+ Grammar For Students and Teachers - 8-8-11

Grammar for Students and Teachers - 1 Copyright 2011 Michael S.
Fukuchi
Grammar for Students and Teachers

By
Michael S. Fukuchi
Copyright 2011
Grammar for Students and Teachers - 2 Copyright 2011 Michael S. Fukuchi
Chapter 1 Form and Function

In English, a word has one or more forms. These forms are traditionally called parts of speech. For example, the word after can be a preposition (as in after dinner) or a conjunction (as in after the goat ate dinner). However, when a word is used in a phrase or a clause, it has a specific form and function. In the phrase after dinner, the word after has the form (or part of speech) of a preposition. The word after together with the word dinner functions as a modifier. It is a phrasal modifier traditionally called a prepositional phrase. In the subordinate or dependent clause after the goat ate dinner, the word after has the form (or part of speech) of a conjunction, in this case a subordinating conjunction, and functions as a connector that links the subordinate or dependent clause to a main or independent clause. The eight parts of speech are noun, adjective, pronoun, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection. The basic functions of English words are subject, predicate, modifier, direct object, indirect object, object of the preposition, etc. Parts of Speech = Forms (Variant Forms) Noun (Gerund) (Infinitive) (Noun Clause)
Functions Subject Direct object Indirect object Object of the preposition Subject complement (noun) = Predicate nominative Object complement (noun) Passive complement (noun) = Retained object Appositive Modifier Subject complement (adjective) Object complement (adjective) Subject Direct object Indirect object Object of the preposition Subject Complement (pronoun) = Predicate nominative Object complement (pronoun) Passive complement (pronoun) = Retained object Appositive
Adjective (Participle) (Infinitive) (Adjective or Relative Clause)
Pronoun
Parts of Speech = Forms (Variant Forms) Verb Adverb (Infinitive) (Adverb Clause) Preposition (Prepositional Phrase) Conjunction Interjection (Simple) Predicate Modifier Modifier: Connector
Functions
Adjectival (prepositional phrase) Adverbial (prepositional phrase)
(none within a sentence)
Exercise on Form and Function:

List all the parts of speech with their functions. Include all possible parts of speech and their variant forms. Keep this list as a reference for later on. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. subject: __________________________________________________________________________ predicate: _________________________________________________________________________ direct object: ______________________________________________________________________ indirect object: _____________________________________________________________________ object of the preposition: _____________________________________________________________ appositive: ________________________________________________________________________ modifier: _________________________________________________________________________ connector: ________________________________________________________________________ subject complement: ________________________________________________________________ object complement: _________________________________________________________________ passive complement: ________________________________________________________________
Click here for the answers.
Diagramming:
1. 2. 3. Diagrams show how the parts of speech function in sentences. Diagrams show how the parts of speech relate to each other in sentences. English is an SVO language Subject + Verb (predicate) + (direct) Object. This means that in English, the subject normally comes first in the sentence, the verb or predicate comes next, and the direct object comes last. There may be other words that come before, between, or after the subject + verb + object, but these three elements will usually stay in that order, unless an exception applies. Subject Verb (predicate) (direct) Object
On Horizontal Lines:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Subjects are nouns or pronouns or noun equivalents. Predicates are verbs. Direct objects are nouns or pronouns or noun equivalents. Indirect objects are nouns or pronouns or noun equivalents. There must be a direct object in order to have an indirect object. There cannot be an indirect object without a direct object. Adverbial objectives are nouns that have lost their prepositions. Originally, they were adverbial prepositional phrases of time or place. Because their forms are that of nouns, they can be modified by adjectives late Sunday. Objects of prepositions are nouns or pronouns or noun equivalents.
6.
On Slant Lines:
7. 8. (Adjectival) modifiers modify subjects, direct objects, indirect objects, and objects of prepositions. (Adverbial) modifiers modify predicates, (adjectival) modifiers, or other (adverbial) modifiers.
(noun or pronoun)
(verb)
(noun or pronoun)
1. 2. 3.
Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns or noun equivalents. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Prepositions have the formula > preposition + (optional adjective) + object (noun or pronoun) = into + the big + house. Conjunctions connect parts of speech to each other, such as two nouns, two verbs, two adjectives, etc.
4.
Major Grammatical Forms: Parts of Speech

Note: An asterisk before a sentence or a phrase traditionally indicates that the form is unacceptable in Standard English. An asterisk after a sentence or a phrase indicates that there is a note below.
Noun
1. A noun names a person (e.g., boy, Mr. Smith), place (e.g., house, Hawaii), thing (e.g., toy, Kleenex), or idea (e.g., freedom, philosophy). 2. A noun answers the question words who? or what? Noun Questions who? what? Who is it? What is it? John, Mary, Larry, Stan (a) book, (a) house, (an) airplane
3. Any word that answers yes to one of following questions (especially Test 3) is a noun. Test Questions Test 1 Test 2 Can the word in question be used with the in front of it? Can the word in question be made plural? Can the word in question be referred to as a he, she, it or they? Examples the boy, the box, the shoe, etc. boys, boxes, shoes, etc. the boy = he; the box = it; the shoes = they; liberty = it; theology = it, etc.
Test 3
Note: Abstract nouns, such as liberty, freedom, physics, psychology, theology, etc., will not pass Tests 1 and 2, but it will pass Test 3 with a yes that will qualify them as nouns. However, when used in a non-abstract way, such as the four freedoms or the psychology of Sigmund Freud, they will pass Tests 1 and 2.
Exercise on Abstract Nouns:

Circle the nouns (1-7). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I want freedom. She is taking physics. Psychology is fun. They are studying theology. Give me liberty. Existentialism is complicated. What is cubism? Can the article the be used immediately in front of these nouns? Can these nouns be made into plural forms? What kind of nouns are they?
4. A noun usually functions as a subject, a direct object, an indirect object, an object of a preposition, a subject complement (predicate nominative), object complement, or a passive complement. Functions of a Noun Function Subject Direct object Indirect object Object of the preposition Appositive Complements: Subject complement (noun) = Predicate nominative Object complement (noun) Passive complement (noun) = Retained object Example The man is feeling fine. The man loved the woman. The girl pitched John the ball. I gave the candy to Mary. Walter, the mailman, was late. It was Sam who did it. They elected Karen president. You will be given the answers shortly.
Exercise on Noun Functions:

Indicate the function of the underlined noun. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. ____________________ The student did his homework. ____________________ The mother hugged the child. ____________________ She gave the toy to Johnny. ____________________ The principal, Mrs. Smith, didnt look very happy. ____________________ They called him Mike. ____________________ The students were given the test results. ____________________ I am always a happy person. ____________________ Quincy told Susan the secret. ____________________ You cant handle the truth. ____________________ John came with Jerry and Jane.
5. There are two kinds of nouns: common nouns and proper nouns. Common nouns are usually general terms that refer to categories, whereas proper nouns are names of specific objects. Common nouns are not capitalized, whereas proper nouns are capitalized.
Exercise on Common Nouns:

Circle the nouns (1-7). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. She sang a song. I saw a flying elephant. The house was small. The baby is big. The apple tastes good. He ran a mile. They built a house. Can these nouns be made into the plural form?
9. 10.
Can a number such as one or two be placed immediately in front of them? What kind of nouns are they (in contrast to abstract nouns)?
Common Noun a person a place a thing an idea boy, girl, man, woman, child house, school, hospital, gym toy, bicycle, automobile, tree freedom, liberty, corruption
Proper Noun (capitalized) Mr. Smith, President Lincoln, Hispanics Hawaii, Paris, United States, Japan Kleenex, Kodak, Jell-O, Kool-Aid God, Satan, Catholicism, Protestantism
Exercise on Proper Nouns:

Circle the nouns (1-7). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I flew to Chicago. They visited Mr. Smith. The Lincoln Memorial is huge. Those are the Hawaiian Islands. The Pacific Ocean is calm. John is athletic. We crossed the Golden Gate Bridge. What do these nouns have in common? Can the article a be used immediately in front of them? What kind of nouns are they?
Formation of Plurals: 1. Most nouns will form their plurals by adding s or es. Examples: boy boys, box boxes, shoe shoes
Exercise on Plurals:
Circle the nouns (1-7). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. The stars are shining. The boxes are sturdy. The carrots are delicious. The cupcakes were beautifully decorated. She loves potatoes. I bought ten pens yesterday. We saw many animals there. What is the number of the nouns? How are they usually formed? Do these nouns always have to have an article immediately in front of them?
2. Some nouns of Anglo-Saxon (Germanic) origin, usually one or two syllables, retain a semblance of their original plural forms. Examples: man men, woman women, foot feet, tooth teeth, mouse mice, louse lice, child children, ox oxen, brother brethren, sheep sheep, deer deer
Exercise on Germanic Plurals:

Circle the nouns (1-7). 1. My feet are swollen.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
The men were very old. The deer were two years old. The children were noisy. The women were beautiful. We should brush our teeth daily. The mice ran away. What is the number of these nouns? In their singular form, how many syllables do most of them have? What is special about the etymology or origin of these nouns?
3. Some nouns of Latin, Greek, French, and Hebrew (non-Germanic) origins still retain their original foreign plural forms. Examples: Latin: alumnus alumni (only male), alumna alumnae (only female), alumnus alumni (both genders), radius radii, pupa pupae, curriculum curricula, memorandum memoranda, datum data, bacterium bacteria, index indices, matrix matrices; Greek: criterion criteria, phenomenon phenomena; French: plateau plateaux (although plateaus is becoming more acceptable), bureau bureaux (although bureaus is becoming more acceptable); Hebrew: cherub cherubim, seraph seraphim, kibbutz kibbutzim, etc.
Exercise on Non-Germanic Plurals:

Circle the nouns (1-7). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. The alumni supported us well. There were many criteria. They looked like cherubim. They offer many different curricula. The bacteria multiplied quickly. They formed into pupae. He read the memoranda. What is the number of these nouns?
9. 10.
In their singular form, how many syllables do most of them have? What is special about the etymology or origin of these nouns?
Count Nouns vs. Non-count Nouns: 1. Nouns that refer to persons or things that can be counted are called count nouns. They can form plurals. Examples: one marble, two marbles, three marbles 2. Nouns that refer to things that are measurable amounts or quantities are called non-count nouns. They cannot form plurals. Examples: milk, juice, sand, dirt, information, advice, luggage, furniture, clothing, information, advice
Exercise on Count Nouns:

Circle the nouns (1-7). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. The flower is beautiful. He read a book. They went to the museum. The tree is tall. She found a penny. The baker is friendly. We bought a new car. What is the number of the nouns? Can these nouns be made into the plural form? What is the technical term for these kinds of nouns that can be made into plural nouns?
Exercise on Non-Count Nouns:

Circle the nouns (1-7). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I want more milk to drink. They played in the sand. She gave me good advice. We bought new furniture. He drank the juice. They wanted more information. They carried their luggage by themselves. Can the article a or an be used immediately in front of these nouns? Do these nouns have a plural form? What is the technical term for this kind of nouns?
Plural Nouns with No Singular Forms vs. Singular Nouns with No Plural Forms 1. Some nouns that end in s are considered plural in form and have no singular form. They take plural verbs. Examples: pants, riches, eyeglasses, ashes, goods, trousers, brains, acoustics, (a persons) ethics, scissors (can also take a singular verb)
Exercise on Plural Nouns with No Singular Forms:

Circle the nouns (1-7). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. The scissors are easy to use. She wore her new glasses proudly. The acoustics are remarkable. He tore his pants. The goods were bought for them to use. His ethics were unusual.
7. 8. 9. 10.
The trousers need to be mended. Can the indefinite article a or an be used immediately in front of them? Are forms of these nouns singular or plural? What kind of nouns are they?
2. Some nouns that end in s are considered singular in form and have no plural form. They take singular verbs. Examples: measles, mumps, physics, mathematics, genetics, news, economics, (the study of) ethics
Exercise on Singular Nouns with No Plural Form:

Circle the nouns (1-7). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Hes got measles. But she has the mumps. Mathematics is easy for me. The news was good. Economics is difficult to understand. He wanted to study ethics. But she wanted to take physics. Are these nouns singular or plural? Can the indefinite article a or an be used immediately in front of them? What kind of nouns are they?
Nouns with Same Singular and Plural Forms Some nouns have the same forms for both singular and plural series, means, deer, sheep
Review Exercise 1: Circle the Nouns and diagram the first five (5) sentences.
1. My dog ate it. 2. She took the book. 3. They passed the house. 4. He rode my bicycle. 5. You know the routine. 6. The officer caught us. 7. It was time. 8. The student met you. 9. I forgot the answer. 10. The children watched me. 11. Someone took the candy. 12. The police arrested everyone. 13. No one recognized the man. 14. Her mother spoke to me. 15. Their project was finished. 16. I drove your car. 17. Who saw the movie? 18. That is my copy. 19. John was engaged to her. 20. She married her boyfriend. 21. His homework was late. 22. Answer the phone. 23. Take me to your leader. 24. Does anyone want coffee? 25. Who was that woman? 26. Why did she take the chair? 27. She sat in the next row. 28. Everyone attended the play. 29. Can anyone play the game? 30. Hit the nail with it. Click here for the answers.
Adjective
1. An adjective describes a noun or a noun equivalent. Examples: short line, good idea, blue eyes, eight pens, his studying hard for the test [The possessive adjective his is modifying a noun equivalent, in this case, a gerund phrase.] 2. An adjective answers the question words: What kind of? How many? Which? Whose? Adjective Questions What kind of? How many? Which? Whose? Applications What kind of hat? How many pieces? Which girl? Whose book? Examples a blue hat two piece that girl his book
3. Any word that satisfies the conditions of one of the following tests is an adjective. Test Models Test 1 Test 2 The ________ man is very ________. [Any word that makes sense in both blanks] _______________ pen(s) [How many or which pens?] The very tall man is here. [Separate each modifier and test each with the noun that it modifies. If the phrase makes sense, the modifier is an adjective.] Examples The tall man is very tall. The good man is very good. One pen, those pens, many pens. the man [This phrase makes sense = adj.] very man [This phrase does not make sense = not adj.] tall man [This phrase makes sense = adj.] tall + ly = tally [The word does not make sense; different meaning from the word tally = to keep score] tall + ness = tallness [The word does make sense. It fits this second criterion, so tall is an adjective.] good + ly = goodly and good + ness = goodness [Both make sense. Therefore good is an adjective.]
Test 3
Test 4
________ ly or ________ ness [Many adjectives can take ly (to form adverbs) or ness (to form nouns). If the word makes sense, it is an adjective.]
Test 5
If the word in question can be put into the third person singular present tense verb form, then it is part of the verb phrase and is not an adjective.
He is delighted. > He delights. [part of the verb phrase] He is sick. > He sicks.* [not part of the verb phrase; it is an adjective.]
4. An adjective usually functions as a modifier. 5. A single-word adjective usually comes before the word it modifies. Examples: big book, funny man, lovely thought, etc.
Exceptions: Some adjectives that have entered into English from French come after the words they modify. Examples: postmaster general general modifies postmaster; Charles the Great the Great modifies Charles; court martial martial modifies court
6. A phrasal adjective (or a phrasal adjectival modifier) comes after the word it modifies. Examples: the boy with the baseball cap (adjectival prepositional phrase) the girl wearing overalls (participial phrase)
7. There are two kinds of adjectives determiners and descriptive adjectives. a. Characteristics of Determiners: 1. They are characterized by their mutual exclusivity, that is, only one determiner at a time can modify a noun. Exception: Number adjectives, as in the third book (ordinal number adjective third used with an article) or those three books (cardinal number adjective three used with a demonstrative adjective). The article and the demonstrative adjective always come first when there is more than one adjectival modifier.
Note:
Exercise on Articles:
Circle the determiners (1-7). 1. 2. 3. The man sat alone in there. He wanted to buy a parrot. An igloo is made of ice.
4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
They went to the mall. A baby needs to be fed regularly. We finally saw the clowns. She drove the car. What is the only part of speech that these determiners can modify (come before)? If the word small were used with the noun, would it come before or after the determiner? What kind of determiners are these adjectives?
2. Some of them (demonstrative adjectives, possessive adjectives, and indefinite adjectives) can function as nominals (i.e., pronouns and nouns) when they stand alone and do not modify a noun. Examples: That is good. [That used as a demonstrative pronoun] Give me three. [three used as a noun] Some are delicious. [Some used as an indefinite pronoun] Possessive adjectives (adjective forms of the personal pronouns) and articles
Exception:
3. They are not comparable or gradable. In other words, they cannot have comparative or superlative forms.
Six (6) Kinds of Determiners

Examples 1. Articles 2. Demonstrative Adjectives 3. Possessive Adjectives 4. Number Adjectives 5. Indefinite Adjectives* Definite article the Indefinite articles a, an Singular this, that Plural these, those From pronouns my, your, our From nouns Joes, the childs Cardinal numbers one, two, three Ordinal numbers first, second, third some, any, all, more, few Used as Modifiers (Adjectives) the book a book this book, that book these books, those books my book, your book, our book Joes book, the childs book one book, two books, three books the first book, the second book some books, any book, all books
6. Interrogative Adjective
what, which, whose
What book do you want? Which book do you want? Whose book do you want?
Note: *Indefinite adjectives are also known as quantifiers.
Exercise on Demonstrative Adjectives:

Circle the determiners (1-7). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Those peaches were given to Mary. They loved to read that novel. These children came from nowhere. He could not understand this story. This poem explains what love is. She ate those appetizers with gusto. That teacher gives them homework daily. What wh-question word do these adjectives answer? Which of these determiners are used to indicate objects that are closer in distance? What kind of determiners are these adjectives?
Exercise on Possessive Adjectives:

Circle the determiners (1-7). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. I need to read my book regularly. He should return Marys book. Your pencil is missing. She wrote in her notebook. John lost his money. Larrys car was towed away. We ate all of our candy.
8. 9. 10.
What relationship is indicated between the determiner and the noun? What wh-question word do these adjectives answer? What kind of determiners are these adjectives?
Exercise on Number Adjectives:

Circle the adjectives that are not articles (1-7). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. The first book of the Bible is Genesis. Three children were playing in the yard. He brought two books to school. Autumn is the third season of the year. April has thirty days. You can remember a word if you say it at least seven times. I am the second child. Is the word first an ordinal number or a cardinal number? Is the word three in Sentence 2 acting as a noun or an adjective? What kind of determiners are these adjectives?
Exercise on Indefinite Adjectives:

Circle the adjectives that are not articles (1-7). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Some children do not listen to the teacher. We select only a few men. All animals are not mammals. There were many children in the room. Every child received an injection. She talked to each parent in the room.
7. 8. 9. 10.
No man is an island. To what part of speech are these determiners (adjectives) attached? Do these adjectives have antecedents? What kind of determiners are these adjectives?
Exercise on Interrogative Adjectives:

Circle the adjectives that are not articles (1-7). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Which one do you want? Whose raincoat do you want? What man is this? Which movie did you go to see? What book did you read for summer? Whose home did you visit? Which team won the championship? To what part of speech are these determiners attached? Can these adjectives be used by themselves (without the noun or pronoun) as stand-alone pronouns? What kind of determiners are these adjectives?
How to Form Possessive Forms of Nouns: Possessive forms of nouns function as adjectives. To form them, (1) start by determining whether the noun is singular or plural. (2) Then add the s to the noun. (3) If the noun ends in an s, there are two options. (a) The more common option is to just use an apostrophe without the s. (b) The other option is to keep the s if you pronounce the second s. Example: Marcus (singular) > the toys of Marcus > Marcus toys or Marcuss toys In this case, do you pronounce the second s in Marcus toys even though there is no second s? If you pronounce it, then use the second form and put it in.
Example: The tale told by Chaucers Prioress > The Prioress Tale or The Prioresss Tale? Most editions of Chaucer use the second form, The Prioresss Tale. Example: The members of the Jones family > one Jones (singular), two Joneses (plural) The Joneses have a dog. Is it the Joneses dog or the Jonesess dog? If you pronounce the third s, then use the second form and put it in. b. Characteristics of Descriptive Adjectives: 1. They are characterized by their mutual compatibility, unlike determiners, which are mutually exclusive. In other words, more than one descriptive adjective can modify the same noun. Example: The short, plump, gray-haired man needs to go to the barber. Note: Only one determiner, in this case, the word the, can be used to modify man, but more than one descriptive adjective, in this case, short, plump, and gray-haired, can be used to modify man.
2. They cannot function as nominals (i.e., nouns and pronouns), unlike determiners. In other words, they cannot stand alone; they must modify nouns. Example: Those long-haired men need to go to the barber. (those = determiner) Those need to go to the barber. (those = demonstrative pronoun) *Long-haired need to go to the barber. (descriptive adjective; cannot function as a pronoun) [Note: * = unacceptable form] 3. They are comparable or gradable. In other words, they can have variant forms, depending on the degree of comparison or gradation positive, comparative, and superlative.
Exercise on Descriptive Adjectives Positive Degree of Comparison:

Circle the adjectives that are not articles (1-7). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. The woman is tall. The big horse won the race. The small seed is growing. I ate a delicious meal. The homework was easy to do. The boy wanted the expensive toy. The beautiful insect flew away. Do these adjectives always have to come immediately in front of the nouns they modify?
9. 10.
Can the word very be correctly used immediately in front of all of these adjectives? What is the degree of comparison of these descriptive adjectives?
The Formation of the Comparative and Superlative Degrees: 1. Irregular adjectives form their different degrees by changes in word formation. 2. Regular adjectives form their comparative degree by adding the inflectional ending er to the positive form and their superlative degree by adding the inflectional ending est to the positive form. Regular adjectives are usually one or two syllable words of Anglo-Saxon origin.
Exercise on Descriptive Adjectives Comparative - ER:

Circle the adjectives that are not articles (1-7). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. The child chose the smaller present. The bigger turtle lost the race. There were fewer marbles in the bag. The smarter student won the contest. You are dearer to me than he. The better team won the debate. The faster car won the race. What is the degree of comparison of these descriptive adjectives? What syllable is the comparative degree marker in the exercise sentences? Does the comparative degree adjective always have to come immediately before the noun it modifies?
Exercise on Descriptive Adjectives Superlative - EST:

Circle the adjectives that are not articles (1-7). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. John always chooses the biggest toy. The fattest clown made me laugh uncontrollably. The oldest trees in the world are the bristlecones. The largest mammal is the whale. The sweetest fruit is not the pineapple. Her dearest memory was of him. Redwoods are the tallest trees in the world. What is the degree of comparison of these descriptive adjectives? Can the article a or an be used with the superlative degree? What determiner is usually used in conjunction with the superlative degree?
3. Multi-syllabic adjectives form their comparative degree by adding more to the positive form and their superlative degree by adding most to the positive form. They are usually multi-syllabic words of Romance, Latin, or Greek origin.
Exercise on Descriptive Adjectives Comparative - MORE:

Circle the adjectives that are not articles (1-7). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Joey is more handsome than John. The whale is more intelligent than the shark. Birds are more beautiful than butterflies. She is more susceptible to injury than Mary. Mrs. Smith is more understanding than Mrs. Jones. The more studious student will do well in school. Boys are more energetic than girls. What is the degree of comparison of these descriptive adjectives? What word in the exercise sentences is the comparative degree marker?
10.
Is the word more also an adjective in the exercise sentences?
Exercise on Descriptive Adjectives Superlative - MOST:

Circle the adjectives that are not articles (1-7). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Jane was the most famous student in school. He had the most bizarre hairdo. Karens most favorite dress was the one Granny bought for her. The most dangerous experiment failed twice. The president lived in the most expensive home in the city. That was the most incredible story I have ever heard. The quetzal is probably the most beautiful bird in the world. What is the degree of comparison of these descriptive adjectives? What word is the superlative degree marker in the exercise sentences? When is the word most used in the superlative degree?
Exception: Absolute Adjectives: a. They are not gradable. b. They do not have and cannot have comparative and superlative forms. c. They cannot be modified by the adverb very. Examples: wooden box (*very wooden box), cotton bath towel (*very cotton bath towel), full-time job (*very full-time job), main idea (*very main idea), true (*very true), false (*very false), dead (*very dead), round (*very round), unique (*very unique), full (*very full). [Note: * = unacceptable form] Also, dead, left, open, perfect, and wrong.
Exercise on Absolute Adjectives:

Circle the adjectives that are not articles (1-7). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. A unicorn is unique. What is the main idea of the story? That was a false statement. She had a part-time job. The fish was dead. Larry put the toys in the wooden box. A ball is round. What kind of adjectives are they? Can these adjectives be used with the word very immediately in front of them? Can these adjectives take a comparative or a superlative degree form?
Degrees of Comparison or Gradation (Descriptive Adjectives Only) Positive (base) good bad little much, many fast red few old far intelligent beautiful Comparative better worse less more faster redder fewer older, elder farther, further more intelligent more beautiful Superlative best worst least most fastest reddest fewest oldest, eldest farthest, furthest (the) most intelligent (the) most beautiful
Irregular
Regular
Multi-Syllabic
Notes: 1. The positive degree is sometimes called the base or dictionary form. 2. The superlative degree is almost always used with the article the.
Exercise on Descriptive Adjectives with Different Bases:

Circle the adjectives that are not articles (1-7). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. The best solution always escapes me. Peanuts are less expensive than almonds. We must take further measures to resolve the problem. That is a good procedure. He doesnt have much money. That is the worst answer I have ever heard. He is the eldest son in the family. What is unusual about these adjectives? Can the word very be used immediately in front of all of these adjectives? Which degree of comparison cannot be used with the word very in the exercise sentences?
Review Exercise 2: Circle the Adjective and diagram the first five (5) sentences. Note: Exclude a, an, and the from your answers in this exercise.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. My friend arrived late. The tall guy spoke slowly. The dog hurriedly dug a hole for the big bone. The beautiful flower bloomed early in the morning. The man cautiously walked into the dark room. She was very kind. Jake quickly finished the short quiz. Young people drive fast. 17. 18. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. He is so smart. The cat became terribly sick. Old people drive slowly. Study hard for your test. The gentle giant moved sluggishly. The cookies smelled very good. She looked rather beautiful. The teacher looked angrily at the inattentive student. The eager student did well on the test. Jane did her work meticulously.
19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35.
The students were not eager to leave class. The blue book was badly damaged. Do not cheat on this test. Whose assignment was turned in late? All cheaters do not prosper. Five rooms were heavily vandalized. The pink elephant danced gracefully. Ants are very industrious workers. The tree did not grow tall. He is often late for class. She is seldom sick. Simple mistakes occur frequently. Wisdom will always be the road to eternal peace. He only sent her a cheap card. The short giraffe stood there. I left your book here on the table. Sometimes teenagers can be foolish.
36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50.
Dont be impatient. Think carefully about your answer. Students often make careless mistakes. The easiest answer often defies explanation. Love can make people somewhat crazy. So many people died from the flu. Where did the grey wolf go? Something is very wrong. The teacher is never sick. The student looked everywhere for her book. She waited outside in the heavy downpour. Somehow he must get free. The small girl rarely spoke. Now is the right time. Where did the black cat go? Click here for the answers.
Pronoun
1. A pronoun stands in place of a noun, a noun phrase, or a noun equivalent (e.g., I, we, you, he, she, it, they). Examples: Southerners are usually nice to everyone = They are usually nice to everyone. [They replaces the noun.] The boy in the baseball cap sang and danced = He sang and danced. [He replaces the noun phrase.] Playing baseball is an American tradition = It is an American tradition. [It replaces the noun equivalent.] Note: The pronoun actually stands in place of the complete noun phrase or the complete noun equivalent. He stands in place of The boy in the baseball cap, and It stands in place of Playing baseball.
2. A pronoun answers the same question words who? what? or whose? that a noun does. 3. Any word other than a noun that answers one of the following the questions is a pronoun. Test Questions Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Who did it? What caused it? Whose is it? Examples You did it. We did it. It (the dog) did it. It (the earthquake) caused the destruction. It is yours. It is mine. It is ours.
Exercise on Identifying Personal Pronouns:

Circle the pronouns (1-7). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. He came to school on time. The teacher took us to our favorite park. The bell tolls for you. The gift was for Jerry and her. They turned in their homework on time. It will rain tomorrow. She taught the class for her teacher. What kind of pronouns are they?
9. 10.
What part of speech are the other words that look like pronouns? What is the technical term for those words that look like pronouns?
4. A pronoun usually functions in the same way that a noun does. Functions of a Pronoun Function Subject Direct object Indirect object Object of the preposition Complements: Subject complement (pronoun) = Predicate nominative Object complement (pronoun) Passive complement (pronoun) = Retained object Example He is the man. The man loved her. The girl pitched him the ball. I gave the candy to him. It was she who did it. She made them hers (as in her slaves). You will be given them one at a time.
Exercise on Pronoun Function:

Circle the personal pronoun and then identify the function of the pronouns. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ The teacher gave them time to do their homework. My father took us to the park. It is I, your friend. You can take the book. By revising the poem, Joanna made it hers. James stood up for Jake and her. The gang was shown them (the rituals) in secret. Pete threw her the ball. He was the new student in school. This pie is just for Elaine and me.
5. There are eight kinds of pronouns. Note that some of them have identical forms that function as different kinds of pronouns, e.g., who and whom as both relative pronouns and interrogative pronouns depending on how they are used in a sentence. Examples: He who works hard will succeed in life. [who as a relative pronoun] Who will succeed in life? [who as an interrogative pronoun]
Eight (8) Kinds of Pronouns

Examples 1. Personal 2. Relative 3. Interrogative 4. Reflexive 5. Intensive 6. Demonstrative 7. Indefinite 8. Reciprocal I, we, you, he, she, it, they, etc. who, whom, which, that (only 4) who, whom, which, what, whose (only 5) myself, yourself, themselves, etc. myself, yourself, themselves, etc. this, these, that, those (only 4) all, none, anyone, somebody, etc. each other, one another (only 2) Uses stands in place of a noun introduces a subordinate clause asks a question; introduces a subordinate clause establishes a required relationship with its antecedent establishes an optional emphasis to its antecedent replaces and gives emphasis to a noun refers to unknown persons, groups, or things shows interaction between members of a group
a. Personal pronouns - They identify the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken about. Note: Sometimes personal adjectives are classified as personal pronouns. They have forms that look like personal pronouns, but they function as adjectives and should therefore be considered as adjectives, not pronouns.
Examples: Jane saw her. [The her is a different person from Jane and is the person spoken about in the sentence.] That is my book. [My functions as an adjective in the same way that big functions as an adjective in the phrase big book.
That book is mine. [Mine functions as a pronoun in the same way that goldmine functions as a predicate nominative or subject complement in That book is a goldmine of information.]
Use the Proper Pronoun Case: If the personal pronoun is the subject of a sentence or is preceded by a form of the verb to be, use the forms - I, we, he, she, and they (pronouns in the subjective case). Otherwise, use the other forms - me, us, him, her, and them (pronouns in the objective case). Example: The senator hired Mary and I. Revision: The senator hired Mary and me. Example: The only medical doctor in the county was her. Revision: The only medical doctor in the county was she. A Pronoun in an Elliptical Clause: When an elliptical clause contains a pronoun, you might have to fill in the missing parts to determine the case of the pronoun. Example: Her parents seemed younger than her. Revision: Her parents seemed younger than she (seemed). In formal prose, nouns or pronouns acting as modifiers of gerunds must be in the possessive adjective form. Example: The teacher objected to him coming to class late. Revision: The teacher objected to his coming to class late. Pronoun Placement: Nouns come before personal pronouns. Example: I and John went to the movies. Revision: John and I went to the movies. Example: I went with her and Mary. Revision: I went with Mary and her. Example: I and my dog went to the store. Revision: My dog and I went to the store. The Difference Between Form and Function:
Form refers to what a word looks like when it is written in a sentence. Function refers to how that word is used in that particular sentence. In the sentence, The book is yours to keep, the word yours has the form of a possessive case personal pronoun. It functions as a predicate nominative. Later, we will look at how a word functions in relationship to the word that precedes it and to the word that follows it. In other words, a word can have more than one function in a given sentence, but it will have only one form.
Exercise on Pronoun Use:

Circle only those pronouns that are used improperly. Write the correct forms in the blanks. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ Keep this secret between you and I. I dont like his teasing her. I want Jake and yourself to enjoy it. Remember to give one each to her and I. Luke went with her and Mary. She wanted John and he to do it. Sharon wanted them for him and I. I and my friend went to school together. John and myself went shopping. Jane is younger than her.
Exercise on Pronoun Case:

What is the case of the following personal pronouns (1-7)? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ I soon came to understand what was meant. That pen is his. Mike saw you at the mall. The teacher told the students that they did well. Her mother gave her a big hug. Roger showed them how to do the trick. His is better than Johns.
8. 9. 10.
What part of speech is the word her in the phrase her mother? What is the plural form of the word me in the objective case? What is the possessive case of the word she?
Exercise on Personal Pronoun Declensions:

Identify the pronoun, person, number, case, and gender (for 3rd person singular). 1. My dog ate it. Pronoun Person Number Case Gender Pronoun Person Number Case Gender _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ 3. They passed the house. Pronoun Person Number Case Gender Pronoun Person Number Case Gender _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________
2. She took the book.
4. He rode my bicycle.
5. The officer caught us. Pronoun Person Number Case Gender 6. It was time. Pronoun Person Number Case Gender Pronoun Person Number Case Gender _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________
8. I forgot the answer. Pronoun Person Number Case Gender Pronoun Person Number Case Gender Pronoun Person Number Case Gender _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________
9. The children watched me.
7. The student met you.
10. Turn the computer on.
Review Exercise 3: (1) Circle the Personal Pronoun.

(2) Identify the Person, Number, Case, and Gender (for 3rd Person Singular). (3) Diagram the first five (5) sentences.
Pronoun Person __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ Number __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ Case __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ Gender __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________
1. You know the routine. 2. The police arrested them. 3. No one recognized her. 4. Her mother spoke to me. 5. Katie finished it. 6. John drove yours. 7. Who saw you?
__________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________
Pronoun
Person __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________
Number __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________
Case __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________
Gender __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________
8. You are my sunshine. 9. John was engaged to her. 10. She married her boyfriend. 11. His was late. 12. Answer it. 13. Take me to your leader. 14. Does anyone want it? 15. Who was she? 16. Why did you take the chair? 17. She sat in the next row. 18. They attended the play. 19. Can anyone play with it? 20. Hit them on the head. Click here for the answers.
__________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________
b. Relative pronouns - They are used to form relative clauses, also known as adjective clauses. The four relative pronouns are who, whom, that, and which. Example: Jane knows the woman whom she saw in the park. [Whom she saw in the park is the relative clause or the adjective clause. It is one of the three kinds of subordinate clauses.]
Notes:
1. Relative pronouns have antecedents, i.e., nouns or noun equivalents that the relative pronouns stand in place of or refer back to. Whom in the example stands in place of or refers back to woman. 2. Relative pronouns come at the beginning of subordinate or dependent clauses. Whom in the example introduces the relative (subordinate or dependent) clause.
Exercise on Relative Pronouns:

Circle the pronouns (1-7). 1. 2. 3. The student who arrived late has a good excuse. The book that I read this summer was interesting. The toys, which were on the table, needed to be cleaned.
4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
The toys that were on the table needed to be cleaned. The child with whom the teacher spoke was my son. The girl, who was sitting on the sofa, was crying. The teacher reprimanded the boy who was talking. What kind of pronouns are they? What part of speech is the word that almost always comes immediately before them? What is the technical term for the words to which the pronouns refer?
c. Interrogative pronouns - They look exactly like most of the relative pronouns, but they are used to ask questions, not to form relative or adjective clauses. The five interrogative pronouns are who, whom, whose, what, which. Example: Notes: Whom did Jane see in the park?
1. There is no relative or adjective clause in this sentence. 2. Use the who/whom test to determine when to use who or whom. (See below.) 3. Whose, what, and which must stand alone. If they modify a noun, they are interrogative adjectives, not interrogative pronouns. Interrogative Adjective (none) (none) Whose book is this? (Whose modifies book.) What kind do you want? (What modifies kind.) Which one is it? (Which modifies one.)
Interrogative Pronoun Who are you? Whom* are you looking for? Whose is this? What do you want? Which is it?
*Note: In formal English, whom is the preferred form since it is technically the object of the preposition for.
Exercise on Interrogative Pronouns:

Circle the pronouns that are not personal pronouns (1-7).
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Who was the first president of the United States? Which do you want? To whom should I give this book? What do you want me to do about it? Which of them should I buy? Whose is it? With whom did you go to see the play? What kind of pronouns are they? What is visually similar in all of those pronouns? What is the difference between the word who in Who is it? and I know who it is?
The Who/Whom Test In deciding between the use of who or whom, reconstruct the wh-question or the adjective/relative clause into normal word order (subject first, verb second) and substitute the third person singular masculine personal pronoun, he or him. Original Form: Reconstructed Form: (Who/whom) do you want to see? You do want to see (he/him).
Since the reconstructed form requires the use of him, the -m on the end of him tells you to use the -m form of the who/whom pronoun, namely whom. Therefore, you should say, "Whom do you want to see?" Note: If the sentence has an adjective/relative clause, then the (he/him) test should be used with the reconstructed subordinate clause. Original Form: Tell me (who/whom) you want to see. Main Clause: Tell me (this). Subordinate Clause: (this) = (who/whom) you want to see. Reconstructed Subordinate Clause Form: You want to see (he/him). Since the reconstructed form requires the use of him, the -m on the end of him tells you to use the -m form of the who/whom pronoun, namely whom. Therefore, you should say, "Tell me whom you want to see." Note: In traditional grammar, who/whom is used for persons; that is used for non-persons.
Exercise on Pronoun Case Test:

Circle only those pronouns that are improperly used. Write the correct forms in the blanks. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ Who are you looking for? That should be given to whomever needs it the most. In this group is the man whom I think is guilty. The candy was taken by whomever came into the room last. To who did you give the book? He who I loved betrayed me. Whoever wants it should speak up. I reserved the seat for whomever was handicapped. Who can I turn to for help? He wrote the letter to whoever it may concern.
Review Exercise 4: Correct the Pronoun Case problem (1) by circling the problem pronoun and
(2) by writing out the correct pronoun form. Do not change the pronoun from singular to plural. If there is no problem pronoun, write NONE on the line. (3) Diagram sentences 6, 8. 11, and 12. _______________1. Just call Rick and I if you need help moving the piano. _______________2. No one can do the work as well as him. _______________3. The congregation appreciates them arranging the flowers for the morning service. _______________4. Pete was sure that it was them the Parker boys sitting on the gym steps. _______________5. Who in the world chose he and Margaret to organize the school picnic? _______________6. Jeannie and her were late for class again. _______________7. Uncle Ernest has agreed to lend you and I his field glasses for Saturdays game. _______________8. Instead of you and he, Mr. Comstock should have asked them. _______________9. He knows more about the subject than her. _______________10. The best player was thought to be him. _______________11. Who were you talking to? _______________12. Me and my friend went to town. Click here for the answers.
d. Reflexive pronouns - They are formed by adding self (singular) or selves (plural) to the possessive adjectives (except for his, its, and their, which are formed by using him, it, and them). There are no reflexive forms in the subjective and possessive cases. The characteristics of the reflexive pronouns are as follows: Test Sentence: Jane saw herself in the mirror. [Note: * = unacceptable form] 1. Reflexive pronouns cannot be moved to some other place in the clause. *Jane herself saw in the mirror. *Jane saw in the mirror herself. 2. Reflexive pronouns cannot be deleted from the sentence. *Jane saw in the mirror. 3. Reflexive pronouns must have an antecedent a noun, a pronoun, or a noun equivalent that it refers back to in the same clause. Herself refers back to Jane. Note: Incorrect Uses of Reflexive Pronoun Example: The painting was done by myself. (Myself is incorrectly used because it has no antecedent.) I did the painting by myself. (The antecedent of myself is I.) Note: Intensive Pronoun, Not Reflexive Pronoun Example: I did the painting myself. (The antecedent of myself is I. However, myself is not a reflexive pronoun in this case; it is an intensive pronoun.) Possessive (Personal) Adjective 1st Person: Singular Plural 2nd Person: Singular Plural 3rd Person: Singular Masc. Fem. Neuter 3rd Person: Plural (him) her (it) (them) himself herself itself themselves my our your your
Reflexive/Intensive Pronouns myself ourselves* yourself yourselves
*Note: In special cases, such as the royal we or the editorial we, the form ourself is used.
e. Intensive pronouns - They are used for emphasis. They have the same form as, but a different function from, the reflexive pronouns. They are formed in the same way as the reflexive pronouns by adding self (singular) or selves (plural) to the possessive adjectives (except for his, its, and their, which are formed by using him, it, and them). 1. Intensive pronouns can be moved to some other place in the clause, although they usually come immediately after the noun or pronoun that is being emphasized. Example: Jake, himself, cleaned the house. Jake cleaned the house himself. 2. They can also be deleted without any change in meaning to the sentence or without creating any awkwardness in the sentence. Example: Jake, himself, cleaned the house. Jake cleaned the house.
Test for an Intensive Pronoun You can test for an intensive pronoun by placing the word by in front of the intensive pronoun and moving the prepositional phrase to the end of the sentence. If the sentence makes sense, then the pronoun is intensive, not reflexive. Example: Jake, himself, cleaned the house. Jake cleaned the house himself. Because you can say Jake cleaned the house by himself, the pronouns in the two examples are intensive, not reflexive. Also, notice that in both examples, the pronouns can be deleted. Example: Jane saw herself in the mirror. It would not make sense to say, Jane saw in the mirror by herself. Also notice that herself cannot come immediately after Jane.
3. Pronouns formed with the suffixes -self and -selves are used only as reflexive and intensive pronouns, not as substitutes for personal pronouns. Example: John and myself went to the movies. [Myself is incorrectly used for emphasis in a compound subject in informal English. Without the compound structure John and, the form myself would be considered unacceptable even in informal English.] John and I went to the movies. [I is the correct subject pronoun.] Example: That was for Jane and yourself. [Yourself is incorrectly used for emphasis in a compound object in informal English. Without the compound structure and Jane, the form yourself is still incorrectly used since it has no antecedent.]
That was for Jane and you. [You is the correct form since it is the object of the preposition for. If emphasis is desires, then add the word alone That was for Jane and you alone.]
Exercise on Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns:

Circle the reflexive pronouns and underline the intensive pronouns. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. The teacher told us to think for ourselves. She baked the cake herself. I could kick myself. Pamela looked at herself in the mirror. We did the work ourselves. They came to school by themselves. Dont blame yourself for that. They will lead the discussion themselves. I saw the president myself. You should rely on yourself rather than on others.
f. Demonstrative pronouns There are only four demonstrative pronouns singular = this, that and plural = these, those. 1. They are used to point out objects in relationship to the speaker. 2. A relationship of distance: The words this and these indicate objects close to the speaker. The words that and those indicate objects farther away from the speaker. 3. They need to be distinguished from demonstrative adjectives. The demonstrative pronouns must stand alone and cannot modify a noun, whereas the demonstrative adjectives must modify a noun. Examples: I want those. (demonstrative pronoun) I want those apples. (demonstrative adjective)
Caution: Do not use personal pronouns as demonstrative adjectives.
Example: I want them apples. [Note: Them is a pronoun, not an adjective, and is being used incorrectly.]
Exercise on Demonstrative Pronouns:

Circle the pronouns that are not personal pronouns (1-7). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I want these books, not those. Kelly brought this by mistake. That is not the car I want. I asked her to give me those. Show them these. Peter always knew this to be true. She told him that yesterday. What kind of pronouns are they? Which of these pronouns are used to indicate objects closer to the person? Can these pronouns function as adjectives?
Review Exercise 5: Circle the Pronoun and diagram the first five (5) sentences.
(Do not worry about the understood you.) 1. The man in the cape handed him the book. 2. They worked in groups. 3. We rode in his car. 4. Rachel saw me with Sarah. 5. Jacks father took us to the movie. 6. He sat alone in the room. 7. The president called them for a meeting. 8. You were seen hiding in the closet. 9. The book on the table was his. 10. Joe did the work by himself. g. Indefinite pronouns Click here for the answers. 11. They fought the terrorists from Iraq. 12. It revolves around the sun. 13. What is in my hand? 14. Dont look at me. 15. Kevin lost his turn because of me. 16. Jack and Jill kept it between themselves. 17. Someone took the book from my desk. 18. I saw Francis studying in the library.
Indefinite pronouns refer to unspecified or unknown persons, places, things, or ideas. 1. They have no antecedents because their referents are unspecified or unknown. 2. They have no case forms (subjective, objective, or possessive). 3. The following indefinite pronouns are compounds and take a singular number: Compound Indefinite Pronouns Always Singular in Number -one every some any no everyone someone anyone no one -body everybody somebody anybody nobody -thing everything something anything nothing
4. The following indefinite pronouns can take the form of indefinite adjectives when they modify nouns. Some are used only in the singular number; some only in the plural number; and some in both the singular and the plural numbers. Indefinite Pronouns Number and Use Number Indefinite Pronoun Indefinite Adjective
Used only as singular in subject position: another each any either much neither least less singular singular singular singular singular singular singular singular Another takes its place. Each has a turn. Any is fine. Either is fine. Much was done by him. Neither will do. The least was given to me. Less is better. Another one takes its place. Each candidate has a turn. Any cup is fine. Either one is fine. Much good was done by him. Neither answer will do. The least amount was given to me. Less medication is better.
Used only as plural in subject position: both few many several plural plural plural plural Both were delicious. Few were chosen. Many were recognized. Several showed up. Both cakes were delicious. Few students were chosen. Many contestants were recognized. Several students showed up.
Can be used as either singular or plural. If used with a partitive* prepositional phrase, the number is determined by the number of the object of the preposition. all none* some most more other(s) such *Notes: both both both both both both both All of the pie was eaten. All of the pies were eaten. None of the pie was eaten. None of the pies were eaten. Some of the pie was eaten. Some of the pies were eaten. Most of the pie was eaten. Most of the pies were eaten. More of it was eaten. More of them were eaten. The other is preferable. Many others were given. Such is life. Such are the ways of men. All pies have fillers. (The adjective form is no.) No student was chosen. Some pies are not baked. Most pies are baked. More pies are baked. The other answer is preferable. (Others cannot be used as a modifier.) Such happenings are a part of life. Such choices are the ways of men.
1. A partitive prepositional phrase is headed by the preposition of and indicates a relationship of a part to the whole. Although the number of the object of the preposition determines the number for the subject-verb agreement, the subject of the sentence is still the indefinite pronoun and not the word that functions as the object of the preposition. 2. Traditionally, the word none takes the singular number in both forms of the indefinite pronoun.
Test for an Indefinite Pronoun: Some grammarians consider the word one to be an indefinite pronoun as well as a noun. The test for an indefinite pronoun (except for the compound indefinite pronouns) is that it can also be used as an indefinite adjective (see last column of table above). The word one, however, cannot be used as an indefinite adjective. When used as a number (as a stand-alone noun or an adjective), the word one indicates a definite countable amount and not an indefinite quantity one answer, one student, one pie. Therefore, according to this test, the word one is not an indefinite pronoun but by default a noun.
Exercise on Indefinite Pronouns:

Circle only the indefinite pronouns. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Everyone knows every person in this room. Some of them were wrong. No one knows who she is. Much can still be done for the good of the class. Many were called, but only a few men were chosen. Does anyone want to play a game of hearts? Sometimes less is not better. She received the least. Each person will have someone as a partner. I like both flavors, but either is fine.
h. Reciprocal pronouns In English, there are only two reciprocal pronouns - each other and one another. Traditionally, each other is used to show the interaction between two persons or things, and one another is used to show the interaction among three or more persons or things. In the same manner, the word between is traditionally used to show a relationship between two persons or things, and the word among is used to show a relationship among three or more persons or things. In modern English, there is a tendency to use between in both instances. Example: Note: Example: Note: They entertained each other by telling jokes. The implication is that there are only two people, each telling jokes to entertain the other. They entertained one another by telling jokes. The implication is that there are more than two people, some or all of them telling jokes to entertain the group.
Exercise on Reciprocal Pronouns:

Circle only the reciprocal pronouns. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Each one of them told a different story. They told each other their secrets. Many others seemed fine with it. He only wrote to some of them. After that, the five of them saw one another differently. They then turned to each other and spoke. All others should not apply. They told on one another.
Review Exercise 6: (1) Circle and (2) Identify the Following Pronoun/Adjective Forms.
Then diagram the first five (5) sentences. (1) Possessive Pronoun = PossP (2) Possessive Adjective = PossA (3) Reciprocal Pronoun = Recip (4) Demonstrative Pronoun = DemoP _____ 1. My dog ate it. _____ 2. She took the book for herself. _____ 3. They did it themselves. _____ 4. He rode her bicycle. _____ 5. Do you know your routine? _____ 6. The officer saw himself in the mirror. _____ 7. The toy was yours. _____ 8. The student met with his advisor. _____ 9. He talked himself out of it. _____10. The children saw their parents. _____11. Someone took the candy. _____12. I locked myself out of the room. (5) Demonstrative Adjective = DemoA (6) Indefinite Pronoun = Indef (7) Intensive Pronouns = Inten (8) Reflexive Pronoun = Reflex _____13. No one recognized the man. _____14. I drove your car. _____15. Katie did it for herself. _____16. That is the wrong book. _____17. John saw several. _____18. She married her boyfriend. _____19. You gave it to me yourself. _____20. They phoned each other. _____21. Take me to your leader. _____22. Does anyone want coffee? _____23. Who was that woman? _____24. Why did she take those?
Six (6) Pronoun Agreement Problems

Description 1. Problem with Number Agreement: The verb must agree in number (sing. or pl.) with the antecedent, that is, the noun or noun phrase that the pronoun refers to. Example The wombat and the bandicoot carry its young in pouches. [Although wombat and bandicoot are singular, they form a compound plural subject and therefore take a plural pronoun.] Neither the students nor Mr. Jones brought their lunch today. [(a) Mr. Jones is nearer to the verb brought than students, so the pronoun must agree in number (sing.) with Mr. Jones. His is required. (b) As an option, switch Mr. Jones and students (pl.) to keep the plural pronoun their.] Neither the students nor the teacher brought his lunch today. [Switch the subjects so that the plural noun is nearer to the verb. This switch would make the plural pronoun correct.] Everyone brought their lunch today. [These indefinite pronouns have built-in clues that indicate the singular number. Body and one are both singular in number, so use the singular. None has a built-in one that indicates the singular number. Each, either, and neither are followed by an understood one, as in each (one), either Revision The wombat and the bandicoot carry their young in pouches.
2.
Problem with Antecedent Agreement: When a singular antecedent is joined to a plural antecedent by or or nor, (a) the pronoun agrees with the antecedent nearer to the verb. (b) To avoid an awkward sentence, place the plural antecedent nearer to the verb by switching the two subjects.
(a) Neither the students nor Mr. Jones brought his lunch today. or (b) Neither Mr. Jones nor the students brought their lunch today.
3.
Problem with Sexist Language: Avoid sexist language. In Modern English, his is no longer acceptable as a unisex pronoun. Use the plural forms for nouns and pronouns to avoid the problem.
Neither the teacher nor the students brought their lunch today.
4.
Problem with Indefinite Pronoun Number: Indefinite pronouns such as anybody, anyone, each, either, everybody, everyone, neither, nobody, no one, and none are singular and require not only a singular verb but also a singular pronoun. The use of they, them, or their to refer to these indefinite pronouns is not acceptable in formal prose, even though we use them in casual conversation.
[If the singular indefinite pronoun is kept, use his or her.] Everyone brought his or her lunch today. [If a plural pronoun or noun is used, use their.] They all brought their lunch today.
(one), and neither (one), so use the singular.] 5. Problem with Collective Nouns: Collective nouns such as audience, jury, committee, family, and team are singular when they refer to a group as a unit and require singular verbs as well as singular pronouns. Problem with Irregular Plurals: Watch for nouns with irregular plural forms such as criteria, phenomena, scissors, and cherubim. They will take a plural pronoun. The team won their first game of the season.[The singular is required because team refers to everyone in the group.] The criteria for becoming a chef seemed reasonable, but it was not easily met. [Criteria is plural; criterion is singular, as are phenomenon and cherub.] The team won its first game of the season.
6.
The criteria for becoming a chef seemed reasonable, but they were not easily met.
Exercise on Pronoun Agreement:

Circle the pronouns that are creating agreement problems. Identify the kind of pronoun agreement problems and write the descriptions/terms in the blanks. Note: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. These pronouns have antecedents. The problem is that the pronoun does not agree with its antecedent. _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ The committee recessed, but they convened an hour later. Neither the students nor Mr. Brown had brought their books. The cats ran away, but later it returned. Everyone has the right, but must they always exercise it? He read the criteria carefully and followed it. Each person has to be responsible for his actions. The team changed its spoiled jerseys. Either the two girls or the boy did not turn in their homework. The boy and the girl brought his and her lunch to school. The seraphim flapped its wings.
Pronoun Reference: Five (5) Pronoun Reference Problems Example 1. Implied Reference 2. Broad Reference My father is a chemist, which is what I want to major in. Next semester, personal computers can be connected to the university system, which will allow students to work from home. In the bible, it states that Jonah was swallowed by a whale Revision My father is a chemist; I want to major in chemistry. Next semester, personal computers can be connected to the university system. This access will allow students to work from home. The bible states that Jonah was swallowed by a whale.
3. Indefinite Reference (You, They, and It) 4. Ambiguous Reference 5. Delayed or Displaced Subject
He decided to spend his summer vacation playing golf, which didnt please his wife. It will become more and more common to use cell phones.
His decision to spend the summer vacation playing golf didn't please his wife. To use cell phones will become more and more common.
1. Implied Reference: In English, whenever you use a pronoun, you should be able to go back to the earlier part of the sentence or the previous sentence and point to a noun or a noun equivalent for which the pronoun is acting as a substitute. If there is no antecedent, then there is a problem. It is better to revise the sentence by replacing the pronoun with a noun or a noun equivalent in order to avoid an implied reference. Example: Note: My father is a chemist, which is what I want to major in. Which does not have an antecedent. This lack of antecedent can be tested by substituting my father or a chemist in place of which. My father is what I want to major in and A chemist is what I want to major in do not make sense because father and chemist are not the antecedent of the relative pronoun which. Identify the appropriate antecedent and put it in place of which. What is the implied reference? Chemistry. My father is a chemist; I want to major in chemistry. In Homer's poems, he recounts the events of the Trojan War. He does not have an antecedent. Homers modifies poems and has the form of an adjective, not a noun. He needs a noun or a noun equivalent as its antecedent. There is
Revision: Example: Note:
none. Whom does the he refer to? Homer, not Homers. Replace the he with Homer, and the his with Homers. Revision: Example: Revision: In his poems, Homer recounts the events of the Trojan War. In the bible, it states that Jonah was swallowed by a whale. [getting rid of the wordiness] The bible states that Jonah was swallowed by a whale.
2. Broad Reference: In broad reference, a pronoun has no antecedent and stands instead for an idea or ideas expressed in the preceding clause. Although readers can sometimes understand broad reference, it is usually not clear and should be avoided. Replace the pronoun with an appropriate synonymous noun phrase. Examples: Next semester, personal computers can be connected to the university system, which will allow students to work from home. Next semester, personal computers can be connected to the university system. This allow students to work from home. Note: Which, this, and it are broad reference pronouns that should be avoided. What does the pronoun this refer to? Access or the ability to connect personal computers to the university system next semester. The sentence could be revised by adding the noun access to the pronoun this to narrow down the broad reference to a specific noun phrase this access that clarifies the broad reference. Or, the two sentences could be combined. Next semester, personal computers can be connected to the university system. This access will allow students to work from home. [clarifying the broad reference] The ability to connect personal computers to the university system next semester will allow students to work from home. [eliminating the broad reference pronoun and combining the two sentences]
will
Revision: Revision:
3. Indefinite Reference (You, They, and It): In conversation, speakers frequently use you, they, and it indefinitely, that is, to refer to people or things in general. This kind of indefinite reference, however, is not acceptable in formal writing. Example: Revision: Example: When you go to college, the first thing you need to do is to organize your time. When students go to college, the first thing they need to do is to organize their time. When I was admitted to Barton College, they told me that I was assigned to a freshman advisor. [identifying the noun phrase that the indefinite they refers to and using it in place of the indefinite you] When I was admitted to Barton College, the recruiter told me that I was assigned to a freshman advisor.
Revision:
Example: Revision:
Because she had once had a bad accident while driving, she was afraid to try it again. Because she had once had a bad accident while driving, she was afraid to drive again.
4. Ambiguous Reference: A pronoun should refer unmistakably to one antecedent. If there is more than one possible antecedent, the meaning is ambiguous, and you need to rewrite the sentence(s) to clarify the ambiguity. Examples: Note: He decided to spend his summer vacation playing golf, which didnt please his wife. He decided to spend his summer vacation playing golf. This didn't please his wife. It is not clear what the ambiguous reference pronouns, which and this, refer to. Is it playing golf that didnt please his wife? Or is it his spending the whole summer (playing golf) that didnt please his wife? Or is it his decision that didnt please his wife? The writer must decide which meaning to convey and identify an appropriate antecedent. His decision to spend the summer vacation playing golf didn't please his wife. Spending his summer vacation playing golf didn't please his wife.
Revision: or
5. Delayed or Displaced Subject: Similar to the Indefinite It, a pronoun such as it, this, or that is often used as a dummy subject, while the true subject is displaced. This kind of construction is wordy and often awkward. Identify the true subject and revise the sentence accordingly. Example: It will become more and more common to use cell phones. What will become more and more common? To use cell phones. The true subject, the gerund phrase, is delayed and placed at the end of the sentence. To use cell phones will become more and more common. By having tutorial sessions, it will help students understand the course material. What will help students understand the course material? Having tutorial sessions or tutorial sessions. The true subject is placed in the phrasal construction, By having tutorial sessions. Having tutorial sessions will help students understand the course material. Once they get the feeling that they have someone whom they can talk to, this will take pressure off them. What will take pressure off them? The feeling that they have someone whom they can talk to. The true subject is placed in the subordinate clause, Once they get the feeling that they have someone whom they can talk to. Feeling that they have someone whom they can talk to will take the pressure off them. When something is going wrong with loved ones, that tends to have a great effect on how one feels.
Revision: Example:
Revision: Example:
Revision: Example:
What tends to have a great effect on how one feels? The fact that something is going wrong with loved ones. The true subject is placed in the subordinate clause, When something is going wrong with loved ones. Revision: Note: The fact that something is going wrong with loved ones tends to have a great effect on how one feels. In all the examples, the pronouns it, this, and that are interchangeable and are all displaced or dummy subjects. Avoid them in good writing.
Exercise on Reference Problems:

Circle the pronouns that are creating reference problems. Identify the kind of pronoun reference problems and write the descriptions/terms in the blanks. Note: These pronouns do not have antecedents. The problem is that they need appropriate grammatical nouns or noun equivalents as their antecedents. These antecedents cannot be implied or ambiguous. They must be a specific word or specific words that can be identified as grammatically correct antecedents that appear in an earlier part of the sentence or the text. _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ He kept chewing gum and talked incessantly, which upset the teacher. I went to the infirmary, but they told me to go home. He knew the answer. This is why the teacher was surprised. It is important to do your own work. I love to write, which is what I want to study. When you procrastinate, it will catch up with you. She knew who the culprit was, which is why she kept quiet. In Orwells Animal Farm, he writes about the problems with communism. 9. 10. By doing your homework regularly, it will prevent you from having to cram for the exam. In the Time magazine article, it states that Congress is stealing from the Social Security Trust Fund. Click here for the answers.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Exercise on Revising Reference Problems:

Revise the sentences to correct the reference problems. Note: 1. The sentences are from the previous exercise. He kept chewing gum and talked incessantly, which upset the teacher. _________________________________________________________________________________ 2. I went to the infirmary, but they told me to go home. _________________________________________________________________________________ 3. He knew the answer. This is why the teacher was surprised. _________________________________________________________________________________ 4. It is important to do your own work. _________________________________________________________________________________ 5. I love to write, which is what I want to study. _________________________________________________________________________________ 6. When you procrastinate, it will catch up with you. _________________________________________________________________________________ 7. She knew who the culprit was, which is why she kept quiet. _________________________________________________________________________________ 8. In Orwells Animal Farm, he writes about the problems with communism. _________________________________________________________________________________ 9. By doing your homework regularly, it will prevent you from having to cram for the exam. _________________________________________________________________________________ 10. In the Time magazine article, it states that Congress is stealing from the Social Security Trust Fund. _________________________________________________________________________________ Click here for the answers.
Verb
Kinds of Verbs [Note: * = unacceptable form] Definition/Function Action verbs expresses action or physical activity; usually carries the meaning (lexical verb); usually takes a direct object (transitive verb) actions verbs that cannot take ing (present progressive aspect) forms a single-word verb that carries the meaning or the last verb in a verb phrase that carries the meaning expresses a state of being; usually takes a subject complement (predicate nominative, predicate adjective) I run I walk I talk Example
Stative verbs
believe > *I am believing know > *I am knowing I run I walked I will have been talking Forms of the verb to be = am, is, was, were, will be, has been, had been, will have been, etc. Verbs of perception = smell, taste, feel, look, sound, appear, become, get, grow, prove, remain, seem, etc. (Test = must be replaceable with form of the verb to be) Forms of the verb to be = am, is, was, were, will be, has been, had been, will have been, etc. Forms of the verb to have = has, have, had, will have, etc. Forms of the modal (present tense past tense) will would, shall should, can could, may might, and must none Forms of the verb to do = do, did (tensed form of do + base verb) do > He does do his work. He does sleep in class. did > He did do his work.
Lexical verbs
Linking verbs
Auxiliary verbs
used to form passive voice, perfect tenses, and progressive aspect; usually does not carry the meaning (unlike the lexical verb) Auxiliary verbs that are used to express ability, possibility, or the future tense in conjunction with a lexical verb used only in the simple present tense and the simple past tense to show emphasis
Modal auxiliary verbs
Do auxiliary verbs
He did sleep in class. *Note: An asterisk before a sentence or a phrase traditionally indicates that the form is unacceptable in Standard English. An asterisk after a sentence or a phrase indicates that there is a note below.
1. A verb describes an action (e.g., run, walk, talk) or a state of being (e.g., is, seems). The former is called an action verb; the latter is called a linking verb. An action verb sets up a relationship of separation between what comes before and what comes after the verb, whereas the linking verb sets up a relationship of identity between what comes before and what comes after the verb.
Exercise on Verbs:
Circle the verbs (1-7). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I want some candy. She walked to school. Joe ran around the track. They are studying theology. Give me liberty. Existentialism presents theological problems. The artist painted the portrait. What kind of verbs are they? Action verbs Which verb is a helping verb? Are Which verb is also a stative verb? Want
Test for a Linking Verb: To test a verb to see whether or not it is a linking verb, replace the verb in question with a form of the to be verb. If the sentence makes sense, the verb in question is a linking verb. If the sentence does not make sense, then the verb in question is not a linking verb. Examples: John seems sick. The verb in question is seems. Is it a linking verb? Replace it with is, a form of the verb to be. John is sick. The sentence makes sense, so the word in question seems is a linking verb.
John has the measles. The verb in question is has. Is it a linking verb? Replace it with is, a form of the verb to be. *John is the measles. The sentence does not make sense, so the word in question has is not a linking verb.
Exercise on Linking Verbs:

Circle the verbs (1-7). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Mary is president. They became sick. The students remained quiet. You will be the teacher. John grew tall. Kelly had been the leader. I feel good. What kind of verbs are they? Which verbs are forms of the verb to be? What is the test for identifying verbs of perception?
2. Any word that fits one of the following patterns is a verb.
Verb Test Patterns Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 They will _______________. (Any word that can be put into the future tense) They _______________. (Any word that can be put into the past tense) _______________. (Any word that can be used to give a command)
Examples They will run. They will walk. They ran. They walked. Run! Walk!
Test 4
I can _______________. (Any word that describes what you can do)
I can run. I can walk. can talk.
3. A verb usually functions as a simple predicate. The word verb is often used interchangeably with the phrase the simple predicate. The complete predicate includes the verb and all its modifiers and objects. 4. A verb can be made up of one word or more than one word. If it is made up of more than one word, the verb is called a verb phrase. A verb phrase can have one or more auxiliary verbs. In a verb phrase, the last verb is the lexical verb, that part of the verb phrase that carries the meaning. All the other verbs before the lexical verb are called auxiliary or helping verbs because they help to determine tense, voice, mood, aspect, and modality (possibility or necessity). Verb Phrase Word Order = modal auxiliary verb + auxiliary verb + lexical verb He must (modal auxiliary) have (auxiliary) done (lexical verb) it.
Exercise on Modal Auxiliary Verbs:

Circle only the modal auxiliary verbs. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I will go home. Karen must do it. You can walk or ride. Larry should come home. The children had gone home. May I leave the room? I would not do it if I were you. I shall return. You might want to think about it. They could start studying.
5. Identifying Subjects and Verbs: In English, word order can help you identify subjects, simple predicates (verbs), and objects. Unlike some Indo-European languages, such as Latin and Greek, that have inflectional endings that indicate a word used as a subject or as a direct object, Modern English has lost the inflectional endings that were used in Anglo-Saxon (also known as Old English). As a result, word order became the primary way of identifying word functions. 6. In English, the normal word order is subject first, verb second, same as the SVO (subject-verb-object) word order.
Word Order (SVO = Subject Verb Object) 1. 2. 3. 4. The subject comes first. The verb (or simple predicate) comes next. If there is an indirect object, it comes between the verb and the direct object. The direct object comes last.
Note: If there is an indirect object, there must be a direct object. There cannot be an indirect object without a direct object. Example: John gave her the book. John is the subject. It comes first. Gave is the verb (or simple predicate). It comes after the subject John. Her is the indirect object. It comes between the verb (or simple predicate) gave and the direct object book. Book is the direct object. It comes after the indirect object her. John gave the book to her. John is the subject. It comes first. Gave is the verb (or simple predicate). It comes after the subject John. Book is the direct object. It comes after the verb (or simple predicate) gave since there is no indirect object. To her is a prepositional phrase. Some textbooks consider her as an indirect object.
Example:
Whos Who: In a context where Jane (in the first example) and Jim (in the second example) are infants who are being carried, word order becomes important in order to understand what the sentences are saying. John gave Jim Jane. [Jane (the infant) is the direct object. Jim is the indirect object.] John gave (the infant) Jane to Jim (to carry). John gave Jane Jim. [Jim (the infant) is the direct object. Jane is the indirect object.] John gave (the infant) Jim to Jane (to carry).
7. Inverted Word Order: There are three instances when the subject-verb word order can be inverted: a. when the expletive there or here is used
An expletive (also known as a delayed, displaced, or dummy subject) is a word that is used to anticipate a true subject that has been displaced to some other part of the sentence.
Example: There was a purple alligator that lived in an orange shoe. Note: In the main clause, the subject alligator comes after the verb was, but in the adjective or relative clause (one of the three kinds of subordinate clauses), the subject is that and the verb is lived in normal order.
Example: Heres Johnny! Note: The linking verb is is contracted and added to the expletive here. The expletive indicates that the subject is to follow. The subject Johnny comes after the verb is.
The expletive there can also be used with the following verbs: appear, come, go, happen, live remain, and seem. Examples: There appears to be a problem. There comes a time when we must all stand up for what we believe. There goes my savings. There happens to be two of them. Once upon a time, there lived a frog princess. There still remains one unanswered question. There seems to be no solution. b. when a question is used Example: Where did the elephant go? Note: The subject elephant comes after the tense marker did (the first half of the verb, the other half being the base verb form go).
c. when certain adverbial expressions begin a sentence Example: After winter comes spring. Note: The subject spring comes after the verb comes. The prepositional phrase After winter is the adverbial expression that begins the sentence.
Exercise on Subject-Verb Word Order:

Circle the verb. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Without a smile there can be no happiness. Where is he going? After happiness comes sorry. Is everyone finished with the quiz? Here are the winners. Can you fix this for me? There once was a lonesome king. What is exceptional about all of the subjects in these sentences? What is the normal word order in English? When does only part of the verb come before the subject?
Figuring Out the Parts of the Verb: The child may have been playing in the yard. Verb order = modal + form of have + form of be + main verb + -ing [inflection]
Active Voice and Passive Voice: Formulas to Remember: How to Form Verb Tense, Voice, and Aspect (Using They as Subject) Passive Voice (be) Active Voice Simple Tenses Present main verb (dictionary or lexical form )
(sign of the passive voice = must have form of be + past participle form of main verb)
present tense form of be (are) + past participle form of main
verb Example They play. They are played.
Past
main verb + ed
past tense form of be (were) + past participle form of main verb They were played. future tense form of be (will be) + past participle form of main verb They will be played. [The form of the verb is present tense but is used to indicate future action when combined with adverbial time element.] none present tense form of have (have) + been + past participle form of main verb They have been played. past tense form of have (had) + been + past participle form of main verb They had been played. future tense form of have (will have) + been + past participle form of main verb They will have been played.
Example They played Future will/shall + main verb
Example They will play. present tense + adverbial time Future element (only with certain verbs (special form) such as arrive, come, depart) Example She comes home tomorrow. Present Perfect present tense form of have (have) + past participle form of main verb past tense form of have (had) + past participle form of main verb future tense form of have (will have) + past participle form of main verb
Perfect Tenses (sign of the perfect tense = must have simple tense forms of have)
Example They have played. Past Perfect
Example They had played. Future Perfect
Example They will have played.
Exercise on Present Tense:

Circle the verbs in the present tense. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Roy was tutoring the student. Is Roy tutoring the student? Roy tutors the student. Roy has tutored the student. The student is tutored by Roy.
6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Does Roy tutor the student? Roy will tutor the student. The student is being tutored by Roy. Roy comes home tomorrow. Tutoring is Roys forte.
Exercise on Past Tense:

Circle the verbs in the past tense. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Roy is tutoring the student. Was Roy tutoring the student? Roy tutored the student. Roy had tutored the student. The student was tutored by Roy. Did Roy tutor the student? Roy will tutor the student. The student was being tutored by Roy. Roy came home yesterday. Tutoring was Roys forte.
Exercise on Future Tense:

Circle the verbs in the future tense. 1. 2. 3. 4. Roy will tutor the student. Was Roy tutoring the student? Roy will be tutoring the student. Roy will have been tutoring the student.
5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
The student will be tutored by Roy. Will Roy be tutoring the student? Roy will tutor the student. The student was being tutored by Roy. Roy comes home tomorrow. Tutoring was Roys forte.
Active Voice, Progressive Aspect:
Passive Voice, Progressive Aspect: The present and past tense forms of the passive voice verb in the progressive aspect are fairly common. However, the other six tenses are uncommon and rare, although they are technically correct and do exist in the English language. Passive Voice (be), Progressive Aspect (being)
(sign of the progressive passive = must have form of be + being + past participle form of main verb)
Simple Tenses
Present
present tense form of be (are) + being + past participle form of main verb
Example They are being played. Past past tense form of be (were) + being + past participle form of main verb
Example They were being played. Future future tense from of be (will be) + being + past participle form of main verb
Example They will be being played. Perfect Tenses (sign of the perfect tense = must have simple tense forms of have) Present Perfect present tense form of have (have) + been + being + past participle form of main verb
Example They have been being played. Past Perfect past tense form of have (had) + been + being + past participle form of main verb
Example They had been being played. Future Perfect future tense form of have (will have) + been + being + past participle form of main verb
Example They will have been being played.
Exercise on Perfect Tenses:

Circle the verbs in the perfect tenses. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. Roy had been tutoring the student. Will Roy have been tutoring the student? Roy will be tutoring the student. Roy has been tutoring the student. The student had been tutored by Roy. Will Roy be tutoring the student? Roy had tutored the student. The student will be being tutored by Roy. Tutoring had been Roys forte. What is the sign of the perfect tenses? What is the sign of the passive voice? What is the sign of the progressive aspect?
IMPORTANT: Verbs in English follow a set pattern. 1. The last verb in the verb phrase will always be the main verb. 2. The other verbs are auxiliary verbs. 3. If a modal auxiliary is used, as in the example, it will always be the first verb in the verb phrase. 4. If the main verb is preceded by a form of have, the verb phrase will be in the perfect tense. 5. If the verb phrase has a modal, the form of have will immediately follow the modal. 6. If the main verb ends in ing, the main verb must be immediately preceded by a form of be, and the verb phrase will be in the progressive aspect. 7. If the main verb does not end in ing but is immediately preceded by a form of be, the verb phrase is in the passive voice. 8. The first and only the first verb carries the tense marker. A tense marker indicates the tense of the verb.
Review these formulas: (They can be combined.)

Verb order The child The child Verb order The child The child =
perfect tenses = to have + verb + -en (past participle) passive voice = to be + verb + -en (past participle) progressive aspect = to be + verb + -ing
form of be + been + is + form of be + been + is + verb + -ing play + ing play + ing verb + -en (past participle) seen seen active voice progressive aspect with perfect tense with simple tense passive voice with perfect tense with simple tense
form of have + has + form of have + has +
Active Voice
Simple Tenses (verb + -s, verb + -ed, will + verb)
Active Progressive Aspect

(be + verb + -ing)
Present Past Future

Perfect Tenses
He shows He showed He will show

(have + verb + -en)
He is showing He was showing He will be showing

(have + been + verb + -ing)
Present Perfect Past Perfect Future Perfect
He has shown He had shown He will have shown Passive Voice
He has been showing He had been showing He will have been showing Passive Progressive Aspect
(be + being + verb + -en)
Simple Tenses
(be + verb + -en)
Present Past Future

Perfect Tenses
He is shown He was shown He will be shown

(have + been + verb + -en)
He is being shown He was being shown He will be being shown

(have + been + being + verb + -en)
Present Perfect Past Perfect Future Perfect Note:
He has been shown He had been shown He will have been shown 1. 2.
He has been being shown (rare) He had been being shown (rare) He will have been being shown (rare)
verb + -en = past participle (-en is the standard grammatical inflection/symbol for the past participle.) The past participle is the third verb in the series talk, talked, talked; sing, sang, sung.
Exercise on Conjugation:
Verb order The child The child Verb order The child The child =
Conjugate the verb to serve. (Fill in all the boxes with the correct verb forms.)
perfect tenses = to have + verb + -en (past participle) passive voice = to be + verb + -en (past participle) progressive aspect = to be + verb + -ing
form of be + been + is + form of be + been + is + verb + -ing play + ing play + ing verb + -en (past participle) seen seen active voice progressive aspect with perfect tense with simple tense passive voice with perfect tense with simple tense
form of have + has + form of have + has +
Active Voice Simple Tenses Present Past Future Perfect Tenses Present Perfect Past Perfect Future Perfect
(verb + -s, verb + -ed, will + verb)
Active Progressive Aspect

(be + verb + -ing)
He He He
(have + verb + -en)
He He He
(have + been + verb + -ing)
He He He Passive Voice
He He He Passive Progressive Aspect

(be + being + verb + -en)
Simple Tenses Present Past Future Perfect Tenses Present Perfect Past Perfect Future Perfect Note:
(be + verb + -en)
He He He
(have + been + verb + -en)
He He He
(have + been + being + verb + -en)
He He He 1. 2.
He He He verb + -en = past participle (-en is the standard grammatical inflection/symbol for the past participle.) The past participle is the third verb in the series talk, talked, talked; sing, sang, sung.
Tense Markers Simple Tenses Present tense, singular = main verb + -s Present tense, plural = main verb (no s) Past tense, weak verb = main verb + ed, d, or t [dental suffix] Past tense, strong verb = vowel mutation (+ -en) Future tense = shall/will + main verb Perfect Tenses has have had had* will have will be Passive/ Progressive is are was ang will walk, will sing Example walks, sings walk, sing walked
* In the process of evolution from Old English (Anglo-Saxon) to Modern English, the Old English strong verb ending en was eliminated from the verb to have. Some verbs such as gotten, frozen, written, etc. have retained the inflectional ending in Modern English.
Review Exercise 7: Circle the Verb and diagram sentences 24, 25, 26, 29, and 30.
1. My dog ate it. 2. She took the book. 3. They passed the house. 4. He had ridden my bicycle. 5. You know the routine. 6. The officer caught us. 7. It was time. 8. Did you meet him? 9. I forgot the answer. 10. The children watched me. 11. Someone will take the candy. 12. The police arrested everyone. 13. No one recognized the man. 14. Her mother had spoken to me. 15. Their project was finally finished. 16. I drove your car. Click here for the answers. 17. Who saw the movie? 18. That is my copy. 19. John was engaged to her. 20. Did she marry her boyfriend? 21. His homework was late. 22. Answer the phone. 23. Take me to your leader. 24. Does anyone want coffee? 25. Who was that woman? 26. Why did she take the chair? 27. She sat in the next row. 28. Everyone attended the play. 29. Can anyone play the game? 30. Hit the nail with it.
Subject-Verb Agreement: To understand subject-verb agreement, (1) you first have to be able to identify the simple subject (noun) and the simple predicate (verb) in a sentence. Apply the tests to help you identify a noun and a verb. (See Chapter 1.) Then draw a line through every prepositional phrase, adjective, and adverb. Example: The girl in the red sweater came into the classroom late. The girl in the red sweater came into the classroom late. The is an adjective (determiner, article). In the red sweater is an adjectival prepositional phrase, modifying the noun girl. The pattern for a prepositional phrase = preposition + (adjective) + noun or pronoun Into the classroom is an adverbial prepositional phrase, modifying the past tense verb walked. It answers the adverb question where? Late is an adverb, modifying the verb walked. It answers the adverb question when? What you should have left are the simple subject girl and the simple predicate (verb) came.
Exercise on Simple Subject:

Circle the simple subject. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. She is taking physics. Everyone in the United States of America has freedom of speech. Psychology is fun. The children playing on the beach were noisy. Give me liberty. The sky with the setting sun is beautiful. The cat in the tree is happy. They are studying theology. The house on the hill is haunted. Existentialism is complicated.
Exercise on Simple Predicate:

Circle the simple predicate. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. She sang a song. I saw a flying elephant. The house was small. The baby is big. The apple tastes good. He ran a mile. They built a house. This exercise is easy. They chased the rabbit. An apple a day keeps the doctor away.
(2) Next, remember that English is an SVO language. In other words, the word order of most English sentences is Subject first, Verb second, Object last. Check to see if the three exceptions to the SVO order apply. There are three instances when the subject-verb word order can be inverted: a. when the expletive there or here is used Example: There was a purple alligator that lived in an orange shoe. Note: In the main clause, the subject alligator comes after the verb was, but in the adjective or relative clause (one of the three kinds of subordinate clauses), the subject is that and the verb is lived in normal order.
Example: Heres Johnny Note: The linking verb is is contracted and added to the expletive here. The expletive indicates that the subject is to follow. The subject Johnny comes after the verb is.
b. when a question is used Example: Where did the elephant go?
Note:
The subject elephant comes after the tense marker did (the first half of the verb, the other half being the base verb form go).
c. when certain adverbial expressions begin a sentence Example: After winter comes spring. Note: The subject spring comes after the verb comes. The prepositional phrase After winter is the adverbial expression that begins the sentence.
Exercise on Simple Subject Inverted Word Order:

Circle the simple subject. Note: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. The subject-verb word order is inverted. There once was a lonesome king. Where is he going? After happiness comes sorry. There is only one thing left to do. Here are the winners. Can you fix this for me? Without a smile there can be no happiness. Is everyone finished with the quiz? There but for the grace of God go I. Dont they know better?
Exercise on Simple Predicate Inverted Word Order:

Circle the simple predicate. Note: 1. 2. The subject-verb word order is inverted. There once was a lonesome king. Where is he going?
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
After happiness comes sorry. There is only one thing left to do. Here are the winners. Can you fix this for me? Without a smile there can be no happiness. Is everyone finished with the quiz? There but for the grace of God go I. Dont they know better?
(3) Identify the simple subject(s) and the simple predicate(s). Then apply the following rules: Summary of Agreement Rules Agreement Rule 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Applies to only certain tenses The Rule of One S Prepositional phrases Eitheror, neithernor, or Indefinite pronouns anyone, everyone, etc. Each and any, as in each of them, any of them Every, as in every man, woman, and child None, all, and some of the pie (or pies) Hint to Remember Third person present tense, past tense using was or were, and third person present perfect tense Use -s either with the subject or with the verb, but not in both places nor omitted in both places (Exceptions apply.) The subject is never found in the prepositional phrase. The subject closest to the verb determines verb agreement. The verb is always singular. The verb is always singular. One is understood, as in each (one) The verb is always singular. The verb agreement depends on the number (singular or plural) of the object (noun or pronoun) of the preposition.
1. Basis Agreement Rule: a. b. The basic agreement rule is that if the subject is singular, the verb must be singular. If the subject is plural, then the verb must be plural.
Dont get confused: Singular nouns do not end in s; plural nouns end in s. On the other hand, singular verbs end in s; plural verbs do not end in s. (Exceptions apply in both cases.) c. The agreement rule applies to the following tenses only: 1. the third person present tense 2. the past tense (with was or were as the verb or as part of the verb phrase) 3. the third person present perfect tense (has or have).
2.
The Rule of One S with the Subject or with the Verb, not in both places: In the third person present tense, the past tense (with was or were as the verb or as part of the verb phrase), and the third person present perfect tense where the subject is a noun, usually if the subject has an -s attached to the subject-noun, then the verb (specifically, the tense marker) does not need an -s, and vice versa. In other words, there must usually be an s with the subject or with the verb, but not in both places and not omitted in both places. Technically speaking, the s marker is called an inflection. Examples: The boys walk. (plural subject has an s; no s with the verb) [present tense] The boy walks. (singular subject has no s; -s with the verb) [present tense] The boys were walking. (plural subject has an s; no s with the verb) [past tense] The boy was walking. (singular subject has no s; -s with the verb) [past tense] The boys have walked a mile. (plural subject has an s; no s with the verb) [present perfect tense] The boy has walked a mile. (singular subject has no s; -s with the verb) [present perfect tense] Note: Note: The use of only one s either with the subject or with the verb, but not in both places and not omitted in both places. The verbs walk (present tense, plural), walks (present tense, singular), were (past tense, plural), was (past tense singular), have (present tense, plural), and has (present tense, singular) are the verbs that have the tense markers.
Exception: The Rule of One S does not apply to irregular plurals, such as alumni (Lat. sing. alumnus), phenomena (Grk. sing. phenomenon), and cherubim (Heb. sing. cherub) that come from Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and other languages.
Exercise on Subject-Verb Agreement Rule of One -S:

Circle the correct verb (1-9). 1. The boys (is, are) going to town.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
The students (studies, study) all the time. The girl (has, have) only one stick of gum left. The toys (is, are) going to be sold. Apples (grows, grow) on trees, not on vines. Watermelons (tastes, taste) sweet. The drummer and the saxophonist (has, have) placed in the final music competition. The students (was, were) being quizzed by the teacher. White eggs (comes, come) from white chickens. What is the rule that determines subject-verb agreement in the previous sentences?
3. The Subject Is Never in the Prepositional Phrase. Example: After winter comes spring. Note: After winter is a prepositional phrase. The subject is spring. Since it does not have an inflectional plural s on it, the verb must take an inflectional singular s: comes, not come.
Example: The boy as well as the girl was (not were) caught. Note: As well as the girl is a prepositional phrase. The preposition as well as is a phrasal preposition, made up of more than one word. The subject is boy. Since it does not have an inflectional plural s on it, the verb must take an inflectional singular s: was, not were (the Rule of One S).
Exercise on Subject-Verb Agreement Intervening Prepositional Phrases:

Underline the simple subject(s) and then circle the correct verb. Note: 1. 2. 3. 4. Even though the subjects and verbs are separated by intervening prepositional phrases, the Rule of One S still applies. Mixing over twenty different soundtracks (is, are) not unusual in commercial films. My brother, along with our friends, (is, are) looking forward to the weekend. Bryant's reasons for advocating the gold standard (was, were) partly religious and partly economic. The flooding of over 25 counties (has, have) taken its toll.
5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
The causes of the Black Death (was, were) not known to the villagers. Math, in addition to physics and chemistry, (makes, make) for a hard semester. Hemingway's use of simple words and sentences (continues, continue) to influence many writers. The instructions outlined in the manual (was, were) not clear. Hot sun, together with strong wind, (causes, cause) severe skin burn. What separates the subjects from the verbs in these sentences?
4.
Either . . . or, neither . . . nor, or or: When using the correlative conjunctions either . . . or or neither . . . nor, or simply the coordinating conjunction or, the verb agrees with the subject closest to it. Example: Either the teacher or the students were wrong. Note: Of the two subjects teacher and students the subject closest to the verb were is the noun students. Students is plural, so the verb must be were, not was. Students has an s on it, so the verb cannot have an s on it. The correct verb is were, not was (the Rule of One S).
Example: Neither the students nor the teacher was wrong. Note: Of the two subjects students and teacher the subject closest to the verb was is the noun teacher. Teacher is singular, so the verb must be was, not were. Teacher does not have an s on it, so the verb must have an s on it. The correct verb is was, not were (the Rule of One S).
Exercise on Subject-Verb Agreement Either-Or:

Circle the correct verb. Note: 1. 2. 3. 4. In Items 1-5, if you start with the of prepositional phrases, the subject-verb agreement will become more evident. Peter is one of the many students who (is, are) Mrs. Jones pets. Joyce, one of those students who (parties, party) hard, (misses, miss) class regularly. I know that John is one of the students who always (studies, study) early. Patricia is one of those smart students who (has, have) an easy time with (her, their) homework.
5. Note: 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Of the many things that (has, have) to be done, English homework is my favorite. In Items 6-10, the verb must agree with the subject closest to it. Neither the roses nor the boxwood (has, have) survived the ice storm. Either the administrators or the union (is, are) to blame. The toys or the candy (is, are) going to be mine. Neither the boy nor the girls (is, are) guilty. Either the hyenas or the lion (is, are) going to win the battle.
5.
Indefinite Pronouns: Indefinite pronouns formed by compounding some-, any-, no-, and every- with -body, -one, and -thing are always singular. Examples: Everybody is fine. Everyone is fine. Everything is fine. Note: The words, body, one, and thing, are inherently singular, so when they are compounded, they will still be singular.
6.
Each and any: The pronouns each and any will always take a singular verb when used as a subject or when used before a noun as a modifier (adjective), as in each of them, any of them, each man, and any man. Examples: Any of them is fine. Each is capable of completing the task. Note: In both examples, the word one is usually understood, as in any one and each one. Therefore, since one is singular, the verb must be singular. Also, in both examples, the words any and each do not have an s on them, so the verb must have an s on it.
Exception: If each follows a plural noun, the verb is plural, as in The men and women each were (not was) given a reward. Technically speaking, the word each in that sentence is functioning as an appositive. It is a collapsed form of each one of them. The subjects of the sentence are men and women. 7. Every: Every always takes a singular noun and verb. Example: Every man, woman, and child is (not are) ill. 8. None, all, and some: None, all, and some will take either a singular or a plural verb, depending on the number (singular or plural) of the word (noun or pronoun) in the partitive prepositional phrase
(headed by the preposition of) which follows it. Examples: All of the pie was eaten. All of the pies were eaten. Note: The words pie and pies are used to determine the number of the pronoun all. The subject is all in both sentences. The prepositional phrases are of the pie and of the pies. In the first example, pie is singular, so the verb must be singular was. In the second example, pies is plural, so the verb must be plural were. The subject-verb agreement works the same way for none and some.
Exercise on Subject-Verb Agreement Indefinite Pronouns:

Circle the correct verb. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Everybody (is, are) doing well in this class. Each of them (is, are) doing well in this class. Not one of them (is, are) doing well in this class. Some of them (is, are) doing well in this class. (Is, are) any of them doing well in this class? Every man, woman, and child (is, are) doing well in this class. All of them (is, are) doing well in this class. None of them (is, are) doing well in this class. Every one of them (is, are) doing well in this class. (Is, are) none of them doing well in this class?
Review Exercise 8: Correct the Subject/Verb Agreement error by writing out

the correct verb. If the sentence is correct, leave the item blank. Then diagram sentences 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. _________________1. _________________2. _________________3. _________________4. The evidence that they submitted to the judges were not convincing. Some of the pies is missing. Neither my brothers nor I are going. Among his most trusted servants were John.
_________________5. _________________6. _________________7. _________________8. _________________9. _________________10. _________________11. _________________12. _________________13. _________________14. _________________15. _________________16. _________________17. _________________18. _________________19. _________________20. _________________21. _________________22. _________________23. _________________24. _________________25. _________________26. _________________27. _________________28. _________________29. _________________30.
There is a table, two couches, four chairs, and a desk in the living room. Every one of the benches along the walk were occupied by old men and women. Our big pine tree as well as a small oak were damaged by the high winds. Are either of these trains going to Los Angeles? That guy is one of those geeks who has graduated from MIT. The scissors is sharp. The only fruit on the market now are peaches. Each of the plans have its advantages. The criteria for the contest has to be revised. The list of eligible candidates were posted on the bulletin board. Neither the kittens nor the cat have been fed. Phil is one of the teachers at Barton who is very concerned about their students. My father, together with my brothers, were planning to build a cabin at the lake. Where is the bracelets and the beads? The number of students at the art exhibit was small. A small number of students were at the art exhibit. Everyone who heard the speeches were impressed by them. Fifty dollars is too much for her to pay. There are in many countries much unrest today. Every Tom, Dick, and Harry are interested in seeing the job recruiters today. The pair of mittens left on the bus belong to either Jo or her younger sister. The golfer along with his many fans were heading toward the ninth green. Two and two is four. Ms. Adams is one of those teachers who is considered easy. None of the men has brought their wives. My friend and coworker Mr. Jones has gone abroad.
Verb Forms
When dealing with verbs, you need to understand the following concepts: 1. Tense - refers to the form of the verb that indicates time - for example, present time indicated by use of the present tense (as in The boy walks home) and past time indicated by the use of the past tense (as in The boy walked home). 2. Person - refers to whether a person is speaking (I, we - first person), is spoken to (you - second person), or is spoken about (he, she, it, one, they - third person). 3. Number - refers to whether a person/thing is alone (singular - I, you, he, she, it) or is not alone (plural - we, you, they). Three Principal Parts of the Verb: In English, verbs have three principal parts (to walk) walk, walked, walked; (to ride) ride, rode, ridden. In Latin, verbs have four principal parts (to praise) laudo, laudare, laudavi, laudatus. These principal parts are used to form all the verb forms in the language. In English, the first word in the series is the present tense (uninflected) form, the base form, or the dictionary form. This is the form that is used to look up a verb in the dictionary. The second word in the series is the past tense form. And the third word in the series is the past participle form. In English, verbs fall into two categories: weak or regular verbs and strong or irregular verbs.
Present Tense Weak (or Regular) Verbs Strong (or Irregular) Verbs walk pave bend sing drink write
Past Tense walked paved bent sang drank wrote
Past Participle walked paved bent sung drunk written
Notes: 1. When using the perfect tenses, the third principal part of the verb must be used. 2. Weak or regular verbs have the same form for the past tense and the past participle. How to Form the Six Verb Tenses (Active Voice): In the simple tenses (present, past, and future tenses), active voice, the present tense is the same as the base form with the exception of the third person singular forms, which requires an s. The past tense is the same as the second word in the series (the past tense form). The future tense is formed by adding will or shall in front of the base form.
The perfect tenses (present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect), active voice, are formed by using the present, past, and future tense forms of the verb to have has or have (present tense), had (past tense), and will have or shall have (future tense). These forms are added in front of the past participle, the third word in the series. Active Voice Simple Tenses: to see Present Past Future he sees, they see he saw, they saw he will see, they will see Perfect Tenses: have + past participle he has seen, they have seen he had seen, they had seen he will have seen, they will have seen

Verb order = The child The child Verb order = The child The child
perfect tenses = to have + past participle passive voice = to be + past participle progressive aspect = to be + verb + -ing
form of have + form of be + has + been + is + form of have + form of be + has + been + is + main verb + -ing play + ing play + ing past participle seen seen active voice progressive aspect with perfect tense with simple tense passive voice with perfect tense with simple tense
Exercise on Active Voice:

Circle only those verbs that are in the active voice. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Warren is studying to become a doctor. The pies were taken to the bake sale. Janet had been at the mall. The student was told not to do it. Sam was finished with his homework. Lucy will drive to school. The students were confused by the test. The secret will be revealed tonight. He had been running the good race. The car was being driven by a blind man. Click here for the answers.
Review Exercise 9: (1) Underline the Verb and

(2) Indicate the Simple Tense Present, Past, or Future. __________ 1. My dog ate it. __________ 2. She will take the book. __________ 3. They passed the house. __________ 4. He rides my bicycle. __________ 5. You know the routine. __________ 6. The officer caught us. __________ 7. It will soon be time. __________ 8. Take me to your leader. __________ 9. The student met you. __________10. The children watched me. __________11. Someone takes the candy. Click here for the answers. __________12. The police arrested everyone. __________13. No one will recognize the man. __________14. Her mother spoke to me. __________15. She finished the project __________16. Shall I drive your car? __________17. Who saw the movie? __________18. That will be my copy. __________19. John engaged her. __________20. She marries her boyfriend.
Review Exercise 10: (1) Underline the Verb and

(2) Indicate the Perfect Tense Present Perfect, Past Perfect, or Future Perfect. __________ 1. My dog had eaten it. __________ 2. She will have taken the book. __________ 3. They had quickly passed it. __________ 4. He has ridden my bicycle. __________ 5. You had known the routine. __________ 6. The officer will have caught us. __________ 7. The children had watched me. __________ 8. She had taken me to the leader. __________ 9. I will have forgotten the answer. __________10. It will have been time. __________11. Has someone taken the candy? __________12. The police had arrested everyone. __________13. No one will have seen the man. Click here for the answers. __________14. There has been a burglary here. __________15. She has finished the project __________16. I will have driven your car. __________17. Who has seen the movie? __________18. That will have been my copy. __________19. John had engaged her. __________20. Has she married her boyfriend? __________21. His homework had been late. __________22. He had answered the phone. __________23. Has the student met you? __________24. Who had wanted coffee?
NOTE: These sentences all need a clause to provide the context for the proper sequence of tense.
Voice - refers to the form of the verb that defines the relationship between the subject and the action (or state) of the verb. Is someone doing something (The man shot the bear - active voice), or is something being done by someone (The bear was shot by the man - passive voice)? Note: Also avoid the unnecessary use of the passive voice whenever possible. Rather than writing, The bear was shot by the man, write instead, The man shot the bear. How to Form the Six Verb Tenses (Passive Voice): In English, the passive voice is formed by using the six tensed form of the linking verb to be + the past participle (the third word in the series, the Principal Parts of the Verb) am, is, or are (present tense), was or were (past tense), will be or shall be (future tense), has been or have been (present perfect tense), had been (past perfect tense), will have been or shall have been (future perfect tense). Passive Voice = to be + past participle Simple Tenses: to be + past participle Present Past Future he is seen, they are seen he was seen, they were seen he will be seen, they will be seen Perfect Tenses: have + been + past participle he has been seen, they have been seen he had been seen, they had been seen he will have been seen, they will have been seen
Important Verb Forms to Memorize: To Be Present Past Future Present Perfect Past Perfect Future Perfect am, is, are was, were will be or shall be has been, have been had been will have been or shall have been To Have has, have had will have or shall have has had, have had had had will have had or shall have had
form of have + form of be + has + been + is + form of have + form of be + has + been + is +
main verb + -ing play + ing play + ing past participle seen seen
active voice progressive aspect with perfect tense with simple tense passive voice with perfect tense with simple tense
Exercise on Passive Voice:

Circle only those verbs that are in the passive voice. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Warren had been studying to become a doctor. The pies will have been taken to the bake sale. Janet will have been at the mall. The student was being told not to do it. Sam finished with his homework. Lucy will be driven to school. The test confused the students. The secret was revealed earlier tonight. He had run the good race. The car was being driven by a blind man.
Note on the Use of Will and Shall: In traditional grammar, shall is the normal form of the helping verb for the first person singular future tense (I shall return) and the first person plural future tense verbs (We shall return). Will is the normal form of the helping verb for the other persons and tenses. The reverse is true when shall/will are used to show emphasis. So, when Gen. Douglas McArthur said, after being forced out of the Philippines by the Japanese during World War II, I shall return! he was misusing the helping verb shall incorrectly as an emphatic form. In contemporary grammar, shall is more commonly being used as the emphatic form in all tenses, and will is being used as the normal form in all tenses.
Review Exercise 11: (1) Underline the Verb, (2) Indicate the Simple Tense,
and (3) Circle the number if it is Passive Voice. __________ 1. The food was completely eaten. __________ 2. She took the book. __________ 3. The card is passed. __________ 4. Will he ride my bicycle? __________ 5. The routine will be learned. __________ 6. The thief is finally caught. __________ 7. Will it be time? __________ 8. The alien was secretly captured. __________ 9. The answer will not be forgotten. __________10. The children watched me. __________11. The candy is taken. __________12. The speeder was quickly arrested. __________13. Will no one be recognized? __________14. Her mother speaks to me. __________15. The project is finally finished. __________16. I drive your car. __________17. Who will not go to the movie? __________18. That is my copy. __________19. John is engaged. __________20. She is married. __________21. His homework was late. __________22. The phone is not answered. __________23. Will the student meet you? __________24. The coffee is drunk. Click here for the answers.
Review Exercise 12: (1) Underline the Verb, (2) Indicate the Perfect Tense,
and (3) Circle the number if it is Passive Voice. __________ 1. The dog food had been eaten. __________ 2. She had taken the book. __________ 3. They have not passed the house. __________ 4. My bicycle will have been ridden. __________ 5. You will have learned the routine. __________ 6. The thief has been caught. __________ 7. The children had watched me. __________ 8. She had taken me to the leader. __________ 9. I will have forgotten the answer. __________10. It will have been time. __________11. Has someone taken the candy? __________12. The police had arrested everyone. __________13. No one will have seen the man. Click here for the answers. __________14. Her mother had not spoken to me. __________15. The project has been finished. __________16. I will have driven your car. __________17. Who has seen the movie? __________18. That will have been my copy. __________19. John had engaged her. __________20. Has she married her boyfriend? __________21. His homework had been late. __________22. The phone has been answered. __________23. The student has met you. __________24. Who had wanted coffee?
NOTE: These sentences all need a clause to provide the context for the proper sequence of tense.
5. Aspect - Verbs that have -ing endings fall into a special category called the progressive aspect. They indicate that an action is in progress or takes a while to complete. The child was walking to school indicates a past time when the act of walking took some time to complete. How to Form Verbs in the Progressive Aspect: The progressive aspect can be formed in all verb tenses and in both active and passive voices. It is formed by using the six tenses of the helping verb to be + verb + -ing. The perfect tenses use the three simple tense forms of the helping verb to have. Progressive Aspect Active Voice Simple Tenses: to be + verb + -ing Present Past Future he is seeing he was seeing he will be seeing Perfect Tenses: have + been + verb + -ing he has been seeing he had been seeing he will have been seeing Passive Voice Simple Tenses: To be + being + past participle Present Past Future he is being seen he was being seen he will be being seen Perfect Tenses: (rare) have + been + being + past participle he has been being seen he had been being seen he will have been being seen

form of have + form of be + has + been + is + form of have + form of be + has + been + is + main verb + -ing play + ing play + ing past participle seen seen active voice progressive aspect with perfect tense with simple tense passive voice with perfect tense with simple tense
Exercise on Progressive Aspect:

Circle only those verbs that have the progressive aspect. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. She was acting like a bore. Robbie was given nothing. I have been going home early. Working hard can be fun. He was throwing the fish back into the pond. Harriet will be running up the hill. The test was being conducted in complete silence. I like challenging courses. Trees are being planted to compensate for the lost rain forests. The results were disappointing.
6. Mood - refers to the way a speaker or writer says or writes something. Does the speaker say it as a statement of fact (indicative mood), as a command (imperative mood), or as a possibility/condition (subjunctive mood). Three Kinds of Moods Uses Indicative Imperative makes a statement a definite attitude issues a command or a request an insistent attitude expresses a contrary-to-fact condition a tentative attitude Examples John came home. Come home, John. It is important that John come home.
Subjunctive
a. The indicative mood makes a statement - a definite attitude. Example: John came home. Note: The verb in the indicative mood will have the traditional grammatical characteristics of person (first, second, third), number (singular, plural), tense (present, past, future, etc.), voice (active, passive), etc.
b.
The imperative mood issues a command or a request - an insistent attitude. Example: Come home, John. Note: The verb in the imperative mood is the same form as the base or dictionary form of the verb, that is, the first of the three principal parts of the verb.
c. The subjunctive mood expresses a contrary-to-fact condition - a tentative attitude. Verb Forms in the Subjunctive Mood Tenses Present (neutral time) Past (present time) Past Perfect (past time) Active Voice replace replaced had replaced Passive Voice be replaced were replaced had been replaced
Characteristics of the Subjunctive Mood 1. The traditional subject-verb agreement rules do not apply. 2. The subjunctive verb forms are the same for all three persons (e.g., 1st person I, we; 2nd person you; and 3rd person he, she, it, they) 3. When used, the subjunctive mood is used only in the subordinate clause, never in the main clause. How to Construct the Subjunctive Mood After subordinating conjunctions such as if, unless, etc. Only after the verb wish After verbs such as act, behave, talk, look, followed by a subordinate clause headed by as if or as though After verbs such as insist, recommend, demand, command, suggest, request, urge, move, etc. and after adjectives such as important,
Uses of the Subjunctive 1. To express a hypothetical situation 2. To express a wish 3. To describe a behavior
Examples I wouldn't be in trouble if I had listened to you, not if I would have listened to you. I wish she were here, not I wish she was here. Tom acted as if he were drunk, not like he was drunk.
4. To express some degree of urgency
Janet moved that the motion be tabled, not Janet moved that the motion should be tabled.
necessary, and imperative.
Exercise on Mood:
Identify the mood of the verb in the underlined clause. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ I like talking to other people. If you were to make one wish, what would it be? If you were to make one wish, tell me what would it be. Who are you? It is important that it be done correctly. Let us do this quietly. Jake seemed like a troubled kid. The teacher strongly recommended that the students be on time for classes. Tell me what to do. If I were to tell you, it wouldnt be fair.
In addition to these terms, there are also terms for different kinds of verbs that you should become familiar with. 1. Weak vs. Strong Verbs - Weak verbs (sometimes called regular verbs) use -ed, -d, or -t (dental suffixes) to indicate past tense and past participial forms. Strong verbs (sometimes called irregular verbs) indicate past tense by vowel mutation and often have an en or n ending in the past participle (a remnant from the Old English past participial form). Verbs in English have three principal parts: Three Principal Parts of the Verb Verbs Weak (or Regular) Strong (or Irregular) Present Tense walk pave bend sing drink write lie Past Tense walked pave bent sang drank wrote lay Past Participle walked paved bent sung drunk written lain
lay
laid
laid
Notes: 1. When using the perfect tenses, the third principal part of the verb must be used. 2. Weak or regular verbs have the same form for the past tense and the past participle. a. With irregular or strong verbs, you need to memorize the various forms since there is no systematic way to remember them. They are remnants from Old English. b. You should avoid using nonstandard verb forms in (1) passive constructions that are formed by using a form of the verb be and (2) perfect tenses, that is, tenses that are formed using a form of have + a verb (i.e., past participle). In both cases, be sure to use the third in the series - sing, sang, sung - freeze, froze, frozen - begin, began, begun - drink, drank, drunk. Example: The steak was frozen (not froze) solid. (passive voice construction) Example: The test had already begun (not began) when I came to class. (perfect tense) c. Don't drop -s/-es and -d/-ed verb endings even though we tend to omit them in speaking. Example: We used (not use) to go to Disney World every summer. Example: The players are supposed (not suppose) to practice every day. The Troublesome Pair: Lie vs. Lay The test for the correct use of lie or lay is the Be/Put Test. Lie and be go together, and lay and put go together. If you are not sure which lie or lay form to use, substitute the word in question with a tensed form of be or put. To Be Present Past Future Present Perfect Past Perfect Future Perfect Examples: am, is, are was, were will be has been, have been had been will have been To Have has, have had will have has had, have had had had will have had
I lie in the sun today. I lay in the sun yesterday. I will have lain in the sun tomorrow.
These are actually the correct forms even though they may sound strange to some ears. To test the correctness of the verbs, replace them with the tensed forms of the verb to be. I am in the sun today. I was in the sun yesterday. I will have been in the sun tomorrow. The to be forms are correct, so the lie-lay-lain forms of the verb to lie are also correct. If the to put forms were used in the test, the sentences would not sound correct. *I put in the sun today. *I put in the sun today. *I will have put in the sun tomorrow. Examples: He lays the book on the table. He laid the book on the table. He will have laid the book on the table. To test the correctness of the verbs, replace them with the tensed forms of the verb to put. He puts the book on the table. He put the book on the table. He will have put the book on the table. The sentences sound right because the lay-laid-laid forms of the verb to lay are correct. If the to be forms were used in the test, the sentences would not sound correct. *He is the book on the table. *He was the book on the table. *He will have been the book on the table. Note: This be/put test also works for sit vs. set. Sit = be and set = put.
Exercise on Verb Forms:

Circle the incorrect verb forms. Note: 1. 2. Most of these verbs are in the perfect tenses, which require the third principal part of the verb the third in the series sing, sang, sung. Oscar should of known what to do. Having went to school early, Will had to wait for a hour before class started.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
If I had wrote down everything, I wouldnt be in this predicament. He had ran a mile before he realized no one was behind him. The leg has broke off from the doll. Ellen has misspoke once too often. The teacher was upset at Johns having came to school late again. He lead them down the primrose path. Kim was use to talking back to people. Tomorrow I will have laid out in the sun by noon.
Review Exercise 13: If the Verb Form is wrong, write out the correct form.
Dont change the tense. If there is no problem, leave it alone. Then diagram sentences 4, 6, 19, 20, and 35. ____________________1. I never wrote him back, although he had wrote me over two months ago. ____________________2. Because Jake had drunk over a gallon of beer last night, he had a mean hangover. ____________________3. By the time June showed up, Kyle had already went to the movies without her. ____________________4. The deer has froze in its tracks. ____________________5. Yesterday I laid out in the sun so long that I got severely sunburned. ____________________6. The Roman soldiers hanged Jesus on the cross for three hours. ____________________7. Patty had sang so well that she won the singing contest. ____________________8. Walter had rode the horse for five straight hours, so he ended up with saddle sores. ____________________9. Its incredible that Ralph has ran the mile in less than four minutes. ____________________10. Nathan had already brung his lunch so he decided not to join them at MacDonalds. ____________________11. Dorothy doesnt know it, but I seen her do it. ____________________12. Larry told Sally that he should of drove her home. ____________________13. Phelps is such a great swimmer that he has consistently broke his own records. ____________________14. Hank was so use to doing it that he didnt think there was anything wrong. ____________________15. Because Ellen was the best, they had gave her the award. ____________________16. The students all knew that Betsy Ross had wove the first flag for the U.S. ____________________17. The skunk had stank so bad that everyone had to leave the room. ____________________18. Although Fred had swore to the judge that he was honest, he still lied.
____________________19. Danny has swum the channel for the fifth straight time. ____________________20. They had rang the bell loudly. ____________________21. Everyone has finally shook the presidents hand. ____________________22. Carrie had misspoke once too often. ____________________23. Quincy should not have stole the diamonds from the safe. ____________________24. Because the prize was not his, Sam should not have took it home with him. ____________________25. During the brawl Tom had tore his $500 shirt. ____________________26. Because Mary was a sinner, Jesus has forgave her. ____________________27. Look at what the lioness has drug into the den. ____________________28. Jesus has arose from the dead as he had foretold. ____________________29. The students had began to do their work in silence. ____________________30. Gary had a stomach ache because he had single-handedly ate a huge lunch. ____________________31. Norman had already drawn five pictures by the time Ray finished his first. ____________________32. Ian had came home late, but his parents didnt care. ____________________33. The scout leader has lead them down the wrong path. ____________________34. Earlier the librarian had lain the books on the table, but they were gone. ____________________35. I had lain in the sun too long. Click here for the answers. 2. Linking Verbs - There are also special verbs called linking or predicating verbs, used to link the subject to subject complements and object complements. These linking verbs do not take direct objects. They are usually followed by a noun, a noun equivalent, or a pronoun called a predicate nominative or an adjective called a predicate adjective. The predicate nominative and the predicate adjective are also called subject complements because they describe something about the subject. Examples: John is a man. (predicate nominative) Claudia seems studious. (predicate adjective)
These verbs are sometimes called verbs of perception since some of them deal with the five senses. Some examples of linking verbs are forms of the verb be, feel, look, smell, sound, taste, appear, become, get, grow, prove, remain, seem, stay, turn. Test for a Linking Verb: To test whether or not a verb is a linking verb, replace the word with a form of be. If the sentence makes sense, then the verb is a linking verb. [Note: * = unacceptable form] Examples: The goats seem big = The goats are big. (The verb seem is a linking verb.) The goats ran into the house = *The goats were into the house. (The verb ran is not a linking verb.)
The goats ate the grass = *The goats were the grass. (The verb ate is not a linking verb.) 3. Auxiliary or Helping Verbs - Auxiliary verbs or helping verb are used to create verb forms, such as the passive voice, the perfect tenses, and the progressive aspect. The two auxiliaries in English are forms of the verb to be and to have, as in was captured (passive voice), has captured (present perfect tense), and is capturing (present progressive). These verbs are used to form verb phrases. To Be Present Past Future Present Perfect Past Perfect Future Perfect am, is, are was, were will be has been, have been had been will have been To Have has, have had will have has had, have had had had will have had
4. Modal Auxiliary Verbs - Modal auxiliary verbs express ability, possibility, or the future tense. They are also used to form verb phrases. Modal Auxiliary Verbs Present Tense can may shall will must 5. Emphatic Forms of Verbs a. Do Auxiliary Verbs can also take an emphatic form by adding a form of the verb do, as in I do respect you and He did do his homework. This emphatic form is used only in the simple present tense and the simple past tense. b. Shall-Will Auxiliary The emphatic form can also be indicated by the use of shall and will. In traditional grammar, shall is the normal form of the helping verb for the first person singular future and future perfect tense verbs (I shall return, I shall have returned) and the first person plural future and future perfect tense verbs (We shall return, we shall have returned). Will is the normal form of the helping verb for the other persons and tenses. The reverse is true when shall/will are used to show emphasis. would (none) Past Tense could might should
c. In contemporary grammar, shall is more commonly being used as the emphatic form in all tenses, and will is being used as the normal form in all tenses.
Exercise on Auxiliary and Modal Auxiliary Verbs:

Circle the auxiliary or helping verbs and underline the modal auxiliary verbs. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. I had been helping Frank. Oliver however must be fed on time. Can I help you? She might have done it. You must tell me that secret. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Gary had driven the car. Anna will postpone her trip. Perry will have his dinner later. I would like a cup of tea. Have you seen my coat?
6. Transitive vs. Intransitive Verbs - Verbs can also be referred to as transitive (takes a direct object, as in Claudia studies history) or intransitive (does not take a direct object, as in Claudia studies hard). In the first example, history is the direct object - What does Claudia study? History. In the second example, hard is an adverb - How does Claudia study? Hard.
Exercise on Transitive and Intransitive Verbs:

Circle the transitive verbs and underline the intransitive verbs. Review: Transitive verbs take direct objects. Active voice verbs take direct objects. In order for sentences to have indirect objects, they must have direct objects. Intransitive verbs do not have direct objects. They can have subject complements or predicate nominatives. Passive voice verbs do not take direct objects. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The window was broken. Pamela flew the airplane. He was being bad. I am a king in my fantasy world. Will was playing a joke on her. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. The kids had been in the store. Sam was seen at the theater with Joan. They were watching movies all night. His parents had thrown him a party. They had been told a story.
7. Sequence of Tense - Good English still observes what is called sequence of tense. The verb tense tells which action happened first and which came after. Example: Two weeks later I learned that my application for financial aid was denied. Revision: Two weeks later I learned that my application for financial aid had been denied. 8. Phrasal Verbs - The verb can also be combined with words such as at, in, out, and up (usually prepositions) that are called particles or enclitics. Such verbs are called phrasal verbs. They are different from verb phrases or verbal phrases (which are discussed below). Example: She tried the dress on. She tried on the dress. She tried it on. 9. Stative Verbs Some verbs cannot take the ing form *I am believing, *I am knowing. [Note: * = unacceptable form] Avoiding Forms of the Verb To Be: In good writing, you should avoid using forms of the verb be: be, is, are, was, were, will be, will have been, being, had been, has been, etc. It is the most overused word in the English language and weakens the quality of your writing. This overuse can be remedied by three methods. 1. Reduce a dependent clause containing a form of the verb to be to form an appositive or a prepositional phrase. Example: John, who is my next door neighbor, came over for a cup of coffee. Revised: John, my next door neighbor, came over for a cup of coffee. [appositive] Example: The man who is wearing a baseball cap came toward me. Revised: The man with a baseball cap came toward me. [prepositional phrase] 2. Combine sentences that have forms of the verb to be to eliminate at least one of the to be verb. Example: Honolulu is on the island of Oahu. It is the capital of Hawaii. Revised: Honolulu, on the island of Oahu, is the capital of Hawaii. [sentence combining] 3. Replace the form of the verb to be with another verb. Example: Mary is a basketball player for the University of North Carolina. Revised: Mary plays basketball for the University of North Carolina. [verb replacement] 4. Eliminate THERE constructions. They are wordy constructions that also weaken the quality of your writing because they contain forms of the verb to be. Strive to eliminate them, but be sure to keep the same tense when you rework your sentences.
Example: There are many students who spread rumors that Dr. Fukuchi is a hard teacher. Revised: Many students spread rumors that Dr. Fukuchi is a hard teacher.
5. Avoid writing passive voice sentences. Sometimes they are necessary, but usually it is better to write in the active voice. Example: The letter was read by the teacher to the class. Revised: The teacher read the letter to the class.
Exercise on Getting Rid of To Be Verbs:

Revise the following sentences to get rid of the to be verbs. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Sally, who is running for president, will likely win the election. _________________________________________________________________________________ The vase which was broken while the children were playing was an heirloom from Grandma. _________________________________________________________________________________ Although there are many ways to solve the problem, the simplest solution is always the best. _________________________________________________________________________________ Chuck, who was his son, was taken to school by Woody even though he was late for work. _________________________________________________________________________________ Arnold, who is my best friend, will be 21 years old tomorrow. _________________________________________________________________________________ Wilson, which is in North Carolina, is along Interstate 95. _________________________________________________________________________________ Among the white flowers, there was the single red rose that stood out. _________________________________________________________________________________ Being that you have seniority, your words should bear more weight. _________________________________________________________________________________ The children who were seen in the park were also seen in the mall. _________________________________________________________________________________ There were several students who were working in the room at that time. _________________________________________________________________________________ Click here for the answers.
Adverb
1. An adverb limits or places a condition on a verb (e.g., She ran quickly), an adjective (e.g., very good), or another adverb (e.g., very quickly). In other words, an adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. 2. An adverb answers the following adverb question words: where? when? how? how often? 3. Adverbs that do not end in ly are called flat adverbs. Eleven (11) Kinds of (Single-Word) Adverbs Purpose 1. Adverbs of Manner Usually end in ly (added to descriptive adjectives), can be moved around, can be compared, uses more, most) Adverb Questions How? Examples Jean ran home quickly. Sam spoke sadly. Other Examples beautifully, reluctantly, slowly (more slowly, most slowly),
2.
Adverbs of Place Where? Cannot be moved around; cannot be compared, except for near and far Adverbs of Time Refers to indefinite time, can be moved around, cannot be compared Adverbs of Frequency Cannot be compared Adverbs of Completion Cannot be moved around, cannot be compared When?
It fell down. William drove far.
there, hither, away, near (nearer, nearest)
3.
Ralph came to class early. Victor showers daily.
soon, next, late, first
4.
How often?
Todd did it twice. Larry has never done it. Sylvia was almost done. Norman was nearly finished.
always, often, occasionally completely, partially, wholly, practically
5.
To what degree?
Purpose 6. Adverbs of Relationship Cannot be moved around, cannot be compared Adverbs of Intensity Intensifies, quantifies, or emphasizes verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs; cannot be moved around; cannot be compared Sentence Adverbs Modify the whole sentence, not the simple predicate; can be moved around; cannot be compared; ends in ly. Conjunctive Adverbs Look like conjunctions but are adverbs, can be moved around, cannot be compared
Adverb Questions How?
Examples John came alone. Edgar went solo.
Other Examples together
7.
How?
Alan was very angry. Vera did fairly well.
too, rather, increasingly, not Informal = pretty, awfully, really, horribly
8.
Obviously, it wasnt true. Kirk evidently told the truth.
Unfortunately, presumably, fortunately, actually, unexpectedly, allegedly, decidedly
9.
[Important Distinction Between Conjunctive Adverbs and Conjunctions: Conjunctive adverbs can be moved around, whereas conjunctions cannot be moved around.]
She was sick; however, she did not leave.> She was sick; she did not leave, however. Beth ate dinner; then she went to bed.> Beth ate dinner; she then went to bed. Cheri went inside. Turn it in Thursday.
therefore, besides, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, accordingly
10 .
Adverbial Objectives Where? Can act as nouns, When? can be modified by the, originally were prepositional phrases that over time lost their prepositions [collapsed prepositional phrases], cannot be compared
(to) home, (on) Saturday, (in the) east, today (OE to dg = in the day), tomorrow (OE to morgenne = in the morning), yesterday (OE to giestran dg = in the yester day)
Purpose 11 . Flat Adverbs No ly ending, overlaps other categories, cannot be moved around, uses er, est
Adverb Questions How? Where? When?
Examples He worked hard. The house was near. She was gone long before we arrived.
Other Examples fast (faster, fastest), well (better, best), high, low, far, soon, late
Exercise on Single-Word Adverbs - Modifiers:

Circle the single-word adverbs. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Arthur quickly solved the problem. The exercises did not seem very difficult. The early bird hunts for worms early in the morning. They always come to school together. David walked far into the forest. Ivan allegedly stole the information. You did better than Tom. I worked hard on these questions. Frank went inside. He became increasingly angry.
Adverb Degrees of Comparison or Gradation Positive She did well. badly much little Comparative She did better. worse more less Superlative She did the best. worst most least
Irregular
Positive Regular MultiSyllabic He worked hard. fast She dresses beautifully. intelligently
Comparative He worked harder. faster She dresses more beautifully. more intelligently
Superlative He worked the hardest. fastest She dresses the most beautifully. the most intelligently
Notes: 1. The positive degree is sometimes called the base or dictionary form. 2. The superlative degree is almost always used with the article the or a(n). modify (3) (other) adverbs 2. Comes immediately before the (other) adverb that it modifies
4. Adverbs that modify verbs (simple predicates) have the following characteristics: a. They answer most of the wh- questions where, when, how, how often. b. They are movable within their clause. Examples: Phil ran the race quickly. Phil quickly ran the race.
c. They are subject to the degrees of comparison or gradation positive, comparative, and superlative degrees quickly, more quickly, most quickly. 5. Adverbs that modify (descriptive) adjectives have the following characteristics: a. They must be placed before the adjective they modify. Example: That was a very good answer.
b. They are not movable. Examples: That was a very good answer. That was a good very answer.
c. They act as intensifiers, quantifiers, or emphasizers. Examples: The very tall man wore a top hat. [intensifier] The child became quite angry. [quantifier] The penitent was truly sincere. [emphasizer]
d. To test for an adverb in a noun phrase, keep a, an, or the and the word in question, drop the others that come between the word a, an, or the and the noun, and attach the word in question to the noun. If the noun phrase does not sound right or make sense, the word in question is an adverb. In the following example, the noun phrase is the very tall man. The word in question is very is it an adjective or an adverb? Example: The very tall man wore a top hat. *The very man [Note: The word tall is omitted to test the word very.] The noun phrase does not sound right and does not make sense. Therefore, the word very is an adverb. [Note: * = unacceptable form] The tall man In this instance, the noun phrase sounds right and makes sense. Therefore, the word tall is not an adverb. It is a descriptive adjective. e. To test for an adverb in a predicate adjective phrase, take the word in question and attach it to the subject. If the noun phrase does not sound right or make sense, the word in question is an adverb. If the noun phrase makes sense, the word in question is a descriptive adjective. In the following example, the predicate adjective phrase is quite angry. The noun phrase (subject) is the child. Attach
the word in question quite to the noun child, that is, between the word the and the word child. Is it an adjective or an adverb? Example: The child became quite angry. *The quite child [Note: The word quite is the word in question in the predicate adjective phrase quite angry.] The noun phrase does not sound right and does not make sense. Therefore, the word in question quite is an adverb. The angry child In this instance, the noun phrase sounds right and makes sense. Therefore, the word angry is a descriptive adjective and not an adverb. 6. Adverbs that modify other adverbs have the following characteristics: Test Sentence: He came home very quickly. a. The other adverb modifies the simple predicate (verb). Explanation: The adverb in question is very. The other adverb is quickly. It modifies the simple predicate (verb) came. b. The adverb (the word very) that modifies another adverb is not movable. Examples: He came home very quickly. He came very home quickly. He very came home quickly.
c. The adverb that modifies another adverb comes immediately before the other adverb that it modifies very quickly. Examples: He came home very quickly.
Exercise on Single-Word Adverbs - Modified:

Circle the word that the single-word adverb modifies. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Arthur quickly solved the problem. The exercises did not seem very difficult. The early bird hunts for worms early in the morning. They always come to school together. David walked far into the forest. Ivan allegedly stole the information. You did better than Tom.
8. 9. 10.
I worked hard on these questions. Frank went inside. He became increasingly angry.
Review Exercise 14: Circle the Adverb and diagram the first five (5) sentences.
1. My friend arrived late. 2. The tall guy spoke slowly. 3. The dog hurriedly dug a hole for the bone. 4. The flower bloomed early in the morning. 5. The man cautiously walked into the room. 6. She was very kind. 7. Jake quickly finished the short quiz. 8. Young people drive fast. 9. He is so smart. 10. The cat became terribly sick. 11. Old people drive slowly. 12. Study hard for your test. 13. The gentle giant move sluggishly. 14. The cookies smelled very good. 15. She looked rather beautiful. 16. The teacher looked angrily at the student. Click here for the answers. 17. The eager student did well on the test. 18. Jane did her work meticulously. 19. The students were not eager to leave class. 20. All eyes were looking up. 21. The easiest answer often defies explanation. 22. Whose assignment was turned in late? 23. All cheaters do not prosper. 24. Five rooms were heavily vandalized. 25. I left your book here on the table. 26. The ripe apples fell down. 27. The tree did not grow tall. 28. He is often late for class. 29. She is seldom sick. 30. Simple mistakes occur frequently.
7. Conjunctive adverbs, such as then, however, therefore, consequently, etc., traditionally modify verbs, although some grammarians argue that they modify clauses. They are adverbs, but they are often confused with conjunctions because they are used as transitional elements between clauses. As adverbs that modify verbs, they are movable [Adverb Movement Test], whereas conjunctions are not movable. Examples: Peter came home; however, he did not eat dinner. Peter came home; he, however, did not eat dinner. Peter came home; he did not, however, eat dinner. Peter came home; he did not eat dinner, however. The semicolon stays where it is.
Note:
Rule:
Commas in pairs is the basic rule for comma use. The exception to this rule is that commas are minor punctuation marks, so they must give way to major punctuation marks such as periods, semicolons, and question marks. In the first example above, the first comma before the conjunctive adverb however gives way to the semicolon, a major punctuation mark. In the second and third examples, commas are used correctly in pairs. In the fourth example, the second comma gives way to the period, a major punctuation mark. Unlike traditional punctuation, commas around conjunctive adverbs can be omitted in contemporary punctuation.
8. An adverbial objective (sometimes called an objective adverb) is a collapsed prepositional phrase, that is, the object of the preposition that has lost its preposition and often its modifier as well. Example: He ran to his home. He ran home. On Friday, he came to school late. Friday he came to school late.
a. Because an adverbial objective was originally the object of a preposition, it still retains its characteristics/form of a noun and can be modified by an adjective, as in every Friday. Its function, however, is that of an adverbial modifier. Adverbial = adverb, objective = object of the preposition or noun. b. In some rare cases, an adverbial objective will retain its preposition, such as in here, in there. c. An adverbial objective is used to indicate 1. indefinite place, such as home, south, north, etc. 2. definite frequency, such as once, twice, etc. 3. time references dealing with days, such as Wednesday, summer, yesterday, today, etc. d. An adverbial objective can have single-word adjectival modifiers (e.g., late summer, every Wednesday). e. An adverbial objective usually modifies the verb (the simple predicate). f. An adverbial objective functions as an adverbial modifier. g. In diagramming, an adverbial objective is diagrammed like a prepositional phrase without its preposition. It always modifies the verb (simple predicate).
Exercise on Conjunctive Adverbs and Adverbial Objectives:

Circle the conjunctive adverb and underline the adverbial objective. 1. 2. 3. Arthur, however, solved the problem yesterday. Ray ate dinner at school; then he went home to sleep. Monday, everyone left school late.
4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Therefore, follow the instructions carefully. Once at summer camp I went canoeing by myself. Sandra walked north; however, she still got lost. Saturdays I usually go to the movies. They did it wrong; consequently, the answers were wrong. They traveled westward for five miles. Take the pills twice every day.
9.
An adverb usually functions as an adverbial modifier.
10. Placement of Single-Word Modifiers: Single-word adverbs (discussed above) come before the word they modify. 11. Placement of Phrasal Modifiers: Phrasal adverbial modifiers (such as adverbial prepositional phrases) come after the word they modify The ant went into the house.
Review Exercise 15: (1) Circle the Adverbial Objective. (2) Underline the Adverb.
(3) Diagram the first five (5) sentences. 1. They came home for dinner. 2. Joe arrived late Wednesday night. 3. Jim went nowhere. 4. The students stayed out late. 5. The ship sailed south. 6. Fridays there are no classes. 7. She came to school early. 8. Joyce went everywhere. 9. Larry swam the river again. 10. They went hunting. 11. She did it twice. 12. Every summer they go to Disney World. 13. The children played quietly. 14. The officer drove them home. 15. You do that every time. 16. Jenny talks on the phone daily. 17. Sarah calls Teddy every Friday. 18. Someone showed us the way out. 19. They went outside to smoke. 20. Please neatly paint the outside brown. 21. Hell be back Monday. 22. She took the pet home with her. 23. He always loved fishing. 24. Sunday mornings they go to church. 25. After church, they go shopping. 26. There was water everywhere.
27. He rode west for three days. 28. Yesterday Karen forgot to do her homework. 29. She did todays homework quickly. 30. The kids often ran her ragged. 31. Pete will be home tomorrow. 32. Tomorrow is always another day. 33. Pierre returned from France last week. 34. My dog found his way home.
35. He was gone ten days. 36. Where have all the flowers gone? 37. The quiet was extremely deafening. 38. Why have you done this? 39. Maggie walked the streets nightly. 40. Ric did it three times. Click here for the answers.
Adjectives and Adverbs

1. Be careful not to substitute adjectives for adverbs. A few adjectives and adverbs (such as fast, early, late) share identical forms. However, the adjective and adverb forms of most modifiers are different. In fact, many adverbs are formed by adding -ly to adjectives. Example: He recited the speech perfectly (not perfect). 2. Here are a few troublesome pairs: awful - awfully, bad - badly, good - well, most - almost, real - really Example: She did really well (not real good) on the test. 3. The adjective forms of these modifiers, not the adverbial forms, should be used after linking verbs (verbs of perception) such as feel, taste, sound, and smell. Example: I feel awfully bad (not awful bad or awful badly) about the situation. 4. Do not use the comparative form to refer to more than two items or the superlative form to refer to only two. Example: We should choose the faster (not fastest) of the two printers. 5. Avoid double comparisons and superlatives - the use of more or most with another comparative or superlative modifier. Example: That was the funniest (not most funniest) movie I have ever seen. 6. Some adjectives called absolutes (such as perfect, unique, round, exact) cannot logically express degree. Example: exact (not more exact or less exact) 7. Use few with count nouns and less with non-count nouns Example: Milk has fewer calories (not less) calories than orange juice. 8. Do not use the comparative adjective form where the comparative adverb form is required.
Example: Nothing can blind a driver more quickly (not quicker) than the dazzling lights of an inconsiderate oncoming motorist.
Exercise on Adjective/Adverb Forms:

Write the correct adjective/adverb forms. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ He did it perfect. Everyone did real good. She felt awful bad about the test. You have to choose the best of the two teams. That was the most unkindest comment of all. Your math answer has to be more exact. I lost less pounds than last week. He came up with the correct answer quicker. That is a very unique way of looking at the problem. Make your answer more complete.
The Formation of the Comparative and Superlative Degrees: 1. Irregular adjectives form their different degrees by changes in word formation. 2. Regular adjectives form their comparative degree by adding the inflectional ending er to the positive form and their superlative degree by adding the inflectional ending est to the positive form. Regular adjectives are usually one or two syllable words of Anglo-Saxon origin. 3. Multi-syllabic adjectives form their comparative degree by adding more to the positive form and their superlative degree by adding most to the positive form. They are usually multi-syllabic words of Romance, Latin, or Greek origin. Exception: Absolute Adjectives:
a. They are not gradable. b. They do not have and cannot have comparative and superlative forms. c. They cannot be modified by the adverb very.
Examples:
wooden box (*very wooden box), cotton bath towel (*very cotton bath towel), full-time job (*very full-time job), main idea (*very main idea), true (*very true), false (*very false), dead (*very dead), round (*very round), unique (*very unique), full (*very full). [Note: * = unacceptable form] Degrees of Comparison or Gradation (Descriptive Adjectives Only) Positive Irregular Regular MultiSyllabic good bad fast red intelligent beautiful Comparative better worse faster redder more intelligent more beautiful Superlative best worst fastest reddest (the) most intelligent (the) most beautiful
Notes: 1. The positive degree is sometimes called the base or dictionary form. 2. The superlative degree is almost always used with the article the or a(n).
Preposition
1. A preposition establishes a relationship with a noun or pronoun by forming a prepositional phrase (e.g., on the table, to me). 2. A prepositional phrase has the following pattern: preposition + (optional adjective) + object (noun or pronoun) 3. A preposition answers one of the following questions with a phrase: Preposition Questions where? (adv.) when? (adv.) how? (adv.) why? (adv.) which (one)? (adj.) Examples at the beach, near the tree since noon, after dinner with a hammer, by car because of him (the man) with a hat, (the cat) near the tree
Note: A preposition does not answer the questions who? what? or how many? (noun questions) 4. The noun or pronoun in the prepositional phrase functions as the object of the preposition. The object, if it is a pronoun, must be in the objective case (him, her, us, me), not the subjective case (he, she, we, I). Example: The boy came to school with John and I. To test for the correct pronoun case, separate the word John from the pronoun I. The boy came to school with John. [sounds right] The boy came to school with I. [sounds strange] The preposition with takes an object, and therefore the pronoun must be in the objective case, me. The boy came to school with me. > The boy came to school with John and me. Note: In traditional English, the personal pronoun should be placed last whenever a personal pronoun is combined with a noun in any position, as in the prepositional phrase above or in the subject position in the following example.
Example: John and I went to school together, not I and John went to school together.
Exercise on Prepositions:
Circle the preposition and underline the object of the preposition. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. The man with the hat is my father. John threw the ball to Mary. On Wednesday he came back. The dog crawled under the bed. The clown with a happy smile scared me. The boy stepped outside of the circle. In 1972, nothing monumental happened. She sent an e-mail to the wrong address. John, as well as Jim, went to college. He was filled with joy.
5. The prepositional phrase functions as either an adjectival or an adverbial modifier. a. An adjectival prepositional phrase comes immediately after the noun or pronoun it modifies and therefore cannot be moved around in the sentence. b. An adverbial prepositional phrase can be moved around in the sentence. Kinds of Prepositional Phrases Adjectival Prepositional Phrase
Characteristics 1. comes immediately after the noun or pronoun it modifies. 2. cannot be moved around in the sentence. can be moved around in the sentence.
Example The man with the hat stood by the tree. *With the hat the man stood by the tree. *The man stood by the tree with the hat. [misplaced modifier] The man with the hat stood by the tree. By the tree stood the man with the hat. By the tree, the man with the hat stood.
Adverbial Prepositional Phrase
Exercise on Adverbial and Adjectival Prepositional Phrases:

Circle the adverbial prepositional phrases and underline the adjectival prepositional phrases. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. The man with the hat is my father. John threw the ball to Mary. On Wednesday he came back. The dog crawled under the bed. The clown with a happy smile scared me. The boy stepped outside of the circle. In 1972, nothing monumental happened. She sent an e-mail to the wrong address. John, as well as Jim, went to college. He was filled with joy.
How to Identify Prepositions: Imagine a tree and a bird. Whatever word that establishes a relationship between the tree and the bird will be a preposition. The bird flies above the tree. The bird flies through the tree. The bird is near the tree. The bird is beside the tree. The bird flew around the tree. The bird flew into the tree. The bird is in the tree. The bird is on the tree. The bird is next to the tree. This procedure will help identify only prepositions that deal with physical relationships. The Infinitive Form: The preposition to is used as the sign of the infinitive. As such, it does not form a prepositional phrase. For example, to go is an infinitive and not a prepositional phrase. The prepositional phrase has the following formula: preposition + (optional adjective) + object (a noun, a pronoun, or a noun equivalent). The infinitive has the following formula: to + (base) verb. Phrasal Prepositions: In the sentence, The bird is next to the tree, the preposition, next to, consists of more than one word. This is a phrasal preposition. Other such phrasal prepositions are as well as, together with, along with, in place of, in addition to, in case of, in spite of, because of, due to, etc.
Phrasal Verbs and Phrasal Nouns: A single-word preposition is sometimes used to form a phrasal verb or a phrasal noun. As such, the single-word preposition is called a particle or an enclitic; and together with a verb or a noun, it forms an idiom. For example, in the sentence, I give up (meaning, surrender), the words give up form a phrasal verb. When a particle or an enclitic is added to a verb or a noun, the meaning of the verb or the noun changes. The verb give in I give up and in I give him the ball has two different meanings. The former means to surrender and the latter means to hand over. Many modern words in English are formed by adding particles or enclitics to verbs and nouns. Examples of Phrasal Verbs: put up put down put in put on put by put upon Examples of Phrasal Nouns: Note: put on put down to put up or shut up to put up the tree to put up a sign to put him down to put in his two-cents worth to put on a show to put it by to be put upon It was a put on. It was a put down.
The phrasal nouns can take modifiers such as definite or indefinite articles or descriptive adjectives.
In any given sentence, the preposition will be used either as part of a prepositional phrase or as part of a phrasal verb or phrasal noun, but not as both. In the sentence, He put on a show, the preposition on can function in only one way either as a preposition to form a prepositional phrase or as a preposition (particle or enclitic) to form a phrasal verb or a phrasal noun. In this case, it is part of the phrasal verb. Note: A phrasal verb is a verb made up of more than one word. Both words form the main verb (that is, the dictionary form, or the base or lexical verb). The same hold true for a phrasal noun. In contrast, a verb phrase is a verb or a phrasal verb that has one or more auxiliary verbs attached to it. Similarly, a noun phrase is a noun or a phrasal noun that has one or more modifiers attached to it. Examples: He put on a show. [The verb is a phrasal verb put on.] He will put on a show. [The verb is a verb phrase consisting of an auxiliary verb (will) and a phrasal verb (put on).] It was a put down. [The noun is a phrasal noun (put down) with the determiner (a).] It was an embarrassing put down. [The noun is a noun phrase consisting of a determiner (an), a descriptive adjective (embarrassing), and a phrasal noun (put down).] He went to a show.
[The verb is a single-word verb went.] He had gone to a show. [The verb is a verb phrase consisting of an auxiliary verb (had) and a single-word verb (gone).] A Very Technical Note (FYI) Enclitics Used With Verbs: Some grammarians make a very technical distinction between enclitics that are prepositions that are added to verbs and enclitics that are adverbs that are added to verbs. The distinction is based on whether or not the enclitics are movable or non-movable. If they are movable, they are adverbs; if they are non-movable, they are prepositions. Why? Because adverbs are movable and prepositions are not. Examples: He turned down the proposal. He turned the proposal down. [Because down can be moved to the end of the sentence, it is an adverb.] He went over the homework. *He went the homework over. [Because over cannot be moved to the end of the sentence, it is a preposition.] Also, when a personal pronoun replaces the direct object noun, the direct object personal pronoun must be placed between the main (base or lexical) verb and the adverbial enclitic, whereas in the case of the prepositional enclitic, the direct object personal pronoun must be placed after the phrasal verb. Examples: He turned down the proposal. He turned it down. [The direct object personal pronoun must be placed between the base verb and the adverbial enclitic.] *He turned down it. He went over the homework. He went over it. [The direct object personal pronoun must be placed after the phrasal verb.] *He went it over. Note: For our purpose, this technical distinction does not matter.
Exercise on Phrasal Verbs:

Circle the phrasal verbs. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. The umpire called off the game. He added up the tab. The parents came into the room. They wandered off into the forest. The teacher kept on talking. The teacher called upon the students. She wondered about it. She came up with a solution. They were finished with their projects. She put up with him long enough.
Prepositions Used as Conjunctions: Some single-word prepositions, such as before, but, since, until for, after, etc., can act as another parts of speech the conjunction. Its use in a sentence will determine to what part of speech it belongs. Preposition after but He came home after the movie. Everyone but him went to the movie. Conjunction He came home after the movie had ended. Everyone went to the movie, but he went home instead.
Example: (after as prep.)
He came home after the movie. The word after functions as a preposition that forms the adverbial prepositional phrase after the movie. Remember that an adverbial prepositional phrase can be moved around in the sentence, in this case, to the beginning of the sentence. Also notice the pattern for a prepositional phrase: preposition + (optional adjective) + object (noun or pronoun) > after + the + movie (noun).
Example: (after as sub.
He came home after the movie had ended. The word after functions as a subordinating conjunction that introduces the subordinate adverb clause conjunction) after the movie ended. The subordinate adverb clause (subordinating conjunction + subject + verb = after + movie + ended) is connected to the main clause He came home (subject + verb + adverbial objective). Note the pattern: Like an adverbial prepositional phrase, a subordinate adverb clause that modifies the verb in the main clause can also be moved in front of the main clause, whereas other kinds of subordinate clauses usually cannot be moved before the main clause it modifies. Everyone but him went to the movie. The word but functions as a preposition. Note that him is in the correct pronoun case since the preposition takes an object (him), not a subject (he). Therefore, the pronoun must be in the objective case. Note also that but can be replaced with a synonymous phrasal preposition except for Everyone went to the movie except for him (not except for he). Everyone went to the movie, but he went home instead. In this case, the word but functions as a coordinating conjunction (one of the BOYFANS words) that connects the two independent clauses Everyone went to the movie and he went home instead. Note that because but is a coordinating conjunction that connects two independent clauses, it must be preceded by a comma.
Example: (but as prep.)
Example: (but as coord. conjunction)
Review Exercise 16: (1) Circle the preposition.

(2) Place an X through the item number if the phrase is adjectival. (3) Circle the item number if the phrase is adverbial. (4) Diagram the first five (5) sentences. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. The man in the cape handed him the book. They worked in groups. We drove the car with monster wheels. Rachel saw me with Sarah. Jacks father took us to the movie. The girl with the ice cream cone sat alone. The president called them for a meeting. You were seen hiding in the closet. The book on the table was his. Joe did the work by himself. They fought the terrorists from Iraq. The earth, as well as the planets, was destroyed. 18. 19. 20. 17. 13. 14. 15. 16. What is in my hand? Dont watch the man with the disfigured face. Kevin lost his turn because of me. Jack and Jill kept the secret between themselves. The student with the baseball cap took the book. I saw Francis studying in the library. Connie took it from the table. She thought about her answer.
21. There it was on the living room table. 22. The birds, along with the butterflies, flew away. 23. Hold me close to you.
24. When did he return to Wilson? 25. The girls from the sorority partied all night. 26. It rained during the day. 27. There is no one like Sherry. 28. Something evil will happen at midnight. 29. I found a ring with a huge diamond. 30. Bert liked everyone except Barbara. 31. My dog buried it in the yard. 32. Was Jake looking at her?
33. He loved the smell of flowers. 34. That was painted by Picasso. 35. What did the student next to the door say? 36. The soprano, as well as the chorus, practiced it well. 37. Not one of them entered the classroom late. 38. She walked in beauty. Click here for the answers.
Review Exercise 17: (1) Underline the prepositional phrase. (2) Circle the phrasal verb. (3) Diagram the first five (5) sentences.
1. They called off the game. 2. He put off the work until Saturday. 3. He ran up a tab at the bar. 4. She rounded up her friends for a meeting. 5. She called up her friends. 6. She put up the money for the house. 7. She acted on her mothers advice. 8. Mexico borders on the United States. 9. He admitted to his mistake. 10. Beware of dogs. 11. She atoned for her mistakes. 12. They grieved over his death. 15. He persisted in his old ways. 16. They rebelled against the president. 17. He went along with the group. 18. He was accused of cheating. 19. Take off your coat. 20. They broke down the door. 21. He put on the jacket. 22. He picked out an expensive toy. Click here for the answers. 23. They ate everything up. 24. The students finished up their project. 25. They were required to type up their papers. 26. He took an hour to clean up his room. 27. He gave out the test at exactly 1 p.m. 28. She handed back the homework. 29. He put up with him. 30. They put up the Christmas tree. 31. They took down the Christmas tree. 32. She put the baby down. 33. He put in his two-cent worth. 34. They put on a show. 35. He was put upon by his uncle. 36. John came in with Mary. 37. They rounded up the sheep. 38. They set out on their journey. 39. They gathered up their things. 40. She put him off for another day.
Conjunction
1. A conjunction connects any two or more grammatical elements of the same kind (e.g., two nouns boy and girl, two pronouns you or me, two phrases for the children and for the parents, two clauses He came home, but then he went out again, etc.) noun/pronoun verb adverb adjective prepositional phrase gerund clause + + + + + + + noun/pronoun verb adverb adjective prepositional phrase gerund clause
2. The two main kinds of conjunctions are coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions. a. The seven coordinating conjunctions are the BOY FANS words But, Or, Yet, For, And, Nor, So. Any coordinating conjunction that is used to form a paired set is called a correlative conjunction either-or, neither-nor, not only-but also, both-and. They are a special kind of coordinating conjunction. Note: Correlative conjunctions require parallel constructions. Example: More pictures on the webpage will not only create student interest, but they will also make the page look attractive. (This sentence is not parallel.) Revision: Not only will more pictures on the webpage create student interest, but they will also make the page look attractive. Not only + clause, but (also) + clause. (Also goes within the clause.) Example: He will not only study hard but will also get an A for the course. (This sentence is not parallel.) Revision: He not only will study hard but will also get an A for the course. He + not only + predicate but (also) + predicate. (Also goes within the predicate.) Example: He not only received an A for the course but also a car from his father. Revision: He received not only an A for the course but also a car from his father. He received + not only + direct object + but also + direct object Note: Sometimes the conjunction but is incorrectly omitted from the sentence. Example: Not only will more pictures on the webpage create student interest, they will also make the page look attractive.
Note:
The conjunction but is required as part of the correlative conjunction.
Revision: Not only will more pictures on the webpage create student interest, but they will also make the page look attractive. b. Subordinating conjunctions are used to introduce subordinate or dependent clauses. They come at the beginning of the subordinate or dependent clauses. They usually follow the following pattern: (subordinating conjunction) + Karen came home, . . . After Karen came home, . . . Before Karen came home, . . . Although Karen came home, . . . Because Karen came home, . . . When Karen came home, etc. 3. A conjunction functions as a connector.
Exercise on Conjunctions:
Circle the conjunctions. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. He came home; then he went out again. Either you do it, or you dont get credit for it. Because he forgot something, he went back to his office. She did it as well as John. After he came home, he went out again. He forgot something; therefore, he went back to his office. Not only did he do well, but he also won the contest. He came home, but he went out again. Kerry did it because she was trying to help him. He forgot something, so he went back to his office.
Exercise on Kinds of Conjunctions:

Circle the conjunctions and then identify them coordinating, subordinating, etc.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
_____________________ _____________________ _____________________ _____________________ _____________________ _____________________ _____________________ _____________________ _____________________ _____________________
Because he forgot something, he went back to his office. Either you do it, or you dont get credit for it. He came home; then he went out again. He came home, but he went out again. After he came home, he went out again. He forgot something; therefore, he went back to his office. She did it as well as John. Not only did he do well, but he also won the contest. Kerry did it because she was trying to help him. He forgot something, so he went back to his office.
Review Exercise 18: (1) Circle the Coordinating Conjunction

and (2) Underline the Subordinating Conjunction. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. After John came home, he ate dinner. Sarah went to school, but she left early. Jerry was late for class even though he got up early. Before you write your answer, think about what I am saying. Jake likes vanilla, but then he also likes chocolate. Although Ruth loved Raymond, she also loved Roy. Susannah hated Sam, yet she could not stand being away from him. Should I skip class, or should I go to class? 15. 16. 14. 13. 12. 11. 9. 10. While Jeremy was working, Jessica was not. The student did not like school, nor did she like work. As long as you do your work, you will do fine in this class. Because you will be dealing with people, you need to learn patience. Since Frank knew he could not get away with it, he turned himself in. He was given a good farewell, for he was a good man. I like chocolate better than vanilla. I know you can do well, so do your best.
Minor Grammatical Form

Interjection: An interjection is a word that expresses a strong feeling and is usually punctuated with an exclamation point (e.g., Alas! Ah! Oh! Good grief!). It has no syntactic function in a sentence. It usually stands alone and is not usually diagrammed in a sentence.
Basic Diagramming
In diagramming, 1. The sentence is always diagrammed in normal word order even though the word order may be inverted in the original sentence. 2. The expletive goes on a horizontal line above the sentence diagram. 3. The subject, verb, and direct object (SVO) go on the base line. 4. The indirect object always goes under the verb. It is diagrammed like a prepositional phrase without the preposition since it is actually a collapsed prepositional phrase. 5. Likewise, the adverbial objective is diagrammed like a prepositional phrase under the verb. It also is a collapsed prepositional phrase that has lost its preposition. 6. Adjectives and adverbs are modifiers. All modifiers go on slant lines. 7. All nouns, pronouns, and noun equivalents go on horizontal lines.
In the test sentence above, 1. The word yesterday is an adverbial objective. 2. The common plural noun girls is the simple subject. 3. The simple predicate (or verb) is the past tense verb gave. 4. The common plural noun apples is the direct object. 5. The common plural noun boys is the indirect object. The indirect object, if there is one, always comes before the direct object. 6. The prepositional phrase from the tree is adjectival and modifies apples. It answers the adjective question which? Which apples? The ones from the tree. 7. The word shyly is an adverb of manner that ends in ly. 8. The word somewhat is an adverb that modifies the adverb of manner shyly. 9. The word pretty is a descriptive adjective that answers the adjective question which? Which girls? The pretty girls. 10. The word very is an adverb. Below, note how compounds using and are diagrammed compound predicates shouted and hit, compound objects pitcher and umpire of the preposition at, and compound adverbs, fast and hard. The coordinating conjunction and (one of the BOYFANS words) goes on the dotted line.
Chapter 2 Other Important Grammatical Forms and Considerations

A verb that functions as a simple predicate is called a finite verb. It can be a single-word verb or a verb phrase, that is, a lexical verb with all of its auxiliaries. A finite verb has the traditional grammatical characteristics of person (first, second, third), number (singular, plural), tense (present, past, future, etc.), voice (active, passive), etc. A verb-like form that cannot function as a simple predicate is called a non-finite verb. It is created from a verb but functions as some other part of speech, namely a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. A nonfinite verb is usually called a verbal. Example: I will be celebrating my 60th birthday this year. The finite verb or simple predicate will be celebrating is made up of two auxiliary verbs will (a modal auxiliary verb, indicating the future tense) and be (an auxiliary or helping verb, indicating the progressive aspect) + the lexical verb celebrating (which carries the meaning). Example: I am looking forward to celebrating my 60th birthday this year The finite verb or simple predicate is the verb phrase am looking first person, present tense, active voice, progressive aspect. The non-finite verb or verbal is celebrating (a gerund, functioning as a noun). It functions as the object of the preposition to. This prepositional phrase functions as an adverbial modifier that modifies the word forward, as in I am looking forward to this. What is the this? Celebrating my 60th birthday this year. The complete gerund phrase is the object of the preposition. Three Kinds of Verbals: Three special forms of the verb are called verbals or verbal phrases. They are the gerund, the participle, and the infinitive. The verbals have verb-like forms, but they cannot function as predicates (as verbs). The gerund functions as a noun; the participle functions as an adjective; and the infinitive functions as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. Three Kinds of Verbals Form Gerund Participle Infinitive verb + -ing verb + -ing to + verb as a noun as an adjective as a noun, as an adjective, as an adverb Function
Important Distinctions:
Definition Phrase A verbal phrase consists of a verbal (gerund, participle, or infinitive) plus all its modifiers. Examples After speaking with the teacher, Julie knew what to do 1. The non-finite verb speaking is a gerund. The adverbial prepositional phrase with the teacher modifies the gerund. Together they form the gerund phrase. 2. The second non-finite verb to do is an infinitive. It acts as a noun and functions as the direct object of the main clause Julie knew. 3. The interrogative pronoun what functions as the object of the infinitive, as in Julie knew what she must do. Kevin rounded up the cattle. 1. The main verb is to round up. 2. Sometimes the word up is called an enclitic.
A phrasal verb consists of a main verb plus a preposition or an adverb that has been attached to the main verb to form a two-word verb with a different meaning. Verb Phrase A verb phrase consists of a main (base or lexical) verb plus all its auxiliaries.
She should have gone home. 1. The verb should is a modal auxiliary, which always comes first. 2. The verb have is an auxiliary or helping verb used to form the present perfect tense.
1. The Gerund
Gerund (functions as a noun): a. A gerund acts as a noun and as such answers the question what? Example: Jogging is a healthy activity. Note: What is a healthy activity? Jogging.
Example: After having jogged for an hour, she was tired. Note: She was tired after doing what? After having jogged.
Example: Being kidded by your friends shows their love for you.
Note:
What shows their love for you? Being kidded.
b. A gerund functions in many of the ways that a noun does. Gerund Functions Subject Direct object Object of the preposition Subject complement (noun) = Predicate nominative Appositive Examples Jogging is a healthy activity. I like jogging. He talked to me about jogging. One of the healthiest activities is jogging. One of the healthiest activities, jogging, should be done daily by everyone.
c. The sign of a gerund is ing. Because a gerund is constructed from a verb, it also takes a tense marker; that is, it has a tense and a voice. Gerund Forms Active Voice Present tense Perfect tense Passive Voice (form of be = sign of the passive voice) Present tense Perfect tense present tense verb + ing having + past participle being + past participle having been + past participle Bullying John is an anti-social activity. After having bullied John, Jake felt no shame. Being bullied by Jake did not make John happy. After having been bullied by Jake, John felt terrible.
d. Two Tests for a Gerund or Gerund Phrase: 1. Test One: The gerund or gerund phrase can be replaced by a pronoun such as it, that, or this. Jogging is a healthy activity. > It is a healthy activity. After jogging for a mile, she was tired. > After that, she was tired. Jogging shows your love of good health. > This shows your love of good health.
Examples:
2.
Test Two: Sometimes, the gerund or gerund phrase can be replaced by its infinitive form. Jogging is a healthy activity. > To jog is a healthy activity. After jogging for a mile, she was tired. [The test does not work.]
Examples:
Jogging shows your love of good health. > To job shows your love of good health. [Grammatically correct, but sounds somewhat awkward.] e. A gerund can take an object (a noun phrase) that is called the object of the gerund and can also be modified by one or more prepositional phrases. Examples: Note: After taking a test, I always reward myself. Taking a test in science with other students in the room is always difficult for me. The prepositional phrase in science is adjectival (answers what kind of?) and with other students and in the room are adverbial (answers how? and where?).
f. A gerund requires the possessive form of a noun or pronoun (if used). Examples: Note: The teacher did not like his coming late to class. The teacher did not like Kellys coming late to class. What didnt the teacher like? The teacher didnt like his lateness, not the person (him or Kelly).
Exercise on Gerunds:
Circle the complete gerund phrase; then diagram the first five (5) sentences. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Walking a mile a day is an excellent form of exercise. The dog was running around in circles. Being friends with everyone can cause some problems. He was fine with Johns helping needy students. After studying for an hour, Walter took a long break. Having researched the issue, she was now ready to write her report. Looking into the future is not always a good thing. Reading books can be fun. Norman was talking with the teacher. He thanked the teacher for tutoring him.
In diagramming, 1. The gerund phrase, i.e., the gerund driving with all its modifiers, goes on a stilt. 2. In this case, because the gerund phrase functions as the subject of the independent clause, it goes in the subject position. 3. Note that the tip of the stilt always touches the lower part of the step under the gerund, while the gerund curves down the step. 4. The common noun car is the object of the gerund driving. 5. Because driving is a verb-like form (a non-finite verb), a. in relation to the noun car, the gerund driving acts as a verb and functions as the predicate. b. in relation to the verb (or simple predicate) is forbidden, the gerund driving acts as a noun and functions as the subject. 6. Since a gerund acts as a noun, it always goes on a horizontal line, as all nouns do. In diagramming the gerund as the object of a preposition, the complete gerund phrase is placed in the object position. Note that because the gerund phrase acts as a noun, it goes on a horizontal line, as all nouns do. As a noun, the gerund phrase answers the noun question what? Jodie did her homework after what? After finishing her chores for the night.
2. The Participle
Participle (functions as an adjective): a. A participle functions in the same way that an adjective does as an adjectival modifier. In other words, it modifies a noun or a pronoun. Example: Example: Raising his hand quickly, the man asked to speak. The participial phrase, raising his hand quickly, modifies the subject man. (noun) Depressed by the news, I decided to go to bed. The participial phrase, depressed by the news, modifies the subject I. (personal pronoun)
b. A participle ends in ing, ed, or en, depending on its tense. Examples: I saw Pat, running down the hill. [present participle] Having passed the test with an A, she rejoiced. [perfect participle] The ice, frozen solid like a rock, had to be chiseled away. [past participle]
c. A participle has a tense marker. d. A participle can take the passive voice. e. A participle can take the progressive aspect.
Tense and Aspect
Active Voice
Passive Voice
Static (Non-Progressive) Aspect Present participle Past participle Perfect participle Progressive Aspect Present participle Perfect participle f. A participle can take an object. Example: Raising his hand quickly, the man asked to speak. The participle functions in two ways. When it functions as an adjectival modifier, the participle modifies the subject man. When it functions as a verb-like form, the participle can take a direct object, in this case, the noun hand. This direct object is called the object of the participle, similar to the object of a gerund, when the gerund functions as a verb-like form. g. A participle can be modified by an adverbial prepositional phrase. Example: Depressed by the news, I decided to go to bed. The participle functions in two ways. When it functions as an adjectival modifier, the participle modifies the subject I. When it functions as a verb-like form, the participle can be modified by an adverbial prepositional phrase, in this case, by the news. h. A participle, other than the past participle used to form the perfect tenses (e.g., He had gone home), is a collapsed clause. Example: Depressed by the news, I decided to go to bed. The participial phrase, depressed by the news, is the remnant of the clause, I was depressed by the news, which has been collapsed and combined with the clause, I decided to go to bed. The subject, I, and the auxiliary verb, was, have been dropped in order to combine the remnant with the other clause. Example: I saw Pat, running down the hill. I saw Pat. He was running down the hill. > I saw Pat, running down the hill. I saw Pat, who was running down the hill. > I saw Pat, running down the hill. having been giving being given having given giving given having been given
In both reconstructions of the example, the subject (he and who) and the auxiliary verb (was) are dropped in order to combine the remnant (running down the hill) with the previous clause.
Exercise on Participles:
Circle the complete participial phrase or single-word participle; then diagram the first five (5) sentences. Note: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Participial phrases are collapsed clauses that have been attached to independent clauses. They always function as adjectival modifiers. Having received an A for the course, she rejoiced. He was coming home from school. The officer saw him running away from the crime scene. Giving me your best effort is all I can ask of you. Being recognized for his accomplishment, he beamed with happiness. Jacob, having finished all of his homework, decided to go to the movies. The teacher was beginning to calm down. A forgiving person is a happy person. Raising his hand, Kelly wanted to ask a question. The criminal turned pale, having been found guilty as charged.
In diagramming, the participle acts as an adjectival modifier. In this case, the participial phrase having had a nightmare modifies the proper noun Sally and goes on the slant line under Sally. However, notice that the participle curves along the slant line as a modifier and onto the horizontal line as a verb. As an adjective, part of the participle goes on the slant line, and as a verb-like form (a non-finite verb), part of the participle goes on a horizontal line. All verbs go on horizontal lines.
What Goes Where in Diagramming? Nouns, noun equivalents, pronouns, and verbs go on a horizontal line. Adjectives, prepositions, and adverbs go on slant lines.
Review Exercise 19: (1) Circle the Gerund. (2) Underline the Participle.
(3) Diagram the first five (5) sentences. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Landing a jet plane on an aircraft carrier requires precision. How can one find enjoyment in collecting old streetcar transfers? Being an actor seems glamorous to people outside the profession. The broken glass was scattered everywhere. I created a sensation by calling his story a fake. Strong ankles are needed for ballet dancing. Chasing the puppy around the yard, Danny tripped and fell. Having danced in step with the music, Katie made the others look bad. By merely mastering the electric guitar, you can become a social and economic success.
10. The most dangerous part of the job will be removing the live wires. 11. Upon discovering the shortage, Mr. Slater questioned all of the employees. 12. Repairing the faulty connection should be a fairly simple chore. 13. I played a very small part in making the world safe for democracy. 14. Instead of feeling angry with me, you should thank me for being so honest. 15. No one ever enjoys being told bad news about their test grades. 16. Having become suspicious of my partners intentions, I told him nothing of the new development in the training of new personnel. 17. Considered a poor risk by most observers, the colt developed rapidly and eventually brought her owner a small fortune. 18. His hobby, collecting antique cars, is harmless but very expensive. Click here for the answers.
19. Hauled before the justice of the peace, Hoskins made an impassioned speech proclaiming his innocence. 20. I cannot understand his refusing my very sensible suggestion. 21. Having locked his keys in the car, Tom called home for help. 22. Last night my roommates coughing disturbed my sleep. 23. Attending classes and studying for them are two important parts of everyones education. 24. His crime, openly defying the dictator, made him a hero. 25. Being honorary chairman of the campaign will require very little of your time or energy.
3. The Infinitive Infinitive (functions as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb): a. An infinitive has the form to + verb. Examples: He wanted to go home. [infinitive used as a noun] It was a war to end all wars. [infinitive used as an adjective] She did it to help him. [infinitive used as an adverb]
c. Some infinitives do not have the infinitive sign to preceding the verb. They are called headless infinitives or bare infinitives. Note: Examples: Infinitives used as adjectives do not have headless or bare forms. Bid him go. [infinitive used as noun] All he wanted to do was see him again. [infinitive used as noun] Karen helped him do the dishes. [infinitive used as adverb]
c. An infinitive has tensed and voiced forms. Present Tense Active Voice Active Voice, Progressive Aspect Passive Voice to give to be giving to be given Perfect Tense to have given to have been giving to have been given
d. An infinitive functions in three ways: 1. as a noun a. b. c. d. used as a subject, a direct object, or an object of a preposition. answers what? cannot be omitted from the clause Test: If the infinitive can be replaced by a pronoun such as it or this, then the infinitive is functioning as a noun. [pronoun replacement test] To fight was foolish. (subject of the verb was.) He plans to fight if necessary. (direct object of the verb plans) His plan is to fight. (predicate nominative)
Examples:
In diagramming, when the infinitive acts as a noun, it is diagrammed in a noun position on a horizontal line, in this case, on the base line, as the direct object of the simple predicate (verb) must try. As a verb-like form (a non-finite verb), it can take an object called the object of the infinitive, in this case, Harry. As a noun, it functions as the direct object of the simple predicate (verb) must try. 2. as an adjective a. b. c. d. as an adjectival modifier follows a noun can be omitted from the clause Test: Reconstruct the original clause which has been collapsed into an infinitive. If it can be reconstructed, then the infinitive is functioning as an adjective. Example: The articles to be sold at auction will be displayed. < The articles that was to be sold at auction will be displayed. (modifies the noun articles)
The articles to be sold at auction will be displayed.
In diagramming, the participle functions as an adjectival modifier. In this case, the infinitive as adjective, to be sold at auction, modifies the common noun, articles. As a modifier, the sign of the infinitive to goes on the slant line; and as a verb (a non-finite verb), the verb phrase be sold goes on a horizontal line, as all verbs do. The diagram for the infinitive phrase as an adjective looks like the diagram for a prepositional phrase. Because be sold is a verb phrase, it can be modified by a prepositional phrase, in this case, at auction. 3. as an adverb as an adverbial modifier. a. modifies a verb. 1. cannot be moved. 2. answers the question why? or how? 3. Test for Why?: If the sign of the infinitive to can be replaced with the test phrase in order to, then the infinitive is functioning as an adverb. This is the in order to test. Example: One must apply early to get a job. The infinitive phrase to get a job cannot be moved around in the sentence. It answers the question why? Why must one apply early? To get a job. The sign of the infinitive to can be replaced with in order to. The sentence make sense with in order to replacing to. This infinitive phrase functions as an adverbial modifer that modifies the verb. 4. Test for How?: If the infinitive can be reconstructed into a gerund that answers the question by doing what?, then the infinitive is functioning as an adverb. This is the adverb of manner test. Example: She helped him solve the problem. The infinitive solve is a headless or bare infinitive. It does not have the usual infinitive sign to as in to solve. The infinitive answers the question how? She helped him how? By solving the problem. In this case, the infinitive is converted into a gerund form that answers the question, by doing what? She helped him by solving the problem.
In diagramming, the infinitive as adverb that modifies a verb also looks like a prepositional phrase that modifies the verb. As a verb-like form (a non-finite verb), the infinitive can take an object called the object of the infinitive, in this case, the common noun job. The object is diagrammed like a direct object.
b. modifies a predicate adjective that precedes it. 1. must have a linking verb and a predicate adjective that it modifies. 2. cannot be moved. 3. answers the question to do what? or how? 4. Example: He was ready to fight.
Was is the linking verb, a form of the verb to be. Ready is the predicate adjective. The infinitive to fight cannot be move around in the sentence. And the infinitive answers the question to do what? He was ready to do what? To fight. This infinitive functions as an adverb and modifies the predicate adjective ready. In diagramming, the infinitive as adverb that modifies a predicate adjective is diagrammed the same way as the infinitive as adverb that modifies a verb (see previous example), except that the infinitive phrase would go under the predicate adjective instead of the verb.
Exercise on Infinitives:
Circle the complete infinitive phrase and indicate its function as a noun, adjective, or adverb. Then diagram the first five (5) sentences. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ To do better on your homework, you must put in adequate time. The order to desist was not obeyed. She knows what to do. Terry helped prepare the dinner. He tried to follow the instructions. They devised a plan to restore the king. Paul did it to help her. To have been given such a talent is a blessing. Id like to help him, but Im afraid to [help him]. To him was given the mandate to love.
Review Exercise 20: (1) Circle the Infinitive and

(2) Indicate the function noun, adjective, or adverb. (3) Diagram the first five (5) sentences. _____ 1. We assembled the tools to use the next day. _____ 2. It will be very difficult to fund the proposal. _____ 3. My first impulse was to telephone my parents. _____ 4. To have loved and lost is sad. _____ 5. His decision to join the Marines did not please his parents. _____ 6. The partially blind old caretaker believed the intruder to be me. _____ 7. John did not help her serve dinner to the guests. _____ 8. My sister plans to marry her boyfriend this spring. _____ 9. The worst solitude is to be destitute of sincere friendship. _____10. This might be the best time to confront the board with our plan for the merger. _____11. Eugene ONeill, a twentieth-century dramatist, used his play to explain his life. _____12. Gloria was too tired to finish her dinner. _____13. It was embarrassing to see myself on television in speech class this morning. _____14. To be or not to be, that is the question. _____15. Our goal to raise a million dollars was not achieved. _____16. The film to see last summer was The Phantom Menace by George Lucas. _____17. The most popular candidate withdrew to avoid a split in the party. _____18. It would be exciting for me to be a helicopter pilot for a hospital unit. _____19. His hobby, to make miniature furniture for doll houses, requires meticulous details. _____20. My mother told me to come home immediately. Click here for the sanswers.
4.
The Adverbial Objective
The adverbial objective (sometimes called an objective adverb) is a collapsed prepositional phrase, that is, the object of the preposition that has lost its preposition and often its modifier as well. Example: He ran to his home. He ran home. On Friday, he came to school late. Friday he came to school late. 1. Because an adverbial objective was originally the object of a preposition, it still retains its characteristics/form of a noun and can be modified by an adjective, as in every Friday. Its function, however, is that of an adverbial modifier. Adverbial = adverb, objective = object of the preposition or noun.
2. In some rare cases, an adverbial objective will retain its preposition, such as in here, in there. 3. An adverbial objective is used to indicate a. indefinite place, such as home, south, north, etc. b. definite frequency, such as once, twice, etc. c. time references dealing with days, such as Wednesday, summer, yesterday, today, etc. 4. An adverbial objective can have single-word adjectival modifiers (e.g., late summer, every Wednesday). 5. An adverbial objective usually modifies the verb. 6. An adverbial objective functions as an adverbial modifier. 7. In diagramming, an adverbial objective is diagrammed like a prepositional phrase without its preposition. It always modifies the simple predicate.
Exercise on Adverbial Objectives:

Circle the adverbial objective and re-create the collapsed prepositional phrase. Then diagram the first five (5) sentences. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. ________________________ Tuesday your homework will be due. ________________________ They went south. ________________________ He did it thrice. ________________________ The box came yesterday. ________________________ She went home early. ________________________ I stay late every Thursday. ________________________ He will be here tomorrow night. ________________________ They were westward bound. ________________________ Last summer I had a lot of fun. ________________________ He does that every time.
5.
Other Considerations: The Comma

Comma Rules Basic Rule: Use commas in pairs. A comma should not be used at the beginning of a sentence or at the end of a sentence. A comma should give way to the more important semicolon. 1. Usually, a comma should not separate the subject from the verb. 2. A comma should not be used to separate two independent clauses. = comma splice 3. Usually, a comma should separate an introductory adverb clause from the rest of the sentence. 4. A comma should be used after an introductory verbal (participle or infinitive) or verbal phrase, regardless of its length. 5. A comma usually follows a long introductory prepositional phrase or a combination of phrases. How long is long? Usually five or more words. 6. Commas are used to set off nonrestrictive elements. 7. A comma is used to separate coordinate adjectives. a. Usually, a comma should not separate the subject from the verb. Example: The student in the back of the classroom, sat quietly. Revision: The student in the back of the classroom sat quietly. b. A comma should not be used to separate two independent clauses. Example: This sentence contains a comma splice, a semicolon should be used in place of the comma. Revision: This sentence contains a comma splice; a semicolon should be used in place of the comma. c. Usually, a comma should separate an introductory adverb clause from the rest of the sentence. Example: When John came back from class he went straight to bed. Revision: When John came back from class, he went straight to bed. d. A comma should be used after an introductory verbal (participle or infinitive) or verbal phrase, regardless of its length. Example: Built in 1752 Connecticut Hall is the oldest building on the Yale campus. Revision: Built in 1752, Connecticut Hall is the oldest building on the Yale campus.
e. A comma usually follows a long introductory prepositional phrase or a combination of phrases. How long is long? Usually five or more words. Example: At this morning's press conference the coach denied the NCAA charges of recruiting violations. Revision: At this morning's press conference, the coach denied the NCAA charges of recruiting violations. f. Commas are used to set off nonrestrictive elements. Nonrestrictive or Nonessential: 1. Can be omitted without any change in meaning. 2. Usually applies to ALL (members of a group) or ONE (of a kind). 3. Uses commas in pairs. Example: Mormon Brother Brigham Youngs wife, Jane, left him. (The sentence implies that Smith has only one wife.) Restrictive or Essential: 1. Narrows down the meaning. 2. Usually specifies WHICH ONE? or applies to SOME (members of a group) 3. Does not use commas. Example: Mormon Brother Brigham Youngs wife Jane left him. (The sentence implies that Smith has more than one wife. The one named Jane left him. The others did not leave him.) Notes: 1. This test applies to both phrases and clauses. 2. Proper nouns can be modified only by a non-restrictive/non-essential elements. g. A comma is used to separate coordinate adjectives, that is, adjectives of equal importance. Apply either the and test or the switch test to see if a comma is required. Example: The and Test: the tall, leafy tree the tall and leafy tree A comma is required between these coordinate adjectives. Insert and between the two adjectives. If it sounds fine, then the adjectives are coordinate adjectives and require a comma between them. Switch the two adjective, and if they sound fine, then the adjectives are coordinate adjectives and require a comma between them.
The Switch Test:
the leafy, tall tree
h. A Common Mistake:
There is a tendency to separate two verbs connected by and or but when they are far from each other and there is no other intervening comma.
Example:
John came home after class to feed his cat and water the plants, and then ate a quick dinner because he had to go back to school. In this sentence, the comma after plants is not necessary even though the reader will pause there. A natural pause does not mean that a comma is required. The basic rule is that a comma should not be used to separate two verbs from each other or any two parts of speech from each other when they are connected by and or but. Note that a comma is not used to separate the two verbs in the following sentence: Wrong: Correct: John came home, and then ate a quick dinner. John came home and then ate a quick dinner.
On the same count, a comma should not be used to separate the long sentence in the example above. There is nothing that warrants the use of the comma after plants. The Serial Comma: A comma is used to separate a series of nouns (three or more, not two). Such a comma is often called a serial comma. Example: Note: A boy, a girl, and a cat were on the porch. [serial commas] In traditional grammar, the comma before and is required. In contemporary grammar, the comma before and is usually omitted.
Exercise on Commas:
Circle the place where a comma is used incorrectly or needs to be inserted. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. My mother who is 98 years old will surely live past 100. On Dec. 7, 1941 Japan attacked Pearl Harbor. Lincoln was president, then came Johnson. After President Kennedy was assassinated Vice-President Johnson became the next president. The people in the back of the theater in the dark, were making a lot of noise. At this mornings meeting with the secretary in the conference room nothing was resolved. My brother, Edwin, not Stephen, is the younger of the two. I dont like it when a big fat person sits next to me on the airplane. The teacher showed him how to solve the equation in the simplest way possible, and how to set up the rest of the problem. According to traditional grammar a serial comma is used before and, when there are three of more things in a list. Click here for the answers.
Chapter 3 Sentence Functions

Subject and Predicate: A sentence consists of a subject and a predicate. The complete subject consists of a noun, a pronoun, or a noun equivalent (such as a gerund, an infinitive, or a noun clause) and whatever modifies it. The complete predicate consists of a verb or verb phrase, a direct object, an indirect object, and whatever modifies them. Example: The man who left the office late came home to eat dinner. The complete subject is the man who left the office late. The complete predicate is came home to eat dinner. The simple subject is man. The simple predicate is came. Subjects and Predicates Complete subject Complete predicate Simple subject Simple predicate the man who left the office late came home to eat dinner man came
Note: The subject is a function of the noun man and the predicate is a function of the verb came. That is, the noun man functions as the simple subject of the sentence, and the verb came functions as the simple predicate of the sentence.
Exercise on Simple Subjects and Simple Predicates:

Circle the simple subjects and underline the simple predicates. Then diagram the first five (5) sentences. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Paul came home. The dog on the porch is sleeping. They will be going home. After the storm, the weather was beautiful. The elephants, as well as the tigers, went on a rampage. The boy and the girl were friends.
7. 8. 9. 10.
Not only the book but also the notebooks were missing. The sound of the waves was soothing. Each of them knew what to do. Only the good die young.
In English, word order (SVO) will help identify the simple subject and the simple predicate. The normal word order is Subject first, Verb second, Object third.
Word Order (SVO = Subject Verb Object) 1. 2. 3. 4. The subject comes first. The verb (or simple predicate) comes next. If there is an indirect object, it comes between the verb and the direct object. The direct object comes last.
Note: If there is an indirect object, there must be a direct object. There cannot be an indirect object without a direct object. Example: John gave her the book. John is the subject. It comes first. Gave is the verb (or simple predicate). It comes after the subject John. Her is the indirect object. It comes between the verb (or simple predicate) gave and the direct object book. Book is the direct object. It comes after the indirect object her. There are three exceptions when the subject-verb word order can be inverted: 1. when the expletive there or here is used Example: There was a purple alligator that lived in an orange shoe. Note: In the main clause, the subject alligator comes after the verb was, but in the adjective or relative clause (one of the three kinds of subordinate clauses), the subject is that and the verb is lived in normal order.
Example: Heres Johnny! Note: The linking verb is is contracted and added to the expletive here. The subject Johnny comes after the verb is.
2. when a question is used Example: Where did the elephant go? Note: The subject elephant comes after the tense marker did (the first half of the verb, the other half being the base verb form go).
3. when certain adverbial expressions begin a sentence Example: After winter comes spring. Note: The subject spring comes after the verb comes. The prepositional phrase After winter is the adverbial expression that begins the sentence.
Exercise on Inverted Subjects and Predicates:

Circle the simple subjects and underline the simple predicates. Then diagram the first five (5) sentences. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Did he do his work? There were many people at the meeting. In the glow of dawn came the chosen one. Where have all the flowers gone? Here are the envelopes and the invitations. Once upon a time there lived a king and a queen. Who can I turn to? In walked the man with a cane and his dog. How did Ken and Kathy know what to do? There is a way to do it.
In diagramming, 1. The sentence is always diagrammed in normal word order (SVO = subject + verb + object) even though the word order may be inverted in the original sentence. 2. The expletive goes on a horizontal line above the sentence diagram. 3. The simple subject (S), the simple predicate (V), and direct object (O) go on the base line. 4. The indirect object always goes under the verb. It is diagrammed like a prepositional phrase without the preposition since it is actually a collapsed prepositional phrase. 5. Likewise, the adverbial objective is diagrammed like a prepositional phrase under the verb. It also is a collapsed prepositional phrase that has lost its preposition. 6. Adjectives and adverbs are modifiers. All modifiers go on slant lines. 7. All nouns, pronouns, and noun equivalents go on horizontal lines.
In the test sentence above: The word yesterday is an adverbial objective. The common plural noun girls is the simple subject. The simple predicate is the past tense verb gave. The common plural noun apples is the direct object. The common plural noun boys is the indirect object. The indirect object, if there is one, always comes before the direct object. The prepositional phrase from the tree is adjectival and modifies apples. It answers the adjective question which? Which apples? The ones from the tree. The word shyly is an adverb of manner that ends in ly. The word somewhat is a quantifying adverb that modifies the adverb of manner shyly. The word pretty is a descriptive adjective that answers the adjective question which? Which girls? The pretty girls. The word very is a quantifying adverb.
Review: 1. Linking verbs such as to be and verbs of perception such as smell, taste, feel, look, and sound do not take direct objects and/or indirect objects. They take subject complements such as predicate nominatives and predicate adjectives. 2. To test for a linking verb and a verb of perception, replace the verb in question with a form of the verb to be such as is, was, or were. If the sentence makes sense, the verb in question is a linking verb or a verb of perception. If the sentence does not make sense, then the verb in question is not a linking verb or a verb of perception. Examples: John seems sick. The verb in question is seems. Is it a linking verb? Replace it with is, a form of the verb to be. John is sick. The sentence makes sense, so the word in question seems is a linking verb. John has the measles. The verb in question is has. Is it a linking verb? Replace it with is, a form of the verb to be. *John is the measles. The sentence does not make sense, so the word in question has is not a linking verb. 3. To test for a predicate adjective, use the very ________ test. This test will also help identify whether or not the word in question is a predicate adjective or is part of the verb. Examples: John is sick. Is the word sick a predicate adjective or is it part of the verb? Insert the word very before the word in question. John is very sick. Since the sentence makes sense, sick is a predicate adjective.
John is depressed. > John is very depressed. Since the second sentence makes sense, depressed is a predicate adjective. Mary is married. > Mary is very married. Since the second sentence does not make sense, married is part of the verb phrase is married, which is present tense, passive voice.
Review Exercise 21: Circle the Simple Subject.

1. My dog ate it. 2. She took the book. 3. They passed the house. 4. He rode my bicycle. 5. You know the routine. 6. The officer caught us. 7. It was time. 8. The student met you. 9. I forgot the answer. 10. The children watched me. 11. Someone took the candy. Click here for the answers. 12. The police arrested everyone. 13. No one recognized the man. 14. Her mother spoke to me. 15. Their project was finished. 16. I drove your car. 17. Who saw the movie? 18. That is my copy. 19. John was engaged to her. 20. She married her boyfriend.
Review Exercise 22: Circle the Simple Predicate.

1. My dog ate it. 2. She took the book. 3. They passed the house. 4. He rode my bicycle. 5. You know the routine. 6. The officer caught us. 7. It was time. 8. The student met you. 9. I forgot the answer. 10. The children watched me. 11. Someone took the candy. Click here for the snswers. 12. The police arrested everyone. 13. No one recognized the man. 14. Her mother spoke to me. 15. Their project was finished. 16. I drove your car. 17. Who saw the movie? 18. That is my copy. 19. John was engaged to her. 20. She married her boyfriend.
Indirect Object and Direct Object: The normal word order in English is subject + verb + object (SVO). The object can be broken down even further to give the following word order: subject + verb + (indirect object) + direct object. Example: John threw Jane the ball. Simple subject (John) + simple predicate (threw) + indirect object (Jane) + direct object (ball). 1. 2. 3. In order to have an indirect object, there must be a direct object. The indirect object comes before the direct object. An indirect object is a collapsed prepositional phrase that has lost its preposition to or for. To identify an indirect object, insert to or for before the indirect object and place the prepositional phrase after the direct object. If it makes sense, the word in question is a direct object. John threw Jane the ball. John threw the ball to Jane. In the first example, Jane is an indirect object. However, in the second example, Jane is no longer an indirect object, but rather the object of the preposition to and part of the prepositional phrase to Jane.
Test:
Examples: Note:
Verbs that express action often require a noun or a pronoun - a direct object - to receive or show the result of the action of the verb. The subject and the direct object are different things/persons; there is no relationship of identity between the two (John and ball are two different things), and the direct object does not describe the subject. Example: John is sick.
In this sentence John is sick, the word sick describes John's physical condition. There is a relationship of identity between John and his being sick. In this case, sick is not a direct object. It is a predicate adjective.
Exercise on Direct and Indirect Objects:

Circle the direct object and underline the indirect object. Then diagram the first five (5) sentences. 1. 2. 3. Harry took Tom the book. Wiley gave his uncle and aunt a gift. Did Jerry send Maggie a card?
4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Kelly told Warren a whopper of a tale. How many e-mails did you send Oren? He used to send me a birthday card every year. The man sold Ira a boat. Why would anyone give him anything? I did him wrong. Shawn brought Zack and Nancy their lunches.
Direct Object and Indirect Object 1. The direct object comes last in the SVO word order. 2. If there is an indirect object, it comes between the verb and the direct object. Note: Example: If there is an indirect object, there must be a direct object. There cannot be an indirect object without a direct object. John gave her the book.(indirect object) John is the subject. It comes first. Gave is the verb (or simple predicate). It comes after the subject John. Her is the indirect object. It comes between the verb (or simple predicate) gave and the direct object book. Book is the direct object. It comes after the indirect object her. Example: John gave the book to her. (prepositional phrase) John is the subject. It comes first. Gave is the verb (or simple predicate). It comes after the subject John. Book is the direct object. It comes after the verb (or simple predicate) gave since there is no indirect object. To her is a prepositional phrase. Some textbooks consider her as an indirect object. Whos Who: In a context where Jane (in the first example) and Jim (in the second example) are infants who are being carried, word order becomes important in order to understand what the sentences are saying. [Indirect object is followed by direct object.]
John gave Jim Jane. [Jim is the indirect object. Jane (the infant) is the direct object.] John gave (the infant) Jane to Jim (to carry). John gave Jane Jim. [Jane is the indirect object. Jim (the infant) is the direct object.] John gave (the infant) Jim to Jane (to carry).
Review Exercise 23: (1) Circle the Direct Object and (2) Underline the Indirect Object.
1. My dog ate it. 2. She gave me the book. 3. They passed the house. 4. He rode my bicycle. 5. You know the routine. 6. The umpire threw me the ball. 7. It was time. 8. The student met you. 9. I forgot the answer. 10. The children watched James and me. 11. Someone brought us the candy. 12. The police arrested everyone. 13. No one recognized the man. 14. Her mother told me the answer.
15. The students finished their project. 16. I drove your car. 17. Who saw the movie? 18. She showed me the copy. 19. John appointed Jane secretary. 20. She married her boyfriend. 21. Joey turned it in late. 22. Answer the phone. 23. Take me to your leader. 24. Does anyone want coffee? 25. Who saw that woman? 26. Why did she bring me the book? 27. She gave me the book. 28. Everyone attended the play. 29. Can anyone play the game? 30. Hit the nail with it. 31. They recorded the wrong price. 32. They planted the tree in the garden. 33. Jack made the students cry.
34. They made their final payment. 35. She rode that horse. 36. Johnny saw her. 37. Bring me the deck of cards. 38. Turn the computer on. 39. Pay attention. 40. I gave her a present. 41. Thank you for the card. 42. Show me the money. 43. They attend class regularly. 44. My dad bought Jane and me a new house. 45. I saw him at the mall. 46. She gave him a small amount. 47. They took him the candy. 48. Give me my due. 49. I finally met Larry. 50. The butterflies ate the leaves. Click here for the answers.
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Diagramming
Exercise for Diagram Pattern 1: Simple Sentence

1. 2. 3. Circle the simple subjects. Underline the simple predicates. Put parentheses around the prepositional phrases.
1. Pilots with red helmets fly their jet planes recklessly in the blue sky. 2. The beautiful flowers on the tall trees will bloom quickly in the early part of spring. 3. The opera singer on the stage will sing three beautiful arias from famous operas. 4. His friend in need, along with his parents, stood quietly at his side next to the bed. 5. Daily many of the children come to the clinic for medical attention. 6. There are many different kinds of beautiful flowers on the table in the living room. 7. The teacher in my school gave the poor child a childrens book for her birthday. 8. The mean judge in night court denied him the opportunity for bail three times. 9. Because of her previous accident, her father refused her the use of his car. 10. Last Monday Dan together with Janice left Wilson on a jet to Anchorage. 11. During the hot afternoons old people as well as young teenagers frequently go to the mall for air-conditioned comfort. 12. Jody has already planned her class schedule for next semester. 13. With each players shot the emotions at the basketball game intensified. 14. I cannot finish this lab experiment for him this afternoon. 15. The tenants were eagerly anticipating many wonderful renovations to their apartment building. 16. The dog as well as her puppies was excited by the sudden knock on the front door. 17. Several members of our law firm are definitely attending the San Francisco conference next week. 18. How many days should I study for my calculus test next Monday?
Diagram Pattern 1: Simple Sentence
The Basic Diagram Pattern: a. b. c. d. e. Both of us left our umbrellas in the dormitory on Monday. The stray dog quietly followed the boy home. She lives alone in the next apartment. John gave her a wedding present. Yesterday Jennifer helped him with his homework.
Diagram Pattern 1: Simple Sentence 1. Pilots with red helmets fly their jet planes recklessly in the blue sky. 2. The beautiful flowers on the tall trees will bloom quickly in the early part of spring. 3. The opera singer on the stage will sing three beautiful arias from famous operas. 4. His friend in need, along with his parents, stood quietly at his side next to the bed. 5. Daily many of the children come to the clinic for medical attention. 6. There are many different kinds of beautiful flowers on the table in the living room. 7. The teacher in my school gave the poor child a childrens book for her birthday. 8. The mean judge in night court denied him the opportunity for bail three times. 9. Because of her previous accident, her father refused her the use of his car. 10. Last Monday Dan together with Janice left Wilson on a jet to Anchorage. 11. During the hot afternoons old people as well as young teenagers frequently go to the mall for air-conditioned comfort. 12. Jody has already planned her class schedule for next semester. 13. With each players shot the emotions at the basketball game intensified. 14. I cannot finish this lab experiment for him this afternoon. 15. The tenants were eagerly anticipating many wonderful renovations to their apartment building. 16. The dog as well as her puppies was excited by the sudden knock on the front door.
17. Several members of our law firm are definitely attending the San Francisco conference next week. 18. How many days should I study for my calculus test next Monday?
Exercise for Diagram Pattern 2: Simple Sentence with Compounds

1. 2. Circle the coordinating conjunctions. Put parentheses around the complete grammatical elements that are connected by the conjunctions. The man with the brown hat and the very long cane walked slowly and deliberately into the room. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. The children ran through the living room and the dining room and shouted at the top of their lungs. The plants in the garden and along the walkway were suffering from disease, drought, and lack of care. The pitcher threw the ball at the batter and laughed loudly at the fat but handsome umpire. The students in the upstairs and downstairs computer labs had a problem with the network and the Internet connection. The telephone on the teachers desk rang but was not answered by anyone except me. The students eagerly did the very simple and very easy homework for today and for tomorrow without complaint. The students dutifully did the very simple and easy homework for today and tomorrow without hesitation or complaint. These simple sentences use compounds in various positions and should be diagrammed without any problems or difficulties. 10. Any intelligent and cheerful student can diagram these simple sentences with compound verbs and compound prepositional phrases with ease and speed. 11. The yellow canary flew into the yard and up the tree but did not see the sneaky cat in time. 12. For this class a student must read the book, take notes, and do the homework on a regular and daily basis. 13. I liked the movie about the cowboys and Indians but hated the inappropriate and loud music.
1.
14. The boy with the crew cut hair and the girl with the very long curls played quietly and intensely in the den. 15. Santa Claus gives pretty dolls and colorful dresses to good girls but nothing to bad ones. 16. The teacher showed the students the model and explained to them the procedure. 17. The police officer gave Henry and Isabella a traffic ticket and a stern warning. 18. The cat and the mouse ran into the kitchen and then into the living room. Click here for the answers.
Diagram Pattern 2: Simple Sentence with Compounds
The Basic Diagram Pattern: a. b. c. d. e. Mary and Dick ran a good race in the park. The teacher gave the students homework and a project for next week. Shelby gave Clyde and Harriet the money from the inheritance. Howard chased her not only into the yard but also into the house. Larry came to the party and danced with Josephine and Melanie.
Diagram Pattern 2: Simple Sentence with Compounds 1. The man with the brown hat and the very long cane walked slowly and deliberately into the room.
2. The children ran through the living room and the dining room and shouted at the top of their lungs. 3. The plants in the garden and along the walkway were suffering from disease, drought, and lack of care. 4. The pitcher threw the ball at the batter and laughed loudly at the fat but handsome umpire. 5. The students in the upstairs and downstairs computer labs had a problem with the network and the Internet connection. 6. The telephone on the teachers desk rang but was not answered by anyone except me. 7. The students eagerly did the very simple and very easy homework for today and for tomorrow without complaint. 8. The students dutifully did the very simple and easy homework for today and tomorrow without hesitation or complaint. 9. These simple sentences use compounds in various positions and should be diagrammed without any problems or difficulties. 10. Any intelligent and cheerful student can diagram these simple sentences with compound verbs and compound prepositional phrases with ease and speed. 11. The yellow canary flew into the yard and up the tree but did not see the sneaky cat in time. 12. For this class a student must read the book, take notes, and do the homework on a regular and daily basis. 13. I liked the movie about the cowboys and Indians but hated the inappropriate and loud music. 14. The boy with the crewcut hair and the girl with the very long curls played quietly and intensely in the den. 15. Santa Claus gives pretty dolls and colorful dresses to good girls but nothing to bad ones. 16. The teacher showed the students the model and explained to them the procedure. 17. The police officer gave Henry and Isabella a traffic ticket and a stern warning. 18. The cat and the mouse ran into the kitchen and then into the living room.
Complements:
1. Subject Complement: A sentence in the active voice can take a subject complement. a. The verb in such a case does not have a direct object and is often called an intransitive verb. b. Such a verb can take a subject complement in the form of either a noun or an adjective. c. The subject complement establishes a relationship of identity between the subject and the subject complement. d. The verb that establishes this relationship of identity is called a linking verb or predicating verb. It is usually a form of the verb to be or a verb of perception, such as smell, taste, seem, etc.
The subject complement that has the form of a noun is called a predicate nominative. Example: John was the president. The subject complement is a noun. It is also called a predicate nominative. The verb is intransitive. The subject complement that has the form of an adjective is called a predicate adjective. Example: She was sick. The subject complement is an adjective. It is also called a predicate adjective. The verb is intransitive. In diagramming, the subject complement is diagrammed like a direct object (the third unit on the base line), except that the perpendicular line that separates the simple predicate from the direct object is slanted toward the verb at a 45 degree angle. The sequence of the units on the base line is simple subject simple predicate subject complement.
Exercise on Subject Complements:

Circle the predicate nominative and underline the predicate adjective. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Frank is the president of his class. Sula seemed happy. Harriet will be the winner of the game. The salsa tasted really spicy. Keith was a spoiled child. Aaron felt sick. The doctor was someone new. The play seemed somewhat drawn out. The teacher was being silly. The situation was something to dread.
2.
Object Complement (Complement of the Direct Object): A sentence in the active voice can also take an object complement, which complements the direct object. a. The object complement refers to, identifies, or qualifies the direct object. It establishes a relationship of identity with the direct object. b. The direct object immediately precedes the object complement. c. The object complement, like the subject complement, can take the form of either a noun or an adjective. d. The object complement requires a transitive action verb, unlike the subject complement, which requires an intransitive linking or predicating verb. Example: We elected John treasurer. John is the direct object. Treasurer is the object complement, in this case, a noun. The verb is transitive. Example: I consider John honest. John is the direct object. Honest is the object complement, in this case, an adjective. The verb is transitive. Note: How can you tell if the word treasurer and the word honest are object complements? The object complement will satisfy the To Be Test.
To Be Test Use a finite form of the verb TO BE, i.e., one that can function as a simple predicate (such as is or are), to connect the direct object and the word in question. If the sentence makes sense, then the word in question is an object complement. Examples: John is treasurer. The sentence makes sense. Treasurer is an object complement (noun). Jane is honest. The sentence makes sense. Honest is an object complement (adjective). In diagramming, the object complement is diagrammed like the subject complement, except that it comes after the direct object. The sequence of the units on the base line is simple subject simple predicate direct object object complement.
Exercise on Object Complements:

Circle the object complement (noun) and underline the object complement (adjective). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. They named the child John. They considered themselves blessed. The doctor made him whole. The committee believed itself infallible. The jury found him innocent. The men elected Uriah secretary. You made him sick. Rich found the book extremely funny. And they shall call him the One. The report proved Jackie innocent but Hugh guilty.
3.
Passive Complement: A sentence in the passive voice can also take a passive complement. a. The complement can be either a noun, in which case, it is traditionally called a retained object; or it can be an adjective (which has no special name). b. The passive voice verb is formed by using a form of the helping verb to be plus the third principal part of the verb, as in consider-considered-considered (regular verb) and sing-sangsung (irregular verb). Example of Noun as Passive Complement: You will be told the results. The word results is the passive complement, in this case, a noun; it also known as a retained object. The verb is intransitive and is in the passive voice, indicated by a form of the helping verb to be in this case, will be plus the third principal part of the verb, told. Example of Adjective as Passive Complement: The prisoner was found innocent. The word innocent is the passive complement, in this case, an adjective; it does not have a special name. The verb is intransitive and is in the passive voice, indicated by a form of the helping verb to be in this case, was plus the third principal part of the verb, found.
In diagramming, the passive complement is the third unit on the base line: simple subject + simple predicate (in passive voice) + passive complement. A perpendicular line separates the verb from the passive complement, but this perpendicular line has a serif pointing to the right, like the capital Greek letter gamma .
Exercise on Passive Complements:

Circle the passive complement (noun) and underline the passive complement (adjective). 1. 2. 3. 4. He was found innocent. The client was shown the legal brief. When will the students be given the test results? The teacher was e-mailed the students paper and the articles.
5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
However, he was still found guilty. Louis was elected president. Is this novel considered a masterpiece? The officer was told nothing. The man was pronounced dead on arrival. What is common about all the simple predicates in sentences 1-9?
Note the Pattern: A subject complement can be a noun or an adjective. An object complement can be a noun or an adjective. A passive complement can be a noun or an adjective. Comparison of the Three Kinds of Complements Subject Complement Verb Uses predicating or linking verb (intransitive verb) Only in active voice Intransitive Has no direct object Uses noun or adjective Relationship of identity between subject and subject complement Object Complement Uses action verb (transitive verb) Passive Complement Uses passive voice (form of the verb TO BE + past participle, i.e., the third principal part of the verb) (intransitive verb) Only in passive voice Intransitive Has no direct object
Voice Transition Direct Object Part of Speech Relationship of Identity or NonIdentity
Only in active voice Transitive Must have a direct object
Uses noun or adjective Uses noun or adjective Relationship of identity between direct object and object complement Relationship of non-identity (looks like a direct object): between subject and passive complement (adjective); between subject and passive complement (noun, also called retained object)
Review Exercise 24: (1) Circle the Predicate Nominative and
(2) Underline the Predicate Adjective. 1. Throughout the ordeal, Holmes remained calm. 2. Aunt Sally was upset. 3. I am mad at myself for saying that. 4. At that altitude, the air becomes thin. 5. The society has been active for many years. 6. Louise looked angry. 7. Aunt Sally got angry at her cat. 8. The patient remained weak. 9. The dinner was a complete mess. 10. The bouquet of flowers smelled sweet to me. 11. The proposal seemed interesting. 12. The driver was drunk. 13. Her car is a Ford. 14. Rudolph remained a private for several more months. 15. After the blow-out, the tire resembled a pancake. 16. The cat goes crazy during thunderstorms. 17. Later that year, Lady Windermere fell ill. 18. The answer to the meaning of life is 42. 19. At first the idea sounded strange to me. Click here for the answers. 20. The president and the vice president are the chief executive officers of the United States. 21. Some of the children were noisy. 22. Hearing the news, the general grew furious. 23. The approach to the problem seems practical. 24. The vice president of the United States is the chair of the Senate as well as assistant to the president. 25. This professor is one of the hardest at Barton College but seems friendly outside of class. 26. His moral misdeeds should not be grounds for impeachment of the president. 27. The visitor was rude to the students but nice to the teacher. 28. Lech Walesa has been the president of Poland since 1990. 29. The students remained silent and aloof in the face of this disaster. 30. The soup smelled delicious but tasted terrible.
Exercise for Diagram Pattern 3: Subject Complement with Noun or Pronoun (Predicate Nominative)
1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. Circle the predicate nominatives (excluding the modifiers). Place parentheses around the complete prepositional phrases. Underline the coordinating conjunctions. Bill Clinton is the president of the United States but also an adulterer. Bill Clinton is the president of the United States but is also an adulterer. His moral misdeeds should not be grounds for impeachment of the president. Legitimate grounds for impeachment are moral turpitude and sexual misconduct. Moral turpitude and sexual misconduct are not legitimate grounds for impeachment. The man from Arkansas became the president rather than the vice president of the United States. The president, along with the vice president, is the chief executive officer of the United States. The president and the vice president are the chief executive officers of the United States. The chief executive officers of the United States are the president and the vice president. As president, Bill Clinton is the chief executive officer of the United States and the commander-in-chief of the U.S. armed forces. The chief executive officer of the United States and the commander-in-chief of the U.S. armed forces is the president of the United States. The vice president of the United States is the chair of the Senate as well as assistant to the president. The vice president of the United States is the chair of the Senate and the assistant to the president. Next in line of succession after the president is the vice president.
15. 16. 17. 18.
After the vice president, the Secretary of State is the next in line of succession. The vice president and the Secretary of State in this order are the next in line of succession after the president. Lucy and her roommate became candidates for athlete of the year. Harry will be the next president of the senior class.
Diagram Pattern 3: Subject Complement with Noun or Pronoun (Predicate Nominative)
The Basic Diagram Pattern: a. b. c. d. e. Guinea pigs are good pets Lech Walesa has been the president of Poland since 1990. Summer is my favorite time of the year. Children are the future of America. Keri was homecoming queen last year.
Diagram Pattern 3: Subject Complement with Noun (Predicate Nominative) 1. Bill Clinton is the president of the United States but also an adulterer. 2. Bill Clinton is the president of the United States but is also an adulterer. 3. His moral misdeeds should not be grounds for impeachment of the president. 4. Legitimate grounds for impeachment are moral turpitude and sexual misconduct. 5. Moral turpitude and sexual misconduct are not legitimate grounds for impeachment. 6. The man from Arkansas became the president rather than the vice president of the United States. 7. The president, along with the vice president, is the chief executive officer of the United States. 8. The president and the vice president are the chief executive officers of the United States. 9. The chief executive officers of the United States are the president and the vice president. 10. As president, Bill Clinton is the chief executive officer of the United States and the commander-inchief of the U.S. armed forces. 11. The chief executive officer of the United States and the commander-in-chief of the U.S. armed forces is the president of the United States. 12. The vice president of the United States is the chair of the Senate as well as assistant to the president. 13. The vice president of the United States is the chair of the Senate and the assistant to the president. 14. Next in line of succession after the president is the vice president.
15. After the vice president, the Secretary of State is the next in line of succession. 16. The vice president and the Secretary of State in this order are the next in line of succession after the president. 17. Lucy and her roommate became candidates for athlete of the year. 18. Harry will be the next president of the senior class.
Exercise for Diagram Pattern 4: Subject Complement with Adjective (Predicate Adjective)
1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Circle the predicate adjectives (excluding the modifiers). Place parentheses around the complete prepositional phrases. Underline the coordinating conjunctions. The professor of this English class seems happy and talkative today. However, the students in this class appear worried and concerned about their progress. The milk and the orange juice tasted sour and bitter. The cheese smelled foul but could still be eaten. The flowers grew wild along the roadside and smelled sweet to the nose. I felt sick and tired but still came to class in spite of my physical condition. The students remained silent and aloof in the face of this disaster. She appeared suddenly in the doorway but remained silent and still. The wine had a bitter taste but still smelled sweet. The opera singers voice sounded loud and thunderous in spite of noise from the audience. The visitor was rude to the students but nice to the teacher. The soup smelled delicious but tasted terrible. He was happy about his test score and felt good about his progress in this class. The rest of the class did poorly on their test and did not feel good about their situation. She gave her teacher the test but was not happy about her effort on it. This professor is one of the hardest at Barton College but seems friendly outside of class. The novel was enjoyable but disturbing because of its implications on the future of human life. Kevin, Koras classmate, was meticulous in his attention to details.
Diagram Pattern 4: Subject Complement with Adjective (Predicate Adjective)
The Basic Diagram Pattern: a. b. c. d. e. Chris seemed sleepy during class this morning. For some strange reason, I felt very secure and content. She was depressed because of her boyfriends death. The bouquet of flowers smelled sweet to me. Sue was being funny at inappropriate times in class.
Diagram Pattern 4: Subject Complement with Adjective (Predicate Adjective) 1. The professor of this English class seems happy and talkative today. 2. However, the students in this class appear worried and concerned about their progress. 3. The milk and the orange juice tasted sour and bitter. 4. The cheese smelled foul but could still be eaten. 5. The flowers grew wild along the roadside and smelled sweet to the nose. 6. I felt sick and tired but still came to class in spite of my physical condition. 7. The students remained silent and aloof in the face of this disaster. 8. She appeared suddenly in the doorway but remained silent and still. 9. The wine had a bitter taste but still smelled sweet. 10. The opera singers voice sounded loud and thunderous in spite of noise from the audience. 11. The visitor was rude to the students but nice to the teacher. 12. The soup smelled delicious but tasted terrible. 13. He was happy about his test score and felt good about his progress in this class. 14. The rest of the class did poorly on their test and did not feel good about their situation. 15. She gave her teacher the test but was not happy about her effort on it. 16. This professor is one of the hardest at Barton College but seems friendly outside of class. 17. The novel was enjoyable but disturbing because of its implications on the future of human life. 18. Kevin, Koras classmate, was meticulous in his attention to details.
Review Exercise 25: (1) Circle the Object Complement with Noun
and (2) Underline the Object Complement with Adjective. 1. She considered him handsome. 2. They re-elected him president. 3. The jury believed him guilty. 4. They named him John. 5. They found him innocent. 6. The teacher made these first few questions easy. 7. They renamed their dog Spot. 8. Getting an A in this course can make you happy. 9. The students considered the problem impossible. 10. The kiss made the frog a prince. 11. They elected the underdog their leader. 12. Oliver counts himself blessed. 13. They found the dog too feisty. 14. He gets the same answer wrong every time. 15. The reviewer considered the film great but could not recommend it to his viewers. 16. The class found the Shakespearean play very enjoyable. 17. The teacher made the first page of the test easy and the second page difficult. 18. The students elected Sarah president but never inaugurated her into office. 19. The teacher considered the test a good learning experience and therefore made the test hard. 20. A good education can make you happy but not necessarily rich. 21. The scullery maid became queen and made her wicked sisters her slaves in return for all their cruelty. 22. The attorney general and the secretary of state considered Johns application a bust. 23. Todd considers Marilyn quite intelligent. 24. The new queen exiled her mother and made her a stranger in strange lands. 25. The frail florist and her friend found the flowers from Jack a joke. 26. The little girl found the kitten cute but gave her brother her pet. 27. They loved the smell of the flowers but found the flowers bruised by too much sunlight. 28. The president appointed the old man provost of the college and vice president of academic affairs.
29. Everyone considers him mad as a hatter but never says it to his face. 30. The Smiths named their first daughter Kristi. Click here for the answers.
Exercise for Diagram Pattern 5: Object Complement with Noun

1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Circle the object complements with nouns (excluding the modifiers). Place parentheses around the complete prepositional phrases. Underline the coordinating conjunctions. The students elected Sarah president but never inaugurated her into office. The president appointed the old man provost of the college and vice president of academic affairs. The Jeffersons had two daughters and named the first Janice and the second Jeremy. The Wilsons, however, named their twins Jackie and Jenny but later renamed them Rachel and Robin. The students considered ENG 312 a difficult course and a challenging experience. The students considered ENG 312 a difficult course but took it anyway. The frail florist and her friend found the flowers from Jack a joke. The assembly nominated John and James co-chairs of the committee for quality improvement. The students considered the test a joke but took it anyway. The faculty forum elected Dr. Jenkins moderator for the year and put him in charge of all the committees. Dr. Jenkins named Dr. Manson caretaker of the college and official ombudsman for students. The scullery maid became queen and made her wicked sisters her slaves in return for all their cruelty. The new queen exiled her mother and made her a stranger in strange lands. The new queen made her a slave to her every whim but also made her a beautiful dress. The new queen appointed the butler her chamberlain and her husband her clown.
16. 17. 18.
The attorney general and the secretary of state considered Johns application a bust. Californians elected Arnold governor but cannot nominate him for president. Jessica considered Jeremy a scoundrel because of his lackadaisical attitude about women.
Diagram Pattern 5: Object Complement with Noun
The Basic Diagram Pattern: a. b. c. d. e. The The The The The student body elected Rosie head of the Greek council. coach appointed Gwen captain of the tennis team. students considered this course an enjoyable challenge. Smiths named their first daughter Kristi after their maternal grandmother. aging archaeologist found the ancient artifact a fake.
Diagram Pattern 5: Object Complement with Noun 1. The students elected Sarah president but never inaugurated her into office. 2. The president appointed the old man provost of the college and vice president of academic affairs. 3. The Jeffersons had two daughters and named the first Janice and the second Jeremy. 4. The Wilsons, however, named their twins Jackie and Jenny but later renamed them Rachel and Robin. 5. The students considered ENG 312 a difficult course and a challenging experience. 6. The students considered ENG 312 a difficult course but took it anyway. 7. The frail florist and her friend found the flowers from Jack a joke. 8. The assembly nominated John and James co-chairs of the committee for quality improvement. 9. The students considered the test a joke but took it anyway. 10. The faculty forum elected Dr. Jenkins moderator for the year and put him in charge of all the committees. 11. Dr. Jenkins named Dr. Manson caretaker of the college and official ombudsman for students. 12. The scullery maid became queen and made her wicked sisters her slaves in return for all their cruelty. 13. The new queen exiled her mother and made her a stranger in strange lands. 14. The new queen made her a slave to her every whim but also made her a beautiful dress. 15. The new queen appointed the butler her chamberlain and her husband her clown.
16. The attorney general and the secretary of state considered Johns application a bust. 17. Californians elected Arnold governor but cannot nominate him for president. 18. Jessica considered Jeremy a scoundrel because of his lackadaisical attitude about women.
Exercise for Diagram Pattern 6: Object Complement with Adjective

1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Circle the object complements with adjectives (excluding the modifiers). Place parentheses around the complete prepositional phrases. Underline the coordinating conjunctions. The little girl found the kitten cute but gave her brother her pet. The professor considered Mary quite charming but made no advances toward her. The students in class found the religion test difficult and protested loudly. The critics thought the new novel by Ernest Hemingway crass and coarse in theme and in content. People think fallen angels devils and consider them evil for all eternity. By the end of the semester, many students found the course rewarding and enriching. A good education can make you happy but not necessarily rich. The teacher made the first page of the test easy and the second page difficult. The teacher considered the test a good learning experience and therefore made the test hard. They loved the smell of the flowers but found them bruised by too much sunlight. Everyone considers him mad as a hatter but never says it to his face. The little girl gave her brother the cute kitten and thereby made him happy. The students found the teacher difficult but considered him their friend. The reviewer considered the film great but could not recommend it to his viewers. The pianist considered his teacher's technique weak and therefore did not recommend him to his friend. The shy stranger found the hobo helpless and sick on the sidewalk but helped him anyway. The potion made Tristan crazy for the love of Isolde, King Marks fiance. The judge found the incredible tale worthy of consideration by the jury.
Diagram Pattern 6: Object Complement with Adjective
The Basic Diagram Pattern: a. Todd considers Marilyn quite intelligent. b. The committee on sexual harassment found her attitude extremely offensive to men. c. Bryan thought Twains adolescent novel splendid. d. The class found the Shakespearean play very enjoyable. e. The English teacher made the test incredibly easy. Diagram Pattern 6: Object Complement with Adjective 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. The little girl found the kitten cute but gave her brother her pet. The professor considered Mary quite charming but made no advances toward her. The students in class found the religion test difficult and protested loudly. The critics thought the new novel by Ernest Hemingway crass and coarse in theme and in content. People think fallen angels devils and consider them evil for all eternity. By the end of the semester, many students found the course rewarding and enriching. A good education can make you happy but not necessarily rich. The teacher made the first page of the test easy and the second page difficult. The teacher considered the test a good learning experience and therefore made the test hard. They loved the smell of the flowers but found them bruised by too much sunlight. Everyone considers him mad as a hatter but never says it to his face. The little girl gave her brother the cute kitten and thereby made him happy. The students found the teacher difficult but considered him their friend. The reviewer considered the film great but could not recommend it to his viewers. The pianist considered his teacher's technique weak and therefore did not recommend him to his friend. The shy stranger found the hobo helpless and sick on the sidewalk but helped him anyway. The potion made Tristan crazy for the love of Isolde, King Marks fiance. The judge found the incredible tale worthy of consideration by the jury.
Review Exercise 26: (1) Circle the Passive Complement with Noun (Retained Object) and
(2) Underline the Passive Complement with Adjective. 1. Each of the applicants will be asked three questions by the members of the committee. 2. The patient in the hospital was fed a special diet of spinach and lima beans for every meal. 3. The convict was considered mentally competent but was still declared guilty. 4. The family was told the bad news of the childs accidental death. 5. The homework was considered difficult but not impossible. 6. The patient was pronounced healthy and sound after the completion of his physical exam. 7. The road was made much steeper but was still adequate for commercial travel. 8. Charlie was declared insane by the psychiatrist because of his quirkish behavior. 9. The teacher was called a bad name by the student but did nothing about it. 10. At first Jessica was given a blood test by the lab technician and later a urine test by the nurse. 11. Students in this class will be given diagramming exercises and homework every night for practice. 12. The students and the teacher were told the bad news about the cancellation of classes because of the hurricane. 13. Daniel was appointed recording secretary and was told everything about the case. 14. After a thorough inspection the ship was pronounced seaworthy. 15. Sloths may be considered lazy because of their slowness but never dumb. 16. The racing car was pronounced safe and sound by the mechanic in the pit. 17. The victim was pronounced dead on arrival and could not be identified by the police. 18. This test could have been made much harder but wasnt, for the sake of the students sanity. 19. Everyone in this class was told the results but was not impressed by the statistics. 20. The teacher was told the bad news about the class but was not told the good news. 21. The prisoner was found dead in bed but had a happy smile on his face. 22. Regular employees are given a bonus every Christmas. 23. Jerry was told nothing except for the news about his expulsion from school. 24. The character in the novel was found innocent but was still hanged by the vigilante. 25. The recipe for the cake was considered easy for the cooks but hard for the neophytes. Click here for the answers.
Exercise for Diagram Pattern 7: Passive Complement with Noun (Retained Object)
1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Circle the passive complements with nouns (excluding the modifiers). Place parentheses around the complete prepositional phrases. Underline the coordinating conjunctions. The patient in the hospital was fed a special diet of spinach and lima beans for every meal. Students in this class will be given diagramming exercises and homework every night for practice. Josephine was recently elected president of the senior class but declined the position. On the questionnaire you will be asked your name, address, and telephone number for security reasons. The teacher was told the bad news about the class but was not told the good news. Daniel was appointed recording secretary and was told everything about the case. Jerry was told nothing except for the news about his expulsion from school. The students were asked simple questions on the test but could not answer them. John and Jane were awarded a Grammy last night for their latest album. The students and the teacher were told the bad news about the cancellation of classes because of the hurricane. My plants must be fed fertilizer every month and watered every week. The teacher was called a bad name by the student but did nothing about it. Einstein was considered a failure in math because of an F in a high school math course of his. Everyone in this class was told the results but was not impressed by the statistics. The movie was considered a flop but made more money than any other film last summer. At first Jessica was given a blood test by the lab technician and later a urine test by the nurse. The students were told the good news about the vacation and also the bad news about the reading assignment. Ashley was made chair of the committee and was given a special room as her office.
Diagram Pattern 7: Passive Complement with Noun (Retained Object)
The Basic Diagram Pattern: a. Regular employees are given a bonus every Christmas. b. The tiny puppies must be fed a special diet. c. The family was told the bad news of the childs accidental death. d. Jones was recently appointed treasurer of the senior class. e. Each of the applicants will be asked three questions by the members of the committee. Diagram Pattern 7: Passive Complement with Noun (Retained Object) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. The patient in the hospital was fed a special diet of spinach and lima beans for every meal. Students in this class will be given diagramming exercises and homework every night for practice. Josephine was recently elected president of the senior class but declined the position. On the questionnaire you will be asked your name, address, and telephone number for security reasons. The teacher was told the bad news about the class but was not told the good news. Daniel was appointed recording secretary and was told everything about the case. Jerry was told nothing except for the news about his expulsion from school. The students were asked simple questions on the test but could not answer them. John and Jane were awarded a Grammy last night for their latest album. The students and the teacher were told the bad news about the cancellation of classes because of the hurricane. My plants must be fed fertilizer every month and watered every week. The teacher was called a bad name by the student but did nothing about it. Einstein was considered a failure in math because of an F in a high school math course of his. Everyone in this class was told the results but was not impressed by the statistics. The movie was considered a flop but made more money than any other film last summer. At first Jessica was given a blood test by the lab technician and later a urine test by the nurse. The students were told the good news about the vacation and also the bad news about the reading assignment. Ashley was made chair of the committee and was given a special room as her office.
Exercise for Diagram Pattern 8: Passive Complement with Adjective

1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Circle the passive complements with adjectives (excluding the modifiers). Place parentheses around the complete prepositional phrases. Underline the coordinating conjunctions. Sloths may be considered lazy because of their slowness but never dumb. The psychiatrist was declared incompetent and was sued for $5 million. The prisoner was found dead in bed but had a happy smile on his face. The patient was pronounced healthy and sound after the completion of his physical exam. This test could have been made much harder but wasnt, for the sake of the students sanity. The two of them were found sick in bed but still alive and cheerful. The homework was considered difficult but not impossible. The criminal was declared innocent by the judge and was released immediately. The racing car was pronounced safe and sound by the mechanic in the pit. The recipe for the cake was considered easy for the cooks but hard for the neophytes. The road was made much steeper but was still adequate for commercial travel. The movie was considered great in terms of historical value but also very boring by everyone in the theater. The convict was considered mentally competent but was still declared guilty. The character in the novel was found innocent but was still hanged by the vigilante. The witnesses were found guilty of bribery but were forgiven by the court. The victim was pronounced dead on arrival and could not be identified by the police. The test was made easy for the students but still required some degree of preparation. The victim was declared innocent and did not receive any jail time.
Diagram Pattern 8: Passive Complement with Adjective
The Basic Diagram Pattern: a. b. c. d. e. Wally was considered inept by a group of his peers. With the use of this attachment, the tractor can be made much more serviceable. Charlie was declared insane by the psychiatrist because of his quirkish behavior. The man was found dead in bed. After a thorough inspection the ship was pronounced seaworthy.
Diagram Pattern 8: Passive Complement with Adjective 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Sloths may be considered lazy because of their slowness but never dumb. The psychiatrist was declared incompetent and was sued for $5 million. The prisoner was found dead in bed but had a happy smile on his face. The patient was pronounced healthy and sound after the completion of his physical exam. This test could have been made much harder but wasnt, for the sake of the students sanity. The two of them were found sick in bed but still alive and cheerful. The homework was considered difficult but not impossible. The criminal was declared innocent by the judge and was released immediately. The racing car was pronounced safe and sound by the mechanic in the pit. The recipe for the cake was considered easy for the cooks but hard for the neophytes. The road was made much steeper but was still adequate for commercial travel. The movie was considered great in terms of historical value but also very boring by everyone in the theater. The convict was considered mentally competent but was still declared guilty. The character in the novel was found innocent but was still hanged by the vigilante. The witnesses were found guilty of bribery but were forgiven by the court. The victim was pronounced dead on arrival and could not be identified by the police. The test was made easy for the students but still required some degree of preparation. The victim was declared innocent and did not receive any jail time.
Modifier: The three kinds of modifiers are single-word modifiers (such as beautiful and beautifully), phrasal modifiers (such as into the house or with a hat), and subordinate (adjective and adverb) clauses. Things to Remember About Modifiers Rule 1 Rule 2 Rule 3 A modifier can be a word, a phrase, or a clause. (See Kinds of Modifiers below.) A modifier must have a word (or a noun equivalent) that it modifies. (See What Does It Modify? below.) A modifier should go closest to the word it modifies. Position 1: Immediately before the word it modifies. Best Position. Position 2: Immediately after the word it modifies. Good Position. Position 3: At the end of the sentence (or clause). Weak Position. Rule 4 Rule 5 Rule 6 Rule 7 Rule 8 Rule 9 Example Disappointed by the results, I thought about giving up. I, disappointed by the results, thought about giving up. I thought about giving up, disappointed by the results.
A single-word modifier usually goes before the word it modifies. (See Position below.) A phrasal modifier usually goes after the word it modifies. (See Position below.) An adjective (or relative) clause goes after the word it modifies. (See Adjective or Relative Clause below.) An adverb clause goes either before or after the main clause. (See Adverb Clause below.) Only an adverb (single-word modifier, phrasal modifier, or adverb clause) that modifies a simple predicate (i.e., the verb) can be moved around. A modifier never modifies a conjunction or a preposition.
Placement of Modifiers (Single-word and Phrasal Modifiers Only): Rule 1: Rule 2: Rule 3: A modifier can be a word, a phrase, or a clause. A modifier should have a word (or a noun substitute) that it modifies. A modifier should go closest to the word that it modifies.
1. Position 1 Immediately before the word that it modifies. (Best position) Example: Disappointed by the results, I thought about giving up. 2. Position 2 Immediately after the word that it modifies. (Good position) Example: I, disappointed by the results, thought about giving up. 3. Position 3 At the end of the sentence (or clause). (Weak position) Example: I thought about giving up, disappointed by the results. Three Kinds of Modifiers What Does It Modify? 1. Single-Word Modifiers 1. Adjective Modifies noun Before the word it modifies Beautiful flowers are in bloom. After the word it modifies (rare) 2. Adverb Modifies an adjective Modifies an adverb Modifies a verb The court martial was long. Position Example
Before the word it modifies Larry was quite smart. Before the word it modifies Jane studied very hard. Before the word it modifies Kerry quickly sat in her seat. After the word it modifies She sang beautifully. Yesterday I went to the movies. I went to the movies yesterday.
3. Adverbial Objective
Modifies a verb (the simple predicate in the main clause)
At the beginning of the clause After the word it modifies
2. Phrasal Modifiers 1. Adjectival Prepositional Phrase 2. Adverbial Prepositional Phrase Modifies a noun After the word it modifies They finally found the man with the hat. Into the house he ran. He ran into the house. The problem to be solved is easy to do. He finished his homework to please his mother. The problem to be solved is easy to do.
Modifies a verb
At the beginning of the clause After the word it modifies
3. Adjectival Infinitive Phrase 4. Adverbial Infinitive Phrase
Modifies a noun Modifies a verb
After the word it modifies After the word it modifies
Modifies an adjective 5. Participial Phrase (always acts as an adjectival modifier) Modifies a noun
After the word it modifies
Before the word it modifies Having run a mile, John was tired and thirsty. After the word it modifies John, having run a mile, was tired and thirsty.
3. Subordinate Clause Modifiers 1. Adjective Clause or Relative Clause 2. Adverb Clause Modifies a noun or pronoun, i.e., the antecedent Modifies a verb (the simple predicate in the main clause) After the word it modifies, i.e., the antecedent Before the main clause After the main clause I talked with the man who came from France. After Tom came home, he ate dinner. Tom ate dinner after he came home. Kim is much taller than Jennifer (is). Rachel worked harder than Susan (did).
Modifies a predicate After the word it modifies adjective (in the main clause) Modifies a After the word it modifies comparative adverb (in the main clause)
There are three kinds of modifier problems: 1. Misplaced modifiers Misplaced modifiers must be relocated to a better position in the sentence. Misplaced: Relocated: An exotic painting attracts the viewers eye on the east wall. An exotic painting on the east wall attracts the visitors eye.
Exercise on Misplaced Modifiers:

Revise the sentences by moving the misplaced modifier to its proper location. 1. The box was placed on the table with a beautiful lid. _________________________________________________________________________________ 2. The mole was bigger than a kernel of corn on his ear. _________________________________________________________________________________ 3. He only talked to her and no one else. _________________________________________________________________________________ 4. Two of his students failed this quiz who had been doing well on previous quizzes. _________________________________________________________________________________ 5. Donna L. Thompson found that there are many types of hate speech in her research. _________________________________________________________________________________ 6. There are students who are very religious at certain institutions. _________________________________________________________________________________ 7. Jake thought about God, riding on the bus. _________________________________________________________________________________ 8. He put the book in his briefcase about Shakespeare. _________________________________________________________________________________ 9. She smiled at the boy knowingly. _________________________________________________________________________________ 10. The flowers were blue on the table. _________________________________________________________________________________
2. Dangling modifiers Sentences with dangling modifiers must be revised. Dangling: Revised: Disappointed by the results, giving up seemed to make sense. Disappointed by the results, I thought about giving up.
Exercise on Dangling Modifiers:

Revise the sentences to eliminate the dangling modifier problems. 1. Having come to school late, the class left me behind. _________________________________________________________________________________ 2. For students to write well, good grammar must be learned and practiced. _________________________________________________________________________________ 3. On entering the theater, its emptiness surprised me. _________________________________________________________________________________ 4. Having done your research, the next thing to do is to write an outline. _________________________________________________________________________________ 5. Before writing your draft, making an outline of your paper is necessary. _________________________________________________________________________________ 6. Every summer, while in elementary school, my parents took us to Disneyland. _________________________________________________________________________________ 7. By reading the instructions carefully, fewer mistakes will be made. _________________________________________________________________________________ 8. In order to take pictures, your cell phone should be turned on. _________________________________________________________________________________ 9. Having received an A on my paper, my face broke out in a smile. _________________________________________________________________________________
10.
After cramming all night, my test grade still did not improve. _________________________________________________________________________________
3. Squinting modifiers Sentences with squinting modifiers can be revised, or the modifier must be relocated, depending on the meaning you want. Squinting: Revised: Relocated: Walking < often > relaxes her. It relaxes her to walk often. Often, walking relaxes her.
Three Kinds of Modifier Problems Example 1. Misplaced Modifier An exotic painting attracts the viewers eye on the east wall. Relocate: An exotic painting on the east wall attracts the viewers eye. What word does the modifier incorrectly modify? Why is it wrong? How to Correct the Problem Relocate the prepositional phrase, on the east wall, immediately after the noun, painting.
The prepositional The prepositional phrase on the east wall phrase, on the east incorrectly modifies wall, should modify the noun eye. It is not the noun painting. the eye that is on the east wall, but the painting, that is on the east wall.
2. Dangling Disappointed by the Modifier results, giving up seemed to make sense. Revise: Disappointed by the results, I thought about giving up.
The participial phrase, disappointed by the results, incorrectly modifies the gerund giving up. (See dangling modifier test below.)
The participial phrase needs to modify a person. It needs a correct subject.
Revise the sentence so that the subject is a person, such as I, he, or Frank.
3. Squinting Modifier
Walking often relaxes her. Relocate: Often walking relaxes her. Revise: It relaxes her to walk often.
The adverb often could modify the gerund, walking, or it could modify the simple predicate (verb), relaxes. In the written form, it is not clear which word often modifies. The meaning to be conveyed will determine whether or not to relocate or to revise.
The adverb, often, is in a location that can be interpreted in two different ways. When the sentence is spoken, the speaker can determine which meaning to give by using a pause (or juncture) before (often relaxes) or after (walking often) the adverb often. In the written form, there is no way to indicate a pause (juncture).
Depending on the meaning to be conveyed: Relocate the adverb, often, to the beginning of the sentence so that it modifies the verb, relaxes.[often relaxes] OR Revise the sentence so that the adverb, often, modifies the infinitive, to walk. [walking often]
Dangling Modifier Test: To test if a phrasal modifier is dangling, move it from Position 1 (before the subject) to Position 2 (immediately after the subject). If the sentence sounds fine, the phrase is not a dangling modifier. If the sentence sounds strange, the phrase is a dangling modifier and needs a proper subject to modify. Problem: Disappointed by the results, giving up seemed to make sense. [Position 1, before the subject] Giving up, disappointed by the result, seemed to make sense. [Position 2, immediately after the subject] The participial phrase, disappointed by the results, sounds strange when placed in Position 2, immediately after the subject, giving up. The subject in this case is a gerund, not a person. Most dangling modifiers need a proper subject to modify, usually a person. Such dangling modifiers are usually collapsed adjective or adverb clauses. Revision: Disappointed by the results, I thought about giving up. Disappointed by the results correctly modifies the subject of the main clause, I. Problem: Because I was disappointed by the results, giving up seemed to make sense.> Disappointed by the results, giving up seemed to make sense. The adverb clause, Because I was disappointed by the results, is collapsed or shortened to a participial phrase, disappointed by the results. The proper subject of the participial phrase, I, is missing.
Revision:
Disappointed by the results, I thought about giving up. The original of this revision is Because I was disappointed by the results, I thought about giving up. When the adverb clause is collapsed to form the participial phrase, there would be no dangling modifier problem (as in the revision).
Good Writing:
The fact that Because I was disappointed by the results, I thought about giving up is a better sentence to write indicates that there is a problem with the other sentence Because I was disappointed by the results, giving up seemed to make sense. There is a shift in focus problem from I to giving up, from a person as the subject of the adverb clause to an action (gerund) as the subject of the main clause. In good writing, both subjects should be the same.
Review Exercise 27: Identify the (1) Misplaced Modifier (MM), (2) Dangling Modifier (DM),
and (3) Squinting Modifier (SM), and then underline the complete modifier. _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ 1. If an athletic trainer is able to do that most of the time you're grateful. 2. The chandelier always attracted the attention of the visitors that hung in the church sanctuary. 3. The evening passed pleasantly, munching popcorn and watching a late movie. 4. Olivia wore her favorite coat almost until the sleeves were threadbare. 5. My paper for Dr. Fukuchi was finished after sitting up half the night. 6. I put the chair in the middle of the room that I had recently purchased. 7. Dusk having fallen, the kids went inside. 8. Because of the cold, we scarcely walked three blocks before catching a cab. 9. I agreed the next day to help him. 10. Having received all A's on my report card, my father bought me a new car. 11. Many people who watch late movies regularly get up about noon. 12. One fine spring day we took out the canoe from the boathouse, which had been in storage all winter. 13. He forgot completely to close the gate. 14. Taking our seats, the game started. 15. The tornado only destroyed two buildings. 16. After working on assignments for three hours, the rain began. 17. Wendy said last week she had arrived. 18. To decipher his handwriting, a magnifying glass and an active imagination are called for. 19. Arnold says that he means to leave the country in the first paragraph. 20. Eric asked her whenever possible to have lunch with him. Click here for the answers.
Phrases: A phrase is a group of words with a specific function in a sentence. The exception is the absolute phrase, which is a combination of two phrases a noun phrase and a participial phrase. There are eight (8) kinds of phrases: Eight (8) Kinds of Phrases 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. (7.) (8.) Noun phrase Appositive phrase Absolute phrase 1 Prepositional phrase Verb phrase 2 Verbal phrase: Gerund Verbal phrase: Participle Verbal phrase: Infinitive The heavy frost killed fruit trees. John, my brother, is here today. The lunch having been packed, we were ready to go. Parking on campus is prohibited. Gerald has looked up the word. To err is human. Having eaten his fill, John left the table. It is time to depart.
Notes: 1. The absolute phrase (#3), though common in Latin, is not usually used in English. It is basically a collapsed adverbial clause. 2. The verb phrase (#5), in this case, is also a phrasal verb (a verb with a preposition or an adverb attached to it). Noun Phrase: A noun phrase is a noun and its single-word modifiers. The example above (#1) has two noun phrases the heavy frost and fruit trees. The single-word modifiers are the, heavy, and fruit. Appositive Phrase: An appositive phrase is a noun phrase that renames another noun phrase. Absolute Phrase: An absolute phrase is a collapsed adverbial clause whose main verb has been changed into a participial phrase that modifies its original subject. It has two parts a noun phrase and a participial phrase. This grammatical construction is common in Latin and is called an ablative absolute. In traditional English grammar, it is considered an acceptable grammatical construction; however, contemporary grammar tends to avoid such a construction. Prepositional Phrase: A prepositional phrase has the form, preposition + (optional adjective) + noun or pronoun. It functions as either an adjectival or adverbial modifier. Verb Phrase: A verb phrase consists of a main verb and its auxiliary verbs. Verbal Phrase: Three special forms of the non-finite verb are called verbals or verbal phrases. They are the gerund, the participle, and the infinitive and cannot be used as simple predicates (finite verbs). The verbals have certain characteristics of the verb, but they cannot function as predicates. The gerund functions as a noun; the participle functions as an adjective; and the infinitive functions as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. They do not function as verbs, i.e., simple predicates.
Exercise on Kinds of Phrases:

Identify the underlined phrases in the following sentences. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ The student walked into the room. The new high school teacher looks smart. Running a mile a day is great exercise for anyone. She bought it for my brothers, Jim and Joe. He wanted to help serve dinner to the guests. The man with the monkey on his shoulder smiled. They should be doing their homework by now. Shirley, having just recovered from the flu, seems to be fine. His coming into class late disturbed the students. After studying for an hour, she decided to take a break.
Gerund: The present participle form of the verb, ending in -ing, is called a gerund when it functions as a noun. It is also called a verb-noun. Unlike a noun, however, a gerund retains some of the characteristics of a verb and may take an object. It requires the possessive case of any noun or pronoun used with it. Note the following examples of gerunds: The constant pounding of the waves weakened the rocks. (Subject of the verb weakened.) Complaining about it will not help you. (Subject of the verb will help.) I dont like your going to that meeting. (Object of the verb like.) Note the possessive form your (not you) that is required.
Exercise for Diagram Pattern 9: Gerund as Subject/Object

1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Circle the passive complements with adjectives (excluding the modifiers). Place parentheses around the complete prepositional phrases. Underline the coordinating conjunctions. Explaining my function in the operation required patience and finesse. The tranquil bays of Lake Michigan make swimming there a pleasure. Repairing the faulty connection should be a fairly simple chore. The most dangerous part of the job will be removing the live wires. Being honorary chairman of the campaign will require very little of your time or energy. You might try being more considerate of other peoples feelings. Lukes greatest achievement was being awarded a good-conduct medal. His hobby, collecting antique cars, is harmless but very expensive. Attending classes and preparing for them are two important parts of everyones education. I cannot understand his refusing my very sensible suggestion. Giving Bert a larger expense account will only make matters worse. No one ever enjoys being told bad news about their test grades. Your first mistake was telling Tom our secret password. His crime, openly defying the dictator, made him a hero. Being an actor seems glamorous to people outside the profession. The favorite of all my sons hobbies, building rockets, is also the most expensive. Doing ones homework diligently is the best way of learning the material. Exercising daily by jogging a mile promotes good physical and mental health.
Diagram Pattern 9: Gerund as Subject/Object (Same construction in direct object slot)
The Basic Diagram Pattern: a. b. c. d. e. Tim will find practicing yoga a rewarding exercise. Last night my roommates coughing disturbed my sleep. Landing a jet plane on an aircraft carrier requires precision. The teacher didnt like his coming late to class. Susan considered running for office.
Diagram Pattern 9: Gerund as Subject/Object 1. Explaining my function in the operation required patience and finesse. 2. The tranquil bays of Lake Michigan make swimming there a pleasure. 3. Repairing the faulty connection should be a fairly simple chore. 4. The most dangerous part of the job will be removing the live wires. 5. Being honorary chairman of the campaign will require very little of your time or energy. 6. You might try being more considerate of other peoples feelings. 7. Lukes greatest achievement was being awarded a good-conduct medal. 8. His hobby, collecting antique cars, is harmless but very expensive. 9. Attending classes and preparing for them are two important parts of everyones education. 10. I cannot understand his refusing my very sensible suggestion. 11. Giving Bert a larger expense account will only make matters worse. 12. No one ever enjoys being told bad news about their test grades. 13. Your first mistake was telling Tom our secret password. 14. His crime, openly defying the dictator, made him a hero. 15. Being an actor seems glamorous to people outside the profession.
16. The favorite of all my sons hobbies, building rockets, is also the most expensive. 17. Doing ones homework diligently is the best way of learning the material. 18. Exercising daily by jogging a mile promotes good physical and mental health.
Exercise for Diagram Pattern 10: Gerund as Object of Preposition

1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Circle the complete gerund phrases with all their modifiers. [Note: The prepositions are not part of the gerund phrases.] Place parentheses around the complete prepositional phrases. Underline the simple predicates. You could make your story more effective by shortening it considerably. I was made a member of the jury in spite of being the judges nephew. I created a sensation by calling his story a falsehood. By complaining about the schedule, you will only make matters worse. We gave the children a bigger allowance for keeping their rooms spotless. Instead of feeling angry with me, you should thank me for being so honest. After clearing the courtroom, the judge admonished the lawyers. Jenkins spoke of once having met my father in Paris. We could not leave the concert without creating a disturbance. He cannot be sociable without making himself mildly obnoxious. After telling Linda the good news, I returned home. How can one find enjoyment in collecting old streetcar transfers? Upon discovering the shortage, Mr. Slater questioned all of the employees. I played a very small part in making the world safe for democracy. By merely mastering the electric guitar, you can become a social and economic success. Someone had entered the store by removing a window in the back door. By sleeping every night for 8 hours, you assure yourself of getting better grades. Dont waste your brain power by putting it on idle and thinking about nothing.
Diagram Pattern 10: Gerund as Object of Preposition
The Basic Diagram Pattern: a. Strong ankles are needed for ballet dancing. b. By adding storm windows, she saved on her heating bill. c. After coming to Wilson, Tony quickly found the night spots. d. For doing well on the tests, she was rewarded by being excused from the final exam. e. Before coming to class, do your homework. Diagram Pattern 10: Gerund as Object of Preposition 1. You could make your story more effective by shortening it considerably. 2. I was made a member of the jury in spite of being the judges nephew. 3. I created a sensation by calling his story a falsehood. 4. By complaining about the schedule, you will only make matters worse. 5. We gave the children a bigger allowance for keeping their rooms spotless. 6. Instead of feeling angry with me, you should thank me for being so honest. 7. After clearing the courtroom, the judge admonished the lawyers. 8. Jenkins spoke of once having met my father in Paris. 9. We could not leave the concert without creating a disturbance. 10. He cannot be sociable without making himself mildly obnoxious. 11. After telling Linda the good news, I returned home. 12. How can one find enjoyment in collecting old streetcar transfers? 13. Upon discovering the shortage, Mr. Slater questioned all of the employees. 14. I played a very small part in making the world safe for democracy. 15. By merely mastering the electric guitar, you can become a social and economic success. 16. Someone had entered the store by removing a window in the back door.
17. By sleeping every night for 8 hours, you assure yourself of getting better grades. 18. Dont waste your brain power by putting it on idle and thinking about nothing.
Participle: The participles of a verb may function as adjectives and as parts of verb phrases used adjectivally. The present participle is formed by adding ing to the simple form of the verb: falling, writing, raising. The past participle is the third principle part of the verb: fallen, written, seen, forbidden, lost, depressed. The perfect participle consists of having or having been plus the past participle: having fallen, having walked, having flown, having been beaten. Three Kinds of Participles Tense Form Example falling writing raising seeing fallen written raised seen having fallen having written having been raised having been seen
Present participle
1st principal part of the verb + -ing
Past participle
fall, fell, fallen write, wrote, written raise, raised, raised see, saw, seen
(3 principal part of the verb)
rd
Perfect participle
have + past participle (active voice) having been + past participle (passive voice)
a. Functioning as a single-word adjective: Examples: The children watched the escaping water. (Modifies the noun water.) The fallen tree was removed from the road. (Modifies the noun tree.) Trembling, he approached the vicious dog. (Modifies the pronoun he.)
b. Functioning as an adjectival phrase: Examples: Raising his hand, the man asked to speak. (Modifies the noun man.) Depressed in spirit, I went home. (Modifies the pronoun I.) The tree, fallen across the road, was removed. (Modifies the noun tree.) Having been injured, King forfeited the match. (Modifies the proper noun King.)
Distinguishing Between Form and Function Example Form In relation to Sally (the simple subject of the independent clause), the perfect participle (a verbal phrase), having had, acts as an adjective (its form). As an adjective, it modifies Sally. In relation to a nightmare (a noun phrase), the perfect participle (a verbal phrase), having had, acts as a verb (its form). As a verb, it can take a direct object nightmare. Function In relation to Sally (the simple subject of the independent clause), the perfect participle (a verbal phrase), having had, has the function of a modifier. As a participle (which has the form of an adjective), it modifies Sally. In relation to the noun phrase, a nightmare, the perfect participle (a verbal phrase), having had, has the function of a simple predicate. As a simple predicate, it can take a direct object nightmare.
[In relation to Sally:] Having had a nightmare, Sally could not sleep for the rest of the night.
[In relation to a nightmare:] Having had a nightmare, Sally could not sleep for the rest of the night.
Exercise for Diagram Pattern 11: Participle as Adjectival Modifier

1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Place parentheses around the complete participial phrases with all their modifiers. Circle the words that the participles modify. Underline the simple predicates. Having heard the distress signal from the engine room crew, the captain decided to change the course of the crippled destroyer. The person guessing the correct answer won a trip to Nassau to snorkel for a week. Our submarine, having spent two months in dry-dock, was finally declared seaworthy again. Having pronounced us man and wife, the judge beamed and offered us congratulations. Each person applying for a job must fill out a card listing his previous places of employment.
6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.
Peering sternly over her glasses, the principal glared at the unhappy wretches standing nervously before her. Having been sent to the wrong address, the supplies ordered from the Acme Company did not arrive until January. People wearing a blue badge are allowed through the lines established by the military police. Considered a poor risk by most observers, the colt developed rapidly and eventually brought her owner a small fortune. Hauled before the justice of the peace, Hoskins made an impassioned speech proclaiming his innocence. Having already mailed the Joneses an invitation, I could not understand Carls petulant act of tearing up his invitation. Having been promised an early promotion, Bert became uneasy upon seeing young Potter in the bosss office. Earlier I had seen Thompson handing the guard a package wrapped in heavy brown paper. Being clever and resourceful, Betty succeeded in making the shabby coat quite presentable. Students admitted after this date may register by following the procedure explained in the catalogue. Having become suspicious of my partners intentions, I told him nothing of the new development in the training of new personnel for the office. Wasting time by playing video games all day, the geek turned into a freak. His dorm room, smelling like death, had dirty clothes scattered all over the place.
Diagram Pattern 11: Participle as Adjectival Modifier
The Basic Diagram Pattern: a. b. c. d. e. The broken glass was scattered everywhere. Having locked his keys in the car, Tom called home for help. The children were sitting on the sofa watching television. Chasing the puppy around the yard, Danny tripped and fell. The electrician installed recessed lighting fixtures in the kitchen.
Diagram Pattern 11: Participle as Adjectival Modifier 1. Having heard the distress signal from the engine room crew, the captain decided to change the course of the crippled destroyer. 2. The person guessing the correct answer won a trip to Nassau to snorkel for a week. 3. Our submarine, having spent two months in dry-dock, was finally declared seaworthy again. 4. Having pronounced us man and wife, the judge beamed and offered us congratulations. 5. Each person applying for a job must fill out a card listing his previous places of employment. 6. Peering sternly over her glasses, the principal glared at the unhappy wretches standing nervously before her. 7. Having been sent to the wrong address, the supplies ordered from the Acme Company did not arrive until January. 8. People wearing a blue badge are allowed through the lines established by the military police. 9. Considered a poor risk by most observers, the colt developed rapidly and eventually brought her owner a small fortune.
10. Hauled before the justice of the peace, Hoskins made an impassioned speech proclaiming his innocence. 11. Having already mailed the Joneses an invitation, I could not understand Carls petulant act of tearing up his invitation. 12. Having been promised an early promotion, Bert became uneasy upon seeing young Potter in the bosss office. 13. Earlier I had seen Thompson handing the guard a package wrapped in heavy brown paper. 14. Being clever and resourceful, Betty succeeded in making the shabby coat quite presentable. 15. Students admitted after this date may register by following the procedure explained in the catalogue. 16. Having become suspicious of my partners intentions, I told him nothing of the new development in the training of new personnel for the office. 17. Wasting time by playing video games all day, the geek turned into a freak. 18. His dorm room, smelling like death, had dirty clothes scattered all over the place. Infinitive: The infinitive is the simple form of the verb preceded by to, either expressed or understood. To is usually omitted if it would make the sentence awkward or stilted: Bid him go. The infinitive without the to is called a headless infinitive or bare infinitive. The infinitive usually functions as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. Form and Function of the Infinitive Form Noun Function Subject of the simple predicate (i.e., the verb) was Example To fight was foolish. Test What? is a noun question. What is foolish?
Direct object He plans to fight. of the simple predicate (i.e., the verb) plans Predicate nominative (or subject complement) Adjectiv e Adverb Modifier of the noun way Modifier of His plan is to fight.
He plans what?
His plan is what?
This is the way to fight. He fought to prove his
What kind of? is an adjective question. Why? is an adverb
What kind of way? He fought why?
the adjective ready
bravery.
question.
Exercise for Diagram Pattern 12: Infinitive as Noun

1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Place parentheses around the complete infinitive phrases with all their modifiers. Circle the words the simple subjects. Underline the simple predicates. Bill hated to turn in his work late and receive a bad grade for it. His hobby, to make miniature furniture for doll houses, requires meticulous details. The partially blind old caretaker believed the intruder to be me. For you to lose money on the deal would be practically impossible. It might be difficult for us to get tickets for the big game. Did you remember to feed the dog and water the plants? To find real happiness in this world is everyones dream except mine. Why does she want to spend her summer here with you? The goal in a Japanese baseball game is to tie, not to win. The worst solitude is to be destitute of sincere friendship. Tim loves to play poker with the guys every Wednesday night. Before the Wright Brothers, people attempted to fly, but were unsuccessful. It would be exciting for me to be a helicopter pilot for a hospital unit. To be or not to be, that is the question. Todays pioneers hope to venture into outer space and to return safely. It was embarrassing to see myself on television in speech class this morning. To sacrifice even a single life for the sake of many is unacceptable. It is ultimately the responsibility of every human being to help people in any way possible.
Diagram Pattern 12: Infinitive as Noun
The Basic Diagram Pattern: a. b. c. d. e. My sister plans to marry her boyfriend this spring. My first impulse was to telephone my parents. To have loved and lost is sad. John did not help her serve dinner to the guests. My mother told me to come home immediately.
Diagram Pattern 12: Infinitive as Noun 1. Bill hated to turn in his work late and receive a bad grade for it. 2. His hobby, to make miniature furniture for doll houses, requires meticulous details. 3. The partially blind old caretaker believed the intruder to be me. 4. For you to lose money on the deal would be practically impossible. 5. It might be difficult for us to get tickets for the big game. 6. Did you remember to feed the dog and water the plants? 7. To find real happiness in this world is everyones dream except mine. 8. Why does she want to spend her summer here with you? 9. The goal in a Japanese baseball game is to tie, not to win. 10. The worst solitude is to be destitute of sincere friendship. 11. Tim loves to play poker with the guys every Wednesday night. 12. Before the Wright Brothers, people attempted to fly, but were unsuccessful. 13. It would be exciting for me to be a helicopter pilot for a hospital unit. 14. To be or not to be, that is the question. 15. Todays pioneers hope to venture into outer space and to return safely. 16. It was embarrassing to see myself on television in speech class this morning. 17. To sacrifice even a single life for the sake of many is unacceptable. 18. It is ultimately the responsibility of every human being to help people in any way possible.
Exercise for Diagram Pattern 13: Infinitive as Adjective

1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Place parentheses around the complete infinitive phrases with all their modifiers. Circle the words that the infinitives modify. Underline the simple predicates. The way to solve this problem is to meditate about it. We had already assembled the tools to use the next day. The committee selected the films to be shown spring quarter during the Spielberg festival. I had prepared a lengthy statement to read to the parole board. Mothers attempt to make me a social success was painful and futile. This might be the best time to confront the board with our plan for the merger. My current plan to major in English and minor in business is a good one. My parents aren't very enthusiastic about my wish to hitchhike to Florida next summer. The time to study for your test is now, not later. His decision to join the Marines did not please his parents. It will be very difficult to fund the proposal to build an arts center on campus. The film to see last summer was The Phantom Menace by George Lucas. The team to beat this season is Elon, not Catawba. Man's dream to travel at the speed of light will become a reality in the next century. The committee continued to look for a way to solve the problem. The way to get to heaven is to love God and love your neighbor. The planning to be done for Homecoming will take a lot of time next month. Books to help you reduce do not always work well for everyone.
Diagram Pattern 13: Infinitive as Adjective
The Basic Diagram Pattern: a. b. c. d. e. His ability to become a professional football player was unquestioned. The contest to determine the winner lasted five hours. Marys parents approved of her decision to attend summer school. Aunt Maude gave her nephew many educational videos to watch. Our goal to raise a million dollars was not achieved.
Diagram Pattern 13: Infinitive as Adjective 1. The way to solve this problem is to meditate about it. 2. We had already assembled the tools to use the next day. 3. The committee selected the films to be shown spring quarter during the Spielberg festival. 4. I had prepared a lengthy statement to read to the parole board. 5. Mothers attempt to make me a social success was painful and futile. 6. This might be the best time to confront the board with our plan for the merger. 7. My current plan to major in English and minor in business is a good one. 8. My parents aren't very enthusiastic about my wish to hitchhike to Florida next summer. 9. The time to study for your test is now, not later. 10. His decision to join the Marines did not please his parents. 11. It will be very difficult to fund the proposal to build an arts center on campus. 12. The film to see last summer was The Phantom Menace by George Lucas. 13. The team to beat this season is Elon, not Catawba. 14. Man's dream to travel at the speed of light will become a reality in the next century. 15. The committee continued to look for a way to solve the problem. 16. The way to get to heaven is to love God and love your neighbor. 17. The planning to be done for Homecoming will take a lot of time next month. 18. Books to help you reduce do not always work well for everyone.
Exercise for Diagram Pattern 14: Infinitive as Adverb

1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Place parentheses around the complete infinitive phrases with all their modifiers. Circle the words that the infinitives modify. Underline the simple predicates. To make up for lost time, I drove steadily for two nights and three days. The most popular candidate withdrew to avoid a split in the party. To do well in this class, you must study hard and do all your homework. The majority of senior citizens have registered to vote in this election. To fly a helicopter to save lives is my one claim to fame. All the pilots in the room declared themselves ready to volunteer for the mission. To prevent sunburn, you should coat yourself liberally with this ointment. Midshipmen at the U.S. Naval Academy are encouraged to read newspapers and news magazines. To occupy his time, Ed looked everywhere for a newspaper to read. Eugene ONeill, a twentieth-century dramatist, used his play to explain his life. To be absolutely sure of the amount, I checked the figures four times. Jon, the waterboy, was very happy to help the team in any way possible. Yesterday Joanne bought a new dress to impress the people at work. To solve puzzles like these, you must learn to use your right brain. Jarod worked hard to earn enough money for his trip to Hawaii next summer. To get into the college of her choice, Shirley was prepared to do her best on the test. You must follow the directions exactly to get the device to work properly. Harriet worked hard all year to become the class valedictorian.
Diagram Pattern 14: Infinitive as Adverb
The Basic Diagram Pattern: a. b. c. d. e. To keep up on current events, I watch CNN daily. Helen is too young to travel to Europe alone. Rebecca studies hard to maintain her grades. She worked in her cool office to escape the heat. Gloria was too tired to finish her dinner.
Diagram Pattern 14: Infinitive as Adverb 1. To make up for lost time, I drove steadily for two nights and three days. 2. The most popular candidate withdrew to avoid a split in the party. 3. To do well in this class, you must study hard and do all your homework. 4. The majority of senior citizens have registered to vote in this election. 5. To fly a helicopter to save lives is my one claim to fame. 6. All the pilots in the room declared themselves ready to volunteer for the mission. 7. To prevent sunburn, you should coat yourself liberally with this ointment. 8. Midshipmen at the U.S. Naval Academy are encouraged to read newspapers and news magazines. 9. To occupy his time, Ed looked everywhere for a newspaper to read. 10. Eugene ONeill, a twentieth-century dramatist, used his play to explain his life. 11. To be absolutely sure of the amount, I checked the figures four times. 12. Jon, the waterboy, was very happy to help the team in any way possible. 13. Yesterday Joanne bought a new dress to impress the people at work. 14. To solve puzzles like these, you must learn to use your right brain. 15. Jarod worked hard to earn enough money for his trip to Hawaii next summer. 16. To get into the college of her choice, Shirley was prepared to do her best on the test.
17. You must follow the directions exactly to get the device to work properly. 18. Harriet worked hard all year to become the class valedictorian.
Clauses: 1. A sentence consists of at least one independent clause and may have one or more dependent clauses. a. An independent clause is a sentence that can stand alone. It can have a compound subject or a compound predicate, but it is still only one independent clause. Example: John and Mary sang and danced. (subject + subject) + (predicate + predicate) Compound subject = John and Mary Compound predicate = sang and danced There is only one independent clause even though there are two subjects and two predicates. Example: John sang and Mary danced. (subject + predicate) + (subject + predicate) The two (subject + predicate) groups each form independent clauses connected by the coordinating conjunction and, unlike the previous example which has one (subject + predicate) unit with compound subjects and compound predicates. The first example is a simple sentence with only one independent clause. The second example is a compound sentence with two independent clauses. Note: What constitutes an independent clause is that there is only one point at which a subject and a predicate come together. For example, in the sentence John, Jerry, and Jim sang and Mary, Molly, and Martha danced, there are two points at which a subject and a predicate come together Jim sang and Martha danced = two independent clauses. However, in the sentence John and Mary sang and danced, there is only one point at which a subject and a predicate come together Mary sang = only one independent clause.
b. A dependent clause has a subject and a predicate but cannot stand alone as a complete sentence because it begins with a subordinator, such as a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun. It must be connected to an independent clause. A dependent clause that is not attached to an independent clause is one kind of sentence fragment, which is considered a writing problem. 2. There are four kinds of sentences: a. A simple sentence consists of one independent clause, that is, one (subject + predicate) unit. b. A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses, (subject + predicate) units, that are connected by a coordinating conjunction (one of the BOY FANS words but, or, yet, for, and, nor, and so), a correlative conjunction (such as either . . . or and not only . . . but also), or a semicolon.
Examples:
John came home, and then he ate dinner. Not only did John come home, but he also ate dinner. John came home; he ate dinner.
c. A complex sentence consists of one independent clause and at least one subordinate or dependent clause. The subordinate or dependent clause can be a noun clause, an adjective or relative clause, or an adverb clause. Example: After John came home, he ate dinner. [adverb clause before the main clause, needs a comma] John ate dinner after he came home. [adverb clause after the main clause, does not need a comma]
d. A compound-complex sentence consists of at least two independent clauses and at least one subordinate or dependent clause. Example: After John left the office, he came home, and then he ate dinner. Compound sentence = He came home, and then he ate dinner. Complex sentence = After John left the office, he came home. Four Kinds of Sentences Description Simple Sentence A simple sentence consists of one independent clause (subject + predicate). It has only one juncture where the subject and the predicate meet. Clue It may have any combination of a compound subject, a compound predicate, or one or more verbal forms (gerund, infinitive, or participle). Example (1) John came home. (2) John and Mary sang and danced. [John and Mary is a compound subject. Sang and danced is a compound predicate.} [Note that the BOY FANS word and connects single words, not clauses. The sentence is still a simple sentence since it has only one clause with a compound subject and a compound predicate.] (3) John sang and Mary danced. [This is a compound sentence, not a simple sentence. See below.] Explanation (1) The subject and the predicate meet at the juncture between the subject John and the predicate came. (2) The compound subject and the compound predicate meet at the juncture between Mary (the second half of the compound subject) and sang (the first half of the compound predicate).
Description Compound A compound Sentence sentence consists of two or more independent clauses. It has two junctures where the subject and the predicate meet.
Clue It is connected by (1) a coordinating conjunction (one of the BOY FANS words but, or, yet, for, and, nor, and so), (2) a correlative conjunction (eitheror, neithernor, not onlybut also), or [Note that a correlative conjunction has at least one BOY FANS words in the paired combinations.] (3) a semicolon.
Example (1) John came home, and then he ate dinner. (2) Not only did John come home, but he also ate dinner. (3) John came home; he ate dinner. (4) John sang and Mary danced. [This is a compound sentence.] [Note that the sentence John and Mary sang and danced is not a compound sentence.]
Explanation (1) The subject and the predicate meet at the first juncture between the subject John and the predicate came. The coordinating conjunction and connects this first independent clause to the second independent clause. In the second independent clause, the subject and the predicate meet at the second juncture between the subject he and the predicate ate. (2) Example 2 is basically the same as the previous example, except that it uses the correlative conjunction not onlybut also. (3) Example 3 uses a semicolon to create a compound sentence by connecting to independent clauses. (4) Example 4 has two independent clauses connected by the BOY FANS word and.
Description Complex Sentence A complex sentence consists of one independent clause and at least one subordinate or dependent clause. It has two junctures where the subject and the predicate meet.
Clue The two clauses are not connected by a BOY FANS word, but rather by a subordinator, such as a subordinating conjunction (after, since, because, etc.) or a relative subordinator, such as a relative pronoun (who, whom), relative adjective (whose), etc.
Example John ate dinner after he came home. [Note that, because the subordinate clause modifies the simple predicate of the independent or main clause, the subordinate clause can be moved before the independent or main clause.] After he came home, John ate dinner.
Explanation The subject and the predicate meet at the first juncture between the subject John and the predicate ate. The subordinating conjunction after connects this independent clause to the following subordinate clause. In this subordinate clause, the subject and the predicate meet at the second juncture between the subject he and the predicate came.
Description Compound- A compoundComplex complex sentence Sentence consists of at least two independent clauses that form a compound sentence and at least one subordinate or dependent clause that is connected to the compound sentence. It has three junctures where the subject and the predicate meet.
Clue This kind of sentence has at least one BOY FANS word and at least one subordinator, such as a subordinating conjunction (after, since, because, etc.) or a relative subordinator, such as a relative pronoun (who, whom), relative adjective (whose), etc.
Example After John left the office, he came home, and then he ate dinner.
Explanation
The subject and the predicate meet at the first juncture between the subject John and the predicate left. The Subordinate clause = subordinating After John left the conjunction after office, . . . connects this Independent clauses = subordinate clause to the following (1) he came home, compound sentence. In and the first independent (2) then he ate clause of the dinner. compound sentence, Complex sentence = the subject and the After John left the predicate meet at the office, he came home. second juncture between the subject Compound sentence he and the predicate = He came home, came. The and then he ate coordinating dinner. conjunction and connects this first [Note that, independent clause of because the the compound sentence subordinate clause to the second modifies the independent clause of simple predicates the compound of the two sentence. The subject independent or and the predicate of the main clauses of second independent the compound clause meet at the sentence, the third juncture subordinate clause between the subject can be moved he and the predicate before both came. independent or main clauses.]
Fragment Test The way to test for a sentence fragment is to place the word group in question into the following test pattern: I know that ____________. If the test pattern sounds right, then the word group in question is a complete sentence or an independent clause. If the test pattern sounds strange or incomplete, then the word group in question is a sentence fragment. Example 1 Although John came home. I know that although John came home. The test pattern does not sound right. It sounds incomplete. Therefore, the word group although John came home is a fragment. John came home. I know that John came home. The test pattern sounds right. Therefore the word group John came home is an independent clause or a simple sentence.
Example 2
Sentence Fragment A sentence fragment is an incomplete structure punctuated as a complete sentence. It cannot stand by itself as an independent clause. It can be a subordinate clause that does not have a main clause. It can be missing a subject and a helping verb. It can be missing a predicate. It can be a phrase with or without modifiers. It is almost always a problem in writing, not in speaking. As a general rule, you should avoid fragments. If you do find a fragment while revising your prose, you can either attach it to a complete sentence (usually the previous sentence) or convert it into a complete sentence.
Different Kinds of Fragments Subordinate Clause Fragment: Registration was a nightmare. Although I did get the courses I wanted. The fragment is a subordinate clause. It needs to be attached to a main clause. Registration was a nightmare although I did get the courses I wanted. He made a wish. Hoping that he was going to become a millionaire. The fragment needs a subject and a helping verb, or it could be attached to the previous sentence with a comma. He made a wish. He was hoping that he was going to become a millionaire. He made a wish, hoping that he was going to become a millionaire.
Revision: Dangling Participial Phrase Modifier with a Subordinate Clause Fragment:
Revision:
Different Kinds of Fragments Absolute Phrase with a Subordinate Clause Fragment: She was feeling sick. The reason being that she had food poisoning the night before. The fragment, in this case the absolute phrase, needs a predicate (a finite verb = a verb that can be used to form a clause), not a verbal (a non-finite verb that cannot be used to form a clause); or it could be attached to the previous sentence with a comma. She was feeling sick. The reason was that she had food poisoning the night before. She was feeling sick, the reason being that she had food poisoning the night before. Prepositional Phrase with a Subordinate Clause Fragment: David crossed the finish line. With a huge lead that won him the race. The fragment is a prepositional phrase modified by an adjective or relative clause. It can be revised by adding a subject and a predicate or by connecting it to the previous sentence. David crossed the finish line. He had a huge lead that won him the race. David crossed the finish line with a huge lead that won him the race. The subordinate clause is not essential to the structure of these examples.
Revision:
Revision:
Note:
Review Exercise 28: Correct the sentences that have Fragment problems.
Do not re-write the whole sentence. If the item is correct, leave it alone. 1. He enjoys flowers and shrubs. Which help screen him from the street. 2. Raymond began to tap out the rhythm. First on the table and then on the counter. 3. Because I had heard all that I wanted to hear and did not intend to be bored any longer. 4. Im getting an ice cream cone. One scoop of chocolate swirl and one of butter pecan. 5. They tried to understand Arturos objections. Which were unfounded. 6. Walking to the grocery store. I bought a Sunday paper. 7. His sister tried to give him a call. Because his boss gave him the raise he recently requested. 8. His mother patiently awaited her sons late return. Which proved to be a great inconvenience. 9. She criticized the taxi driver who had driven her. Very harshly, but calmly. 10. After I had finished my paper. I wanted to watch television a while. 11. A tall, distinguished-looking gentleman standing on the corner in pouring rain.
12. He reached the top. Panting and puffing all the way. Click here for the answers. The Semicolon Rule 1: 1. A semicolon acts like a weak period whenever it connects two main clauses, that is, you can put a period and start a new sentence. Correct: Jane came home late last night; John, on the other hand, came home early. Revised: Jane came home late last night. John, on the other hand, came home early. 2. A semicolon has to stay in place; it cannot be moved around in the sentence. The rule is NOT "semicolon + however + comma," or any other conjunctive adverb such as therefore, moreover, nevertheless, etc. Correct: Jane came home late last night; however, John came home early. Wrong: Jane came home late last night, John; however, came home early. Revised: Jane came home late last night; John, however, came home early. 3. A semicolon usually does not precede a coordinating conjunction (a BOY FANS word) whenever it connects two main clauses. Instead, use a comma. Wrong: Jane came home late last night; but John came home early. Revision: Jane came home late last night, but John came home early. Exception to Rule 3: However, when an independent clause in a compound sentence contains one or more commas, a semicolon is usually needed in place of the comma before the coordinating conjunction (BOY FANS word) that connects the two independent clauses. Wrong: Jane, Johns cousin, came home late last night, but John came home early. Revision: Jane, Johns cousin, came home late last night; but John came home early. Two Problems Common to Compound Sentences
Rule 2:
Rule 3:
Exception to Rule 3:
1. Comma Splice Two independent clauses spliced together or joined with only a comma create a comma splice. It is a problem in writing, not in speaking. There are four ways to correct a comma splice problem: (1) use a comma and a coordinating conjunction (BOY FANS), (2) use a semicolon, (3) use a period and start a new sentence, or (4) convert one of the independent clauses into a dependent clause. [Note: Fused sentences are revised in the same four ways that comma splices are revised.] Comma Splice: Pickpockets have become a serious problem, tourists should be especially alert in crowded areas. [The problem occurs between the words problem and tourists, where the comma is used to splice together or join the two independent clauses.] How to Correct a Comma Splice Example
1. Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction. How to Correct a Comma Splice 2. Use a semicolon. 3. Use a period and start a new sentence. 4. Convert one of the independent clauses into a dependent clause.
Pickpockets have become a serious problem, so tourists should be especially alert in crowded areas. Example Pickpockets have become a serious problem; tourists should be especially alert in crowded areas. Pickpockets have become a serious problem. Tourists should be especially alert in crowded areas. Because pickpockets have become a serious problem, tourists should be especially alert in crowded areas.
2. Fused Sentence Two clauses fused or joined together without a conjunction or proper punctuation create a fused sentence. It is a problem in writing, not in speaking. There are four ways to correct a fused sentence problem: (1) use a comma and a coordinating conjunction (BOY FANS), (2) use a semicolon, (3) use a period and start a new sentence, or (4) convert one part of the sentence into a dependent clause. [Note: Comma splices are revised in the same four ways that fused sentences are revised.] Fused Sentence: Pickpockets have become a serious problem tourists should be especially alert in crowded areas. [The problem occurs between the words problem and tourists, where the two independent clauses are fused or joined together without a conjunction or proper punctuation.] How to Correct a Fused Sentence 1. Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction. 2. Use a semicolon. 3. Use a period and start a new sentence. 4. Convert one of the independent clauses into a dependent clause. Example Pickpockets have become a serious problem, so tourists should be especially alert in crowded areas. Pickpockets have become a serious problem; tourists should be especially alert in crowded areas. Pickpockets have become a serious problem. Tourists should be especially alert in crowded areas. Because pickpockets have become a serious problem, tourists should be especially alert in crowded areas.
How to Diagram a Compound Sentence: 1. Diagram each independent clause separately (except for the coordinating conjunction), one directly above the other with some space in between the two diagrams so you have room for all the modifiers, etc. 2. Draw an inch-long perpendicular dotted line from the base line of the top diagram under the simple predicate, draw a solid horizontal line connected at the left end of the solid line to the dotted line, and from the right end of the solid horizontal line draw another inch-long perpendicular dotted line. On the solid horizontal line write the coordinating conjunction + the preceding comma; the correlative conjunction; a semicolon, if a semicolon is used to connect the two independent clauses; or just a comma, if there is more than two independent clauses. 3. Note that in the example from Julius Caesar (veni, vidi, vici), a comma separates the first independent clause from the second; and a comma + the coordinating conjunction and separates the second independent clauses from the third. Note that both of the connectors are on solid horizontal lines with dotted lines, left and right, above and below.
Review Exercise 29: (1) Indicate CS for Comma Splice, FS for Fused Sentence,
and OK if the sentence is correct. (2) Circle the juncture where the error occurs. _____ 1. The current was swift, he swam to shore. _____ 2. There is a proliferation of how-to books on the market they are frequently on the best-seller list. _____ 3. After Henry came home from his vacation, he immediately went on another. _____ 4. He was not an outstanding success at his first job he was not a complete failure either. _____ 5. I ran over some broken glass in the parking lot, it did not puncture my tires. _____ 6. She wrote him a love letter, then he answered it in person. _____ 7. Sexual harassment is not just a womans issue, after all, men can be sexually harassed too. _____ 8. Who won the lottery? he asked, how much money was in the pot? _____ 9. I enjoyed his company, I do not know that he enjoyed mine. _____10. Twilight had fallen it was dark under the old oak tree near the house. _____11. You may put in a lot of time studying, however, if you do not use the time wisely, the time will be wasted. _____12. The wind was cold, so they decided not to walk. Click here for the answers.
Exercise for Diagram Pattern 15: Compound Sentence

1. 2. 3. Put parentheses around the complete independent clauses. Circle the coordinating conjunctions (BOY FANS words) that connect the independent clauses. Underline the simple predicates of the independent clauses.
1. I disapproved of his betting on the horses, so I told him so. 2. The curtain rose to reveal a perfectly bare stage, and a stillness settled over the audience. 3. To hasten the process, Pete filled the bags with hot roasted peanuts, and I stapled them shut. 4. The kids can wait for me at the pool, or they can go over to the shopping center to catch the bus. 5. Bill wanted me to wait for him, but I refused. 6. Everyone in the class loves Judy, but nobody wants to help her with her project. 7. Running for office is time-consuming, but performing the duties of that office is worse. 8. We knew our candidates didnt have a hope of winning; nevertheless, for weeks on end we faithfully rang doorbells and stuffed envelopes. 9. The birds were flying south for the winter, but the butterflies lingered for a while longer to drink in more nectar. 10. The food at the new French restaurant is exceptionally good, but the prices are exceptionally high for the average person to have to pay. 11. To save some money, the library closes at noon on Thursdays, but it is open until 9:00 p.m. on Fridays. 12. To get your rebate, simply fill out the coupon and mail it to the companys headquarters in Michigan. 13. Jogging is an excellent exercise, but swimming is even better. 14. To err is human, but to forgive is divine. 15. Either he committed the crime, or she is not telling us the truth. 16. Not only was Jane found guilty, but she was also insane to let the verdict stand.
17. First, you mix all the ingredients properly, and then you bake the pie for 40 minutes. 18. Either you do your assignment quietly, or you will be suspended from class for a week. Click here for the answers.
Diagram Pattern 15: Compound Sentence
The Basic Diagram Pattern: a. b. c. d. e. The car came to an abrupt stop; then two girls jumped out. Not only do vegetarian meals have few calories, but they are also economical. Either you do your own work, or you will not pass this course. He was a well-known orator, but unfortunately his audience was bored. The baseball game lasted nearly four hours, and in the end our team lost.
Diagram Pattern 15: Compound Sentence 1. I disapproved of his betting on the horses, so I told him so. 2. The curtain rose to reveal a perfectly bare stage, and a stillness settled over the audience. 3. To hasten the process, Pete filled the bags with hot roasted peanuts, and I stapled them shut. 4. The kids can wait for me at the pool, or they can go over to the shopping center to catch the bus. 5. Bill wanted me to wait for him, but I refused. 6. Everyone in the class loves Judy, but nobody wants to help her with her project. 7. Running for office is time-consuming, but performing the duties of that office is worse. 8. We knew our candidates didnt have a hope of winning; nevertheless, for weeks on end we faithfully rang doorbells and stuffed envelopes. 9. The birds were flying south for the winter, but the butterflies lingered for a while longer to drink in more nectar. 10. The food at the new French restaurant is exceptionally good, but the prices are exceptionally high for the average person to have to pay. 11. To save some money, the library closes at noon on Thursdays, but it is open until 9:00 p.m. on Fridays. 12. To get your rebate, simply fill out the coupon and mail it to the companys headquarters in Michigan.
13. Jogging is an excellent exercise, but swimming is even better. 14. To err is human, but to forgive is divine. 15. Either he committed the crime, or she is not telling us the truth. 16. Not only was Jane found guilty, but she was also insane to let the verdict stand. 17. First, you mix all the ingredients properly, and then you bake the pie for 40 minutes. 18. Either you do your assignment quietly, or you will be suspended from class for a week.
Three Kinds of Subordinate or Dependent Clauses 1. 2. 3. 1. Noun clause: a. A noun clause answers the question what? or who? Example: When John ate dinner is not the issue. What is not the issue? When John ate dinner. Example: Whoever wants it can have it. Who can have it? Whoever wants it. Noun Clause Test To test whether or not a clause is a noun clause: 1. If a wh-word (used as a subordinator), that, or if does not head or begin the clause, the clause is not a noun clause. 2. If a wh-word (used as a subordinator), that, or if heads or begins the clause, the clause needs to be tested. 3. The Test: a. Replace the clause with the personal pronoun it if the clause answers the question what? or b. Replace the clause with the personal pronoun he or him if the clause answers the question who? c. If the reconstructed sentence makes sense, then the clause is a noun clause. d. If the reconstructed sentence does not make sense, then the clause is either an adjective clause, an adverb clause, or a phrase, not a noun clause. Noun clause Adjective or relative clause Adverb clause
Example 1
When John ate dinner is not the issue. The clause begins with the wh-word when and answers the question what? What is not the issue? When John ate dinner. Since the clause answers the question what?, replace the complete clause with the personal pronoun it. It is not the issue. Since the reconstructed sentence makes sense, the clause When John ate dinner is a noun clause.
Example 2
Whoever wants it can have it. The clause begins with the wh-word whoever and answers the question who? Who can have it? Whoever wants it. Since the clause answers the question who?, replace the complete clause with the personal pronoun he or him, whichever makes sense. In this case, he makes sense. He can have it. Since the reconstructed sentence makes sense, the clause Whoever wants it is a noun clause.
Example 3 (not a noun clause)
Whistling while youre walking can be fun. The clause in question begins with a wh-word, but the word whistling is not a subordinator. It is a gerund. Dont be misled by the fact that a gerund acts as a noun and, as such, also answers the noun question what? While youre walking is an adverbial subordinate clause that begins with a wh-word, but it modifies the gerund whistling. It answers the adverb question when? Whistling when? While youre walking. Thus, whistling while youre walking is not a noun clause. It is a gerund phrase, that is, a gerund modified by an adverb clause.
b.
A noun clause functions like a noun. Functions of a Noun Clause Subject Predicate nominative Direct object Indirect object Object of the preposition Examples What Peter knows is confidential. The reason was that Peter knew the secret. I know what Peter knows. The banks gave whoever wanted it more credit. The banks gave more credit to whoever wanted it.
c. The noun clause is introduced by six kinds of subordinators, all of which are wh-words, except for that and if.
Subordinators for Noun Clauses Subordinating conjunctions that if whether or not what which who whom which whose how many I know that you did it. I know if you did it. I know whether or not you did it. I know what you did. I know which of you did it. I know who did it. I know whom you did it to. I know which one it is. I know whose book this is. I know how many book you bought. (As adjectives, they immediately precede the nouns or pronouns they modify.) I know why you did it. I know where you did it. I know when you did it. I know how you did it. Whoever did it should confess. Take whatever you want. Take whichever suits you. Take whichever one suits you. (As adjectives, they immediately precede the nouns or pronouns they modify.)
Interrogative pronouns
Interrogative adjectives
Interrogative adverbs
Why (reason) Where (place) When (time) How* (manner) who(m)ever whatever whichever whichever
Indefinite pronouns
Indefinite adjective
* How? is considered a wh-word. Although it does not begin with wh-, it still has a w- and an h-. 1. When a noun clause is introduced by the subordinating conjunction that and when this noun clause functions as the direct object in the main clause, the subordinating conjunction that can be omitted. Example: I know that it was Ralph. The noun clause, that it was Ralph, functions as the direct object of the main clause, I know. Therefore, the subordinating conjunction that can be omitted. I know it was Ralph. 2. To differentiate between a noun clause introduced by a subordinating conjunction and an adverb (subordinate) clause introduced by a subordinating conjunction, use the Adverb
Movement Test. An adverb (subordinate) clause that modifies the simple predicate of the main clause can be moved before the main clause. A noun clause cannot be moved before the main clause. Example: I know if you did it. The subordinating conjunction if introduces the noun (subordinate) clause if you did it. This noun clause cannot be moved before the main clause - *If you did it, I know. [Note: * = unacceptable form] Example: Tell me if you did it. The subordinating conjunction if introduces the adverb (subordinate) clause if you did it. This adverb clause can be moved before the main clause If you did it, tell me. 3. To differentiate between a noun clause introduced by the subordinating conjunction that and an adjective or relative clause introduced by the relative pronoun that, a. (Antecedent Test) check to see if there is an antecedent for the word that. The antecedent in this case would come immediately before the word that. The antecedent would be a noun or a pronoun. Example: I uncovered the secret that you did not want to tell me. The word secret is the antecedent of the relative pronoun that. It comes immediately before the word that. What did you not want to tell me? The secret You did not want to tell me the secret. Therefore, the word that is a relative pronoun that introduces a relative clause or an adjective clause, not a noun clause. Example: I know that you have a secret. The word that has no antecedent. There is no noun or pronoun antecedent immediately before the word that, unlike the previous example where the antecedent secret comes immediately before the word that. Because there is no antecedent, the word that is a subordinating conjunction that introduces a noun clause, not a relative pronoun that introduces an adjective or relative clause. b. (Which Test) Replace the word that with the word which. If the sentence does not make sense, the word that is being used to introduce a noun clause. In this case, the word that is a subordinating conjunction. If the sentence makes sense, the word that is being used to introduce an adjective or relative clause. In this case, the word that is a relative pronoun. Example: I uncovered the secret that you did not want to tell me. I uncovered the secret which you did not want to tell me. Example: I know that you have a secret. [Noun clause] *I know which you have a secret. [Does not make sense] [Note: * = unacceptable form]
Exercise on Noun Clauses:

(1) Circle the subordinator and (2) identify the subordinator: Indefinite Adjective = IA Indefinite Pronoun = IP Interrogative Adjective = Adj Interrogative Adverb = Adv Interrogative Pronoun = Pro Subordinating Conjunction = SC ________ 1. I know whom you did it to. ________ 2. They sincerely believe that their form of government is the best for them. ________ 3. Polly suddenly recalled how she had done it. ________ 4. I know whose book this is. ________ 5. It was Beauty that killed the Beast. ________ 6. You may leave the parcel with whoever is working there today. ________ 7. Cross out whichever one is wrong. ________ 8. Did you notice how many cups of flour she used? ________ 9. It is no surprise to learn that Mr. Allen has been awarded a prize for reporting. ________ 10. Take whichever one you want. Click here for the answers.
How to Diagram a Noun Clause: 1. 2. 3. 4. First, diagram the main clause, using an X to indicate where the noun clause will go in the main clause. Then, reconstruct the noun clause as an independent clause. Diagram the reconstructed clause separately. Where the X is, draw the stilt and place the reconstructed clause on it so that the top of the stilt touches the verb on the base line of the noun clause. 5. Where to place the subordinator: a. The subordinating conjunction is written vertically on the stilt. b. The interrogative is diagrammed as a pronoun, adjective, or adverb in the subordinate noun clause. c. The indefinite pronoun is diagrammed as a pronoun in the subordinate noun clause.
d. The indefinite adjective is placed on a slant line under the noun or pronoun that it modifies in the subordinate noun clause.
Review Exercise 30: (1) Circle the Subordinator and (2) Identify - Subordinating Conjunction = SC,
Interrogative Pronoun = Pro, Interrogative Adjective = Adj, Interrogative Adverb = Adv, Indefinite Pronoun = IP, or Indefinite Adjective = IA _____ 1. I always thought it was better to be a fake somebody than to be a real nobody. _____ 2. Winners are willing to do what losers wont. _____ 3. After seeing that it was hopeless, she quit. _____ 4. Youve been told what your duties will be. _____ 5. I was asked to invite whoever might be interested in the lecture. _____ 6. Have you decided which car you want? _____ 7. Theta insisted that Nolan do it himself. _____ 8. Whatever you want is okay with me. _____ 9. Whoever calls first will win the prize. _____10. Carlos said he did not agree with the critics interpretation. _____11. The reason why he said that is not clear to me. _____12. Whoever told you that story had been misinformed. _____13. Why he said that is a complete mystery. _____14. Realizing that his excuse sounded fake, Jasper decided to say nothing. _____15. I know how you did it.
_____16. Whatever you say will be held against you in a court of law. _____17. I know if you did it. _____18. We looked at what everyone was wearing.
_____19. I am worried about where I should park. _____20. I know which of you did it. Click here for the answers.
Exercise for Diagram Pattern 16: Noun Clause with That

1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. Put parentheses around the complete noun clauses (except for the subordinators). Circle the subordinators. Underline the simple predicates of the independent clauses. It certainly is a pity that you were not awarded the scholarship. My parents hope was that I would become a teacher. You might try telling Larry that you are sorry. I consider it unlikely that he has money to invest. The announcement that taxes would be lowered was happily received. The trouble is that the bosss nephew has already been promised the job. The suggestion made by the speaker was that competition among large corporations cannot be called free. It was obvious to everyone in the room that the governor was enjoying his dinner. They sincerely believe that their form of government is the best for them. It is no surprise to learn that Mr. Allen has been awarded three prizes for meritorious reporting. That Mr. Prestons thesis is too large for any one man to cope with should be apparent even to him. Our agency works on the principle that advertising is a powerful force for overcoming human inertia. I know nothing about Mr. Lewis except that he always seems ready to help us raise money for charity. Realizing that his excuse would sound ridiculous, Jasper decided to say nothing to the officer.
15. 16. 17. 18.
I consider it a crime that a young man with Pauls intelligence should be denied a college education. I have often been told by my teachers that they have been unable to discover my particular aptitudes. It is evident that you know that you are the chosen one. I saw that you were not ready to resolve the problem of misbehaving in class.
Diagram Pattern 16: Noun Clause with That
The Basic Diagram Pattern: a. b. c. d. e. Carlos said he did not agree with the critics interpretation. That we will miss the first act does not concern him. Theta insisted that Nolan do it himself. After seeing that all was hopeless, she quit. Believing that she might give the teacher the wrong answer, she kept silent.
Diagram Pattern 16: Noun Clause with That 1. It certainly is a pity that you were not awarded the scholarship. 2. My parents hope was that I would become a teacher. 3. You might try telling Larry that you are sorry. 4. I consider it unlikely that he has money to invest. 5. The announcement that taxes would be lowered was happily received. 6. The trouble is that the bosss nephew has already been promised the job. 7. The suggestion made by the speaker was that competition among large corporations cannot be called free. 8. It was obvious to everyone in the room that the governor was enjoying his dinner. 9. They sincerely believe that their form of government is the best for them. 10. It is no surprise to learn that Mr. Allen has been awarded three prizes for meritorious reporting. 11. That Mr. Prestons thesis is too large for any one man to cope with should be apparent even to him. 12. Our agency works on the principle that advertising is a powerful force for overcoming human inertia. 13. I know nothing about Mr. Lewis except that he always seems ready to help us raise money for charity.
14. Realizing that his excuse would sound ridiculous, Jasper decided to say nothing to the officer. 15. I consider it a crime that a young man with Pauls intelligence should be denied a college education. 16. I have often been told by my teachers that they have been unable to discover my particular aptitudes. 17. It is evident that you know that you are the chosen one. 18. I saw that you were not ready to resolve the problem of misbehaving in class.
Exercise for Diagram Pattern 17: Noun Clause with Wh-Word

1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Put parentheses around the complete noun clauses including the wh-words. Circle the subordinators. Underline the simple predicates of the independent clauses. Whoever told you that story had been misinformed. I wonder what he will tell his stockholders. Who the intruder was will never be known. You may leave the parcel with whoever is working there today. Have you decided which car you will buy? I shall be happy with whatever assignment you give me. Can you tell me when the next bus will leave? Did you notice how many cups of flour she used? I do not see how anyone could object to your leaving class early to meet your parents. I certainly would like to know when the new wage scale will become effective. Whatever you say will be held against you in a court of law. I was asked to invite whoever might be interested in the lecture. We argued about who should be the one to tell Andrew the bad news. Did you notice how tired Mrs. Jones looked last night? You have already been told what your duties will be. I have forgotten which dictionary our teacher told us to buy. Who the mysterious person is will be revealed at the right time. Whatever you do after this will affect everything in your future.
Diagram Pattern 17: Noun Clause with Wh-Word
The Basic Diagram Pattern: a. b. c. d. e. She doesnt remember where she put the car keys. Miles knows what he must do to keep peace in the family. Polly suddenly recalled how she had done it. When he did it can be important to the case. The reason why he said that is not clear to me.
Diagram Pattern 17: Noun Clause with Wh-Word 1. Whoever told you that story had been misinformed. 2. I wonder what he will tell his stockholders. 3. Who the intruder was will never be known. 4. You may leave the parcel with whoever is working there today. 5. Have you decided which car you will buy? 6. I shall be happy with whatever assignment you give me. 7. Can you tell me when the next bus will leave? 8. Did you notice how many cups of flour she used? 9. I do not see how anyone could object to your leaving class early to meet your parents. 10. I certainly would like to know when the new wage scale will become effective. 11. Whatever you say will be held against you in a court of law. 12. I was asked to invite whoever might be interested in the lecture. 13. We argued about who should be the one to tell Andrew the bad news. 14. Did you notice how tired Mrs. Jones looked last night? 15. You have already been told what your duties will be. 16. I have forgotten which dictionary our teacher told us to buy. 17. Who the mysterious person is will be revealed at the right time. 18. Whatever you do after this will affect everything in your future.
2. Adjective (or relative) clause a. An adjective or relative clause functions like an adjective. It modifies a noun or a pronoun in the main clause. Example: John, who left the office late, came home for dinner. The adjective or relative clause tells you something more about John. It modifies John. Example: The book (that) you bought was expensive. The adjective or relative clause tells you something more about the book. It modifies book. b. An adjective or relative clause is introduced by a relative pronoun (that, who, whom, which), a relative adjective (whose, which), or a relative adverb (when, where, why). The relative subordinator is part of the adjective or relative clause, not the main clause. Relative Subordinators for Adjective or Relative Clauses that who whom which whose which when where why the cat that ate the rat the girl who smiled at me the man to whom I gave the book the room, which I entered, the boy, whose book I borrowed, 9:15 a.m., by which time you must finish, at noon, when the book is due, at school, where I will meet you, the reason why I phoned you
Relative pronouns
Relative adjectives
Relative adverbs
Example: John, who left the office late, came home for dinner. The relative pronoun who introduces the adjective or relative clause who left the office late. Example: Mary, whose dog was lost, decided to get another dog. The relative adjective whose introduces the adjective or relative clause whose dog was lost. Example: April 15, by which time you will need to send in your tax return, will be here shortly. The relative adjective which (as part of the prepositional phrase) introduces the adjective/relative clause by which time you will need to send in your tax return. Example: The town where you saw that antique desk is 50 miles away.
The relative adverb where introduces the adjective or relative clause where you saw that antique desk. Basic Rule of Commas: Use commas in pairs. Exceptions apply. Note: The adjective or relative clauses in the first three examples are non-restrictive or non-essential and are therefore set off by commas (in pairs). Their antecedents are proper nouns. Proper nouns are never restrictive or essential because they are one of a kind. (See below for the restrictive/non-restrictive test. The test applies to both phrases and clauses.) The adjective or relative clause in the last example is restrictive or essential because it specifies which town, that is, one out of many. The clause specifies and identifies which town is being talked about. Restrictive or essential elements are not set off by commas. (See below for the restrictive/non-restrictive test. The test applies to both phrases and clauses.) Restrictive vs. Non-Restrictive Essential vs. Non-Essential When to Use Commas in Pairs Restrictive/Essential: (Three Important Characteristics) 1. narrows down the meaning 2. usually specifies WHICH ONE? or applies to SOME (members of a group) 3. does not use commas Examples: Mormon Brother Brigham Youngs wife Jane left him. [This sentence implies that he has more than one wife, and it specifies which one left him.] The car that is parked in the driveway belongs to my roommate. [This sentence implies that there is more than one car, and it specifies which one belongs to the roommate.] Non-Restrictive/Non-Essential: (Three Important Characteristics) 1. can be omitted without any change in meaning 2. usually applies to ALL (members of a group) or is ONE of a kind 3. uses commas in pairs Examples: Mormon Brother Brigham Youngs wife, Jane, left him. [This sentence implies that he has only one wife, and her name happens to be Jane.] The car, which is parked in the driveway, belongs to my roommate. [This sentence implies that there is only one car being referred to, and it happens to be in the driveway.] Notes: 1. This test applies to both phrases and clauses. 2. Proper nouns can be modified by only a non-restrictive/non-essential element.
Note:
c. An adjective or relative clause must have an antecedent that usually comes immediately before the relative subordinator. Example: John, who left the office late, came home for dinner. The antecedent of the relative pronoun who is John. Example: Mary, whose dog was lost, decided to get another dog. The antecedent of the relative adjective whose is Mary. Example: April 15, by which time you will need to send in your tax return, will be here shortly. The antecedent of the relative adjective which is April 15. Note: Example: The word time is a noun; a noun cannot have an antecedent.
The town where you saw that antique desk is 50 miles away. The antecedent of the relative adverb where is town.
d. The relative pronoun can be omitted if it functions as the direct object or the object of a preposition in the adjective or relative clause. Examples: Sarah liked the man whom she had met last night. Sarah liked the man she had met last night. In the first example, the relative pronoun whom functions as the direct object in the adjective or relative clause, whom she had met last night. In the second example, the relative pronoun is omitted. Note: Whom is the correct pronoun form, not who. Using the Who/Whom Test, the reconstructed form of the adjective or relative clause, she had met him last night, uses him, which has an m on it, and therefore, the m indicates that whom is the preferred form. [See below for the Who/Whom Test.] In traditional grammar, who/whom is used for persons; that is used for nonpersons.
Note:
The Who/Whom Test In deciding between the use of who or whom, (1) reconstruct the wh-question or the adjective/relative clause into normal word order (subject first, verb second) and (2) substitute the third person singular masculine personal pronoun, he or him. Original Form: Original Form in Normal Order: Substituted Form with He/Him: (Who/whom) do you want to see? You do want to see (who/whom). You do want to see (he/him).
Since the substituted form requires the use of him, the -m on the end of him tells you to use the -m form of the who/whom pronoun, namely whom. Therefore, you should say, "Whom do you want to see?" Note: If the sentence has an adjective/relative clause, then the (he/him) test should be used with the reconstructed subordinate clause. Original Form: Main Clause: Subordinate Clause: Subordinate Clause in Normal Order: Substituted Form with He/Him: Tell me (who/whom) you want to see. Tell me (this). (this) = (who/whom) you want to see. You want to see (who/whom). You want to see (he/him).
Since the substituted form requires the use of him, the -m on the end of him tells you to use the -m form of the who/whom pronoun, namely whom. Therefore, you should say, "Tell me whom you want to see." Note: In traditional grammar, who/whom is used for persons; that is used for non-persons.
Examples:
Kennedy was a president whom many people looked up to. Kennedy was a president many people looked up to. In the first example, the relative pronoun whom functions as the object of the preposition to in the adjective or relative clause, whom many people looked up to. In the second example, the relative pronoun is omitted.
Note:
Whom is the correct pronoun form, not who. Using the Who/Whom Test, the reconstructed form of the adjective or relative clause, many people look up to him, uses him, which has an m on it, and therefore, the m indicates that whom is the preferred form. (See below for the who/whom test.) In traditional grammar, who/whom is used for persons; that is used for nonpersons.
Note:
Exercise on Adjective (or Relative) Clauses:

1. 2. 3. Underline the relative pronoun, the relative adjective, and the relative adverb. Identify the kind of relative it is pronoun, adjective, or adverb. Circle the antecedent.
Notes: 1. The relative pronoun, relative adjective, and relative adverb are usually wh- words. The exception is the word that. 2. The relatives must have antecedents. 3. These antecedents must come before the relatives. 1. ____________ I will be here at eight, at which time I expect you to turn in your work. 2. ____________ Whoever made this mess that smells should clean it. 3. ____________ I found a store where I can buy the paper I needed. 4. ____________ Santa comes at midnight when all is quiet. 5. ____________ She had the misfortune to marry a man whose main ambition was to race sports cars. 6. ____________ Mother talked incessantly about Judith, whom she apparently wanted me to know better. 7. ____________ Megan, whose boyfriend is named Jack, wants to do well in this English class. 8. ____________ Professor Davis took a position at the University of Montana, where he taught for three years. 9. ____________ Anyone who has an ounce of sense will vote against what you are proposing. 10. ____________ I wanted your advice on the courses I should take. Click here for the answers.
How to Diagram the Adjective (Relative) Clause: 1. First, diagram the main clause. 2. Then, reconstruct the adjective clause as an independent clause. 3. Temporarily, use the appropriate form of the antecedent in reconstructing the clause. 4. Diagram the reconstructed clause beneath the main clause, slightly indented. 5. Replace the temporary antecedent form with the original relative subordinator. 5. Connect the relative subordinator to the antecedent with a dotted line. 6. Nothing goes on the dotted line.
Review Exercise 31: (1) Underline the Relative Pronoun, Relative Adjective,
and the Relative Adverb and (2) Circle the Antecedent. 1. The candidate who gets on a news program is seen by an audience who tunes in to get the news. 2. I will give that book that is on the table to you. 3. Im marrying that guy you just met. 4. Please come at seven, by which time I will have everything ready for you. 5. Examinations always seem to come at times when my social calendar is especially full. 6. The author, whose terrible novel I could not finish, wanted me to critique his book. 7. Jonah is the man who, after running away from God, was swallowed by the whale. 8. The tour, which includes five states, is expensive. 9. The dinner, which will start at seven, is for anybody who wants to come. 10. I gave the food to the man whose dog was starving. 11. The man in whose honor we are assembled here today had one goal in life. 12. After graduating from a college that was located in her hometown, Josephine left home for good. 13. I do not know the address of the man whose car was stolen last night by thieves. 14. For those who want to see wild flowers, there will be a guided tour after lunch. 15. We must find a candidate whose particular talent is to deliver platitudes that sound significant. 16. They do not know the place where the ark landed. 17. Give me a reason why the plan should be approved. 18. It is not the kind of novel that I like to read for fun. 19. Jane, who went panning for gold, struck it rich. 20. Jack chased after Jill whose pail rolled down the hill. 21. I gave the money to the man who needed it. 22. The man whose shoe you stepped on was very angry. 23. I know Jill lives in the house that Jack built. 24. I wrote to John, whose parents wanted to visit me. 25. The girl whose ponytail you pulled loves you.
26. Give me a good reason why I should listen. 27. Some of the politicians for whom political disaster was predicted are still doing business. 28. They scaled the mountain whose peak was considered insurmountable. 29. The student, whose book you borrowed without asking, is very upset with you. 30. Lyle lives in the house that has the green shutters and the red doors. Click here for the answers.
Exercise for Diagram Pattern 18: Adjective (or Relative) Clause with Relative Pronoun
1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Put parentheses around the complete relative clauses including the relative pronouns. Circle the relative pronouns. Underline the antecedents of the relative pronouns. Jane, who went panning for gold, struck it rich. After graduating from a college that was located in her hometown, Josephine left home for good. This is the beautiful house Jack built after marrying Jill. I know Jill lives in the house that Jack built. Whoever made this mess that smells should clean it up. Jason is the person to whom I gave the Golden Fleece that was hanging on the tree. Jonah is the man who, after running away from God, was swallowed by the whale. I wanted to give the money to the man who needed to have his roof repaired. The work you were assigned needs to be done in a timely manner. The dinner, which will start at seven, is for anybody who wants to come. Anyone who has an ounce of sense will vote against what you are proposing. It is not the kind of novel that I like to read for fun. I need to get your advice on the courses I should take next term.
14. 15. 16. 17. 18.
Mother talked incessantly about Judith, whom she apparently wanted me to know better. Some of the politicians for whom political disaster was predicted are still doing business. A candidate who gets on a news program is seen by an audience who tuned in to get the news. The man I saw coming out of the taxi at the airport did not board the airplane on time. I will give that book that is on the table to whoever needs it.
Diagram Pattern 18: Adjective (or Relative) Clause with Relative Pronoun
The Basic Diagram Pattern: a. b. c. d. e. The tour, which includes five countries, is very expensive. Im marrying that guy you just met. For those who want to see wild flowers, there will be a guided tour after lunch. Lyle lives in the house that has the green shutters and the red doors. Kora will throw the ball at anyone who teases her.
Diagram Pattern 18: Relative Clause with Relative Pronoun 1. Jane, who went panning for gold, struck it rich. 2. After graduating from a college that was located in her hometown, Josephine left home for good. 3. This is the beautiful house Jack built after marrying Jill. 4. I know Jill lives in the house that Jack built. 5. Whoever made this mess that smells should clean it up. 6. Jason is the person to whom I gave the Golden Fleece that was hanging on the tree. 7. Jonah is the man who, after running away from God, was swallowed by the whale. 8. I wanted to give the money to the man who needed to have his roof repaired. 9. The work you were assigned needs to be done in a timely manner. 10. The dinner, which will start at seven, is for anybody who wants to come. 11. Anyone who has an ounce of sense will vote against what you are proposing. 12. It is not the kind of novel that I like to read for fun. 13. I need to get your advice on the courses I should take next term. 14. Mother talked incessantly about Judith, whom she apparently wanted me to know better. 15. Some of the politicians for whom political disaster was predicted are still doing business.
16. A candidate who gets on a news program is seen by an audience who tuned in to get the news. 17. The man I saw coming out of the taxi at the airport did not board the airplane on time. 18. I will give that book that is on the table to whoever needs it.
Exercise for Diagram Pattern 19: Adjective (or Relative Clause) with Relative Adjective
1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. Put parentheses around the complete relative clauses including the relative adjectives. Circle the relative adjectives. Underline the antecedents of the relative adjectives. I will hold your note until Christmas Day, by which time you certainly will have received your allowance. Professor Willey, whose courses have never been very popular, is an authority on teaching methods. You can remain in the study hall until lunch, at which time the gymnasium will be free for recreational purposes. We must find a candidate whose particular talent is to deliver platitudes that sound significant. She had the misfortune to marry a man whose main ambition was to race sports cars. The man in whose honor we are assembled here today had one goal in life. I wanted to write to John, whose parents I had met last summer on my fishing trip. I wrote to John, whose parents wanted me to come visit them. The student, whose book you borrowed without asking, is very upset with you. Please come at seven, by which time I will have everything ready for you. I will be here at eight, at which time I expect you to turn in your work. The author, whose terrible novel I could not finish, wanted me to critique his book. I did not know who the person was whose pen I borrowed. Jack chased after Jill whose pail had rolled down the hill which was slippery. I do not know the address of the man whose car was stolen last night by thieves. Megan, whose boyfriend is named Jack, wants to do well in this English class.
17. 18.
That mountain, whose slopes are precipitous, is too dangerous to climb. Meet me at the mall at noon, at which time I will grant you your wish.
Diagram Pattern 19: Adjective (or Relative) Clause with Relative Adjective
The Basic Diagram Pattern: a. b. c. d. e. The man whose shoe you stepped on was very angry. They scaled the mountain whose peak was considered insurmountable. The girl whose ponytail you pulled loves you. I gave the food to the man whose dog was starving. This letter is addressed to the person whose name starts with W.
Diagram Pattern 19: Relative Clause with Relative Adjective 1. I will hold your note until Christmas Day, by which time you certainly will have received your allowance. 2. Professor Willey, whose courses have never been very popular, is an authority on teaching methods. 3. You can remain in the study hall until lunch, at which time the gymnasium will be free for recreational purposes. 4. We must find a candidate whose particular talent is to deliver platitudes that sound significant. 5. She had the misfortune to marry a man whose main ambition was to race sports cars. 6. The man in whose honor we are assembled here today had one goal in life. 7. I wanted to write to John, whose parents I had met last summer on my fishing trip. 8. I wrote to John, whose parents wanted me to come visit them. 9. The student, whose book you borrowed without asking, is very upset with you. 10. Please come at seven, by which time I will have everything ready for you. 11. I will be here at eight, at which time I expect you to turn in your work. 12. The author, whose terrible novel I could not finish, wanted me to critique his book. 13. I did not know who the person was whose pen I borrowed. 14. Jack chased after Jill whose pail had rolled down the hill which was slippery. 15. I do not know the address of the man whose car was stolen last night by thieves.
16. Megan, whose boyfriend is named Jack, wants to do well in this English class. 17. That mountain, whose slopes are precipitous, is too dangerous to climb. 18. Meet me at the mall at noon, at which time I will grant you your wish.
Exercise for Diagram Pattern 20: Adjective (or Relative Clause) with Relative Adverb
1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Put parentheses around the complete relative clauses including the relative adverbs. Circle the relative adverbs. Underline the antecedents of the relative adverbs. I finally found a store where I could buy the kind of paper I needed. Can you give me any reason why the plan should not be approved? Examinations always seem to come at times when my social calendar is especially full. I know the place where you said you found this. We lived in Toledo until 1956, when Dads company sent him to Tulsa to manage a branch office. The winner of the popularity contest will be announced during the week when we graduate. Carson was unable to find a place where he could live comfortably on his small pension. We located a small valley where we found fresh water to drink and dry wood to build a fire. You are now standing on the spot where the first shot of the revolution was fired. Anyone who has taught in schools where teaching assignments are made haphazardly and capriciously will welcome the new regulations. She lived at a time when women had few possessions to call their own. We moved to Detroit where Fathers company had a warehouse filled with junk. I often know the exact time when you sneak into the house after breaking your curfew. The man coming to assassinate the president arrived at the spot where the deed was to occur. Spring is a time when boys and girls want to be outdoors all hours of the day.
16. 17. 18.
Now is the time when we should put aside our differences and come together in peace. Give me one good reason why I should listen to your advice. I came early to the place where you told me to wait for you.
Diagram Pattern 20: Adjective (or Relative) Clause with Relative Adverb
The Basic Diagram Pattern: a. Professor Davis took a position at the University of Montana, where he taught for three years. b. Give me a good reason why I should listen to you. c. Robespierre lived in France during a time when people often lost their heads. d. Archaeologists do not know the exact place where Noahs ark landed. e. Santa comes at midnight when all is quiet. Diagram Pattern 20: Relative Clause with Relative Adverb 1. I finally found a store where I could buy the kind of paper I needed. 2. Can you give me any reason why the plan should not be approved? 3. Examinations always seem to come at times when my social calendar is especially full. 4. I know the place where you said you found this. 5. We lived in Toledo until 1956, when Dads company sent him to Tulsa to manage a branch office. 6. The winner of the popularity contest will be announced during the week when we graduate. 7. Carson was unable to find a place where he could live comfortably on his small pension. 8. We located a small valley where we found fresh water to drink and dry wood to build a fire. 9. You are now standing on the spot where the first shot of the revolution was fired. 10. Anyone who has taught in schools where teaching assignments are made haphazardly and capriciously will welcome the new regulations. 11. She lived at a time when women had few possessions to call their own. 12. We moved to Detroit where Fathers company had a warehouse filled with junk.
13. I often know the exact time when you sneak into the house after breaking your curfew. 14. The man coming to assassinate the president arrived at the spot where the deed was to occur. 15. Spring is a time when boys and girls want to be outdoors all hours of the day. 16. Now is the time when we should put aside our differences and come together in peace. 17. Give me one good reason why I should listen to your advice. 18. I came early to the place where you told me to wait for you.
3. Adverb clause a. An adverb clause usually answers one of the adverb wh- questions when? where? why? how? how often? than (who/what)? WhQuestion Word When? Where? Why?
Adverb Clause Before Nancy went to school, she ate breakfast. Tom travels wherever he wants. Because Peter was running late, he did not eat breakfast. Sally acted as though she was guilty. As often as you get slapped, you should turn the other cheek. Jane is taller than Mary (is).
Adverb Question When did Nancy eat breakfast? Where does Tom travel? Why did Peter not eat breakfast? How did Sally act? How often should you turn the other cheek? Jane is taller than who?
Answer = Adverb Clause Before she went to school Wherever he wants Because he was running late As though she was guilty As often as you get slapped Than Mary (is)
Subordinating Conjunction Before Wherever Because
How? How Often?
As though As often as
Than (Who/What) ?
Than
b. An adverb clause functions like an adverb. An adverb that modifies the simple predicate of the main clause can be moved around. [Adverb Movement Test only for adverbs that modify the simple predicate (verb) of the main clause.] Example: John ate dinner after he came home. After he came home, John ate dinner. The adverb clause modifies the simple predicate ate in the main clause John ate dinner. As such, the adverb clause can be moved before or after the main clause. c. An adverb clause is usually introduced by a subordinating conjunction (after, because, when, than, etc.). [See table above.] Examples: After John came home, he ate dinner. John ate dinner after he came home. Both adverb clauses are introduced by the subordinating conjunction after.
Note:
Subordinating Conjunction Test: Any word that fits the following pattern will be a subordinating conjunction: _______________ John (came or was coming) home (subordinate clause), + (a main clause).
Examples:
When John came home, + (a main clause) After John came home, + (a main clause) While John was coming home, + (a main clause) Since John was coming home, + (a main clause) The word so can act as a coordinating conjunction and as a subordinating conjunction. Use the So That Test by replacing adding that immediately after the word so. If the sentence makes sense, then the word is acting as a subordinating conjunction. Examples: He died so others could live. [subordinating conjunction; no comma] He didnt show up, so they left. [coordinating conjunction; comma required] In the first example, so that makes sense in the sentence He died so that others could live. In the second example, the sentence does not make sense He didnt show up, *so that they left.
Note:
Note:
The first example does not use a comma before so. In fact, it would be wrong to use a comma. Never use a comma before so (that). In the second example, a comma is required because the rule is that when a BOYFANS word (coordinating conjunction) connects two independent clauses, a comma is required before the BOY FANS word, in this case, before the coordinating conjunction so.
Exception to the Subordinating Conjunction Test: Some subordinating conjunctions such as than and as . . . as do not fit the Subordinating Conjunction Test since they do not modify the simple predicate (verb) in the main clause. d. There are three kinds of adverb clauses. They have the same pattern as single-word adverbs since an adverb clause functions as an adverbial modifier. They modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. Three Kinds of Adverb Clauses 1. those that modify the verb (simple predicate) of the main clause 2. those that modify an adjective in the main clause. 3. those that modify an adverb in the main clause.
A. Adverb Clause That Modifies the Verb (Simple Predicate) in the Main Clause: 1. Two characteristics of an adverb clause that modifies the verb (simple predicate) of the main clause: a. The adverb answers one of the adverb wh- questions when? where? why? how? how often? Example: She ate dinner after she came home. When did she eat dinner? After she came home. The adverb clause, after she came home, modifies the simple predicate ate. b. The adverb clause can usually be moved before or after the main clause whose verb it modifies. . Example: She ate dinner after she came home. The adverb clause, after she came home, can be moved before the main clause. After she came home, she ate dinner. Note on Comma Usage: If the adverb clause comes before the main clause, it is separated by a comma. If it comes after the main clause, it is usually not separated by a comma. c. Patterns: subject + verb (simple predicate) + subordinating conjunction + adverb clause OR subordinating conjunction + adverb clause + subject + verb (simple predicate) 2. In diagramming, the dotted line connects the verb of the subordinate adverb clause to the verb in the main clause, and the subordinating conjunction goes on the dotted line.
B. Adverb Clause That Modifies an Adjective in the Main Clause: There are five kinds of adjectives (in the main clause) that can be modified by an adverb clause. The five characteristics of these adjectives are as follows: 1. The adjective must be in the main clause. 2. The adverb answers the adverb question why? how? or than (who/what)? a. The adverb clauses that answer the question why? will modify a predicate adjective in the positive degree of comparison and will begin with the subordinating conjunction that. Example: Sally was afraid that Jim was smart. Why was Sally afraid? She was afraid that Jim was smart. The adverb clause, that Jim was smart, modifies the predicate adjective afraid, which is in the positive degree, and begins with the subordinating conjunction that.
b. The adverb clauses that answer the question than (who/what)? will modify a predicate adjective in comparative degree of comparison or gradation and will begin with the subordinating conjunction than. Example: [Jim was strong. Sally was stronger. Combine the two sentences.] Sally was stronger than Jim (was). Sally was stronger than who? Than Jim (was). The adverb clause, than Jim was, modifies the predicate adjective stronger, which is in the comparative degree, and begins with the subordinating conjunction than. Note: The predicate adjective in the superlative degree of comparison cannot be modified by an adverb clause. Example: Of the three workers, Sally was the fastest. 3. The adverb clause will come after the main clause. 4. The adverb clause will be headed most commonly by than, but also by that and as . . . as. [Exceptions apply.] 5. The adjective must function in one of the following five ways (five kinds of adjectives that an adverb clause can modify): Five (5) Kinds of Adjectives That an Adverb Clause Can Modify 1 . Predicate adjective in the positive degree Characteristi a. must follow an intransitive linking verb (a form of the cs verb to be or a verb of perception such as seem, taste, and smell) that takes a subject complement (predicate nominative or predicate adjective), not a direct object. b. will be followed by an adverb clause headed by the subordinating conjunction as . . . as or that. Pattern subject + intransitive linking verb + (as . . .) + subject complement (= predicate adjective) + as or that + adverb clause. Examples Kurt was as happy as Sharon. Keith was so glad that he finished the race.
Five (5) Kinds of Adjectives That an Adverb Clause Can Modify 2 . Predicate adjective in the comparative degree Characteristi a. must follow an intransitive linking verb (a form of the cs verb to be or a verb of perception such as seem, taste, and smell) that takes a subject complement (predicate nominative or predicate adjective), not a direct object. b. will be followed by an adverb clause headed by the subordinating conjunction than to complete the comparison. c. The adverb clause can be elliptical, that is, can omit repetitive structures. Pattern subject + intransitive linking verb + subject complement (= comparative degree predicate adjective) + than + adverb clause Examples Sally was stronger than Jim wanted her to be. That paper is more organized than I thought. 3 . Descriptive adjective in the comparative degree that modifies a predicate nominative Characteristi a. must follow an intransitive linking verb (a form of the cs verb to be or a verb of perception such as seem, taste, and smell) that takes a subject complement (predicate nominative or predicate adjective), not a direct object. b. must come before the predicate nominative that it modifies since a single-word modifier comes before the word it modifies. c. will be followed by an adverb clause headed by the subordinating conjunction than to complete the comparison. d. The adverb clause can be elliptical, that is, can omit repetitive structures. Pattern subject + intransitive linking verb + comparative adjective + subject complement (= predicate nominative) + than + adverb clause Examples Ken is a better candidate for student body president than Sheila will ever be. The drawing was a more beautiful piece than the
other one. [elliptical clause]
Five (5) Kinds of Adjectives That an Adverb Clause Can Modify 4 . Descriptive adjective in the comparative degree that modifies a direct object Characteristi a. must follow a transitive action verb, which takes a cs direct object. b. must come before the direct object that it modifies since a single-word modifier comes before the word it modifies. c. will be followed by an adverb clause headed by the subordinating conjunction than to complete the comparison. d. The adverb clause can be elliptical, that is, can omit repetitive structures. Pattern subject + transitive action verb + comparative adjective + direct object + than + adverb clause Examples Janice gets better grades than Jodie does. Bethany does more difficult work than Ruth. [elliptical clause] 5 . Descriptive adjective in the comparative degree that functions as an object complement Characteristi a. must follow a transitive action verb, which takes a cs direct object. b. must follow the direct object. c. will be followed by an adverb clause headed by the subordinating conjunction than to complete the comparison. d. The adverb clause can be elliptical, that is, can omit repetitive structures. Pattern subject + transitive action verb + direct object + object complement (= comparative adjective) + than + adverb clause Examples The exercises made us stronger than we ever were. Shelby considered Jake more ambitious than Jeff. [elliptical clause] In diagramming, the dotted line connects the verb of the subordinate adverb clause to the adjective in the main clause, and the subordinating conjunction goes on the dotted line. C. Adverb Clause That Modifies an Adverb in the Main Clause:
1. The adverb must be in the comparative degree. Note: subordinating If the adverb is in the positive degree, than cannot be used. Instead, a conjunction such as as must be used.
Example: If you do exactly (than >as) I say, you will be fine. [The word exactly is an adverb in the positive degree.]
If you do better than John, you will be fine. [The word better is an adverb in the comparative degree.] 2. The adverb answers the adverb question than (who/whom/what)? 3. The adverb must modify the simple predicate (verb) in the main clause. 4. The simple predicate (verb) in the main clause can be transitive or intransitive. 5. The adverb will be followed by an adverb clause headed by the subordinating conjunction than to complete the comparison. 6. The adverb clause can be elliptical, that is, can omit repetitive structures. Pattern: simple subject + simple predicate (verb) + (direct object) + comparative adverb + than + adverb clause Examples: Isaac paid attention to the teacher more closely than Jacob. Quincy ate more hungrily than Oswald.
Exercise on Adverb Clauses:

1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Circle the subordinating conjunction. Underline the word(s) it modifies. Indicate the kind of word that the subordinating conjunction modifies verb, adjective, or adverb. ____________ Jason will not be going with us because he is spending the weekend with his grandfather. ____________ If you have been behaving, you may leave the room when the second bell rings. ____________ Twins often talk sooner than single children do. ____________ The movie was better than I had expected it to be. ____________ If you make the cake exactly as the directions on the package tell you, your guests will call you a master cook. ____________ When Hubert returned from his vacation, he was nearly as broad as he was tall. ____________ We were glad that you could come. ____________ We found the broken glass where the accident had happened. ____________ John is afraid that it will rain. ____________ The sooner you do this, the better you will feel.
In diagramming, the dotted line connects the verb of the subordinate adverb clause to the adverb in the main clause, and the subordinating conjunction goes on the dotted line. How to Diagram the Adverb Clause: 1. First, diagram the main clause. 2. Then, diagram the adverb clause beneath the main clause, slightly indented. 3. Use a dotted line to connect the verb of the subordinate adverb clause to a. the verb (simple predicate) in the main clause, b. the positive or comparative adjective in the main clause, or c. the comparative degree adverb in the main clause. 4. Write the subordinating conjunction on the dotted line.
Review Exercise 32: (1) Circle the Subordinating Conjunction

and (2) Underline the word it modifies. 1. We completed the test after we had lunch. 2. If I were you, I would tell your teacher why you did what you did. 3. They went ahead as if we were not there. 4. Although Smiths experience has been more extensive than Johnsons, the older man was not given the appointment. 5. The team played more aggressively than they had at practice. 6. I answered more sharply than I had intended to do. 7. Give me a call if I can help you. 8. Aluminum bats can hit a ball farther than wood bats can. 9. I had finished my popcorn before the movie started. 10. I decided not to go since I was not feeling well. 11. I read the morning newspaper while I waited for the post office to open. 12. The party was more formal than I had expected. 13. Their ships went faster than we had expected. 14. She was worried we would not finish in time. 15. The theater gets quiet when the movie starts. 16. Whenever a subject that bores him is introduced, Jack picks up a magazine and starts to read. 17. I was convinced that we would win. 18. Although I worked only 40 hours a week, I earned as much money as you did last summer. 19. We went into the lab after the teacher gave the classroom presentation. 20. Wherever I turned, I saw evidence that the tidal wave had done terrible damage to the homes. 21. I am sorry that you are not able to come. 22. Bert is the kind of person who will never take a risk unless he is sure that the odds favor him. 23. They had a good time everywhere they went. 24. The machine scans much more accurately than the old one did. 25. Storytellers, if they are good, have generally been held in high esteem.
Exercise for Diagram Pattern 21: Adverb Clause That Modifies the Verb (Simple Predicate) in the Main Clause:
Adverb Clause After Main Clause: OR Adverb Clause Before Main Clause: 1. 2. 3. subordinating conjunction + adverb clause + subject + verb (simple predicate) subject + verb (simple predicate) + subordinating conjunction + adverb clause
Put parentheses around the adverb clauses excluding the subordinating conjunctions. Circle the subordinating conjunctions. Underline the simple predicates (in the main clauses) that the adverb clauses modify.
1. [Adverb clause of time] When things go wrong, take some time to rethink what happened. 2. [Adverb clause of place] Only fools rush in where angels fear to tread. 3. [Adverb clause of contrast concessive] Though this be madness, yet there is method in it. 4. [Adverb clause of contrast adversative] John likes vanilla, whereas Mary likes chocolate. 5. [Adverb clause of cause] Because you broke it, you should pay for it. 6. [Adverb clause of result] The elections were rigged so that Bush would win Florida. 7. [Adverb clause of purpose] He took the course so that he could be with her. 8. [Adverb clause of condition] If I were you, I wouldnt do it. 9. [Adverb clause of exception negative condition] He is always right, except that he was wrong that one time. 10. [Adverb clause of manner] She always acts as though she were a beautiful movie star. Click here for the answers.
Diagram Pattern 21: Adverb Clause That Modifies the Verb (Simple Predicate) in the Main Clause
The Basic Diagram Patterns: Adverb Clause After Main Clause: OR Adverb Clause Before Main Clause: subject + verb (simple predicate) + subordinating conjunction + adverb clause subordinating conjunction + adverb clause + subject + verb (simple predicate)
Note: In both cases, the adverb clause is diagrammed below the main clause and is indented. a. Jason will not be going with us because he is spending the weekend with his grandfather. b. John went to the movies after he finished his homework. c. When Carolyn was a child, she listened to her grandparents. d. As far as the box office knows, the concert will begin at the scheduled time. e. What would you do if you had a million dollars? Diagram Pattern 21: Adverb Clause That Modifies the Verb (Simple Predicate) in the Main Clause: 1. [Adverb clause of time] When things go wrong, take some time to rethink what happened. 2. [Adverb clause of place] Only fools rush in where angels fear to tread. 3. [Adverb clause of contrast concessive] Though this be madness, yet there is method in it. 4. [Adverb clause of contrast adversative] John likes vanilla, whereas Mary likes chocolate. 5. [Adverb clause of cause] Because you broke it, you should pay for it. 6. [Adverb clause of result] The elections were rigged so that Bush would win Florida. 7. [Adverb clause of purpose] He took the course so that he could be with her. 8. [Adverb clause of condition] If I were you, I wouldnt do it.
9. [Adverb clause of exception negative condition] He is always right, except that he was wrong that one time. 10. [Adverb clause of manner] She always acts as though she were a beautiful movie star.
Exercise for Diagram Pattern 22: Adverb Clause That Modifies a Positive Degree Predicate Adjective in the Main Clause:
subject + intransitive linking verb + (as . . .) + subject complement (= predicate adjective) + as or that + adverb clause 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Put parentheses around the adverb clauses excluding the subordinating conjunctions. Circle the subordinating conjunctions. Underline the predicate adjectives (in the main clauses) that the adverb clauses modify. Jasmine was truly sorry that she did not do her best by studying hard for the test. The girl with the pigtails was very glad the boy sitting next to her had noticed her. She was so emotional that she couldnt stop crying when Melanie died in Gone With the Wind. He wasnt so foolish that he would refuse the offer the Godfather made him. He was as sick as he had ever been because of the bad shrimp that he had eaten. She seemed so sure that she was right that everyone was afraid to contradict her. That painting is so ugly that no one would want to buy it. When Hubert returned from his vacation, he was nearly as wide as he was tall. Kerrie felt reassured that Humphrey was not injured when he fell off the ladder. The toddler was as happy as she could be as long as she could hear her mother talking on the phone in the next room. Click here for the answers.
Diagram Pattern 22: Adverb Clause That Modifies a Positive Degree Predicate Adjective in the Main Clause
The Basic Diagram Pattern: subject + intransitive linking verb + (as . . .) + subject complement (= predicate adjective) + as or that + adverb clause a. Kurt was as happy as Sharon because they were getting married tomorrow. [positive degree predicate adjective with as . . . as] b. Keith was so glad that he was able to finish the grueling race. [positive degree predicate adjective with that] Diagram Pattern 22: Adverb Clause That Modifies a Positive Degree Predicate Adjective in the Main Clause: subject + intransitive linking verb + (as . . .) + subject complement (= predicate adjective) + as or that + adverb clause 1. Jasmine was truly sorry that she did not do her best by studying hard for the test. 2. The girl with the pigtails was very glad the boy sitting next to her had noticed her. 3. She was so emotional that she couldnt stop crying when Melanie died in Gone With the Wind. 4. He wasnt so foolish that he would refuse the offer the Godfather made him. 5. He was as sick as he had ever been because of the bad shrimp that he had eaten. 6. She seemed so sure that she was right that everyone was afraid to contradict her. 7. That painting is so ugly that no one would want to buy it. 8. When Hubert returned from his vacation, he was nearly as wide as he was tall. 9. Kerrie felt reassured that Humphrey was not injured when he fell off the ladder. 10. The toddler was as happy as she could be as long as she could hear her mother talking on the phone in the next room.
Exercise for Diagram Pattern 23: Adverb Clause That Modifies a Comparative Degree Predicate Adjective in the Main Clause:
subject + intransitive linking verb + subject complement (= predicate adjective) + than + adverb clause 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Put parentheses around the adverb clauses excluding the subordinating conjunctions. Circle the subordinating conjunctions. Underline the predicate adjectives (in the main clauses) that the adverb clauses modify. Trudy was smarter than Ken even though she never showed off in front of him. Although Smiths experience has been more extensive than Johnsons, the older man was not given the appointment. Teresas dinner smelled better than Jamies although both dinners were cooked by the same chef. Although a rose may smell sweeter than any flower, it has thorns. His apology sounded hollower than a booming kettle drum in an empty concert hall. A man is more than the worst thing he has ever done. The pasta tasted better than it had ever tasted, when you consider who made it. Debbie, who was on new medication, felt sicker than she had ever been. It was obvious that Jonathan seemed quieter than John. Although broccoli is healthier than candy, most children wont eat it.
Diagram Pattern 23: Adverb Clause That Modifies a Comparative Degree Predicate Adjective in the Main Clause
The Basic Diagram Pattern: subject + intransitive linking verb + subject complement (= predicate adjective) + than + adverb clause a. Sally was stronger than Jim wanted her to be. [comparative degree predicate adjective (using er)] b. That paper is more organized than I thought it would be. [comparative degree predicate adjective (using more)] Diagram Pattern 23: Adverb Clause That Modifies a Comparative Degree (er or more + than) Predicate Adjective in the Main Clause: subject + intransitive linking verb + subject complement (= predicate adjective) + than + adverb clause 1. Trudy was smarter than Ken even though she never showed off in front of him. 2. Although Smiths experience has been more extensive than Johnsons, the older man was not given the appointment. 3. Teresas dinner smelled better than Jamies although both dinners were cooked by the same chef. 4. Although a rose may smell sweeter than any flower, it has thorns. 5. His apology sounded hollower than booming kettle drum in an empty concert hall. 6. A man is more than the worst thing he has ever done. 7. The pasta tasted better than it had ever tasted, when you consider who made it. 8. Debbie, who was on new medication, felt sicker than she had ever been. 9. It was obvious that Jonathan seemed quieter than John.
10. Although broccoli is healthier than candy, most children wont eat it.
Exercise for Diagram Pattern 24: Adverb Clause That Modifies a Comparative Degree Adjective That Modifies a Predicate Nominative in the Main Clause:
subject + intransitive linking verb + comparative adjective + subject complement (= predicate nominative) + than + adverb clause 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Put parentheses around the adverb clauses excluding the subordinating conjunctions. Circle the subordinating conjunctions. Underline the predicate adjectives (in the main clauses) that the adverb clauses modify. Joshua, being the kind of man that he is, is a better man than Steve will ever be. You can become a better writer than you are by acquiring good writing habits. Karl is a happier man today than he has ever been. Jack became a better person than anyone had expected him to become. Chase is a better student than Felicia, who never studies at all. He was a lesser man than what he was for doing what he did. Carson, a rookie runner, was a faster runner than Patrick. You are a better person than I am for doing what you did. I think that King Lear is a better play than Hamlet. Writing comments in the margins of your textbook is a more effective way of using your textbook than highlighting. Click here for the answers.
Diagram Pattern 24: Adverb Clause That Modifies a Comparative Degree Adjective That Modifies a Predicate Nominative in the Main Clause
The Basic Diagram Pattern: subject + intransitive linking verb + comparative adjective + subject complement (= predicate nominative) + than + adverb clause a. Ken is a better candidate for student body president than Sheila will ever be. [comparative degree adjective (using er) that modifies a predicate nominative] b. The drawing was a more beautiful piece than the other one we looked at. [comparative degree adjective (using more) that modifies a predicate nominative] Diagram Pattern 24: Adverb Clause That Modifies a Comparative Degree Adjective That Modifies a Predicate Nominative in the Main Clause: subject + intransitive linking verb + comparative adjective + subject complement (= predicate nominative) + than + adverb clause 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Joshua, being the kind of man that he is, is a better man than Steve will ever be. You can become a better writer than you are by acquiring good writing habits. Karl is a happier man today than he has ever been. Jack became a better person than anyone had expected him to become. Chase is a better student than Felicia, who never studies at all. He was a lesser man than what he was for doing what he did. Carson, a rookie runner, was a faster runner than Patrick. You are a better person than I am for doing what you did.
9. I think that King Lear is a better play than Hamlet. 10. Writing comments in the margins of your textbook is a more effective way of using your textbook than highlighting.
Exercise for Diagram Pattern 25: a Comparative Modifies a Direct Object in
Adverb Clause That Modifies Degree Adjective That the Main Clause:
subject + transitive action verb + comparative adjective + direct object + than + adverb clause 1. 2. 3. Put parentheses around the adverb clauses excluding the subordinating conjunctions. Circle the subordinating conjunctions. Underline the comparative degree adjectives that modify the direct objects (in the main clauses).
1. Lance bakes better cakes than Patricia even though she went to cooking school. 2. You will receive a greater reward than someone who doesnt care about others. 3. Because Ben violated the curfew, the coach gave the team more laps to run than he usually gave. 4. If you dont rethink your strategy, Stan will create better plans than you. 5. It is unlikely that Vance will ever do more homework than Mitch. 6. Harry always plays a more intense game of soccer than anyone else because he truly loves the game. 7. Broccoli gives you more nutrition per serving than pudding made from bananas. 8. Paul was running a faster race than Wallace until he tripped in the final lap. 9. He did a better job on his project than Carmen because he took the time to do quality work. 10. The hybrid cars gives you more miles per gallon than a huge truck using diesel. Click here for the answers.
Diagram Pattern 25: Adverb Clause That Modifies a Comparative Degree Adjective That Modifies a Direct Object in the Main Clause
The Basic Diagram Pattern: subject + transitive action verb + comparative adjective + direct object + than + adverb clause a. When it comes to academics, Janice gets better grades than Jodie does. [comparative degree adjective (using er) that modifies a direct object] b. Although they both work hard, Bethany does more difficult work than Ruth. [comparative degree adjective (using more) that modifies a direct object] Diagram Pattern 25: Adverb Clause That Modifies a Comparative Degree Adjective That Modifies a Direct Object in the Main Clause: subject + transitive action verb + comparative adjective + direct object + than + adverb clause 1. Lance bakes better cakes than Patricia even though she went to cooking school. 2. You will receive a greater reward than someone who doesnt care about others. 3. Because Ben violated the curfew, the coach gave the team more laps to run than he usually gave. 4. If you dont rethink your strategy, Stan will create better plans than you. 5. It is unlikely that Vance will ever do more homework than Mitch. 6. Harry always plays a more intense game of soccer than anyone else because he truly loves the game. 7. Broccoli gives you more nutrition per serving than pudding made from bananas.
8. Paul was running a faster race than Wallace until he tripped in the final lap. 9. He did a better job on his project than Carmen because he took the time to do quality work. 10. The hybrid cars gives you more miles per gallon than a huge truck using diesel.
Exercise for Diagram Pattern 26: a Comparative Object Complement
Adverb Clause That Modifies Degree Adjective That Is an in the Main Clause:
subject + transitive action verb + direct object + object complement (= comparative adjective) + than + adverb clause 1. 2. 3. Put parentheses around the adverb clauses excluding the subordinating conjunctions. Circle the subordinating conjunctions. Underline the comparative degree adjectives that are object complements in the main clauses.
1. They considered him more handsome than Brad Pitt. 2. Oliver counts himself more blessed than anyone else. 3. The smell of the paint made her sicker than the smell of the gasoline. 4. His neighbors found him happier than he ever was. 5. They found the fruits more bruised than the last time. 6. The audience thought the clown funnier than the fat man. 7. The students found this exercise easier than the others. 8. A good college education can make you richer than a good high school education. 9. That old slice of pizza made Jeff queasier than flying in an airplane. 10. Luther considered his new English teacher funnier than his English teacher from last semester. Click here for the answers.
Diagram Pattern 26: Adverb Clause That Modifies a Comparative Degree Adjective That Is an Object Complement in the Main Clause
The Basic Diagram Pattern: subject + transitive action verb + direct object + object complement (= comparative adjective) + than + adverb clause a. The exercises made us stronger than we ever were. [comparative degree adjective (using er) that is an object complement] b. Shelby considered Jake more ambitious than Jeff. [comparative degree adjective (using more)that is an object complement] Diagram Pattern 26: Adverb Clause That Modifies a Comparative Degree Adjective That Is an Object Complement in the Main Clause: subject + transitive action verb + direct object + object complement (= comparative adjective) + than + adverb clause 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. They considered him more handsome than Brad Pitt. Oliver counts himself more blessed than anyone else. The smell of the paint made her sicker than the smell of the gasoline. His neighbors found him happier than he ever was. They found the fruits more bruised than the last time. The audience thought the clown funnier than the fat man. The students found this exercise easier than the others. A good college education can make you richer than a good high school education. That old slice of pizza made Jeff queasier than flying in an airplane.
10. Luther considered his new English teacher funnier than his English teacher from last semester.
Exercise for Diagram Pattern 27: Comparative Adverb in the Main Clause:
Adverb Clause That Modifies a Degree
simple subject + simple predicate (verb) + (direct object) + comparative degree adverb + than + adverb clause 1. 2. 3. Put parentheses around the adverb clauses excluding the subordinating conjunctions. Circle the subordinating conjunctions. Underline the comparative degree adverbs in the main clauses.
1. Pamela spoke more loudly than Jimmy whenever the argument became heated. 2. Chuck ate his supper more hurriedly than Billy because he was hungrier than Billy. 3. Marilyn studied harder than Stephanie because she wanted to win the bet. 4. No sooner had Joyce finished one problem than she was given another one to do. 5. It is obvious that Patrick catches on faster than Warren. 6. Jackie coughed more loudly than Jill because she had whooping cough. 7. Whenever Jerry works faster than Pamela, she gets angry and storms out of the room. 8. Corey can stand the heat longer than Ralph, who prefers cold weather. 9. Studying for long blocks of time hurts retention more than studying for short blocks of time. 10. Opie washes his clothes more often than Elaine because he changes his clothes more often. 11. You must sit longer in a theater for a historical movie than for an animated movie. 12. Statistics show us that taller presidential candidates win elections more frequently than shorter ones. 13. Sleeping for 6 hours or less every night damages your psyche more seriously than sleeping 8 hours or more. 14. Skipping breakfast regularly affects your school work more negatively than skipping lunch. 15. Incompetent people argue more often than competent people because they have this need to prove to others that they are competent. 16. Aaron sleeps more poorly than his wife because he has restless leg syndrome.
17. It is a biological fact that mens bodies produce testosterone faster than womens bodies. 18. The educational level in the United States has dropped more sharply than in most industrialized nations. Click here for the answers.
Diagram Pattern 27: Adverb Clause That Modifies a Comparative Degree Adverb in the Main Clause
The Basic Diagram Pattern: simple subject + simple predicate (verb) + (direct object) + comparative adverb + than + adverb clause a. b. c. d. e. Darren finished his work faster than Kelly. Superman flies faster than a speeding bullet. Jillian came to class later than Rose. Leo is doing his work more quickly than Jerry. Adam sang more robustly than Eve did.
Diagram Pattern 27: Adverb Clause That Modifies a Comparative Degree Adverb in the Main Clause: simple subject + simple predicate (verb) + (direct object) + comparative adverb + than + adverb clause Pamela spoke more loudly than Jimmy whenever the argument became heated. Chuck ate his supper more hurriedly than Billy because he was hungrier than Billy. Marilyn studied harder than Stephanie because she wanted to win the bet. No sooner had Joyce finished one problem than she was given another one to do. It is obvious that Patrick catches on faster than Warren. Jackie coughed more loudly than Jill because she had whooping cough. Whenever Jerry works faster than Pamela, she gets angry and storms out of the room. 8. Corey can stand the heat longer than Ralph, who prefers cold weather. 9. Studying for long blocks of time hurts retention more than studying for short blocks of time. 10. Opie washes his clothes more often than Elaine because he changes his clothes more often. 11. You must sit longer in a theater for a historical movie than for an animated movie. 12. Statistics show us that taller presidential candidates win elections more frequently than shorter ones. 13. Sleeping for 6 hours or less every night damages your psyche more seriously than sleeping 8 hours or more. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
14. Skipping breakfast regularly affects your school work more negatively than skipping lunch. 15. Incompetent people argue more often than competent people because they have this need to prove to others that they are competent. 16. Aaron sleeps more poorly than his wife because he has restless leg syndrome. 17. It is a biological fact that mens bodies produce testosterone faster than womens bodies. 18. The educational level in the United States has dropped more sharply than in most industrialized nations.
Exercise for Diagram Pattern 28: Compound-Complex Sentence

1. Put parentheses around the independent and dependent clauses. 2. Circle the coordinating conjunctions (BOY FANS words). 3. Underline the subordinators. 1. Not only did the students see the folly in what John did, but his parents also understood what had Series started. 3. I fixed three bowls of popcorn for the party, but my children ate them before most of the guests even got here. 4. The kids can take the school bus home, but I really think they ought to walk home. 5. We worked hard for the Consumer Party candidates, ringing doorbells and stuffing envelopes, but we knew they didnt stand a chance. 6. After the children went to bed, Mary stayed up to clean the mess from the party, but John refused to help her. 7. To cure your alcoholism, you must first admit that you are an alcoholic, and then you must submit to treatment. 8. If at first you dont succeed, try reading the instructions and then try doing it again. 9. I know that you are intelligent, but I also know that you still do need to study. 10. After this semester is over, I intend to burn my books, but I also intend to party hardy. 11. The woman who committed the crime was sent to prison, but she was released a week later after being found innocent. 12. I will leave all of my money to whoever of my relatives is most deserving, but that plan may leave me with no beneficiary. 13. You should read the books that you buy for this class, but that advice often falls on deaf ears. 14. Some students do well on the tests, but others do not do well because they do not do the exercises in the textbooks. happened. 2. The television lost its sound last week, but luckily it was fixed before the World
15. After the hurricane hit the Carolina coast, many homes were damaged, but fortunately insurance covered the losses caused by storm. 16. Whenever the teacher falls behind, he tries to make up the work by skipping chapters, but it doesnt help the students. 17. It is better for you to smile, but it takes more facial effort to smile than to frown. 18. People dont realize what they are doing to their body, but every can of soda has about 10 teaspoons of sugar. Click here for the answers.
Diagram Pattern 28: Compound-Complex Sentence
The Basic Diagram Pattern: a. The pirates found the treasure hidden in the cave, but they did not share it with the captain, whom they feared very much. b. Because Larry came to class late, he did not have enough time to finish the test, and as a result, he received a bad grade. c. The students knew what the answer was, but they decided to keep quiet. d. You will fail the test or you will resort to cheating if you dont spend time studying.
e. Not only did the man who was Jewish celebrate Christmas, but he also celebrated Easter.
Diagram Pattern 28: Compound-Complex Sentence 1. Not only did the students see the folly in what John did, but his parents also understood what had happened. 2. The television lost its sound last week, but luckily it was fixed before the World Series started. 3. I fixed three bowls of popcorn for the party, but my children ate them before most of the guests even got here. 4. The kids can take the school bus home, but I really think they ought to walk home. 5. We worked hard for the Consumer Party candidates, ringing doorbells and stuffing envelopes, but we knew they didnt stand a chance. 6. After the children went to bed, Mary stayed up to clean the mess from the party, but John refused to help her. 7. To cure your alcoholism, you must first admit that you are an alcoholic, and then you must submit to treatment. 8. If at first you dont succeed, try reading the instructions and then try doing it again. 9. I know that you are intelligent, but I also know that you still do need to study. 10. After this semester is over, I intend to burn my books, but I also intend to party hardy. 11. The woman who committed the crime was sent to prison, but she was released a week later after being found innocent. 12. I will leave all of my money to whoever of my relatives is most deserving, but that plan may leave me with no beneficiary. 13. You should read the books that you buy for this class, but that advice often falls on deaf ears. 14. Some students do well on the tests, but others do not do well because they do not do the exercises in the textbooks. 15. After the hurricane hit the Carolina coast, many homes were damaged, but fortunately insurance covered the losses caused by storm. 16. Whenever the teacher falls behind, he tries to make up the work by skipping chapters, but it doesnt help the students. 17. It is better for you to smile, but it takes more facial effort to smile than to frown. 18. People dont realize what they are doing to their body, but every can of soda has about 10 teaspoons of sugar.
Chapter 4 New Trends in English Grammar

If you live with your aging grandmother, you probably will not recognize the changes she is undergoing as she continues to age. However, if you see her only once a year on Thanksgiving or Christmas, you will probably recognize the changes that come with aging. Like your grandmother, all living languages undergo constant change. Because we live in this linguistic environment, we often do not see these changes. However, our English language is changing, and there are trends that are becoming acceptable. The guiding historical principle is correctness = usage + social acceptability. A word like aint may be used by many, but it is not considered socially acceptable and is therefore considered improper or incorrect English. Grammar, like pronunciation of words, changes over the course of centuries. What may be acceptable during Shakespeares time may be unacceptable in our times. For example, Shakespeare used double negatives and even triple negatives as an acceptable mode of speech. Today, as a result of grammar handbooks, they have been shunned. However, double negatives are making a comeback. There are instances where double negatives are perfectly acceptable and grammatically correct. Example: You should fear this thing called fear. [our basic sentence] You should fear fear. [the short version the first fear is part of the verb phrase should fear, and the second fear is the direct object.] You should not fear fear. [the negated short version the adverb not is used to negate the verb phrase.] You should not not fear fear. [the double negative version, negative + negative = positive] Note: The double negative version does not have the same meaning as the negated short version. It has the same meaning as the (positive) short version. You should not not fear fear has the same meaning as You should fear fear. The verb phrase should not fear is being negated by adding another not before the first not = should not not fear; the second fear is actually the direct object.
Grammatical trends such as the use of the double negative are becoming more and more common. Some of these trends have already crept into social acceptability. 1. Noun a. The -s form of the plural noun will continue to grow and replace foreign plurals that were once acceptable forms: automaton (singular), automata (plural) > automatons; index (singular), indices (plural) > indexes b. The -'s possession will prevail over the use of of in constructions of the possessive genitive: the fair of the world > the world's fair, the book of John > Johns book
c. With the partitive genitive, the preference will be for functional shift from noun to adjective: the leg of the table > the table's leg > the table leg d. There will be greater use of noun forms as adjectives: American Cancer Society, not American Cancerous Society; The Japan Lectures, not The Japanese Lectures e. The forwarding of stress will make compounds out of word groups whenever possible: his devilmay-care attitude; the cat-and-dog fight f. The plural possessive form, especially with a proper noun, is losing its possessive marker the apostrophe: First Citizens Bank > First Citizens Bank; the Farmers Market > the Farmers Market. 2. Pronoun a. In the future, the pronoun who will probably be considered correct in all positions; like the pronoun that, the pronoun who will become an uninflected relative pronoun: I know whom you are looking for. > I know who you are looking for. Whom do you want to see? > Who do you want to see? b. There will be increased use of the objective form of the pronoun in all post-verb constructions: Its I. > It's me. Thats she. > That's her. Im he. > I'm him. c. The indefinite pronouns will give way in American English to the British their: Everyone brought his lunch. > Everyone brought his/her lunch. > Everyone brought their lunch. d. The use of them as a demonstrative will become acceptable: Look at those apples. > Look at them apples. e. There will be further changes in personal pronouns in compound constructions, but not in single constructions. 1. 2. 3. 4. Me and my friends went to the store, but not Me went to the store. John and myself went to the store, but not Myself went to the store. Jane went to the store with John and myself, but not Jane went to the store with myself. Jerry gave it to you and I, but not Jerry gave it to I.
f. The possessive adjective will give way to the possessive pronoun in the gerund construction: He was angry at my coming late to class (possessive adjective) > He was angry at me coming late to class (possessive pronoun). 3. Verb a. The subjunctive mood will all but disappear: If 1 were you > If I was you b. It will become more common to use the present participle 1. as an adjective preceding its substantive: the dying man 2. as an adjective to be modified: It is very damaging.
c. There is a gradual elimination of redundancy in perfect tenses by using adverbial elements: After she had returned home, she went to sleep. > After she returned home, she went to sleep. d. There will be further changes in verbal inflections. 1. He don't know how to do anything right. 2. "Yes, you will," says he. "No, I won't," says I. e. Certain contractions and consonant combinations that are cumbersome to pronounce will be silenced and will no longer be spelled: Ive seen him do it. > I seen him do it. Youd better watch out. > You better watch out. The guests are here. > The guest are here. f. There was a . . . will become idiomatic as a singular form for both numbers: There were a man, a woman, and a child on the beach. > There was a man, a woman, and a child on the beach. g. Laid will win out over lay in the past tense: He lay out in the sun yesterday. > He laid out in the sun yesterday. h. Get/got substitutes for to be verbs and passives will become more popular: He was sick. > He got sick. He was caught. > He got caught. 4. Adverb a. The comparative and superlative adverbs will give way to the adjective forms: Drive more slowly. > Drive slower. She dresses more nicely than her sister. > She dresses nicer than her sister. b. The emphatic forwarding of movable modifiers to express psychological urgency, e.g., I had only a dollar. > I only had a dollar. In spoken English, juncture determines modification. c. Double negatives will make a return: Nobody does anything > Nobody does nothing. He could hardly care > He couldn't hardly care. He cant do anything for anyone > He can do nothing for no one. He never hurt anyone > He never hurt no one. 5. Preposition a. There will be a further development in the use of prepositions as adverbs (verb-adverb combinations): 1. directive or predicative adverbs (adverbs used to form verbs): They rounded up the cattle. Other examples: set out, gather up, put off, bring in, bring about, catch on, give out, keep on, put up with, hold up, lay off, turn over, size up, let up 2. substantive adverbs (adverbs used to form nouns): The roundup was a success. Other examples: blowout, cave-in, holdup, runaway b. The idiomatic preposition used with it will increase in use: make it up, step on it, hurry it up, see it through, work it over, jazz it up, etc.
6. Conjunction Like will become acceptable as a subordinating conjunction: It was just as you told me. > It was just like you told me. It sounds as though the answer is wrong. > It sounds like the answer is wrong.
Chapter 5 Usage
Conciseness Clichs are expressions, perhaps once vivid but now stale from overuse. A clich conveys a superficial thought and usually detracts from the point. One clue is that clichs often contain repeated sounds. Avoid using clichs in your writing. Examples: black and blue rhyme or reason rise and shine super duper take the cake tried and true wishy-washy worse for wear
Another clue is that clichs are frequently comparisons, such as metaphors and similes. Avoid using clichs in your writing. Examples: as cool as a cucumber chip on his shoulder lump on a log out in left field
Some clichs neither contain repeated sounds nor express comparisons. They are merely combinations that for some reason catch on and then are repeated again and again. Avoid using clichs in your writing. Examples: agonizing defeat hardened criminal agree wholeheartedly rude awakening
A euphemism is the substitution of a polite or inoffensive term for one that might be considered coarse or unpleasant. Avoid using euphemisms in your writing. Examples: correctional facility mobile manor nonpassing grade previously owned car revenue enhancement sanitary engineer Revisions: prison mobile home F used car raise trash collector
Gobbledygook, also called jargon, bureaucratic language, double-talk, officialese, federalese, and doublespeak, is full of abstractions, indirect words, and convoluted constructions; it is devoid of humanity and sensitivity. You can recognize gobbledygook by its pomposity and wordiness. Avoid using gobbledygook or jargon in your writing. Examples: a majority of a number of administrate at the rate of at this point in time Revisions: most some, many administer at now
cognizant of conversant with conversate due to the fact that for the purpose of in connection with in such a manner as to in the interest of in the neighborhood of initiate notate of considerable magnitude orientate pursuant to routinization subsequent to summarization terminate transmit utilize Avoid these redundancies by eliminating the italicized words: Examples: any and all at this point in time basic fundamentals because of the fact that color blue completely finished consensus of opinion crisis situation different individuals each and every educational process end result final outcome 4:00 p.m. in the afternoon free gift full and complete future plans important essentials in actual fact modern world of today personal friend reduce down reason why is because true fact Revisions:
aware of familiar with converse because for about to for about begin note large orient according to routine after summary end send use
all now fundamentals because color finished consensus crisis individuals every education result outcome 4:00 p.m. gift complete plans essentials in fact today friend reduce because fact
The appearance of sexual, ethnic, racial, or other biased terms not only will offend readers but also will undermine your credibility and authority. Avoid using sexist language. Sometimes, discriminatory language is subtle and easily overlooked; however, it must still be avoided. 1. Do not point out a person's race, age, gender, religion, ethnic background, or appearance unless it is pertinent to the subject being discussed. Examples: I have a roommate from New York, but she's Asian.
2. Choose terms with care when you write about such emotionally charged subjects as gender, ethnicity, race, religion, physical or mental ability, or sexual orientation. Examples: lunatic asylum, drug addict.
3. Avoid stereotypes; omit the stereotype adjectives. Examples: the absent-minded professor, the dumb athlete, the forgetful senior citizen.
4. Avoid language that generalizes about male and female roles or characteristics. Examples: a nurse (not male nurse), husband (not man) and wife.
5. When reasonable substitute forms exist, do not use masculine nouns or pronouns to refer to groups that include women. Examples: Fire fighter (not fireman), mail carrier (not mailman), staff (not manpower).
6. Remember that prejudice is unfair and offensive even when directed against those considered the majority or the privileged. Avoiding Shifts 1. Keep your verb tense consistent throughout your sentence, your paragraph, and even your whole essay. Example: Revision: or My brother collects used furniture, but he also enjoyed repairing and refinishing them. My brother collects used furniture, but he also enjoys repairing and refinishing them. My brother collected used furniture, but he also enjoyed repairing and refinishing them.
2. In written English, use can with will (present) and could with would (past). Example: Revision: or If I could go to the Writing Center for help, I will do well on this paper. If I could go to the Writing Center for help, I would do well on this paper. If I can go to the Writing Center for help, I will do well on this paper.
3. In formal English, there are three basic moods: indicative (statements), imperative (commands), and subjunctive (wishes, probability). Don't shift between these moods in your writing. Example: Revision: Example: Revision: If I were an honor student and I was ready to graduate, I would apply to a medical school. If I were an honor student and I were ready to graduate, I would apply to a medical school. Phone me after you get home and you can tell me all about it. Phone me after you get home and tell me all about it.
4. Keep your number consistent throughout your sentence, your paragraph, and even your whole essay. Example: Revision: or I like cats. A cat makes a good pet. I like cats. Cats make good pets. I like cats. They make good pets.
5. Avoid shifting between first, second, and third persons. Example: Revision: Off-campus students use the bus system because you get frustrated trying to park every day. Off-campus students use the bus system because they get frustrated trying to park every day.
6. When the structure of a sentence shifts so that the subject and predicate do not fit together grammatically, the result is called a mixed construction. One kind of mixed construction can occur when you set out to state a reason or a definition. Example: Revision: Example: Revision: The reason tuition increased was because enrollment dropped. [Unacceptable to use an adverb clause as a predicate nominative] Tuition increased because enrollment dropped. A malapropism is when a person misuses a word humorously. [Unacceptable to use an adverb clause as a predicate nominative] A malapropism is a word that is misused in a humorous manner.
7. Another kind of structural shift can occur when you mismatch the subject and the predicate. Example: Revision: The president who was impeached was an event that astounded the people of the United States. [illogical predicate] The impeachment of the president was an event that astounded the people of the United States.
8. A third kind of sentence shift, faulty predication, results when the predicate does not logically fit the subject.
Example: Revision:
Every year, gun control laws become more heated. [illogical subject] Every year, gun control issues become more heated.
9. Avoid mixing direct and indirect discourse. Example: He asked what were my intentions. [What were my intentions? is direct discourse. The word order is the proper order when a question is being asked. The question can stand by itself as a complete sentence. Because the question is being talked about as a question and is not being asked as a stand alone question, the word order is incorrect. Indirect discourse must be used.] He asked what my intentions were. [What my intentions were is the proper word order for indirect discourse, which is required when a question is being talked about and is not being asked directly as a stand alone question.] In questions, the word order is inverted. This is one of the three instances when subject-verb word order is inverted. The normal word order is my intentions were what as in my intentions were good. As a question in direct discourse, the subject-verb word order has to be inverted in order to ask a question What were my intentions? or Were my intentions good? The word intentions is the subject in both sentences and comes after the verb were in both sentences. Normal word order is S-V-O. I wondered when will they come. [The subject they and verb will are inverted. In indirect discourse the subject and verb must be in normal word order. The word order would be correct if the question were a stand alone question and not a subordinate clause.] I wondered when they will come. [Indirect discourse requires normal word order.]
Revision
Note:
Example:
Revision:
Finally, sentences have four functions. Think of the function as purpose for the sentence. For example, a sentence whose purpose is to make a statement is a declarative sentence. The function is different from the mood (indicative, imperative, subjunctive). The mood refers to the written form that a sentence must take in order to express its function or purpose. So, for a sentence to ask a question, it must be written in the imperative mood. 1. A sentence that makes a statement is called a declarative sentence. Example: He answered a hard question. 2. A sentence that gives a command or makes a request is called an imperative sentence. Example: Answer the question now. 3. A sentence that asks a question is called an interrogative sentence. Example: Did he answer the question?
4. A sentence that makes an exclamation or a strong statement (usually indicated by an exclamation point) is called an exclamatory sentence. Example: I can't believe it! He answered the question!
Review Exercise 33: Circle the word that is misspelled.

1. lovable, mortgage, peice, politician, rhythm 2. quarter, really, milage, persuade, quite 3. region, necessary, tweleve, pleasant, forty 4. hygiene, handkerchief, disatisfied, pursue, pastime 5. original, rhetoric, sacreligious, likable, interested 6. overrun, mischevous, privilege, parliament, height 7. sandwich, precede, hinderance, exhaust, omission 8. restaraunt, publicly, judgment, existence, forfeit 9. permissible, reign, harrass, excellent, definite 10. assassin, refered, monotonous, genius, brilliant 11. ascend, bankrupcy, clothes, cholera, choose 12. camouflage, compell, address, repeat, conscious 13. category, quantity, livelihood, gauge, nickle 14. beginning, compulsory, alledge, twelfth, until 15. supersede, yacht, seperate, tendency, broccoli 16. mathematics, around, manual, relevent, probably 17. auxilliary, column, coming, whether, usable 18. surprise, prespiration, yield, defendant, foreign 19. muscle, perform, infinite, nineth, flier 20. fascinate, nucleus, exhileration, dining, ecstasy 21. ninty-four, salary, perseverance, finally, sincerely 22. congratulate, futile, weigth, despair, environment 23. excellent, cemetary, accommodate, niece, grandeur 24. desserted, prejudice, forty, occasion, amphibian 25. dissipated, disasterous, miniature, seized, fulfill 26. February, athletics, residue, drought, grandaughter 27. perserve, curriculum, cite, colleague, colossal 28. traditional, litter, lightning, writting, schedule 29. cherish, morale, causal, theif, chide 30. receipt, seize, lieutenant, recieve, relegate 31. renege, grief, heiress, pronounciation, noticeable 32. referred, fullfilment, benefited, principle, dieing 33. dyeing, forbidden, potatos, millennium, miniature 34. permissable, persist, secede, occasion, hindrance 35. forgo, donkeys, conscientious, libarry, conqueror 36. absence, academic, accelarate, accept, accessible 37. alright, always, accumulate, captain, clothe 38. amateur, amount, analysis, artic, angel 39. anxiety, calender, buoyant, attractive, ascend 40. comming, caffeine, colonel, column, chose 41. awkward, autumn, bureau, ascend, beleif 42. confident, committee, ceiling, councel, dining 43. humor, deciet, decade, expel, nickel 44. defendent, decent, descent, dessert, desert 45. infinite, existance, experience, finally, flier 46. familier, formula, foreign, forth, fulfill 47. hygene, height, futile, forehead, divine 48. mirror, instent, likeable, morale, muscle 49. nave, occassion, oclock, operate, pasture 50. permit, persistent, piece, permissable, quizzes 51. pamplet, parallel, personnel, politicking, pare 52. realize, reveal, religous, rhetoric, sandwich 53. sence, schedule, scissors, simile, vaccine 54. waive, whos, yacht, wierd, villain 55. women, editer, tyranny, statue, stature 56. yeild, unanimous, tying, statute, skiing 57. surplus, stretch, fetch, surprize, shriek 58. through, thorough, throughout, thought, drougth 59. wheather, vigilance, vengeance, vile, went 60. transferred, trully, turtle, terminate, taut 61. sargeant, shining, silhouette, specimen, hitch 62. picnicking, passed, permanant, misspell, murmur 63. procede, recede, secede, accede, decease 64. lovable, imaginery, hopping, guerrilla, height 65. mischievous, occurrance, omission, prevalent, pore 66. manual, dissipate, dissappointed, meant, reign 67. mediocre, noticeable, notoriety, neice, maneuver 68. irrelavent, fascinate, dual, dietitian, dietician 69. pneumonia, plasma, psalm, psaltry, plague 70. stationary, stationery, cede, supercede, usable Click here for the answers.
Review Exercise 34: Word Usage Problems

(1) Circle the word that is used incorrectly and (2) write the correct word. (3) If the sentence is correct, leave it alone. ____________________1. She was in a honors program at her school. ____________________2. I except your apology. ____________________3. He accidently dropped the plate on the floor. ____________________4. You must adopt to extreme cold. ____________________5. After seeing the weather report, I was adverse to going on the trip. ____________________6. Please advice me of the situation. ____________________7. His tears effected her deeply. ____________________8. His obnoxiousness aggravated me. ____________________9. There aint nothing wrong with this sentence. ____________________10. The illusion to Shakespeare was a brilliant insight. ____________________11. Alot of people misuse this word. ____________________12. He was all ready late for the show. ____________________13. Do like I do. ____________________14. The book is altogether too difficult, unless the class reads it all together. ____________________15. The class begins at seven in the p.m. ____________________16. They shared the same textbook among the three of them. ____________________17. The amount of errors was excessive. ____________________18. She was anxious to go on the trip. ____________________19. Its alright if you dont know the answer. ____________________20. Marlon ensured me that he would vote for my ticket. ____________________21. We rested for awhile. ____________________22. The reason the package arrived so late is because he didnt mail it soon enough. ____________________23. You better run the spell check. ____________________24. Jamie took the bottle of water to the podium. ____________________25. Can I be excused? ____________________26. I cant hardly believe what I see. ____________________27. The Inquisition censured Galileos theory of heliocentricity. ____________________28. Be sure to site your sources. ____________________29. The student compared the first draft to the second.
____________________30. Their personalities compliment each other. ____________________31. This answer is different than what you first had. ____________________32. Look at what the cat drug in. ____________________33. Due to holiday traffic, we arrived an hour late. ____________________34. It doesnt matter what he did; the affect is always the same. ____________________35. The teacher tried to illicit a response from him. ____________________36. The Ulster Scots emigrated from Scotland to Ireland and then immigrated to the southern United States. ____________________37. The end of the world is eminent. ____________________38. Peter was enthused about the fact that he was elected president. ____________________39. He walked a mile, but he still had further to go. ____________________40. Bud Lite has less calories than Miller Lite. ____________________41. I figured that was the right thing to do. ____________________42. Walter doesnt feel good. ____________________43. You better be quiet; the teacher is coming. ____________________44. I cant go if you drive; if I go depends on who is driving. ____________________45. He implied that he was angry, but I inferred that he was satisfied. ____________________46. In regards to your question, I dont know the answer. ____________________47. Sharon did it, irregardless of what the teacher said. ____________________48. The dog buried its bone in the yard. ____________________49. He hated this kind of a book. ____________________50. I lie in the sun; I laid in the sun; I will lie in the sun. ____________________51. Most everyone felt bad for her. ____________________52. Its a real beautiful day. ____________________53. The music was so sensual. ____________________54. The car which is parked in the driveway is yours, not the one in the street. ____________________55. There is no explanation for there behavior. ____________________56. Their no tickets left. ____________________57. I loved them apples. ____________________58. Hes better then he knows. ____________________59. He ran towards the house. ____________________60. I will try and see him today. Click here for the answers.
Review Exercise 35: Usage

Directions: Correct the following sentences. 1. Theres some parents who feel that because sex is a personal matter that it shouldnt be discussed in public. 2. In a high school of 850 students, the physical education department gave a sex education class on the general way of having a sexual intercourse. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. There were many students who thought of sex to be funny. Careless student seem to find out very quick because the problem usually results to pregnancy. Sex comes natural. As children grow into adolescents many are unaware of the sexual changes in which they go through. Controversial issues over the fact if sex education should be taught in high schools is continuously be debated. 8. Teachers fill if all the ins and outs about it, and exactly what biologically happens between two people, then maybe sex wont be used as just another playtool. Another reason, teachers may feel it necessary to teach it is for these students who are unclear about what happens can actually learn for when they are ready to come sexually active. 9. The teens might not be familiar with how venereal disease is contacted, and if it is contacted, if it can be helped by medical procedures. 10. 11. The parent can identify different parts of the body when he is changing his clothes or bathing him. The silence of parents because they are embarrassed to talk to their child about sex is a problem why some children dont know about sex. Parents could be scared if their children find out about sex the children might want to try it. 12. Teaching sex in high school has beneficial outcomes. The only problem is they ought to start earlier, before adolescents get a false interpretation of sex, and possibly could cut down the teenage pregnancies throught the United States.
13. 14. 15. 16.
One of todays major problems today is unwanted teenaged pregnancy. On the other hand, some parents would rather the school teacher to tell their children about sex. Students learning sexual education in school has been a major issue for parents for many years. Students learning about sex education in the classroom are supplied with more factual information than if they were at home.
17.
Parents are those who usually oppose to the teaching of sex in high school because they consider it against their religion and that sex is too personal. Contrary to how they feel, many people favor sexual education being taught in high school for logical reasons, such as sex is a major part of life so it should be taught as a subject and these teachings lessen the pressure for parents.
18.
There are some parents in todays society that feel sex education definitely should not be taught in high school to teenagers.
19. 20. 21. 22.
They feel that their children should learn about sex by them and no one else. Finally, sex education, felt by some parents, should be kept within the home. They need to be taught to at least be aware of birth control and how to use if they must have sex. Our children need to be taught the consequences of venereal diseases and unless a parent has taken a course on this themselves they are not capable to teach there children all there is to know about it.
23. 24.
That is my opinion and I hope it is the readers as well. For example, this presentation given by the teacher can lead to a broader understanding and development towards sexual behavior and contraception.
25.
Also, by allowing students to realize the importance of a venereal disease if gone untreated the result could be sterilization or even death!
26.
Their knowledge of sexual behavior needs to be discovered and explored to a greater extent so that they are aware of its affect it may have on there surroundings.
27.
Some parents cant believe their children are having sex, therefore they find it unnecessary to discuss methods of birth control.
28. 29. 30.
Teenagers main source of sex education from other teenagers. Few teenagers are exposed to the harm sex may cause to them. By being informed about sex education, this will help the teenager understand the responsibility of having a child.
31.
In conclusion, teenagers would benefit from sex education classes in high school to reduced unwanted pregnancies and venereal disease rates, without any associated increase in promiscuity or value confusion.
Diagnostic Test
1. If an item shows an incorrect use of the apostrophe to indicate possession, correct the item by using the appropriate possessive form. Do not correct the item by changing it into an uninflected adjectival form. Also, if a singular item is in the plural column, change the singular to plural possessive; and if a plural item is in the singular column, then change the plural to singular possessive. If an item is correct, leave it alone. Plural Nouns a. the alumnaes' contribution b. womans rights c. states' rights d. the VIPs entrance e. the girl's toys f. the church's needs g. three day's work h. the witnesses's story i. the attorney generals' request j. a childrens' hospital k. the Jones's house 2. Underline the preferred forms. a. the friends of John Adams' or the friends of John Adams b. a friend of John or a friend of John's c. a friend of the college or a friend of the college's d. mathematics' rules or the rules of mathematics e. the effects of measles or measles' effects f. Diner's Club or Diners Club g. the Veterans' Administration or the Veterans Administration h. two weeks' vacation or a two-week vacation i. a writers guide or a writers' guide j. John Adams Jr.'s father or John Adams' Jr. father k. Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania's motion or the motion by Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania l. Adam and Eve's sin or Adam's and Eve's sin a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. Singular Nouns the United States's wealth General Motor's profits Marx's theories the hostess's invitation the witnesses story Dickens' novels Jesus's life for goodness sake the attorney generals request the freshmen class the lawyers' handling of the matter
3.
Correct the improper possessive/contracted forms. If an item is correct, leave it alone. a. Its a beautiful day for they're celebration. b. He wont' do his' work so let's us help him. c. Do'nt do that. Jesus's getting upset. d. It's not their's. Its' her's. e. My cousin coming to work late caused him to lose half a days pay. f. Were here, but they're not. g. T'is the night before Christmas, so there're many presence under the tree. h. The students wrote the answers, but their wrong. i. Whose responsible for this mess? Is that mess your's or mine's?
4.
Correct the improper use of the article and count/non-count nouns. If a sentence is correct, leave it alone. a. I know student sitting next to you. b. I need the furniture for my living room. c. I need furnitures for my living room. d. I don't need chair in my dorm room, but he needs chairs in his. e. Babies need to drink the milk. f. The lions are wild animals. g. A dog is the man's best friend. h. He went to church, but he didn't go to hospital. i. The French Revolution was fought for the liberty, equality, and fraternity of all men. j. A strange dog came on the porch. A dog seemed very friendly. k. I need to buy a luggage. l. More the merrier. m. Mary dances the most gracefully of all the girls. n. We will be sitting in fifth row. o. Instructing of young children is difficult, but instructing adults is not. p. The prettier the girl is, more foolishly the boy behaves. q. John, the student at our university, will compete in the Olympic Games. r. Art is an imitation of life, but art of Van Gogh isn't. It's impressionistic. s. I saw a movie that you went to see last night. t. We usually have the turkey for Thanksgiving.
5.
Explain the difference between "Chairs from Denmark are very attractive" and "The chairs from Denmark are very attractive."
6.
Which is the correct form: "There are many kinds of cats" or "There are many kinds of cat" or "There are many kind of cats" or "There are many kind of cat"? Explain your choice.
7.
My cousin Jane an elementary school teacher decided to retire this year. Is the sentence correctly punctuated? If it is, then explain how the noun phrases before the verb function in the sentence. If it is incorrectly punctuated, then explain what punctuation marks need to be used and why they need to be used.
8.
Stephen King's first novel Carrie is his best work or Stephen King's first novel, Carrie, is his best work. Which of the two sentences is correctly punctuated? Explain why.
9.
Put the following adjectives in their correct pre-noun order. Use appropriate punctuation if needed. a. withering tall German spruce old _________ wooden _________ figurine _________ tree
the _________ b. chubby _________ 10. third
_________ smiling
_________ the
_________
_________
_________
In Question 9a or 9b, are there any coordinate adjectives? If so, what are they? If not, write NONE.
11.
Correct the problems in the following sentences. If the sentence is correct, leave it alone. a. The tall, mysterious stranger entered the room, and sat in the corner. b. After loitering in the lobby for an hour the angry but calm students proceeded into the dining hall, then all hell broke loose. c. In 1492 Columbus sailed across the Atlantic Ocean. d. Although the room had been cleaned John was nowhere to be seen. e. John was nowhere to be seen although the room had been cleaned. f. The day dawned clear and crisp therefore, everyone anticipated a good trip. g. Although the soccer game was scheduled for Wednesday evening; it was postponed because of rain. h. The sunset was beautiful we paused to admire it. i. The students didn't do well on the test. The problem being that they didn't study for it. j. Because John was tired from work he came straight home then went to bed. k. Billy Joe is honest. He will; therefore, have no problems getting a good job.
12.
Directions:
The following paragraphs have about 50 problems in all. There is also one unreasonable statement. Find and correct the problems and the unreasonable statement.
The major cause of chronic lung's disease is the cigarette smoking. When smoker inhaled cigarette smoking irritating gases and particles causes one line of defense in your lung - the cilia - to slowing down. Cilia is microscopic hairs - tens of millions of it - along the air passages. Normally it waves back and forth about 12 times second. Cilia sweeps out germs and dirt before they are getting deep into the lungs. But even one puff on a cigarette slow it down. Years of the smoking can paralyze or destroyed the cilia this opens lungs to all kind of infections. Cigarette smoke also constrict air passages and make the breathing more difficult. It slow downs activity of scavenger cells being called macrophages, they eat literally invading substances up. Emphysema in the U.S. is one of the most serious cause of death for today. Every persons, whom has emphysema, smoke cigarettes and have been heavy smokers for many years. In this severe lung disease, the walls of air sacs rips and are torn. Stale air get trap in the lungs, and become overinflated. Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide are disrupted. For the person with the emphysema; even effort required can be exhausted to tie a shoelace. Contributing to the destructive processes, smoking cigarettes which ends up as emphysema. These disease is not curable but they can be treatable.

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Grammar for Students and Teachers - 1 Copyright 2011 Michael S.

Grammar for Students and Teachers

Grammar for Students and Teachers - 2 Copyright 2011 Michael S. Fukuchi

Chapter 1 Form and Function

Adjective (Participle) (Infinitive) (Adjective or Relative Clause)

Grammar for Students and Teachers - 3 Copyright 2011 Michael S. Fukuchi

Adjectival (prepositional phrase) Adverbial (prepositional phrase)

(none within a sentence)

Exercise on Form and Function:

Click here for the answers.

Grammar for Students and Teachers - 4 Copyright 2011 Michael S. Fukuchi

Grammar for Students and Teachers - 5 Copyright 2011 Michael S. Fukuchi

Grammar for Students and Teachers - 6 Copyright 2011 Michael S. Fukuchi

Major Grammatical Forms: Parts of Speech

Grammar for Students and Teachers - 7 Copyright 2011 Michael S. Fukuchi

Exercise on Abstract Nouns:

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Grammar for Students and Teachers - 8 Copyright 2011 Michael S. Fukuchi

Exercise on Noun Functions:

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Exercise on Common Nouns:

Grammar for Students and Teachers - 9 Copyright 2011 Michael S. Fukuchi

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Exercise on Proper Nouns:

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Grammar for Students and Teachers - 10 Copyright 2011 Michael S. Fukuchi

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Exercise on Germanic Plurals:

Grammar for Students and Teachers - 11 Copyright 2011 Michael S. Fukuchi

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Exercise on Non-Germanic Plurals:

Grammar for Students and Teachers - 12 Copyright 2011 Michael S. Fukuchi

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Exercise on Count Nouns:

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Grammar for Students and Teachers - 13 Copyright 2011 Michael S. Fukuchi

Exercise on Non-Count Nouns:

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Exercise on Plural Nouns with No Singular Forms:

Grammar for Students and Teachers - 14 Copyright 2011 Michael S. Fukuchi

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Exercise on Singular Nouns with No Plural Form:

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Grammar for Students and Teachers - 15 Copyright 2011 Michael S. Fukuchi

Grammar for Students and Teachers - 16 Copyright 2011 Michael S. Fukuchi

Grammar for Students and Teachers - 17 Copyright 2011 Michael S. Fukuchi

Grammar for Students and Teachers - 18 Copyright 2011 Michael S. Fukuchi

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Six (6) Kinds of Determiners

Grammar for Students and Teachers - 19 Copyright 2011 Michael S. Fukuchi

what, which, whose

Note: *Indefinite adjectives are also known as quantifiers.

Exercise on Demonstrative Adjectives:

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Exercise on Possessive Adjectives:

Grammar for Students and Teachers - 20 Copyright 2011 Michael S. Fukuchi

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Exercise on Number Adjectives:

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Exercise on Indefinite Adjectives:

Grammar for Students and Teachers - 21 Copyright 2011 Michael S. Fukuchi

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Exercise on Interrogative Adjectives:

__