Geometry of Chords

Thomas Noll∗
Department of Computer Science
Technical University of Berlin
November 4, 2001

Abstract
This article provides an introduction to basic geometric investigations
of the 12-tone sytem and its subsets, the chords. The various definitions
and results are intended to lay a theoretical basis for 12-tone-based explo-
rative and empirical research on occidental harmony. The entire approach
is motivated by the assumption that the 12 tones do not constitute an ar-
bitrary 12-element set with arbitrary paradigmatic relations, but rather
a discrete geometrical space. Transpositions obviously are instances of
paradigmatic relations, that are reflected by affine transformations. From
the mathematical point of view, the article presents a straightforward
elaboration of this observation. From the music theoretical point of view
it is of speculative nature and asks for experimental studies.

1 Tone Perspectives
Consider the ring Z12 of residue classes of integers modulo 12. Let T denote
the 12-tone module - i.e., Z12 understood as a module over itself. Its points
are called tones.1 Affine endomorphisms f : T → T of the tone module are
called tone perspectives. Each one is given by a multiplication factor a ∈ Z12 ,
together with a translation summand b ∈ T and we write b a in order to denote
the corresponding tone perspective b a : T → T with b a(t) = at+b. The 144 tone
perspectives form a monoid A with respect to the operation ◦ of concatenation.
One has d c ◦ b a = cb+d (ca).
There are 6 submodules K ⊆ T, namely the two trivial ones: T and 0T = {0}
and 4 proper submodules: 2T, 3T, 4T and 6T. For each submodule K ⊆ T
consider the submonoid A(K) = {f ∈ A|f (K) ⊆ K} of selfperspectives of K,
consiting of those tone perspectives mapping K into itself. Furthermore, we will
∗ Interdisciplinary Research Group KIT-MaMuTh for Mathematical Music Theory financed

by the Volkswagen-Stiftung
1 In a music theoretical application of this model one has to be more careful in dealing with

the meaning of the elements of T. One might formally distinguish the carrier sets Z12 and T
from one another in order to avoid confusion between scalar factors and tones.

1
be concerned with the factor module T/K, whoose elements are affine subspaces
t + K associated with K.

The following definition and lemma focus on the proper submodules 3T and 4T
and the corresponding factor modules T/3T and T/4T.

Definition 1 (Outer decomposition of the 12-tone module)

1. The factor module T3 := T/3T is called the outer 3-cycle of the 12-tone
module T and its elements are called inner 4-cycles or dimtones.
2. The factor module T4 := T/4T is called the outer 4-cycle of the 12-tone
module T and its elements are called inner 3-cycles or augtones.
3. The direct sum T3×4 := T3 ⊕ T4 is called the outer decomposition of
the 12-tone-module.

Remark 1 The technical terms ”dimtone” and ”augtone” shall, on the one
hand, refer to the traditional terms ”diminished seventh chord” and ”augmented
triad”. On the other hand we do not intend to refer to the operations of diminu-
tion and augmentation in this definition.

Lemma 1 Let ?3 and ?4 denote the projection maps from T onto T3 and T4
respectively and consider their product map ?3×4 onto T3×4 , i.e.

?3 : T → T3 with t3 := t + 3T,
?4 : T → T4 with t4 := t + 4T,
?3×4 : T → T3×4 with t3×4 := (t3 , t4 ).

Then the following holds:

1. The tone perspectives 0 4 and 0 9 induce module injections ?∗4 : T3 ,→ T
and ?∗9 : T4 ,→ T such that (?∗4 )3 = idT3 and (?∗9 )4 = idT4 .
2. ?3×4 is an isomorphism of Z12 -modules. Its inverse map is given through
(?, ?)∗4×∗9 : T3×4 → T with (t, s)∗4×∗9 := 4t + 9s.

Proof:
1. The value 0 4(t + 3k) = 4t does not depend on k, and, furthermore we have
(4t)3 = t3 . Similarily, the value 0 9(t + 4k) = 9t does not depend on k, and
(9t)4 = t4 .
2. ((t, s)∗4×∗9 )3×4 = (4t + 9s)3×4 = (t + 3(t + 3s), s + 4(t + 2s). The last pair
represents the same element of T3×4 as (t, s) does. Conversely, we have
(t3×4 )∗4×∗9 = (t3 , t4 )∗4×∗9 = (4t + 9t) = t. 
According to this lemma, one has a natural identification of the augtone-module
T4 with the dimtone 3T = {0, 3, 6, 9} as well as of the dimtone-module T3 with
the augtone 4T = {0, 4, 8}, such that they can be viewed as retracts of T. The

2
situation is different in the case of the two-element module T2 = T/2T when
compared with the two-element tritone-chord 6T = {0, 6}. They are isomorphic
as Z12 -modules, but 6T is not a retract of T. Analogously, 2T is not a retract
of T.
Definition 2 Let A3 and A4 denote the monoids of affine endomorphisms of
the Z12 -modules T3 and T4 respectively. The elements of A3 are called dimtone
perspectives and the elements of A4 are called augtone perspectives.
Let A3×4 := A3 ⊕ A4 denote the direct product of the monoids A3 and A4 . Its
elements are called outer tone perspectives.
Lemma 2 Each tone perspective f ∈ A induces a dimtone perspective f3 ∈ A3
as well as an augtone perspective f4 ∈ A4 by virtue of f3 (t3 ) := (f (t))3 and
f4 (t4 ) := (f (t))4 . The mappings ?3 : A → A3 and ?4 : A → A4 are surjective
monoid morphisms. Especially, the restriction of ?3 to A(4T) (and of ?4 to
A(3T)) yields a monoid isomorphism A(4T) ∼ = A3 (and A(3T) ∼= A4 ).
Proof: Take f = b a. Then
f3 ((t + 3k)3 ) = (f (t + 3k))3 = (a(t + 3k) + b)3 = (at + b)3 = (f (t))3 = f3 (t3 ).
Hence the definition of f3 does not depend on the representatives of an ar-
gument. Further, (f ◦ g)3 (t3 ) = (f (g(t))3 = f3 ((g(t))3 ) = (f3 ◦ g3 )(t3 ) and
obviously (0 1)3 is the identity in A3 . Finally, two tone perspectives b a and d c
induce the same dimtone perspective, if and only if both differences b − d and
a − c are multiples of 3. An inspection of A(4T) = {b a | a, b ∈ 0, 4, 8} shows that
these nine tone perspectives represent nine different dimtone perspectives, just
because 0, 4, 8 represent different residue classes modulo 3. Hence we are done
with f3 . The same line of arguments works for f4 . 

The following lemma shows that tone perspectives are in a natural 1-1-correspondence
with the outer tone perspectives.
Lemma 3 The mapping ?3×4 : A → A3×4 with f3×4 := (f3 , f4 ) is an isomor-
phism of monoids.
Proof: We construct the inverse mapping ?∗4×∗9 : A3×4 → A as follows: Let
f = b+3k (a + 3l) and g = d+4m (c + 4n) be arbitrary representatives of an
argument (f3 , g4 ). Its image (f3 , g4 )∗4×∗9 ∈ A has to be independent of the
variables k, l, m, n. Indeed, we set
4(b+3k)+9(d+4m) 4b+9d
(f3 , g4 )∗4×∗9 := (4(a + 3l) + 9(c + 4n)) = (4a + 9c).
Hence the mapping is well-defined. Now we check that it is inverse to ?3×4 .
For f = b a and (f3 , g4 ) = ((b a)3 , (d c)4 ) we compute,
(f3×4 )∗4×∗9 = ((b a)3 , (b a)4 )∗4×∗9 = 4b+9b 4a + 9a = b a = f,
((f3 , g4 )∗4×∗9 )3×4 = (4b+9d 4a + 9c)3×4 = ((b a)3 , (d c)4 ) = (f3 , g4 ).
Finally, the product map ?3×4 = ?3 ×?4 : A → A3 ⊕ A4 is a monoid morphism,
because its factors ?3 : A → A3 and ?4 : A → A4 are monoid morphisms. 

3
Remark 2 Besides the monoid structure of A, A3 , A4 and A3×4 these sets carry
the structure of a Z12 -module (e.g., addition in A is given by b a+ d c = b+d (a+c)
and scalar multiplication by k(b a) = kb (ka). The above calculations make clear
that the monoid morphisms ?3 , ?4 and ?3×4 are, at the same time, linear module
morphisms.
However, the additive module structure and the multiplivative monoid structure
do not combine into a ring structure, because the distributivity law is not fulfilled:
Left distributivity is fulfilled:

(b1 a1 + b2 a2 ) ◦ d c = (a1 +a2 )d+b1 +b2 (a1 + a2 )c

= a1 d+b1 (a1 c) + a2 d+b2 (a2 c) = b1 a1 ◦ d c + b2 a2 ◦ d c.

But right distributivity is not fulfilled:

d
c ◦ (b1 a1 + b2 a2 ) = c(b1 +b2 )+d c(a1 + a2 )
d
c ◦ b1 a1 + d c ◦ b2 a2 = cb1 +d (ca1 ) + cb2 +d (ca2 ) = c(b1 +b2 )+2d
c(a1 + a2 ).

Some contructions for rings like ideals are also meaningful in the present situ-
ation. A useful generalization of right and left ideals in rings to a monoid like
A are sieves and cosieves in the category A (a monoid is a category consist-
ing of one object, while its elements are interpreted as arrows). It appears in
our situation of the ”pseudo-ring” A, that the cosieves share the properties of
”left-ideals”, while only a few out of many sieves show the additive properties of
”right-ideals”.

Definition 3 A set R ⊆ A of tone perspectives is said to be an A-sieve, if

R ◦ A = R, i.e., if r ∈ R implies r ◦ f ∈ R for all f ∈ A. A set L ⊆ A of
tone perspectives is said to be an A-cosieve, if L ◦ A = L, i.e., if l ∈ L implies
f ◦ l ∈ L for all f ∈ A.

While there are thousands of A-sieves, there are only 6 A-cosieves, namely the
submodules T (kZ12 ) ⊆ A (for k ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6}) (see Remark 2). All A-sieves
are semigroups, but not vice versa (e.g., the only sieve R among the submonoids
M ⊆ A is A itself, because 0 1 ∈ R always implies 0 1 ◦ f = f ∈ R for all f ∈ A).

4
2 Tone Symmetries
Among the 144 tone perspectives there are 48 invertible ones, namely those
having multiplicative units in Z∗12 = {1, 5, 7, 11} as multiplication factors. They
form a group A∗ ⊂ A and are called tone symmetries.
Similarly, we write A∗3 ⊂ A3 to denote the 3-element group of dimtone symme-
tries within the 9-element monoid of dimtone perspectives and we write A∗4 ⊂ A4
for the 8-element group of augtone symmetries within the 16-element monoid of
augtone perspectives.
We consider three actions of the group A∗ on A:
lef t : A∗ × A → A with lef t(s, f ) := s ◦ f.
right : A∗ × A → A with right(s, f ) := f ◦ s.
conj : A∗ × A → A with conj(s, f ) := s ◦ f ◦ s−1 .
These three actions induce actions lef t3 , right3 , conj3 of A∗3 on A3 as well as
actions lef t4 , right4 , conj4 of A∗4 on A4 (e.g. lef t3 (s3 , f3 ) := (lef t(s, f ))3 ).
Proposition 1 Let A3 /lef t3 , A3 /right3 and A3 /conj3 denote the sets of orbits
of dimtone perspectives with respect to the actions lef t3 , right3 and conj3 , re-
spectively, and let A4 /lef t4 , A4 /right4 and A4 /conj4 denote the sets of orbits
of dimtone perspectives with respect to the actions lef t4 , right4 and conj4 . In
detail one has the following orbits:
1. A3 /lef t3 consists of two orbits: {(0 0)3 , (4 0)3 , (8 0)3 } and A∗3 .
2. A3 /right3 consists of four orbits: {(0 0)3 }, {(4 0)3 }, {(8 0)3 } and A∗3 .
3. A3 /conj3 consists of four orbits: {(0 0)3 , (4 0)3 , (8 0)3 }, {(0 4)3 }, {(4 4)3 , (8 4)3 }
and {(0 8)3 , (4 8)3 , (8 8)3 }.
4. A4 /lef t4 consists of three orbits: {(0 0)4 , (9 0)4 , (6 0)4 , (3 0)4 },
{(0 6)4 , (9 6)4 , (6 6)4 , (3 6)4 } and A∗4 .
5. A4 /right4 consists of seven orbits: {(0 0)4 }, {(9 0)4 }, {(6 0)4 },
{(3 0)4 }, {(0 6)4 , (6 6)4 }, {(9 6)4 , (3 6)4 } and A∗4 .
6. A4 /conj4 consists of seven orbits: {(0 0)4 , (9 0)4 , (6 0)4 , (3 0)4 }, {(0 6)4 , (6 6)4 },
{(9 6)4 , (3 6)4 }, {(0 9)4 }, {(6 9)4 }, {9 3)4 , (3 3)4 } and {(0 3)4 , (9 3)4 , (6 3)4 , (3 3)4 }.
The verification of this propositions is left to the reader.

Let A∗3×4 = A∗3 × A∗4 denote the group of outer tone symmetries within the
monoid A3×4 of all outer tone perspectives. The actions lef t3 , right3 , conj3
and lef t4 , right4 , conj4 induce three actions
lef t3×4 , right3×4 , conj3×4 : A∗3×4 × A3×4 → A3×4
(e.g. lef t3×4 ((s3 , s4 ), (f3 , f4 )) := (lef t3 (s3 , f3 ), lef t4 (s4 , f4 )). Obviously, the
sets A3×4 /lef t3×4 , A3×4 /right3×4 and A3×4 /conj3×4 of orbits of these three ac-
tions consist of cartesian products O3 × O4 of orbits O3 and O4 with respect to

5
the corresponding actions on A3 and A4 . As a consequence, the above propo-
sitions provide a complete picture of the three orbit structures on A3×4 . Fur-
thermore, the natural isomorphy between (inner) tone perspectives and outer
tone perspectives implies, that the group actions lef t, right and conj yield the
same orbit structures on A as the actions lef t3×4 , right3×4 and conj3×4 do on
on A3×4 . This is subsumed in the following proposition:

Proposition 2 Let A/lef t, A/right, A/conj denote the sets of orbits of tone
perspectives with respect to the group actions lef t, right and cons : A∗ × A → A.
The monoid isomorphism ?3×4 : A → A3×4 induces natural bijections

A/lef t ∼
= A3×4 /lef t3×4 = {O3 × O4 | O3 ∈ A3 /lef t3 , O4 ∈ A4 /lef t4 },
A/right ∼
= A3×4 /right3×4 = {O3 × O4 | O3 ∈ A3 /right3 , O4 ∈ A4 /right4 },
A/conj ∼
= A3×4 /conj3×4 = {O3 × O4 | O3 ∈ A3 /conj3 , O4 ∈ A4 /conj4 }.

We conclude this paragraph by a series of tables displaying these orbit struc-

tures.
Remark 3 In order to display all the tone perspectives, their various orbits and
other structures in a suitable and coherent way, we will be using the following
9 × 16-table.
00 60 90 30 06 66 96 36 09 69 99 39 03 63 93 33

40 10 0 10 70 46 10 6 16 76 49 10 9 19 79 43 10 3 13 73

80 20 50 11 0 86 26 56 11 6 89 29 59 11 9 83 23 53 11 3

04 64 94 34 0 10 6 10 9 10 3 10 01 61 91 31 07 67 97 37

44 10 4 14 74 4 10 10 10 1 10 7 10 41 10 1 11 71 47 10 7 17 77

84 24 54 11 4 8 10 2 10 5 10 11 10 8 1 21 51 11 1 87 27 57 11 7

08 68 98 38 02 62 92 32 05 65 95 35 0 11 6 11 9 11 3 11

48 10 8 18 78 42 10 2 12 72 45 10 5 15 75 4 11 10 11 1 11 7 11

88 28 58 11 8 82 22 52 11 2 85 25 55 11 5 8 11 2 11 5 11 11 11

The displayed vertical and horizontal lines in such a TP-Table may be varied in
order to group tone perspectives. In the figure above, the lines indicate, that the
table is based on a recursive embedding of a standardized 3 × 4-table into itself.
The outer large 3 × 4 - frame groups the 144 tone perspectives into 12 small
3 × 4 - frames according to their multiplication factors, while they are displayed
according to their translations inside of each small frame. The standardized
3 × 4-table is the following:

0 6 9 3
4 10 1 7
8 2 5 11

6
TP-Table 1 Orbits of tone perspectives under the action of tone symmetries
by concatenation from the left: A/lef t
00 60 90 30 06 66 96 36 09 69 99 39 03 63 93 33

40 10 0 10 70 46 10 6 16 76 49 10 9 19 79 43 10 3 13 73

80 20 50 11 0 86 26 56 11 6 89 29 59 11 9 83 23 53 11 3

04 64 94 34 0 10 6 10 9 10 3 10 01 61 91 31 07 67 97 37

44 10 4 14 74 4 10 10 10 1 10 7 10 41 10 1 11 71 47 10 7 17 77

84 24 54 11 4 8 10 2 10 5 10 11 10 8 1 21 51 11 1 87 27 57 11 7

08 68 98 38 02 62 92 32 05 65 95 35 0 11 6 11 9 11 3 11

48 10 8 18 78 42 10 2 12 72 45 10 5 15 75 4 11 10 11 1 11 7 11

88 28 58 11 8 82 22 52 11 2 85 25 55 11 5 8 11 2 11 5 11 11 11

These orbits are in bijection with the 6 factor spaces of T (f f (T) ∈ T/K).
TP-Table 2 Orbits of tone perspectives under the action of tone symmetries
by concatenation from the right: A/right
00 60 90 30 06 66 96 36 09 69 99 39 03 63 93 33

40 10 0 10 70 46 10 6 16 76 49 10 9 19 79 43 10 3 13 73

80 20 50 11 0 86 26 56 11 6 89 29 59 11 9 83 23 53 11 3

04 64 94 34 0 10 6 10 9 10 3 10 01 61 91 31 07 67 97 37

44 10 4 14 74 4 10 10 10 1 10 7 10 41 10 1 11 71 47 10 7 17 77

84 24 54 11 4 8 10 2 10 5 10 11 10 8 1 21 51 11 1 87 27 57 11 7

08 68 98 38 02 62 92 32 05 65 95 35 0 11 6 11 9 11 3 11

48 10 8 18 78 42 10 2 12 72 45 10 5 15 75 4 11 10 11 1 11 7 11

88 28 58 11 8 82 22 52 11 2 85 25 55 11 5 8 11 2 11 5 11 11 11

These orbits are in bijection with the 28 affine subspaces of T (f f (T)).

TP-Table 3 Orbits of tone perspectives under the action of tone symmetries
by conjugation: A/conj
00 60 90 30 06 66 96 36 09 69 99 39 03 63 93 33

40 10 0 10 70 46 10 6 16 76 49 10 9 19 79 43 10 3 13 73

80 20 50 11 0 86 26 56 11 6 89 29 59 11 9 83 23 53 11 3

04 64 94 34 0 10 6 10 9 10 3 10 01 61 91 31 07 67 97 37

44 10 4 14 74 4 10 10 10 1 10 7 10 41 10 1 11 71 47 10 7 17 77

84 24 54 11 4 8 10 2 10 5 10 11 10 8 1 21 51 11 1 87 27 57 11 7

08 68 98 38 02 62 92 32 05 65 95 35 0 11 6 11 9 11 3 11

48 10 8 18 78 42 10 2 12 72 45 10 5 15 75 4 11 10 11 1 11 7 11

88 28 58 11 8 82 22 52 11 2 85 25 55 11 5 8 11 2 11 5 11 11 11

7
3 Chords and their Perspectives
Definition 4 Nonempty sets of tones are called chords. For a chord X ⊆ T
the module hX − Xi generated by all differences X − X = {x − y | x, y ∈ X}
within a chord X is called the module of that chord and hXi := x + hX − Xi
(for any x ∈ X) is called the affine subspace generated by that chord X. A
chord X is called special if its module hX − Xi is a proper submodule of T.
Non-special chords with hX − Xi = T are called general.

A typology for special chords is given by the 27 proper affine subspaces and the
corresponding 5 proper submodules of T (see TP-Tables 2 and 1).

Definition 5 A tone perspective f ∈ A is said to be a chord perspective with

respect to a given ordered pair (X, Y ) of chords, if f (X) ⊆ Y . The set of all
chord perspectives with respect to the ordered pair (X, Y ) of chords is denoted
by A(X, Y ). Elements of A(X) := A(X, X) are called selfperspectives of the
chord X.

Lemma 4 The collection 2T of all chords as objects together with all chord
perspectives as arrows forms a category CH. The 12 singletons {x} with x ∈ T
are terminal objects of that category.

The proof is straightforward.

Similar definitions can be given by replacing T by the modules T3 , T4 and T3×4 .

Sets of dimtones are called dimchords, sets of augtones are called augchords and
sets of outer tones are called outer chords. Similarly, one has generated modules,
like hX3 − X3 i, generated subspaces hX3 i, as well as the notions of special and
generic dimchords, augchords and outer chords. The resulting categories are
denoted by CH3 , CH4 and CH3×4 .

Lemma 5 The morphisms ?3 : T → T3 , ?4 : T → T4 and ?3×4 : T → T3×4

induce functors ?3 : CH → CH3 , ?4 : CH → CH4 and ?3×4 : CH → CH3×4
respectively. The latter is an isomorphism of categories whose inverse ?∗4×∗9 :
CH3×4 → CH is induced by the morphism ?∗4×∗9 : T3×4 → T.

The proof is straightforward.

So far we used the symbols ”?3 ”, ”?4 ”, ”?3×4 ” on two levels, namely applied to
tones t ∈ T and to tone perspectives f ∈ A. Without causing confusion this
notation can be extended to chords and chord perspectives. However, there has
one detail to be mentioned:
The morphism ?3×4 : T → T3×4 on tones is defined as the diagonal morphism
?3 ×?4 of ?3 : T → T3 and ?4 : T → T4 .
Consider the product category CH3 ×CH4 . Its objects are pairs (X3 , X40 ) con-
sisting of any dimchords X3 and augchords X40 . These are in 1-1-correspondence
to outer cartesian chords X3 × X40 , i.e., the cartesian products of dimchords

8
with augchords, which are particular objects of the category CH3×4 . The sets
of arrows between two pairs (X3 × X40 ) and (Y3 × Y40 ) are the cartesian products
A3 (X3 , Y3 )×A4 (X40 , Y40 ) = A3×4 (X3 ×X40 , Y3 ×Y40 ). Let κ : CH3 ×CH4 → CH3×4
denote the functor sending a pair (X3 , X40 ) to its cartesian product X3 × X40 and
a pair (f3 , f40 ) ∈ A3 (X3 , Y3 ) × A4 (X40 , Y40 ) to itself. This defines an embedding
of CH3 × CH4 onto a full subcategory of CH3×4 . For this reason, the functor κ
is called the cartesian embedding.

Definition 6 Let ?3×4 := κ ◦ (?3 ×?4 ) : CH → CH3×4 denote the concatenation

of the direct product functor ?3 ×?4 of the functors ?3 : CH → CH3 and ?4 :
CH → CH4 with the cartesian embedding functor κ. This functor ?3×4 is called
the outer cartesian closure functor. Its concatenation

? := (?3×4 )∗4×∗9 : CH → CH

with the ”outer-inner-translation”-functor ?∗4×∗9 : CH3×4 → CH determines an

endofunctor of the category CH, which is called the (inner) cartesian closure
functor. The image X of a chord X is called an (inner) cartesian chord.

Each map ? : A(X, Y ) → A(X , Y ) is a set inclusion. This expresses the fact
that chord perspectives f ∈ A(X, Y ) are also chord perspectives with respect
to the cartesian closures X and Y of X and Y .

Proposition 3 In the sequel we list the isomorphy classes in the categories

CH3 , CH4 and CH3 × CH4 .

1. The 7 non-empty dimchords fall into 3 isomorphy classes with represen-

tatives {0}3 , {0, 4}3 and {0, 4, 8}3 .

2. The 15 non-empty augchords fall into 5 isomorphy classes with represen-

tatives {0}4 , {0, 6}4 , {0, 9}4 , {0, 9, 6}4 and {0, 9, 6, 3}4 .
3. The 105 non-empty cartesian chords fall into 15 isomorphy classes with
representatives κ(X3 timesX4 ), where X3 and X4 run trough the represen-
tatives listed in 1 and 2.

The following 15 TP-Tables display the monoids A(X) of selfperspectives of all

the 15 representative cartesian chords:

9
 A({0, 6}) A({0, 9}) A({0, 6, 9}) A({0, 6, 9, 3})
q q q q qq qq qq qq q q q q qqq qq q q qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq
A({0})

q q q q qq qq qq qq q q q q qqq qq q q qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq
q q q q qq qq qq qq q q q q qqq qq q q qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq

A({0, 4}) A({0, 6, 4, 10}) A({0, 9, 4, 1}) A({0, 6, 9, 4, 10, 1}) A(T\{8, 2, 5, 11})
qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq
q q q q qq qq qq qq q q q q qqq qq q q qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq
q q q q qq qq qq qq q q q q qqq qq q q qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq
A({0, 4, 8}) A({0, 6, 4, 10, 8, 2}) A({0, 9, 4, 1, 8, 5}) A(T\{3, 7, 11})
qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qqq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq
A(T)

qq qqq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qqq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qqq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq

q qq q qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qqq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq
qqq qq
qq qq qqq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qqq qq qq
qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq
qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq
q q q qq qq qq qq q q qqq qq q qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq

In order to refer to the isomorphy class of the cartesian closure X of a chord

X, we will speak of its cartesian type. For the 15 possible cartesian types we
use the symbols (arrangement like above):

. .. .. ... ....
: :: :: ::: ::::
... ...... ... ... ......... ............
Any chord X is special if and only if its cartesian closure X is special. In
the Appendix we list the 3- and 4-chords according to the their general and
special cartesian types.
The following considerations shed some light on the notion of chord ”perspec-
tives”. For each chord X one may study the set-valued representable functors
@X and X@, i.e., the images of X under the Yoneda embeddings of the category
op
CH into the functor categories SetsCH and SetsCH . We recall the definition
of these functors:
Definition 7 Fix a chord X ∈ |CH|.
• The covariant functor X@ : Ch → Sets maps a chord Y to the set
X@Y := A(X, Y ) of chord perspectives from X into Y and takes chord
a perspective f ∈ Y1 , Y2 to the set map
X@f : X@Y1 → X@Y2 with X@f (g) := f ◦ g
.
• The contravariant functor @X : Ch → Sets takes a chord Y to the set
Y @X := A(Y, X) of chord perspectives from Y into X and takes a chord
perspective f ∈ Y2 , Y1 to the set map
f @X : Y1 @X → Y2 @X with f @X(g) := g ◦ f
.

10
The functor X@ collects all chord perspectives starting from a fixed viewpoint
X with variable scope, whereas the functor @X collects all chord perspectives
with a fixed scope X and varying viewpoints. The functoriality is reflected in a
natural control of the change of perspectives under scope change and viewpoint
change respectively.
In order to systematically refer to the images f (X) of a chord X under var-
ious tone perspectives f we define the map imgX : A → |CH| with imgX (f ) :=
f (X).

Lemma 6 Fix a chord X ∈ |CH|. The collection of all Ximg @Y := imgX (X@Y )
for varying chords Y determines a covariant functor Ximg @ : CH → Sets. The
family of the restrictions imgX |X@Y of imgX for varying chords Y defines a
natural epimorphism imgX of the functor X@ onto the functor Ximg @.

Proof: For a fixed scope change f ∈ A(Y1 , Y2 ). The functor X@ yields the set
map X@f : X@Y1 → X@Y2 mapping any g ∈ X@Y1 to f ◦ g. Now, suppose
that g(X) is an element of imgX |X@Y1 , and that g 0 (X) represents the same
element, i.e., g(X) = g 0 (X). Then Ximg @f (g(X)) can be defined as f (g(X)),
which in turn coincides with f (g 0 (X)), and hence is well-defined.
X@f
X@Y1 - X@Y2

imgX |X@Y1 imgX |X@Y2

? Ximg @f ?
Ximg @Y1 - Ximg @Y2
As the diagram illustrates, imgX is a natural transformation. Its surjectivity at
each scope Y is obvoius. 

Remark 4 The collection imgY (Y @X) for a fixed scope chord X and varying
viewpoint chords Y does not give rise to a contravariant functor from CH to
Sets in a natural way. Consider, for example, the fixed scope X = T, the
two viewpoint chords Y1 = T, Y2 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, and the tone perspective
0
2 ∈ A(Y2 , Y1 ) as a change of viewpoint. Suppose we are about to define the
value F u(f ) : imgY1 (Y1 @X) → imgY2 (Y2 @X) of a candidate F u for such a
functor. We look, for example, at the argument T = 0 1(Y1 ) = 1 1(Y1 ). But then
there would be more than one natural value for F u(f )(T), namely 0 1(f (Y2 )) =
{0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10} and 1 1(f (Y2 )) = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11}.

Definition 8 Isomorphisms in the category CH are called chord symme-

tries, automorphisms are called selfsymmetries. We introduce the notations
A∗ (X, Y ) := {f ∈ A∗ | f (X) ⊆ Y } for the set of selfsymmetries from X to Y ,
and we write A∗ (X) := A∗ (X, X) for the group of symmetries of a chord X.

11
The category CH consists of 157 isomorphy classes. These are called chord
classes and are listed in [2], [4], [3]. Further, for each chord X one has an action
conjX : A∗ (X) × A(X) → A(X) induced by the conjugation conj : A∗ × A → A
(cf. Paragraph 2). The monoids A(X) of selfperspectives, the groups A∗ (X)
of selfsymmetries as well as the resulting conjugation classes A(X)/conjX are
studied in [4].

4 Harmonic morphemes
The considerations of this paragraph are based on the perspectivic incidence
relation H between tone perspectives and chords.

H = {(f, X)|X ∈ |CH| , f ∈ A(X)} ⊂ A × |CH|.

Let us take a closer look at this relation in order to generalize the usual study
of common chord tones2 to that of common chord perspectives. Technically, we
build formal concepts on the basis of perspectivic incidence:

Definition 9 Condider the following two maps:

Ext : 2A → 2|CH| with Ext(M ) := {X | ∀f ∈ M : (f, X) ∈ H},

Int : 2|CH| → 2A with Int(U ) := {f | ∀X ∈ U : (f, X) ∈ H}.

A (formal) harmonic morpheme is an ordered pair (M, U ) ∈ 2A × 2|CH|

satisfying Ext(M ) = U and Int(U ) = M .

We introduce the following terminology: Ext and Int are called the (formal)
harmonic extension and intension maps, respectively. The two ”coordinates”
M and U of a harmonic morpheme (M, U ) are called the intension and the
extension of this morphem. Harmonic morphemes can be obtained in two ways:
1. Start with any set U ⊆ |CH| of chords and construct the morpheme
(Int(U ), Ext(Int(U )). The concatenation Ext ◦ Int : 2|CH| → 2|CH| is
called the extensional completion
2. Start with any set M ⊆ A of tone perspectives and construct the mor-
pheme (Int(Ext(M )), Int(M )). The concatenation Int ◦ Ext : 2A → 2A
is called intensional saturation.

Lemma 7 The intension of each harmonic morpheme is a monoid.

The proof is straightforward.

Let MON denote the set of all submonoids of A. According to the lemma,
it would be sufficient to run through all monoids M ∈ MON in order to get
2 In functional harmony common chord tones indicate the possibility of functional synonymy

of two chords.

12
all harmonic morphemes through M (Int(Ext(M ), Ext(M )). Let further
MON s denote the subset of all saturated submonoids of the form Int(Ext(M )) ⊆
A. The set of all harmonic morphemes is parametrized by MON s .
As a preliminary step of our investigation we study two maps int and ext
in opposite direction, that are related to single chords rather than to sets of
chords.
int
|CH|.

MON -
ext

Recall that for singleton chordsets U = {X} one has Int({X}) = A(X), i.e.,
the intension of a single chord consists of its chord perspectives. We define:

int : |CH| → MON with int(X) := Int({X}) = A(X).

A chord X can be fully reconstructed from its constant selfperspectives, i.e.,

from the tone perspectives b a ∈ A(X) with a = 0. Obviously b 0 is a chord
perspective of X if and only if b ∈ X. This reconstruction can be expressed in
terms of the evaluation at tone t,

evt : A → T with evt (f ) = f (t).

The restriction of ev0 to T 0 yields a bijection between the 12 constant tone

perspectives b 0 and the 12 tones b = b 0(0), b ∈ T. For any set M of tone
perspectives we set M0 := M ∩ T 0 and [M ] := ev0 (M0 ). For monoids we
introduce a separate symbol for this map:

ext : MON (A) → |CH| with ext(M ) := [M ]

Remark 5 The set |CH| can be viewed as a retract of MON . The map ext is
surjective and the composition ext ◦ int yields the identity map on |CH|.
The lemma suggests to study the fibers ext−1 (X) for all chords X in order to
get a systematic overview over all morphemes. These fibers are partially ordered
according to the inclusion of morphemes and have an upper and a lower limit,
which are characterized through the following proposition:

Proposition 4 Let M ∈ MON be a monoid of tone perspectives. The sat-

urated monoids Int(Ext(M0 )), Int(Ext(M )) and Int({ext(M )}) belong to the
same fiber ext−1 (ext(M )) and one has the inclusions:

Int(Ext(M0 )) ⊆ Int(Ext(M )) ⊆ Int({ext(M )})

Int(Ext(M0 )) is the infimum and Int(ext(M )) the supremum of the partially

ordered set of saturated monoids MON s ∩ ext−1 (ext(M )).

Proof: The chord ext(M ) belongs to all three chordsets Ext(M0 ), Ext(M )
and {ext(M )}. Hence, the corresponding intensions contain no other constant
tone perspectives than those in M0 , i.e., the three monoids indeed belong to

13
the same fiber ext−1 (ext(M )). Further these chord sets satisfy the inclusions
{ext(M )} ⊆ Ext(M ) ⊆ Ext(M0 ), since M0 ⊆ M . Hence the corresponding
intensions have inclusions in the reverse order. Finally, the inclusions hold
independent of the particular choice of M ∈ ext−1 (ext(M )), defining the same
M0 and ext(M ).

Definition 10 A chord X is called poor if the identity 0 1 and the constant tone
perspectives x 0, x ∈ X, are its only selfperspectives, i.e., if int(X) = X 0 ∪ {0 1}.
A chord X is said to be primitive if its selfperspectives are shared by all of its
superchords, i.e., if Ext(int(X)) = Super(X) := {Y |X ⊆ Y }.

The primitive morphemes, generated by primitive chords X, have the structure

(int(X), Super(X)). Poor chords are always primitive, but there are also non-
poor primitive chords. To be more precise, among the 157 chord classes there
are 31 classes, whose chords are primitive, but there are only 5 classes of poor
chords. The latter are represented by

{0, 1, 3}, {0, 1, 2, 4}, {0, 1, 2, 5}, {0, 1, 2, 3, 5}, {0, 1, 2, 4, 5}.

In order to get the full picture of all harmonic morphemes one has to investigate
all the saturated monoids within the partially ordered sets ext−1 (X), where X
runs through representatives of the 157 chord classes. For this it is sufficient to
calculate representatives for the conjugation classes MON s (X)/conjX of satu-
rated monoids within MON s (X) := MON s ∩ ext−1 (X) under the conjugation
action of the selfsymmetries A∗ (X) of X.
These calculations have been carried out for all morphemes

(Int(Ext(M )), Ext(M ), with M0 6= ∅

by the help of a Mathematica notebook. On the whole, there are 25364 such
morphemes. The detailed results cannot be published within this article.3
What remains, is the calculation of those morphemes with no constant tone
perspectives in their intensions. The saturated groups have first been described
as ”musical” groups in [1]. The general case can be studied in a refined way in
terms of global morphemes (see next paragraph).

3 Contact the author in order to get a textfile with the results or the program.

14
5 Harmonic Topology
The following topological constructions are studied by Guerino Mazzola (cf. [3],
chapter 24) in the much more general situation of functorial local compositions
and their endomorphisms. However, we recall some aspects within the narrow
context of chords and chord perspectives.
For a given set M ⊆ A of tone perspectives let M ≺ := {M 0 ∈ MON |M 0 ⊇
M } denote the set of all supermonoids of M . These sets M ≺ are called basic
monoid neighbourhoods. Similarly, we call chord extensions Ext(M ) basic chord
neighbourhoods.
Lemma 8 The familiy of basic monoid neighbourhoods is closed with respect to
intersection: For any M1 , M2 ⊆ A let hM1 , M2 i∗ denote the monoid generated
from M1 and M2 . One has
(M1 ∪ M2 )≺ = M1≺ ∩ M2≺ = hM1 , M2 i≺
∗

Similarly, the family of basic chord neighbourhoods is closed with respect to

intersection: For any M1 , M2 ⊂ A one has
Ext(M1 ∪ M2 ) = Ext(M1 ) ∩ Ext(M2 )
Definition 11 We introduce the following two topologies on chords and monoids:
• The topology EX T on the set |CH| of all chords generated by the family
of all basic chord neighbourhoods {Ext(M ) | M ∈ MON s } is called the
harmonic extension topology.
• The topology IN T on the set MON of all monoids of tone perspectives
generated by the family of all basic monoid neighbourhoods {M ≺ | M ∈
MON } is called the harmonic intension topology.
Proposition 5 The map int : |CH| → MON is continous with respect to the
topologies EX T and IN T . Moreover, EX T is the inverse-image topology of
IN T with respect to the map int.
Proof: For any given monoid M and and any given chord X we have
X ∈ int−1 (M ≺ ) ⇐⇒ int(X) ⊆ M ⇐⇒ X ∈ Ext(M ).
Hence, int−1 (M ≺ ) = Ext(M ).
Remark 6 The map ext : MON → |CH| is not continous with respect to
the topologies IN T and EX T . A general open set M in the topology IN T
is characterized by the property M ∈ M =⇒ M 0 ∈ M (∀M 0 ⊇ M ). On the
other hand, the minimal chord neighbourhood Ext(int(X)) of any non-primitive
chord X does not contain all superchords of X. If Y ⊃ X is such a superchord
with Y 6∈ Ext(int(X)), we have X 0 ∈ ext−1 (Ext(int(X))) and Y 0 ⊃ X 0, but
Y
0 6∈ ext−1 (Ext(int(X))).
The non-continuity of ext reflects the essential difference between chords as
objects of the category CH and chords just as sets.

15
The topologies IN T and EX T are rather exotic ones. In terms of the axioms
of separation from general topology T0 , T1 , T2 , we have the following character-
izations:
Proposition 6 Both topologies IN T and EX T satisfy the T0 -axiom, but not
the T1 -axiom. The closures of singletons are explicitly given as follows:
• For any M ∈ MON one has M = M  := {M 0 ∈ MON | M 0 ⊆ M }.
• For any X ∈ |CH| one has X = {X 0 ∈ |CH| | Ext(int(X 0 )) ⊆ Ext(int(X))}.
Proof: Two monoids M1 , M2 , are not equal, if and only if M1 6∈ M2≺ or M2 6∈
M1≺ , hence the topology IN T is T0 . The same holds for any two chords and
their minimal neighbourhoods: X1 6= X2 if and only if X1 6∈ Ext(int(X2 )) or
X2 6∈ Ext(int(X1 )). Hence the topology EX T is T0 .
The closure M of a monoid M is the complement of the largest open set not
containing M , i.e.,
≺
[
M =( M 0 )c = {M 0 | M 0 6⊆ M }c = {M 0 | M 0 ⊆ M } = M 
M 0 6⊆M

Analogously, we find for chords:

[
X=( Ext(int(X 0 )))c = {X 0 | X ∈ Ext(int(X 0 ))} 
X6∈Ext(int(X 0 ))

A set M of monoids is closed, if and only if M ∈ M implies M 0 ∈ M for all

M 0 ⊆ M . Analogously, a set V of chords is closed if and only if X ∈ V implies
X 0 ∈ V for all X 0 satisfying X ∈ Ext(int(X 0 )).
The closures X for the 157 representatives for all the chord classes are easily
calculated. We mention that there are 14 classes, whose chords generate closed
singletons X = {X}, namely the 1-chords, the 2-chords except {0, 6}, the 3-
chords except {0, 4, 8} and the 4-chord {0, 1, 2, 6}). On the other hand, the only
chords generating all their subchords, i.e., X = Sub(X) := {Y ∈ |CH| | Y ⊆ X}
are the 6 classes of affine subspaces of T, namely 0T, 6T, 4T, 3T, 2T, T.
The general chord neighbourhoods, i.e., unions of basic chord neighbour-
hoods Ext(M ), provide a good means to define global morphemes.

Definition 12 Let IN T s denote the topology induced by IN T on the subset

MON s of all saturated monoids. A global harmonic morphem is given as
a pair (M, {Ext(M ) | M ∈ M}) consisting of a set M of saturated monoids as
its local intensions and the corresponding family {Ext(M ) | S
M ∈ M} of basic
chord neighbourhoods as its local extensions. The open set M ∈M Ext(M ) is
called the extensional carrier of M.

As an example, consider the global morpheme determined by M = {P, Q},

P = {4 8,0 4,0 0,4 0,0 1}, Q = {1 3,4 9,1 0,4 0,0 1}.

16
The open set Ext(P ) ∪ Ext(Q) being covered by Ext(P ), Ext(Q), provides
a suitable model for chords representing the same tonal function. Observe
that the generated monoid hP, Qi∗ = int({0, 1, 4}) is the intension of the ”C-
Major-triad”. The extension Ext(int({0, 1, 4}))) contains only particular su-
perchords of {0, 1, 4}, but not the ”parallel”-triad {0, 1, 3} or the ”counter”-
triad {1, 4, 5}. These and other prototypical representatives of the tonic triad
{0, 1, 4} in functional harmony are suitably modelled by the global morpheme
({P, Q}, {Ext(P ), Ext(Q)}). An even more refined filtering of all chords in their
partially ordered roles as ”fuzzy” representatives of a given chord X is suitably
described in terms of the global morphem
 
(int(X)s , {Ext(M ) | M ∈ int(X)s }).

See [4] and [5] for a music theoretical discussion of this proposal.
Another situation where global morphemes can be considered is the study of
saturated monoids M ∈ MON s without constant tone perspectives. We give
only a sketch of this procedure. For any monoid M of tone perspectives one has
the relation
ΓM = {(s, t) ∈ T × T | ∃f ∈ M withf (s) = t}
M0 = ∅ implies that the equivalence closure of ΓM splits into more than one
chord as equivalence classes. The stable images ImM (Xi ) of these chords Xi
(i = 1, , , , , n) under iterated application of the elements of M yield the minimal
local placeholders ImM (Xi ) 0 for the missing global constant tone perspectives
within M . The whole variety of candidates is given by collections of chords
{Yi ∈ Ext(M ) | ImM (Xi ) ⊆ Yi ⊆ Xi }, where i runs at least over two indices
between 1 and n.

6 Perspectivic Interpretation of Voice Leadings

The last two paragraphs were solely dedicated to the study chord selfperspec-
tives. This final paragraph now focusses on an idea concerning the possible
syntactic roles of chord perspectives in the study of chord successions and voice
leading.
While chords are just sets of tones, one is often interested in the distribution
of tones along an ensemble of k voices. The simultaneous presence of tones
within these voices can be represented in terms of vectors, which are called
k-voicings:  
t1
v =  ...  .
 

tk
In order to describe a k-voice leading, where, from an melodic point of
view, k voices make their individual tone-steps simultaneously, or where, from
an harmonic point of view, one has a succession of two k-voicings, one can
conveniently switch between the 3 interpretations of k × 2 − matrices,

17
       
s1 t1 (s1 t1 ) s1 t1
 .. ..  , ..
σ= . σmelo =  , σharmo =  ...   ...  .
    
.  .
sk tk (sk tk ) sk tk

Explorative studies suggest to interpret voice-leadings σ as follows: Consider

the functions πk : Tk → |CH| mapping voicings to the underlying chords
1 2
πk ((t1 , ..., tk )) := {t1 , ..., tk } and let σharmo and σharmo denote the first and
the second voicing of σharmo , respectively. We distinguish two interpretations:
• In the causal interpretation of the voice leading σ one considers the chord
perspectives
1 2
~σcaus := A(πk (σharmo ), πk (σharmo ))
i i
and attributes to each coordinate σmelo = (si , ti ) the subset ~σcaus of those
chord perspectives f ∈ ~σcaus satisfying f (si ) = ti .
• In the final interpretation of the voice leading σ one considers the chord
perspectives
2 1
~σf in := A(πk (σharmo ), πk (σharmo ))
i
and attributes to each coordinate σmelo = (si , ti ) the subset ~σfi in of those
chord perspectives f ∈ ~σf in satisfying f (ti ) = si .
i
The sets ~σcaus and ~σfi in are never empty, because they always contain exactly
one constant tone perspective ti 0 or si 0. The following diagrams show three
examples:

Example 1 Typical 4-voice leading of the succession G - C

 
5 0
 1 1 
σ=  2 4 


1 0

5
8
8 8, 5 9
5 - 0 S 5  0
10 5
3 8
1 - 1 A 1  1
10
3, 8 4 2
3
2 - 4 T 2  4
11
1, 8 4 1
1, 1 4
1 - 0 B 1  0
i
On each arrow from left to right we list the non-constant elements of ~σcaus , and
on each arrow from right to left we list the non-constant elements of ~σfi in .

18
Example 2 Typical 4-voice leading of the succession G7 - C
 
5 0
 11 4 
σ=  
1 1 
2 0

5
8
8 6, 5 8, 5 9
5 - 0 S 5  0
8 11 11
4 3, 6
11 - 4 A 11  4
5
8
1 - 1 T 1  1
2
8
8 3, 2 9
2 - 0 B 2  0

Example 3 Typical 4-voice leading of the succession Db7 - C

 
5 0
 11 4 
σ=  8

1 
7 0

5
8
8 3, 5 6
5 - 0 S 5  0
7
8
4 1, 7 4, 11
6, 11
9, 7 10
11 - 4 A 11  4
7
1, 5 3, 11
9
8 - 1 T 8  1
7
8
4 1, 7 4, 7 10
7 - 0 B 7  0

The main idea behind these perspectivic interpretations is to provide a link be-
tween single tone successions within the voices and chord perspectives between
the chords that are connected through the specific voicings. A systematic in-
vestigation of all typical and rare voice leadings from or to a fixed chord X on
the background of the functor Ximg @ will be subject of a future study.

19
References
[1] Mazzola, G.: Gruppen und Kategorien in der Musik, Heldermann,
Berlin 1985.
[2] Mazzola, G.: Die Geometrie der Töne, Birkhäuser, Basel 1990.
[3] Mazzola, G.: The Topos of Music, Birkhäuser, Basel 2002 (to appear).

[4] Noll, Th: Morphologische Grundlagen der abendländischen Harmonik,

Musikometrika 7, Brockmeyer, Bochum 1997.
[5] Noll, Th: Harmonische Morpheme, Musikometrika 8, Brockmeyer,
Bochum 1998.
[6] Noll, Th., Nestke, A.: Die Apperzeption von Tönen, Electronic Jour-
nal of the GMTH 2002 (http://www.gmth.de, to appear).

7 Appendix: Chordicon

Table 1: General 3- and 4-chords of cartesian type ::

Class TP-Table Representatives
qq q q q
q q
q
10
qq qq qq qq
q q q q
q q q q
31

20
 Table 2: General 3- and 4-chords of cartesian type :::
Class TP-Table Representatives
q qq
q

9
q qq qq
q q

12
qq q q
q q
q q
22
q q qq q q
q q
q q
25
q qq q q q q q
q qq
q
26
qq q q q q q q
q q q
q
29

Table 3: General 3- and 4-chords of cartesian type

... ...
Class TP-Table Representatives
q q
q q
q
11
qq qq q q
q

28 q
qqq q q q
qq q
qq
qq q
30

21
 Table 4: General 4-chords of cartesian type ::::
Class TP-Table Representatives
qqqqqq
q q

24
qqqq
q q
q q
27
qqqqqqqq
qq qq
qq qq
33

Table 5: General 4-chords of cartesian type

.........
Class TP-Table Representatives
q q
q q

08 q
qq q
q q

18
q q
qq q

19
qqq qq
q q

20
qqq
q q

23 q
qqq qq
q q q
q q
32

22
Table 6: General 3- and 4-chords of cartesian type
............
Class TP-Table Representatives
q qq
q q
q
17
q qq qq
q q q

21 q q

Table 7: Special 3-chords of cartesian type ...

Class TP-Table Representatives
qq qqq q q
qq qqq q q
qq qqq q q
15

Table 8: Special 4-chords of cartesian type ....

Class TP-Table Representatives
qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq
qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq
qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq
37

Table 9: Special 3- and 4-chords of cartesian type ::

Class TP-Table Representatives
qq qq qq qq
qq qq q q

14 q q
qq qq qq qq
qq qq qq qq qq qq qq qq

36 qq qq qq qq

23
 Table 10: Special 3- chords of cartesian type
...
Class TP-Table Representatives
qq qq qq qq
qq qqq qqq qqq
q
qqq qq qq qq
qq qq qq
16 q

Table 11: Special 3- and 4-chords of cartesian type

......
Class TP-Table Representatives
qq qq
q q q q
q q
13
qq q qq q q q q q
q q q q
q q
34
qq qq
qq q qq q qq q qq q
q q
qqq qqq q q
35 q q

24