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AQUACULTURE ENGINEERING

MS324 AQUACULTURE IN PACIFIC ISLAND COUNTRIES

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
Students will be able to describe, and demonstrate understanding of: Aquaculture systems longlines, rafts, cages, ponds, tanks, raceways Seawater systems - open systems, and closed systems Site selection importance of a good site, site selection criteria Seawater intakes - importance of a good intake, requirements Water filtration - types of particles, types of filters Water reconditioning - bio-filters Water disinfection reducing bacteria, fungi, viruses with UVlight or chemicals Temperature control heaters, chillers Aeration Carrying capacity of an aquaculture system Electrical safety

What do fish need?

GOOD FOOD and CLEAN WATER!

ENGINEERING ISSUES

The main engineering issue facing the aquaculturist is obtaining clean water for the fish farm. A secondary issue is ensuring that the farmed fish do not escape.
NB Feeding fish is a nutritional issue, not an engineering issue (unless a special automatic fish-feeder is to be used)

AQUACULTURE SYSTEMS
Various

aquaculture systems are available to obtain water, and prevent fish escaping.
range from extensive to intensive

These

Re-stocking (Sea ranching)


Organisms

are released into the natural environment from a hatchery


structures are needed at all

No

Longlines and rafts


Open-water structures non-motile organism is suspended in the water column mostly used for filter-feeding molluscs like mussels or for seaweeds (do not need supplementary feeding) need fairly sheltered locations do still require good water movement (rely on the water column for plankton food or for inorganic nutrients).

Pacific oyster raft

Seaweed longline

Longlines and rafts


Degree

of control?

Investment? Operating

costs? risk?

Pathological

Cages

Open-water structures contains motile organism (usually fish) and stops them escaping Fish will need supplementary feeding Cages require sheltered-water location and strong moorings, so they are not uprooted by rough weather. But still need sufficient water movement to bring clean water, and flush fish wastes away. If cages are placed in bays with insufficient water exchange, then water quality deteriorates. This is harmful to the farmed fish, and to natural biota in the area.

Grouper seacages

Site selection for cages is important

Cages
Degree

of control?

Investment? Operating

costs? risk?

Pathological

Ponds
are closed systems which serve the purpose of: preventing animals from escaping enable some control of the animals environment help protect them from predation or other hazards. Ponds may be earthen, or may be lined with a synthetic material like plastic or rubber.

Earthen ponds
soil

chemistry must be studied to find out what effect the soil may have on pond water quality. Soil pH, alkalinity, and presence of toxic substances like heavy metals need to be tested to ensure they are all at safe levels for the fish or for humans that eat the fish. Slightly acidic soils will need preparation by liming before ponds are filled, to raise the pH. Acid sulphate soils (often found behind mangrove areas) can have pH as low as 4.5, and should be avoided.

Earthen pond (tilapia, prawn)

Lined ponds
Installation

of pond liners makes water quality independent of soil chemistry This gives the farmer a lot of control over the pond water quality It is expensive in terms of capital costs (money up front) though it can save money in farm operating costs (pond maintenance) later on.

Lined pond (shrimp)

Pond construction
Ponds

need to be constructed in a certain way, however this differs between species and culture methods, and from site to site. information about pond construction will not be given here, but may be explained during the lectures for particular species, for example tilapia.

Detailed

Ponds
Degree

of control?

Investment? Operating

costs? risk?

Pathological

Tanks and raceways

are built on land (often indoors) provide very good control of water quality for optimal environmental conditions

The expense of building tanks and pumping water into them can usually only be justified for the most intensive types of aquaculture, e.g: (1) the short period of the lifecycle when fish are larvae (hatchery operations), or; (2) for grow-out of very high-value species like ornamental fish.

Outdoor tanks

Indoor tanks

Raceways

Tank water systems can be divided into two categories:


1. 2.

Open systems - incoming seawater is flowing through all the time Closed systems - there is no incoming seawater

Flow-through tank system


Seacages

and longlines are called open systems, because the farm is in the sea and water is flowing past all the time. Land-based tank, raceway or pond systems are also called open systems if water is being pumped through all the time. This is called a flow-through system

Flow-through system
Water

is only used once - it trickles into the tank, then overflows down a drain and runs away to waste.

The

advantage is that this guarantees the cleanest tank water, with continuous flushing of fish wastes.
disadvantage is that large quantities of good-quality seawater must be available at moderate cost.

The

Raceways

Static system
The

simplest closed system is the static system (sometimes called a batch culture) a tank is filled with water and left with no water flowing through it. Every so often a percentage of the dirty water is drained out, and refilled with clean water. A marine aquarium is an example of a static closed system. It is used in situations where seawater is very difficult to obtain.

Static system

Recirculating system

Another closed system is the recirculating system. Water overflows out of fish tanks, is collected and treated (mechanical filtration and/or biofiltration) then pumped back to a storage tank to be re-used. A percentage of the total water volume in the recirculating system will need to be drained out periodically and refilled with new, clean water.

Recirculation system
The

advantage of recirculation is that water can be used more than once, which saves money in situations where quality seawater is difficult or expensive to obtain. disadvantage is that, despite treatment, the water quality will still slowly deteriorate as fish metabolites accumulate in the water.

The

Summary of tank systems

A flow-through system is best - it guarantees best fish health with a minimum of expense on water treatments. But it depends upon availability of a site with an abundance of goodquality seawater. A static system is worst in terms of fish health, with high operating costs and high-technology required to keep the water clean. A recirculating system is in-between the other two, in terms of maintaining good fish health at reasonable cost.

Tanks and raceways


Degree

of control?

Investment? Operating

costs? risk?

Pathological

Site selection

When choosing a site for aquaculture, three things are very important: 1. LOCATION 2. LOCATION 3. LOCATION

Bitter experience over the years shows that selection of the right site is the single most important factor in determining the success or failure of aquaculture projects.

Ideally a project proposer should go through a site selection process, where a range of technical factors are considered: water not too rough, or prone to heavy flooding a water supply is available (river, well, dam, seawater) water temperature in the optimum range for your species water salinity, pH, alkalinity, nutrients etc in optimum range no toxins or pollution few diseases or predators in the area road access, electricity, telephone, drinking water supply

There are also legal factors, such as: Who owns the site? Can it be bought or leased? Is the area zoned in planning laws as available for aquaculture?
Social factors include: Is labour available? Are there people nearby who may steal farmed fish?

The

reality is that few aquaculture sites are ideal in every way project proposers do not carry out any site selection process at all. There may be good reasons for that. What could they be?

Often

Few aquaculture sites may be available in the area. Or the site may have been determined right from the start, because the land being used is land already owned by the project proposers.

In this case, the proposers should go through a species selection process, where different species are analysed and one chosen with biology and preferences that match the environmental conditions of the site.

Which species or organism to culture?


How

do you decide which organism to culture? 1) Biological characteristics 2) Economic and Market Considerations 3) Introduction of Exotic Species

Biological Characteristics

Growth Rate (some exceptions if slow growing but very high value)

Size and Age at Maturity- better if they reach marketable size before becoming sexually mature. (many breeders available for hatchery but not ideal for growth). Duration (Days of Culture) adaptability to captive environment. Tropical species perform better at higher temp. but it is difficult and expensive to do so in a cold environment- may not be profitable. Can be cultured under semi or intensive systems- high population/ crowding. can tolerate unfavourable conditions- high/low temp or low DO. Resistant to diseases.

Production under cultured condition

Organisms that are Hardy


Breeding in captivity- can produce seeds for stocking in a hatchery.

High fecundity and frequency of spawning is an advantage. Short larval rearing period is also desirable. Larvae that consume inert feeds rather than live feeds may also be desirable.

Wild breeders or juvenile availability. Feeding Behaviour- a herbivorous or omnivorous maybe cheaper to culture. Carnivores would require higher protein diets and at a higher cost but they also tend to fetch a higher market price.

Economic and Market Consideration

Proven technology-information/ technical assistance or know-how available.

Less info may require pilot studies and commercial trials.

Are there any priorities- national/ regional. Consumer acceptance and availability of markets.

If no market exists it maybe developed but this can take a long time and effort.

Consideration can be given to an introduced species whose technologies, economics and marketability has already been demonstrated.

Introducing an Exotic species

Introductions must be done only if it is necessary. Proper procedures will reduce the risk of undesirable consequences. Considerations for introduction:

Fill a need because of the absence of a similar desirable species in that locality. Not compete with valuable native species, contributing to their decline. Not cross with local native species to produce undesirable hybrids. Not be accompanied by pests, parasites or diseases that might attack native species. Live and reproduce in equilibrium with its new environment.

Turner (1949) in Pillay T. V. R. (1990).

PILOT PROJECT
A

small-scale pilot project can be done to test the chosen species at the chosen site, to find out any problems before too much money is spent. A small pond may be dug and stocked, or a small seacage tried out. In seaweed farming, the pilot project may be as simple as trying a test plot of one or two lines in a range of reef locations.

Poor site = $$$

A bad site can be made better, but money will need to be spent on improving it. How much money can be spent will depend upon economic analyses of the profitability of the venture. More money needed for improvements means less money for profit. Sometimes poor sites can be made into good ones, but many end up being abandoned even after much investment of money and effort.

Seawater intakes
Many

high-value marine species are farmed in terrestrial environments, to give maximum control over culture conditions. hatcheries, and growout of species like Penaeid shrimp in ponds, requires seawater to be pumped up onto the land.

Larvae

Seawater intakes
The

successful installation of a seawater intake is the single most important factor in the success of any land-based marinespecies aquaculture operation. More projects have failed because of problems and expense with seawater intakes than from any other reason. It does not matter how fancy the on-shore hatcheries and laboratories may appear. If a reliable supply of quality seawater is not available, then the whole project is pointless.

Seawater intakes
Seawater

intakes have to be in the sea. They therefore need to be firmly anchored, and placed where storms or natural disasters will not uproot them. Such adverse events are usually infrequent, so their severity at a particular site may be difficult to predict. The farmer is taking a gamble.

Intake water quality


The

land-based hatchery or farm will require good-quality seawater that suits the biology of the farmed species. It is critical that the water body the seawater is being extracted from will be of good quality most of the time. If rainfall or flooding causes periods of low salinity or high turbidity (muddiness) then the farm will be deprived of water and cannot function.

Intakes located in shallow water will not provide quality water if:
the

bottom mud is being stirred up by breaking waves, or; brackish water is floating on top of the more-dense seawater, or; rubbish is drawn up the pipe.

The deeper the intake (more than 5m), the better the seawater.

Intake screen
Intakes

require a screen to prevent rubble or debris being drawn up the pipe and damaging the pump. Mesh screens cannot be too fine, however, or bio-fouling (barnacles, oysters etc) will block the holes and prevent water being pumped. Roughly one-inch holes in the screen are usually adequate.

Exercise:
Study

the photos of the two seawater intakes shown on the next slides. their advantages and disadvantages.

Discuss

Decide

which intake will give best seawater with least problems.

And if that water is no good, then we have to do this

Water filtration
Even

good seawater sources usually require some sort of water treatment before it can be added to the fish tanks. is the term for straining particles out of water.

Filtration

There are usually three things that need to be filtered:


1.
2.

3.

Sediment, that could clog the gills of animals Zooplankton, especially predators of hatchery larvae, or larvae of biofouling organisms that can settle, grow, and clog up hatchery pipes Bacteria, that may cause diseases

Stages of filtration
Filtration

is usually done in stages, from coarse to fine. The number of stages depends upon the hatchery requirements. first stage is the intake screen, usually filtering out particles of size about an inch (25mm).

The

Sand filter
The

second stage is usually a sand filter, to remove the worst of the larger sediment particles, the bigger zooplankton, and eggs of various kinds. This requires filtration of particles in the range of 75-100 microns (thousandths of a millimetre). Sand filters require periodic back-flushing, whereby the water flow is run backwards to unclog the sand and clean the filter before water is made to run forwards again.

Cartridge filter
The

third stage is to remove phytoplankton and zooplankton, usually done by a cartridge filter. Different cartridges can be fitted to provide different pore sizes, and for phytoplankton removal are usually in the range of 2-10 microns. To remove bacteria or very fine sediment particles (if this needs to be done) a cartridge filter with pore size of 1 micron or less is required.

It

is important that coarse filtration is done before fine filters are used, or the fine filters will clog very rapidly. Filter cartridges used for removal of bacteria will eventually clog, so their performance must be regularly inspected. Even if not clogged, the filter cartridge should be removed every couple of days and soaked in a chlorine bath to disinfect it before re-use. This is because of "bacterial creep" whereby, through cell division, living bacterial cultures can grow their way through from one side of the filter material to the other.

Other

types of filter technology are available, for example diatomaceous-earth filters, filter bags, micro-screens, and sedimentation tanks. the methods described above are the main ones.

However

Water Reconditioning
Reconditioning

refers to removal of toxic metabolites (fish waste products) of which the various forms of inorganic nitrogen are the most critical. Marine organisms excrete nitrogenous waste in the form of ammonia, mainly through their gills. Faeces and uneaten food in the water are broken down by bacteria, releasing more ammonia. Ammonia exists in two forms in seawater. Unionized ammonia (NH3) is very toxic to fish. Ionized ammonia (NH4+) is not very toxic.

Monitoring ammonia
It

is important that large-scale hatchery operators monitor levels of un-ionized ammonia and ensure that it remains less than values known to be toxic for their organism. Remember, however, that analytical chemists are in the habit of measuring total ammonia (NH3 + NH4+) so you will need to make a special request for them to measure unionized ammonia only. If ammonia reaches problem levels (>1ppm) in an open system, then the flow of incoming water will need to be increased.

Bio-filtration

In a closed system, removal of ammonia can be achieved by bio-filtration. Ammonia released by fish enters the nitrogen cycle in seawater. Naturally-occurring aerobic bacteria called nitrifying bacteria can convert ammonia first to nitrite, which is also highly toxic to fish (>1ppm), and then to nitrate which is not very toxic (up to 100ppm before it is toxic). This process is called nitrification, and results in ammonia-rich water being converted to a less toxic state. In hatchery tanks there are usually insufficient nitrifying bacteria to handle the large output of wastes from high stock densities of fish.

Bio-filters
Bio-filters

can be included in recirculation systems to provide a greatly increased aerobic surface area for growth of nitrifying bacteria. The bio-filter may consist of rolled-up plastic netting, or specially molded plastic "bioballs", and have water trickled through it like a waterfall. Live rock is also a bio-filtration medium, now very popular for use in marine aquarium tanks.

Water Disinfection
Disinfection

is reduction in the number of bacteria, fungi and viruses to safe levels. is the complete elimination of such organisms, however this is usually not needed, or is not possible, or is not even desirable if bio-filtration is being used in the system.

Sterilization

Disinfection is needed for two situations: Surface disinfection of tanks, pipes, scoopnets, filters, hoses, buckets or other equipment 2. Disinfection of the water itself
1.

The first is easier to do, because after disinfection with toxic chemical agents, the equipment can be rinsed off with clean water. The second is more difficult because chemical agents must be removed before animals can be placed in the disinfected water.

Chemical disinfectants

include chlorine, ammonium compounds, formalin, and iodine compounds. Chlorine is the most common one used in hatcheries, usually applied as sodium hypochlorite solution (common household bleach, for example Janola). After surface sterilization the bleach must be removed by liberal rinsing with a freshwater hose, or by exchange of 6 - 10 tank volumes before animals are introduced to the tank.. To disinfect water, chlorine can be added at 1 5ppm concentration and then removed by allowing the water to stand in the tank for a couple of days with air bubbling through it.

Ultra-violet light

can be used to disinfect both surfaces, and water. UV light causes chromosome damage to bacteria and prevents them from replicating. Inoculation of micro-algal cultures often requires sterilization of work surfaces and equipment before and after the inoculation steps are carried out. Water passing through a pipe can also be disinfected by having it flow through a transparent portion surrounded by a jacket of UV lamps. It has the advantage that nothing gets added to the water that can affect cultured organisms. It has the disadvantage that high flow rate or high turbidity of water will reduce its effectiveness.

Temperature control

Despite being located in the tropics, hatcheries in Pacific island countries often have incoming water that is either too cold or too hot. Sea shrimp Penaeus monodon larvae require tank temperature close to 27-28 degreees Celsius. In Fiji during the cool months, hatchery tank water can fall as low as 23 degrees Celsius, and needs to be heated. During the hot months it can rise to 32 degrees Celsius, and needs to be chilled. One of the properties of water is that it is thermally very conservative (resistant to temperature change). This means that a lot of energy is required to change the temperature of a volume of water even by one degree.

Chiller

A seawater chiller is a refrigeration unit used to cool seawater. It works the same way as an air conditioner, but acts on seawater. The seawater inflow pipe runs through a heat exchanger alongside another counter-flowing pipe containing a refrigerant maintained at a set temperature by the chiller's refrigeration unit. This works best in a recirculation system, where chilled water an be re-used, rather than on a flowthrough system where the water is chilled once then thrown away.

Heater

A seawater heater can be as simple as an electrical element, the same as that used in an electric kettle for making tea. The element is usually contained in a glass or titanium tube, that is immersed in the seawater tank. At one end of the heater is a thermostat unit for temperature level adjustment. The heaters are sealed units that can be placed completely underwater. Three 300Watt units or one 1000W unit are usually enough to raise one tonne of seawater from 24 degrees to 28 degrees Celsius.

Heat exchanger
To

create large volumes of heated or chilled water in a flow-through system, a heat exchanger must be used. can be several metres long with pipework operating on the counter-flow system. They require a lot of electricity to operate, so your power bill will be high.

These

Aeration
Air bubbled through the water column has two purposes:
1. 2.

Increases dissolved-oxygen (DO) level in the tank water, and; Creates water movement, to keep larvae up in the water column and evenly spread out in the tank space.

Aeration can be provided by compressors, or by blowers

Compressor

Provides air at high pressure but at low volume Good for making bubbles in deep water Bad at making the air wet (a source of tank contamination Wear out quickly

Blower

Provides air at low pressure but at high volume Good for supplying a lot of tanks, but the water must stay shallow (less than 1m approx.) Delivers very dry, clean air Not many wearing parts

Carrying capacity

Carrying capacity refers to the amount of farmed organism that can be placed in an aquaculture system without adversely affecting growth or survival.
There are a variety of units for measuring carrying capacity, including:

Volumetric density = mass of animal (kg)/volume of water (L) Volumetric abundance = nos. of animal (kg)/volume of water (L) Areal density = mass of animal (kg)/area of water (m2) Areal abundance = nos. of animal/ area of water (m2)

It

is difficult to provide any general rules for carrying capacity, since every aquaculture system is different in its characteristics, and every species is different in its requirements.

Aquaculturists

will need to become familiar with the published literature on the tolerances of their organism, and; will have to monitor water quality on a regular basis to ensure that safe carrying capacity limits for that species are not being exceeded.

Water quality monitoring

The two most important water quality parameters are the level of un-ionized ammonia, and the level of dissolved oxygen. Excessive un-ionized ammonia indicates that too many fish are excreting wastes into the water. Low dissolved oxygen indicates too many fish are taking up oxygen from the water. It also indicates that too many fish are excreting wastes, since the bacteria that decompose fish wastes are themselves aerobic and consume oxygen.

Levels

of ammonia increase if pH increases, and the amount of dissolved oxygen is reduced if temperature increases. There are therefore four water quality parameters that conscientious aquaculturists measure regularly: - un-ionized ammonia NH3 - dissolved oxygen - pH - temperature For marine organisms, a fifth parameter must also be monitored - salinity.

Electrical safety
Electricity

and seawater do not mix very well. Seawater is a salt solution that is a good conductor of electricity. A current leak that might only give you a "tingle" in a freshwater system could be deadly in a seawater system. You must be very careful when using electrical equipment or appliances in a seawater aquaculture system.

Good advice when using electricity:

All electrical circuits should have ground fault interrupters, either in the switchboard itself or by plugging your appliance into a portable transformer unit. Make sure your electrical appliances and all power cords are in good condition Avoid splashing seawater around, and regularly hose down the place with freshwater, to prevent salt cake buildup on surfaces and around electrical sockets Do not place any electrical equipment under water pipes, or tanks, or anywhere that water can fall or splash onto it, or drip from condensation on outside of pipes. Even aeration of seawater with air stones can cause a salt aerosol spray to drift through the air and onto electrics. Overhead placement of electrical sockets are better than wallmounted sockets. Every so often, mains power should be turned off and power sockets and extension leads be rinsed thoroughly in fresh water and dried out again with methanol, to remove salt build-up.

Reading (in PIMRIS Library)

Hugenin

& Colt Design and operating guide for aquaculture seawater systems
Pillay Aquaculture Principles and Practices Chpt. 4, 6. DR Aquaculture Training Manual

TVR

Swift

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