COMPLEX FUNCTIONS AND TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES

Revision E
By Tom Irvine
Email: tomirvine@aol.com
September 14, 2006

Trigonometric Functions of Angle

r
y

sin ( ) =

y
r

cos( ) =

x
r

tan ( ) =

y
x

cot ( ) =

x
y

sec( ) =

r
x

csc( ) =

r
y

(1)
Trigonometric Expansion
sin x = x

cos x = 1

x3 x5
+
L
3! 5!

(2)

x2 x4
+
L
2! 4!

(3)

x3 x5
sinh x = x +
+
+L
3! 5!

(4)

x2 x4
cosh x = 1 +
+
+L
2! 4!

(5)

Exponential Expansion
exp(x ) = 1 + x +

x 2 x3
+
+L
2! 3!

(6)

Trigonometric Identities

cos 2 ( ) =

1 1
+ cos(2 )
2 2

(7)

sin 2 ( ) =

1 1
cos(2 )
2 2

(8)

cos( )cos( ) =

1
1
cos( + ) + cos( )
2
2

(9)

1
1
sin ( )sin () = cos( + ) + cos( )
2
2

(10)

cos( )sin () =

1
1
sin ( + ) sin ( )
2
2

sin ( )cos() =

(11)

1
1
sin ( + ) + sin ( )
2
2

(12)

sin 2 ( ) + cos 2 ( ) = 1

(13)

sec2 ( ) tan 2 ( ) = 1

(14)

csc2 ( ) cot 2 ( ) = 1

(15)

sin (2 ) = 2 sin ( )cos( )

(16)

cos(2 ) = cos 2 ( ) sin 2 ( )

(17)

sin ( ) = sin ( )cos() cos( )sin ()

(18)

cos( ) = cos( )cos() m sin ( )sin ( )

(19)

tan ( ) tan ()
1 m tan ( ) tan ( )

(20)

tan ( ) =

A sin (t ) + B cos(t ) = A 2 + B2 [ sin (t + ) ]

where

B
= arctan
A
(21)

Euler's Equation
exp( j ) = cos( ) j sin ( )

(22)

sin ( ) =

exp( j ) exp( j )
2j

(23)

cos( ) =

exp( j ) + exp( j )
2

(24)

Hyperbolic Functions
sinh ( ) =

exp( ) exp( )
2

(25a)

cosh ( ) =

exp( ) + exp( )
2

(25b)

cosh 2 ( ) sinh 2 ( ) = 1

(26)

Derivatives
d
(sin u ) = cos u du
dx
dx

(27)

d
(cos u ) = sin u du
dx
dx

(28)

d
(tan u ) = sec2 u du
dx
dx

(29)

d
(cot u ) = csc u du
dx
dx

(30)

d
(sec u ) = tan u sec u du
dx
dx

(31)

d
(csc u ) = csc u cot u du
dx
dx

(32)

d
(sinh u ) = cosh u du
dx
dx

(33)

d
(cosh u ) = sinh u du
dx
dx

(34)

d
(tanh u ) = 1 2 du
dx
cosh u dx

(35)

Natural Logarithm of a Complex Number

b

ln (a + j b ) = ln a 2 + b 2 exp( j) , = arctan

(36)

ln (a + j b ) = ln a 2 + b 2 + ln[ exp( j)]

ln(a + j b ) = ln a 2 + b 2 + j

(37)

(38)

ln(a + j b ) = ln a 2 + b 2 + j arctan

(39)

APPENDIX A
The Square Root of a Complex Number.
Consider
x2 = a + jb

(A-1)

Thus
x = a + jb

(A-2)

where a and b are real coefficients.

Solve for x.

Let

x1 = (c + j d )

(A-3a)

x 2 = (c + j d )

(A-3b)

where c and d are real coefficients.

Substitute equation (A-3a) into (A-1).

(c + j d )2 = (a + j b )

(A-4)

(c + j d )(c + j d ) = (a + j b )

(A-5)

c 2 d 2 + j (2cd ) = a + j b

(A-6)

Equation (A-6) implies two equations. The first is

c2 d 2 = a

(A-7)

The second implied equation is

2cd = b

(A-8)

Solve for d using equation (A-8).

d=

b
2c

(A-9)

Substitute equation (A-9) into (A-8).

2
b
2
c = a

(A-10)

2
b
2
c a = 0

(A-11)

2c

2c

Multiply through by 4c 2 .

4c 4 4ac2 b 2 = 0

(A-12)

Apply the quadratic formula.

c2 =

4a 16a 2 + 16b 2
8

(A-13)

c2 =

4a 4 a 2 + b 2
8

(A-14)

c2 =

c=

a a 2 + b2
2

(A-15)

a a 2 + b2
2

(A-16)

Require c to be real.

c=

a + a 2 + b2
2

(A-17)

Substitute equation (A-17) into (A-9).

b
d=
a + a 2 + b2
2
2

(A-18)

d=

2
2
4 a + a + b

(A-19)

d=

2
2
2 a + a + b

(A-20)

Substitute equations (A-20) and (A-17) into (A-3a).

2
2
a+ a +b
x1 =
2

2
2
2 a + a + b

(A-21a)

Substitute equations (A-20) and (A-17) into (A-3b).

2
2
a+ a +b
x 2 =
2

2
2
2 a + a + b

(A-21b)

Note that equations (A-21a) and (A-21b) cannot be used for the special case:
a < 0 and b = 0.
For this special case, the roots are
x =j a

(A-21c)

Example
x2 = 2 + j 7

(A-22)

x = 2+ j7

(A-23)

Solve for x. Use equation (A-21a).

a=2

(A-24)

b=7

(A-25)

x 1 = 2.154 + j 1.625

(A-26)

x 2 = 2.154 j 1.625

(A-27)

APPENDIX B
Arbitrary Root of a Complex Number
Let
x n = [a + j b]

(B-1a)

x = [a + j b]1 / n

(B-1b)

The coefficients a and b are real numbers. The denominator of the exponent n is also
real.
Take the natural logarithm.

ln x = ln [a + j b]1 / n

(B-2)

ln x =

1
ln [a + j b]
n

(B-3)

ln x =

1 2
b

ln a + b 2 exp j arctan
n
a

(B-4)

ln x =

1 2
b
1
ln a + b 2 + ln exp j arctan
n
a
n

(B-5)

1
b
2
2

2
ln x = ln a + b n + j arctan

n
a

(B-6)

b
1

2
2
exp{ln x} = expln a + b 2n + j arctan

a
n

(B-7)

1

b

2
1
2
x = expln a + b 2n exp j arctan

a
n

(B-8)

1
b
1
2
2
x = a + b 2n exp j arctan

(B-9)

1
1
b
b
1
2
2
x = a + b 2n cos arctan + j sin arctan

(B-10)

Note that equation (B-10) could be used for the special case of a square root.

APPENDIX C
Cube Root of a Complex Number
Consider
x3 = a + j b

(C-1)

x = [a + j b]1 / 3

(C-2)

Equation (C-1) has three roots. The method in Appendix B yields the following formula
for one of the cube roots.

10

1
1
b
b
1
x 1= a 2 + b 2 6 cos arctan + j sin arctan

(C-3)

Rearrange equation (C-1).

x3 a j b = 0

(C-4)

Devise an equation for finding the other two roots.

x 3 a j b = (x x1 )(x x 2 )(x x 3 )

(C-5)

Expand the right-hand-side.

x 3 a j b = x 2 (x1 + x 2 )x + x1x 2 (x x 3 )

[
] [
]
x 3 a j b = [x 3 (x1 + x 2 )x 2 + x1x 2 x ] [x 3x 2 x 3 (x1 + x 2 )x + x1x 2 x 3 ]
x 3 a j b = [x 3 (x1 + x 2 )x 2 + x1x 2 x ]+ [ x 3x 2 + x 3 (x1 + x 2 )x x1x 2 x 3 ]
x 3 a j b = [x 3 (x1 + x 2 + x 3 )x 2 + (x1x 2 + x1x 3 + x 2 x 3 )x x1x 2 x 3 ]
x 3 a j b = x 2 (x1 + x 2 )x + x1x 2 (x ) + x 2 (x1 + x 2 )x + x1x 2 ( x 3 )

(C-6)
(C-7)
(C-8)
(C-9)
(C-10)

Equation (C-10) implies three separate equations.

(x1 + x 2 + x3 ) = 0

(C-11)

(x1x 2 + x1x3 + x 2x3 ) = 0

(C-12)

x1x 2 x 3 = a j b

(C-13)

Continue with equation (C-11).

x 2 = x1 x 3

(C-14)

11

Substitute equation (C-14) into (C-12).

(x1( x1 x 3 ) + x1x3 + ( x1 x3 )x3 ) = 0

(C-15)

x12 x1x 3 + x1x 3 x1x 3 x 32 = 0

(C-16)

x12 x1x 3 x 32 = 0

(C-17)

x 32 + x1x 3 + x12 = 0

(C-18)

Use the quadratic formula.

x1 x12 4x12
x3 =
2
x3 =

(C-19)

x1 3x12
2

(C-20)

x1 x1 3
2

(C-21)

x3 =

1 j 3
x 3 = x1

(C-22)

1 j 3
x 3 = x1

(C-23)

Choose

Recall equation (C-14).

x 2 = x1 x 3

(C-24)

1 j 3
x 2 = x1 x1

(C-25)

12


1 j 3
x 2 = x11

(C-26)

1 + j 3
x 2 = x11 +

(C-27)

2 1+ j 3
x 2 = x1 +

2
2

(C-28)

1+ j 3
x 2 = x1

(C-29)

The roots x2 and x3 thus form a complex conjugate pair.

Summarize the roots.
1
1
b
b
1
2
2
x 1= a + b 6 cos arctan + j sin arctan

(C-30)

1+ j 3
x 2 = x1

(C-31)

1 j 3
x 3 = x1

(C-32)

Example
Solve for x.
x3 = 2 + j 7

(C-33)

x = [2 + j 7]1 / 3

(C-34)

a=2

(C-35)

13

b=7

(C-36)

n=3

(C-37)

There are three roots. The first root is

1
1
b
b
1
2
2
x 1= a + b 6 cos arctan + j sin arctan

(C-38)

x1 = 1.938 [ 0.909 + j 418]

(C-39)

x1 = 1.761 + j 0.809

(C-40)

The second root is a coordinate transformation of the first root.

1+ j 3
x 2 = x1

(C-41)

1+ j 3
x 2 = [1.762 + j 0.809]

(C-42)

x 2 = 1.581 + j1.120

(C-43)

1 j 3
x 3 = x1

(C-44)

1 j 3
x 3 = [1.761 + j 0.809]

(C-45)

x 3 = 0.180 j1.930

(C-46)

14

In summary, the cube roots of (2 + j 7) are

x1 = 1.761 + j 0.809

(C-47)

x 2 = 1.581 + j1.120

(C-48)

x 3 = 0.180 j1.930

(C-49)

APPENDIX D
Derivation of the Quadratic Formula

ax 2 + bx + c = 0

(D-1)

x 2 + (b / a )x + (c / a ) = 0

(D-2)

b 2 b2 c

x
+
+ =0

2
2a
a

4a

(D-3)

b 2
b2 c

x
+
=

2
2a
a

4a

(D-4)

b 2 b 2 4ac

x + =
2a

4a 2

(D-5)

b
b 2 4ac

x + =
2a

4a 2

(D-6)

15

b b 2 4ac

x + =
2a
2a

(D-7)

b 2 4ac
2a

(D-8)

b b 2 4ac
2a

(D-9)

b
x=

2a

x=

16