Finance

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Finance

Financial markets

Bond market
Stock (Equities) Market
Forex market
Derivatives market
Commodity market
Money market
Spot (cash) Market
OTC market
Real Estate market Private equity

Market participants

Investors
Speculators
Institutional Investors
 Corporate finance

Structured finance
Capital budgeting
Financial risk management
Mergers and Acquisitions
Accounting
Financial Statements
Auditing
Credit rating agency
Leveraged buyout
Venture capital

Personal finance

Credit and Debt

Employment contract
Retirement
Financial planning

Public finance

Tax

Banks and banking

Fractional-reserve banking
Central Bank
List of banks
Deposits
Loan
Money supply

Financial regulation

Finance designations
Accounting scandals

History of finance

Stock market bubble

Recession
Stock market crash
 History of private equity

This box: view • talk • edit

The field of finance refers to the concepts of time, money and risk and how they are
interrelated. Banks are the main facilitators of funding through the provision of credit,
although private equity, mutual funds, hedge funds, and other organizations have become
important. Financial assets, known as investments, are financially managed with careful
attention to financial risk management to control financial risk. Financial instruments
allow many forms of securitized assets to be traded on securities exchanges such as stock
exchanges, including debt such as bonds as well as equity in publicly-traded corporations.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 The main techniques and sectors of the financial industry

• 2 Personal finance
• 3 Corporate finance
o 3.1 Capital
o 3.2 The desirability of budgeting
 3.2.1 Capital budget
 3.2.2 Cash budget
o 3.3 Management of current assets
 3.3.1 Credit policy
 3.3.1.1 Advantages of credit trade
 3.3.1.2 Disadvantages of credit trade
 3.3.1.3 Forms of credit
 3.3.1.4 Factors which influence credit conditions
 3.3.1.5 Credit collection
 3.3.1.5.1 Overdue accounts
 3.3.1.5.2 Effective credit control
 3.3.1.5.3 Sources of information on creditworthiness
 3.3.1.5.4 Duties of the credit department
 3.3.2 Stock
 3.3.3 Cash
 3.3.3.1 Reasons for keeping cash
 3.3.3.2 Advantages of sufficient cash
o 3.4 Management of fixed assets
 3.4.1 Depreciation
 3.4.2 Insurance
• 4 Shared Services
• 5 Finance of states
 • 6 Financial economics
• 7 Financial mathematics
• 8 Experimental finance
• 9 Quantitative behavioral finance
• 10 Intangible Asset Finance
• 11 Related professional qualifications
• 12 External links

• 13 See also

[edit] The main techniques and sectors of the financial

industry
Main article: Financial services

An entity whose income exceeds its expenditure can lend or invest the excess income. On
the other hand, an entity whose income is less than its expenditure can raise capital by
borrowing or selling equity claims, decreasing its expenses, or increasing its income. The
lender can find a borrower, a financial intermediary such as a bank, or buy notes or bonds
in the bond market. The lender receives interest, the borrower pays a higher interest than
the lender receives, and the financial intermediary pockets the difference.

A bank aggregates the activities of many borrowers and lenders. A bank accepts deposits
from lenders, on which it pays the interest. The bank then lends these deposits to
borrowers. Banks allow borrowers and lenders, of different sizes, to coordinate their
activity. Banks are thus compensators of money flows in space.

A specific example of corporate finance is the sale of stock by a company to institutional

investors like investment banks, who in turn generally sell it to the public. The stock
gives whoever owns it part ownership in that company. If you buy one share of XYZ Inc,
and they have 100 shares outstanding (held by investors), you are 1/100 owner of that
company. Of course, in return for the stock, the company receives cash, which it uses to
expand its business; this process is known as "equity financing". Equity financing mixed
with the sale of bonds (or any other debt financing) is called the company's capital
structure.

Finance is used by individuals (personal finance), by governments (public finance), by

businesses (corporate finance), as well as by a wide variety of organizations including
schools and non-profit organizations. In general, the goals of each of the above activities
are achieved through the use of appropriate financial instruments, with consideration to
their institutional setting.

Finance is one of the most important aspects of business management. Without proper
financial planning a new enterprise is unlikely to be successful. Managing money (a
liquid asset) is essential to ensure a secure future, both for the individual and an
organization.

[edit] Personal finance

Main article: Personal finance

Questions in personal finance revolve around

• How much money will be needed by an individual (or by a family), and when?
• Where will this money come from, and how?
• How can people protect themselves against unforeseen personal events, as well as
those in the external economy?
• How can family assets best be transferred across generations (bequests and
inheritance)?
• How does tax policy (tax subsidies or penalties) affect personal financial
decisions?
• How does credit affect an individual's financial standing?
• How can one plan for a secure financial future in an environment of economic
instability?

Personal financial decisions may involve paying for education, financing durable goods
such as real estate and cars, buying insurance, e.g. health and property insurance,
investing and saving for retirement.

Personal financial decisions may also involve paying for a loan, or debt obligations.

[edit] Corporate finance

Main article: Corporate finance

Managerial or corporate finance is the task of providing the funds for a corporation's
activities. For small business, this is referred to as SME finance. It generally involves
balancing risk and profitability, while attempting to maximize an entity's wealth and the
value of its stock.

Long term funds are provided by ownership equity and long-term credit, often in the
form of bonds. The balance between these forms the company's capital structure. Short-
term funding or working capital is mostly provided by banks extending a line of credit.

Another business decision concerning finance is investment, or fund management. An

investment is an acquisition of an asset in the hope that it will maintain or increase its
value. In investment management – in choosing a portfolio – one has to decide what, how
much and when to invest. To do this, a company must:
 • Identify relevant objectives and constraints: institution or individual goals, time
horizon, risk aversion and tax considerations;
• Identify the appropriate strategy: active v. passive – hedging strategy
• Measure the portfolio performance

Financial management is duplicate with the financial function of the Accounting

profession. However, financial accounting is more concerned with the reporting of
historical financial information, while the financial decision is directed toward the future
of the firm.

[edit] Capital

Main article: Financial capital

Capital, in the financial sense, is the money that gives the business the power to buy
goods to be used in the production of other goods or the offering of a service.

[edit] The desirability of budgeting

Budget is a document which documents the Plan of the business, This may include the
objective of business, Targets set, and results in financial terms, e.g. The target set for
sale, resulting cost, growth, required investment to achieve the planned sales, and
financing source for the investment. Also Budget may be long term or short term. Long
Term have a time horizon of 5-10 years giving a vision to the company, short term is an
annual budget which is drawn to control and operate in that particular year.

[edit] Capital budget

This concerns fixed asset requirements for the next five years and how these will be
financed.

[edit] Cash budget

Working capital requirements of a business should be monitored at all times to ensure

that there are sufficient funds available to meet short-term expenses.

The cash budget is basically a detailed plan that shows all expected sources and uses of
cash. The cash budget has the following six main sections:

1. Beginning Cash Balance - contains the last period's closing cash balance.

2. Cash collections - includes all expected cash receipts (all sources of cash for the
period considered, mainly sales)
3. Cash disbursements - lists all planned cash outflows for the period, excluding interest
payments on short-term loans, which appear in the financing section. All expenses that do
not affect cash flow are excluded from this list (e.g. depreciation, amortisation, etc)

4. Cash excess or deficiency - a function of the cash needs and cash available. Cash
needs are determined by the total cash disbursements plus the minimum cash balance
required by company policy. If total cash available is less than cash needs, a deficiency
exists.

5. Financing - discloses the planned borrowings and repayments, including interest.

6. Ending Cash balance - simply reveals the planned ending cash balance.

[edit] Management of current assets

[edit] Credit policy

Credit gives the customer the opportunity to buy goods and services, and pay for them at
a later date.

[edit] Advantages of credit trade

• Usually results in more customers than cash trade.

• Can charge more for goods to cover the risk of bad debt.
• Gain goodwill and loyalty of customers.
• People can buy goods and pay for them at a later date.
• Farmers can buy seeds and implements, and pay for them only after the harvest.
• Stimulates agricultural and industrial production and commerce.
• Can be used as a promotional tool.
• Increase the sales.

[edit] Disadvantages of credit trade

• Risk of bad debt.

• High administration expenses.
• People can buy more than they can afford.
• More working capital needed.
• Risk of Bankruptcy.

[edit] Forms of credit

• Suppliers credit:
• Credit on ordinary open account
• Installment sales
• Bills of exchange
• Credit cards
 • Contractor's credit
• Factoring of debtors
• Cash credit

[edit] Factors which influence credit conditions

• Nature of the business's activities

• Financial position
• Product durability
• Length of production process
• Competition and competitors' credit conditions
• Country's economic position
• Conditions at financial institutions
• Discount for early payment
• Debtor's type of business and financial positions

[edit] Credit collection

[edit] Overdue accounts

• Attach a notice of overdue account to statement.

• Send a letter asking for settlement of debt.
• Send a second or third letter if first is ineffectual.
• Threaten legal action.
[edit] Effective credit control

• Increases sales
• Reduces bad debts
• Increases profits
• Builds customer loyalty
[edit] Sources of information on creditworthiness

• Business references
• Bank references
• Credit agencies
• Chambers of commerce
• Employers
• Credit application forms
[edit] Duties of the credit department

• Legal action
• Taking necessary steps to ensure settlement of account
• Knowing the credit policy and procedures for credit control
• Setting credit limits
 • Ensuring that statements of account are sent out
• Ensuring that thorough checks are carried out on credit customers
• Keeping records of all amounts owing
• Ensuring that debts are settled promptly
• Timely reporting to the upper level of management for better management.

[edit] Stock

Purpose of stock control

• Ensures that enough stock is on hand to satisfy demand.

• Protects and monitors theft.
• Safeguards against having to stockpile.
• Allows for control over selling and cost price.

Stockpiling
Main article: Cornering the market

This refers to the purchase of stock at the right time, at the right price and in the right
quantities.

There are several advantages to the stockpiling, the following are some of the examples:

• Losses due to price fluctuations and stock loss kept to a minimum

• Ensures that goods reach customers timeously; better service
• Saves space and storage cost
• Investment of working capital kept to minimum
• No loss in production due to delays

There are several disadvantages to the stockpiling, the following are some of the
examples:

• Obsolescence
• Danger of fire and theft
• Initial working capital investment is very large
• Losses due to price fluctuation

Rate of stock turnover

This refers to the number of times per year that the average level of stock is sold. It may
be worked out by dividing the cost price of goods sold by the cost price of the average
stock level.

Determining optimum stock levels

 • Maximum stock level refers to the maximum stock level that may be maintained
to ensure cost effectiveness.
• Minimum stock level refers to the point below which the stock level may not go.
• Standard order refers to the amount of stock generally ordered.
• Order level refers to the stock level which calls for an order to be made.

[edit] Cash

[edit] Reasons for keeping cash

• Cash is usually referred to as the "king" in finance, as it is the most liquid asset.
• The transaction motive refers to the money kept available to pay expenses.
• The precautionary motive refers to the money kept aside for unforeseen
expenses.
• The speculative motive refers to the money kept aside to take advantage of
suddenly arising opportunities.

[edit] Advantages of sufficient cash

• Current liabilities may be catered for.

• Cash discounts are given for cash payments.
• Production is kept moving.
• Surplus cash may be invested on a short-term basis.
• The business is able to pay its accounts timeously, allowing for easily-obtained
credit.
• Liquidity

[edit] Management of fixed assets

[edit] Depreciation

Depreciation is the decrease in the value of an asset due to wear and tear or obsolescence.
It is calculated yearly to ensure realistic book values for assets.

[edit] Insurance

Main article: Insurance

Insurance is the undertaking of one party to indemnify another, in exchange for a

premium, against a certain eventuality.

Uninsured risks

• Bad debt
• Changes in fashion
• Time lapses between ordering and delivery
 • New machinery or technology
• Different prices at different places

Requirements of an insurance contract

• Insurable interest
o The insured must derive a real financial gain from that which he is
insuring, or stand to lose if it is destroyed or lost.
o The item must belong to the insured.
o One person may take out insurance on the life of another if the second
party owes the first money.
o Must be some person or item which can, legally, be insured.
o The insured must have a legal claim to that which he is insuring.
• Good faith
o Uberrimae fidei refers to absolute honesty and must characterise the
dealings of both the insurer and the insured.

[edit] Shared Services

There is currently a move towards converging and consolidating Finance provisions into
shared services within an organization. Rather than an organization having a number of
separate Finance departments performing the same tasks from different locations a more
centralized version can be created.

[edit] Finance of states

Main article: Public finance

Country, state, county, city or municipality finance is called public finance. It is

concerned with

• Identification of required expenditure of a public sector entity

• Source(s) of that entity's revenue
• The budgeting process
• Debt issuance (municipal bonds) for public works projects

[edit] Financial economics

Main article: Financial economics

Financial economics is the branch of economics studying the interrelation of financial

variables, such as prices, interest rates and shares, as opposed to those concerning the real
economy. Financial economics concentrates on influences of real economic variables on
financial ones, in contrast to pure finance.
It studies:

• Valuation - Determination of the fair value of an asset

o How risky is the asset? (identification of the asset appropriate discount
rate)
o What cash flows will it produce? (discounting of relevant cash flows)
o How does the market price compare to similar assets? (relative valuation)
o Are the cash flows dependent on some other asset or event? (derivatives,
contingent claim valuation)

• Financial markets and instruments

o Commodities - topics
o Stocks - topics
o Bonds - topics
o Money market instruments- topics
o Derivatives - topics

• Financial institutions and regulation

Financial Econometrics is the branch of Financial Economics that uses econometric

techniques to parameterise the relationships.

[edit] Financial mathematics

Main article: Financial mathematics

Financial mathematics is a main branch of applied mathematics concerned with the

financial markets. Financial mathematics is the study of financial data with the tools of
mathematics, mainly statistics. Such data can be movements of securities—stocks and
bonds etc.—and their relations. Another large subfield is insurance mathematics.

[edit] Experimental finance

Main article: Experimental finance

Experimental finance aims to establish different market settings and environments to

observe experimentally and provide a lens through which science can analyze agents'
behavior and the resulting characteristics of trading flows, information diffusion and
aggregation, price setting mechanisms, and returns processes. Researchers in
experimental finance can study to what extent existing financial economics theory makes
valid predictions, and attempt to discover new principles on which such theory can be
extended. Research may proceed by conducting trading simulations or by establishing
and studying the behaviour of people in artificial competitive market-like settings.
[edit] Quantitative behavioral finance
Main article: Quantitative behavioral finance

Quantitative Behavioral Finance is a new discipline that uses mathematical and statistical
methodology to understand behavioral biases in conjunction with valuation. Some of this
endeavor has been lead by Gunduz Caginalp (Professor of Mathematics and Editor of
Journal of Behavioral Finance during 2001-2004) and collaborators including Vernon
Smith (2002 Nobel Laureate in Economics), David Porter, Don Balenovich, Vladimira
Ilieva, Ahmet Duran, Huseyin Merdan). Studies by Jeff Madura, Ray Sturm and others
have demonstrated significant behavioral effects in stocks and exchange traded funds.

The research can be grouped into the following areas:

1. Empirical studies that demonstrate significant deviations from classical theories.
2. Modeling using the concepts of behavioral effects together with the non-classical
assumption of the finiteness of assets.
3. Forecasting based on these methods.
4. Studies of experimental asset markets and use of models to forecast experiments.

[edit] Intangible Asset Finance

Main article: Intangible asset finance

Intangible asset finance is the area of finance that deals with intangible assets such as
patents, trademarks, goodwill, reputation, etc.

[edit] Related professional qualifications

There are several related professional qualifications in finance, that can lead to the field:

• Qualified accountant qualifications: Chartered Certified Accountant (ACCA,

UK certification), Chartered Accountant (CA, certification in Commonwealth
countries), Certified Public Accountant (CPA, US certification)
• Non-statutory accountancy qualifications: Chartered Cost Accountant CCA
Designation from AAFM
• Business qualifications: Master of Business Administration (MBA),Bachelor of
Business Management (BBM), Master of Financial Administration (MFA),
Doctor of Business Administration (DBA)
• Finance qualifications: Chartered Financial Analyst (CFA),Certified
International Investment Analyst(CIIA), Association of Corporate Treasurers
(ACT), Masters degree in Finance, Certified Market Analyst (CMA/FAD) Dual
Designation, Master Financial Manager (MFM), Corporate Finance Qualification
(CF) Register Financial Planner (RFP), Certified Financial Consultants (CFC)
 • Quantitative Finance qualifications: Master of Science in Financial Engineering
(MSFE) ,Master of Quantitative Finance (MQF), Master of Computational
Finance (MCF), Master of Financial Mathematics (MFM)

[edit] External links

Look up finance in
Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

At Wikiversity, you can learn about: Finance

• Wharton Finance Knowledge Project - aimed to offer free access to finance

knowledge for students, teachers, and self-learners.
• Professor Aswath Damodaran (New York University Stern School of Business) -
provides resources covering three areas in finance: corporate finance, valuation
and investment management.

[edit] See also

• Local Government Finance in Kerala

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finance"

Category: Finance
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