 8. the shape made by two rays extending from a common endpoint, the vertex ______ 9. any number not divisible by 2 ______ 10. a parallelogram with four right angles H. rectangle I. table J. triangle A. angle B. graph (of a number) C. inequality D. length (l) E. measure (m) of an angle ( ) F. odd numbers G. perimeter (P)
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Unit Review
Solve these equations. Show all essential steps. 1. 4y + 2 = 30 6.
-3x 4
8 = -2
2. -5x 6 = 34
7. 5 x = 12
3.
x 3
+ 7 = -3
8. 12 = -7 x
4.
x -4
2 = 10
9. 8
2x 3
= 12
5.
1x 6
+2=8
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10. What is the reciprocal of - 4 ?
Number 11 is a gridded-response item. Write answer along the top of the grid and correctly mark it below.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
11. What is the reciprocal of 8? Mark your answer on the grid to the right.
Simplify the following. 12. -5(x + 2) + 16 14. 5x 7x
13. 15 + 2(x + 8)
15. -8x 14 + 10x 20
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Solve these equations. Show essential steps. 16. 7x + 3 8x + 12 = -6
17. 7x + 3(x + 2) = 36
18.
- 1 2
(x + 10) = -15
19. 5x 8 = 4x + 10
20. -8(1 2x) = 5(2x 6)
359
Write an equation and solve for x. 21. The sum of 2x and 7 equals 19. What is the number?
22.
1 2
of x decreased by 7 is -10. What is the number?
23. The difference between 14 and 2x is -10. What is the number?
24. The perimeter is the sum of the lengths of the sides of a figure. The perimeter of the rectangle below is 52. Write an equation and solve for x.
x+2 4x 1
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Answer the following. Show essential steps. Consecutive odd integers are numbers like 3, 5, and 7 or 15, 17, and 19. Note that you add 2 to the smallest to get the second number and 4 to the smallest to get to the third number. Use this information to solve the following problem. 25. The sum of three consecutive odd integers is 159.
Description first number x second number x + 2 third number x+4 sum
Value = = = = 159
Set up an equation and solve for x. Substitute your answer back into the table to find all answers. Do the numbers add up to 159?
361
Match each equation with its graph.
______ 26. x 2
a.
-3
-2 -1
______ 27. x < 2
b.
-3
-2 -1
______ 28. 2 x
c.
-3
-2 -1
______ 29. x < -2
d.
-3
-2 -1
Solve and graph. 30. -5x + 6 > -34
31.
x -2
+60
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Answer the following. Bonus Problems: 32. The sum of the measures of the angles in any triangle is 180 degrees. Find x, and then find the measure of each angle for the triangle below.
2x 45
x+5
33. Solve and graph this inequality. -20 < -2x 14
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Unit 4: Geometry and Spatial Sense

This unit emphasizes the use and meaning of many words and properties of geometry.
Unit Focus
Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations Understand concrete and symbolic representations of real numbers in real-world situations. (MA.A.1.4.3) Understand that numbers can be represented in a variety of equivalent forms, including integers, fractions, decimals, percents, scientific notation, exponents, radicals, and absolute value. (MA.A.1.4.4) Add, subtract, multiply, and divide real numbers, including square roots and exponents, using appropriate methods of computing, such as mental mathematics, paper and pencil, and calculator. (MA.A.3.4.3) Use estimation strategies in complex situations to predict results and to check the reasonableness of results. (MA.A.4.4.1) Measurement Use concrete and graphic models to derive formulas for finding perimeter, area, surface area, circumference, and volume of two- and three-dimensional shapes, including rectangular solids, cylinders, cones, and pyramids. (MA.B.1.4.1) Use concrete and graphic models to derive formulas for finding angle measures. (MA.B.1.4.2) Relate the concepts of measurement to similarity and proportionality in real-world situations. (MA.B.1.4.3) Solve real-world and mathematical problems, involving estimates of measurements, including length, perimeter,
area, and volume and estimate the effects of measurement errors on calculations. (MA.B.3.4.1) Geometry and Spatial Relations Understand geometric concepts such as perpendicularity, parallelism, congruency, and similarity. (MA.C.2.4.1) Represent and apply geometric properties and relationships to solve real-world and mathematical problems including ratio and proportion. (MA.C.3.4.1) Using a rectangular coordinate system (graph), apply and algebraically verify properties of two-dimensional figures. (MA.C.3.4.2)
Vocabulary
Use the vocabulary words and definitions below as a reference for this unit. acute angle ...................................... an angle with a measure of less than 90 acute triangle ................................. a triangle with three acute angles adjacent angles .............................. two angles having a common vertex and sharing a common side
1
common side
4
vertex
B 2 3
Angle 1 and angle 4 have a common side and also the same vertex. They are adjacent angles because they are next to each other.
alternate angles ............................. a pair of angles that lie on opposite sides and at opposite ends of a transversal
transversal 1 4 5 8 7 6 3 2 p 1 2 4 3 8 5 6 7 transversal p q
Alternate angles are equal when the lines intersected by a transversal are parallel.
Even when lines cut by a transversal are not parallel, we still use the same vocabulary.
alternate exterior angles are angles whose points lie on the opposite sides of a transversal line and on the outside of the lines it intersects 1 and 7 2 and 8 alternate interior angles are angles whose points lie on the opposite sides of a transversal line and on the inside of the lines it intersects 3 and 5 4 and 6
Unit 4: Geometry and Spatial Sense 367
altitude ............................................ see height angle ( ) .......................................... the shape made by two rays extending from a common endpoint, the vertex; measures of angles are described in vertex ray degrees () area (A) ............................................ the inside region of a two-dimensional figure measured in square units Example: A rectangle with sides of four units by six units contains 24 square units or has an area of 24 square units. associative property ...................... the way in which three or more numbers are grouped for addition or multiplication does not change their sum or product Example: (5 + 6) + 9 = 5 + (6 + 9) or (2 x 3) x 8 = 2 x (3 x 8) axes (of a graph) ............................ the horizontal and vertical number lines used in a rectangular graph or coordinate grid system as a fixed reference for determining the position of a point; (singular: axis) base (b) ............................................ the line or plane upon which a figure is thought of as resting
ra y
base
base height base
base
base
center (of a circle) .......................... the point from which all points on the circle are the same distance circle ................................................ the set of all points in a plane that are all the same distance from a given point called the center
368 Unit 4: Geometry and Spatial Sense
circumference (C) .......................... the perimeter of a circle; the distance around a circle
circumference
commutative property .................. the order in which any two numbers are added or multiplied does not change their sum or product Example: 2 + 3 = 3 + 2 or 4 x 7 = 7 x 4
A
complementary angles ................. two angles, the sum of which is exactly 90
30 C 2 4 60
D B m ABC + m CBD = 90 complementary angles
cone .................................................. a three-dimensional figure with one circular base in which a curved surface connects the base to the vertex
vertex
base
congruent ( ~ = ) ................................. figures or objects that are the same shape and the same size coordinate grid or system ............ network of evenly spaced, parallel horizontal and vertical lines especially designed for locating points, displaying data, or drawing maps coordinates ..................................... numbers that correspond to points on a graph in the form (x, y) corresponding angles ................... a pair of angles that are in matching positions and lie on the same side of a transversal corresponding angles and sides ............................ the matching angles and sides in similar figures
369
cross product .................................. the product of one numerator and the opposite denominator in a pair of fractions Example:
Is
2 5
equal to
2 ? 6 = 15 5 ?
6 15
2 x 15 = 5 x 6 The cross products are

2 x 15 and 5 x 6
30 = 30 Yes,
2 5 6 . = 15
Both cross products equal 30. The cross products of equivalent fractions are equal.
cube ................................................. a rectangular prism that has six square faces cubic units ...................................... units for measuring volume cylinder ........................................... a three-dimensional figure with two parallel congruent circular bases Example: a can degree () ......................................... common unit used in measuring angles diameter (d) .................................... a line segment from any point on the circle passing through the center to another point on the circle distributive property .................... for any real numbers a, b, and x, x(a + b) = ax + bx
diameter
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S P endpoint ......................................... either of two points S and P are marking the end of a line endpoints segment
equation .......................................... a mathematical sentence that equates one expression to another expression Example: 2x = 10
60
equiangular triangle ..................... a triangle with three equal angles equilateral triangle ....................... a triangle with three congruent sides and three congruent angles face ................................................... one of the plane surfaces bounding a three-dimensional figure
60
60
edge
face
formula ........................................... a way of expressing a relationship using variables or symbols that represent numbers graph of a point ............................. the point assigned to an ordered pair on a coordinate plane height (h) ......................................... a line segment extending from the vertex or apex (highest point) of a figure to its base and forming a right angle with the base or basal plane
height (h) height (h) base (b) base (b) base (b)
height (h)
hexagon ........................................... a polygon with six sides
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hypotenuse ..................................... the longest side of a right triangle; the side opposite the right angle in a right triangle intersect ........................................... to meet or cross at one point
hy
po
leg
te
nu
se
leg
intersection ..................................... the point at which two lines meet isosceles triangle ........................... a triangle with at least two congruent sides and two congruent angles lateral ............................................... a surface on the side of a geometric figure, as opposed to the base
lateral surface lateral surface
cone lateral surface
cylinder
lateral surface
prism
pyramid
leg ..................................................... in a right triangle, one of the two sides that form the right angle
leg
leg
length (l) ......................................... a one-dimensional measure that is the measurable property of line segments line ( ) ........................................ a straight line that is endless in length
A B
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line of symmetry ........................... a line that divides a figure into two congruent halves that are mirror images of each other
line of symmetry
line segment () ........................... a portion of a line that has a defined beginning A B and end Example: The line segment AB is between point A and point B and includes point A and point B. measure (m) of an angle ( ) ........ the number of degrees () of an angle net .................................................... a plan which can be used to make a model of a solid; a two-dimensional shape that can be folded into a threedimensional figure
net of a cube
net of cone
obtuse angle ................................... an angle with a measure of more than 90 but less than 180 obtuse triangle ............................... a triangle with one obtuse angle ordered pair .................................... the location of a single point on a rectangular coordinate system where the digits represent the position relative to the x-axis and y-axis Example: (x, y) or (3, 4)
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origin ............................................... the graph of zero (0) on the number line or the intersection of the x-axis and y-axis in a coordinate plane, described by the ordered pair (0, 0) parallel ( ) ...................................... being an equal distance at every point so as to never intersect parallel lines .................................. two lines in the same plane that never meet; also, lines with equal slopes parallelogram ................................. a quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel sides pentagon ......................................... a polygon with five sides perimeter (P) .................................. the length of the boundary around a figure; the distance around a polygon perpendicular ( ) ......................... forming a right angle perpendicular lines ....................... two lines that intersect to form right angles pi () ................................................. the symbol designating the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter, with an approximate value of either 3.14 or 22 7 plane ................................................ an undefined, two-dimensional (no depth) geometric surface that has no boundaries specified; a flat surface
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point ................................................ a location in space that has no length or width polygon ........................................... a closed plane figure whose sides are straight and do not cross Example: triangle (3 sides), quadrilateral (4 sides), pentagon (5 sides), hexagon (6 sides), heptagon (7 sides), octagon (8 sides); concave, convex
polyhedron ..................................... a three-dimensional figure in which all surfaces are polygons
prism ............................................... a three-dimensional figure (polyhedron) with congruent, polygonal bases and lateral faces that are all parallelograms
proportion ...................................... a mathematical sentence stating that two ratios are equal Example: The ratio of 1 to 4 equals 1 25 25 to 100, that is 4 = 100 . protractor ........................................ an instrument used for measuring and drawing angles
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pyramid ........................................... a three-dimensional figure (polyhedron) with a single base that is a polygon and whose faces are triangles and meet at a common point (vertex)
Pythagorean theorem ................... the square of the hypotenuse (c) of a right triangle is equal to the sum of the squares hypotenuse c of the legs (a and b) 2 2 2 Example: a + b = c
b leg
leg a right angle
quadrant ......................................... any of four regions formed by the axes in a rectangular coordinate system
Quadrant II
Quadrant I
Quadrant III Quadrant IV
quadrilateral .................................. polygon with four sides Example: square, parallelogram, trapezoid, rectangle, rhombus, concave quadrilateral, convex quadrilateral
radius (r) ......................................... a line segment extending from the center of a circle or sphere to a point on the circle or sphere; (plural: radii)
diameter
ra us di
ratio .................................................. the quotient of two numbers used to compare two quantities 3 Example: The ratio of 3 to 4 is 4 .
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ray (
) ........................................... a portion of a line that begins at a point and goes on forever in one direction
rectangle ......................................... a parallelogram with four right angles rectangular prism .......................... a six-sided prism whose faces are all rectangular Example: a brick right angle ...................................... an angle whose measure is exactly 90 right triangle .................................. a triangle with one right angle rounded number ........................... a number approximated to a specified place Example: A commonly used rule to round a number is as follows. If the digit in the first place after the specified place is 5 or more, round up by adding 1 to the digit in the specified place ( 461 rounded to the nearest hundred is 500). If the digit in the first place after the specified place is less than 5, round down by not changing the digit in the specified place (441 rounded to the nearest hundred is 400). scale factor ...................................... the ratio between the lengths of corresponding sides of two similar figures
377
scalene triangle .............................. a triangle with no congruent sides side ................................................... the edge of a two-dimensional geometric figure Example: A triangle has three sides.
de
e sid
si
side
similar figures ............................... figures that have the same shape but not necessarily the same size slant height ( ) ............................... the shortest distance from the vertex of a right circular cone to the edge of its base; the perpendicular distance from the vertex of a pyramid to one edge of its base
vertex slant height ( ) s lateral face slant height ( )
height (h) base (b) cone edge
regular pyramid
solid figures ................................... three-dimensional figures that completely enclose a portion of space Example: rectangular solid and a sphere sphere .............................................. a three-dimensional figure in which all points on the surface are the same distance from the center square .............................................. a rectangle with four sides the same length
radius
center
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square (of a number) .................... the result when a number is multiplied by itself or used as a factor twice Example: 25 is the square of 5. square pyramid ............................. a pyramid with a square base and four faces that are triangular square units .................................... units for measuring area; the measure of the amount of an area that covers a surface
180
straight angle ................................. an angle whose measure is exactly 180
A R B m ARB = 180 straight angle
substitute ........................................ to replace a variable with a numeral Example: 8a + 3 85+3 sum .................................................. the result of an addition Example: In 6 + 8 = 14, 14 is the sum.
135
supplementary angles .................. two angles, the sum of which is exactly 180 surface area (S.A.)
45
A R B m 1 + m 2 = 180 supplementary angles
(of a geometric solid) .................... the sum of the areas of the faces of the figure that create the geometric solid three-dimensional (3-dimensional) ............................. existing in three dimensions; having length, width, and height
379
transversal ...................................... a line that intersects two or more other (usually parallel) lines in the same plane trapezoid ......................................... a quadrilateral with just leg one pair of opposite sides parallel
transversal
base altitude base leg
triangle ............................................ a polygon with three sides; the sum of the measures of the angles is 180
two-dimensional (2-dimensional) ............................. existing in two dimensions; having length and width variable ........................................... any symbol that could represent a number vertex ............................................... the common endpoint from which two rays begin or the point where two lines intersect; the point on a triangle or pyramid opposite to and farthest from the base; (plural: vertices); vertices are named clockwise or vertex ray counterclockwise
ra y
vertical angles ................................ the opposite angles formed when two lines intersect
1 4 3 1 and 3 are vertical angles 2 and 4 are also vertical angles 2
380
volume (V) ...................................... the amount of space occupied in three dimensions and expressed in cubic units Example: Both capacity and volume are used to measure empty spaces; however, capacity usually refers to fluids, whereas volume usually refers to solids. width (w) ........................................ a one-dimensional measure of something side to side
w l l w
x-axis ................................................ the horizontal ( plane
) axis on a coordinate
x-coordinate ................................... the first number of an ordered pair y-axis ................................................ the vertical ( ) axis on a coordinate plane y-coordinate ................................... the second number of an ordered pair
381

Introduction
The word geometry means earth-measuring. Use of the Pythagorean theorem by the Egyptians to survey land dates back to around 2000 B.C. In studying geometry, students can quickly see numerous applications for real-life shapes, design, and sculpture. We see parallel lines any time we travel on a highway or park in a marked parking area. Contractors, architects, artists, and engineers use geometry extensively. We see the results of their talents in buildings of every imaginable size and shape. Contractors, architects, Highways, bridges, and tunnels are also created by artists, and engineers use people who are experts in geometry. geometry extensively. You will learn to identify various types of polygons in this unit. When you look around your home, you will usually find many geometric shapes in upholstery fabrics, curtains, bedspreads, floor coverings, furniture, and artwork.
fabrics
bedspreads
floor coverings
artwork
Lesson One Purpose

Understand concrete and symbolic representations of real numbers in real-world situations. (MA.A.1.4.3) Use estimation strategies in complex situations to predict results and to check the reasonableness of results. (MA.A.4.4.1)
383
Use concrete and graphic models to derive formulas for finding angle measures. (MA.B.1.4.2) Understand geometric concepts such as perpendicularity, parallelism, congruency, and similarity. (MA.C.2.4.1)
Geometric Basics
Basic items include planes, points, and lines ( ).
The figure below represents a planean undefined, two-dimensional geometric surface with no specified boundaries. A plane is a flat surface. We use dots and capital letters to indicate pointsa location in space that has no length (l) or width (w). See points A, B, and C.
A G E C B plane
Lines are drawn with arrows at both ends to indicate that the lines are infinitely long. Note how the symbol ( ) drawn over two capital letters is used to describe a line. See line EG ( EG ) above. See a representation of line segment () XY (XY ) below. XY indicates it is a segment with ends at points X and Y. Note how the symbol () drawn over two capital letters is used to describe a line segment. The symbol has no arrows because the line segment has a defined beginning and end called endpoints. Endpoints are either of the two points marking the end of a line segment. X and Y are endpoints of the line segment XY (XY ).
X Y
384
Line segments have measurable length. However, it is impossible to measure the lengths of lines because they extend forever in opposite directions. Suppose that XY below has a point O placed on the segment so that the distance from X to O is the same as the distance from O to Y. X O Y
We describe the length of XO as 6. We write XO = 6. Likewise the length of OY = 6. Since the segments have the same length, we can say that the segments are congruent (~ = ), the same shape and the same size.
XO ~ = OY
The symbol ~ = is read: segment XO is congruent to segment OY. We also draw rays ( ), a portion of a line that begins at a point and goes on forever in one direction. Rays can be used to construct angles ( ). Angles are shapes made by two rays extending from a common endpoint. Rays can also be part of lines. Note how the symbol drawn over two capital letters is used to describe a ray. Rays are always named with the endpoint listed first to describe the originating (beginning) point of the ray. For example, see the chart below. In ray BC ( BC ), B is the endpoint and is listed first.
Name of Rays
Drawing Ray BC C A Ray AD D AD A Name BC Endpoint B
Ray EF
EF
385
The line to the right can be labeled many ways: X Y XZ or ZX XY or YX YZ or ZY The line also contains rays. Some possibilities are as follows: XY and XZ name the same ray. YX and YZ are opposite rays. XY and YZ are distinctly different rays. ZY and XY also are different rays.
Note: XZ and ZX are different rays but are not opposite rays because they overlap and do not have the same endpoint. YX and YZ are opposite rays because they share the same endpoint and do not overlap. When lines intersect, they meet or cross at one point. A AB and CD intersect at point P. C P D B
We can also identify segments that lie on AB and CD. For example, AP lies on AB. The same segment AB can be written as BA. CP (or PC) also lies on CD. Note: Appendix B contains a list of mathematical symbols and their meanings.
386
Practice
Use the following to write the symbol and to name the endpoint(s) of each figure. Symbols Endpoint(s)
1. Ray:
__________
___________
2. Segment: A
__________
___________
3.
Line:
__________
___________
4. Ray:
__________
___________
Answer the following using the figure below.
G L A B H D E K F C
5. Write four names for line BK. _______________________________ _________________________________________________________ 6. Name three different line segments that lie on BK . _____________ _________________________________________________________
387
7. Name two lines that intersect. _______________________________ _________________________________________________________ 8. Name five rays that have the same endpoint. __________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ 9. Are DE and ED the same ray? ______________________________ Explain. __________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ 10. If BH and HE have the same lengths, are they congruent? ______ _________________________________________________________ 11. Could AC and DF be congruent? ___________________________ Explain. __________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ 12. Could AC and DF be congruent? ___________________________ Explain. __________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ 13. Name opposite rays that have endpoint E. ____________________ _________________________________________________________ 14. Are DE and FE opposite rays? _____________________________ Explain. __________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________
388
15. Are AB and BA the same line segment? ______________________ Explain. __________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ 16. Are AB and BA the same ray? ______________________________ Explain. __________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________
389
Practice
Use the list below to write the correct term for each definition on the line provided. angle congruent (~ =) endpoint intersect length (l) line line segment plane point ray width (w)
________________________ 1. a location in space that has no length or width ________________________ 2. an undefined, two-dimensional (no depth) geometric surface that has no boundaries specified; a flat surface ________________________ 3. a portion of a line that begins at a point and goes on forever in one direction ________________________ 4. a one-dimensional measure that is the measurable property of line segments ________________________ 5. figures or objects that are the same shape and the same size ________________________ 6. a straight line that is endless in length
________________________ 7. either of two points marking the end of a line segment ________________________ 8. a portion of a line that has a defined beginning and end ________________________ 9. to meet or cross at one point
390
________________________ 10. a one-dimensional measure of something side to side ________________________ 11. the shape made by two rays extending from a common endpoint
391
Measuring and Classifying Angles

The sides of an angle are formed by two rays ( ) extending from a common endpoint called the vertex. vertex Naming an Angle Consider the following figure.
A O 3 B
ra y
ray
Remember: The symbol
indicates an angle.
You can name an angle in three ways. use a three-letter name in this order: point on one ray; vertex; point on other ray, such as AOB or BOA use a one-letter name: vertex, if there is only one angle with this vertex in the diagram, such as O use a numerical name if the number is within the rays of the angle, such as 3 The angle is formed by rays OA and OB . The rays are portions of lines that begin at a point and go on forever in one direction. The point O, which is the same endpoint for OA and OB , is the vertex of angle AOB. When using three letters to name an angle, the vertex letter is listed in the middle. The measure of O is written as m O. Sometimes two (or more) angles have the same measure. When two angles have the same measure, they are congruent.
392
Measuring an Angle The measure (m) of an angle ( ) is described in degrees (). When you turn around and face backward, you could say you did a 180. If you turn all the way around, it is a 360. An angle is a turn around a point. The size of an angle is the measure of how far one side has turned from the other side. 0 90 180 360 = = = = no turn right-angle turn straight backward back facing forward again
90 180 360
0 = no turn
90 = right-angle turn
180 = straight backward
360 = back facing forward again
Using Protractors to Measure Angles Protractors are marked from 0 to 180 degrees in both a clockwise manner and a counterclockwise manner. We see 10 and 170 in the same position. We see 55 and 125 in the same position. If we estimate the size of the angle before using the protractor, there is no doubt which measure is correct.
0 80 10
0 80 10
110 70
0 11 70
se
clo ck wi
60
12
50 13
40 14 0
150 30
60 20 1
10 170
90
0
0
0 180
60 12
50 13 0
0
40
30
14
15
co u
20
nte
rc
16
c lo
0
centerpoint
i se kw
10 170
0 180
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When using a protractor, make sure the vertex is lined up correctly and that one ray ( ) passes through the zero measure. A straightedge is often helpful to extend a ray for easier reading of the measure. A protractor is used to measure angles. Follow these steps to use a protractor. 1. Place the centerpoint of the protractor on the vertex of the angle. 2. Line up the protractors 0 degree line with one side of the angle. 3. Read the measure of the angle where the other side crosses the protractor.
0 80 10
0 80 10
110 70
se
clo ck wi
12
90
70
60 12 0
60
11 0
50
40
13
0
40 14 0
30
14
50 13 0
0
15
co u
20
nte
rc
16
150 0 3 60 20 1
10 170
c lo
i se kw
10 170
U
0 180
0 180
The measurement of TSR is 40 is read 40 degrees. The measurement of USR is
40 140
394
clockwise
70
90
110 60 12 0
0 80 10
80 10
70
60 12 0
50 13 0
0 14 40
30
20
50
13
40 14 0
150 30
60 20 1
10 170
15
0
co u
nte
rc
16
10 170
W
0 180
11 0
c lo
i se kw
0 180
X
The measurement of XYZ is The measurement of WYZ is
135 45
. .
Naming Different Size Angles Angles are named for the way they relate to 90 degrees and 180 degrees. acute angle right angle obtuse angle = < 90 = 90 = > 90 and < 180
straight angle = 180 An acute angle measures greater than 0 but less than 90. Examples:
40 10 70
395
A right angle measures exactly 90. Example:
90
The little box is used to indicate a right angle.
An obtuse angle measures greater than 90 but less than 180. Examples:
100
120
A straight angle measures exactly 180. Example:

180
AOB has vertex O and the measure of AOB is 180. In this case, we need to use three letters to name the angle.
396
When we name angles, if two or more angles share a ray and have a common vertex, then three letters are used to name each angle.
A B 1 O 2 3 C D
In the figure above: The top angle ( AOB) can also be named 1 or BOA, but not O. 2 can be named BOC or COB. 3 can be named COD or DOC. Also, AOC is composed of 1 + 2 and BOD is composed of 2 + 3 and AOD is composed of 1 + 2 + 3
397
Practice
Match each description with the correct term. ______ 1. ______ 2. ______ 3. ______ 4. < 90 = 90 > 90 and < 180 = 180 A. acute angle B. obtuse angle C. right angle D. straight angle
Compare each angle below with a right angle. Then write whether the angle is acute, obtuse, or right.
H M G N 5. O angle 8. angle I
Z R X 6. Y angle 9.
S T angle
U F V D 7. E angle 10. W angle
398
Practice
Use the protractor below to find the measure of each angle. Then write whether the angle is acute, right, or obtuse.
0 80 10
0 80 10
110 70
12
90
70
60
60 12 0
50 13 0
50
40
D
13
40 14
0
30
11 0
30
14
15
20
150
16
60 20 1
10 170
10 170
0 180
E O
0 180
A
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
AOB ____________________________________________________ AOC ____________________________________________________ BOD ____________________________________________________ COD ____________________________________________________ COE ____________________________________________________ DOE ____________________________________________________
399
Use a protractor to measure each angle below.
7. 10.
8. 11.
9. 12.
400
Use a protractor to draw angles having these measures. 13. 60 17. 160
14. 120
18. 45
15. 90
19. 100
16. 20
401
Practice
Match each graphic with the correct term. Write the letter on the line provided.
______ 1.
A. acute angle
______ 2.
B. obtuse angle
______ 3.
ray
ra
C. protractor
180
______ 4.
A O B
D. right angle
______ 5.
E. straight angle
______ 6.
F. vertex
402
More Special Angles

Suppose we draw 2 lines that intersect:
1 4 B 2 3
Notice that 4 angles are formed. Which angles appear to be congruent? Test your theory by measuring each angle. You should have found that angle 1 and angle 3 are congruent and angle 2 and angle 4 are congruent.
1 4 B 2 3
Angle 1 and angle 3 are congruent and angle 2 and angle 4 are congruent.
When two lines intersect, angles that are opposite or directly across from each other are called vertical angles. Vertical angles are always congruent. Angle 1 and angle 4 have a common side and also the same vertex. We say that they are adjacent angles because they are next to each other.
1
common side
4
vertex
B 2 3
Angle 1 and angle 4 have a common side and also the same vertex. We say they are adjacent angles because they are next to each other.
403
Angle 1 and angle 2 are also adjacent angles, as well as angle 2 and angle 3, and angle 3 and angle 4. Again look at angle 1 and angle 4. We see that the two angles together make a straight angle.
1 4 B 3 2
Angle 1 and angle 4 together make a straight angle.
Remember, a straight angle is an angle that measures 180 degrees. These two angles share a special relationship: Two angles are said to be supplementary angles if the sum of their measures is 180 degrees. Therefore angle 1 and angle 4 are supplementary angles. Example: Lets consider the following situation. Suppose that the measure of angle 1 is 120 degrees. Can we find the measure of the other angles without measuring? 120 1 4 3 2
Remember that vertical angles (opposite angles) are congruent. Therefore the measure of angle 3 is also 120 degrees. Angle 1 and angle 4 are supplementary angles (measure of angles add to equal 180 degrees). If angle 1 is 120 degrees, then angle 4 has to be 60 degrees.
120 60 4 1 2 60
3 120
Angle 2 and angle 4 are vertical angles, so if angle 4 is 60 degrees, then angle 2 is also 60 degrees.
404
Example: Study the following problem.
(3x) 1
(x) 2
It appears that angle 1 and angle 2 are supplementary. If the angles are supplementary, their measures add to 180 degrees: Remember: m 1 means measure of angle 1
m 1+ (3x) +
m 2 = 180 (x) = 180 (4x) = 180 4x = 180

4
combine like terms divide both sides by 4
= 45
To check, substitute 45 for the variable x in the equation. Measure of angle 1: 3x = 3(45) = 135 degrees Measure of angle 2: x = 45 degrees It checks!
Check: 135 degrees + 45 degrees = 180 degrees
What if we have 2 intersecting lines and all 4 of the angles formed measure 90 degrees? In this situation, we say that the lines are perpendicular lines. They form right angles. Two lines (or rays, or segments) that meet at right angles are perpendicular ( ). Perpendicular lines form right angles where they meet. Note: The symbol AB AB A 90 C 90 B 90 90 D means is perpendicular to.
405
Remember: If you see an angle with a little box inside it, then you know that the measure of the angle is 90 degrees and that the angle is a right angle. Our discussion of right angles and perpendicular lines leads to the last definition in our section. Two angles are complementary angles if the sum of their measures is 90 degrees. Example: Study the following picture.
2 1
40
Angle 1 and angle 2 are complementary angles because the sum of their measures is 90 degrees. (Note the little box in the corner). If angle 1 measures 40 degrees, then angle 2 would have to be 50 degrees, because 40 + 50 = 90.
406
Example: Study the following picture.

(x + 10) 1 2 (3x)
This problem is the same as the one before it, only a little bit harder. Since we see a little box in the corner, we know that the two angles are complementary. The sum of their measures is 90 degrees.
m 1+m 2 = (x + 10) + (3x) = (4x) + (10 10) = 4x = 4x = 4 x =
90 90 90 10 80 20
80 4
combine like terms and subtract 10 from both sides divide both sides by 4
To check, substitute 20 for the variable x. Measure of angle 1: x + 10 = 20 + 10 = 30 degrees Check: Measure of angle 2: 3x = 3(20) = 60 degrees It checks!
30 degrees + 60 degrees = 90 degrees
407
Practice
Find the measures of these angles. Show all your work. 1. m 1 = m 2=
35 2 1 3
m 3=
2. m 1 = m 2= m 3= m 4=
1 4 2 3
Answer the following. Show all your work. 3. A and B are complementary. If the m A is 28 degrees, what is the m B?
4.
A and B are supplementary. If the m A is 28 degrees, what is the m B?
408
5. Determine if the angles are complementary or supplementary. a. m A = 15 degrees and m B = 75 degrees The angles are _______________________________________ .
b. m C = 100 degrees and m D = 80 degrees The angles are _______________________________________ .
c. m E = 90 degrees and m F is a right angle The angles are _______________________________________ .
d. m G = (2x 90) degrees and m H = (180 2x) degrees The angles are _______________________________________ .
409
6. Solve for x.
(3x 5)
94
7. Solve for x. Find the measure of angle 1. ______________________

(4x + 1) 1 53
8. Solve for x. Find the measure of angle 1. ______________________
(5x + 11) 1 2
69
410
Find the measures of these angles. Show all your work. 9. m 1 = m 2=
(x + 28) 1 2 (6x 15)
10. m 1 = m 2= m 3= m 4=
2 1 69 36 3 4
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Practice
Use the list below to write the correct term for each definition on the line provided. perpendicular lines supplementary angles adjacent angles substitute complementary angles variable sum degree () vertical angles measure (m) of an angle ( ) ____________________ 1. the opposite angles formed when two lines intersect
A
1 4 3 1 and 3 2 and 4 2
____________________
2.
two angles, the sum of which is exactly 90 the result of an addition two angles having a common vertex and sharing a common side two angles, the sum of which is exactly 180
30 C 2 4 60
D B m ABC + m CBD = 90
____________________ ____________________
3. 4.
1
common side
4
vertex
B 2 3
135
____________________
5.
45
A R B m 1 + m 2 = 180
____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________
6. 7. 8. 9.
the number of degrees () of an angle common unit used in measuring angles to replace a variable with a numeral any symbol that could represent a number two lines that intersect to form right angles
____________________ 10.
412
Exploring Parallel Lines

Two (or more) lines in a plane that do not intersect are said to be parallel ( ). Parallel lines remain the same distance apart. They will never intersect, even if extended.
p q
Lines can be labeled using a lower case letter. The bold arrows (>) on the lines indicate that the lines are parallel. Line p is parallel to line q. The symbol ( ) means is parallel to. Therefore, we can use the following notation: p q Suppose we draw a third line t which intersects the two parallel lines ( ) p and q. The third line t is called a transversal. A transversal is a line that intersects two or more (usually parallel) lines.
t 1 4 5 8 7 6 3 2 p
Notice that 8 angles are formed. Look at the 4 angles at the top. 1 is in the upper left 2 is in the upper right 3 is in the lower right 4 is in the lower left Now look at the bottom 4. 5 is in the upper left, just like 1 6 is in the upper right, just like 2 7 is in the lower right, just like 3 8 is in the lower left, just like 4
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When parallel lines are cut by a transversal, angles in the same relative or matching position are called corresponding transversal angles. Corresponding angles also lie on the 1 2 same side of a transversal. p 4 3 corresponding Therefore angles 5 6 1 corresponds to 5; q 8 7 6 corresponds to 2; 7 corresponds to 3; and 8 corresponds to 4. Measure each pair of angles with a protractor. Label each angle with its measure. Did you find the following? If you have parallel lines cut by a transversal, then the measures of the corresponding angles are equal. Look at the angles again.
t 1 4 5 8 7 6 3 2 p
Since 1 and 5 are corresponding angles, we know that m 1=m 5 We also know that 1 and 3 are vertical angles, and 5 and 7 are vertical angles. Remember that the measures of vertical angles are equal. Therefore, m 1=m 3 m 5=m 7 Logically, we can say that m 1 = m 3 = m 5 = m 7. Similar logic would allow us to say that m 2 = m 4 = m 6 = m 8.
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To summarize what has been said we will mark all angles having the same measure with arcs. Use the arcs marked on the angles as your guide to which angles have the same measure.
t arcs 4 5 6 8 7 1 3 2 p
What is the relationship between 1 and 2? If you said that the angles are supplementary, then you are correct! The two angles together make a straight angle. A straight angle is an angle that measures 180 degrees. Now see if you can unravel the following mystery:
30 1 4 2 3 5 6 8
Find the measures of all angles if you know that m 1 = 30. Solution: If m 1 = 30, then m 2 = 150. 1 and 2 are supplementary, and their measures add to 180. m 1 = m 3 = m 5 = m 7 = 30 m 2 = m 4 = m 6 = m 8 = 150
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Here is another problem to consider: The city of Big Hill, Florida is considering expanding garbage service to a nearby community. There is one problem. The city has to be sure that the angles at the intersections will not be too sharp for the garbage trucks to make the turns. A garbage truck cannot turn at an angle that is less than 70. Can the garbage service be instituted if we know that one of the corners measures 100?
Highway 26
Highway 19 100
1 2
Highway 17
Solution: Label all angles whose measures equal 100 degrees. (corresponding and vertical). Remember, 1 and 2 are supplementary, so m 2 must be 80. Now label the corresponding vertical and corresponding angles. You see that there are no corners where an angle measures less than 70, so the garbage service can be extended.
Highway 26 100 80 80 100 100 80 1 2 80 100
Highway 19
Highway 17
416
Practice
Write if the lines are parallel. Write if the lines are perpendicular. If the lines are neither parallel nor perpendicular, write neither. 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
417
Use the figure below to answer the following.
t 1 6 3 7 8 4 45 q 2 5 p
7. Which two lines are parallel? _______________________________ 8. Name four pairs of corresponding angles. ____________________ _________________________________________________________ 9. Name four pairs of vertical angles. ___________________________ _________________________________________________________ 10. Find the m 1. _____________________________________________ 11. Find the m 2. _____________________________________________ 12. Find the m 6. _____________________________________________
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Angles Formed by a Transversal

When a transversal intersects two lines, it forms eight angles. These angles are alternative angles. Alternative angles lie on opposite sides and at opposite ends of a transversal. The four angles lying between or inside the two lines are alternate interior angles. The four angles lying outside the two lines are alternate exterior angles.
transversal 1 2 4 3 5 8 7 6
Note: Even when lines cut by a transversal are not parallel, we outside (exterior) still use the same vocabulary. p inside (interior)
5 6 7 transversal 1 2 4 3
outside (exterior)
p
inside (interior)
q outside (exterior)
q
outside (exterior)
However, there are special properties when the lines intersected by a transversal are parallel.
Remember that we have shown that when a transversal intersects two parallel lines: m 1 = m 3 = m 5 = m 7 and m 2=m 4=m 6=m 8 Alternate Interior and Alternate Exterior Angles Angles 3, 4, 5, and 6 are called alternate interior angles because they are on the inside of the parallel lines. Angles 1, 2, 7, and 8 are called alternate exterior angles because they are on the outside of the parallel lines.
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3 and 5 and 4 and 6 are alternate interior angles (opposite inside).

transversal 1 2 4 3 5 8 7 outside (exterior) 6 outside (exterior)
inside (interior)
Alternate exterior angles are on opposite sides of the transversal and on the outside of the lines it intersects. There are 2 pairs of alternate exterior angles. 1 and 7 and 2 and 8 are alternate exterior angles (opposite outside).
transversal 1 4 5 8 7 outside (exterior) 6 3 inside (interior) 2 outside (exterior)
If we have parallel lines cut by a transversal, then the following is true: the measures of alternate interior angles are equal the measures of alternate exterior angles are equal.
420
Practice
5 8 1 4 3 2
7 6
1. Name two pairs of alternate interior angles. ___________________ _________________________________________________________ 2. Name two pairs of alternate exterior angles. __________________ _________________________________________________________ 3. If angle 4 measures 30, what is the measure of angles 6 and 7? __ _________________________________________________________ 4. Max is building a childs play table. Here is an end view of the table.
XYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRS
The top of the table will be parallel to the ground. What is the measure of angle x? Hint: Redraw the picture.
140
a. b. c. d. 140 40 180 90
top of table
140
ground
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Number 5 is a gridded-response item. Write answer along the top of the grid and correctly mark it below. 5. Chip is playing pool. He wants to hit the ball into the corner pocket as shown below. What angle (x) must the path of the ball take so it will go into the corner pocket?
ball goes into this corner pocket
ball starts here
x 65 65
Mark your answer on the grid to the right.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
422
Practice
Use the list below to complete the following statements. alternate angles corresponding angles alternate exterior angles alternate interior angles parallel parallel lines transversal
1.
are always the same distance apart and will never intersect, even if extended.
2. A (usually parallel) lines.
is a line that intersects two or more
3. When parallel lines are cut by a transversal, angles in the same relative or matching position that lie on the same side of a transversal are called .
4. When a transversal intersects two lines, it forms eight angles. The four angles lying between or inside the two lines are . 5. Two (or more) lines in a plane that do not intersect are said to be . 6. When a transversal intersects two lines, it forms eight angles. The four angles lying outside the two lines are .
7. A pair of angles that lie on the opposite side and at opposite ends of a transversal are called .
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Lesson Two Purpose

Understand concrete and symbolic representations of real numbers in real-world situations. (MA.A.1.4.3) Add, subtract, multiply, and divide real numbers, including square roots and exponents, using appropriate methods of computing, such as mental mathematics, paper and pencil, and calculator. (MA.A.3.4.3) Use estimation strategies in complex situations to predict results and to check the reasonableness of results. (MA.A.4.4.1) Relate the concepts of measurement to similarity and proportionality in real-world situations. (MA.B.1.4.3) Represent and apply geometric properties and relationships to solve real-world and mathematical problems including ratio and proportion. (MA.C.3.4.1) Using a rectangular coordinate system (graph), apply and algebraically verify properties of two-dimensional figures. (MA.C.3.4.2)
Triangles
Draw three points on a piece of paper. Make sure they do not lie on the same line. Label one point A, one point B, and one point C. Connect the points. The figure formed is, of course, a triangle. In a plane (a flat surface), a closed figure formed by three line segments is a triangle.
The points, A, B, and C are called the vertices of the triangle. If we want to talk about just one point, we would use the word vertex, the singular for vertices. The triangle we drew is triangle ABC. Vertices are named in a clockwise or counterclockwise manner. Note: ABC means triangle ABC.
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Angles of a Triangle Lets investigate the three angles of a triangle. Take a piece of paper and draw a large triangle. Put numbers in each angle. Cut the triangle out. Now cut the angles off as shown below. Fit the angle pieces with the points together as shown below. What do the three angles make? You should have found that the angles make a straight angle.
2 2 3 1 3 1
2 2 3 3 1 1
This demonstrates that the sum of the measures of the three angles in any triangle is 180 degrees. Example:
F x E 45 30
What is the m F?
D
= 180 = 180 = 180 = 180 75 subtract 75 from both sides = 105
Solution: m D + m E + m F 30 + 45 + x 75 + x 75 75 + x + x
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Classifying Triangles
Triangles are polygons with three sides. Polygons are closed plane figures whose sides are straight and do not cross. Triangles are classified in two different ways. Triangles are classified either by the measure of their angles or the measure of their sides. However, no matter how a triangle is classified, the sum of the measures of the angles in a triangle is 180 degrees. Triangles Classified by Their AnglesAcute, Right, Obtuse, and Equiangular An acute triangle contains all acute angles with measures less than 90.
75 65 40
A right triangle contains one right angle with a measure of 90.
Note: right triangles are marked

An equiangular triangle contains all equal angles, each with a measure of 60.
60
An obtuse triangle contains one obtuse angle with a measure of more than 90 but less than 180.
120
60
60
Note: Tick marks are used to denote angles or sides with the same measure. Arcs are also used to show angles with the same measure. B m A=m C AB = BC A C
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Triangles Classified by the Lengths of Their SidesScalene, Isosceles, and Equilateral A scalene triangle has no congruent sidesno sides are the same length. An isosceles triangle has at least two congruent sidestwo or more sides are the same length.
An equilateral triangle has three congruent sides all sides are the same length.
So, all triangles may be classified by their angles (acute, right, obtuse, or equiangular), by their sides (equilateral, isosceles, scalene), or both. See the chart below.
Triangles Right Obtuse
= 90 > 90 and <180
Classification Equilateral Isosceles Scalene

< means less than
Acute
< 90
Equiangular
all = 60
> means greater than
As you see in the above chart, a right triangle may be either isosceles or scalene, but is never acute, equilateral, or obtuse.
427
Practice
Find the value of x. Then classify each triangle as acute, right, obtuse, or equiangular.
value of x 1. x =
x 89 60 30
classification of triangle
2. x =
x x
60
3. x =
40
20
4. x =
30
5. Name all the right triangle(s). _______________________________ 6. Name the isosceles triangle(s). ______________________________
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7. Name the obtuse triangle(s). ________________________________ 8. Name the equilateral triangle(s). _____________________________ Draw the following. 9. Draw an isosceles right triangle.
10. Draw an obtuse scalene triangle.
11. Draw a right scalene triangle.
Answer the following. 12. Can a triangle have two right angles? ________________________ Why or why not? __________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ 13. Can a triangle have two obtuse angles? _______________________ Why or why not? __________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________
Unit 4: Geometry and Spatial Sense 429
Practice
Match each figure with the correct term.
______
1.
has one 90 angle all angles are less than 90
A. acute triangle B. equiangular triangle
______ ______
2. 3.
60
has one angle more than 90 C. obtuse triangle but less than 180 all angles are equal D. right triangle
______
4.
60
60
______
5.
has no congruent sides
A. equilateral triangle
______
6.
has 3 congruent sides
B. isosceles triangle
______
7.
has 2 congruent sides
C. scalene triangle
430
Practice
Use the list below to write the correct term for each definition on the line provided. acute triangle equiangular triangle equilateral triangle isosceles triangle obtuse triangle polygon right triangle scalene triangle triangle
________________________ 1. a polygon with three sides; the sum of the measures of the angles is 180 ________________________ 2. a triangle with one right angle ________________________ 3. a triangle with one obtuse angle ________________________ 4. a triangle with three equal angles ________________________ 5. a triangle with three acute angles ________________________ 6. a triangle with three congruent sides ________________________ 7. a triangle with at least two congruent sides and two congruent angles ________________________ 8. a triangle with no congruent sides ________________________ 9. a closed plane figure whose sides are straight and do not cross
431
Similar Figures
Two figures that have the same shape are called similar figures. We will consider similar triangles as well as other similar shapes. Similar figures are alike in a very specific way. All of the following must be true for two figures to be called similar figures. They have the same shape. The corresponding angles are congruent (have the same measure). The ratios (comparison of two quantities) of the lengths of the corresponding sides are equalthe sides are proportional in length. They may or may not have the same size or be in the same position. We will use this knowledge and our skills in setting up and solving proportionsmathematical sentences stating two ratios are equal.
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Look at these two triangles. Remember: The symbol ~ = means is congruent to.
F C~ = F C
30
30
A~ = D A
50 100
50
100
B~ = E
All of the following corresponding angles are equal. A corresponds to D B corresponds to E C corresponds to F and
F
e=8
d=6
b=4 A B
a=3
c=2
f=4
All of the following pairs of corresponding sides are proportional and have the same ratio.
a d 3 6
= =
b e 4 8
= =
c f 2 4
1 2
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These triangles are similar.

F
C b=3 A a=5
d = 10
c=4
The symbol ~ means is similar to. Therefore ABC ~ DEF.
The single and double arcs indicate corresponding pairs of angles. A corresponds to D, B corresponds to E, and C corresponds to F. A~ = D; B ~ = E; C ~ = F We can write: sides.
a d
b e
c f
and replace known values to find length of the
5 10
3 e
4 f
5 The 10 is our scale factor and is used to set up proportions for finding the values of e and f. The scale factor is the ratio between the lengths of corresponding sides of two similar figures. And you know that pairs of corresponding sides in similar figures have equal ratios.
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You can solve a proportion by using cross products. A cross product is the product of one numerator and the opposite denominator in a pair of fractions. The cross products of equivalent fractions will be equal.
5 10 5e 5
= =
3 e 30 5
and divide both sides by 5
5 10 5f 5
= =
4 f 40 5
5e = 30 e = 6
5f = 40 f = 8
When we substitute our values for e and f into the ratios above, we get
a d 5 10
= =
b e 3 6
= =
c f 4 8
1 2
Notice that each ratio reduces to

5 10 3 6 4 8
= = =
1 2 1 2 1 2
Another way to describe our result is to say: 5 is to 10 as 3 is to 6 as 4 is to 8.
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The properties of similar triangles also apply to similar quadrilaterals (polygons with four sides).
G
5 D 2 A
H 3 B E 6
m m m m Also:
A=m B=m C=m D=m
E F G H
AB BC = FG EF
CD DA = GH = HE
Filling in the given side lengths gives us:

AB = BC 6 9 5 = GH = 2 3
From these ratios we see a scale factor of following proportions.

AB 2 = 3 6
2 3
, leading us to set up the
and
BC 9
2 3
and
5 HG
2 3
3(AB) = 2 6 3(AB) = 12
3(AB) 3
3(BC) = 2 9 3(BC) = 18
3(BC) 3
5 3 = 2(HG) 15 = 2(HG)
15 2 1 72
12 3
18 3
2(HG) 2
AB =
BC =
= HG
Now substitute the values for AB, BC, and HG into the ratios above.
AB = EF 4 = 6 BC FG 6 9 CD DA = GH = HE
5 71 2
2 3
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Notice that each ratio reduces to

4 6 6 9 5 71 2
2 3
= = =
2 3 2 3 2 3
Another way to describe the results is to say: 4 is to 6 as 6 is to 9 as 5 is to 7 1 2. Indirect Measurement If you cannot measure a length directly, you can sometimes use similar triangles to make an indirect measurement. Example: Consider shadows made by a flagpole and a man. The man is 2 meters tall and casts a shadow 1.5 meters. The flagpole casts a shadow 7.5 meters in length. Lets find the height of the flagpole. flagpole The right triangles formed by the flagpole and the man are similar triangles. man 2m 1.5 m 7.5 m x
1. Identify two corresponding ratios. ratio of shadows: 1.5 to 7.5 ratio of heights: 2 to x
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2. Set up a proportion. shadow of man shadow of flagpole 3. Solve the proportions.

1.5 7.5
1.5 = 2 7.5 h
height of man height of flagpole
2 h
1.5 x h = 7.5 x 2 1.5 x h = 15 1.5h = 15 1.5 1.5 h = 10
find cross products solve for h divide each side by 1.5 answer: height of the flagpole is 10 meters
We can see that the scale factor is 5 because the shadow of the flagpole is 5 times as long as the shadow of the man. The flagpole will be 5 times as tall as the man or 5 times 2 or 10 meters.
438
Practice
For each problem below, the two figures are similar. Set up and solve a proportion to find the length x. Show all your work.
x 20 m 1. 25 m 30 m
20 cm 2. 40 cm x
15 cm
10 cm 3. 15 cm
16 cm x
2.5 m x
4.
2m
5m
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2.2 m 1.2 m 5. 3.3 m
2 cm 2.5 cm 6. x
3.6 cm
4 cm
x 6.5 cm
7.
8 cm
x 8. 2.4 cm
2.6 cm 4.8 cm
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Draw a diagram, set up a proportion, and solve the following. 9. When a high-rise office building casts a 70-foot shadow, a man 6 feet tall casts a 3-foot shadow. How tall is the building?
10. A TV tower is 35 meters high and casts a 10-meter shadow. How tall is a nearby tree that casts a 6-meter shadow at the same time?
441
Practice
Match each definition with the correct term. Write the letter on the line provided. ______ 1. the quotient of two numbers used to compare two quantities ______ 2. the product of one numerator and the opposite denominator in a pair of fractions ______ 3. polygon with four sides ______ 4. the matching angles and sides in similar figures ______ 5. figures that have the same shape but not necessarily the same size ______ 6. a mathematical sentence stating that two ratios are equal ______ 7. the ratio between the lengths of corresponding sides of two similar figures A. corresponding angles and sides B. cross product C. proportion D. quadrilateral E. ratio F. scale factor G. similar figures
442
The Coordinate System

Before we can continue our study of geometry, we need to know how to graph points on a plane. You probably have studied graphing points before. Below is a model of a coordinate grid or system. A coordinate grid or system is a two-dimensional system used to locate points in a plane. Study the picture and see how much you remember! 1. The coordinate system has a horizontal ( ) number line called the x-axis and a vertical ( ) number line called the y-axis. 2. The two number lines or axes of a graph are perpendicular and intersect (meet) at a point called the origin. The coordinates at the intersection of the origin are (0, 0). 3. The axes divide the plane into four parts called quadrants. We start in the upper right and label that part Quadrant I. The upper left part is Quadrant II, the lower left Quadrant III, and the lower right Quadrant IV. The axes and the origin are not in any quadrant. 4. Each point in a coordinate plane can be represented by an ordered pair which describes the position of the point in relation to the x-axis and y-axis.
Coordinate Grid (or System)
vertical number line (y-axis) SECOND QUADRANT 5 4 FIRST QUADRANT
II
3 2 origin 1 2 3 4
I
(x, y) 5
horizontal number line (x-axis) -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 -1
III
THIRD QUADRANT
-2 -3 -4 -5
IV
FOURTH QUADRANT
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Locating Points y Lets look at the ordered pair (3, 2). Start at the origin (0, 0). The first number is the x-coordinate. The first number tells us whether to move left or right from the origin. If the number is positive we move right. If the number is negative we move left.
4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 -1
positive numbers
+
1 2 3 4
negative numbers
-2 -3
-4 The second number is the y-coordinate. The second number tells us whether to move up or down. If the number is positive, we move up. If the number is negative, we move down.
Study the following: Graph (3, 2). Then graph (2, -1) and (-2, 0).
y
4 3 2
Start at the origin. x-coordinate (3, 2) (3, 2) x right 3 right 2 left 2 (2, -1) (-2, 0) up 2 down 1 do not move up or down y-coordinate
(-2, 0)
1 1 3 4
-3 -2 -1 0 -1 -2
(2, -1)
Graph (-3, 1). Then graph (-4, -2) and (0, -2).
y (-3, 1)
2 1 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 -1 -2 1 2 3
Start at the origin. x-coordinate y-coordinate (-3, 1) x left 3 left 4 do not move left or right (-4, -2) (0, -2) up 1 down 2 down 2
(-4, -2)
(0, -2)
-3 -4
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Lets Summarize: When you graph a point, the signs of the coordinates tell which directions to move from the origin. (3, 2) (+, +) (right, up) (-3, 2) ( - , +) (left, up) (-3, -2) (-,-) (left, down) (3, -2) (+, - ) (right, down)
y (-3, 2)
3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 -1 -2 -3 1 2 3 4
(3, 2)
(-3, -2)
(3, -2)
Note that the point (0, 0) is the origin.
445
Practice
Seven points have been labeled on the coordinate grid below. Match each ordered pair with the correct point in the coordinate plane. Write the letter of the point on the line provided. y
8 7 6 5 4 3
F C
1 2 3 4
2 1
B
5 6 7 8
-8 -7 -6
-5 -4 -3
-2 -1 0 -1
-2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8
1. (5, 0) 2. (6, 3) 3. (0, 0) 4. (-4, 2) 5. (6, -3) 6. (0, -3) 7. (-2, -1)
Answer the following. 8. What point(s) is (are) located in quadrant II? 9. What point(s) is (are) located on the x-axis? 10. What point(s) is (are) located on the y-axis?
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Complete the following. 11. On the coordinate system below, graph the three points and connect them with line segments. Classify the resulting triangle first by its sides (scalene, isosceles, equilateral), and then by its angles (obtuse, acute, right, equiangular).
10 9 8 7 6
b.
5 4 3 2 1 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
a.
c.
-5 -6
d.
a. (2, 1), (2, 5), (5, 1) ______________________________________ b. (-2, 1), (-4, 1), (-5, 4) ____________________________________ c. (-3, -1), (0, -3), (-6, -3) ___________________________________ d. (11, 0), (10, -5), (12, -5) __________________________________
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12. Using the same coordinate system that you used in number 11, plot these four points: (2, 7), (2, 9), (7, 9) and (7, 7). Connect the points so that a rectangle is formed. Label the rectangle number 12. a. Find the width of the rectangle. __________________________ b. Find the length of the rectangle. _________________________ c. Find the area of the rectangle. ___________________________ Remember: The area of the rectangle can be found by multiplying the length (l) times the width (w). A = lw d. How many little squares are inside the rectangle? _________ Did you get the same answer that you did for number 12c above? _______________________________________________
448
Practice
Match each definition with the correct term. Write the letter on the line provided. ______ 1. the horizontal ( ) axis on a coordinate plane ______ 2. the vertical ( ) axis on a coordinate plane ______ 3. the graph of the intersection of the x-axis and y-axis in a coordinate plane, described by the ordered pair (0, 0) ______ 4. any of four regions formed by the axes in a rectangular coordinate system ______ 5. the point assigned to an ordered pair on a coordinate plane ______ 6. network of evenly spaced, parallel horizontal and vertical lines especially designed for locating points, displaying data, or drawing maps A. coordinate grid or system
B. graph of a point
C. origin
D. quadrant
E. x-axis
F. y-axis
449
Practice
Use the list below to write the correct term for each definition on the line provided. area (A) axes (of a graph) coordinates intersection ordered pair x-coordinate y-coordinate
________________________ 1. the point at which two lines meet ________________________ 2. the first number of an ordered pair ________________________ 3. the horizontal and vertical number lines used in a rectangular graph or coordinate grid system as a fixed reference for determining the position of a point ________________________ 4. the second number of an ordered pair ________________________ 5. numbers that correspond to points on a graph in the form (x, y) ________________________ 6. the location of a single point on a rectangular coordinate system where the digits represent the position relative to the x-axis and y-axis ________________________ 7. the inside region of a two-dimensional figure measured in square units
450
Pythagorean Theorem
For thousands of years, concepts behind the Pythagorean theorem have been used. However, a Greek mathematician named Pythagoras is credited as the first person to write a proof of the theorem. Pythagoras lived during the sixth century B.C. In about 2000 B.C., ancient Egyptian farmers reportedly used a 12-meter rope in surveying land. See the drawing below with knots equally spaced.
12 meters
The farmers wanted to make square (90) corners for their fields. They discovered a magic 345 triangle that would help them do this. Workers took a rope, knotted it into 12 equal spaces, and formed it into a loop.
Next they took three stakes and stretched the rope around them to make a triangle that had sides of 3, 4, and 5 units of equal space.
hypotenuse 5 3 leg 90 vertex of the right angle 4 leg
The stake supporting rope lengths of 3 and 4 turned out to be the vertex of a right angle, and a right triangle was formed. This method, in modified form, is still used by builders today. The sides forming the right angle are called legs, and the side opposite the right angle is the hypotenuse. The hypotenuse is always the longest side of a right triangle.
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The ancient Greeks learned this trick from the Egyptians. Between 500 and 350 B.C., a group of Greek philosophers called the Pythagoreans studied the 345 triangle. They learned to think of the triangles sides as the three sides of three squares. They generalized this to apply to any right triangle. This general statement became the Pythagorean theorem. Pythagorean theorem: In a right triangle, the sum of the squares of the lengths of the leg a legs, a and b, equals the square of the right angle length of the hypotenuse c. measures Algebraically: a + b = c
2 2 2
hypotenuse c
exactly 90 degrees ()
leg b
Remember: To square a number, multiply it by itself. Example: The square of 6 or 62 = 6 x 6 = 36. The Pythagorean theorem tells us that, in a right triangle, the square of the length of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the two legs. If the lengths of the legs are represented by a and b and the length of the hypotenuse is represented by c, then a2 + b2 = c2. Look at the figure at the right. What is the area (inside region) of the square on leg a? What is the area of the square on leg b? What is the area of the square on the hypotenuse c? Is the sum of the areas on the legs equal to the area of the square on the hypotenuse? We see that: a2 + b2 = c2 32 + 42 = 52 9 + 16 = 25
hy po
hypotenuse a=3 c=5 b=4
leg 3 4
te 5 nus e
leg
Remember: Area (A) is the inside region of a two-dimensional figure and is measured in square units.
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The Pythagorean theorem applies to all right triangles, not just the 345 right triangle. If you know the lengths of two sides of a right triangle, you can find the length of the hypotenuse or third side. Example 1: A right triangle has leg b with a unit measure of 8 and the hypotenuse with a unit measure of 10. What is the unit measure of leg a? We can use the formula to determine the length of leg a. a2 + b2 a2 + 82 a2 + 64 a2 + 64 64 a2 a a = c2 = 102 = 100 = 100 64 = 36 = 36 = 6
c = 10 a=?
b=8
We see that a has a length of 6 units. Example 2: A right triangle has legs with a unit measure of 6. What is the measure of the hypotenuse? We will use the same formula to determine the length of the hypotenuse. a2 + b2 62 + 62 36 + 36 72 = = = = 72 = 8.5 c2 c2 c2 c2 c c
b=6
c=? a=6
We see c has a length of about 8.5 units. Note: Using our calculator, 72 = 8.485281374 and rounding to the nearest tenth, is approximately equal to () 8.5.
453
Example 3: A right triangle has legs with unit measures of 12 and 5. What is the measure of the hypotenuse? a2 + b2 5 + 122 25 + 144 169 169 13
2
= = = = = =
c2 c2 c2 c2 c c
b = 12
c=?
We see c has a length of 13 units.
a=5
454
Practice
Use the Pythagorean theorem (a2 + b2 = c2) to solve each problem. Use a calculator or the square root table in Appendix A. Round answers to the nearest tenth. Show all your work. Find x for the following.
10 ft 1. x 6 ft 4.
14 ft x 7 ft
25 ft 2. x 20 ft 5.
7 ft 11 ft
x 3. 12 ft 13 ft 6. 8 ft
x 15 ft
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Solve the following. Show all your work. 7. Find the length of the diagonal of the rectangle.
10 ft
24 ft
8. Find the width of the rectangle.
29
21 m
9. Find the diagonal of the square. c 10 m 10 m
10. Find the length of the rectangle.
26
ft
10 ft
456
Problem Solving with the Pythagorean Theorem

Earlier in this unit, we used similar triangles to indirectly measure the height of a flagpole. The Pythagorean theorem is frequently used for measuring objects indirectly. Example: An 11-foot ladder is placed against a wall so that it reaches the top of the wall. The bottom of the ladder is 6 feet from the wall. How high is the wall? Round to the nearest whole number. Write the Pythagorean theorem. a2 + b2 a2 + 62 a2 + 36 a2 + 36 36 a2 a a a = c2 = 112 = 121 = 121 36 = 85 = 85 = 9.219544457 9 Use a drawing.
ladder a 11 ft
6 ft
Rounding to the nearest whole number, we find that the wall is approximately equal to () 9 feet high.
457
Practice
Use the Pythagorean theorem (a2 + b2 = c2) to solve each problem. Illustrate the problem. Use a calculator or the square root table in Appendix A. Round answers to the nearest whole number. Show all your work. 1. A boat travels 8 miles west and then 15 miles south. How far is it from its starting point? N Answer:
W S E
2. The bases on a softball diamond are 60 feet apart. How long is it from home plate to second base? Answer:
3. A square, empty lot is 40 yards on a side. If Jason walks diagonally across the lot, how far does he walk? Answer:
4. A cable is fastened to the top of an 80-foot television tower and to a stake that is 30 feet from the base of the tower. How long is the cable? Answer:
458
5. A 13-foot ladder is placed against a wall. The bottom of the ladder is 5 feet from the base of the wall. How high up the wall does the ladder reach? Answer:
6. A 12-foot rope is fastened to the top of a flagpole. The rope is anchored at a point on the ground 6 feet from the base of the flagpole. What is the height of the flagpole? Answer:
7. An airplane is 4 miles directly above the airport runway. A person on the ground is 10 miles from the runway. How far is the person from the airplane? Answer:
459
Practice
Use the list below to write the correct term for each definition on the line provided. formula hypotenuse legs Pythagorean theorem square units square (of a number)
________________________ 1. the square of the hypotenuse (c) of a right triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the legs ________________________ 2. the longest side of a right triangle; the side opposite the right angle in a right triangle ________________________ 3. in a right triangle, one of the two sides that form the right angle ________________________ 4. a way of expressing a relationship using variables or symbols that represent numbers ________________________ 5. the result when a number is multiplied by itself or used as a factor twice ________________________ 6. units for measuring area; the measure of the amount of an area that covers a surface Label the right triangles legs and hypotenuse. 7.
8.
9.
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Understand that numbers can be represented in a variety of equivalent forms, including integers, fractions, decimals, percents, scientific notation, exponents, radicals, and absolute value. (MA.A.1.4.4) Use estimation strategies in complex situations to predict results and to check the reasonableness of results. (MA.A.4.4.1) Use concrete and graphic models to derive formulas for finding perimeter, area, and circumference of twodimensional shapes. (MA.B.1.4.1) Solve real-world and mathematical problems, involving estimates of measurements, including length, perimeter, and area and estimate the effects of measurement errors on calculations. (MA.B.3.4.1) Represent and apply geometric properties and relationships to solve real-world and mathematical problems including ratio and proportion. (MA.C.3.4.1)
461
Polygons
We have worked with rectangles, triangles, and squares in this unit. These shapes are considered polygons (closed shapes with straight sides). There are many other shapes which are included in the broad category of polygons. This chart identifies many geometric shapes that are polygons.
Polygons Name of Polygon rectangle Description 4 sides 4 right angles Examples
triangle
3 sides
square
4 sides the same length 4 right angles (A square is also a rectangle.)
parallelogram
4 sides 2 pairs of parallel sides (A rectangle is also a parallelogram.)
trapezoid
4 sides 1 pair of parallel sides
pentagon
5 sides
hexagon
6 sides
462
Symmetry
If a figure can be folded along a line so that it has two parts that are congruent and match exactly, that figure has line symmetry. Line symmetry is often just called symmetry. The fold line is called the line of symmetry. Sometimes more than one line of symmetry can be drawn. A figure can have no lines of symmetry,
line of symmetry
one line of symmetry,
or more than one line of symmetry.
Consider the following polygons and their line(s) of symmetry.
isosceles triangle
equilateral triangle
Notice three lines of symmetry.
463
Try this. Which of these three dashed lines on the rectangles below create a line of symmetry? Get a sheet of paper and cut out three rectangles that are not squares. Make one fold on each rectangle as indicated by the dashed lines on the figures below. rectangle
l
g dia
ona
horizontal
In each case, does one half of the folded paper fit exactly over the other half? Is the diagonal a line of symmetry? No. Do the horizontal and vertical lines create lines of symmetry? Yes. If you had used a square, would your results be different? Yes, all three would result in lines of symmetry.
al
What if you used a parallelogram? Could you fold the parallelogram so that one half fits exactly over the other? No.
vertical
di
ag
horizontal
dia
gon
al
horizontal
464
vertical
on
vertical
Practice
Use the chart on polygons on page 462 and the list below to name each shape. One or more terms will be used more than once. hexagon parallelogram pentagon
1.
rectangle square
trapezoid triangle
6.
2.
7.
3.
8.
4.
9.
5.
10.
465
Answer the following. 11. Which of the 10 shapes on the previous page can you draw one or more lines of symmetry? ___________________________________ _________________________________________________________ 12. Select four polygons and draw their lines of symmetry.
Use the map of a city block below to answer the following.

Map of City Block
13. Which lot is a triangle? _____________________________________ 14. Which lot is a rectangle? ____________________________________ 15. Which lots are parallelograms? ______________________________ _________________________________________________________ 16. Which lots are squares? ____________________________________
466
17. Which lots are trapezoids? __________________________________ _________________________________________________________ 18. Which part of the city block is a pentagon?____________________ 19. What is the shape of the city block? __________________________ Use the coordinate grid below each problem to plot the ordered pairs listed. Connect the points as you plot them. When the shape is complete, draw any appropriate lines of symmetry. 20. (-2, 1), (1, 1), (1, 4), (-2, 4), (-2, 1)
y
5 4 3 2 1 -3 -2 -1 0 -1 -2 1 2
21. (3, 0), (0, 5), (-3, 0), (3, 0)
y
5 4 3 2 1 -3 -2 -1 0 -1 1 2 3
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22. (-3, -1), (-3, 1), (-1, 1), (-1, 3), (1, 3), (1, 1), (3, 1), (3, -1), (1, -1), (1, -3), (-1, -3), (-1, -1), (-3, -1)
y
4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4
Use the alphabet printed below to draw lines of symmetry through as many letters as possible. 23. Which letters do not have symmetry? _________________________________________________________
A H O V
468
BCDEFG I J K L M N PQRSTU WXYZ

Practice
Match each definition with the correct term. Write the letter on the line provided. ______ 1. a closed plane figure whose sides are straight and do not cross A. hexagon
B. line of symmetry ______ 2. a line that divides a figure into two congruent halves that are mirror images of each other ______ 3. a parallelogram with four right angles ______ 4. a rectangle with four sides the same length ______ 5. a quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel sides ______ 6. a quadrilateral with just one pair of opposite sides parallel
base leg altitude base leg
C. parallelogram
D. pentagon
E. polygon
F. rectangle
G. square
______ 7. a polygon with five sides ______ 8. a polygon with six sides H. trapezoid
469
Perimeter of Polygons
To compute the perimeter (P) of a polygon we determine the distance around the polygon. Lengths of sides and various formulas are used. Sides are the edges of two-dimensional geometric figures. Two-dimensional figures have two dimensions: length (l) and width (w). A brief review of conversions between metric units of length and U.S. customary measures of length may be helpful.
Common Conversion Factors

1 foot (ft) = 1 yard (yd) = 1 mile (mi) = 12 inches (in.) 3 feet = 5,280 feet =
36 inches 1,760 yards = = = = 10 millimeters (mm) 100 centimeters 1000 millimeters 1000 meters
1 centimeter (cm) 1 meter (m) 1 meter 1 kilometer (km)
Note: Appendix C has a list of conversions. When we change from a large unit to a smaller unit, we multiply by the conversion factor. larger to smaller a. 2 yd = ? ft b. 5 ft = ? in. c. 2 m = ? cm d. 3 km = ? m conversion factor 1 yd = 3 ft 1 ft = 12 in. 1 m = 100 cm 1 km = 1000 m multiply 2x3 5 x 12 2 x 100 3 x 1000
Answers: (a) 6 ft (b) 60 in. (c) 200 cm (d) 3000 m
470
When we change from a small to a larger unit, we divide by the conversion factor. smaller to larger e. 300 cm = ? m f. 45 mm = ? cm g. 25000 m = ? km conversion factor 100 cm = 1 m 10 mm = 1 cm 1000 m = 1 km divide 300 by 100 45 by 10 25000 by 1000
Answers: (e) 3 m (f) 4.5 cm (g) 25 m Formulas are used to find perimeter of triangles, squares, and rectangles. For the polygons in this unit, such as trapezoids and pentagons, we simply add the lengths of all the sides (s) to get perimeter (P). Examples
triangle
20 cm 16 cm
Formulas Perimeter = the sum of the lengths of the three sidesa, b, and c. P=a+b+c P = 12 cm + 16 cm + 20 cm P = 48 cm The perimeter is 48 centimeters. Perimeter = 4 times the length (l) of one side (s = side length).
12 cm
square
18 m 18 m
P = 4s P = 4(18 m) P = 72 m The perimeter is 72 meters. Perimeter = 2 times the length (l) plus 2 times the width (w). P = 2l + 2w P = 2(15 ft) + 2(10 ft) P = 30 ft + 20 ft P = 50 ft The perimeter is 50 feet.
471
rectangle
10 ft 15 ft
trapeziod
6 in. 8 in. 12 in. 9 in.
Perimeter = the sum of the lengths of all the sides. P = s1 + s2 + s3 + s4 P = 8 in. + 6 in. + 9 in. + 12 in. P = 35 in. The perimeter is 35 inches.
pentagon
3 ft 18 in. 24 in. 18 in. 3 ft
Perimeter = the sum of the lengths of all the sides. P = s1 + s2 + s3 + s4 + s5
Alert: The units are not the same. Some are expressed in feet and others are expressed in inches. We must change feet to inches or inches to feet. Example: Change feet to inches.
3 ft = 36 in. 18 in. 24 in. 18 in. 3 ft = 36 in.
P = 36 in. + 18 in. + 18 in. + 36 in. + 24 in. P = 132 in. The perimeter is 132 inches.
Example: Change inches to feet.

3 ft 18 in. = 1.5 ft 24 in. = 2 ft 18 in. = 1.5 ft 3 ft
P = 3 ft + 1.5 ft+ 1.5 ft + 3 ft + 2 ft P = 11 ft The perimeter is 11 feet.
So the perimeter of the pentagon above can be expressed as 132 inches or 11 feet. Either answer is correct.
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Lets Summarize: Perimeter (P) is the distance around a figure.
Mathematical Formulas for Perimeter (P)

figure triangle formula P=a+b+c
12 20 9
example
16
P = 12 + 16 + 20 P = 48 units
square and rhombus rectangle and parallelogram
P = 4s
9 3
P = 4(9) P = 36 units
P = 2l + 2 w
5 5 3 3 3 5 3 6 5 3 5 3
P = 2(5) + 2(3) P = 16 units
quadrilateral and trapezoid
P = s1 + s 2 + s3 + s 4
P=5+3+3+6 P = 17 units
pentagon
P = s1 + s 2 + s3 + s 4+ s5
5 3 4
P=5+5+3+4+3 P = 20 units
circle
C = d or C = 2r
C 2(3.14)(4) C 25.12 units
Key
C = circumference d = diameter
22 7
l = length s = side
P = perimeter w = width
r = radius
= pi Use 3.14 or
for .
473
Practice
Find the perimeter of each polygon. Refer to the conversion chart on page 470 if units are not the same.
1. 20 mm 18 mm 30 mm
5. 3m 360 cm 5.2 m 350 cm
2. 15 m 15 m
6. 22 3 in. 4 12 1 in. 2 18 1 in. 4
3.
1 8 2 in.
7. 6 ft 31 in. 4 30 in. 60 in. 4 2 ft

1
4. 34.5 cm 26.2 cm 33.8 cm 24 cm 30.9 cm
8. 2.5 km
1500 m
3 km 3 km
1500 m
474
Use the appropriate formula to find the missing measure. Refer to formulas in unit as needed. 9. square s = 8m P = P = 11. rectangle l = 3.5 m w = 1.8 m
10. rectangle l = 12 cm w = 6 cm P =
12. triangle a = 13 m b = 22 m c = 12 m P =
13. rectangle l = 9 km w= P = 26 km Hint: Use P = 2(length) + 2(width) and solve for w. 26 = 2(9) + 2w
14. triangle a = 250 in. b = 168 in. c = P = 562 in. Hint: Use P = a + b + c and solve for c.
475
15. The perimeter of a square room is 50 meters. What is the length of each side of the room? __________________
P = 50 m
16. How many centimeters of framing are needed to frame a painting that is 70 centimeters long and 55 centimeters wide? ___________
17. The perimeter of a triangular yard is 240 meters. The longest side is 110 meters and the shortest side is 50 meters. How long is the third side? _________________________________
476
Answer the following. 18. Green Thumb Yard Design will plant viburnum shrubs in rows across the back and down two sides of the yard sketched below. At each of the 4 corners, a shrub will be planted. All shrubs will be planted 3 feet apart. How many shrubs need to be planted? _______________________
30 feet
42 feet
42 feet
477
Finding Areas of Special Shapes

Finding the Area of Parallelograms Remember, a parallelogram is a 4-sided figure with opposite sides parallel. Lets investigate how to find its area (A). Area is the inside region of a twodimensional figure and is measured in square units. Lets take a piece of graph paper and plot these points (1, 1), (5, 1), (6, 3), and (2, 3). We will connect them with line segments so that a parallelogram is formed.
y
4 3 2 1 -1 0 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
What do you think the area is of the parallelogram above? Remember: Area is measured by the number of squares it takes to cover the region. Lets look below and find the area. In this case, there are 6 full squares, and then bits and pieces of other squares. What if we cut off the triangle formed by (1, 1), (2, 1), and (2, 3) and move it and place it on top of the triangle formed by (5, 1), (6, 1), and (6, 3). Notice the two triangles are congruent. y
4 3 2 1 -1 0 -1 1 2 2 3 move 5 6 7 1 4 8
We now have a rectangle which has the same area as the parallelogram, and there are clearly 8 squares. The area of the parallelogram is 8 square units.
478
Remember: To find the area of a rectangle we must use the following formula and multiply the length times the width A = lw. Any parallelogram can be rearranged to form a rectangle. Therefore, the formula for area of a parallelogram is closely related to the formula for area of a rectangle. To find the area of a parallelogram we must multiply the base (b) times the height (h). A = bh Lets make sure that we understand that the base (b) can be any side. The base is only the line or plane upon which a figure is thought of as resting. The height (h) is a little trickier. The height is the length of an altitude, a line segment perpendicular to the base (forming a right angle), drawn from the opposite side.
height (h) height (h) base (b) height (h) base (b) base (b)
Look at the original parallelogram below. Can you see that the base is 4 units and the height is 2 units? Therefore the area is 8 square units.
y
4 3 2 1 -1 0 -1 1 2 height base 4 2 3 4
479
Example: Find the area of the parallelogram below. Solution: A = bh A = (6)(4) A = 24 square feet Note: The 5 was not used to find the area of the parallelogram because only the base and height are needed. What is the perimeter of this parallelogram? Remember: The perimeter of a polygon is the sum of all the sides. Solution: P= s1 + s2 + s3 + s4 P = 6 ft + 5 ft + 6 ft + 5 ft P = 22 ft P = 22 Note: The 4 is not used to find the perimeter of the parallelogram because only the sides are needed.
4 ft
5 ft
6 ft
480
Finding the Area of Triangles Challenge: Plot these 3 points: (2, 1), (7, 1), and (5, 4) Connect them to make a triangle. Again it is difficult to be sure about the area. y
4 3 2 1 -1 0 -1 1 (2, 1) 2 3 4 5 6 (7, 1) 7 8 9 (5, 4)
10 11
Can you plot a 4th point to make it a parallelogram instead of a triangle? Yes. The point is (10, 4).
y
4 3 2 1 -1 0 -1 1 (2, 1) 2 3 4 5 6 (7, 1) 7 8 9 (5, 4) (10, 4)
10 11
We know that to find the area of the parallelogram we will use the following formula. A = bh A = (5)(3) A = 15 square units What part of the parallelogram is the triangle? If you guessed correct. The area of our triangle = square units.
1 2 1 2
, you are
(area of our parallelogram) =
1 2
(15) = 7 1 2
481
To find the area of a triangle, we use the following formula: A=

1 2
bh
Remember: Any side of the triangle can be used as a base. The height is the length of the line segment draw from the opposite vertex perpendicular to the base (forming a right angle). Study the following pictures.
h base (b)
base (b)
h base (b)
Note: Sometimes the height falls outside the triangle.
h base (b)
Example: Find the area of the triangle below.
14 in.
There are a few ways to do this problem. A= A=
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
30 in.
bh (30)(14)
A= A=
bh (30)(14)
A=
1 2
bh Hint:
1 2
A = (0.5)(30)(14)
A = (15)(14) A = (420) A = 210 square units A = 210 square units A = 210 square units
= 0.5
Remember: The associative property lets us group without changing the order. The commutative property lets us change the order.
482 Unit 4: Geometry and Spatial Sense
Commutative Property and Associative Properties Revisited You can add or multiply two numbers in any order without affecting the result. (See the Rules for Order of Operations chart in Unit 1.) Addition a+b =b+a 3+7 =7+3 Multiplication ab =ba 37 =73
Think of the commutative property of addition and multiplication as a sequence or order making no difference in the outcome. For example, when getting dressed, you could put your shoes on before your belt. However, the commutative property does not apply to subtraction and division. 6336 6336
In other words, in this case, order does matter. You would not put your socks on after your shoes were already on your feet. The associative property lets us add or multiply three or more numbers by grouping. addition (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) Example: Find the area of the triangle below.
1 64 1 feet 8 2 feet
multiplication (ab)c = a(bc)
A = =
= = 26.6 square feet (rounded to nearest tenth)
1 2 bh 1 1 2 (6 4 425 16
)(8 1 2)
483
How to Find the Area of a Trapezoid Remember, a trapezoid is a four-sided figure with exactly two parallel sides, called bases. Since the bases arent the same length, we denote them by using subscripts: b1 (b sub one) and b2 (b sub 2). Note: These are not exponents!
b1 h b2
The height of a trapezoid is the length of a line segment drawn from one base perpendicular to the other base. If we draw a diagonal from opposite corners, we see that we have two triangles with the same height, but different bases. The area of the trapezoid would be the sum of the areas of the two triangles. area of a trapezoid =
1 2
b1 h b2 h
b1h +
1 2
b2h
The distributive property would allow us to write the formula this way: area of a trapezoid =
1 2
h(b1 + b2)
Distributive Property Revisited You can distribute the numbers to write an equivalent or equal expression. For all numbers a, b, and c: a(b + c) = ab + bc 3(7 + 4) = 3 7 + 3 4 Think of the distributive property of multiplication as spreading things out or distributing things out to make the problem easier to work withyet making no difference in the outcome. Example: Find the area of the trapezoid below.
12 10 16
484
A = A =
A = (10)(28) A = 140 square units

1 2 1 2 1 2
h(b1 + b2) (10)(12 + 16)
Example: Find the area of the trapezoid below. 7.6 6 15 5 A = A = A =

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
h(b1 + b2) (6)(5 + 15) (6)(20)
8 Lets Summarize:
A = (120) A = 60 square units Note: The measures of the other two sides do not matter!
Area (A) is the number of square units a two-dimensional figure contains. Area is measured in square units.
Mathematical Formulas for Area (A)

figure triangle A= formula
1 2
example
12 10 20 16
bh
A=
1 2
(20)(10)
A = 100 square units A = (2)(10)

10
rectangle
A = lw
A = 20 square units A = 11(4)

5
parallelogram A = bh
4 11 8
A = 44 square units A=
1 2
trapezoid
A=
1 2
h(b1 + b2 )
6 16
(6)(8 + 16)
A = 72 square units
Key
A = area b = base h = height l = length w = width
Note: Appendix C contains a list of formulas.
485
Practice
Find the area of the following figures using the grid below. 1. 4.
2.
5.
3.
6.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
486
Find the area of the following. Refer to the formulas in this unit or in Appendix C as needed. 7. A 4-inch square. ___________________________________________
1 8. A rectangle with a length of 6 1 2 inches and a width of 3 4 inches.
_________________________________________________________
1 9. A parallelogram with a base of 3 4 feet and a height of 4 feet.
_________________________________________________________ 10. A triangle with a base of 10 yards and a height of 7 yards. _________________________________________________________
1 11. A trapezoid with bases of 10 1 2 inches and 12 2 inches and a height
of 4 inches. _______________________________________________ 12. A trapezoid with bases of 0.3 kilometers and 0.5 kilometers and a height of 0.2 kilometers. ____________________________________
487
Practice
Answer the following. Refer to formulas in unit or in Appendix C as needed. 1. Here is a blueprint of Jamies bedroom. She would like to carpet this room. (Hint: Can you divide this space into two rectangles?) Find the area. _____________________________________________
10 feet
4 feet
8 feet
8 feet
She would also like to put a wallpaper border around the top of the room. Find the perimeter. ________________________________________
488
2. Latasha is having some pictures enlarged at a local copy store. She wants to enlarge a photo that is 5 inches by 7 inches so that the dimensions will be 15 inches by 21 inches.
7 inches
5 inches
21 inches
15 inches
How many times larger that the original photo will the area of the new photo be? ____________________________________________
3. Tom wants to reseed his yard. A diagram of his lot is shown below. (Hint: Tom will not seed the house nor the driveway.)
200 feet
150 feet 50 feet
house
30 feet 20 feet
35 feet
driveway
How many square feet would he need to reseed his yard? _________________________________________________________
489
4. Below is an irregular shape. Find the area by dividing the shape into 5 smaller regions. _____________________________________
5. Find the area and perimeter of this right triangle. Use the Pythagorean theorem (a2 + b2 = c2) and the square root table in Appendix A. Round each answer to the nearest tenth. Area: Perimeter:
1 mile
1 mile
490
Practice
Use the list below to complete the following statements. altitude area (A) associative property base (b) 1. The 2. commutative property distributive property height (h) perimeter (P) sides (s) two-dimensional width (w)
is the sum of the sides. are the edges of two-dimensional figures.
3. Figures that have length and width are figures. 4. takes to cover the region. 5. To find the area of a rectangle we must multiply the length times the . 6. The of a shape can be any sideit is the is measured by the number of squares it
line or plane upon which a figure is thought to be resting. 7. The is the length of a(n) , a line segment perpendicular to the base, drawn from the opposite side.
491
8. The affecting the result. 9. Think of the
lets us change the order without
of multiplication as
spreading things out to make it easier to work withyet making no difference in the outcome. 10. The lets us group without changing the
order and without affecting the result.
492
Circles
Suppose that you tie a string to a thumbtack and push it into a piece of cardboard. Next you tie a marker or pencil to the other end of the string and move the string around the thumbtack. The curved line drawn by the marker or pencil is a circle. The thumbtack is the center of the circle. The center of the circle is the point from which all the points on the circle are the same distance. A circle is the set of all points that are the same distance from the center. The distance of any line segment drawn from the center to any point on the circle is called a radius (r). A diameter (d) of a circle is the distance of a line segment from one point of the circle to another, through the center.
us
diameter
The diameter of a circle is twice its radius. d = 2r Example: 4 inches If the radius of this circle measures 4 inches, what is the diameter?
Solution: d = 2r d = 2(4) d = 8 inches
ra
di
493
Example:
10 inches
If the diameter of this circle measures 10 inches, what is the radius?
Solution: d = 2r 10 = 2r 5 =r Circles have their own name for perimeter. The perimeter of a circle is called the circumference (C). The circumference of a circle is the distance around the circle. The diameter is twice, or two times, the radius.
Circles
cu
m fere nc e (
circumference (C) - the distance around a circle or the perimeter (P) of a circle diameter (d) - a line segment that passes through the center of a circle to another point on a circle center of a circle center of a circle - the point from which all points on a circle are the same distance radius (r) - any line segment from the center of a circle to a point on a circle
C)
cir
494
diameter (d)
r) s( diu ra
Practice
Complete the chart below. A class measured the diameters and circumferences of several round objects. Here are their results. Find four more circular objects and the circumference and diameter of each. Divide the circumference by the diameter. Use a calculator and round each answer to the nearest hundredth.
Measurements of Round Objects Circumference Divided by Diameter 3.13
Item cookie tin
Diameter 5 4 inches
3
Circumference 18 inches
auto tire
29 inches
91 inches
plate
9 inches
28 4 inches
pail
10 inches
31.5 inches
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Circumference
Centuries ago mathematicians found that the answer is always the same when a circumference is divided by its diameter. Your answers on the last practice were probably very close to 3.14.
C d
3.14
If we multiply both sides of this equation by d, we get the formula for finding the circumference of a circle. C 3.14d The number 3.14 is represented by the Greek letter , which is pronounced pi. To find the circumference of a circle use the following formula: C = d C = 2 r Since d = 2r, we can also use C = 2r. The commutative property allows us to rearrange the letters.
If you look on a scientific calculator, you will find a key for . If you press it you will probably get 3.141592654. is neither 3.14 nor the long number which the calculator gave us. One of the great challenges faced by mathematicians through the ages was trying to find an exact value for . However, there isnt one! The value of is an unending decimal. In this section we will use 3.14 for . Our answers will be approximate ()! Be aware that the fraction 22 is also used for . 7
log
sin
cos
tan
7 4 1 0
8 5 2
9 6 3
exp
C X + +/-
AC =
496
Example: Find the circumference of a circle whose diameter is 14 inches. Solution: Since we know the diameter we will use this formula. C = d C = (14) or C = 14 C 14(3.14) C 43.96 inches Example: Find the circumference of a circle whose radius is 14 inches. Solution: Since we know the radius we will use this formula. C = 2 r C 2(3.14)(14) C 87.92 inches Example: Jim bought a new bicycle. The wheel is 26 inches in diameter. How many inches will Jim go in just 1 revolution or turn of the bicycle tire? Solution: C = d C (3.14)(26) C 81.64 inches multiply in any order The circumference is about 87.92 inches.
14 inches
some people stop here The circumference is about 43.96 inches.
26 inches
1 revolution of the bicycle wheel
26 is the diameter of the bicycle wheel.
497
To find the area of circle, use the following formula: A = r2 Example: Find the area of a circle whose radius is 10 inches. Solution: A = r2 A (3.14)(10)2 A (3.14)(100) A 314 square inches Example: Find the area of a circle whose diameter is 10 inches. Solution: The formula for area of a circle uses the radius, so we must first find the radius using what we know about the diameter. d = 2r 10 = 2r 5 =r A = r2 A (3.14)(5)2 A (3.14)(25) A 78.5 square inches remember to square first
Remember: Order of operationssquare first
498
Lets summarize how to do various problems using this circle.
3.5
Mathematical Formulas Diameter (d), Circumference (C), and Area (A)

measurement diameter formula d = 2r explanation diameter is twice the radius example d = 2(3.5) d=7
7 C 2( 22 7 2 ) or 2(3.14 3.5) C 22 square units 7 A ( 22 7 )( 2 ) or (3.14)(3.5) 2 A 38 1 2 square units 2
circumference
C = d or C = 2r
circumference is distance around
area
A = r 2
area is squares on the inside
Key
A = area C = circumference
22 7
d = diameter
r = radius
= pi Use 3.14 or
for .
= approximately equal to (e.g., 3.14 is an approximation for pi.)
Note: Appendix B has a list of mathematical symbols and their meanings and Appendix C has a list of formulas.
499
Practice
Fill in the chart below. Round answers to the nearest hundredth. Refer to formulas in unit or in Appendix C as needed.
Measurements Diameter 1. 2. 3. 6 meters 15 centimeters 6.8 inches Radius 4. 5. 6. 21 millimeters 6 inches 48 centimeters Radius 7. 8. 9. 24 inches 3 5
1 2 1 4
Circumference
Circumference
Area
yards feet Area
Diameter 10. 11. 12. 28 inches 72 yards 126 inches
Check yourself: Use the list of scrambled answers below and check your answers to problems 1, 4, 7, and 10 above 1,808.64 131.88 615.44 18.84
500
Practice
Answer the following. Refer to the formulas in the unit or in Appendix C as needed. 1. If the diameter of a circular flower bed is 28 feet, what is the circumference of the flower bed?
2. Each spoke in a wheel is 63 centimeters from the center to the outside of the rim. How long is each full rotation of the wheel? How far will this wheel move in 10 revolutions?
10 revolutions of the bicycle wheel
501
3. The diameter of a circular island on a roundabout is 140 feet, as shown below. How far is it around the outside edge of this island?
Suppose that the street around the island is 50 feet wide. What is the outside diameter measuring from one outer side of the roundabout to the other outer side?
What is the circumference (disregarding the entrances) of the outside curb of the street?
140 feet
50 feet
502
4. A circular tent has a diameter of 14 feet. How many square feet of ground space does it cover?
5. Mr. Brown, a merchant, says that some people drive 50 miles to shop at his store. How many square miles of territory lie inside the circle with center at his store and a radius of 50 miles?
50 miles
store
6. You have a choice of two different pools for your new pool. One is a square pool measuring 60 feet to a side. The other is a circular pool 60 feet in diameter. Find the area of each, and determine which pool is larger.
60 feet 60 feet
60 feet
503
Circle the letter of the correct answer. 7. Compare the circle to the rectangle below. What is the ratio of the area of the circle to the area of the rectangle? a. b. c. d. 2:1 4:1 22:7 11:22
11 feet 7 feet 7 feet
8. If the radius of a circle is 10 meters (m), then how long is the circumference? a. b. c. d. 10 m 100 m 20 m 250 m
504
Practice
Write True if the statement is correct. Write False if the statement is not correct. __________ 1. A circle is the set of all points that are the same distance from the center. The center of the circle is the point from which all points on the circle are the same distance. The distance of any line segment drawn from the center to any point on the circle is called a radius (r). A diameter (d) of a circle is the distance of a line segment from one point of the circle to another, through the center. The diameter of a circle is four times its radius, d = 4r. The circumference (C) of a circle is the distance around the circle. The perimeter (P) of a circle is called the diameter. When the circumference of a circle is divided by its diameter the answer is close to 3.14 or . The formula for finding the circumference of a circle is C = d or C = 2r. There is an exact value for pi and it is 3.141.
__________ 2.
__________ 3.
__________ 4.
__________ 5. __________ 6.
__________ 7. __________ 8.
__________ 9.
_________ 10.
505
Lesson Four Purpose

Understand concrete and symbolic representations of real numbers in real-world situations. (MA.A.1.4.3) Use estimation strategies in complex situations to predict results and to check the reasonableness of results. (MA.A.4.4.1) Use concrete and graphic models to derive formulas for finding perimeter, area, surface area, circumference, and volume of two- and three-dimensional shapes, including rectangular solids, cylinders, cones, and pyramids. (MA.B.1.4.1) Solve real-world and mathematical problems, involving estimates of measurements, including length, perimeter, and area and estimate the effects of measurement errors on calculations. (MA.B.3.4.1)
Volume
Volume of a Solid Solid figures are three-dimensional figures that have length, width, and height and completely enclose a portion of space. Solid figures with flat surfaces are called polyhedrons. Polyhedrons are three-dimensional figures in which all surfaces are polygons. We will study two types of polyhedrons: prisms and pyramids. The volume (V) of a solid is the amount of space a solid contains. Volume is measured in cubic units. Therefore, the number of cubic units it takes to fill the solid is its volume. Look at the solid figure with three cubes across the 2 cm front and two cubes on the end. We can think of the bottom layer as being made up of six cubes. There are 3 cm 2 cm two layers of cubes, so the volume (or number of cubes needed to fill the box) will be 12 cubic centimeters, abbreviated 12 cm3.
506
A rectangular prism has six faces. A face is a flat surface of a solid figure. Each face on a rectangular prism is a rectangle. This rectangular prism has a length of 3, a width of 2, and a height of 2. Example: rectangular prism Volume = length x width x height V = lwh V = (3)(2)(2) V = 12 cm3 If the solid has the same value for its length, width, and height, we have a cube. Volume = (3)(3)(3) = 27 cm3 Volume of a Cylinder A cylinder is a three-dimensional figure with two parallel congruent circular bases. To find the volume of a cylinder, we multiply the area of the base (B) by the height (h). Note that the base of a cylinder is a circle. Example: cylinder Volume = B x h (B is area of base)(h is height of cylinder) V = r h V (3.14)(32)(6) V (3.14)(9)(6) V 169.56 cubic inches or 169.6 inches3 or abbreviated as 169.6 in.3 (rounded to the nearest tenth)
2
2 cm 3 cm 2 cm
3 cm
3 cm
3 cm
3 inches
6 inches
area of base (B) = r 2
507
Volume of a Cone A cone is a three-dimensional figure with one circular base in which a curved surface connects the base to the vertex. A right circular cone has a center that forms a line perpendicular to its circular base. Consider a right circular cone with the same radius (r) and height (h) as the cylinder described on the previous page. The cones volume is 1 3 of the volume of the above cylinder with a radius of 3 inches and a height of 6 inches. Therefore, to figure the cones volume, we take 1 3 of the volume of the cylinder. Example: cone Volume = V= V= V=
1 3
(volume of cylinder)
6 inches
V= V = 18 inches3
1 2 3 r h 2 (1 3 )()(3 )(6) (1 3 )()(9)(6) 1 ( 3 )(54)()
radius (r) 3 inches area of base (B) = r 2
Frequently, answers are shown with the Greek letter () pi rather than calculating the decimal answer. This is useful when comparing areas and volumes of circular shapes. A decimal representation of our answer is V 18(3.14) inches3 V 56.52 inches3 or 56.52 in.3 Volume of a Prism and Square Pyramid A prism is a three-dimensional figure with congruent, polygonal bases and lateral faces that are all parallelograms. A rectangular prism is a six-sided prism whose faces are all rectangular. A pyramid is a three-dimensional figure with a single polygonal base and triangular faces that meet at a common point (vertex). A square pyramid is a pyramid with a square base and four faces that are triangular.
508
A square pyramids volume is 1 3 of the volume of a prism with a square base and a height equal to a prisms height. See the drawings below. Note that the bases are squares with areas of 36 square inches. Heights of the prism and pyramid are 10 inches. Example: rectangular prism Volume = length x width x height V = (6)(6)(10) V = (36)(10) V = 360 inches3 (in.3) 6 inches 10 inches
6 inches
Example: square pyramid Volume = V= V=

1 3
1 3 1 3 1 3
(area of base) x h
10 inches
lwh (6 x 6)(10)
V = (36)(10) V = 12(10) V = 120 inches3 (in.3)
6 inches 6 inches
509
Volume of a Sphere A sphere is a three-dimensional figure in which all points on the surface are the same distance from the center. The volume of a sphere is calculated using the following formula. Example: sphere r3 Volume = 4 3 3 V= 4 3 (3 ) V= 4 3 (27) V = 36 cm3 (or 113.04 cm3)
3 cm
radius (r)
510
Lets Summarize: Volume (V) is the amount of space occupied in a three-dimensional figure. Volume is expressed in cubic units.
Mathematical Formulas for Volume (V)

figure right circular cylinder formula
3
example
4
V = r 2h
2 V= 1 3 r h or
V (3.14)(32 )(4) V 113.04 cubic units

2 V 1 3 (3.14)(3) (7) V 66 cubic units
right circular cone
V= rectangular solid
1 3
7 3 8
Bh
V = lwh
4 3
V = 8(3)(4) V = 96 cubic units
square pyramid
V= 1 3 lwh or V= 1 3 Bh
8 4 3
V= V=
1 3 (3)(4)(8) 96 3 = 32 cubic
units
sphere
V=
4 3
V
2
3 4 22 3 ( 7 )(2 ) 3311 21 cubic
units
Key
B = area of base = pi Use 3.14 or h = height
22 7
l = length
r = radius
V = volume
for .
r 2 = area of circular base
Note: Appendix C contains a list of various shapes with formulas for finding area, volume, and surface area. You will not need to memorize all of these formulas.
511
Practice
Find the volume of each prism. Use the formula V = lwh.
1.
3 cm 4 cm 10 cm
4. 3.2 cm 3.2 cm 3.2 cm
2. 5 cm 5 cm
5 cm
5.
8 cm
2 cm 4 cm
3.
20 cm
6 cm 6 cm
512
Find the volume of each prism. Use the formula V = lwh. length 6. 3m width 2m height 30 m
7. 10 ft
8 ft
15 ft
8. 16.2 cm
10 cm
1.5 cm
9.
31 2 in.
2 in.
8 in.
10. 12 1 2 m
8m
3m
513
Practice
Find the volume of each cylinder. Use the formula V = r 2h. Round answers to the nearest tenth.
2m 1. 20 in. 4. 12 m
4 in.
2.
8 in. 4 in.
5. 6 in.
2.5 in.
3. 8 in.
4 in.
514
Find the volume of each cylinder. Use the formula V = r 2h. Round answers to the nearest tenth. 6. radius, 2 in.; height, 10 in.; use 3.14 for
7. diameter, 20 m; height 6 m; use 3.14 for Remember: The radius is

1 2
of the diameter.
8. diameter, 5 ft; height 8 ft; use 3.14 for
9. radius, 7 m; height 12 m; use
22 7
for
10. Refer to problems 2 and 3. Do the two cylinders have the same volume? If not, which volume is greater and by how
much? _____________________________________________________
1 3
Find the volume. Use the formula tenth. 11.
r2h and round answer to the nearest
12 cm
9 cm
515
1 3
Bh and round answer to the nearest
6 cm
4 cm 4 cm
4 3
r3 and round answer to the nearest
7 cm
14. Two identical right circular cones have been placed with their bases touching to create the sculpture shown in the drawing below. The radius of each base is 6 cm and the total length of the object is 20 cm.
6 cm
20 cm
What is the volume, in cubic centimeters, of the sculpture?
516
Answer the following. 15. A cylindrical column 16 centimeters in diameter is strengthened by wrapping one steel band around the base of the column, with no overlap. What should be the length in centimeters of the steel band? Remember: C = d
16 cm
Challenge Problem: 16. The diagram below shows the dimensions of the cargo area of a moving van. What is the maximum volume of cargo, in cubic feet, that can fit in the van?
3 feet
6 feet
fe et
4 feet
20 feet
517
Practice
Use the list below to complete the following statements. circle cone cube cubic units cylinder face prism rectangular prism square pyramid volume
1. The solid contains. 2. Volume is measured in 3. To find the volume of a area of the base by the height. 4. Each base of a cylinder is a 5. A square faces. 6. A 7. A 8. A
of a solid is the amount of space a
. , we multiply the
. is a rectangular prism that has six
has six faces. is a flat surface of a solid figure. is a three-dimensional figure with one
circular base in which a curved surface connects the base to the vertex.
518
9. A
is a three-dimensional figure
(polyhedron) with congruent, polygonal bases and lateral faces that are all parallelograms. 10. A four faces that are triangular. is a pyramid with a square base and
Match each definition with the correct term. Write the letter on the line provided. ______ 11. three-dimensional figures that completely enclose a portion of space ______ 12. a three-dimensional figure in which all points on the surface are the same distance from the center ______ 13. a three-dimensional figure in which all surfaces are polygons ______ 14. existing in three dimensions; having length, width, and height ______ 15. a three-dimensional figure (polyhedron) with a single base that is a polygon and whose faces are triangles and meet at a common point (vertex) D. sphere A. polyhedron
B. pyramid
C. solid figures
E. three-dimensional (3-dimensional)
519
Surface Area of Three-Dimensional Shapes

Using graph paper, we can see that two-dimensional shapes can be cut out and folded to create three-dimensional shapes. We call this twodimensional pattern a net. A net is a plan which can be used to make a model of a solid. Example 1: rectangular prism Draw this figure, cut it out, fold on the dashed lines, and tape it together to form a rectangular prism.
step 1
step 2
step 3
Example 2: cube Draw this figure, cut it out, fold, and tape it together to make a cube.
step 1 step 2 step 3 step 4
520
Example 3: cylinder Draw this figure, cut it out, wrap the rectangle around the circles, and tape it together to form a cylinder.
step 1
step 2
step 3
step 4
Surface Area and Lateral Area Surface area (S.A.) includes the areas of the faces of a figure that create a geometric solid. Surface area is expressed in square units. The surface area of a rectangular prism is the sum of the areas of the bases and faces of the prism. Adding all the areas of the faces gives you the area of the entire surface of the boxthe surface area. Inspect the prism drawn below and we will identify its faces. There are the lateral faces (or sides of the shape), which are rectangles. Lateral refers only to the surfaces on the figure, not the base. Note the four rectangular faces. We can find the area of each face and add each of the four areas to get the lateral area (L.A.). Or we can use the perimeter of the bottom (AB + BC + CD + DA) times the height to calculate lateral area. If the prism were wrapped in paper and we remove the paper, the shape would be a rectangle with length of AB + BC + CD + DA and height AE (or BF or CG or DH). For total surface area, we find area of top and area of bottom and add these areas to our lateral area. Our formula is total surface area = 2(area of base) + perimeter of base(height).
H E G F
D A
C B
521
Total Surface Area of a Rectangular Prism and a Cube Example: rectangular prism S.A. = 2(area of base) + perimeter of a base(height) = 2(5 x 6) + (22)(3) = 60 + 66 = 126 cm2
6 cm 3 cm 5 cm
Example: cube S.A. = 2(area of base) + perimeter of base(height) = 2(6 x 6) + 24(6) = 72 + 144 = 216 in.2
6 in. 6 in. 6 in.
Another Way to Determine Surface Area of a Rectangular Prism and a Cube Heres another way to determine the surface area of a prism. See the rectangular prism drawn below. Consider that a rectangular prism has six faces. You must find the area of each of its six faces: a top and a bottom2(lw) a front and a back2(hw) two sides2(lh) S.A. = 2lw + 2hw + 2lh
back h h side l w bottom h top front side l side back w top w front w h l side bottom w l h
or
2(lw + hw + lh)
522
Example: rectangular prism

top
3 cm
front
6 cm
side
5 cm
So, to find the surface area of the rectangular prism, you can make a sketch of the rectangular faces and label the dimensions. top and bottom 6 cm 5 cm S.A. = top and bottom S.A. = 2lw S.A. = 2(5 6) S.A. = 60 S.A. = 126 cm2 Example: cube In a cube, all six faces have the same area. You only need to find the area of one face, then multiply by 6. S.A. = 6(side x side) = 6s2 = 6(7 7) = 6(49) = 294 in.2 + + + + front and back + 2hw + 2(6 3) + 36 + sides 2lh 2(5 3) 30 front and back 3 cm 6 cm 3 cm 5 cm sides
7 in. 7 in. 7 in.
523
Total Surface Area of a Cylinder and a Sphere To see an example of a cylinder, look at a can of soup. If we remove its wrapper by neatly cutting from top to bottom, the wrapper becomes a rectangle when we flatten it.
Soup is good.Soup is good.Soup is good. Soup is good.Soup is good.Soup is good.Soup is good.Soup is good.Soup is good.Soup is good.Soup is good.Soup is good.Soup is good.Soup is good. Soup is good.Soup is good.Soup is good.Soup is good.Soup is good.Soup is good.Soup is good. Soup is good.Soup is good.Soup is good. Soup is good.Soup is good.Soup is good.Soup is good.Soup is good.Soup is good.Soup is good.Soup is good.Soup is good.Soup is good.Soup is good. Soup is good.Soup is good.Soup is good.Soup is good.Soup is good.Soup is good.Soup is good.
Instead of several rectangular shapes for the sides, our lateral area is a curved surface attached to a circular top and a circular bottom (the bases). Our total surface area formula is very similar to that of the prism except that our bases are circular. Example: cylinder The surface area of a cylinder is two times the circumference of the base (r) times the height (h) plus two times the area of the base (r2). S.A. = (2r)(h) + 2(r2) = 2(4)(10) + 2(16) = 80 + 32 251.2 + 100.48 351.68 cm2
10 cm 4 cm
Example: sphere The surface area of a sphere is the circumference (2r) times the diameter (2r) or (2r)(2r), which equals 4r2. S.A. = 4r2 = 4(36) = 144 in.2 452.16 in.2 6 in.
524
Total Surface Area of a Cone and a Square Pyramid To find surface area for cones and pyramids, notice that only one base and the outer edge are used in our formula. The outer edge is called the slant height and is designated by the letter . Example: cone The lateral area of a cone is half of the circumference of the base (2r) multiplied by the slant height ( ). lateral area =
1 2
- slant height r
base is bottom: area of circle
(2r)( )
To determine the surface area of a cone, you must find the lateral area [ 1 2 (2r)( )] the area of the base (r2). The total surface area of a cone is the lateral area of the cone 2 [1 2 (2r)( )] plus the area of the base (r ). S.A. =
1 2
(2r)( ) + r2
= 6 in.
= r + r2 = (4)(6) + 42 = 24 + 16 = 40 in.2 125.6 in.2
r = 4 in.
525
Example: square pyramid The faces of a pyramid are triangles, so we use the altitude (or height) of a triangular face called the slant height ( ) in our formula. The lateral area of a pyramid is the sum of the areas of its lateral faces (not including the base). The slant height ( ) is the length of the altitude of a lateral face of a regular pyramid. To note the length of the edge of the square base, we use the symbol l. The lateral area of each triangular face is half of the length of the edge of the base (l) times the slant height ( ). To determine the surface area of a square pyramid, you must find the lateral area of each triangular face ( 1 2l ) the area of the square base (l2). The surface area of a square pyramid is the area of four triangular faces 2 [4( 1 2 l )] plus the area of the base ( ).
2 S.A. = 4( 1 2l ) +l
= 2l = 2(6 4) = 2(24) = 48 = 84 in.2
+ l2 + 62 + 62 + 36
= 4 in. 6 in. 6 in.
526
Lets Summarize: Surface area (S.A.) is the sum of all the areas of the faces (including the bases) of a solid figure. Surface area is expressed in square units.
Mathematical Formulas for Surface Area (S.A.)

figure rectangular solid formula S.A. = 2(lw) + 2(hw) + 2(lh)
3 5 3
example S.A. = 2(5 3) + 2(3 2) + 2(5 2) S.A. = 2(15) + 2(6) + 2(10) S.A. = 30 + 12 + 20 S.A. = 62 square units S.A. 2(3.14)(3 8) + 2(3.14)(3) S.A. 150.72 + 56.52 S.A. 207.24 square units S.A. 4(3.14)(5)2 S.A. (12.56)(25) S.A. 314 square units
2 2
right circular cylinder
S.A. = 2rh + 2r
sphere
S.A. = 4r
right circular cone
S.A. =
1 (2r) 2
+ r2 + r 2
= r
5 3
S.A. (3.14)(3)(5) + 3.14(3) S.A. 47.1 + 28.26 S.A. 75.36 square units
square pyramid
S.A. = 4( 1 l)+l 2 = 2l +l
2 2 4
11 4
S.A. = 2(4 11) + 4 2 S.A. = 2(44) + 42 S.A. = 88 + 16 S.A. = 104 square units
Key
h = height l = length r = radius = pi Use 3.14 or = slant height
22 7
S.A. = surface area
for .
Note: Appendix C has a list of formulas for surface area.
527
Practice
Use the examples above each section to answer the items in that section. Refer to formulas in unit or in Appendix C as needed.
H E 8 ft D 4 ft C A 3 ft B G F
Section 1 1. What kind of polygons are the lateral faces? ____________________ 2. What kind of polygons are the bases? __________________________ 3. What is the perimeter of the base? _____________________________ 4. What is the height of the prism? _______________________________ 5. If you were to paint the total surface of this prism, how many square feet (ft2) need to be covered? __________________________________
E
12 ft D A 8 ft B C 8 ft
Section 2 6. What kind of polygon is the pyramids base? __________________ 7. Find the area of the base. ___________________________________ 8. Name the lateral faces of the pyramid. _______________________
528
9. The area of the lateral surface is 4 times
1 2
(length of the base) or
2(length of the base) x _____________________________________ . 10. Find the total surface area. __________________________________
10 in. 8 in.
6 in.
Section 3 11. What is the slant height of the cone? _________________________ 12. Find the area of the base. Leave in your answer. _________________________________________________________ 13. Find the perimeter of the base. Again, leave in your answer. _________________________________________________________ 14. Total surface area = lateral area + area of the base = 1 + r2 2 (2r)( ) = r + r2 = (6)(10) + (6)2 = 60 + 36 = 96 square inches or 96 in.2 in.2 Round to the nearest tenth.
529
Practice
Find the total surface area of the following solids. For problems using , round answers to the nearest tenth. Refer to formulas in unit or in Appendix C as needed.
5 cm
3 in.
1.
20 cm
5 in. 10 in.
4.
2 ft
4 cm
2.
4 cm 4 cm
5.
4 ft
= 12 cm
6 ft
3.
4 ft 3 ft
6.
10 cm 10 cm
530
d = 20 m
= 6 in. 7. 9.
2 in.
= 2 in.
8.
6 in.
Match each definition with the correct term. Write the letter on the line provided. ______ 10. the shortest distance from the vertex of a right circular cone to the edge of its base; the perpendicular distance from the vertex of a pyramid to one edge of its base ______ 11. a surface on the side of a geometric figure, as opposed to the base C. slant height ______ 12. the sum of the areas of the faces of the figure that create the geometric solid ______ 13. a plan which can be used to make a model of a solid; a two-dimensional shape that can be folded into a threedimensional figure D. surface area (S.A.) A. lateral
B. net
531
Problem Solving
How would you find the area of this odd shape?
60 40
If you look closely you can find a rectangle and 2 semicircles. If you put the semicircles together, you would, of course, have a full circle with a diameter of 40 feet. The rectangle has length 60 feet and width 40 feet.
semicircle 40 40 60 rectangle semicircle 40
40 60
40
To find the area of this odd shape you need to add the area of the circle and the area of the rectangle. Remember: The radius is Area of Circle A = r2 (3.14)(20)2 1,256 ft2
1 2
the diameter. = Area of Total Shape
+ Area of Rectangle A = lw (60)(40) + 2,400 ft2
3,656 ft2
532
Practice
Answer the following. Refer to formulas in unit or in Appendix C as needed. 1. Find the area of this shape.
20 mm
30 mm
Hint: Do you see a semicircle and a triangle? Add their areas together.
Area of Semicircle A=
1 2
+ Area of Triangle = Area of Total Shape + A=

1 2
(r2)
bh
Hint: Your answer should be between 400 and 500 square millimeters (mm2).
533
2. A softball field is constructed in the shape of in the diagram below:
1 4
of a circle, as shown
If the coach has his players run the circular part of the field, what would be the total distance that a player would run? Hint: Use the formula for circumference of a circle. C = d or C = 2r Remember that a player will be running only
1 4
21
ft
of the circle.
How many feet would a player run if he runs the circular part of the field 4 times? _______________________________________________ Hint: Your answer should be between 1,000 and 1,500 feet.
There are 5,280 feet in a mile. Approximately how many times would you need to run just the circular part of the field to run a mile? ___________________________________________________________
534
3. The coach in problem number 2 decides to have his players run around the entire field. Hint: circular part + 210 + 210 What would be the total distance that a player would run? _____ If the players run around the field 5 times: How many feet would this be? ______________________________ Is this more than a mile or less than a mile? ___________________
4. A square and a triangle can be combined to make an irregular pentagon.

20 in.
20 in.
+ 20 in.
20 in.
What would be the area of this figure? _______________________
535
5. Susie is helping to replant the grass area inside the track at her high school. She needs to find the area of the shaded region shown in the diagram below so she can order the sod. The radius of each halfcircle end of the inside of the track is 30 yards. What is the area, in square yards (yd2), of the shaded region? ______
125 yards 30 yards
536
6. Ben has ordered 12 sections of fencing connected by hinges. Each section is 1 foot. Ben plans to make a pen for his dog, and he wants to give his dog the largest pen possible. Here is one possibility. Find four other ways to build the pen. Fill in the chart below.
Ways to Build a Dog Pen

length 5 width 1 area 2 (square feetft ) 5
Which arrangement gives the maximum or largest area? ________ What kind of rectangle is this? ______________________________
537
7. A circle with radius 7 cm is inscribed in the square below. Find the area of the shaded region.
7 cm
Hint: To solve this problem, you have to use your imagination. If you cut the circle out with a pair of scissors, you would have the shaded part left! area of square area of circle = area of shaded area Find the answer. Be sure that you figure the length and width of the square correctly! The final answer should be between 40 and 50 square centimeters (cm2). _________________________________________________________
8. Bob drills 2 holes with diameters of 10 inches from a board 35 inches by 20 inches. Hint: rectangle 2 circles = what is left How much of the board is left? ______________________________
35 in.
10 in.
20 in.
538
Practice
Circle the letter of the correct answer. Refer to formulas in unit or in Appendix C as needed. 1. An engineer is designing a metal gasket for a machine. The gasket is in the shape of a cylinder with a cylindrical hole through its center. The diameter of the gasket is 10 centimeters, and its height is 6 centimeters. The diameter of the hole is 4 centimeters. Hint: volume of big cylinder volume of little cylinder = volume of the gasket What is the volume of the gasket? ___________________________ Your answer will be in cubic centimeters. The possible answers have in them, so do not replace with 3.14 in this problem. Make sure that you use the correct formula. a. b. c. d. 126 cubic centimeters 504 cubic centimeters 81 cubic centimeters 174 cubic centimeters
10 cm 4 cm
6 cm
539
2. Wesley is pacing off a rectangular field. He walks 50 yards north and then 120 yards east. He suddenly gets thirsty and realizes that he has left his bottle of water back at the beginning point. Hint: Remember Pythagoras. How far is it from this point in a straight line to the starting point? _________________________________________________________
120 yds
50 yds
N W E S
starting point
a. b. c. d.
70 yards 170 yards 130 yards 125.4 yards
540
3. A small triangle and a large triangle are similar right triangles. Hint: Remember that you need to know the height of the small triangle. What is the area of the small triangle? __________________________
a. b. c. d.
20 square feet 6 square feet 12 square feet 60 square feet
10
4. How would you compare the area of the triangle to the area of the rectangle?
a. b. c. d.
They are equal in area. The area of the triangle is 1 2 the area of the rectangle. The area of the triangle is twice the area of the rectangle. You cant compare the areas of different figures.
541
5. What is the ratio of the area of the triangle to the area of the irregular polygon?
a. b. c. d.
20:13 10:13 13:10 7:13
Answer the following. 6. Consider the following two squares. Notice that the sides of the larger square are twice as long as the sides of the smaller square. Find the ratio of the area of the large square to the area of the small square. ___________________________________________________ If we doubled the sides of the squares, do we double the areas? _________________________________________________________ By how much do the areas increase? _________________________
2 in.
4 in.
542
7. Consider these four rectangles, and note how the dimensions have been changed.
40
20 10 5 3 rectangle 1 6 rectangle 2 12 rectangle 3 24 rectangle 4
Find the following ratios:

area of rectangle 4 area of rectangle 1 area of rectangle 3 area of rectangle 1 area of rectangle 2 area of rectangle 1
If we continue this pattern, what would be the ratio of the area of rectangle 5 to the area of rectangle 1? ________________________
543
8. Mr. Rodriguez is having some photos enlarged for his office. He wants to enlarge a photo that is 5 inches by 7 inches so the dimensions are 3 times larger than the original. How many times larger than the area of the original photo will the area of the new photo be? ____________________________________________
9. A circle has an area of 803.84 square meters. Hint: To find the radius, you must work backward. You know that to find the area of a circle we use this formula: Fill in what you know to figure out the radius. A = r2 803.84 (3.14)r2 803.84 3.14 2 3.14 3.14 r 256 r2 16 r divide both sides by 3.14
If you know the radius, you can now use the circumference formula that uses the radius (C = 2r) to find the final answer. What is the circumference of the circle? _______________________
10. A sphere has a surface area of 1256 square meters. What is the radius of the sphere? Circle the letter of the correct answer. a. b. c. d. 10 meters 20 meters 100 meters 200 meters
544
11. On the wagon wheel below, it is 0.5 meter from the middle of the wheel to the outside of the wheel. What is the circumference of the wheel? ______________________ How many meters will the wheel travel in 10 revolutions? ______
0.5 meter
12. Pat is building a model railroad. He plans to build a stone bridge over an imaginary river. Each side of the bridge is shaped like a trapezoid. The dimensions of a side are given in the picture below. He needs to know the area so that he can buy enough rocks. What is the total area of the 2 sides of the bridge? ______________
15 inches 10 inches 25 inches
545
Practice
Match each definition with the correct term. Write each letter on the line provided. ______ ______ 1. to meet or cross at one point 2. two lines in the same plane that never meet B. intersect ______ 3. figures or objects that are the same shape and the same size (~ =) 4. a portion of a line that begins at a point and goes on forever in one direction ( ) 5. a portion of a line that has a defined beginning and end () 6. a line that intersects two or more other (usually parallel) lines in the same plane 7. a straight line that is endless in length ( ) E. parallel lines A. congruent
C. line
______
D. line segment
______ ______
F. ray
______
G. transversal
546
Practice
Match each graphic with the correct term. Write the letter on the line provided. ______ ______ ______ ______ 1. acute angle 2. obtuse angle 3. right angle 4. straight angle A.
180
B. C. D.
______ ______ ______ ______
5. complementary angles 6. measure of an angle 7. supplementary angles 8. vertical angles
A. B.
A
4 3 1 and 3
2 2 and 4
135 1 2 R 2 45
A 1
30 C 2 4 B
B 180
C.
60 D
D. m
______
9. equilateral triangle
A.
______ 10. isosceles triangle
B.
______ 11. obtuse triangle
C.
547
Unit Review
Part A Use the figure below to find the following.
P N Q O M R
1. Write another name for MQ . ________________________________ 2. Name two lines that intersect. _______________________________ 3. Are OR and RO opposite rays? ___________________________ 4. Are OR and RO congruent? ______________________________ Use the protractor below to find the measure of each angle. Then write whether the angle is acute, right, or obtuse.
80 10 0 70 110
P
90
0 80 10
se
12
70
60 12 0
0 11
clo ck wi
60
50
40
13 0
Q
14 0
14
50 13 0
30
15
co u
20
nte
40
rc
c lo
i se kw
N M
16
30
150
60 20 1
10 170
10 170
0 180
0 180
5. 6. 7.
548
RON ____________________________________________________ MON ___________________________________________________ POQ ____________________________________________________

Use the angles on the protractor on the previous page to identify the following. 8. a right angle ______________________________________________ 9. a straight angle ____________________________________________ Use the figure below to find the following.
40 4 1 3 2
10. m 1 _____________________________________________________ 11. m 2 _____________________________________________________ 12. m 3 _____________________________________________________ 13. Name two supplementary angles. ___________________________ Use the figure below to find the following.
Q P x M O R 20 N
14. Find m x. ________________________________________________ 15. Name a pair of complementary angles. _______________________ 16. Name a pair of vertical angles. ______________________________
549
Use the figure below to find the following.

t 1 3 2 30 a
5 8 7
17. List each angle whose measure is 30 degrees.__________________ 18. Find m 7. ________________________________________________ 19. Name two parallel lines. ____________________________________ 20. Name the transversal. ______________________________________ 21. 22. 4 and 6 are 2 and 6 are interior angles. angles.
550
Use the figure below to find the following.
23. Name two right angles. ____________________________________ 24. Name an isosceles triangle. _________________________________ 25. Name an equilateral triangle ________________________________ 26. Name an obtuse triangle. ___________________________________ 27. Find the m NMO if the m NOM is 30 degrees (). ____________ 28. Find the length of MP if MQ is 10 inches. _____________________
551
Unit Review
Part B Numbers 29 and 30 are gridded-response items. Write answers along the top of the grid and correctly mark them below. The following shapes in numbers 29 and 30 are similar. Set up a proportion to solve for x.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
25 ft
29.
1 2
10 ft 10 ft x ft
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Mark your answers on the grid to the right.
5.2 cm 2.3 cm
30.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
15.6 cm
Mark your answers on the grid to the right.
552
31. When a Ferris wheel casts a 20-meter shadow, a post 1.6 meters tall casts a 2.4meter shadow. First estimate based on what you know, then set up a proportion and solve. How tall is the Ferris wheel? Round to nearest tenth.
Is your answer reasonable? Explain. ___________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________
553
Using the Pythagorean theorem a2 + b2 = c2 to find the length of the missing side. Round to nearest hundredth.
32.
7 ft
? 11 ft
5 in. ?
33.
13 in.
10 cm 6 cm 34. ? 35. Find the diagonal of this rectangle. __________________________
8 in.
12 in.
554
Complete the following. 36. Use the coordinate grid below to plot these points: (1, 1), (9, 1), (9, 4), (1, 4) Connect the points to form a rectangle. What is the area of the rectangle? ______________________________ y
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
37. Use the coordinate grid below to plot these points. (3, 1), (8, 1), (1, 4) Connect the points to form a triangle. What is the area of the triangle? _______________________________
y
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
555
Use the reference sheet in Appendix C to find the appropriate formulas. Then find the area of the following figures.
38.
12 cm
5 cm
20 in.
39.
12 in.
10 in. 20 in.
12 in.
8 in.
40.
25 in.
13.4 ft 14 ft
41.
26.6 ft
9 ft
42.
43.
20 in.
556
Use the reference sheet in Appendix C to find the appropriate formulas. Then find the volume and surface area of the following figures.
12 m 10 m 8m
44. volume __________________________________________________ 45. surface area _______________________________________________
6 in.
diameter = 16 m 10 m
557
50. h = 12 in. = 13 in. 10 in. 10 in. volume For the following two problems, leave your answer in form.
51. 12 ft
52.
9 ft volume
diameter = 10 m volume
Bonus Problems: 53. Refer to the picture on problem 50. Find the surface area if the slant height ( ) is 13 inches.
54. A circle has area 200.96 square inches. First find the radius and then find the circles circumference.
558
Unit 5: Data Analysis and Probability

This unit emphasizes how statistical methods, probability concepts, and measures of central tendencies are used to collect and interpret data to solve problems.
Unit Focus
Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations Understand and use the real number system. (MA.A.2.4.2) Understand and explain the effects of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division on real numbers. (MA.A.3.4.1) Apply special number relationships such as sequences to real-world problems. (MA.A.5.4.1) Algebraic Thinking Describe, analyze, and generalize relationships, patterns, and functions using words, symbols, variables, tables, and graphs. (MA.D.1.4.1) Determine the impact when changing parameters of given functions. (MA.D.1.4.2) Represent real-world problem situations using finite graphs. (MA.D.2.4.1) Use systems of equations and inequalities to solve realworld problems graphically and algebraically. (MA.D.2.4.2) Data Analysis and Probability Interpret data that has been collected, organized, and displayed in charts, tables, and plots. (MA.E.1.4.1)
Calculate measures of central tendency (mean, median, and mode) and dispersion (range) for complex sets of data and determine the most meaningful measure to describe the data. (MA.E.1.4.2) Analyze real-world data and make predictions of larger populations by using the sample population data and using appropriate technology, including calculators and computers. (MA.E.1.4.3) Determine probabilities using counting procedures, tables, and tree diagrams. (MA.E.2.4.1) Determine the probability for simple and compound events as well as independent and dependent events. (MA.E.2.4.2) Explain the limitations of using statistical techniques and data in making inferences and valid arguments. (MA.E.3.4.2)
Vocabulary
Use the vocabulary words and definitions below as a reference for this unit. angle ( ) .......................................... the shape made by two rays extending from a common endpoint, the vertex; measures of angles vertex are described in degrees ()
ra y
ray
congruent ( ~ = ) ................................. figures or objects that are the same shape and the same size coordinate grid or system ............ network of evenly spaced, parallel horizontal and vertical lines especially designed for locating points, displaying data, or drawing maps coordinate plane ............................ the plane containing the x- and y-axes coordinates ..................................... numbers that correspond to points on a graph in the form (x, y) cube ................................................. a rectangular prism that has six square faces data .................................................. information in the form of numbers gathered for statistical purposes
561
data display .................................... different ways of displaying data in tables, charts, or graphs Example: pictographs; circle graphs; single, double, or triple bar and line graphs; histograms; stem-and-leaf plots; and scatterplots decagon ........................................... a polygon with 10 sides degree () ......................................... common unit used in measuring angles dependent events .......................... two events in which the first affects the outcome of the second event difference ........................................ the result of a subtraction Example: In 16 9 = 7, 7 is the difference. dodecagon ...................................... a polygon with 12 sides equally likely ................................. two or more possible outcomes of a given situation that have the same probability equation .......................................... a mathematical sentence that equates one expression to another expression Example: 2x = 10 equiangular polygon .................... a polygon with all angles equal
even number .................................. any whole number divisible by 2 Example: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12
562
event ................................................ a possible result or outcome in probability factor ................................................ a number or expression that divides exactly another number Example: 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, and 20 are factors of 20. graph ............................................... a drawing used to represent data Example: bar graphs, double bar graphs, circle graphs, and line graphs graph of an equation .................... all points whose coordinates are solutions of an equation heptagon ......................................... a polygon with seven sides hexagon ........................................... a polygon with six sides independent events ...................... two events in which the outcome of the first event does not affect the outcome of the second event inequality ....................................... a sentence that states one expression is greater than (>), greater than or equal to (), less than (<), less than or equal to (), or not equal to () another expression Example: a 5 or x < 7 infinite ............................................ having no boundaries or limits line ( ) ........................................ a straight line that is endless in length
563
linear equation .............................. an equation whose graph in a coordinate plane is a straight line; an algebraic equation in which the variable quantity or quantities are in the first power only and the graph is a straight line Example: 20 = 2(w + 4) + 2w; y = 3x +4 line graph ....................................... a graph used to show change over time in which line segments are used to indicate amount and direction
Number of Customers (in millions)
30 25 20 15 10 5 0
Video Customers
10.00
8.00
5.00
2.00
1997
1998
1999 2000 Year
2001
2002
line of best fit (on a scatterplot) ............................ line drawn as near as possible to the various points so as to best represent the trend being graphed; also called a trend line mean (or average) .......................... the arithmetic average of a set of numbers measure (m) of an angle ( ) ........ the number of degrees () of an angle measures of central tendency ..... the mean, median, and mode of a set of data median ............................................ the middle point of a set of ordered numbers where half of the numbers are above the median and half are below it mode ................................................ the score or data point found most often in a set of numbers
564
multiples ......................................... the numbers that result from multiplying a given number by the set of whole numbers Example: The multiples of 15 are 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, etc. net .................................................... a plan which can be used to make a model of a solid; a two-dimensional shape that can be folded into a threedimensional figure
net of a cube
net of cone
nonagon .......................................... a polygon with nine sides octagon ............................................ a polygon with eight sides odd number .................................... any whole number not divisible by 2 Example: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11 ordered pair .................................... the location of a single point on a rectangular coordinate system where the digits represent the position relative to the x-axis and y-axis Example: (x, y) or (3, 4) outcome ........................................... a possible result of a probability experiment
565
pattern (relationship) ................... a predictable or prescribed sequence of numbers, objects, etc.; also called a relation or relationship; may be described or presented using manipulatives, tables, graphics (pictures or drawings), or algebraic rules (functions) Example: 2, 5, 8, 11 is a pattern. Each number in this sequence is three more than the preceding number. Any number in this sequence can be described by the algebraic rule, 3n 1, by using the set of counting numbers for n. pentagon ......................................... a polygon with five sides plane ................................................ an undefined, two-dimensional (no depth) geometric surface that has no boundaries specified; a flat surface point ................................................ a location in space that has no length or width polygon ........................................... a closed plane figure whose sides are straight lines and do not cross Example: triangle (3 sides), quadrilateral (4 sides), pentagon (5 sides), hexagon (6 sides), heptagon (7 sides), octagon (8 sides); concave, convex
566
prime number ................................ any whole number with only two factors, 1 and itself Example: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, etc. probability ..................................... the ratio of the number of favorable outcomes to the total number of outcomes quadrilateral .................................. polygon with four sides Example: square, parallelogram, trapezoid, rectangle, rhombus, concave quadrilateral, convex quadrilateral
range (of a set of numbers) ......... the difference between the highest (H) and the lowest value (L) in a set of data; sometimes calculated as H L + 1 ratio .................................................. the quotient of two numbers used to compare two quantities Example: The ratio of 3 to 4 is 3 4 . scatterplot (or scattergram) .......... a graph of data points, usually from an experiment, that is used to observe the relationship between two variables sequence ......................................... an ordered list with either a constant difference (arithmetic) or a constant ratio (geometric) set ..................................................... a collection of distinct objects or numbers
567
side ................................................... the edge of a two-dimensional geometric figure Example: A triangle has three sides.
de si
e sid
side
simplest form ................................. a fraction whose numerator and denominator have no common factor greater than 1 3 Example: The simplest form of 6 is 1 2. slope ................................................ the steepness of a line, defined by the ratio of the change in y to the change in x solution ........................................... any value for a variable that makes an equation or inequality a true statement Example: In y = 8 + 9 y = 17 17 is the solution. substitute ........................................ to replace a variable with a numeral Example: 8(a) + 3 8(5) + 3 sum .................................................. the result of an addition Example: In 6 + 8 = 14, 14 is the sum. table (or chart) ............................... an orderly display of numerical information in rows and columns tree diagram ................................... a diagram in which all the possible outcomes of a given event are displayed
568
triangle ............................................ a polygon with three sides; the sum of the measures of the angles is 180
value (of a variable) ...................... any of the numbers represented by the variable variable ........................................... any symbol that could represent a number vertex ............................................... the common endpoint from which two rays begin or the point where two lines intersect; the point on a triangle or pyramid opposite to and farthest from the base; (plural: vertices); vertices are named clockwise or vertex counterclockwise ray whole number ............................... any number in the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, } x-axis ................................................ the horizontal ( plane ) axis on a coordinate
ra y
y-axis ................................................ the vertical ( ) axis on a coordinate plane
569

Introduction
In analyzing data, we learn to organize sets of statistics in ways that enable us to be better decision makers. The various forms of media which provide us with information frequently use graphs, measures of central tendency (mean, median, and mode), and probability. For example, television weather reporters can predict for a week at a time the probability of rain for a given geographic area.
FIVE DAY FORECAST

Today Saturday Sunday Monday Tuesday
Therefore, in order to keep up with current events, a person needs to be able to formulate hypotheses, collect and interpret data, and draw conclusions based on statistics, tables, graphs, and charts. Furthermore, we need to be able to recognize ways in which statistics can be misleading. Clever statisticians can devise graphs, charts, etc., that are deceptive. With a good knowledge of data analysis, people can develop skills for interpreting and evaluating statistical presentations.
Lesson One Purpose

Describe, analyze, and generalize relationships, patterns, and functions using words, symbols, variables, tables, and graphs. (MA.D.1.4.1) Determine the impact when changing parameters of given functions. (MA.D.1.4.2) Represent real-world problem situations using finite graphs. (MA.D.2.4.1) Use systems of equations and inequalities to solve realworld problems graphically and algebraically. (MA.D.2.4.2)
571
Interpret data that has been collected, organized, and displayed in charts, tables, and plots. (MA.E.1.4.1) Analyze real-world data and make predictions of larger populations by using the sample population data and using appropriate technology, including calculators and computers. (MA.E.1.4.3)
572
Equations in Two Variables

In this unit, we will study equations with two variables. We will limit our study to equations such as these: 2x + y = 10; y = 3x + 5; and y = 4x. To begin, lets see how we can solve an equation like x + y = 5. You will find that, unlike the earlier equations in Unit 3, this type of equation has an infinite number (no limit to the number) of solutions. A solution of an equation with two variables is an ordered pair of numbers that make the equation true. Suppose that we replace the variable x with the value of 0. Obviously, the variable y would have to be replaced with the number 5, because 0 + 5 = 5. So if x = 0, then y = 5, and we use the ordered pair (0, 5) to denote the solution. Here are two other solutions for x + y = 5. If we let x = 1, then y would be 4 because 1 + 4 = 5. Hence, (1, 4) is a solution. If we let x = 2, then y would be 3, because 2 + 3 = 5. Therefore, (2, 3) is also a solution. Many ordered pairs work for the equation x + y = 5.
573
Below is a table of values with several examples of ordered pairs that are solutions to the equation. A table is an orderly display of numerical information in rows and columns.
x+y=5 0 1 2 3 1 5
1 2
5 4 3 2 4 0 41 2 4.75 . . .
0.25 . . .
Example 1: Find five solutions for the equation y = x 2. Solution: Begin by picking values for x. Any number will do.
Equation x Substitute for x Solve for y Solution
y=x2
0 1 2 -1 -5
y= 02 y= 12 y= 22 y = -1 2 y = -5 2
-2 -1 0 -3 -7
(0, -2) (1, -1) (2, 0) (-1, -3) (-5, -7)
Remember: In an ordered pair, the value of x is listed first, and the value for y is listed secondeven if the variable y is written first in the equation. Example: In the equation y = x 2, the solution is (0, -2). -2 = 0 2 -2 = -2
574
Example 2: Find three solutions for the equation 2x + y = 6. Solution: Pick three values for x. Again, any number will do.
Equation
Substitute for x
Solve for y
Solution
2x + y = 6
0 1 -1
2(0) + y = 6 2(1) + y = 6 2(-1) + y = 6
6 4 8
(0, 6) (1, 4) (-1, 8)
1 Example 3: T = 4 C + 40 shows the relationship between the number of times a cricket chirps per minute (C) and the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (T). Solve this equation by finding three solutions.
Solution: Pick any values for x. Numbers divisible by four would be the easiest to work with.
Equation
1 T= 4 C + 40
Substitute for C
Solve for T
Solution
4 16 40
T= T= T=
1 4 (4) 1 4 (16) 1 4 (40)
+ 40 + 40 + 40
41 44 50
(4, 41) (16, 44) (40, 50)
We just found that when a cricket chirps 40 times, then it is 50 degrees Fahrenheit.
575
Example 4: Using the information in example 3 on the previous page, is it true that when the temperature is 65 degrees Fahrenheit that a cricket will chirp 60 times? Solution: We basically need to check to see if the ordered pair (60, 65) is a solution 1 for the equation T = 4 C + 40. T=
1 4 1 4
65
rp chi hirp c chirp
C + 40
Substitute 65 = (60) + 40 65 = 15 + 40 65 = 55
This is not a true statement.
We now know that when the temperature is 65 degrees, a cricket will not chirp 60 times. Can you see that the cricket will only chirp 60 times when the temperature is 55 degrees Fahrenheit? T=
1 4 1 4
C + 40
Substitute 55 = (60) + 40 55 = 15 + 40 55 = 55
This is a true statement.
576
Example 5: Which ordered pair (-8, -5) or (12, -10) is a solution for the equation y = 3 4 x + 1? Solution: Substitute the values for x and y into the equation: (-8, -5) y= 3 4 x+1 Substitute -5 = 3 4 (-8) + 1 -5 = -6 + 1 -5 = -5 This is true, so (-8, -5) is a solution. (12, -10) y= 3 4 x+1 Substitute -10 = 3 4 (12) + 1 -10 = 9 + 1 -10 = 10 This is false, so (12, -10) is not a solution.
577
Practice
Circle the letter of the correct answer. 1. Which ordered pair is a solution of y = 3x 4? a. b. c. d. (-4, 0) (1, 1) (0, -4) (2, -2)
Complete the table below for each equation.

Equation 2. y = 2x 3 x 0 1 -4 3. y =
2 5
Substitute for x y = 2(0) 3 y = 2(1) 3 y = 2(-4) 3 y= y= y=

2 5 2 5 2 5
Solve for y
Solution
x+1
5 10 0
(5) + 1 (10) + 1 (0) + 1
4. 2x + y = 4
0 -1 5
2(0) + y = 4 2(-1) + y = 4 2(5) + y = 4
Translate each sentence into an equation. 5. The sum of two numbers (x and y) is 15. ______________________ 6. Twice the first number (x) is 4 times the second number (y). _________________________________________________________
578
7. The first number (x) is 5 more than the second number (y). _________________________________________________________ 8. The first number (x) is 3 less than the second number (y). _________________________________________________________ Find three solutions for the following equations. You may let x be any value you wish. 9. x + y = 0 , ,
10. y = 2x 1
11. y =
1 4
x+1
Hint: Choose values for x that are divisible by 4. , ,
579
Answer the following. 12. The Alachua County Water Department charges a monthly administrative fee of $10.50, and $0.0049 for each gallon of water used up to 5,000 gallons. What will be the monthly charge for a customer who used 4,500 gallons of water in one month? Round to the nearest penny. Let C = total cost and g = number of gallons used by the customer The equation to figure the total cost, C, for use of up to 5,000 gallons is C = 10.50 + 0.0049g
580
Practice
Match each definition with the correct term. Write the letter on the line provided.
______ ______
1. any value for a variable that makes an equation or inequality a true statement 2. the location of a single point on a rectangular coordinate system where the digits represent the position relative to the x-axis and y-axis 3. any of the numbers represented by the variable 4. a mathematical sentence that equates one expression to another expression 5. any symbol that could represent a number 6. an orderly display of numerical information in rows and columns 7. having no boundaries or limits
A. equation B. infinite C. ordered pair D. solution E. table (or chart) F. value (of a variable) G. variable
______ ______ ______ ______ ______
581
Graphing Linear Equations

If you refer to example 1 in the last section, you will see that we found five solutions for the equation y = x 2. Here is a table of values with the summary of the results.
x 0 1 2 -1 -5 y -2 -1 0 -3 -7 (0, -2) (1, -1) (2, 0) (-1, -3) (-5, -7)
The graph of an equation with two variables is all the points whose coordinates are solutions of the equation. The coordinates correspond to points on a graph. Lets graph these points and see what we get.
2 1 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 -1 -2 (-1, -3) -3 -4 -5 -6 (-5, -7) -7 -8 1
y
(2, 0) 2 3 (1, -1) 4 5
(0, -2)
582
Carefully draw the line that connects these points.
y
2 1 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 -1 -2 (-1, -3) -3 -4 -5 -6 (-5, -7) -7 -8 (3, 1) (2, 0) 1 2 3 (1, -1) (0, -2) 4 5
The graph of the equation y = x 2 is the line ( ) drawn on the coordinate plane. The coordinate grid itself contains the x-axisthe horizontal ( ) axis and y-axisthe vertical ( ) axis. The line drawn is endless in length and the plane is a flat surface with no boundaries. Notice that the point (3, 1) lies on our line, but it was not one of our original points. Lets see if it is a solution. Substitute or replace the variables x and y with (3, 1). y = x2 1 = 32 1=1 substitute 3 for x and 1 for y This is true, so (3, 1) is a solution of the equation.
It turns out that any point on the line is a solution of the equation. We cannot write all the solutions to an equation because x can be anything, but we can draw a picture of the solutions using the coordinate plane and a line. The equations that we have been working with in the last section are called linear equations because their graphs are always straight lines.
583
Example 1: Graph y = x + 4. Solution: It only takes two points to determine a line, so we only need two solutions of the equation. Generally, we find three solutions. (If we make an arithmetic mistake, it will be obvious because we will not get a line.) Choose three small values for x. Remember x can be any number that you wish.
y=x+4
0 1 -1
y=0+4 y=1+4 y = -1 + 4
4 5 3
(0, 4) (1, 5) (-1, 3)
Plot these points and draw the line. y

6 5 4 (-1, 3) 3 2 1 -3 -2 -1 0 -1 1 2 (1, 5) (0, 4)
Remember: Any point on the line is a solution.
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Example 2: Graph y = - 1 2 x + 3. Solution: Choose values for x that are divisible by 2.

y=-
1 2x
+3 0 2 4
y=-1 2 (0) + 3 y = - 2 (2) + 3 y = - 2 (4) + 3

1 1
3 2 1
(0, 3) (2, 2) (4, 1)
Plot these points and draw the line.
y
4 3 (0, 3) 2 1 -2 -1 0 -1 1 2 3 4 (2, 2) (4, 1) 5
Remember: Any point on the line is a solution.
585
Practice
Graph the linear equations below. For each equation in numbers 1-5, do the following steps: Step 1: Make a table of values. Step 2: Find at least three ordered pairs that solve the equation. Step 3: Graph each solution as a point on the coordinate plane on the following page. Step 4: Connect the points with a straight line. Step 5: Label the line with the equation.
1. y = 2x
2. y = -1x + 2
3. y =
1 4
x2
4. x y = 3
5. y = x + 2
586
y V12 S R B C
11 10 9 8
D F G T H
L M
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
A N J K P E
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
-11 -10 -9
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4
-3 -2
-1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -10 -11 -12
Check yourself: Next to each equation, write down the letter its line went through on the coordinate plane. Copy the letters on the line below. The letters will tell you how well you did on the assignment. letters:
587
Practice
Read the following. Whats my equation? In this problem, well work backwards starting with the following ordered pairs: (0, 0), (1, 2), (2, 4), (3, 6), and (4, 8). List the ordered pairs vertically as you would to make a table of values. This will help you visually compare all the x and y values.
x 0 1 2 3 4 y 0 2 4 6 8
Think: What do I have to do to x to get y? Answer: To get y, I have to double x. Therefore, the relationship between x and y expressed as an equation is y = 2x. Lets try another one. Find the equation that relates x and y using the following ordered pairs: (1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6), and (4, 7). List ordered pairs vertically.
x 1 2 3 4 y 4 5 6 7
Think: What do I have to do to x to get y? Answer: To get y, I have to add 3. Therefore, the relationship between x and y expressed as an equation is y = x + 3.
588
List the ordered pairs vertically like the examples on the previous page. The first one is done for you. Then find the equation that relates x and y.
x 1 2 3 4 y 1 2 3 4
1. (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)
Equation: ___________________________________________________
2. (0, -2), (1, -1), (2, 0), (3, 1) Equation: ___________________________________________________
3. (1, 2), (2, 1), (3, 0), (4, -1) Equation: ___________________________________________________
4. (0, 5), (1, 6), (2, 7), (3, 8) Equation: ___________________________________________________
5. (0, -1), (1, 1), (2, 3), (3, 5) Equation: ___________________________________________________
589
Practice
Use the list below to write the correct term for each definition on the line provided. coordinate grid coordinate plane coordinates graph graph of an equation linear equation plane point x-axis y-axis
________________________ 1. an equation whose graph in a coordinate plane is a straight line ________________________ 2. a drawing used to represent data ________________________ 3. the plane containing the x- and y-axes ________________________ 4. the horizontal ( plane ) axis on a coordinate
________________________ 5. all points whose coordinates are solutions of an equation ________________________ 6. numbers that correspond to points on a graph in the form (x, y) ________________________ 7. a location in space that has no length or width ________________________ 8. the vertical ( ) axis on a coordinate plane ________________________ 9. network of evenly spaced, parallel horizontal and vertical lines especially designed for locating points, displaying data, or drawing maps ________________________ 10. an undefined, two-dimensional (no depth) geometric surface that has no boundaries specified; a flat surface
590
Interpreting Data and Lines of Best Fit

In many situations, the relationship between two variables may be of interest. The following table shows the relationship between Fahrenheit and Celsius temperatures. For instance, a temperature of 0 degrees Celsius corresponds to a temperature of 32 degrees Fahrenheit. This is when water freezes.
Temperature Comparisons C 0 10 20 30 F 32 50 68 86
Lets graph these ordered pairs. We will graph the Celsius temperatures on the horizontal ( ) x-axis and the corresponding Fahrenheit temperatures on the vertical ( ) y-axis. We will carefully draw a line that contains these points.
y-axis Temperature Comparisons 140 130 120 110 100 90
Degrees Fahrenheit
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 x-axis 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Degrees Celsius
591
Note that when the Celsius temperature is 60 degrees, the corresponding Fahrenheit temperature is close to 140 degrees, which happens to be the correct answer. When the temperature is 80 degrees Fahrenheit, what would the corresponding Celsius temperature be? We hope you guessed that the corresponding Celsius temperature is around 27 degrees. The graph on the previous page is a visual representation of data. Such a graph is called a line graph. The line graph shows change over time. The data used is information in the form of numbers gathered for statistical purposes. The line graph, which is one type of data display, allows a person to see patterns that may not be obvious from just the equation. A graph is a powerful visual tool for representing data.
592
Practice
Answer the following. 1. To test a heart medicine, a doctor measures heart rate in beats per minute (bpm) of 5 patients before and after they take the medication. See the table below.
Patients Heart Rate in Beats per Minute Before x After y 85 75 80 70 85 70 75 80 90 80
The data from this table is graphed on a scatterplot (or scattergram) on the following page. A scatterplot is a graph of data points used to observe a relationship between two numbers. Notice that the points on the following scatterplot do not make a straight line. However, some of the points on a scatterplot can come close to forming a line. This line is called a line of best fit. A line of best fit may pass through some of the points, none of the points, or all of the points. A line of best fit may also be called a trend line. On the following page, the line drawn on the scatterplot contains the majority of the points. The ordered pairs representing points on the line can be used to make predictions. The line of best fit shows if the correlation between the two variables is weak or strong. The correlation is strong if the data points come close to, or lie on, the line of best fit. If the data points do not come close to the line, the correlation is weak.
593
Use the line of best fit to estimate the following: If the heart rate of a patient was 95 beats per minute before medication, what would it be after medication?
Patients Heart Rate in Beats per Minute

y
100 90
After Medication
80 70
line of best fit

(75, 80) (80, 70) (90, 80) (85, 75) (85, 70)
60 60 70 80 90 100
Before Medication
594
2. Six people were interviewed to see if there was a connection between the number of years they spent in college and their monthly salary. See the table below.
Number of Years in College and Monthly Salaries
Number of years in college Monthly salary in thousands 4 3 4 3.5 5 4 4 2.5 6 5 8 5.5
a. Plot the data in ordered pairs on the graph below. b. Draw a line of best fit.
Number of Years in College and Monthly Salaries
7 6
Monthly 4 Salary in Thousands 3

2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Number of Years in College
c. Predict the salary for a person with only 2 years of college. _____________________________________________________
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3. The average February temperature and rainfalls for eight European cities are given in the table below.
February Temperature and Rainfall

City Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit Rainfall in inches
Rome Reykjavik Paris London Dublin Copenhagen Berlin
47 32 37 40 41 33 31
3.3 2.7 1.5 2.0 2.7 1.6 1.9
a. Plot the data on the graph below.

February Temperature and Rainfall
7 6
Rainfall in Inches
5 4 3 2 1 0 30 35 40 45 50
Temperature in Degrees Fahrenheit
b. Describe any pattern you see in the graph. ________________ _____________________________________________________
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4. The table below gives the number of people in millions who attended regular season American League baseball games from 1987 through 1993. a. Plot the data on the graph below. b. Draw a line of best fit.
American League Baseball Game Attendance 1987-1993
Year Attendance 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 27.3 28.5 29.8 30.3 32.1 31.8 33.3
American League Baseball Game Attendance 1987-1993

36 35
34
33
32
Attendance
31 30
29 28
27 1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
Year
c. Estimate 1995 attendance. ______________________________
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5. At a theme park in Florida, a log ride releases water in cycles as shown in the table below.
Water Release per Six-Minute Cycle
Cycle Number Total Gallons of Water Released
1 2 3 4 5
65,000 130,000 195,000 260,000 ?
If the pattern in the table continues, how many gallons of water will be released during cycle 5? Circle the letter of the correct answer. a. b. c. d. 195,000 gallons 325,000 gallons 650,000 gallons 1,300,000 gallons
598
6. The Arvida Company has developed plans to build a large apartment complex in Svea, Florida. The developers found the following population listings for Svea over the last 30 years. a. Plot the data on the graph below. b. Draw a line of best fit.
Population of Svea, Florida 1960-1990 Year 1960 1970 1980 1990 Population 25,000 41,500 65,600 81,500
Population of Svea, Florida 1960-1990

100,000
90,000
80,000
70,000
Population
60,000
50,000
40,000
30,000 20,000 1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
Year
599
c. What would be a good projection for the population in the year 2000? ________________________________________________ d. What are some shortcomings in using this information to draw inferences? ___________________________________________
7. Maria paints pictures. She sells small ones for $20 and large ones for $40. She wishes to make $800 for her holiday gift fund. If x represents the number of small pictures that she sells and y represents the number of large pictures, then the equation which models this situation would be 20x + 40y = 800. a. Complete the table below. b. Graph the situation. c. Draw a line of best fit.
Pictures to Sell for Holiday Gift Fund
Equation x Substitute x Solve for y Solution
20x + 40y = 800
0 20 40
20(0) + 40y = 800 20(20) + 40y = 800 20(40) + 40y = 800
20
(0, 20)
600
Pictures to Sell for Holiday Gift Fund
40 30
Large Pictures
20 10
0 10 20 30 40
Small Pictures
d. How many large pictures must she sell to reach her goal if she sells 30 small pictures? _________________________________ e. How many small pictures must she sell if she sells 20 large prints? _______________________________________________
601
Slope
We all know that some mountains are steeper than others. Lines in a coordinate plane also have steepness. In math, the steepness of a line is called its slope. The vertical ( ) change is called the change in y and the horizontal ( ) change is called the change in x.
y
6 5 4 3 2 1 -3 -2 -1 0 -1
change in y change in x
1 2 3 4 5
602
Two Ways to Find the Slope of a Line The slope or steepness of a line can be found using two points from the line. We will explore two definitions of slope and ways to find the slope of a line. First, slope is defined to be the following ratio: slope =
A ratio is the quotient of two numbers used to compare quantities. Example 1: Find the slope of the following six lines. Solution: Find the change in y and the change in x by counting units. If you count to the right, that is a positive direction. If you count to the left, that is a negative direction. If you count up, that is a positive direction. If you count down, that is a negative direction. Pick any two points on the line, and travel from one point to the other.
negative
count left
count right
+ positive
+
count up count down
positive
negative
603
line 1
line 2 5
count down -3 negative
3 5
a. slope =
count up positive
3 5
b.
slope =
=-3 5
line 3
line 4 1
2 1
-2
c.
slope =
2 1
or 2
d.
slope = - 1 or -2
line 5 2 3 2 3 2
e. slope =
3 2
line 6
-3 2 -3
f.
slope = - 3 2
604
Another Way to Find the Slope of a Line Here is another way to find the slope of a line. Pick any two points on a line. We will refer to the points as (x1, y1) and (x2, y2). The little numbers are called subscripts and they are just a way of letting the reader know that we are talking about point 1 and point 2, and that they are different points. The subscripts mean that these are two distinct points of the form (x, y). Note: The subscripts are not exponents. Here is a second definition of slope: slope =
y2 y1 x2 x1
Example 2: Find the slope of this line.
y
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 -3 -2 -1 0 -1 -2 1 2 3 4 5 (2, 5) (4, 9)
Solution: Let (x1, y1) be (2, 5) and let (x2, y2) be (4, 9) Substitute into the formula: slope =
y2 y1 x2 x1
95 4 2
4 2
2 1
or 2
605
Example 3: Find the slope of the line passing through (-7, 5) and (8, -2). Solution: Let (x1, y1) be (-7, 5) and let (x2, y2) be (8, -2)
slope =
y2 y1 x2 x1
-2 5 8 -7
-7 15
Look to Be SurePositive and Negative Slopes Look at the two graphs below. You can tell if the slope is positive or negative by looking. A line with a positive slope rises as the value of x increases. (See line 1 below.) A line with a negative slope falls as the value of x increases. (See line 2 below.)
line 1 y line 2 y
5 4 3 2 1 -5 -4 -3 -2
5 4 3 2 1
-1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5
-5 -4
-3 -2
-1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5
positive slope
negative slope
606
Practice
Find the slope of the following lines using the first definition: slope =
Write each answer in simplest form.
1.
2.
3.
Unit 5: Data Analysis and Probability 607
4.
_________________________________________________________
Find the slope of the following lines using the second definition: slope =
y2 y1 x2 x1
Write each answer in simplest form. 5. passing through (0, 5) and (2, 6) _____________________________
6. passing through (3, 4) and (4, 3) _____________________________
7. passing through (1, -2) and (-1, -8) ___________________________
8. passing through (0, -1) and (1, -7) ____________________________
608
Circle the letter of the correct answer. 9. Find the slope of the line below.
x
a. b. c. d. 4 2 1 -1
10. Find the slope of the line through (-2, 8) and (2, -8). a. b. c. d. -4 1 -4 0 4
Answer the following. 11. These two lines are parallel. Find the slope of each line. __________ What did you find out? ______________________________________ ___________________________________________________________
609
12. Find the slope of each line below. a. b. c.

a. b. c.
Notice that as you move from left to right the lines get steeper and steeper. d. What do you notice about their slopes? ___________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 13. Would you rather climb a mountain with slope 8 or one with slope
1 8
? ___________________________________________________
Explain why. _______________________________________________
610
14. Slope can also be thought of as a rate of change. In 1988 Florence Griffith Joyner set the womens world record for the 100-meter dash. Here are her statistics: Joyners 100-Meter Statistics in 1988
Seconds Meters
2 4 6 10
19 38 57 95
Find the slope of the line formed by the above points. Write the answer in simplest form. _________________________________________________________ Hint: Pick any two points to determine the slope. Then reduce the fraction so that the denominator is 1. This will tell you how many meters Ms. Joyner ran in 1 second.
611
Graphing Inequalities
Consider the line y = x + 2. We can think of the line separating the coordinate plane into three distinct parts.
5 4 3 2 1 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 (1, -4) 1 2 3 4 5
y
(1, 4) (2, 4)
We have points above the line. We have points on the line. We have points below the line. This awareness of the relative position of points with regard to the line is important when we need to solve inequalities like y > x + 2. Remember: Inequalities state that one expression is greater than (>), is greater than or equal to (), is less than (<), is less than or equal to (), or is not equal to () another expression. Lets investigate which points work in the above inequality. The solution of an inequality with two variables is an ordered pair of numbers that makes the inequality true. Are the points on the line solutions? For example, (2, 4) lies on the line. Does it make a true sentence when we substitute it into the inequality?
612
y>x+2 4>2+2 4>4
This is false, so (2, 4) is not a solution!
If we investigate further, it turns out that no point on the line would work. What about (1, -4)? This point was picked randomly, and it lies in the region below the line. Lets substitute into the inequality and see if this point is a solution. y>x+2 -4 > 1 + 2 -4 > 3
This also turns out to be false!
If we investigate further, it turns out that no point in the region under the line works. Finally, we need to check and see if a point from the region above the line works. The point (1, 4) is such a point. y>x+2 4>1+2 4>3
This turns out to be true!
It also turns out that any point above the line works in the inequality. To show that these points are solutions, we shade the region above the line. Since no points on the line worked, we make the line dotted.
5 4 3 2 1 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 1 2 3 4 5
y > x + 2
613
Example: Graph y x 2 Solution: 1. Graph the line y = x 2. This will divide the coordinate plane into three regionspoints on, above, and below the line.
5 4 3 2 1 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 (1, -2) 1 2 (2, 0) 3 4 5 (1, 2)
2. Pick any point above the line, on the line, and below the line. 3. Substitute the points into the inequality, and see which ones work: above the line (1, 2) yx2 212 2 -1 This is false! on the line (2, 0) yx2 022 00 This is true! below the line (1, -2) yx2 -2 1 2 -2 -1 This is true!
614
4. Make the line solid, since the test point (2, 0) was a solution. That means that all points on the line work. Shade below the line, since the test point (1, -2) was also a solution. That means that all points below the line are solutions.
5 4 3 2 1 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 1 2 3 4 5
When solving inequalities, you will either shade above the line or below the line. Never both.
615
Practice
Pick any point above and below the line. Substitute the points into the inequality. Shade the region that represents the solution of the inequality.
1.
2.
3.
y < 3x + 1
y 2x
y -2x 1
Graph each inequality. Pick any points on, above, and below the line. Substitute the points into the inequality. Shade the region that represents the solution of the inequality.
4.
5.
6.
x
y > -4x
y -3x 3
yx
616
Circle the letter of the correct answer. 7. A marathon is a long-distance race that covers 26.2 miles. You are running in a marathon. You realize that to finish the marathon, you must walk part of the way. Let x represent the number of miles that you must walk and y the number of miles you must run. Since you are not sure that you can finish the marathon, which of the following best describes your situation? a. b. c. d. x + y > 26.2 x + y 26.2 x + y < 26.2 x + y 26.2
617
Practice
Match each definition with the correct term. Write the letter on the line provided. ______ 1. the quotient of two numbers used to compare two quantities ______ 2. information in the form of numbers gathered for statistical purposes ______ 3. a graph used to show change over time in which line segments are used to indicate amount and direction
Number of Customers (in millions)
30 25 20 15 10 5 0
A. data
B. inequality
Video Customers
C. line graph
8.00
10.00
5.00
2.00
1997
1998
1999 2000 Year
2001
2002
D. line of best fit
______ 4. a graph of data points, usually from an experiment, that is used to observe the relationship between two variables ______ 5. line drawn as near as possible to the various points so as to best represent the trend being graphed; also called a trend line ______ 6. the steepness of a line, defined by the ratio of the change in y to the change in x ______ 7. a sentence that states one expression is greater than (>), greater than or equal to (), less than (<), less than or equal to (), or not equal to () another expression
E. ratio
F. scatterplot (or scattergram)
G. slope
618
Lesson Two Purpose

Understand and explain the effects of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division on real numbers. (MA.A.3.4.1) Apply special number relationships such as sequences to real-world problems. (MA.A.5.4.1)
Sequences
In real life, we frequently see numbers that form a pattern (relationship). That is, numbers which appear in a specific order (or pattern) determine a sequence. Street signs in cities and towns use numbers such as 1st Avenue, 2nd Avenue, 3rd 1802 1800 Avenue, etc. Likewise, house numbers form patterns with even numbers on one side of a street and odd numbers on the opposite side. If your house number is 1800, then your neighbor will most likely live at 1802 and the next neighbor at 1804, and so on.
1st Ave.
When we shop for clothes and shoes, signs giving sizes are placed in order to help customers quickly locate needed sizes. Example 1: An apartment rents for $600 a month. Each year the monthly rent is expected to increase $25.00. What will the monthly rent be at the end of 4 years?
end of year 1 rent $600 +25 2 $625 +25 3 $650 4 $675 +25
Notice that we could easily predict the monthly rent at the end of 5 years and at the end of 6 years.
619
Example 2: Consider the numbers: 5, 6, 8, 11, 15, ?, ?, ? Can we predict the next 3 numbers? To see the pattern, we look at the difference between the numbers. 5 1 Example 3:
10 1 10 10 2 10 3 100 ? 10 4 ? 10 5 ?
6 2
8 3
11 4
15 5
20 6
26 7
33
Using the pattern, what would be the value of 100? What would be the value of 106? Answers: 100 = 1 106 = 1,000,000
620
Practice
Write the next three numbers of each sequence. 1. 10, 12, 14, 16, 2. 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 3. 1, 4, 9, 16, 4. 1, 2, 4, 8, 5. 0, 4, 8, 12, 6. 1, 8, 27, 64, 7. 109, 104, 99, 94, 8. 0, 3, 6, 9, 9. 1,
1 2
, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
, ,
1 4
1 8
10. 3, 4.5, 6, 7.5, 9,
11. Complete the following table. 31 3 32 9 33 34 35 36
12. Find the 12th term in the sequence 100, 98, 96, 94, 13. Find the 10th term in the sequence 1, 4, 9, 16,
621
14. Study the sequence of diagrams. Draw the 4th diagram in the sequence. Then complete the table.
Lines Regions
1 2
2 4
15. A special sequence is called the Fibonacci sequence. The sequence is named after Leonardo Fibonacci, an Italian mathematician and businessman who presented it in 1201. We can make a picture showing the Fibonacci numbers 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8. Start with two small squares of size 1 next to each other. On top of both of these, we draw a square of size 2 (= 1 + 1). We now draw a new square touching both the length of square 1 and square 2 (= 1 + 2). The next square drawn touching the length of square 2 and 3 (= 2 + 3).
2
1 1
1 1
2
1 1
2
1 1
622
?
2
We can continue adding squares around the picture, each new square having a side which is as long as the sum of the last two square lengths.
1 1
Fibonacci sequence arranged in a pattern of squares with sides whose lengths follow the sequence.
a. Find the next four numbers in the sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, , , , .
b. In your own words, describe the pattern of the sequence. _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________
623
Investigating Patterns in Polygons

Now that we have studied geometric shapes and line graphs, we are going to investigate some interesting topics that combine shapes, graphs, and patterns. Recall that the sum of the measures (m) of an angle ( ) of one triangle is 180 degrees (). Consider the polygons below and notice that we have divided the polygons (with 4 or more sides) into triangles by drawing diagonals from one vertex to another.
triangle
quadrilateral
pentagon
hexagon
The quadrilateral can be divided into 2 triangles, which means that the sum of its angles is 180 x 2, or 360. How many triangles are formed in the pentagon? How many triangles are formed in the hexagon? Lets use a chart to summarize our information.
Number of Sides, Triangles, and Degrees in Polygons

Polygon Number of Sides Number of Triangles Sum of Angle Measures
Triangle Quadrilateral Pentagon Hexagon
3 4 5 6
1 2 3 4
1 x 180 = 180 2 x 180 = 360 3 x 180 = 540 4 x 180 = 720
Do you see a pattern in the angle measures? Each sum is a result of multiplying 180 times the number of sides minus 2. Algebraically, if n represents the number of sides of the polygon, we discover the formula: 180(n 2) or (n 2)180. The formula can be used to calculate the sum of the measures of the angles of any polygon.
624
Also, if the polygons angles are all congruent ( ~ = ), or the same shape and size, we can find the measure of each angle of the polygon. Recall from Unit 4 that if all angles in a polygon have the same measure, we describe the polygon as an equiangular polygona polygon that has equal angles. If a quadrilateral is equiangular, we can find the measure of each angle by dividing the sum of the angles by the actual number of angles. A quadrilateral has 4 sides and 4 angles. To calculate the measure of each angle, we use the formula:
180(n 2) n Since a quadrilateral has 4 sides and 4 angles, then n = 4. each angle in a quadrilateral = 180(4 2) 4 180(2) = 4 = = 360 4 90
625
Practice
Find the sum of the measures of the angles of each polygon. Use the following formula: (n 2)180. Note: Names for polygons with more than 8 sides are not commonly used. For example, an 11-sided polygon may be referred to as an 11-gon.
1. pentagon _________________________________________________
2. hexagon __________________________________________________
3. octagon (8 sides) __________________________________________
4. 20-gon ___________________________________________________
5. 36-gon ___________________________________________________
626
Find the measure of each interior angle of the following polygons if each polygon is equiangular. Use the following formula:
(n 2)180 n
6. triangle __________________________________________________
7. pentagon _________________________________________________
8. dodecagon (12 sides) ______________________________________
9. 36-gon ___________________________________________________ Complete the chart below to describe the angle measures of the heptagon, the octagon, and the decagon. 10.
Number of Sides, Triangles, and Degrees in Polygons

Polygon Number of Sides Number of Triangles Sum of Angle Measures
Triangle Quadrilateral Pentagon Hexagon Heptagon Octagon Decagon
3 4 5 6 7 8 10
1 2 3 4
1 x 180 = 180 2 x 180 = 360 3 x 180 = 540 4 x 180 = 720
627
11. a. Graph the results of problem 10. Hint: Let the x-axis represent the number of sides. Let the y-axis represent the sum of the angles in increments of 180.
Number of Angles and Sides in Polygons
2160 1,980 1,800 1,620 1,440 1,260 1,080 900 720 540 360 180 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Number of Sides
Sum of Angles
b. Predict the sum of the angles of a nonagon (9 sides). ________ _________________________________________________________
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12. By using the line drawn for problem 11, predict the sum of the angles of a 12-gon. _________________________________________
13. What happens to the sum of the angles as the number of sides increases? ________________________________________________
14. As the number of sides of a polygon increases, the shape becomes more and more like what geometric figure? ___________________
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Practice
Match each illustration with the correct term. Write the letter on the line provided.
______ 1.
6 sides
A. dodecagon
______ 2.
5 sides
B. heptagon
______ 3.
3 sides
C. hexagon
______ 4.
8 sides
D. nonagon
______ 5.
12 sides
E. octagon
______ 6.
7 sides
F. pentagon
______ 7.
9 sides
G. quadrilateral
______ 8.
4 sides
H. triangle
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Practice
Use the list below to write the correct term for each definition on the line provided. angle ( ) congruent ( ~ =) degree () equiangular polygon measure (m) of an angle ( ) pattern (relationship) polygon sequence side sum vertex
________________________ 1. a polygon with all angles equal ________________________ 2. the edge of a two-dimensional geometric figure ________________________ 3. figures or objects that are the same shape and the same size ________________________ 4. the common endpoint from which two rays begin or the point where two lines intersect ________________________ 5. an ordered list with either a constant difference (arithmetic) or a constant ratio (geometric) ________________________ 6. a predictable or prescribed sequence of numbers, objects, etc. ________________________ 7. the shape made by two rays extending from a common endpoint, the vertex ________________________ 8. the result of an addition ________________________ 9. the number of degrees () of an angle ________________________ 10. common unit used in measuring angles ________________________ 11. a closed plane figure whose sides are straight lines and do not cross
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Determine probabilities using counting procedures, tables, and tree diagrams. (MA.E.2.4.1) Determine the probability for simple and compound events as well as independent and dependent events. (MA.E.2.4.2)
Tree Diagrams
We can use a tree diagram to help us find the number of ways that one event, or possible result or outcome, can occur at the same time another event occurs. For example, we can consider different ways of combining garments to make outfits, or of looking at possible outcomes in games, or of ordering different combinations of items from a menu. Example 1: Suppose a schools colors are light blue and yellow. The schools uniforms allow khaki or navy pants to be worn with solid blue, solid yellow, or blue and yellow striped shirts. How many outfits are possible? We can use a tree diagram to look at the various outfits. A tree diagram is a diagram that shows all possible outcomes of a given event.
School Uniform Color Outcomes

Pants Shirts blue navy yellow stripe Outcomes navy & blue navy & yellow navy & stripe
blue khaki yellow stripe
khaki & blue khaki & yellow khaki & stripe
There are six possible outfits.
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Example 2: Suppose a penny and a dime are tossed at the same time. How many possible outcomes are there?
Coin Toss Outcomes

Penny Dime H H (heads) T H, T Outcomes H, H
H T (tails) T
T, H
T, T
Notice that if event A has a outcomes and event B has b outcomes, then the total number of outcomes is (a)(b). The penny has 2 sides and the dime has 2 sides, so the outcomes are 2 x 2 = 4. Look at the pants and shirts example with 2 choices for pants and 3 choices for shirts. The total number of outcomes was (2)(3) = 6.
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Example 3: Joes Snack Shop serves 2 desserts: cake and pie. They also serve 4 beverages: coffee, tea, milk, and soda. If you choose 1 dessert and 1 beverage, how many possible combinations are there?
Joes Snack Shop Outcomes

Dessert Beverage Outcome coffee tea cake milk soda c, m c, s c, c c, t
coffee tea pie milk soda
p, c p, t p, m p, s
There are eight possible combinations.
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Practice
Draw a tree diagram to solve each of the following. 1. Jake has a choice of a solid, plaid, or striped shirt with a choice of tan or black pants. How many outfits can he wear? Answer:
2. A six-sided die is rolled once and a spinner with one-half striped and one-half shaded is spun once. How many outcomes are there? Answer:
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3. Telephones come in 2 styles, wall or desk. They come in 5 colors: white, black, yellow, tan, or blue. How many choices does a customer have? Answer:
Answer the following. 4. A snack bar serves 5 kinds of sandwiches and 3 kinds of juice. How many different orders for 1 sandwich and 1 juice could you place? Answer: 5. Janie has 5 blouses, 6 skirts, and 4 pairs of shoes. How many outfits are possible? Answer: Circle the letter of the correct answer. 6. Jason is buying a car. He can choose from 3 different models, each offered in 4 different colors, and either a manual or automatic transmission. How many buying options are available? a. b. c. d. 3 9 12 24
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7. Suppose you are ordering a meal that consists of an entre, a vegetable, a salad, and a dessert. Use the following menu to find how many different meals are possible.
Menu
Entres roast beef chicken grouper Vegetables baked potato wild rice green beans broccoli cauliflower Salads green waldorf carrot Desserts cherry pie cheesecake vanilla ice cream brownie apple cobbler key lime pie
a. b. c. d.
360 18 270 180
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Probability
At the beginning of a football game, a coin is tossed to determine which team will get the ball first. Lets say that Team A will get the ball first if the outcome is heads. Since the coin has two sides, it is equally likely that the coin will show heads or tails. Equally likely means that of the two possible outcomesheads or tailseach has the same probability of occurring. Probability is the ratio of the number of favorable outcomes to the total number of outcomes.
number of favorable outcomes total number of outcomes
Lets look at the probability that Team A will get the ball first.
probability of a = a certain outcome P(heads) = 1 2 number of ways a certain outcome can occur number of possible outcomes one outcome of heads can occur there are 2 equally likely outcomes, heads or tails
Remember: P means probability; P(heads) refers to the probability of heads occurring. Many games are played by rolling a die. Each die is in the shape of a cube. Recall from Unit 4 that a cube has six congruent sides and that each side is a square. Look at the die and the flattened net of the die below. The net is the plan which can be used to make a model of a solid. The net below forms a cube-shaped die.
If you rolled the die, there would be 6 equally likely outcomes. That means that each number has the same chance of landing face up.
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Examples:
Find the probability of rolling a 5. P(5) P(5) = = number of ways of rolling a 5 number of possible outcomes 1 6
Find the probability of rolling an odd number. P(odd) P(odd) P(odd) = = = number of odd numbers number of possible outcomes 3 odd numbers are 1, 3, and 5 6 there are 6 possibilities 1 always simplify fractions 2
Find the probability of rolling either a 3 or a 4. P(3 or 4) = P(3 or 4) = 2 6 1 3
Suppose you roll a die. What is the probability of rolling a 7? number of ways a 7 can occur: = 0 =0 6 number of possible outcomes: P(7) = 0 What is the probability of rolling a number from 1 through 6? number of ways a 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 can occur: 6 =1 number of possible outcomes: 6 P(1 through 6) = 1
Note: An outcome that will definitely happen has a probability of 1. An outcome that cannot happen has a probability of 0.
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Practice
The spinner is equally likely to stop at any of the eight numbers. The spinner is spun once. Find the probability for each of the following. Write each answer in simplest form.
2 1 8 7 6 3 4 5
1. a seven _____________________________________________________ 2. an even number _____________________________________________ 3. a two ______________________________________________________ 4. an odd number _____________________________________________ 5. a 10 ________________________________________________________ 6. a two, an eight, or a five ______________________________________ 7. a number less than four ______________________________________ 8. a number greater than six ____________________________________ Consider rolling one six-sided die. Find the probability for the following. Write each answer in simplest form. 9. P(4) ________________________________________________________ 10. P(1 or 3) ____________________________________________________ 11. P(even number) _____________________________________________ 12. P(prime number) ____________________________________________ 13. P(not 6) ____________________________________________________
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14. P(10) _______________________________________________________ 15. P(4 or less) _________________________________________________ 16. P(of a number less than 10) ___________________________________ In a bag, there are the following marbles: 3 blue marbles 6 red marbles 2 green marbles 1 black marble. Suppose you select one marble at random. Find the probability for each of the following. 17. a green marble ______________________________________________ 18. a blue marble _______________________________________________ 19. a red marble ________________________________________________ 20. a black marble ______________________________________________ 21. a blue or red marble _________________________________________ 22. a yellow marble _____________________________________________
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In a standard deck of 52 playing cards there are 2 colors and 4 suits.

colors: suits: red hearts diamonds black clubs spades
Each suit contains all of the following 13 cards: ace, king, queen, jack, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, and 2. Suppose you draw one card from the deck. Find the probability of each of the following. Write each answer in simplest form. 23. a jack ______________________________________________________ 24. a red card __________________________________________________ 25. the queen of spades __________________________________________ 26. an eight, a nine, or a 10 _______________________________________ 27. a queen or a king ____________________________________________ 28. a red or black card ___________________________________________ Answer the following. 29. In a group of 30 people, 26 are right-handed and the others are lefthanded. If one person is selected randomly from the group, what is the probability that person will be left-handed? Answer:
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30. An ice chest contains 4 varieties of soda. There are 4 diet colas, 12 regular colas, 10 ginger ales, and 6 root beers. If the diet colas and the regular colas are the only types of soda with caffeine, what is the probability that a soda selected randomly from the ice chest contains caffeine? Answer:
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Practice
Match each definition with the correct term. Write the letter on the line provided. ______ 1. a diagram in which all the possible outcomes of a given event are displayed 2. two or more possible outcomes of a given situation that have the same probability 3. the ratio of the number of favorable outcomes to the total number of outcomes 4. a rectangular prism that has six square faces 5. a possible result of a probability experiment 6. a possible result or outcome in probability E. probability A. cube
______
B. equally likely
______
C. event
D. outcome
______ ______ ______
F. tree diagram
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Probability of Independent Events

Think about first selecting a card and then tossing a coin. Since the outcome from selecting a card in no way affects the outcome of tossing the coin, these activities are called independent events. With independent events, the first event does not affect the outcome of the second event. The tree diagram below shows all possible outcomes.
Independent Card and Coin Outcomes
Cards Dime Outcomes
2
H 1 T 1, T 2, H 2, T 3, H 3, T 4, H 4, T 1, H
4
2
H T H 3 T H 4 T
There are eight possible outcomes.
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Examples: The probability of drawing a 3 is 1 out of 4 chances or P(3) =

1 4
The probability of tossing heads (H) is 1 out of 2 chances or P(H) =

1 2
The possibility of drawing a 3 and then tossing heads is 1 out of 8 or P(3 and H) is
1 8
because P(3) =
1 4 1 4
and P(H) = x
1 2
1 2
so
P(3 and H) = P(3) times P(H) or
1 8
Below is the formula for finding the probability of independent events. Probability of Independent Events The probability of two independent events (A and B) both occurring can be found by multiplying the probability of the first event (A) by the probability of the second event (B). P(A and B) = P(A) x P(B)
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Practice
Refer to the example on page 645. A card is drawn from the cards shown below. Then a coin is tossed. Find the probability for each of the following. Write each answer in simplest form. Use the formula: P(A and B) = P(A) x P(B)
1. P(2, H) ___________________________________________________ 2. P(3, T) ___________________________________________________ 3. P(even number, H) ________________________________________ 4. P(odd number, T) _________________________________________ 5. P(number less than 4, H) ___________________________________ 6. P(number greater than 1, T) _________________________________ 7. P(prime number, H) _______________________________________ Remember: A prime number (2, 3, 5, 7, 11, etc.) is any whole number with only two factors, 1 and itself. A factor is a number that divides evenly into another number. For example, factors of 20 are 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, and 20. However, by definition, the number 1 is excluded from the set of prime numbers. A coin is tossed and then a die is rolled. Find the probability for each of the following. Write each answer in simplest form. 8. P(H, 3) ___________________________________________________ 9. P(T, 5) ___________________________________________________ 10. P(H, 6) ___________________________________________________
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11. P(T, 2 or 3) _______________________________________________ 12. P(H, a number less than 5) __________________________________ 13. P(T, an odd number) _______________________________________ 14. P(T, a prime number) ______________________________________ One bag of marbles contains the following: 3 red marbles 4 white marbles. A second bag of marbles contains the following: 6 yellow marbles 3 green marbles. One marble is drawn from each bag. Find the probability of each of the following. Write each answer in simplest form. 15. P(red, yellow) _____________________________________________ 16. P(red, green) ______________________________________________ 17. P(white, green) ____________________________________________ 18. P(white, yellow) ___________________________________________
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Draw a tree diagram to find the probability for each of the following. 19. If you toss a coin 3 times, what is the probability that you will get 3 heads?
20. If you toss a coin 3 times, what is the probability that you will get either all heads or all tails?
Challenge problem: 21. If a couple plans to have 4 children, what is the probability that all 4 will be girls?
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Probability of Dependent Events

Suppose these cards are shuffled and placed face down. What is the probability of drawing a 5?
1 We know that P(5) is 8 because the 5 is 1 card out of 8 cards. Suppose you draw the 5 and do not replace the card, and then draw a second card. What is the probability that the second card drawn will be a 2?
Since the first card was not replaced, the probability of drawing a 2 is
1 7
because the 2 is 1 card out of the 7 cards left. The outcome of drawing the first card affects the outcome of drawing the second card from the remaining cards. Therefore, we describe the events of drawing a 5 and then drawing a 2 as being dependent events. With dependent events, the first event affects the outcome of the second event. P(5, 2) = =
1 8 1 56
1 7
So the probability of drawing a 5 and then drawing a 2 is chance out of 56.
1 56
, or one
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The Probability of Dependent Events The probability of two dependent events (A and B) both occurring can be found by multiplying the probability of the first event (A) and the probability of the second event (B) after the first event (A) occurs. P(A and B) = P(A) x P(B following A)
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Practice
Consider drawing one card from the eight cards shown below.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Then without replacement, drawing a second card. Find the probability for each of the following. The cards will be face down and will have been shuffled. Write each answer in simplest form. Use the formula: P(A) x P(B following A)
1. P(6, 1) ____________________________________________________ Hint: P(6) is so: P(6, 1) =

1 8 1 8
and P(1) is x
1 7
1 7
1 56
2. P(6, odd) _________________________________________________ Remember: An odd number (1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, ) is any whole number {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, } not divisible by 2. Hint: P(6) =
1 8
and P(odd) =
1 8
4 7
so: P(6, odd) =
4 7
3. P(odd, 6) _________________________________________________
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4. P(3, prime) _______________________________________________ Hint: This one is tricky. Since the number 3 is a prime number and calculated in the first draw, do not include the number 3 in the number of prime numbers for the second draw.
5. P(even, 5) ________________________________________________ Remember: An even number (2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, ) is any whole number divisible by 2, with no leftovers.
6. P(odd, even) ______________________________________________
In a bag there are the following marbles: 3 red marbles 2 white marbles 4 blue marbles. Once a marble is selected, it is not replaced. Find the probability of each of the following. Write each answer in simplest form. 7. P(red, white) ______________________________________________
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8. P(white, blue) _____________________________________________
9. P(white, white) ____________________________________________ Hint: Since the probability for one white marble is calculated in the first selection, do not include that same white marble in the second draw.
10. P(blue, blue) ______________________________________________
11. P(red, red) ________________________________________________
12. P(red, blue) _______________________________________________
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Practice
Suppose you draw marbles from the bowl below without replacement. Find the probability for each of the following. Write each answer in simplest form.
B B
B
A
1. P(A, B) ___________________________________________________
2. P(A, C) __________________________________________________
3. P(B, A, C) ________________________________________________ Hint: P(B) =

4 8,
P(A) =
3 7
, P(C) =
1 6
4. P(B, A, A) ________________________________________________ Hint: P(B) =

4 8,
P(A) =
3 7
, P(A) =
2 6
5. P(B, B, A) ________________________________________________
6. P(A, A, A) ________________________________________________
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Practice
Use the list below to write the correct term for each definition on the line provided. dependent events even number factor independent events odd number prime number simplest form whole number
________________________ 1. two events in which the outcome of the first event does not affect the outcome of the second event ________________________ 2. two events in which the first affects the outcome of the second event ________________________ 3. any whole number with only two factors, 1 and itself ________________________ 4. any whole number divisible by 2 ________________________ 5. a number or expression that divides exactly another number ________________________ 6. any number in the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, } ________________________ 7. any whole number not divisible by 2 ________________________ 8. a fraction whose numerator and denominator have no common factor greater than 1
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Lesson Four Purpose

Understand and use the real number system. (MA.A.2.4.2) Interpret data that has been collected, organized, and displayed in charts, tables, and plots. (MA.E.1.4.1) Calculate measures of central tendency (mean, median, and mode) and dispersion (range) for complex sets of data and determine the most meaningful measure to describe the data. (MA.E.1.4.2) Explain the limitations of using statistical techniques and data in making inferences and valid arguments. (MA.E.3.4.2)
Measures of Central TendencyMean, Median, and Mode

The mean, median, and mode are sometimes called measures of central tendency. Measures of central tendency describe how data is centered. Each of these measures describes a set of data in a slightly different way. The mean (or average) is the sum of the data divided by the number of items. When the data is centered around the mean, this data is considered an appropriate measure of central tendency. The mean can be distorted by an extreme value, a value that is much greater than or less than the other values. The median is the middle item when the data is listed in numerical order. If there is an even number of items, the median is the average of the two middle numbers. When there is an extreme value in a set of data that distorts the mean, the median is an appropriate measure of central tendency.
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The mode is the item that appears most often. There can be more than one mode. There is no mode if each item appears only once. When data cannot be averaged (to find a mean) or listed in numerical order (to find a median), the mode is the appropriate measure of central tendency. The range (of a set of numbers) is the difference between the highest and lowest value in a set of data. The range can help you decide if differences among the data are important. Example 1: Consider Larrys math test scores for the last 9 weeks: 0, 55, 70, 80, 80, 82, 85, 88, 100 Notice that the grades are in order from lowest to highest. Since there are three measures of central tendency and a range to use, we will consider each one to arrive at a fair grade for Larry. The mean (or average) is the sum of the numbers in the set divided by how many numbers are in the set. The mean is what most people think of when they think of finding an average. The set is the collection of numbers.
0 + 55 + 70 + 80 + 80 + 82 + 85 + 88 + 100
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= 71 rounded to nearest whole number
Larrys mean or average grade would be 71.
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The mode is the number that occurs most often in a set of data. Sometimes there is no mode, and sometimes there are several modes. 0, 55, 70, 80, 80, 82, 85, 88, 100 Larrys mode would be 80 because it appears twice. The median is the number in the middle. To find the median, the numbers have to be placed in numerical order. 0, 55, 70, 80, 80, 82, 85, 88, 100 In this case 80 is the median because it is the number in the middle. Besides these three measures of central tendency, we can also consider the range of Larrys grades. The range can be reported in one of two ways. The range can be reported as the lowest value to the highest. The range of Larrys grades is 0 to 100 because 0 is the lowest value and 100 is the highest value. The range can also be reported as the difference between the highest and lowest values. The range of Larrys grades is 100 because 100 is the difference between the smallest number (0) subtracted from the largest number (100) in the set.
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Lets review what happened when we used the three measures of central tendency and the range: mean ................ 71 mode ................ 80 median ............. 80 range .............. 100 Probably the fairest grade to give Larry for the 9 week grading period would be an 80. Most of the time Larry appears to be a B student, yet his average (mean) was a 71. The bottom two grades of 0 (for the test he missed) and 55 distorted the average. This is something that you need to be aware of when you read about averages in the paper.
80...
cool!
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Example 2: Lets look at a second example. Below are the weights of 8 tenth grade girls: 90, 100, 110, 120, 124, 130, 132, 150 We will find the three measures of central tendency. mean (average)
90 + 100 + 110 + 120 + 124 + 130 + 132 + 150
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= 120 rounded to nearest whole number
mode (the number which appears the most) Notice that all the numbers are different. Therefore there is no mode. median (the middle)
90, 100, 110, 120, 124, 130, 132, 150
To find the median, add 120 and 124, then divide by 2.

120 + 124 2
= 244 = 122
2
Summary: mean ............... 120 mode ............... not one median ............ 122 Both the mean and the median appear to be good representations of the data.
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Practice
Answer the following. 1. These are the scores that Mrs. Landrys 4th period students earned on the last pre-algebra test: 95, 90, 95, 75, 100, 80, 75, 80, 95, 100, 70, 95, 70, 90, 95, 85, 90, 85, 90, 90, 90, 100, 75, 100, 90, 75, 95, 100, 85, and 95. a. Find the mean. Round to the nearest whole number. _____________________________________________________ Put the numbers in order.
b. Find the mode. ________________________________________ c. Find the median. ______________________________________ d. What is the best number to describe the results of the test? _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ e. The difference between the highest and lowest number is called the range of the data. Find the range. ____________________
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2. Find the mean, mode, median, and range of the data below.
Babysitting
Average cost of one hour of baby-sitting in the following cities calculated in US dollars.
Tokyo London New York Mexico City Paris
$10.00 $8.00 $6.00 $3.70 $3.30
Source: Runzheimer International
mean ____________________________________________________ mode ____________________________________________________ median __________________________________________________ range ____________________________________________________ 3. Explain the following statement in your own words: The median price of a house in Florida is $130,000. Explanation: ______________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________
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4. At Apex Industries, 6 employees earned $22,000, 2 earned $30,000, and 3 earned $40,000. Find the mean, mode, and median. mean (round to the nearest dollar) __________________________ mode ____________________________________________________ median __________________________________________________
What would be the best description of the average salary at Apex and why? ________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ 5. If your average monthly salary for 12 months is $3,400, how much do you make per year based on this average? _________________ 6. Jane is taking pre-algebra. Her teacher gives 5 tests per grading period. Jane has made an 80, 85, 60, and 70 on 4 of the tests. Her final average was exactly 74 (without rounding to the nearest whole number). What did she make on her 5th test? _________________________________________________________ Hint: Think algebraically. Set up an equation to find the missing number.
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7. Here are the 10 best-paying careers showing the most growth through 2010 with their average salaries as of 2000.
Ten Best-Paying Careers through 2010
$40K $50K $60K $70K $80K $90K
Accountant/auditor Computer systems analyst Elementary school teacher General and operations manager Network and computer systems administrator Post-secondary school teacher Registered nurse Secondary school teacher Software engineer (applications) Software engineer (systems software)
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics
$48,090 $61,210 $41,980 $70,220 $53,690 up to $75,530 $46,410 $43,030 $70,300 $70,890
a. Do you think that these salaries are really accurate? _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ b. What factors are being omitted? _________________________ _____________________________________________________ c. Find the mean salary in the table above. __________________
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Practice
Use the list below to write the correct term for each definition on the line provided. difference even number mean measures of central tendency median mode probability range set tree diagram
________________________ 1. the middle point of a set of ordered numbers where half of the numbers are above the median and half are below it ________________________ 2. the result of a subtraction ________________________ 3. a collection of distinct objects or numbers ________________________ 4. the difference between the highest (H) and the lowest value (L) in a set of data ________________________ 5. the arithmetic average of a set of numbers ________________________ 6. the score or data point found most often in a set of numbers ________________________ 7. the mean, median, and mode of a set of data ________________________ 8. a diagram in which all the possible outcomes of a given event are displayed ________________________ 9. the ratio of the number of favorable outcomes to the total number of outcomes ________________________ 10. any whole number divisible by 2
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Practice
Match each definition with the correct term. Write the letter on the line provided. ______ 1. line drawn as near as possible to the various points so as to best represent the trend being graphed; also called a trend line 2. an ordered list with either a constant difference (arithmetic) or a constant ratio (geometric) 3. a mathematical sentence that equates one expression to another expression 4. the steepness of a line, defined by the ratio of the change in y to the change in x 5. a sentence that states one expression is greater than, greater than or equal to, less than, less than or equal to, or not equal to another expression 6. a polygon with five sides 7. a polygon with six sides 8. a straight line that is endless in length 9. all points whose coordinates are solutions of an equation I. sequence H. pentagon A. equation
______
B. graph of an equation
C. hexagon
______ ______
D. inequality
E. line
______
F. line of best fit
G. ordered pair
______ ______ ______ ______
______ 10. any value for a variable that makes an equation or inequality a true statement ______ 11. the location of a single point on a rectangular coordinate system where the digits represent the position relative to the x-axis and y-axis
J. slope
K. solution
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Unit Review
Answer the following. Write yes if the given ordered pair is a solution of 4x + y = 12. Write no if the given ordered pair is not a solution. __________ 1. (0, 12)
__________ 2.
(2, 4)
__________ 3.
(-3, 0)
__________ 4.
(1, 8)
5. Find three solutions for the equation 2x + y = 6. , ,
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6. Graph y = x + 4.
y
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
7. Graph y =
1 3
x + 1.
y
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
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Find the slope of these lines. 8.

y
5 4 3 2 1 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5
slope:
9.
5 4 3 2 1 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5
slope:
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Use the following definition of slope:

y2 y1 x2 x1
slope =
10. Find the slope of the lines passing through (-6, 5) and (8, -4).
11. Find the slope of the lines passing though (0, -2) and (8, -4).
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12. Below is a table which gives the number of people living in Fine Town, Florida from 1987 through 1993. People Living in Fine Town, Florida 1987-1993
Year Population
1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993
27,000 28,000 28,920 30,000 30,840 31,900 32,760
Plot the points and then draw a line of best fit. Use it to estimate the population in 1995.
People Living in Fine Town, Florida 1987-1993
36,000 35,000 34,000 33,000
Population
32,000 31,000 30,000 29,000 28,000 27,000 1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
Year
Estimate: ___________________________________________________
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Graph the following inequalities. 13. y < 2x + 1

5 4 3 2 1 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 1 2 3 4 5
14. y x 4
5 4 3 2 1 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 1 2 3 4 5
Write the next three numbers of each sequence. 15. 0, 3, 6, 9, 16.

3 1 1, 1 4 ,11 2,14 ,
, ,
, ,
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Answer the following. 17. Find the 8th term in the sequence. 100, 102, 104, 106, 18. Fill in the missing numbers for row 5.
1 1 1 1 1 3 6 2 3 1 1 1 1
19. Using the formula 180(n 2), find the number of degrees in a regular hexagon.
20. Using the formula , find the measure of each angle in a n regular hexagon. Hint: A regular hexagon has all sides and angles equal.
180(n 2)
21. Janet has 3 skirts (blue, tan, and black), and 4 blouses (blue, white, pink, and yellow). Draw a tree diagram to show how many different outfits she can wear.
22. Eduardo is buying a car. He can choose from 3 models, each offered in 5 different colors, and either a manual or automatic transmission. How many buying options are available?
674
Answer the following. Write each answer in simplest form. 23. Tawanna puts 50 numbers from 1 to 50 in a glass bowl. What would be the probability of drawing an a. even number? ________________________________________
b.
a multiple of 5? _______________________________________ Remember: A multiple is the number that results from multiplying a given number by the set of whole numbers. For example, multiples of 15 are 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, etc.
24. Dan draws 1 card from a standard deck of 52 playing cards. a. Find the probability of drawing a 5. _____________________
b. Find the probability of drawing a jack or a 10. _____________
25. Wanda has 4 pairs of shorts (black, blue, tan, and brown) and 6 pairs of socks (black, blue, tan, brown, pink, and purple). If she reaches into her shorts drawer and then into her sock drawer without looking, what would be the probability that she will have a tan pair of shorts and tan socks?
675
26. Consider drawing a card from the cards shown below, and then, without replacement, drawing a second card. Find the probability of drawing a 5 and then a 3. The cards will be face down and will have been shuffled.
Numbers 27-29 are gridded-response items. Write answers along the top of the grid and correctly mark them below. Round to nearest whole number. Below are Jareds pre-algebra grades for the nine weeks: 50, 68, 70, 70, 70, 70, 85, 85, and 90. Find the following: 27. mean Mark your answer on the grid to the right.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
676
28. mode Mark your answer on the grid to the right.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
29. median Mark your answer on the grid to the right.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
30. range
677
Appendices
Table of Squares and Approximate Square Roots

n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 n2 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 100 121 144 169 196 225 256 289 324 361 400 441 484 529 576 625 676 729 784 841 900 961 1,024 1,089 1,156 1,225 1,296 1,369 1,444 1,521 1,600 1,681 1,764 1,849 1,936 2,025 2,116 2,209 2,304 2,401 2,500 n 1.000 1.414 1.732 2.000 2.236 2.449 2.646 2.828 3.000 3.162 3.317 3.464 3.606 3.742 3.873 4.000 4.123 4.243 4.359 4.472 4.583 4.690 4.796 4.899 5.00 5.099 5.196 5.292 5.385 5.477 5.568 5.657 5.745 5.831 5.916 6.000 6.083 6.164 6.245 6.325 6.403 6.481 6.557 6.633 6.708 6.782 6.856 6.928 7.000 7.071 n 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 n2 2,601 2,704 2,809 2,916 3,025 3,136 3,249 3,364 3,481 3,600 3,721 3,844 3,969 4,096 4,225 4,356 4,489 4,624 4,761 4,900 5,041 5,184 5,329 5,476 5,625 5,776 5,929 6,084 6,241 6,400 6,561 6,724 6,889 7,056 7,225 7,396 7,569 7,744 7,921 8,100 8,281 8,464 8,649 8,836 9,025 9,216 9,409 9,604 9,801 10,000 n 7.141 7.211 7.280 7.348 7.416 7.483 7.550 7.616 7.681 7.746 7.810 7.874 7.937 8.000 8.062 8.124 8.185 8.246 8.307 8.367 8.426 8.485 8.544 8.602 8.660 8.718 8.775 8.832 8.888 8.944 9.000 9.055 9.110 9.165 9.220 9.274 9.327 9.381 9.434 9.487 9.539 9.592 9.644 9.695 9.747 9.798 9.849 9.899 9.950 10.000
Appendix A
681
Mathematical Symbols
or / x or = + > < > <
divide times is equal to negative positive positive or negative is not equal to is greater than is less than is not greater than is not less than is greater than or equal to is less than or equal to degrees is perpendicular to % AB AB AB ABC ABC mAB m ABC ~ ~ = ~
is parallel to is approximately equal to is congruent to is similar to nonnegative square root percent pi line AB line segment AB ray AB triangle ABC angle ABC measure of line segment AB measure of angle ABC
Appendix B
683
FCAT Mathematics Reference Sheet

Area
triangle A= 1 2 bh A = lw A= 1 2 h(b1 + b2) A = bh
Key
b = base h = height l = length w = width = slant height S.A. = surface area d = diameter r = radius A = area
rectangle
trapezoid
parallelogram
C = circumference V = volume Use 3.14 or 22 7 for .
circle
A = r
circumference
C = d or C = 2r
Volume
right circular cone square pyramid
2 V= 1 3 r h
Total Surface Area

2 S.A. = 1 2 ( 2 r ) + r
or
S.A. = r + r2
V= 1 3 lwh V = 3 r3 V = r2h
4
S.A. = 4( 1 2l S.A. = 4r2
) + l2
or S.A. = 2l
+ l2
sphere right circular cylinder rectangular solid
S.A. = 2rh + 2r2
V = lwh
S.A. = 2(lw) + 2(hw) + 2(lh)
In the following formulas, n represents the number or sides. In a polygon, the sum of the measures of the interior angles is equal to 180(n 2). In a regular polygon, the measure of an interior angle is equal to
180(n 2) . n
Appendix C
685
FCAT Mathematics Reference Sheet

Pythagorean theorem: a c b Slope-intercept form of an equation of a line: y = mx + b where m = slope and b = the y-intercept. Distance, rate, time formula: d = rt where d = distance, r = rate, t = time. a 2 + b2 = c 2 Distance between two points P1 (x 1 , y1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 ): (x2 x1 )2 + (y2 y1 )2 Midpoint between two points P1 (x 1 , y1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 ):
( x 2+ x
2
y2 + y1
, 2
Simple interest formula: I = prt where p = principal, r = rate, t = time.
Conversions 1 yard = 3 feet = 36 inches 1 mile = 1,760 yards = 5,280 feet 1 acre = 43,560 square feet 1 hour = 60 minutes 1 minute = 60 seconds 1 liter = 1000 milliliters = 1000 cubic centimeters 1 meter = 100 centimeters = 1000 millimeters 1 kilometer = 1000 meters 1 gram = 1000 milligrams 1 kilogram = 1000 gram 1 cup = 8 fluid ounces 1 pint = 2 cups 1 quart = 2 pints 1 gallon = 4 quarts 1 pound = 16 ounces 1 ton = 2,000 pounds
Metric numbers with four digits are presented without a comma (e.g., 9960 kilometers). For metric numbers greater than four digits, a space is used instead of a comma (e.g., 12 500 liters).
686
Appendix C
Appendix D
687
688
Appendix D
Index
A
absolute value ........................................ 3, 68 acute angle ........................................ 367, 395 acute triangle .................................... 367, 426 additive identity .................. 3, 51, 257, 290 additive inverses ... 3, 51, 111, 152, 257, 282 adjacent angles ................................. 367, 403 alternate angles ................................ 367, 419 altitude .............................................. 368, 479 angle ( ) ........... 257, 304, 368, 385, 561, 624 area (A) ................... 3, 13, 257, 311, 368, 448 associative property ............................. 3, 51, ................................... 257, 290, 368, 482 axes (of a graph) .............................. 368, 443
D
data .................................................... 561, 592 data display ...................................... 562, 592 decagon ............................................. 562, 627 decimal number ............................... 112, 122 decimal point ................................... 113, 122 decrease .................................. 4, 38, 258, 271 degree () ......... 258, 304, 370, 393, 562, 624 denominator ..................................... 113, 123 dependent events ............................ 562, 650 diameter ............................................ 370, 493 difference ............................... 4, 38, 113, 146, ................................... 258, 271, 562, 659 digit .................................................... 113, 122 distributive property ...... 258, 289, 370, 484 divisor ............................................... 113, 140 dodecagon ........................................ 562, 627
B
base (b) ............................................... 368, 479 base (of an exponent) ............................ 3, 13
E
endpoint ............................................ 371, 384 equally likely .................................... 562, 638 equation ................................. 4, 48, 113, 149, ................... 258, 266, 371, 405, 562, 573 equiangular polygon ....................... 562, 625 equiangular triangle ........................ 371, 426 equilateral triangle .......................... 371, 427 equivalent (forms of a number) ....... 4, 102, .................................... 113, 125, 258, 294 estimation ............................... 4, 26, 113, 144 even number ................... 258, 337, 562, 653 event .................................................. 563, 632 exponent (exponential form) .............. 4, 13, .................................................... 114, 182 expression .............. 5, 14, 114, 136, 259, 266
C
canceling ........................................... 111, 158 center (of a circle) ............................ 368, 493 circle ................................................... 368, 493 circumference (C) ............................. 369, 494 common denominator .................... 111, 131 common factor ................................. 111, 124 commutative property ........ 4, 51, 257, 290, .................................................... 369, 482 complementary angles .................... 369, 406 cone .................................................... 369, 508 congruent ( ~ = ) ................. 369, 385, 561, 625 consecutive ....................................... 258, 271 coordinate ............................................... 4, 65 coordinate grid or system ............. 369, 443, .................................................... 561, 583 coordinate plane .............................. 561, 583 coordinates ...................... 369, 443, 561, 582 corresponding angles ...................... 369, 414 corresponding angles and sides .... 369, 432 cross multiplication ......................... 112, 192 cross product .................... 112, 134, 370, 435 cube .................................. 370, 506, 561, 638 cube (power) ......................... 4, 14, 258, 271 cubic units ........................ 258, 324, 370, 506 cylinder ............................................. 370, 507
F
face ..................................................... 371, 507 factor ....................... 5, 13, 114, 123, 563, 647 formula .............................................. 371, 453 fraction .................................... 5, 53, 114, 122
Appendix E
689
G
graph ................................................. 563, 582 graph of a point ............................... 371, 443 graph of a number ................ 5, 65, 259, 339 graph of an equation ....................... 563, 582 greatest common factor (GCF) ...... 114, 124
mode .................................................. 564, 657 multiples ........................................... 565, 675 multiplicative identity ......... 6, 51, 260, 290 multiplicative inverses ........ 6, 51, 260, 280 multiplicative property of -1 ......... 260, 282 multiplicative property of zero ..... 260, 290
H
height (h) ........................................... 371, 479 heptagon ........................................... 563, 627 hexagon ............................ 371, 462, 563, 624 hypotenuse ....................................... 372, 451
N
natural numbers .................................... 6, 15 negative numbers ................................. 6, 61, .................................... 115, 150, 260, 266 net ...................................... 373, 520, 565, 638 nonagon ............................................ 565, 628 number line .......................... 6, 61, 260, 339 numerator ......................................... 115, 123
I
improper fraction ............................ 114, 125 increase ................................... 5, 38, 259, 271 independent events ......................... 563, 645 inequality ............... 5, 92, 259, 339, 563, 612 infinite .............................................. 563, 573 integer..................... 5, 15, 115, 136, 259, 266 interest ............................................... 115, 232 intersect ............................................. 372, 386 intersection ....................................... 372, 443 inverse operation .................. 5, 55, 259, 306 irrational numbers ........................... 259, 341 isosceles triangle .............................. 372, 427
O
obtuse angle ...................................... 373, 395 obtuse triangle ................................. 373, 426 octagon .............................................. 565, 626 odd number ..................... 260, 361, 565, 652 opposites ................................................. 6, 51 order of operations ............... 6, 30, 260, 288 ordered pair ..................... 373, 443, 565, 573 origin ...................................... 6, 61, 374, 443 outcome ............................................. 565, 632
L
lateral ................................................. 372, 521 least common denominator (LCD) ......................................... 115, 151 leg ....................................................... 372, 451 length (l) ................. 5, 13, 259, 303, 372, 384 like terms .......................................... 259, 294 line ( ) .......................... 372, 384, 563, 583 linear equation ................................. 564, 583 line graph (or line plot) .................. 564, 592 line of best fit (on a scatter plot) .... 564, 593 line of symmetry .............................. 373, 463 line segment () .............................. 373, 384
P
parallel ( ) ......................................... 374, 413 parallel lines ..................................... 374, 413 parallelogram ................................... 374, 462 pattern (relationship) ...................... 566, 619 pentagon .......................... 374, 462, 566, 624 percent (%) ........................................ 115, 206 percent of change ............................. 115, 237 percent of decrease .......................... 116, 238 percent of increase ........................... 116, 237 perfect square ......................................... 6, 15 perimeter (P) ... 116, 156, 261, 303, 374, 470 perpendicular ( ) ............................ 374, 405 perpendicular lines ......................... 374, 405 pi () ................................................... 374, 496 place value ........................................ 116, 122 plane ................................. 374, 384, 566, 583 point ........................ 7, 65, 375, 384, 566, 582 polygon ............................ 375, 426, 566, 624 polyhedron ...................................... 375, 506 positive numbers .. 7, 61, 116, 158, 261, 266 power (of a number) ............ 7, 13, 261, 271
M
mean (or average) ............................ 564, 657 measure (m) of an angle ( ) ......... 260, 304, ................................... 373, 393, 564, 624 measures of central tendency ........ 564, 657 median ............................................... 564, 657 mixed number .................................. 115, 123
690
Appendix E
prime factorization ................ 7, 20, 116, 123 prime number ....... 7, 19, 116, 123, 567, 647 principal ............................................ 116, 232 prism .................................................. 375, 506 probability ........................................ 567, 638 product ................... 7, 15, 116, 134, 261, 271 proportion ....................... 117, 192, 375, 432 protractor .......................................... 375, 393 pyramid ............................................. 376, 506 Pythagorean theorem ...................... 376, 451
Q
quadrant ............................................ 376, 443 quadrilateral .................... 376, 436, 567, 624 quotient .................. 7, 20, 117, 125, 261, 271
R
radical ...................................................... 7, 25 radical sign ............................................. 8, 25 radicand .................................................. 8, 25 radius (r) ........................................... 376, 493 range .................................................. 567, 658 rate/distance .................................... 117, 186 ratio ... 117, 186, 261, 342, 376, 432, 567, 603 rational numbers ............................. 261, 341 ray ( ) ............................................. 377, 385 real numbers ..................................... 261, 341 reciprocals .............. 8, 51, 117, 159, 261, 280 rectangle ........................... 261, 303, 377, 448 rectangular prism ............................ 377, 507 remainder .......................................... 117, 140 repeating decimal ............................ 118, 125 right angle ........................................ 377, 395 right triangle ..................................... 377, 426 root ........................................................... 8, 25 rounded number ... 8, 25, 118, 125, 377, 453
simplify an expression ......... 9, 53, 262, 289 slant height ( ) .................................. 378, 525 slope ................................................... 568, 602 solid figures ...................................... 378, 506 solution... 9, 48, 119, 149, 262, 267, 568, 573 solve ........................ 9, 49, 119, 149, 262, 267 sphere ................................................ 378, 510 square ..................... 9, 13, 262, 336, 378, 448 square (of a number) ............................ 9, 14, ................................... 262, 271, 379, 452 square pyramid ................................ 379, 508 square root (of a number) .................... 9, 25 square units ........... 9, 13, 262, 311, 379, 452 standard form ...................................... 10, 18 straight angle .................................... 379, 395 substitute ............................. 10, 49, 119, 149, ................... 262, 267, 379, 405, 568, 583 substitution property of equality .. 262, 291 sum ....................................... 10, 38, 119, 146, ................... 262, 271, 379, 404, 568, 623 supplementary angles..................... 380, 404 surface area (S. A.) (of a geometric figure) .................................................... 379, 521 symmetric property of equality .... 263, 291
T
table (or chart) ................. 263, 329, 568, 574 terminating decimal ........................ 119, 219 three-dimensional (3-dimensional) .................................................... 379, 506 transversal ........................................ 380, 413 trapezoid ........................................... 380, 462 tree diagram ..................................... 568, 632 triangle ............. 263, 303, 380, 424, 569, 624 two-dimensional (2-dimensional) .................................................... 380, 470
S
scale factor ........................................ 377, 434 scalene triangle ................................ 378, 427 scatterplot (or scattergram) ............ 567, 593 scientific notation ............................ 118, 182 sequence ............................................ 567, 619 set ....................................................... 567, 658 side ........... 8, 13, 261, 303, 378, 470 568, 623 similar figures .................................. 378, 432 simplest form ........ 9, 53, 119, 123, 568, 607 simplify a fraction ................. 9, 53, 119, 123
U
unit ..................................................... 119, 188 unit (of length) ..................................... 10, 13 unit price ........................................... 119, 188 unit rate ............................................. 120, 188
V
value (of a variable) ........................... 10, 42, ................................... 120, 136, 569, 573
Appendix E
691
variable ................ 10, 37, 120, 136, 263, 267, ................................... 380, 405, 569, 573 vertex ................................ 380, 392, 569, 624 vertical angles .................................. 380, 403 volume (V) ........................................ 381, 506
W
whole number ..... 10, 13, 120, 122, 569, 647 width (w) .............. 10, 22, 263, 303, 381, 384
X
x-axis ................................. 381, 443, 569, 583 x-coordinate ...................................... 381, 444
Y
y-axis ................................. 381, 443, 569, 583 y-coordinate ...................................... 381, 444
692
Appendix E
References
Bailey, Rhonda, et al. Glencoe Mathematics Applications and Concepts. New York: McGraw-Hill Glenco Companies, 2004. Brooks, Jane, et al., eds. Pacemaker Geometry, First Edition. Parsippany, NJ: Globe Fearon, 2003. Cummins, Jerry, et al. Glencoe Algebra Concepts and Applications. New York: McGraw-Hill Glenco Companies, 2004. Cummins, Jerry, et al. Glencoe Geometry Concepts and Applications. New York: McGraw-Hill Glenco Companies, 2004. Florida Department of Education. Florida Course Descriptions. Tallahassee, FL: State of Florida, 1997. Florida Department of Education. Florida Curriculum Framework: Mathematics. Tallahassee, FL: State of Florida, 1996. Haenisch, Siegfried. AGS Publishing Algebra. Circle Pines, MN: AGS Publishing, 2004. Larson, Ron, et al. McDougal Littell Algebra 1. Boston, MA: McDougal Littell, 2004. Malloy, Carol, et al. Glencoe Mathematics Pre-Algebra. New York: McGrawHill Glenco Companies, 2004. Muschla, Judith A. and Gary Robert Muschla. Math Starters! 5- to 10-Minute Activities That Make Kids Think, Grades 6-12. West Nyack, NY: The Center for Applied Research in Education, 1999. Ripp, Eleanor, et al., eds. Pacemaker Pre-Algebra, Second Edition. Parsippany, NJ: Globe Fearon, 2001. Ripp, Eleanor, et al., eds. Pacemaker Algebra 1, Second Edition. Parsippany, NJ: Globe Fearon, 2001.
Appendix F
693
Production Software
Adobe PageMaker 6.5. Mountain View, CA: Adobe Systems. Adobe Photoshop 5.0. Mountain View, CA: Adobe Systems. Macromedia Freehand 8.0. San Francisco: Macromedia. Microsoft Office 98. Redmond, WA: Microsoft.
694
Appendix G

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Pre Algebra

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Pre-Algebra

Course No. 1200300

written and developed by Emily Landreth Donna McBee Sue Fresen

graphics by Rachel McAllister page layout by Jennifer Keele

Curriculum Improvement Project IDEA, Part B, Special Project

Exceptional Student Education

Unit 1: Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations ................................... 1

Unit 2: Measurement .......................................................................................... 109

Unit 3: Algebraic Thinking .............................................................................. 255

Unit 4: Geometry and Spatial Sense ........................................................... 365

Unit 5: Data Analysis and Probability ....................................................... 559

Appendices .............................................................................................................. 679

Unit 1: Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations

Unit 1: Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations

Unit 1: Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations

Unit 1: Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations

Unit 1: Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations

Unit 1: Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations

Unit 1: Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations

Unit 1: Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations

How will pre-algebra apply to everyday problems?

Lesson One Purpose

Unit 1: Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations

Unit 1: Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations

Writing Whole Numbers

1 unit 1 unit 1x1= 1 square unit

2 units 2 units 2x2= 4 square units

3 units 3 units 3x3= 9 square units 4 units

4x4= 16 square units

Unit 1: Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations

exponenttells the number of repetitions baseis the repeated factor

Unit 1: Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations

Special NumbersPerfect Squares

Unit 1: Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations

Verbal Description 3 to the fourth power

Unit 1: Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations

Window Washing Rates

Unit 1: Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations

1,000,000,000,000 000,000,000,000 000,000,000,000 000,000,000,000

Unit 1: Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations

512 2 x 256 2 x 2 x 128 2 x 2 x 2 x 64 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 32 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 16 2 x2x 2 x2x 2 x 2x 8 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2x2 x 2 x 4 2 x 2x 2 x 2x 2 x 2x2 x 2x 2

The number 512 can be written as 29, or 2 to the ninth power.

24 32 is the exponential form of 144.

Unit 1: Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations

Unit 1: Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations

Unit 1: Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations

144 square feet

Unit 1: Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations

B. base (of an exponent)

J. unit (of length)

Unit 1: Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations

Unit 1: Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations

Using Square Roots

100 = 10 because 102 = 100

121 = 11 because 112 = 121

Unit 1: Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations

Option 3: We can estimate. We know

6 is about half way between 4 and

Unit 1: Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations

Unit 1: Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations

Unit 1: Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations

Check yourself: Use a calculator to check your answer.

Unit 1: Number Sense, Concepts, and Operations

Evaluating Algebraic ExpressionsOrder of Operations

__

_____________________________ _ _____________________________