Depositional Environments

Francis, 2009

Deposition occurs when fluid velocity decreases

Bedforms also change systematically with the velocity of fluid flow

Facies Models for Depositional Environments

Sedimentary Facies: Lithology or group of lithologies characterizing by a specific set of depositional conditions or environment. Commonly relies on the presence of characteristic types and proportions of lithologies, well as the recognition of characteristic vertical successions in lithology, grain-size, and/or sedimentary structures.
a. Continental Settings Piedmont Alluvial fans Braided rivers Flood Plain Meandering rivers Fresh-water deltas b. Marine Settings

Marine deltas
Neritic (continental shelf or epeirogenic seas) Continental slopes and rises Abyssal basins

Walthers Rule of Facies Succession:

In a conformable sequence of sedimentary facies, vertically succeeding facies must laterally coexist in time with the facies they succeed. As an example, examine the schematic representation below of an idealized prograding continental margin, comparing what is observed in a single stratigraphic fining-upwards sequence, with what is actually happening on a regional scale.

The above diagram demonstrates that lithologic beds are typically diachronous, and lithologic boundaries thus do not represent constant time lines on a regional scale!

Piedmont:
Alluvial Fan Deposits form when mountain streams experience a sharp change in slope. Alluvial fans are characterized by rapid changes in flow regimes associated with punctual events such as storms. Immediately following a storm, transport processes will be very active, at other times there is little surface water runoff and the fan is in active. Coarse clastic sediments move during flood stages associated with storms, but water movement ceases rapidly after storms, and the last water typically seeps into the porous coarse sediment, before it can deposit its silt load.

Alluvial Fans

Dry Alluvial Fan

Steele Creek Alluvial Fan after rain storm

Piedmonts form by coalescing alluvial fans along the break in slope of mountain belts, commonly along fault scarps separating mountain ranges from intervening basins.

Alluvial Fan deposits

Alluvial fan deposits are characterized by an abundance of coarse gravels (including large boulders) and sands, with only minor silt seams. Bedding is crudely developed, and there are frequent abrupt vertical and lateral facies changes due abrupt variations in water discharge and the small size and frequent migration of stream channels. Sheet-like diamictites formed by mud flows following severe strorms or spring thaws may be relatively common. Red oxidized Fe-hydroxide coatings are common on the clastic grains, and is indicative of sub-aerial oxidation.

Alluvial Fans to Braided Rivers

Braided River Deposits

Braded streams are distal versions of alluvial flans, and are characterized by high sediment loads, frequently shifting channels, and the presence of numerous mid-stream islands and bars. There is a lower abundance of the very large clasts that typify alluvial fans, but gravels and coarse sands still dominate the clastic sediments, with few and thin silt/clay seams. These deposits are also characterized by abrupt facies changes because of the frequent migration of stream channels, and the prominent development of coarse tabular cross-bedding produced by wash over of migrating midstream bars and islands during flood stages.

Flood Plain - Meandering River Deposits

Mature river systems meandering across alluvial plains produce two different types of deposits; fining-upwards point-bar sequences representing the growth and downstream migration of point bars that are deposited in or near the active channel and silt/mud overbank deposits that form far from the channel during flood stages of the river. Meandering river depositional sequences are characterized their relatively high proportions of shale and/or clay to sand, with only minor gravel, and the presence of systematic fining upwards sequences in the sandy units.

Flood Plain - Meandering River Deposits

Over-Bank Deposits Over-bank deposits are dominated by fine silts and clay that are deposited during flood stages and are often later colonized by the roots of plants and trees. Meandering river deposits are characterized by a much greater proportion of silts and clays with respect to sands than is typically found in braided river deposits. Point-Bar Sequences Point-bar deposits comprise systematic finingupwards sequences, from basal gravel lag deposits, through trough cross-bedded to ripple crosslaminated sands, and then parallel laminated siltstones, marking the growth of a point bar into a channel. Trough cross bedding is a characteristic feature of meandering river deposits, they represent the preserved foreset beds of dunes migrating down stream

Meandering Rivers

Comparative Fluvial Deposits

Two types of fining upwards sequences Braided Meandering

Gilbert Deltas
Rivers entering fresh water lakes typically have densities similar to that of the lake water itself (homopycnal flow), and as a result they slow quickly and dump their sediment load close to shore. In such situations, "Gilbert " deltas are produced.

Gilbert deltas are characterized by an overall coarsening or shallowing upwards sequences dominated by high angle cross beds (10-25o) with associated bottom and top set beds.

Marine Deltas
Fresh water rivers entering salt water behave differently than in fresh water lakes because fresh water typically has a lower density (hypopycnal flow) than salt water. As a result, the fresh water flow detaches from the bottom and rises over the salt water along the surface. This produces a complete separation between the bed load carried by traction and saltation along the bottom and the finer silts and clays carried in suspension. As a result sand and gravel are deposited close to the mouth, whereas, silts and clays are carried much further out to sea. Homopycnal flow: fresh-water Gilbert deltas with high angle cross bedding.

Hyperpycnal flow: In glacial terranes, the density of silt-laden streams (hyperpycnal flow) may exceed that of the fresh water in glacial lakes, in which case flow continues along the bottom of the lake basin, forming turbidite-like deposits. Delta development is minimal.

Hypopycnal flow: in comparison to fresh water Gilbert deltas, Marine deltas extend much further from the river mouth, have much lower, but more extended profiles, and are characterized by very low angle cross bedding.

Neritic Environment (0 - 200 m)

Shallow marine basins and continental shelves are characterized by extensive flat areas of shallow water depth, between 0 and ~ 200 metres. Because of the shallow water depths, sediment in these areas is constantly being reworked by tidal currents, storm waves, and even biologic activity on the sea floor. Furthermore, the distribution of sediment is complicated by major temporal variations in sea level, which have seen the coastline migrate from high elevations above the present down to -200 m at the outer edge of the continental shelf. The constant reworking of neritic sediments typically does an efficient job of winnowing the fine silts and clays from the coarser sands, re-depositing them in quieter water environments. As a result of all this reworking, the sediment distribution can be very complicated, and is not simply related to distance from the coast or water depth. Furthermore proximity to major sediment inputs, such as the mouths of rivers, can have a large effect on the local distribution of sediments. At higher latitudes, many continental shelves are covered with tills deposited by glaciers advancing across the shelf during times of low sea level stand. At low latitudes, on the other hand, carbonate reef buildups become common and provide a important source for clastic carbonate sediments.

Continental Slopes and Rises (200 - 2000 m):

The slopes of the continental shelf are comprised of coalescing turbidite fans in an analogous manner to the alluvial fans of non-marine piedmonts. The sedimentation mechanism on these marine fans, however, is quit different, in that most of the sediment transport is by episodic turbidity currents.

Turbidity currents are typically initiated by slope failure high on the continental slope that produces landslides and debris flows. Down slope, these debris flows transform into turbid currents that hug the bottom because of the high density of the sediment - water mixture. They can travel at speeds approaching 100 km/hr and reach distances well over 500 km out onto the abyssal plains.

Continental Slopes and Rises (200 - 2000 m):

Turbidity Currents

Turbidite Deposits

"Bouma" sequence:
Each sand-shale couplets exhibit a characteristic sequence of bed forms known as a Bouma sequence

Division E:

parallel laminated mudstone or shale which may in part represent inter-turbidite terrigenous sediments.

Silt / Clay
Division D: parallel laminated siltstones corresponding to plane silt/clay beds of the lower flow regime. ripple cross-laminated, climbing ripples common. parallel laminated sand corresponding to the plane beds of the upper flow regime. graded or massive coarse sands and gravel

Division C:

Sand

Division B:

Division A:

Turbidite Deposits

Turbidite deposits are characterized by sequences of alternating sandstone and mudstone beds, with repeat intervals typically less than a meter:

Each sand-shale couplet represents the deposit of single turbidity current, followed by background pelagic sedimentation until the next turbidity current event. There is a noted absence of trough cross bedding, indicating the absence of migrating dunes; and a common presence of climbing ripples, indicating high sediment fall out.

Facies Distribution in a Submarine Turbidite Fan:

There are many variants on the classic Bouma sequence in terms of bed and couplet thickness, average grain size, proportions of gravel, sand, and shale, etc., however, the vertical succession of sedimentary structures within any individual sand-shale couplet always remains the same. The character and evolution of Bouma sequences can be used to infer ones position within a turbidite fan, eg. proximal, distal, channel, overbank, etc.

The rate of progradation of turbidite fans around the continental shelf is greatest at low stands of sea level, when the rate of sediment delivery to the shelf edge is greatest, as is the rate of erosion. This was especially true in glaciated terrains, where glaciers advance to the edge of the continental shelve, delivering very high sediment loads to the continental slopes. At the present high stand of sea level, turbidite fans are relatively, though not completely, inactive.

Thin-Bedded Distal Turbidites

Turbidites mid-fan facies

Turbidites proximal channel facies

Abyssal Basins (> 2000 m):

The deep ocean basins are characterized by water depths of 2000 - 5000 m. The sediments in such environments are typically clays and oozes formed by the accumulation of the skeletons of pelagic organisms that have settled through the water column. Distal turbidites may also be present. Clay and pelagic material also settle out in shallow water environments, but are swamped by the input of clastic sediment. Sedimentation rates in the deep oceans, however, are very low (on the order of 1 cm/ 1000yrs). Red Terrigenous Clay:
The most widespread sediment on the abyssal floor is red clay. This clay probably has a complex origin, including wind blown dust, meteoritic dust, volcanic ash, and possible clay sized terrigenous material. The red colour of this sediment probably reflects the relatively oxidizing nature of the cold abyssal waters, which are poor in organic material.

Calcareous Oozes:
At water depths less than 3500 meters, calcareous oozes are common. These represent the accumulated skeletons of the floating foraminifera, such as "Globigerina", one of the few modern organisms that secrete calcite tests. Such sediments are not found in deeper water, below the carbonate compensation depth, because CaCO3 is undersaturated in these colder deep waters, and the skeletons dissolve.

Siliceous Oozes:
Below 3500 meters, siliceous oozes become common, formed by the settling of the silica skeletons of diatoms (aquatic algae) and radiolarian (planktonic protozoan). Diatoms occur preferentially in the colder waters of high latitudes.