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Catherine Zhu
Table of Contents
Key: ..........................................................................................................................................................2
Topic 2: Mechanics..................................................................................................................................3
2.1. Kinematics......................................................................................................................................3
2.2. Forces and dynamics......................................................................................................................3
2.3. Work, energy, and power................................................................................................................5
2.4. Uniform circular motion.................................................................................................................6
Topic 3: Thermal Physics........................................................................................................................7
3.1. Thermal Concepts...........................................................................................................................7
3.2. Thermal Properties of Matter.........................................................................................................8
Specific Heat Capacities, Phase Changes, and Latent Heat..............................................................8
Kinetic Model of an Ideal Gas..........................................................................................................9
Topic 4: Oscillations and Waves.............................................................................................................9
4.1. Kinematics of simple harmonic motion.........................................................................................9
4.2. Energy changes during simple harmonic motion.........................................................................10
4.3. Forced oscillations and resonance................................................................................................11
4.4. Wave characteristics.....................................................................................................................11
4.5. Wave properties............................................................................................................................12
Topic 5: Electric Currents....................................................................................................................14
5.1. Electric potential difference, current and resistance....................................................................14
Electric potential difference............................................................................................................14
Electric current and resistance.........................................................................................................15
5.2. Electric Circuits............................................................................................................................16
Topic 6: Forces and Fields....................................................................................................................16
6.1. Gravitational Force and Field.......................................................................................................16
6.2. Electric Force and Field...............................................................................................................17
6.3. Magnetic Force and Field.............................................................................................................18
Topic 7: Atomic and Nuclear Physics..................................................................................................20
7.1. The Atom......................................................................................................................................20
Atomic Structure.............................................................................................................................20
Nuclear Structure.............................................................................................................................20
7.2. Radioactive Decay........................................................................................................................21
Radioactivity...................................................................................................................................21
Half-life...........................................................................................................................................22
7.3. Nuclear Reactions, Fission and Fusion........................................................................................22
Nuclear Reactions...........................................................................................................................22
Fission and Fusion...........................................................................................................................24
Topic 8. Energy, Power, and Climate Change.....................................................................................24
8.1. Energy Degradation and Power Generation ................................................................................24
8.2. World Energy Sources..................................................................................................................24
8.3. Fossil Fuel Power Production......................................................................................................25
8.4. Non-Fossil Fuel Power Production..............................................................................................25
Nuclear Power.................................................................................................................................25
Solar Power.....................................................................................................................................26
Hydroelectric Power........................................................................................................................26
Wind Power.....................................................................................................................................27
Wave Power.....................................................................................................................................27
8.5. The Greenhouse Effect.................................................................................................................28
Solar Radiation................................................................................................................................28
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IB Physics 2009: Syllabus Summary
Catherine Zhu
Key:
Not yet done
Don’t know how to do
To be refined
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Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1. Kinematics
2.1.1. Define displacement, velocity, speed, and acceleration.
• Displacement (a vector quantity) is a measured distance in a given direction in ( ).
• Speed (a scalar quantity) is the rate at which a moving object covers distance in ( ).
• Velocity (a vector quantity) is speed in a given direction (in ).
• Acceleration (a vector quantity) is the rate of change of velocity in a given direction (in ).
2.1.2. Explain the difference between instantaneous and average values of speed, velocity and
acceleration.
• Average velocity: the change in displacement divided by the change in time. The slope of
the secant line of a displacement-time graph over a given interval.
• Instantaneous velocity: the … as the change in time becomes infinitely small. The
derivative of the displacement-time graph function at a given point.
• Speed and acceleration work in similar ways.
2.1.3. Outline the conditions under which the equations for uniformly accelerated motion may be
applied.
• Objects must be uniformly accelerated.
• Objects must be in linear motion (traveling in a straight line).
2.1.4. Identify the acceleration of a body falling in a vacuum near the Earth’s surface with the
acceleration g of free fall.
• Constant acceleration at .
2.1.5. Solve problems involving the equations of uniformly accelerated motion.
• (definition of acceleration)
•
•
2.1.6. Describe the effects of air resistance on falling objects.
• Air resistance provides a drag force to objects in free fall.
• The drag force is directly proportional to the speed of the object.
• When the drag force reaches the magnitude of the force providing the acceleration, the falling
object will stop accelerating and fall at a constant velocity. This is called the terminal velocity.
2.1.7. Draw and analyze distance-time graphs, displacement-time graphs, velocity-time graphs and
acceleration-time graphs.
• Use calculus as Cathy is too lazy to write otherwise.
2.1.8. Calculate and interpret the gradients of displacement-time graphs and velocity-time graphs, and
the areas under velocity-time graphs and acceleration-time graphs.
Displacement-Time Velocity-Time Acceleration-Time
Gradient Velocity Acceleration Jerk
Area Nothing Displacement Velocity
2.1.9. Determine relative velocity in one and in two dimensions.
• Relative velocity is determined by different frames of reference.
of . Thus . The product of the body’s mass and its velocity gained is equal to
the product of the force acting on it and the time taken.
• Impulse (冲量) is , in units of .
• Momentum (动量) is in units of .
• Suppose a body with mass and initial momentum is acted on by a force for a time interval
. The impulse .
• The impulse of a net force acting on a body equals the change of its momentum.
2.2.11. Determine the impulse due to a time-varying force by interpreting a force-time graph.
• The impulse of a time-varying force is represented by the net area under the function (the integral)
of the force-time graph.
2.2.12. State the law of conservation of linear momentum.
• Let two bodies and separately with the velocities and collide. Their total initial
momentum can be represented by . According to Newton’s second law, the force
exerted on each body is equal and opposite to the force exerted on the other . Thus…
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• For a swept angle the change in v is a vector at right angles to v and of magnitude
, which in turn means that the magnitude of the acceleration is given by
.
2.4.3. Identify the force producing circular motion in various situations
• The force causing the circular motion is called the centripetal force.
•
2.4.4. Solve problems involving circular motion.
• You wish to have a toy car go in a looptheloop around a circular track with radius R. What is
the minimum speed the car must have at the top of the loop?
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•
3.2.4. Describe and explain the processes of phase changes in terms of molecular behavior.
• While melting, vibrational kinetic energy increases and particles gain enough thermal energy to
break from fixed positions. Potential energy of system increases.
• While freezing, particles lose potential energy until thermal energy of the system is unable to
support distance between particles and is overcome by the attraction force between them. Kinetic
energy changes form from vibrational, rotational and part translational to merely vibrational.
Potential energy decreases.
• While evaporating, certain particles in the liquid gain enough potential energy to escape the
intermolecular bonds as a gas. The escape of the higher-energy particles will lower the average
kinetic energy and thus lower the temperature.
• While boiling, substance gains enough potential energy to break free from inter-particle forces.
Similar to evaporation, the only difference being that energy is supplied from external source so
there is no decrease in temperature.
• While condensing, the energy changes are opposite to that of boiling.
3.2.5. Explain in terms of molecular behavior why temperature does not change during a phase change.
• During a phase change, the thermal energy gained or lost will go towards increasing or
decreasing the potential energy of the particles to either overcome or succumb to the inter-
molecular force that pulls particles together. In the process, the average kinetic energy will not
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IB Physics 2009: Syllabus Summary
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change.
3.2.6. Distinguish between evaporation and boiling.
• Evaporation is a change from the liquid state to the gaseous state that occurs at a temperature
below the boiling point. See 3.2.4.
3.2.7. Define Specific Latent Heat.
• Latent heat is the thermal energy that a substance gains or loses during a phase change at
constant temperature.
• Specific latent heat is the heat required for a unit mass of a substance to undergo a phase change.
3.2.8. Solve problems involving specific latent heat.
•
•
4.1.4. Solve problems using the defining equation for SHM.
• as .
4.2.2. Apply the expressions for the kinetic energy of a particle undergoing
SHM, for the total energy and for the potential energy.
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4.2.3. Solve problems, both graphically and by calculation, involving energy changes during SHM.
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4.4.8. Derive and apply the relationship between wave speed, wavelength and frequency.
•
•
4.4.9. State that all electromagnetic waves travel with the same speed in free space and recall the
orders of magnitude of the wavelengths of the principal radiations in the electromagnetic spectrum. *
• Waves that travel through a material medium are called mechanical waves.
• Waves that carry various forms of light are electromagnetic waves and travel through space at the
speed of light.
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• The law of reflection: when a wave is reflected, the angle of incidence equals the angle of
reflection and the incident ray, the normal line, and the reflected ray line in one plane.
• Reflection (fixed end): when a pulse of a string attached to a support hits the wall it is attached to,
it is reflected—inverted with the same shape (undergone a 180 – degree change in phase).
• Reflection (free end): like above, the pulse comes back but without being inverted.
4.5.2. State and apply Snell’s law (law of refraction).
• Snell’s law states that the ratio of the sines of the angles of incidence and refraction is equal to the
ratio of velocities in the two media, or equivalently to the inverse ratio of the indices of refraction.
•
• The indices of refraction n, represent the factor by which light is slowed down within a refractive
medium compared to its velocity in a vacuum.
4.5.3. Explain and discuss qualitatively the diffraction of waves at apertures and obstacles.
• Diffraction refers to the phenomena observed when waves are obstructed by obstacles or pass
through apertures. The magnitude of these effects depends on the wavelength of the waves.
4.5.5. State the principle of superposition and explain what is meant by constructive and by destructive
interference.
• The effect of two separate causes is equal to the sum of the separate causes.
• Constructive interference occurs when two pulses displaced in the direction overlap. The resultant
displacement is the sum of both displacements.
• Destructive interference occurs when two pulses displaced in opposite directions overlap. The
resultant displacement is the difference of both displacements.
4.5.6. State and apply the conditions for constructive and for destructive interference in terms of path
difference and phase difference.
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• Two waves arriving at a point in phase (points reach maximum at the same time) with each other
will result in constructive interference.
• Two waves arriving at a point in anti-phase with each other will result in destructive interference.
4.5.7. Apply the principle of superposition to determine the resultant of two waves. *
Electric-Field Strength
The electric field strength is at a point is the force felt by one (positive) unit test charge. It is equal to
the force per positive unit charge at that point.
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• The energy dissipated is equal to the potential energy lost by the charge as it moves through the
potential difference that exists between the terminals of the load.
•
•
3) Gravitational Potential
Assumption: the gravitational potential energy is zero when the distance between two masses is
infinity.
Gravitational Potential Energy: the work done to move a small mass from the surface of a body to
infinity.
(unit: J)
3) Coulomb’s Law
The force between two charges is directly proportional to the product of the two charges and inversely
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4) Electric-Field Strength
The electric field strength is at a point is the force felt by one (positive) unit test charge. It is equal to
the force per positive unit charge at that point.
Where work is the force required to move the charge (equal and opposite to the
force from the electronic field).
6) Electrostatic Potential
The electric potential at a point in an electric field is defined as being numerically equal to the work
done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to the point.
*Scalar quantity; unit: volt.
6.3.3. Determine the direction of the force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field.
r r
Vector Cross Product: F = I ×( B ´ L )
6.3.4. Determine the direction of the force on a charge moving in a magnetic field.
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wire and inversely with the perpendicular distance from the wire: , where I is current, r
is perpendicular distance, µ0 = 4p ´ 10- 7 NA- 2 is the magnetic permeability of vacuum.
• Direction is given by the right-hand rule, in which the fingers grip towards the direction of the
current and the thumb points in the direction of the magnetic field.
6.3.6. Solve problems involving magnetic forces, fields, currents.
Nuclear Structure
7.1.5. Explain the terms nuclide, isotope, and nucleon.
• Nuclide: a species of atom characterized by the constitution of its nucleus and hence by the
number of protons, the number of neutrons, and the energy content.
• Nucleon: a proton or neutron.
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• Isotopes: different forms of the same element that contains the same amount of protons but
different amount of neutrons.
7.1.6. Define nucleon number A, proton number Z and neutron number N.
• Nuclide: a nuclear isotope, , where X is the chemical symbol of the element, A is the mass
number of the isotope, and Z is the atomic number of the element.
• Nucleon: mass number of a nuclear isotope, is the total number of nucleons (protons and
neutrons) found in the nucleus.
7.1.7. Describe the interactions in a nucleus.
• Gravitational forces are proportional to the mass of the objects and inversely proportional to the
distance between them; thus they are negligible within the nucleus.
• Repulsive electromagnetic forces between the protons would cause the nucleus to disintegrate if it
were the only force.
• The strong nuclear force is an attractive force, which exists between all nucleons to hold them
together. It is effective only over a very short range.
• The weak nuclear force exists only in the nucleus and is responsible for the disintegration of a
neutron into a proton and an electron in beta decay.
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7.2.5. Explain why some nuclei are stable while others are unstable.
• Some nuclei have a larger neutron-proton ratio and thus a relatively larger strong nuclear
force as opposed to its repelling electromagnetic force. Those nuclei are more stable.
Half-life
7.2.6. State that radioactive decay is a random and spontaneous process and that the rate of decay
decreases exponentially with time.
7.2.7. Define the term radioactive half-life.
• The interval of time required for one-half of the atomic nuclei of a radioactive sample to decay.
7.2.8. Determine the half-life of a nuclide from a decay curve.
7.2.9. Solve radioactive decay problems involving integral numbers of half-lives.
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Calculate the mass defect; multiply by the squared speed of light or by 931.5 MeV to convert to energy.
7.3.5. Define the concepts of mass defect, binding energy and binding energy per nucleon.
• Binding energy: the work required to completely separate the nucleons of a nucleus.
• Mass defect: the difference between the total mass of all nucleons in the atom and the mass of
the atom itself. Equivalent to and lost due to binding energy.
• Binding energy per nucleon: the work required to remove one nucleon from the nucleus;
roughly the binding energy divided by number of nucleons in nucleus.
7.3.6. Draw and annotate a graph showing the variation with nucleon number of the binding energy per
nucleon.
ii) The binding energy required to assemble two atoms of H is larger than that required to assemble
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one atom of He. Therefore when two atoms of H combine to form one atom of He, energy must be
released.
7.3.10. State that nuclear fusion is the main source of the Sun’s energy.
• Nuclear fusion is the main source of the Sun’s energy.
7.3.11. Solve problems involving fission and fusion reactions.
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• The Sun is the prime energy source for the world’s energy.
8.2.2. Outline and distinguish between renewable and non-renewable energy sources.
8.2.3. Define the energy density of a fuel.
• Energy density: the amount of energy that can be extracted per kilogram of fuel. Unit:
8.2.4. Discuss how choice of fuel is influenced by its energy density.
8.2.5. State the relative proportions of world use of the different energy sources that are available.
• Oil: 38%; Coal: 26%; Gas: 23%; Hydroelectric: 6%; Nuclear: 6%; Renewables: 1%.
• Renewable energy: Solar: 44%; Wind: 27%; Geothermal: 17%; Biofuels: 12%.
8.2.6. Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of various energy sources.
Solar Power
8.4.12. Distinguish between a photovoltaic cell and a solar heating panel in terms of energy transfers
and utility.
• Solar panel is used for central heating or for making
hot water for household use, placed on roofs of
houses, consisting of metal absorber, water pipes, and
glass. Energy is merely converted from solar power,
electromagnetic waves of light, to heat.
• A photovoltaic cell converts solar radiation into
electrical energy.
8.4.13. Outline reasons for seasonal and regional variation
sin the solar power.
• The power per unit area received at a distance r from
P
the sun is called the intensity I: I = .
4pr 2
• On Earth, this amounts to roughly 1400 W/m2, the
solar constant, the power received by one square
meter placed normally to the path of the incoming
rays at a distance of 1.50 ´ 1011 m from the sun.
• Due to the time of the day, this may vary ±1.5%
daily; due to Earth’s elliptical orbit, this may vary an additional ±4.0% seasonally.
8.4.14. Solve problems involving specific applications of photovoltaic cells and solar heating panels.
Hydroelectric Power
8.4.15. Distinguish between different hydroelectric schemes.
• Pumped storage schemes: when energy from nearby coal plants are used to pump water up a
reservoir by night.
• Run-of-the-river power stations: stations that use water diverted from a fast-flowing river without
damming the river.
• Harnessing tidal power:
8.4.16. Describe the main energy transformations that take place in hydroelectric schemes.
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mgh r DVgh DV
energy is P = = =r gh = r Qgh , where Q is known as the
Dt Dt Dt
volume flow rate (volume per second).
Wind Power
1. Basic wind: Sun heats the air, which rises.
Cool air moves into low-pressure area.
Movement is wind.
2. Coastal wind: water has
larger specific heat
capacity than land and therefore does not rise in temperature as much as land.
Hot air from land rises, cool air from sea moves in.
3. Katabatic wind: high pressure from cold air presses down at the top of a
mountain, resulting in airflow downhill.
8.4.19. Determine the power that may be delivered by a wind generator, assuming that the wind kinetic
energy is completely converted into mechanical kinetic energy, and explain why this is impossible.
• Consider the above tube of air with density ρ , velocity v , cross-sectional area A . The kinetic
1 2 1 1
energy of this air tube is given by: E k = mv = ( r AvDt ) ×v = r ADtv .
2 3
2 2 2
E 1
• Kinetic energy per unit time gives power: P = k = r Av .
3
Dt 2
• The underlying assumption of this calculation is that the wind is stopped by the wind turbine,
which is not the case.
8.4.20. Solve problems involving wind power.
Wave Power
8.4.21. Describe the principle of operation of an oscillating water column (OWC) ocean-wave energy
converter.
• The waves make the water alternately rise and fall, causing the air within the column to move out
and in, turning the turbine.
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8.4.22. Determine the power per unit length of a wavefront, assuming a rectangular profile for the
wave.
P pvgA 2
=
L 2
8.4.23. Solve problems involving wave power.
9.1.2. Describe (prove) and sketch the trajectory of projectile motion as parabolic in the absence of air
resistance.
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9.1.3. Describe qualitatively the effect of air resistance on the trajectory of a projectile.
• The path is no longer parabolic
• The maximum height and range decreases
• The angle at which the projectile impacts the ground steepens.
9.1.4. Solve problems on projectile motion.
m m m r
9.2.2. State and apply the expression for gravitational potential due to a point mass. (See 9.2.1.)
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9.2.3. State and apply the formula relating gravitational field strength to gravitational potential
gradient. (See 9.2.1.)
• E P = mV
9.2.4. Determine the potential due to one or more point masses. HOW???
The gravitational potential is a field but it is a scalar not a vector. One way of thinking of the
gravitational potential is that it is the gravitational potential energy per unit mass. The gravitational
potential due to a point mass (or uniform sphere) can be described mathematically as:
Ep M
V = = −G
m R
Where V is the gravitational potential. The gravitational potential gives us a way to describe
“gravity” due to one mass. We are able to attain some information about gravity with out having to
use or know about a second mass.
9.2.5. Describe and sketch the pattern of equipotential surfaces due to one and two point masses.
• An equipotential surface consists of all points with the same potential.
9.2.6. State the relation between equipotential surfaces and gravitational field lines.
• Consider two equipotential surfaces distance ∆r apart, with gravitational potential difference ∆V .
• The work done moving a point mass from one surface to another is given by W = mDV .
• It can also be given by force times distance: W = Fd = mgDr
DV
• mDV = mgDr Þ g =
Dr
• The gravitational field strength is therefore given by the rate of change of gravitational potential
difference with respect to distance.
• Equipotential surfaces and gravitational field lines are at right angles to each other. WHY???
9.2.7. Explain the concept of escape speed from a planet.
1 2 GMm
• Total energy of mass m moving near large stationary mass M: E = mv - ; v is the speed of
2 r
m when at distance r from M.
o If E > 0: mass escapes and never returns.
o If E = 0: mass just barely escapes.
o If E < 0: mass moves out a certain distance and returns.
1 2 GMm
• Therefore the smallest value of v such that m will be able to escape must fit E = mv - = 0.
2 r
2GM
• Escape velocity, v = , is the minimum velocity needed by a mass launched from the surface
r
of the Earth to reach infinity and stop there.
9.2.8. Derive an expression for the escape speed of an object from the surface of a planet. (See 9.2.7.)
9.2.9. Solve problems involving gravitational potential energy and gravitational potential.
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9.3.2. State and apply the expression for electric potential due to a point charge.
9.3.3. State and apply the formula relating electric field strength to electric potential gradient.
9.3.4. Determine the potential due to one or more point charges.
9.3.5. Describe and sketch the pattern of equipotential surfaces due to one and two point charges.
9.3.6. State the relation between equipotential surfaces and electric field lines.
9.3.7. Solve problems involving electric potential energy and electric potential.
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V
• Charle’s Law: At constant p, = k.
T
• Boyle’s Law: At constant T, pV = k .
• PV = nRT
• R is the molar gas constant: R = 8.314mol- 1K - 1 .
10.1.2. Describe the difference between an ideal gas and a real gas.
• An ideal gas is one that follows the gas laws for all values of p, V, and T.
• For an ideal gas:
o Newton’s laws apply to molecular behavior.
o There are no intermolecular forces. The molecules are treated as points.
o The molecules are in random motion.
o The collisions between the molecules are elastic (no energy is lost).
o There is no time spent in these collisions.
• The pressure of a gas is a result of collisions between the molecules and the walls of the container.
• Real gases can approximate to ideal behavior if intermolecular forces are small enough to be
ignored. The density / pressure must be low and the temperature must be high.
10.1.3. Describe the concept of the absolute zero of temperature and the Kelvin scale of temperature.
• Absolute zero is 0 on the Kelvin scale and -273 on the Celsius scale. It is characterized by the
complete absence of heat – the point at which all atomic and molecular energy ceases. There is no
kinetic energy between the molecules.
10.1.4. Solve problems using the equation of state of an ideal gas.
10.2. Processes
The first law of thermodynamics
10.2.1. Deduce an expression for the work involved in a volume change of a gas at constant pressure.
10.2.2. State the first law of thermodynamics.
QuickTimeª and a
decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
10.2.3. Identify the first law of thermodynamics as a statement of the principle of energy conservation.
• Energy is conserved.
10.2.4. Describe the isochoric (isovolumetric), isobaric, isothermal and adiabatic changes of a state of
an ideal gas.
• Isochoric: constant volume.
• Isobaric: constant pressure.
• Isothermal: constant temperature.
• Adiabatic: there is no thermal energy transfer between the gas an its surroundings.
• A rapid compression or expansion is approximately adiabatic.
10.2.5. Draw and annotate thermodynamic processes and cycles on P-V diagrams.
10.2.6. Calculate from a P-V diagram the work done in a thermodynamic cycle.
• The work done is equivalent to the area under the curve.
10.2.7. Solve problems involving state changes of a gas.
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observer has a velocity of zero; the distance between the transmitter and receiver is decreasing
(thus denominator must decrease).
• Away from the observer: because the stationary
observer has a velocity of zero; the distance between the transmitter and receiver is increasing
(thus denominator must increase).
2. Moving Observer; Stationary Source
• Towards the source: because the stationary transmitter
has a velocity of zero; the distance between the transmitter and receiver is decreasing (thus
numerator must increase).
• Away from the source: because the stationary
transmitter has velocity of zero; the distance between the transmitter and receiver is increasing
(numerator must decrease).
11.2.3. Apply the Doppler effect equations for sound.
A sound wave of frequency 500 Hz is emitted by a stationary source toward a receding observer. The
signal is reflected by the observer and received by the source, where the frequency is measured and
found to be 480 Hz. What is the speed of the observer?
Answer: let represent the speed of the observer.
11.2.6. Outline an example in which the Doppler effect is used to measure speed.
• Blood-flow measurements
• Measurement of vehicle speeds
11.3. Diffraction
11.3.1. Sketch the variation with the angle of diffraction of the relative intensity of light diffracted at a
single slit.
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11.4. Resolution
11.4.1. Sketch the variation with the angle of diffraction of the relative intensity of light emitted by two
point sources that has been diffracted at a single slit.
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11.4.2. State the Rayleigh criterion for images of two sources to be just resolved.
• The Rayleigh criterion states that two sources are just resolved if the central maximum of the
diffraction pattern of one source falls on the first minimum of the other.
11.4.3. Describe the significance of resolution in the development of devices such as CD’s and DVD’s,
the electron microscope and radio telescopes.
11.5. Polarization
11.5.1. Describe what is meant by polarized light.
• Polarized light is light whose waves only oscillate along one plane.
11.5.2. Describe polarization by reflection.
11.5.7. Describe the use of polarization in the determination of the concentration of certain solutions.
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12.1.1. Describe the inducing of an e.m.f by relative motion between a conductor and a magnetic field.
12.2.1. Describe the emf induce in a coil rotating within a uniform magnetic field.
12.2.3. Describe the effect on the induced emf of changing the generator frequency.
12.2.4. Discuss what is meant by the root mean squared (rms) vale of an alternating current or voltage.
12.2.5. State the relation between peak and rms values for sinusoidal currents and voltages.
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12.3.1. Outline the reasons for power losses in transmission lines and real transformers.
12.3.2. Explain the use of high-voltage step-up and step-down transformers in the transmission of
electrical power.
12.3.3. Solve problems on the operation of real transformers and power transmission.
12.3.4. Suggest how extra-low-frequency electromagnetic fields, such as those created by electrical
appliances and power lines, induce currents within a human body.
12.3.5. Discuss some of the possible risks involved in living and working near high-voltage power
lines.
surface of a metal.
13.1.2. Describe the concept of the photon, and use it to explain the photoelectric effect.
• Einstein suggested that the energy carried by light is quantized by small light particles called
photons that carry electromagnetic energy proportional to their frequencies.
• There is a minimum energy required for an electron to break free.
• An electron gains energy from a colliding photon. Therefore the energy gained by each electron is
determined by the frequency. Thus light intensity will impact the number of electrons emitted, but
not affect their maximum kinetic energy.
• The energy of a photon is equal to the work function of the electron and its kinetic energy:
• A photon is an elementary particle of light that carries electromagnetic energy proportional to its
frequency. A photon has zero mass, zero electric charge and indefinite lifetime. It travels at the
speed of light.
13.1.3. Describe and explain an experiment to test the Einstein model (Millikan).
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IB Physics 2009: Syllabus Summary
Catherine Zhu
• Electron being confined to a box, will move as a standing wave of wavelength . Momentum of
• Thus, .
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IB Physics 2009: Syllabus Summary
Catherine Zhu
time.
• If a particle has a uniquely defined de Broglie wavelength, its momentum is known precisely but all
knowledge of its position is lost.
• By shooting charged particles with ever-higher kinetic energy, it is possible to decrease the
distance of closest approach d to the radius of the stationary nucleus.
13.2.2. Describe how the masses of nuclei may be determined using a Bainbridge mass spectrometer.
radius.
• Thus, measurement of the radius will allow for
determination of the atoms mass.
13.2.3. Describe one piece of evidence for the existence of nuclear energy levels.
Radioactive Decay
13.2.4. Describe ß+ decay, including the existence of the neutrino.
• In β+ decay, energy is used to convert a proton into a neutron, a positron and a neutrino.
•
• Beta plus decay cannot occur in isolation, because it requires energy, the mass of the neutron
being greater than the mass of the proton.
• Beta plus decay can only happen inside nuclei when the absolute value of the binding energy of the
daughter nucleus is higher than that of the mother nucleus. The difference between these energies
goes into the reaction of converting a proton into a neutron, a positron and a neutrino and into the
kinetic energy of these particles.
•
13.2.5. State the radioactive decay laws as an exponential function and define the decay constant.
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IB Physics 2009: Syllabus Summary
Catherine Zhu
Glossary
Fidelity: similarity between the original signal and the reproduced signal.
Perfect reproduction: the recording sounds the same no matter how many times you play it.
ADC: analog-to-digital converter.
DAC: digital-to-analog converter.
Sampling rate: controls how many samples are taken per second.
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IB Physics 2009: Syllabus Summary
Catherine Zhu
Sampling precision: controls how many different gradations are possible when taking the sample.
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