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Hydraulics

Training Manual 1

BASIC HYDRAULICS AND HYDRAULIC PLUMBING

TABLE OF CONTENTS


Section Page

Subcourse Overview ................................................. i

Administrative Instructions ....................................... iv

Grading and Certification Instructions ............................ iv

Lesson 1: Basic Hydraulics ....................................... 1

Practice Exercise ..................................... 19

Answer Key and Feedback ............................... 22

Lesson 2: Hydraulic Plumbing .................................... 25

Practice Exercise ..................................... 69

Answer Key and Feedback ............................... 71

Appendix A: Proof Testing of Hose Assemblies ...................... 72

Appendix B: Glossary .............................................. 73

Examination ....................................................... 78

Student Inquiry Sheet

















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LESSON 1

BASIC HYDRAULICS

STP TASK: 551-758-1071

OVERVIEW

LESSON DESCRIPTION: In this lesson you will learn the definition of
hydraulics, its basic applications and
characteristics, and the types of hydraulic
fluid used.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE:

ACTION: After this lesson you will demonstrate a knowledge of
the principles of hydraulics, its characteristics and
applications, and the fluids used in the system.

CONDITIONS: You will study the material in this lesson in a
classroom environment or at home.

STANDARD: You will correctly answer all the questions in the
practice exercise before you proceed to the next
lesson.

REFERENCES: The material contained in this lesson was derived from
the following publications, FM 1-509, FM 10-69, and TM
1-1500-204-23 Series


INTRODUCTION

Hydraulics has proven to be the most efficient and economical system
adaptable to aviation. First used by the ancient Greeks as a means
of elevating the stages of their amphitheaters, the principles of
hydraulics were explained scientifically by the seventeenth century
scholars Pascal and Boyle. The laws










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discovered by these two men regarding the effects of pressure and
temperature on fluids and gases in confined areas form the basis of
the principle of mechanical advantage; in other words, the "why and
how" of hydraulics.

This chapter explains to you the basic applications of hydraulics in
Army aviation and the characteristics of these systems. The
explanations include detailed definitions of the terminology peculiar
to hydraulics with which you must be familiar to fully understand
this subject.

In aviation, hydraulics is the use of fluids under pressure to
transmit force developed in one location on an aircraft or other
related equipment to some other point on the same aircraft or
equipment. Hydraulics also includes the principles underlying
hydraulic action and the methods, fluids, and equipment used in
implementing those principles.

HYDRAULIC AND HYDRAULICS

The word "hydraulic" is derived from two Greek words: "hydro" meaning
liquid or water and "aulos" meaning pipe or tubing. "Hydraulic,"
therefore, is an adjective implying that the word it modifies is in
some major way concerned with liquids. Examples can be found in the
everyday usage of "hydraulic" in connection with familiar items such
as automobile jacks and brakes. As a further example, the phrase
"hydraulic freight elevator" refers to an elevator ascending and
descending on a column of liquid instead of using cables and a drum.

On the other hand, the word "hydraulics" is the generic name of a
subject. According to the dictionary "hydraulics" is defined as a
branch of science that deals with practical applications (such as the
transmission of energy or the effects of flow) of a liquid in motion.

USES OF HYDRAULICS ON ARMY AIRCRAFT

On fixed-wing aircraft, hydraulics is used to operate retractable
landing gear and wheel brakes and to control wing flaps and propeller
pitch. In conjunction with gases, hydraulics is used in the
operation of--

Rotor and wheel brakes.
Shock struts.
Shimmy dampers.
Flight control systems.


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Loading ramps.
Folding pylons.
Winch hoists.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

Hydraulic systems have many desirable features. However, one
disadvantage is the original high cost of the various components.
This is more than offset by the many advantages that make hydraulic
systems the most economical means of power transmission. The
following paragraphs discuss some of the advantages of hydraulic
systems.

Efficiency. Discounting any losses that can occur in its
mechanical linkage, practically all the energy transmitted through a
hydraulic system is received at the output end -- where the work is
performed. The electrical system, its closest competitor, is 15
percent to 30 percent lower in efficiency. The best straight
mechanical systems are generally 30 percent to 70 percent less
efficient than comparable hydraulic systems because of high inertia
factors and frictional losses. Inertia is the resistance to motion,
action, or change.

Dependability. The hydraulic system is consistently reliable.
Unlike the other systems mentioned, it is not subject to changes in
performance or to sudden unexpected failure.

Control Sensitivity. The confined liquid of a hydraulic system
operates like a bar of steel in transmitting force. However, the
moving parts are lightweight and can be almost instantaneously put
into motion or stopped. The valves within the system can start or
stop the flow of pressurized fluids almost instantly and require very
little effort to manipulate. The entire system is very responsive to
operator control.

Flexibility of Installation. Hydraulic lines can be run almost
anywhere. Unlike mechanical systems that must follow straight paths,
the lines of a hydraulic system can be led around obstructions. The
major components of hydraulic systems, with the exception of power-
driven pumps located near the power source, can be installed in a
variety of places. The advantages of this feature are readily
recognized when you study the many locations of hydraulic components
on various types of aircraft.

Low Space Requirements. The functional parts of a hydraulic
system are small in comparison to those of other systems; therefore,
the total space requirement is comparatively low.

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These components can be readily connected by lines of any length or
contour. They can be separated and installed in small, unused, and
out-of-the-way spaces. Large, unoccupied areas for the hydraulic
system are unnecessary; in short, special space requirements are
reduced to a minimum.

Low Weight. The hydraulic system weighs remarkably little in
comparison to the amount of work it does. A mechanical or electrical
system capable of doing the same job weighs considerably more. Since
nonpayload weight is an important factor on aircraft, the hydraulic
system is ideal for aviation use.

Self-Lubricating. The majority of the parts of a hydraulic system
operate in a bath of oil. Thus, hydraulic systems are practically
self-lubricating. The few components that do require periodic
lubrication are the mechanical linkages of the system.

Low Maintenance Requirements. Maintenance records consistently
show that adjustments and emergency repairs to the parts of hydraulic
systems are seldom necessary. The aircraft time-change schedules
specify the replacement of components on the basis of hours flown or
days elapsed and require relatively infrequent change of hydraulic
components.

FORCE

The word "force," used in a mechanical sense, means a push or pull.
Force, because it is a push or pull, tends to cause the object on
which it is exerted to move. In certain instances, when the force
acting on an object is not sufficient to overcome its resistance or
drag, no movement will take place. In such cases force is still
considered to be present.

Direction of Force. Force can be exerted in any direction. It
may act downward: as when gravity acts on a body, pulling it towards
the earth. A force may act across: as when the wind pushes a boat
across the water. A force can be applied upwards: as when an athlete
throws (pushes) a ball into the air. Or a force can act in all
directions at once: as when a firecracker explodes.

Magnitude of Force. The extent (magnitude) of a given force is
expressed by means of a single measurement. In the United States,
the "pound" is the unit of measurement of force. For example, it
took 7.5 million pounds of thrust (force) to lift the Apollo moonship
off its launch pad. Hydraulic force is measured in the amount of
pounds required to displace an object within a specified area such as
in a square inch.

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PRESSURE

The word "pressure," when used in conjunction with mechanical and
hydromechanical systems, has two different uses. One is technical;
the other, nontechnical. These two uses can be easily distinguished
from each other by the presence or absence of a number. In technical
use, a number always accompanies the word "pressure." In
nontechnical use no number is present. These definitions are further
explained in the following paragraphs.

Technical. The number accompanying pressure conveys specific
information about the significant strength of the force being
applied. The strength of this applied force is expressed as a rate
at which the force is distributed over the area on which it is
acting. Thus, pounds per square inch (psi) expresses a rate of
pressure just as miles per hour (mph) does of speed. An example of
this is: "The hydraulic system in UH-1 aircraft functions at 1500
psi."

Nontechnical. The word "pressure," when used in the nontechnical
sense simply indicates that an unspecified amount of force is being
applied to an object. Frequently adjectives such as light, medium,
or heavy are used to remove some of the vagueness concerning the
strength of the applied force.

PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

When used in the technical sense, pressure is defined as the amount
of force per unit area. To have universal, consistent, and definite
meaning, standard units of measurement are used to express pressure.
In the United States, the pound is the unit of measurement used for
force, and the square inch is the unit for area. This is comparable
with the unit of measurement used for speed: the mile is the unit of
measurement for distance, and the hour is the measurement for time.

A pressure measurement is always expressed in terms of both units of
measurement just explained: amount of force and unit area. However,
only one of these units, the amount of force, is variable. The
square inch is used only in the singular -- never more or less than
one square inch.

A given pressure measurement can be stated in three different ways
and still mean the same thing. Therefore, 50 psi pressure, 50 pounds
pressure, and 50 psi all have identical meanings.




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Examples of Pressure Measurement. A table with a 10-inch by 10-
inch flat top contains 100 square inches of surface. If a 100-pound
slab of exactly the same dimensions is placed on the table top, one
pound per square inch pressure is exerted over the entire table
surface.

Now, think of the same table (100 square inches) with a 100-pound
block instead of the slab resting on its top. Assume this block has
a face of only 50 square inches contacting the table. Because the
area of contact has been cut in half and the weight of the block
remains the same, the pressure exerted on the table doubles to 2 psi.

As a final example, suppose a long rod weighing 100 pounds with a
face of 1 square inch is balanced upright on the table top. The
pressure now being exerted on the table is increased to 100 psi,
since the entire load is being supported on a single square inch of
the table surface. These examples are illustrated in Figure 1-1.

Force-Area-Pressure Formulas. From the preceding discussion, you
can see that the formula to find the pressure acting on a surface is
"pressure equals force divided by area." If "P" is the symbol for
pressure, "A" the symbol for area, and F" the symbol for force, the
formula can be expressed as follows:



By transposing the symbols in this formula, two other important
formulas are derived: one for area; one for force. Respectively,
they are--



However, when using any of these formulas, two of the factors must
be known to be able to determine the third unknown factor.












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Figure 1-1. Measuring Pressure.



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The triangle shown in Figure 1-2 is a convenient memory device for
the force-area-pressure formulas. It helps you recall the three
factors involved: F, A, and P. Because the F is above the line in
the triangle, it also reminds you that in both formulas indicating
division, F is always divided by one of the other two factors.


Figure 1-2. Relationship of Force, Area, and Pressure.

TRANSMISSION OF FORCE

Two means of transmitting force are through solids and through
liquids. Since this text is on hydraulics, the emphasis is on
fluids. Force transmission through solids is presented only as a
means of comparison.

Transmission of Force Through Solids. Force applied at one point
on a solid body follows a straight line undiminished to an opposite
point on the body. This is illustrated in Figure 1-3.

Transmission of Force Through Confined Liquids. Applied forces
are transmitted through bodies of confined liquids in the manner
described by Pascal's Law. This law of physics, formulated in the
seventeenth century by the French mathematician Blaise Pascal,
states: pressure applied to any part of a confined liquid is
transmitted without change in intensity to all parts of the liquid.
This means that wherever it is applied on the body of liquid,

pressure
pushes equal force against every square inch of the interior surfaces
of the

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liquid's container. When pressure is applied to a liquid's container
in a downward direction, it will not only act on the bottom surface;
but on the sides and top as well.


Figure 1-3. Transmission of Force Through Solids.

The illustration in Figure 1-4 helps to better understand this
explanation. The piston on the top of the tube is driven downward
with a force of 100 psi. This applied force produces an identical
pressure of 100 psi on every square inch of the interior surface.
Notice the pressure on the interior surface is always applied at
right angles to the walls of the container, regardless of its shape.
From this it can be seen that the forces acting within a body of
confined liquid are explosive in pattern. If all sides are equal in
strength, they will burst simultaneously if sufficient force is
applied.









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Figure 1-4. Transmission of Force Through
Confined Liquids.

CHARACTERISTICS OF FLUIDS

The vast difference in the manner in which force is transmitted
through confined liquids, as compared with solid bodies, is due to
the physical characteristics of fluids -- namely, shape and
compressibility. Liquids have no definite shape; they readily and
instantly conform to the form of the container. Because of this
characteristic the entire body of confined fluid tends to move away
from the point of the initial force in all directions until stopped
by something solid such as the walls of the container. Liquids are
relatively incompressible. That is, they can only be compressed by
approximately 1 percent of their volume. Because liquids lack their
own shape and are incompressible, an applied force transmitted
through a body of liquid confined in a rigid container results in no
more compression than if it were transmitted through solid metal.

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Movement of Fluid Under Pressure. Force applied to a confined
liquid can cause the liquid to move only when that force exceeds any
other force acting on the liquid in an opposing direction. Fluid
flow is always in the direction of the lowest pressure. If the
opposing forces are equal, no movement of fluid takes place.

Fluid under pressure can flow into already filled containers only
if an equal or greater quantity simultaneously flows out of them.
This is an obvious and simple principle, but one that is easily
overlooked.

Effects of Temperature on Liquids. As in metals, temperature
changes produce changes in the size of a body of liquid. With the
exception of water, whenever the temperature of a body of liquid
falls, a decrease (contraction) in size of the body of fluid takes
place. The amount of contraction is slight and takes place in direct
proportion to the change in temperature.

When the temperature rises, the body of liquid expands. This is
referred to as "thermal expansion." The amount of expansion is in
direct proportion to the rise in temperature. Although the rate of
expansion is relatively small, it is important; some provision is
usually necessary in a hydraulic system to accommodate the increase
in size of the body of liquid when a temperature rise occurs.

MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE

By simple definition, mechanical advantage is equal to the ratio of a
force or resistance overcome by the application of a lesser force or
effort through a simple machine. This represents a method of
multiplying forces. In mechanical advantage, the gain in force is
obtained at the expense of a loss in distance. Discounting
frictional losses, the percentage gain in force equals the percentage
loss in distance. Two familiar applications of the principles of
mechanical advantage are the lever and the hydraulic jack. In the
case of the jack, a force of just a pound or two applied to the jack
handle can raise many hundreds of pounds of load. Note, though, that
each time the handle is moved several inches, the load is raised only
a fraction of an inch.

Application in Hydraulics. The principle used in hydraulics to
develop mechanical advantage is simple. Essentially it is obtained
by fitting two movable surfaces of different sizes to a confining
vessel, such as pistons within cylinders. The vessel is filled with
fluid, and force (input) is applied to



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the smaller surface. This pressure is then transferred, by means of
the fluid, to the larger surface where a proportional force (output)
is produced.

Rate. The rate mechanical advantage is produced by hydraulic
means is in direct proportion to the ratio of the size of the smaller
(input) area to the size of the larger (output) area. Thus, 10
pounds of force applied to one square inch of surface of a confined
liquid produces 100 pounds of force on a movable surface of 10 square
inches. This is illustrated in Figure 1-5. The increase in force is
not free, but is obtained at the expense of distance. In this case,
the tenfold increase in output force is gained at the expense of a
tenfold increase in distance over which the initial force is applied.


Figure 1-5. Hydraulics and Mechanical Advantage.

THE ROLE OF AIR IN HYDRAULICS

Some hydraulic components require air as well as hydraulic oil for
their operation. Other hydraulic components do not, and instead
their performance is seriously impaired if air accidentally leaks
into the system.

Familiarization with the basic principles of pneumatics aids in
understanding the operation of both the hydraulic components
requiring air as well as those that do not. It aids, also, in
understanding how air can upset the normal operation of a hydraulic
system if it is present in the system where it must not be.


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Air. When used in reference to hydraulics, air is understood to
mean atmospheric air. Briefly, air is defined as a complex,
indefinite mixture of many gases. Of the individual gases that make
up atmospheric air, 90 percent or more is oxygen and nitrogen.

Some knowledge of the physical characteristics of air is quite
important to this instruction. Because the physical properties of
all gases, including air, are the same, a study of these properties
is made with reference to gases in general. It is important to
realize, however, though similar in physical characteristics, gases
differ greatly in their individual chemical composition. This
difference makes some gases extremely dangerous when under pressure
or when they come in contact with certain substances.

Air and Nitrogen. Air and pure nitrogen are inert gases and are
safe and suitable for use in hydraulic systems.



Most frequently the air used in hydraulic systems is drawn out of the
atmosphere and forced into the hydraulic system by means of an air
compressor. Pure nitrogen, however, is available only as a
compressed bottle gas.

Application in Hydraulics. The ability of a gas to act in the
manner of a spring is important in hydraulics. This characteristic
is used in some hydraulic systems to enable these systems to absorb,
store, and release fluid energy as required. These abilities within
a system are often provided by means of a single component designed
to produce a springlike action. In most cases, such components use
air, even though a spring might be equally suitable from a
performance standpoint. Air is superior to a spring because of its
low weight and because it is not subject to failure from metal
fatigue as is a spring. The most common use of air in hydraulic
systems is found in accumulators and shock struts.





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Malfunctions Caused by Air. In general, all components and
systems that do not require gases in their operation are to some
extent impaired by the presence of air. Examples are excessive
feedback of loud noises from flight controls during operation, and
the failure of wheel and rotor brakes to hold. These malfunctions
can be readily corrected by "bleeding the system": a controlled way
of allowing the air to escape. The process is explained in detail in
the -20 TMs of the particular aircraft involved.

FLUIDS USED IN HYDRAULICS

Two general types of fluids can be used in the operation and
maintenance of hydraulic systems and equipment: vegetable-base and
mineral-base. Although both types of fluids possess characteristics
suitable for hydraulic use, they are not interchangeable, nor are
they compatible as mixtures. At present, only mineral base fluids
are used for the maintenance and operation of hydraulic systems and
self-contained hydraulic components of Army aircraft. Despite this,
vegetable-base hydraulic fluids cannot be left entirely out of this
discussion.

In the past, some Army aircraft have used vegetable-base fluids for
hydraulic system maintenance and operation. Also, all known brake
systems in automotive vehicles are currently being operated on
vegetable-base fluid. It is quite possible that a supply of this
type of fluid may erroneously fall into the aviation supply system.
Therefore, maintenance personnel must be familiar with both types of
fluids so they can recognize the error and avoid use of the improper
fluid. Moreover, knowledge of the effects of using the improper
fluid and the corrective action to take if this occurs is as
important as knowledge of the system itself.

Rubber parts of hydraulic systems are particularly sensitive to
incorrect fluids. The rubber parts used in systems operating on
vegetable-base fluids are made of natural rubber; those operating on
mineral-base fluids are made of synthetic rubber. Both types of
rubber are seriously damaged by contact with the wrong type of fluid.

Vegetable-Base Hydraulic Fluids. Vegetable-base hydraulic fluids
are composed essentially of castor oil and alcohol. These fluids
have an easily recognized pungent odor, suggestive of their alcohol
content.

There are two types of vegetable-base hydraulic fluids that
aviation personnel can be issued in error; aircraft and automotive
types. Their descriptions follow:


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The aircraft vegetable-base fluid is colored with a blue dye
for identification and is designated MIL-H-7644.

The vegetable-base hydraulic fluid currently used for
automotive hydraulic systems is amber in color. The military
designation of this fluid is MIL-F-2111.

Remember: Neither of these fluids are acceptable for use in
aircraft hydraulic systems, and are NOT to be used in hydraulic jacks
or other aircraft ground-handling equipment.

Mineral-Base Hydraulic Fluids. Three categories of mineral base
hydraulic fluids are used in Army aviation today: operational,
preservative, and cleaning.

Operational Fluid. During extreme cold weather the operational
fluid now used in aircraft hydraulic systems and components is MIL-H-
5606. This fluid is colored with a red dye for identification and
has a very distinctive odor. MIL-H-83282 is to be used in components
and systems as prescribed in TB 55-1500-334-25.

Preservative Fluid. Preservative fluid contains a special
corrosion-inhibiting additive. Its primary purpose is to fill
hydraulic components as a protection against corrosion during
shipment or storage. Designated as MIL-H-6083A, preservatite fluid
is very similar to operational fluid in viscosity, odor, and color.
Operational fluid, MIL-H-5606, and preservative fluid, MIL-H-6083A,
are compatible but not interchangeable. Therefore, when preparing to
install components preserved with 6083A, the preservative fluid must
be drained to the drip point before installation, and the components
refilled with operational fluid. The preservative fluid, 6083A, need
not be flushed out with 5606. When using MIL-H-83282, the
preservative must be flushed as prescribed in TB 55-1500-334-25.

Cleaning Fluid. TM 55-1500-204-23-2 contains a list of authorized
cleaning agents and details their use in hydraulic systems and
components. Because of constant improvement of cleaning agents,
changes to the basic technical manual are printed and distributed as
necessary. For that reason, always refer to the current technical
manual and its latest changes, for the authorized cleaning agent to
be used on types of hydraulic systems and components.

Table of Fluid Uses. The following table is a brief summary of
the permissible uses of mineral-base hydraulic fluids.




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Table 1-1. Uses of Mineral-Base Hydraulic Fluids.



Corrective Action Following Improper Servicing. If a hydraulic
system or component is erroneously serviced with vegetable-base
fluid, the system must be drained immediately and then flushed with
lacquer thinner: military specification MIL-T-6094A. Following this,
the components of the system must be removed and disassembled to the
extent necessary to remove all seals. The components are washed,
seals are replaced with new ones, and the system is reassembled for
return to operation.

HANDLING OF FLUIDS

Trouble-free operation of hydraulic systems depends largely on the
efforts made to ensure the use of pure hydraulic fluid in a clean
system. Bulk containers of fluids must be carefully opened and
completely closed immediately after dispensing any fluid. After
dispensing, unused fluid remaining in gallon and quart containers
must be disposed of according to TM 10-1101. Dispensing equipment
must be absolutely clean





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during use. Filler plugs and caps and the bosses in which they are
installed must be carefully cleaned before removal and dispensing any
fluid.

Besides taking precautions while dispensing hydraulic fluids, you
must also ensure safe storage of fluids and observation of safety
regulations by the fluid handlers.

Fire Hazards. Hydraulic fluids are quite flammable and must be
kept away from open flames, sparks, and objects heated to high
temperatures. Fluid leaks in aircraft are a definite fire hazard and
must be constantly looked for and promptly corrected. The flash
point for MIL-H-5606 is 275 Fahrenheit. Because MIL-H-83282 has a
flash point of 400 Fahrenheit, it is much safer to use and is
replacing MIL-H-5606. Although the two fluids are compatible, care
must be taken so that a mixture of the two types has a volume of no
more than 3 percent MIL-H-5606. A mixture with a volume of more than
3 percent MIL-H-5606, degrades the flash point of MIL-H-83282.

The regulations for storing hydraulic fluids are the same as those
for other POL products, and their enforcement is equally as
important.

Toxicity. Hydraulic fluids are not violently poisonous but are
toxic to an extent. Unnecessary breathing of the fumes and prolonged
contact of quantities of fluid with bare skin must be avoided.

SUMMARY

Hydraulics is the use of fluid under pressure to transmit force. In
Army aviation, hydraulics is used to operate retractable landing
gear, brakes, flight controls, propeller pitch, and loading ramps.

The characteristics of hydraulic systems are efficiency,
dependability, control sensitivity, flexibility of installation, low
space requirements, light weight, self-lubrication, and low
maintenance requirements.

Hydraulics operates on the principles of force and pressure. The
unit of measurement of force is the pound, and the area of pressure
measurement is the square inch. Thus, force-pressure measurement is
expressed in pounds per square inch (psi). Force is transmitted
through confined liquids without change in intensity to all parts of
the liquid.




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Mechanical advantage is equal to the ratio of a force or resistance
overcome by the application of a lesser force or effort through a
simple machine. Gain in force is obtained at the expense of loss in
distance. The rate at which mechanical advantage is produced by
hydraulic means is in direct proportion to the ratio of the size of
the smaller (input) area to the size of the larger (output) area.

Some hydraulic components, like shock struts and accumulators,
require air with the hydraulic fluid for their operation.
Atmospheric air and pure nitrogen are the only gases authorized for
use in Army aircraft.

Only mineral-base hydraulic fluids are authorized for use in aircraft
hydraulic systems. Operational fluid MIL-H-83282 is replacing MIL-H-
5606; the preservative fluid is MIL-H-6083A.

Care must be taken to ensure no contamination is allowed to enter the
hydraulic system. Hydraulic fluids are quite flammable and must be
handled and stored with the same precautions as other POL products.





























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LESSON 1

PRACTICE EXERCISE

The following items will test your grasp of the material covered in
this lesson. There is only one correct answer for each question.
When you have completed the exercise, check your answers with the
answer key that follows. If you answer any item incorrectly, study
again that part of the lesson which contains the portion involved.

1. What is the unit of area for pressure measurement in the United
States?

___ A. Inch-pounds.
___ B. Square inch.
___ C. Foot-pounds.
___ D. Square foot.

2. What happens to a body of liquid when a rise in its temperature
takes place?

___ A. It decreases in size.
___ B. It increases in size.
___ C. It stays the same.
___ D. It builds up static pressure.

3. How much of the energy transmitted through a hydraulic system is
received at the output end?

___ A. 88 percent.
___ B. 99 percent.
___ C. Practically none.
___ D. Practically all.

4. What formula is used to find the amount of pressure exerted?

___ A.
___ B.

___ C.

___ D.





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5. Fluid under pressure always flows in the direction of--

A. Equal pressure.
B. Medium pressure.
C. Highest pressure.
D. Lowest pressure.

6. What gases can be used when servicing a hydraulic system or
related equipment?

A. Oxygen and pure nitrogen.
B. Air and pure nitrogen.
C. Acetylene and pure oxygen.
D. Nitrogen and acetylene.

7. How many general types of hydraulic fluids are there?

A. One.
B. Two.
C. Three.
D. Six.

8. What is the military designation number for preservative fluid?

A. MIL-H-8063A.
B. MIL-H-6380A.
C. MIL-H-6083A.
D. MIL-H-5083A.

9. What technical manual covers the disposal of used fluid left in
gallon or quart containers?

A. TM 10-1001.
B. TM 10-1011.
C. TM 10-1101.
D. TM 10-1110.

10. In what technical manual can you find a list of authorized
cleaning agents and details of their use in hydraulics and
components?

A. TM 10-1101.
B. TM 1-1500-204-23-2.
C. TM 55-1500-334-25.
D. TM 750-125.



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LESSON 1

PRACTICE EXERCISE

ANSWER KEY AND FEEDBACK

Item Correct Answer and Feedback

1. B. Square inch.

In the United States the square inch is the measurement used
when expressing applied force to an area. (Page 5)

2. B. It increases in size.

Temperatures have an effect on liquids. Applied heat causes
liquids to expand slightly, while cold has the opposite
effect. (Page 11)

3. D. Practically all.

A hydraulic system is very efficient. There is virtually no
loss except that which may be in the mechanical linkage.
(Page 3)

4. A.

Pressure exerted can be determined by dividing force by area.
(Page 6)

5. D. Lowest pressure.

Fluid flows toward the area of least resistance. (Page 11)

6. B. Air and pure nitrogen.

Using the wrong combination of gases could cause an
explosion. You should use only air and pure nitrogen. (Page
13)

7. B. Two.

You may use either vegetable-base or mineral-base hydraulic
fluids; however, you must not mix them or switch from one to
the other. (Page 14)


22 AL0907

8. C. MIL-H-6083A.

MIL-H-6083A is a preservative fluid. Care must be taken not
to confuse it with an operational fluid. (Page 15)

9. C. TM 10-1101.

TM 10-1101 tells you how to get rid of unused fluid remaining
in gallon and quart containers. (Page 16)

10. B. TM 1-1500-204-23-2.

If you want to know what cleaning agent to use, check TM 1-
1500-204-23-2. Be sure the technical manual is current with
all changes. (Page 15)

































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24 AL0907

LESSON 2

HYDRAULIC PLUMBING

STP TASKS: 551-758-1007, 551-758-1008,
551-758-1012, and 551-758-1071

OVERVIEW


LESSON DESCRIPTION:

In this lesson you will learn the identification, fabrication,
installation, and storage requirements for tubes and hoses. You will
also learn the types of seals and gaskets.

TERMINAL LEARNING OBJECTIVE:

ACTION: After this lesson you will demonstrate a knowledge of
the identification, fabrication, installation and
storage requirements for tubes and hoses, along with
the types of seals and gaskets.

CONDITIONS: You will study the material in this lesson in a
classroom environment or at home.

STANDARD: You will correctly answer all the questions in the
practice exercise before you proceed to the
examination.

REFERENCES: The material contained in this lesson was derived from
the following publications:

AR 310-25 (Dictionary of United States Army Terms).
AR 310-50 (Authorized Abbreviations and Brevity
Codes).
FM 1-563 (Fundamentals of Airframe Maintenance).
FM 1-509 (Fundamentals of Aircraft Pneudraulics).
TM 1-1500-204-23 Series (General Aircraft Maintenance
Manual).








25 AL0907

INTRODUCTION

Aircraft plumbing is that phase of aircraft maintenance dealing with
the metal tubing, flexible hoses, and necessary fittings and seals
providing a pathway for the fluids and gases to move between the
components on aircraft.

Although this text deals mainly with the hydraulic system, the
plumbing principles explained herein apply to the plumbing
requirements for the fuel, ventilation,

pneumatic, and Pitot-static
systems as well. Because of this similarity, the maintenance
personnel responsible for hydraulic plumbing are usually required to
perform the repair and maintenance of all aircraft plumbing systems.

For the mechanic to repair aircraft plumbing, or for the NCO or
maintenance officer to supervise this work effectively, he must be
familiar with the material, equipment, and fabrication techniques
necessary to repair and install these lines.

Part A of this lesson deals with the identification and methods of
fabricating the tubes that connect the components of hydraulic
systems. In Part B, the uses and advantages of hose or flexible
tubing are explained, including the markings, fabrication and
installation methods, and storage requirements of these materials.
Part C describes the different types of seals and gaskets used to
prevent leaks in the interconnecting tubes, hoses, and fittings of
plumbing systems.

VARIETY OF LINES

Throughout this lesson you will see terms such as plumbing lines,
tubing, flexible tubing, and hose used extensively. By definition,
plumbing lines refer to any duct work used to transfer fluids or
gases from one location to another. These lines may fall into one of
two general categories: tubes (rigid lines), and hose (flexible
lines). Many materials are used to fabricate these lines; each one
offers a different advantage. When replacing a damaged or defective
line, make every effort to duplicate the original line as closely as
possible. Under some circumstances, however, field expediency
requires replacement of the damaged line with a similar, but not
identical, line. In choosing what size and type of line to use,
evaluate the following important elements:

Type of fluid or gas the line is to conduct.
Pressure it must operate under.
Temperatures it must operate under.

26 AL0907

Temperatures it must withstand.
Vibrations it is subject to.

IDENTIFICATION OF LINES

Except for the inlet and exhaust sections of the engine compartment,
plumbing lines are identified with adhesive bands of different colors
coded to the particular system to which each line belongs. In the
Army, two types of identification code systems are used: the print-
symbolized tape system (the preferred method), and the solid-color
tape system (the alternate method). The preferred system uses tape
bands of two or more colors printed with identifying geometrical
symbols and the name of the system. Examples of these bands are
shown in Figure 2-1. The alternate method uses one, two, or three
bands of 1/2-inch solid-color tape wrapped on the various lines for
identification. The color code used with this system is shown in
Figure 2-2.

In areas near the inlet section of the engine compartment where the
tape might be ingested (sucked in) or near the exhaust section where
high temperatures might burn the tape, suitable paints conforming to
the color codes in Figure 2-2 mark plumbing lines.

Additional white tapes labeled "pressure," "drain," or "return" can
be used next to the color bands of either code system to identify the
lines. These tapes are also printed with arrows indicating the
direction of fluid flow.





















27 AL0907


Figure 2-1. Color-Coded Tape.


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Figure 2-2. Solid-Color Band System.

PART A - TUBING

The procedures, fabrication techniques, and use of proper tools are
as important as the selection of the tubing material in repairing and
replacing damaged plumbing lines. Unless you take extreme care
during all phases of line repair, the finished product is likely to
be as defective as the original. This part discusses--

Criteria for selecting the proper type of tubing.
Correct procedure for routing lines and for cutting and bending
tubing.


29 AL0907

Types of tube fittings.
Methods of tube flaring and installation.
Techniques of tube repair if tubes are not extensively damaged.

TUBING

In Army aviation three types of metal tubing are used: aluminum
alloy, stainless steel, and copper. Generally, determine the type of
metal visually. If this is not possible, mark the tubing at three-
foot intervals with the manufacturer's name or trademark, the tubing
material, and its specification number. Tubing that is too small to
be marked in this manner, identify by attaching a tag with this
information to it.

Aluminum. In aircraft plumbing, the most widely used metal tubing
is made of aluminum alloy. This general-purpose tubing has the
advantages of workability, resistance to corrosion, and light weight.
A list of the aluminum tubing authorized for use in Army aircraft is
found in TM 1-1500-204-23-2.

The aluminum tubing generally used in Army aircraft hydraulic
systems operating at pressures of 1,500 psi and below is type 5052,
Military Specification WW-T-700/4. Because of the workability of
this tubing, assemblies can be readily fabricated in the field. For
those hydraulic systems operating at pressures above 1,500 psi,
aluminum alloy tubing types 6061 and 6062, both Military
Specification T-7081, are used. To process this tubing into tubing
assemblies requires special procedures and equipment not generally
available in the field. Therefore, assemblies made from this
aluminum must be obtained through supply channels as factory
prefabricated parts or through depot maintenance shops.

Stainless Steel. Tubing of stainless steel can also be used where
pressures exceed 1,500 psi. Stainless steel must be used for outside
lines, such as brake lines attached to landing gear struts or other
exposed lines that can be damaged by flying objects or ground-
handling mishaps. Stainless steel tubing, like the high-pressure
aluminum alloy tubing, is difficult to form without special tools and
is obtained through supply channels or depot repair facilities.

Copper. Copper tubing is primarily used in high-pressure oxygen
systems. The fittings on copper tubing are soldered on with silver.
Copper tubing used for high-pressure oxygen systems is 3/16-inch
diameter, 0.032-inch wall thickness,



30 AL0907

Federal Specification WW-T-799, Type N. Low-pressure oxygen systems
use a larger diameter aluminum tubing with flared aluminum fittings.
Only in case of an emergency can copper tubing with the same diameter
and wall thickness of the aluminum tubing be used to replace it. It
must then conform to Federal Specification WW-T-799, Type N. Steel
tubing must not be used to replace high-pressure oxygen system copper
tubing because it loses ductility and becomes brittle at low
temperatures.

ROUTING OF LINES

If a damaged line is discovered, the first step for repair is to
determine the cause of the damage. If it was caused by chafing
structural members of the aircraft or poor layout planning, the
condition must be corrected. If the line was defective and the same
layout is acceptable, carefully remove the damaged tube and use it as
a pattern for fabrication of the replacement tube.

Generally, replacement lines follow the path of the original line;
however, when the line must be rerouted use the standards that are
discussed in the paragraphs that follow.

Number of Bends. When fluid flows around a bend, it creates
friction which generates heat and causes an overall loss in system
efficiency. With this in mind, tubing layout must always follow a
path that results in gradual bends. On the other hand, a path with
no bends is likely to result in even more problems. First, to cut a
replacement line to an exact length is virtually impossible. This
can result in a mechanical strain being exerted on the tube when the
attaching nut is drawn up on the fitting. Because the greatest
amount of strain is already concentrated on the flared portion of the
tube as a result of the flaring operation, this additional strain is
likely to weaken the tube beyond tolerances. Second, if the tube has
no bends it cannot flex when subjected to vibrations. This lack of
flexibility promotes fatigue of the tubing metal and makes it more
susceptible to failure. Third, a straight line installation allows
no provision for the normal contraction and expansion of the tubing
caused by temperature change. Examples of correct and incorrect tube
layout are shown in Figure 2-3.









31 AL0907


Figure 2-3. Correct and Incorrect Tube Layout.

Minimum Bend Radius. The metal at the heel of a bend in tubing is
always stretched to some extent. This stretching weakens the tubing
and must be kept within limits. The radius of the sharpest bend
permissible in a given size tubing is designated the "minimum bend
radius." If this limit is exceeded, the metal at the bend is subject
to rupture under operating pressure. Bends of a greater radii than
the minimum allowed are always preferred. The methods of tube
bending and the tools used in bending operations are discussed later
in this section.

The table of minimum bend radii for various types and sizes of
tubing is contained in TM 1-1500-204-23-2. A copy of this table is
shown in Table 2-1 on the following page.








32 AL0907

Table 2-1. Table of Bend Radii.



Supports. Supports are used in tube layout to limit the sideward
movement of the tube due to pressure surges or vibrations. The
maximum distance between supports is determined by the tube material
and its outside diameter (OD). Rules governing the specifications of
these supports are found in Chapter 4 of TM 1-1500-204-23-2.

TEMPLATES

If the damaged tube cannot be used as a pattern for the replacement
line, use wire to make a template. Do this by running a wire between
the fittings where the line must be installed and bending the wire to
conform with the tube layout standards previously described.

TUBING CUTTING

When making replacement tubing from stock material, the stock must be
measured and cut approximately 10 percent longer than the damaged
tube. This ensures sufficient length for forming the flares and for
small deviations in bending the tube to the pattern. Any extra
length must be cut off before forming the last flare.



33 AL0907

There are two accepted methods of tube cutting: one using the
standard tube cutting tool shown in Figure 2-4, the other using a
hacksaw. After completion of the tube cutting in either of these
processes, remove all residue produced. To do this, ream the end of
the tube slightly and flush the entire piece of tubing thoroughly.
These methods are discussed in detail further in this text.


Figure 2-4. Standard Tube-Cutting Tool.

Standard Tube-Cutting Tool. The ideal method of cutting tubing is
with a standard cutting tool. The tube is slipped through the
cutting tool at a right angle, and the cutting wheel is adjusted
against the tube. Take care not to force the wheel against the tube
too tightly, as this forces the tube out-of-round. While the tool is
being rotated, the cutting-wheel feed must be tightened a little with
each turn until the wheel has cut through the tube. The tube cutter
must be rotated in only one direction, with its handle being swung in
the same direction that the opening faces. When properly used, this
tool leaves a smooth end on the tube square with its axis.





34 AL0907

Hacksaw. If a cutting tool is not available, use a fine-tooth
hacksaw, preferably one with 32 teeth per inch. Since it is
difficult to get a good, square, flush cut on the tube with this
method, the tube end must be filed after the cut is made. During
hacksaw cutting and filing, the tube must be clamped in tube blocks
or other suitable holders to prevent scratching or bending and to aid
in producing a 900 cut on the tube end.

METHODS OF TUBE BENDING

Tube bending can be done with any one of a variety of hand or power
bending tools. Regardless of method used, the object is to obtain a
smooth,

even bend without flattening or buckling. Examples of these
results are shown in Figure 2-5.


Figure 2-5. Acceptable and Unacceptable Tube Bends.

Hand Bending Methods. Tubes less than 1/4-inch in diameter can be
bent with hands,

but take care to work the bend gradually. For sizes
larger than 1/4-inch in diameter, use a bending tool; however, this
tool is only effective on thin-walled tubing of soft material. Two
common bending tools are--


35 AL0907

Bending springs. They are used by matching the inside diameter
(ID) of the spring with the outside diameter (OD) of the tube
to be bent. The tubing is then inserted and centered on the
heel of the bend. The bend must be started larger than desired
and gradually worked down to the correct size. The coiled
spring adds structural strength to the tubing wall during
bending and prevents the tube from crushing or kinking.

Roller Bending Tool. This tool bends a tube to a desired
radius very efficiently. It consists of a grooved roller with
a degree scale marked on the outside and a slide bar on the
handle to point to the degree mark where the tube is bent. To
use the tool, the straight tubing must be secured in the tool,
and the incidence mark set to indicate zero degree of bend on
the scale. Then, pressure is applied to the slide bar, bending
the tube as shown in Figure 2-6 to the desired degree.

Power Bending Tool. Tube bending machines are generally used in
depot maintenance shops. With such equipment, proper bends can be
made in tubing of large diameters and hard materials. The production
tube bender is an example of this type of machine.

Alternate Methods. Tubing that has a 1/2-inch or large OD is
difficult to bend with hand tools. For this type tubing, power tools
must be used whenever possible, since they have an internal support
to prevent flattening and wrinkling. However, when power tools are
not available, a filler method using sand, shot, or fusible alloy can
be used. The steps involved are quite similar regardless of the
filler material used. Because the process using the fusible alloy is
the most complex, and the most accurate, it is presented in detail in
the following paragraphs.

Fusible alloy is a metal alloy with a melting point of
approximately 160F. The material must be melted under hot water at
or near the boiling point to ensure that the molten metal flows
freely. NEVER APPLY A FLAME TO THE TUBING OR TO THE FUSIBLE ALLOY.
EXCESS HEAT DESTROYS THE STRENGTH OF HEAT-TREATED TUBING AND THE
MELTING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FUSIBLE ALLOY. Boiling water will not
melt fusible alloy after the flame has been applied. Furthermore, if
the tubing is held over a direct flame to remove the alloy, particles
of this metal can stick to the inside of the tube and cause
corrosion.





36 AL0907


Figure 2-6. Roller Bending Tool.


37 AL0907

The six steps taken in the fusible alloy process are as follows:

Coat the inner surface of the tube to be bent with a light
engine oil, specifications MIL-L-6082A.

Close one end of the tube.

Place fusible alloy in a clean steel ladle and submerge both
tube and ladle in a hot water tank. The fusible alloy stays in
the ladle, not combining with the hot water.

When the alloy has melted, pour it into the tube to be bent,
keeping both the tube and ladle under water. As it fills the
tube, the alloy displaces the water from the tube. After the
tube is full of alloy, remove it from the water and quench it
in cold water or air cool until the alloy is completely
solidified.

The tube is now solid and can be bent with any suitable bending
tool. As this alloy bends readily when cold but breaks when
warm or under suddenly applied loads, care must be taken that
the alloy in the tube is bent slowly.

When the bending is completed submerge the tube in hot water
and allow the alloy to run out of the tube into the ladle or
other suitable container. All of the alloy must be removed
from the bent tubing, as the alloy will cause corrosion. Also,
any alloy left in the tube will obstruct the tube and alter the
flow characteristics of the fluid.

TUBE CONNECTIONS

Three basic types of connections are used with aircraft tubing. The
two most common, the military standard (MS) flareless connection and
the flared connection, are depicted in Figure 2-7. The third, less
frequently used is the beaded connection.

NOTE: Army-Navy standards (AN) designated for
government standards were changed over to
military standard (MS) designations.







38 AL0907


Figure 2-7. Flareless and Flared Fittings.

The MS Flareless Connection. This connection is being used
extensively on newer model aircraft. This fitting is designated
primarily for high-pressure gas or liquid systems and for service
where it is subjected to severe vibrations or fluctuating pressures.
This connection retains a seal under these conditions better than any
of the other types. The MS flareless connection consists of a
connector, sleeve, and nut, as shown in Figure 2-8. The tail on the
sleeve dampens out tube vibrations, preventing fatigue and breakage,
while the spring washer action of the sleeve prevents the nut from
loosening, keeping a better seal.



39 AL0907


Figure 2-8. Flareless Fitting.

The Flared Connection. This connection withstands high pressure
and is used extensively in hydraulic systems. The component pieces
necessary to form a flared connection are a nut, sleeve, and properly
formed (flared) tube end. These pieces are assembled with the nut
screwed on a threaded fitting. These nuts and sleeves are available
in both steel and aluminum alloy; the use varies with the material of
the tube. Two types of flares can be made on tubing:

40 AL0907

The single flare. Single flares are used for all sizes of
stainless steel tubing, for 6061 aluminum alloy tubing, and for
5052 aluminum alloy tubing larger than 1/2-inch OD.

The double flare. Double flares are specified for 5052 tubing
1/2-inch OD and smaller.

The Beaded Connection. This connection is used only to tubing or
to fittings. This type of connection is not capable of withstanding
high pressures and is used only in low-pressure systems. No picture
of beading is included here, but Figure 2-12, which illustrates a
low-pressure tube splice, shows an example of a beaded connection.

PREPARING TUBING FOR FLARING

Two steps are used to prepare tubing for flaring: reaming and
cleaning. They must be followed carefully so the tube is not damaged
or weakened, and to prevent foreign object damage when the tube is
installed.

Reaming. After a square cut has been made bylations, marks,
seams, and excessive graphite. Check the fittings for mutilations to
the threaded areas, nicks,

Cleaning. Three prescribed methods of cleaning tubing are given
in TM 1-1500-204-23 series manuals. Refer to the TM for materials
and how they are to be used because cleaning chemicals are constantly
improved. These improvements are incorporated in the TM through
printed changes. An example is the use of solvent PS-661 which has
been changed to the use of naptha TT-N-95. The list can go on and
on. Therefore, when using a cleaning agent on or in hydraulic
system, always refer to the latest applicable publications for the
correct material and usage. The tube must be free of all dirt and
grease before clamping it in the flaring tool. The flaring tool die
block must be properly cleaned to prevent slips and deformation of
the tubing.

FLARING TOOLS

Two basic types of hand flaring tools provide a single flare: the
screw and the combination. These tools are described in the
following paragraphs.






41 AL0907

The Screw Flaring Tool. There are two kinds of screw flaring
tools: one threaded and the other with a plain die. The stem of the
plunger on the screw flaring tool is threaded so that its pointed end
is forced into the tube by turning instead of by tapping with a
hammer. The screw flaring tool also has the advantage of the tube
being visible, so it is easy to determine when the flare is
completed.



The Combination Flaring Tool. The combination flaring tool is
designed to single-flare all grades of aircraft tubing including
stainless steel. This tool can also form double-lap flare in
aluminum and copper tubing. The component parts of the combination
flaring tool are: clamp blocks, a rotor that incorporates a punch for
forming double-lap flares, and a cone-shaped punch for forming single
flares. With each tool, there are two sets of die blocks; each set
has four accurately machined grooves to accommodate four different
sizes of tubing. The two sets of die blocks make it possible to
flare eight different sizes of tubing. A clamp screw is used to hold
the tube between the die blocks, and a compression screw is located
in front of the dial containing the flaring punches. A slide stop is
used for setting the tube for the proper depth of flare.

DOUBLE FLARES

Double flaring is required on all 5052 aluminum alloy tubing with
less than 1/2-inch OD. The double flare provides a double thickness
of metal at the flare itself. This double thickness reduces the
danger of cutting the flare by overtorquing during assembly and also
minimizes the danger of flare failure. Examples of correct and
incorrect double flares are shown in Figure 2-9.


Figure 2-9. Correct and Incorrect Double Flares.


42 AL0907

Double flares can be formed by double-lap flaring tools of the shock
or rotary type or by the combination flaring tool previously
described.

The steps in the formation of a double-lap flare are described in the
following paragraphs and illustrated in Figure 2-10.


Figure 2-10. Double Flaring.


43 AL0907

First Step. The tube is gripped between the halves of the die
block with the end of the tube projecting slightly above the bevel of
the die block hole. Then, the first-step die plunger is placed
against the tube with the end of the tubing resting in the plunger
recess. The plunger is then forced toward the die block, causing a
bead-like swelling at the end of the tubing. The first-step plunger
is then removed, leaving the tube in the die block.

Second Step. The cone is placed at the beaded end of the tubing.
This plunger is then forced against the bead, causing the metal at
the upper half of the bead to fold into the lower half. This forms a
flare with a double thickness of metal at the lip.

FAULTY FLARES

Lack of care and attention to detail in forming flares is likely to
result in producing a faulty flare. If the tubing is not cut
squarely, a lopsided flare results. A faulty flare is also produced
if the tube is not inserted far enough into the die block resulting
in an underflared condition. An underflared tube has a small
gripping area and will pull apart under pressure. If the tube is
inserted until it protrudes too far past the edge of the die block,
an overflared condition results. This can cause the flare to crack
or break. Use of the stop will prevent this type of overflare. Too
much force used on the forming tool when making a flare results in a
cracked or flushed flare.

CLEANING TUBING

After the tubing has been formed and flared, all oil, grease, and
other foreign material must be removed before installation. Removal
of every trace of oil and grease from oxygen tubing is a matter of
critical importance because contact between bottled oxygen (used for
breathing) and oil or grease results in spontaneous combustion and
explosion.

PLUMBING FITTINGS

Fittings are used to assemble and interconnect tubes and hoses to
plumbing components and for connecting lines through bulkheads.
Examples of these fittings are shown in Figure 2-11.

Prior to installation, all fittings must be carefully examined to
ensure that their surfaces are smooth. Smoothness consists of
freedom from burrs, nicks, scratches, and tool marks.



44 AL0907

Following inspection of the fittings, a thin coat of antiseize
compound, Federal Specification TT-A-580, must be applied to the
threads of the fittings, except for hydraulic and oxygen fittings.
Hydraulic fluid must be used to lubricate fittings of hydraulic
plumbing lines. Antiseize compound MIL-T-5542 is used to lubricate
the fittings of oxygen systems.

FITTING NUTS

Aircraft plain checknuts are used to secure the tubing and fitting
assembly together and to connect the entire tube assembly to
components of the plumbing system. Only special-fitting nut wrenches
of the torque-indicating type should be used for installing tube
assemblies. If not available, open-end wrenches can be used.

Tightening the fitting nuts to the proper torque during installation
is very important. Overtorquing these nuts can severely damage the
tube flare, the sleeve, and the nut. Undertorquing is equally
serious; it can allow the line to blow out of the fitting or to leak
under pressure. When fittings are properly torqued, a tube assembly
can be removed and installed many times before reflareing becomes
necessary.

When installing a fitting, through a bulkhead. Take care to ensure
that the nuts are tight enough to prevent any movement between the
bulkhead and the fitting. If any movement takes place, vibrations
can cause the fittings to enlarge the hole through the bulkhead
beyond tolerance and damage the fitting.

CAUTION: A FITTING NUT MUST NEVER BE TIGHTENED WHEN
THERE IS PRESSURE IN THE SYSTEM, AS THIS
RESULTS IN AN UNDERTORQUES CONDITION AND
TENDS TO CUT THE FLARE.

INSTALLATION OF TUBING ASSEMBLIES

Before the tubing assembly is installed in the aircraft, it must be
carefully inspected, and all dents and nicks must be removed.
Sleeves must be snug-fitting with 1/16 to 1/8 inch of the tube
protruding above the top sleeve. The line assembly must be clean and
free from all foreign matter as described in an earlier paragraph.
During installation, the fitting nuts must be screwed down by hand
until they are seated and then properly torqued. The tubing
assemblies must not have to be pulled into place with the nut, but
must be aligned before tightening.



45 AL0907


Figure 2-11 Typical Fittings.

46 AL0907

If the tubing is to be run through a bulkhead, instead of being
connected through the bulkhead by a fitting, take extra care so that
the tubing is not scratched. For added protection in this operation,
the edges of the cutout must be taped before the line is installed.

TUBE REPAIR

A large percent of minor damage to aircraft plumbing is a result of
careless maintenance practices. A misplaced foot or tool can
scratch, nick, or dent the tubing beyond tolerances. Therefore,
caution on the part of maintenance personnel can prevent a great deal
of work.

When a damaged tube is discovered, the ideal solution is to replace
the complete section of tubing. In some instances, however, this may
not be possible. In these cases minor damages can usually be
repaired, providing the damages are within specified limits. Minor
repair techniques are described in the paragraphs that follow.

Dents. Any dent less than 20 percent of tubing diameter is not
objectionable unless it is on the heel of a short bend radius in
which case the tubing is discarded. Dents exceeding 20 percent of
tube diameter must be replaced. Burnishing is not allowed in the
heel of bends where material has already been stretched thin during
forming.

Nicks. A nick in a piece of tubing subjects the tubing to failure
because of stress concentration caused by vibrations at the point of
the nick. Nicks weaken tubing against internal pressure, and such
nicks must be burnished out to reduce a notch effect. A nick no
deeper than 15 percent of wall thickness of aluminum, aluminum alloy,
copper, or steel tubing may be reworked by burnishing with hand
tools. Any aluminum alloy, copper, or steel tubing with nicks in
excess of 15 percent of its wall thickness should be rejected.
Tubing which is nicked in a bend should be replaced if it is carrying
over 100 psi pressure. For tubing carrying pressure of 100 psi or
less, a nick no deeper than 20 percent of wall thickness of aluminum,
aluminum alloy, copper, or steel may be reworked by burnishing with
hand tools.

Splicing. When tube damages exceed the tolerances for repair
described in the preceding paragraphs and when it is not possible to
replace the entire section of tubing, a splice can be installed.
There are two different methods of splicing damaged tubing: one for
repairing low-pressure tubing, the other for repairing high-pressure
tubing. The steps involved in


47 AL0907

each of these methods are shown along with graphic illustrations of
the process in Figure 2-12 for low-pressure tubing, and in Figure
2-13 for high-pressure tubing. Whenever this type of tube repair is
used, particular attention must be paid to ensure compliance with
tube tolerances and torque limitations of the clamp connections.


Figure 2-12. Low-Pressure Tube Splice.












48 AL0907


Figure 2-13. High-Pressure Tube Splice.

SUMMARY

Three types of metal tubing are used in aircraft plumbing systems:
aluminum alloy, stainless steel, and copper. Aluminum alloy tubing
is the most widely used because of its workability, resistance to
corrosion, and light weight. Stainless steel tubing is used in high-
pressure systems and in places where the tubing is exposed to
possible flying-object damage or ground-handling mishaps. Copper
tubing is normally used only in high-pressure oxygen systems.

In routing replacement lines, the path of the original line is
usually followed. However, when a different route must be used, care
must be taken in planning the layout to ensure the bends in the
tubing do not exceed the minimum bend radius specified for the
particular type of tubing. Care must also be taken not to route the
tubing without bends as this allows for no flexibility in response to
vibrations or pressure fluctuations.


49 AL0907

The Army has two acceptable methods of tube cutting. The most
accurate and commonly used method is with the standard tube cutting
tool. When properly used, this tool leaves a smooth end on the tube
square with its axis. The second method of tube cutting is by using
a fine tooth hacksaw. This method does not provide the square cut
produced with the standard cutting tool and necessitates filing the
tube end after cutting a square off the ends.

A variety of tools and methods are available for tube bending, each
having capabilities and advantages applicable to a particular type or
size of tubing. Regardless of the method used, the object is to
obtain a smooth, even bend without flattening or buckling.

The two most common types of connection used with aircraft tubing are
the MS flareless and the flared connection. The MS flareless
connection has distinct advantages over the flared connection: it is
easier to construct, has three load points to prevent leaks (as
opposed to one for flared connections), and can be used many times
without danger of cracking. Flared connections are formed by means
of a flaring tool. When properly formed, they are capable of
withstanding high pressures and are used extensively in hydraulic
systems. One of two kinds of flares can be used depending on the
type of tubing being used. Single flares are used for all sizes of
5052 aluminum alloy tubing with outside diameters greater than 1/2
inch. Double flares are used on all sizes of tubing with an outside
diameter of 1/2 inch or less. The third type of connection used in
aircraft plumbing systems is the beaded connection. This type of
connection is not capable of withstanding high pressures and is used
only in low-pressure systems.

Fittings are used in aircraft plumbing systems to connect the various
lines with each other and with the components they operate. Prior to
installation all fittings must be inspected to ensure their surfaces
are smooth and then coated with the appropriate lubricant.

Fitting nuts must always be tightened with torque-indicating wrenches
to ensure the proper seal. Overtorquing of these nuts can severely
damage the tubing assembly. Likewise, under-torquing can allow the
line to blow out of the fitting or to leak under pressure.

When a damaged tube is discovered, the ideal solution is to replace
the complete section of tubing. When this is not possible, minor
dents, nicks, and scratches can usually be





50 AL0907

repaired, providing the damages are within specified limits. If tube
damages are extensive or exceed repair limitations, a tube splice can
be installed as a temporary repair measure.

PART B - HOSE

Hose, flexible line, is used in aircraft plumbing whenever the
connected components must be free to move, or wherever extreme
vibrations are a problem. This part deals with the different types
of hose used on Army aircraft, the materials from which they are
manufactured, and the methods of fabricating hose assemblies. Also
explained are the proper methods of hose installation and the
requirements for storing the different types of hose. Hose
assemblies are used to conduct air, fuel, engine oil, hydraulic
fluid, water, and antifreeze. Hose pressure capabilities range from
vacuums found in some instrument lines to several thousand psi found
in some hydraulic systems. Hose assemblies, however, are never used
in aircraft oxygen systems.

TYPES OF HOSE

Aircraft hose is composed of two or more layers of differing
materials. The inner layer, or liner, is a leak-tight nonmetallic
tube made from either synthetic rubber or teflon. The liner is
reinforced against swelling or bursting by one or more outer layers
of braid that encircle it. The kind and number of layers of braid
depend on the intended operating pressure range of the hose assembly.
The two materials used as inner liner for flexible hoses are
synthetic rubber and teflon. The two materials and their uses are
discussed in the paragraphs that follow.

Rubber Hose. The inner liner of rubber hose used in aircraft
plumbing systems is made of synthetic rubber. Various compounds of
rubber are used for these inner liners. Each compound provides the
hose with some special capability, such as usability with certain
fluids or operability within certain ranges of temperature. The
outer covering of rubber hose is made of either fabric or rubber.

Rubber hose is used in aircraft plumbing systems only in the form
of assemblies. An assembly is formed by attaching metal end
connections to each end of a section of bulk hose.

Teflon Hose. Teflon is the registered name for
tetrafluoroethylene, which is a synthetic resin. Teflon hose has a
flexible leak-proof inner tube, reinforced on the outside with one or
more layers of stainless steel braid. The teflon


51 AL0907

linear is chemical inert to all fuel, oil, alcohol, water, acid, and
gas. The linear can withstand fluid temperatures ranging from -100 F
to + 500 F (-73 C to +260 C). Like rubber hose, teflon hose is used
in aircraft plumbing systems only as assemblies.

PRESSURE CAPABILITIES

The type of material and the number of layers used as reinforcement
braid determine the pressure range of the hose. The two pressure-
range classifications of aircraft hose are medium pressure and high
pressure.

Medium Pressure. The medium-pressure range includes operating
pressures of 1,500 psi and below.

High Pressure. High-pressure hose is designated for operating
pressure systems up to but not exceeding 3,000 psi.

HOSE MARKINGS

Aircraft hose and hose assemblies can be readily identified by
markings found either stenciled along the length of the hose or
imprinted on an affixed metal band. These markings include the date
of manufacture or fabrication, size, military specification number,
and date of pressure test, as illustrated in Figure 2-14.


Figure 2-14. Hose Markings.

Marking on Rubber Hose. Bulk rubber hose has ink or paint
markings on its outer cover for identification. The information
provided by these markings include the identity of the manufacturer,
date made, size, and military specification number. The military
specification (MS) number provides additional information when
referenced with a specification table in chapter 7 of TM 1-1500-204-
23-2. This information includes the hose-pressure capability,
temperature limitations,

52 AL0907

and the fluids that can be used. On some hose, a lay strip provides
an easy method to determine if an installed hose is twisted.

To identify field-fabricated rubber hose assemblies, a metal band is
placed around the hose to identify the federal or national stock
number of the assembly and to give the operating pressure and
pressure test date.

Marking on Teflon Hose. Bulk teflon hose is identified by brass
bands spaced at 3-foot intervals marked with the specification number
and manufacturers code number.

Factory-fabricated teflon hose assemblies are identified by
permanently attached metal bands marked with the military
specification, operating pressure in PSI, assembly part number, date
of proof test, and the hose manufacturers code number.

Locally manufactured teflon hose assemblies are identified by an
aluminum band. The markings on the band can be impression-stamped,
etched, or engraved to include the federal or national stock number
of the hose assembly, part number, manufacturers part number or depot
code, operating pressure, and date of pressure test.

HOSE SIZE

The size of a hose is expressed as a dash number. This refers to the
inside diameter (ID) of the hose and is expressed in sixteenths of an
inch; for example, -2 is 2/16, -3 is 3/16, -4 is 4/16.

Whenever hose is used in conjunction with tubing, both the hose and
the tube must be equal in size. For example, if the tube size is 1/4
inch OD, a -4 (4/16) hose must be used with it.

CAUSES FOR HOSE REPLACEMENT

Replacement of rubber hose assemblies must be accomplished at
inspection intervals prescribed in the applicable aircraft
maintenance manual. Teflon hose does not deteriorate as a result of
age; therefore, periodic replacement is not required. However, both
rubber and teflon hose assemblies are subject to damage during
operation that can be cause for replacement of the line.

In any case, the replacement of the hose assembly must duplicate the
original hose in length, OD, ID, and contour, unless the line must be
rerouted for reasons specified in the paragraph which discusses
routing of lines near the beginning of this lessons.


53 AL0907

Rubber Hose. Evidence of deterioration of rubber hose assemblies
is urgent cause for hose replacement. Examples of such deterioration
are separation of rubber covers or braid from the liner, cracks,
hardening, and lack of flexibility.

Other types of damage that are cause for replacement of rubber
hose are--

Cold flow -- a deep permanent impression or crack produced by
pressure of the hose clamp.
Weather check -- weather damage that is deep or wide enough to
expose the fabric.
Broken wires -- two or more broken wires per plait, six or more
broken wires per linear foot, or any broken wire in a position
where kinking is suspected. (For pressures of 500 psi and
over)

Teflon Hose. Installed teflon hose assemblies must be inspected
for evidence of deterioration due to wire fatigue or chafing at the
periods prescribed in the applicable aircraft inspection or
maintenance manuals. Replacement of these lines must be made when
any of the following conditions are found:

Leaking -- static leaks exceeding one drop per hour.
Excessive wire damage -- two or more broken wires in a single
plait, more than six wires pre linear foot, or any broken wire
in a position where kinking is suspected.
Distortion -- any evidence of abrasion, kinking, bulging, or
sharp bending.

FABRICATION OF HOSE ASSEMBLIES

Hose assemblies, for the most part, are available through supply
channels as factory prefabricated parts. For field expediency or
when the required assemblies are not available they can be field
fabricated in accordance with the following specifications and
procedures.

Fabricating Medium-Pressure Rubber Hose Assemblies. Medium-
pressure rubber hose assemblies are fabricated from bulk hose
conforming to military specification MIL-H-8794 and fittings
conforming to military standard MS 28740. Prior to the assembly
process and before cutting, visually check the bulk hose for any
mutilations, marks, seams, and excessive graphite. Check the
fittings for mutilations to the threaded areas, nicks,


54 AL0907

distortions, scratches, or any other damage to the cone seat sealing
surface, or to the finish that can affect the corrosion resistance of
the fitting.



After the hose and fittings have been inspected, determine the
correct length of hose required as shown in Figure 2-15. Cut the
hose squarely, using a fine tooth hacksaw; then, using compressed
air, clean the hose to remove all cutting residue.


Figure 2-15. Determination of Correct Hose Length.

Assembly of the hose and fittings is illustrated in Figure 2-16,
and outlined in the following steps:

Place the socket in a vise and screw the hose into the socket
counterclockwise until it bottoms out; then back off the hose
1/4 of a turn. CAUTION: DO NOT OVERTIGHTEN THE VISE ON THIN-
WALLED SOCKETS OF LIGHTWEIGHT FITTINGS.

Tighten the nipple and the nut on the appropriate assembly tool
from Aeroquip Kit, Part No. S-1051.

Lubricate the nipple threads and the inside of the hose
liberally, using a lightweight motor oil or hydraulic fluid,
MIL-H-5605 or MIL-H-83282.

55 AL0907

Screw the nipple into the socket and hose using a wrench on the
nipple hex nut. The nut must swivel freely when the assembly
tool is removed.

After the fabrication process is completed, inspect the hose
assembly externally for cuts or bulges of the inner liner. The final
step of any hose fabrication process is to proof-test the hose
assembly to insure its pressure capabilities. This step is discussed
in the paragraph on testing hose assemblies.

Fabricating High-Pressure Rubber Hose Assemblies. High-pressure
rubber hose assemblies MS 28759 an MS 28762, are fabricated from
high-pressure bulk hose conforming to military specifications MIL-H-
8788 or MIL-H-8790, and fittings conforming to military standard MS
28760 or MS 28761.

The fabrication techniques and tools for assembling high-pressure
hose are the same as those outlined for medium-pressure hose
fabrication.

CAUTION: DO NOT REUSE HIGH-PRESSURE HOSE OR HIGH-
PRESSURE HOSE FITTINGS. ALSO, NEVER
REINSTALL A FITTING ON THE SAME AREA OF HOSE
WHERE IT WAS FIRST INSTALLED. IF AN ERROR
IS MADE DURING ASSEMBLY, CUT AWAY THE OLD
AREA OR USE A NEW LENGTH OF HOSE AND
REINSTALL THE FITTING.

Fabricating Medium-Pressure Teflon Hose Assemblies. Medium-
pressure teflon hose assemblies are manufactured to the requirements
of military specification MIL-H-25579 from bulk hose conforming to
military specification MIL-H-27267 and end-fittings conforming to
military specification MIL-F-27272.

All field-fabricated teflon hose assemblies must be identified by
aluminum-alloy tags, NSN 9535-00-232-7600.

The composition and dimensions of these tags are found on chapter
4 of TM 1-1520-204-23-2. The tags are marked to show the federal or
national stock number or part number, depot or unit code, operating
pressure, and date of pressure test.

The steps to be followed when fabricating these hose assemblies
are described in TM 1-1500-204-23-2.

Fabricating High-Pressure Teflon Hose Assemblies. High-pressure
teflon hose assemblies are manufactured from bulk hose conforming to
MIL-H-83298 and end fittings conforming to MIL-H-83296.

56 AL0907

Figure 2-16. Assembly of Hose and End Fitting.

57 AL0907

TESTING HOSE ASSEMBLIES

Prior to installation, all field fabricated hose assemblies must be
pressure-tested. This applies regardless of whether they were just
fabricated or were previously fabricated, tested, and placed in
storage. All factory or depot fabricated assemblies must be
pressure-tested prior to installation.

Hose assemblies to be used in hydraulic, pneumatic, fuel, oil, or
coolant systems are tested on a hydrostatic test unit filled with
hydraulic fluid conforming to military specification MIL-H-5606, MIL-
H-83282, or MIL-H-6083; lubricating oil conforming to military
specification MIL-H-6082; or water. Hose assemblies to be used in
instrument systems are tested using dry, oil-free air, or nitrogen,
federal specification 1313-N-411, grade A, type 1.

The steps involved in the testing process are explained in detail in
TM 1-1500-204-23-2.

INSTALLING HOSE ASSEMBLIES

During operation, the hose assemblies changes in length from +2
percent to -4 percent because of pressurization. To compensate for
this, slack equal to at least five percent of the hose length must be
allowed for expansion and shrinkage. The five percent allowance must
be provided during cutting and fabricating. In addition to hose
length, care must be taken not to twist the hose or to exceed the
allowed bend radius. Supports and grommets must be used, fittings
lubricated, and protection against temperature provided. Each of
these is discussed in the paragraphs that follow and illustrated in
Figure 2-17.

Twisting. Most hose is marked with a lengthwise solid line (lay
strip) for ease in detecting any twists of the line during
installation. A twisted hose tends to untwist when pressurized
causing the end fitting to become loosened or sheared. To avoid
twisting hose assemblies when connecting the second end, use two
wrenches: one to hold the stationary fitting and one to turn the
swivel nut.

Bend Radius. Hose, like rigid tubing, has a limit to its bend
allowance. Bends exceeding the permissible limit lead to early
failure of the hose assembly. The radius of the sharpest bend
permissible for a hose is referred to as the minimum bend radius for
that hose. This bend radius is measured in the same manner as the
minimum bend radius of rigid tubing as described in the paragraph of
this lesson entitled "routing of lines".

58 AL0907

Supports and Grommets. Teflon hose requires a different kind of
support than that used for rubber hose. However, the following
principles in using supports apply to both rubber and teflon hose.
Hose must be supported along its length at intervals of 24 inches or
less, depending on the size of the hose. These supports, shown in
Figure 2-18, must be installed in such a manner that they do not
cause deflection of any rigid lines where they are connected.

When a hose is connected to an engine by a hose clamp, a support
must be placed approximately three inches from the connection, and at
least 1-1/2 inches of hose slack provided between the connection and
the engine, to keep vibration and torsion from damaging the
connections.

When a hose passes through a bulkhead, a grommet must be installed
in the bulkhead hole to provide support for the hose and to prevent
it from chafing. As an alternative, a cushioned clamp can be used at
the hole if the hole is large enough to provide adequate clearance
around the hose.

A hose assembly connecting two rigidly mounted fittings must be
supported firmly but not rigidly.

Lubrication. The swiveling parts and mating surfaces-of hose
assemblies must be lubricated before installation. This ensures
effective seating and tightening of the component parts. Oil or
water can be used on all, types of fuel, oil, and coolant hose when
installation is made except for self-sealing hose which must never be
lubricated during installation. However, only oil or the operational
fluid of the system must be used on hydraulic and pneumatic hose.


















59 AL0907


Figure 2-17. Connecting Hose Assemblies.

60 AL0907


Figure 2-18. Hose Support.

Temperature Protection. Hose must be protected from high
temperatures such as exhaust blast and hot engine parts. In these
areas the hose must either be shielded or relocated. A shield for
temperature protection is shown in Figure 2-19.



61 AL0907


Figure 2-19. Temperature Protection.

STORAGE

Proper storage and handling of aircraft hose and hose assemblies are
the responsibility of all activities engaged in aircraft maintenance.
Aircraft hose and associated rubber components must be stored in a
dark, cool, dry place protected from exposure to strong air currents
and dirt. Stored rubber hose and seals must also be protected from
electric motors or other equipment emitting heat or ozone. Hose and
hose components must be stored in the original packing and issued so
that the oldest items are issued first.

Neither teflon nor rubber hose has limited shelf life. However,
prior to installation all hose assemblies must be inspected to ensure
serviceability and tested according to the procedures listed in the
paragraph on testing hose assemblies.

Bulk Hose. Prior to being placed in storage, the ends of the hose
must be capped to prevent flareout and dirt contamination. Storage
in a straight position is the preferred manner; however, if coiling
is necessary, large loose coils must be made.




62 AL0907

Hose Assemblies. The ends of all hose assemblies must be capped
during storage with polyethylene protective plugs conforming to
National Aerospace Standard (NAS) 815 or equivalent to prevent
contamination.

SUMMARY

Hose is used in aircraft plumbing whenever the connected components
must be free to move or whenever extreme vibrations are a problem.
Aircraft hose is composed of two or more layers of differing
materials. The inner layer, or liner, is a leak-tight nonmetallic
tube made from either synthetic rubber or teflon. The liner is
reinforced against swelling or bursting by one or more outer layers
of braid. The kind and number of braid layers depend on the intended
operating pressure range of the hose assembly.

The pressure capabilities of hose assemblies are divided into two
general categories: medium pressure and high pressure. The medium-
pressure range includes operating pressures of 1,500 psi and below.
High-pressure hose is designated for operating pressure systems up to
but not exceeding 3,000 psi.

Aircraft hose and hose assemblies can be readily identified by
markings found either stenciled along the length of the hose or
imprinted on an affixed, metal band. These markings include the date
of manufacture or fabrication, size, military specification number,
and date of pressure test.

Hose size is expressed in sixteenths of an inch by a dash number
referring to the inside diameter (ID) of the hose.

Replacement of rubber hose assemblies must be accomplished at
inspection intervals prescribed in the applicable aircraft
maintenance manual. Teflon hose does not deteriorate as a result of
age; therefore, periodic replacement is not required. Both rubber
and teflon hose assemblies are subject to damage during operation
that can be cause for replacement. Examples of these damages are:
cold flow, weather checking, leaks, or broken wires exceeding
limitations.

For the most part, hose assemblies are available through supply
channels as factory prefabricated parts. For expediency, however,
they can be field fabricated in accordance with the outlined
specifications. High-pressure teflon hose is available in
prefabricated assemblies only. Field fabrication is not authorized.



63 AL0907

Prior to installation, all field-fabricated hose assemblies must be
pressure tested; factory or depot lubricated assemblies must be
pressure tested regardless of whether they were tested at the time of
manufacture.

During installation, care must be taken to ensure the line is not
twisted or bent to exceed limitations. Hose must be supported along
its length at intervals of 24 inches or less, depending on the size
of the hose.

The swiveling parts and mating surfaces of hose assemblies must be
lubricated before installation to ensure effective seating of the
component parts. Self-sealing hose must never be lubricated.

Aircraft hose and rubber components must be stored in a dark, cool,
dry place protected from exposure to strong air currents and dirt.
Neither Teflon nor rubber hose is limited in its shelf life; however,
prior to installation all hose assemblies and seals must be inspected
to ensure serviceability.

PART C - SEALS AND GASKETS

Seals and gaskets are used throughout aircraft plumbing systems to
prevent leaks when two components are joined together. The material
from which the seals are manufactured varies depending upon the fluid
or gas being conducted and the operating pressure range of the
system. Using the proper type of seal and exercising care during
installation are two of the most important phases of plumbing
maintenance. Lack of care during this phase of maintenance is one of
the most frequent causes of system failure or leaks. In this part,
the types of seals and gaskets used in aircraft plumbing systems are
discussed; and their capabilities, advantages, limitations, and
installation procedures are presented.



SEALS

The seals or packings used in hydraulic systems are manufactured from
rubber, leather, teflon, metal, or a combination of any of these.
Two types of rubber, natural and synthetic, are used for making
hydraulic seals; however, only synthetic rubber seals can


64 AL0907

be used with mineral-base hydraulic fluid. Examples of some of the
different kinds of seals used in plumbing systems are shown in Figure
2-20 and discussed in the following paragraphs.


Figure 2-20. Seals Used in Plumbing Systems.

O-Rings. In Army aircraft, the O-ring is the most commonly used
type of hydraulic seal. It is designed to control leaks against
pressures coming from any direction and can be used where there is
either rotative- or linear-relative movement between parts. An O-
ring can also be used between nonmoving parts to eliminate leaks such
as in the joint between two parts of a housing. When used in this
manner the O-ring is called an O-ring gasket.

Backup Rings. When the pressure to be retained by an O-ring
exceeds 1,500 psi, a backup ring is used in the groove along with the
O-ring. Backup rings prevent O-ring material from extruding into the
clearance gap between the sealed surfaces.


65 AL0907

Extrusions tend to cause the moving parts to bind, the O-ring seal to
fail, and particles of the O-ring seal to contaminate the fluid.
Backup rings can also be used with lower pressure systems to extend
O-ring life.

When installed, a backup ring is placed on the side of the O-ring
not subjected to pressure. In cases where the O-ring is subject to
pressure from both sides, two backup rings are used, one on each side
of the O-ring.

V-Rings. The use of V-rings is rather limited in hydraulic
systems; however, they are used in some shock struts. A V-ring can
seal in only one direction and can be used to seal surfaces
regardless of whether there is movement between the parts.

U-Rings. Similar to V-rings in design and function, U-rings are
used to seal pistons and shafts on some master brake cylinders.

Cup Seals. Another type of seal used frequently on master brake
cylinders is cup seals. They are effective in controlling leaks in
only one direction, and when installed the lip of the cup must be
facing the fluid to be contained.

Oil Seals. Composite seals made from both rubber and metal are
called oil seals, and they are used to seal hydraulic pump and motor
drive shafts. Their outer body, or case, is made from pressed steel
and is force-fitted into the component housing. Inside the metal
case is a lipped rubber seal and a spring. The rubber seal is
securely anchored against movement to the metal case, and the spring
encircles the lip, holding it firmly to the surface it seals and is
commonly referred to as a Garloc Seal. During installation, the
housing must be free from foreign matter or burrs, and the seals must
be seated squarely with proper special tools.

Wiper Seals. Scrapers or wiper seals are made of metal, leather,
or felt and used to clean and lubricate the exposed portion of piston
shafts. When installed and operating properly, wiper seals prevent
dirt from entering the system and aid in preventing piston shafts
from binding.

INSTALLING SEALS

Prior to use, all seals must be examined to ensure they are made from
the correct material, in the proper shape and size, and free from
nicks, cracks, rough spots, or other defects. Immediately prior to
assembly, clean and lubricate the seals and contact surfaces with the
operational fluid of the system.

66 AL0907

When installing seals, care must be taken so they are not stretched
or distorted. Any twists or strains to the seal can lead to its
early failure and must be prevented by gently working the seal into
place.

GASKETS

A gasket is a piece of material placed between two parts where there
is no movement. The gasket is used as a filler to compensate for
irregularities on the surfaces of the two mating parts permitting
possible leaks. Many different materials are used for making
gaskets. For use in hydraulic systems the gaskets may be made from
treated paper, synthetic rubber, copper, or aluminum.

O-Ring Gaskets. The most common type of gasket used in aircraft
hydraulic systems is the O-ring. When used as a gasket the O-ring
has the same advantage as when used as a seal, as explained in a
previous paragraph.

Crush Washers. The second most commonly used gasket is the crush
washer, used in hydraulic systems and made from aluminum or copper.
Fittings using these washers have concentric grooves and ridges that
bear against or crush the washer. These grooves and ridges seal the
washer and fitting as the connecting parts are tightened together.

FABRICATING GASKETS

Some types of gaskets can be field-fabricated as long as the bulk
material conforms to the required military specifications. When you
cut replacement gaskets from bulk material, the most important
consideration is the exact duplication of the thickness of the
original gasket.

INSTALLING GASKETS

Like seals, gaskets must be examined before installation to ensure
their serviceability. The component surfaces to be connected must be
thoroughly cleaned. During assembly, care must be taken not to crimp
or twist the gaskets. When tightening the components, the gaskets
must not be compressed into the threads where they can be cut,
damaged, or block mating surfaces from being flush.

STORING SEALS AND GASKETS

Seals and gaskets must be stored in accordance with the same
specifications outlined for hose and hose assemblies in a previous
paragraph. By way of review, those specifications

67 AL0907

require that seals and gaskets be stored in a cool, dark, dry place;
they must be protected from dirt, heat, strong air currents,
dampness, petroleum products, and electric motors or equipment giving
off ozone.

SUMMARY

Seals and gaskets are used in aircraft plumbing systems to prevent
leaks when two components are joined together. The fluid being
conducted and the operating pressure of the system determine the type
of seal or gasket to be used and the material to be used in its
manufacture. Once a seal or gasket has been removed from service it
must never be reused, even if removal was only incidental to the
disassembly of a component.

In hydraulic systems, seals manufactured from rubber, leather, felt,
cork, paper, teflon, or metal are used. The O-ring is the most
widely used type of hydraulic seal. It is effective in controlling
pressures coming from any direction or for use where there is either
linear or rotative motion. Backup rings are used with O-rings as a
means of preventing O-ring extrusions, prolonging O-ring life, or
when system pressure exceeds 1,500 psi. Other types of seals used in
hydraulic systems are: V-rings, U-rings, cup seals, oil seals, and
wiper seals. These are special seals, used to contain fluid or
prevent leaks in the various components of the aircraft plumbing
systems.

All seals must be inspected for serviceability prior to installation,
and care must be taken not to damage them during assembly.

A seal placed between two components where there is no relative
movement is termed a gasket. Its function is to compensate for any
irregularities on the surfaces of two mating parts and thus to
prevent leaks.

Crush washers and O-ring gaskets are the most common types of gaskets
used in aircraft hydraulic systems. If a gasket is to be field
fabricated, ensure that the exact thickness of the original gasket is
duplicated.

Gaskets, like seals, must be examined prior to installation to ensure
their serviceability. During assembly, do not exceed the recommended
torque value of the components. Overtightening is likely to crimp
the gasket or compress it into the threads of the component, and
hence, break the seal.

When stored, seals and gaskets must be protected from excessive heat,
dampness, air currents, dirt, petroleum products, and equipment
emitting ozone.

68 AL0907

LESSON 2

PRACTICE EXERCISE

The following items will test your grasp of the material covered in
this lesson. There is only one correct answer for each item. When
you have completed the exercise, check your answers with the answer
key that follows. If you answer any item incorrectly, study again
that part of the lesson which contains the portion involved.

1. How many types of identification code systems are used to
identify tube assemblies?

___ A. One.
___ B. Two.
___ C. Three.
___ D. Four.

2. What pressure application is the beaded connection used for?

___ A. Low pressure.
___ B. Medium pressure.
___ C. High pressure.
___ D. Extreme high pressure.

3. How many prescribed methods of cleaning tubing are there?

___ A. One.
___ B. Two.
___ C. Three.
___ D. Four.

4. Compared to the diameter of a tube, which of the following
percentages represents unacceptable dent depth?

___ A. 5.
___ B. 10.
___ C. 15.
___ D. 25.

5. Which is an unacceptable percentage of depth for a nick on a
tube assembly carrying less than 100 psi?

___ A. 5.
___ B. 10.
___ C. 15.
___ D. 25.

69 AL0907

6. What type of material is used in high pressure oxygen systems?

A. Aluminum tubing.
B. Copper tubing.
C. Stainless steel tubing.
D. High-pressure teflon hose.

7. When installing a tube assembly on an aircraft, you should
tighten the fitting nut when the system is at--

A. 0 psi.
B. 500 psi.
C. 750 psi.
D. 1,000 psi

8. How many types of seals or packing are used in hydraulic
systems?

A. Two.
B. Three.
C. Four.
D. Seven

9. When can seals be reused after they have been removed from
service?

A. After inspection when no defects are found.
B. When you are told to by higher authority.
C. In emergencies.
D. Never.

10. When cutting gaskets from bulk material, how much leeway are you
allowed to use between the thickness of the bulk material and
the original gasket?

A. None.
B. 2 percent.
C. 3 percent.
D. 5 percent.









70 AL0907

LESSON 2
PRACTICE EXERCISE
ANSWER KEY AND FEEDBACK

Item Correct Answer and Feedback

1. B. Two. The two types of identification code systems are
the solid color band system and the tape system. (Page 27)
2. A. Low pressure. The beaded connection is not
constructed to be reliable in high-pressure systems. It
should be used only in a system that is designated low
pressure. (Page 41)
3. C. Three. There are three methods of cleaning tubing
according to TM 1-1500-204-23-Series: vapor degreasing
method, naptha method, and hot inhibited alkaline cleaner
method. Always check the technical manual for proper usage.
(Page 41)
4. D. 25. Any dent that exceeds 20 percent of the tube
diameter will cause a construction in the tube resulting in a
reduction in the fluid traveling through the line. (Page 47)
5. D. 25. The criteria for tubing carrying less than 100
psi is not as critical. These tubes are usually only return
or drain lines. (Page 25)
6. B. Copper tubing. Copper tubing is used in oxygen
systems because it is a nonferrous metal and will not cause
any sparks when a wrench is applied to any fittings. (Page
30)
7. A. 0 psi. You should never tighten a fitting under
pressure because the pressure causes resistance which results
in an undertorqued condition. (pg 45)
8. D. Seven. The types of seals or packing are o-rings,
backup rings, V-rings, U-rings, cup seals, oil seals, and
wiper seals. Each serves a special purpose. (pg 65-66)
9. D. Never. Seals or gaskets must never be reused after
being removed due to the possibility of their being damaged
during removal. Once damaged, they cannot serve the original
purpose. (pg 64)
10. A. None. When you cut replacement gaskets from bulk
material, the most important consideration is the exact
duplication of the thickness of the original gasket due to
the close-tolerance machining of the parts. (pg 67)


71 AL0907

Training Solutions

Training Solutions

Hydraulics

Training Manual 2

HYDRAULICS

FM 5-499

FM 5-499
Manual Headquarters
No. 5-499


Hydraulics
Table of Contents

Page
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES . . . . . .vii
Figures . . . . . .vii
Tables . . . . . xiii
PREFACE . . . . . xiv
CHAPTER 1. Hydraulic Basics . . . . . 1-1
1-1. Pressure and Force. . . . . 1-1
Pressure . . . . . 1-1
Force . . . . . 1-3
1-2. Pascals Law . . . . . 1-4
1-3. Flow . . . . . 1-6
Velocity . . . . . 1-6
Flow Rate . . . . . 1-6
1-4. Energy, Work, and Power . . . . . 1-6
Potential Energy . . . . . 1-6
Kinetic Energy . . . . . 1-6
Heat Energy and Friction . . . . . 1-6
Relationship Between Velocity and Pressure . . . 1-7
Work . . . . . 1-8
Power . . . . . 1-8
CHAPTER 2. Hydraulic Systems. . . . . 2-1
2-1. Basic Systems . . . . . 2-1
Hydraulic Jack . . . . . 2-1
Motor-Reversing System . . . . 2-1
Open-Center System . . . . . 2-2
Closed-Center System . . . . . 2-5


OS-Software



i

FM 5-499
ii
Page
2-2. Col or Codi ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-9
2-3. Reservoi rs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-9
Constructi on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-9
Shape. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-10
Si ze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-10
Locati on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-10
Venti l ati on and Pressuri zati on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-11
Li ne Connecti ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-11
Mai ntenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-11
2-4. Strai ners and Fi l ter s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-11
Strai ners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12
Fi l ters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12
2-5. Fi l teri ng Materi al and El ements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14
2-6. Accumul ators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14
Spri ng-Loaded Accumul ator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14
Bag-Type Accumul ator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-15
Pi ston-Type Accumul ator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-15
Mai ntenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-15
2-7. Pressure Gauges and Vol ume Meter s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-17
Pressure Gauges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-17
Meter s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-17
2-8. Portabl e Hydraul i c-Ci rcui t Testers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-18
Testers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-18
I mproper Operati on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-18
2-9. Ci rcul ator y Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-18
Tubi ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-19
Pi pi ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-19
Fl exi bl e Hosi ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-19
I nstal l ati on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-21
2-10. Fi tti ngs and Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-21
Threaded Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-21
Fl ared Connectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-23
Fl exi bl e-Hose Coupl i ngs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-25
Reusabl e Fi tti ngs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-25
2-11. Leakage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-29
I nternal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-29
External . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-30
Preventi on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-30
2-12. Seal s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-30
Stati c Seal s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-31
Dynami c Seal s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-31
Packi ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-33
Seal Materi al s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-34
FM 5-499
iii
Page
CHAPTER 3. Pumps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
3-1. Pump Cl assi fi cati ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
Nonposi ti ve-Di spl acement Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
Posi ti ve-Di spl acement Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
Characteri sti cs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
3-2. Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
3-3. Di spl acement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
Fi xed-Di spl acement Pump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3
Vari abl e-Di spl acement Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3
3-4. Sl i ppage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3
3-5. Desi gns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3
Centri fugal Pump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3
Rotary Pump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
Reci pr ocati ng Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
3-6. Gear Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
External . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
I nternal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
Lobe Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
3-7. Vane Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
Characteri sti cs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
Unbal anced Vane Pumps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
Bal anced Vane Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7
Doubl e Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7
Two-Stage Pumps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9
3-8. Pi ston Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10
Radi al . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10
Axi al Pi ston Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11
3-9. Pump Operati on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14
Over l oadi ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14
Excess Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14
Cavi tati on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14
Operati ng Probl ems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-15
CHAPTER 4. Hydraulic Actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
4-1. Cyl i nders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
Si ngl e-Acti ng Cyl i nder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
Doubl e-Acti ng Cyl i nder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
Di fferenti al Cyl i nder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
Nondi fferenti al Cyl i nder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2
Ram-Type Cyl i nder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2
Pi ston-Type Cyl i nder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3
Cushi oned Cyl i nder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4
Lockout Cyl i nders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4
4.2 Constructi on and Appl i cati on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4
FM 5-499
iv
Page
4-3. Mai ntenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
External Leakage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
I nternal Leakage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
Creepi ng Cyl i nder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
Sl uggi sh Operati on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
Loose Mounti ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
Mi sal i gnment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
Lack of Lubri cati on. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7
Abrasi ves on a Pi ston Rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7
Bur rs on a Pi ston Rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7
Ai r Vents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7
4-4. Hydraul i c Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7
Gear -Type Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8
Vane-Type Motors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8
Pi ston-Type Motors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10
CHAPTER 5. Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1
5-1. Pressure-Control Val ves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1
Rel i ef Val ves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2
Pressure-Reduci ng Val ves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3
Sequence Val ves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5
Counter bal ance Val ves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7
Pressure Swi tches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-8
5-2. Di r ecti onal -Control Val ves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-8
Poppet Val ve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-9
Sl i di ng-Spool Val ve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10
Check Val ves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10
Two-Way Val ve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-14
Four-Way Val ves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-14
5-3. Fl ow-Contr ol Val ves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-19
Gate Val ve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-19
Gl obe Val ve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-21
Needl e Val ve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-22
Restr i ctor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-22
Ori fi ce Check Val ve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-23
Fl ow Equal i zer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-23
5-4. Val ve I nstal l ati on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-25
Meter -I n Ci rcui t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-25
Meter -Out Ci rcui t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-25
Bl eed-Off Ci rcui t. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26
Compensated Fl ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26
5-5. Val ve Fai l ures and Remedi es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26
Servi ci ng Val ves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-27
Di sassembl i ng Val ves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-27
Repai ri ng Val ves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-28
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5-6. Val ve Assembl y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-29
5-7. Troubl eshooti ng Val ves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-30
Pressure-Control Val ves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-30
Di recti onal -Control Val ves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-32
Vol ume-Control Val ves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-33
CHAPTER 6. Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1
6-1. Hydraul i c-Ci r cui t Di agrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1
6-2. Uni ted States of Ameri can Standards I nsti tute (USASI ) Gr aphi cal . . . . . . . 6-1
Symbol s
Reservoi r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4
Li nes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4
Pump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4
Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5
Cyl i nder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5
Pressure-Control Val ves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5
Fl ow-Control Val ves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7
Di recti onal -Control Val ves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7
Accessor i es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9
6-3. Typi cal Mobi l e Ci rcui ts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11
Hydraul i c-Li ft Ci r cui t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11
Power-Steeri ng Ci rcui ts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12
Road-Patr ol -Truck Ci rcui ts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12
6-4. Troubl eshooti ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13
Causes of I mproper Operati ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13
Testi ng a Hydr aul i c Ci rcui t. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13
Compari ng Test Resul ts wi th Speci fi cati ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13
Sl i ppage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15
Fl ow and Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15
Other Condi ti ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15
Speci fi c Troubl es, Causes, and Sol uti ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16
CHAPTER 7. Electrical Devices: Troubleshooting and Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1
7-1. Hydraul i cs and El ectr i ci ty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1
7-2. Troubl eshooti ng El ectri cal Devi ces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5
Testi ng Devi ces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6
7-3. Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8
Earth Gr ound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8
Chassi s or Common Gr ound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9
Zero Reference Poi nt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9
I sol ati on Between Earth and Chassi s Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-10
7-4. Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-10
I nformati on. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-10
Practi ces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-11
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APPENDIX A. Metric Conversion Chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendi x-1
GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gl ossar y-1
REFERENCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Refer ences-1
INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I ndex-1
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List of Figures and Tables
Figures
Page
Figure 1-1. Basic hydraulic device. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
Figure 1-2. Compressibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2
Figure 1-3. Water column. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3
Figure 1-4. Pump pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4
Figure 1-5. I nteraction of hydraulic and atmospheric pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4
Figure 1-6. Force, pressure, and area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5
Figure 1-7. Pascals Law apparatus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5
Figure 1-8. Laminar and turbulent flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-7
Figure 1-9. Effect of friction on pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-7
Figure 1-10. Bernouillis Principle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8
Figure 1-11. Combined effects of friction and velocity changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9
Figure 2-1. Hydraulic jack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
Figure 2-2. Motor-reversing system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3
Figure 2-3. Open-center system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4
Figure 2-4. Open-center system with a series connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4
Figure 2-5. Open-center system with a series/ parallel connection. . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5
Figure 2-6. Open-center system with a flow divider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6
Figure 2-7. Closed-center system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6
Figure 2-8. Fixed-displacement pump and accumulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7
Figure 2-9. Variable-displacement pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8
Figure 2-10. Closed-center system with charging pump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8
Figure 2-11. Design features of a reservoir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-10
Figure 2-12. Hydraulic-system stainers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12
Figure 2-13. Full-flow hydraulic filter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13
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Figure 2-14. Proportional-flow filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13
Figure 2-15. Spring-loaded accumulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-15
Figure 2-16. Bag-type accumulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-16
Figure 2-17. Piston-type accumulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-16
Figure 2-18. Pressure gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-17
Figure 2-19. Nutating-piston-disc flowmeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-17
Figure 2-20. Portable hydraulic-circuit tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-18
Figure 2-21. Method of installing tubing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-19
Figure 2-22. Flexible rubber hose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-20
Figure 2-23. I nstalling flexible hose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-20
Figure 2-24. Threaded-pipe connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-22
Figure 2-25. Flared-tube connector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-23
Figure 2-26. Flared-tube fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-24
Figure 2-27. Field-attachable couplings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-25
Figure 2-28. Hose-length measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-25
Figure 2-29. Hose cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-25
Figure 2-30. Permanently attached couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-26
Figure 2-31. Skived fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-26
Figure 2-32. Trimming a hose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-27
Figure 2-33. Female portion of a fitting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-27
Figure 2-34. Male and female portions of a fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-28
Figure 2-35. Tightening a fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-28
Figure 2-36. Nonskived fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-28
Figure 2-37. Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-28
Figure 2-38. Assembly of clamp-type coupling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-29
Figure 2-39. Static seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-31
Figure 2-40. O-ring placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-31
Figure 2-41. O-ring removal tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-32
Figure 2-42. Backup ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-32
Figure 2-43. T-ring seal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-33
Figure 2-44. Lip seal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-33
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Figure 2-45. Cup seal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-33
Figure 2-46. Piston ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-33
Figure 2-47. Face seal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-34
Figure 2-48. Compression packing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-34
Figure 3-1. Nonpositive-displacement pump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
Figure 3-2. Reciprocating-type, positive-displacement pump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
Figure 3-3. Positive-displacement pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
Figure 3-4. Volute pump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
Figure 3-5. Diffuser pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
Figure 3-6. External gear pump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
Figure 3-7. I nternal gear pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
Figure 3-8. Lobe pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
Figure 3-9. Unbalanced vane pump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7
Figure 3-10. Balanced vane pump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7
Figure 3-11. Vane-type double pump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8
Figure 3-12. Fluid flow from vane-type double pumps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8
Figure 3-13. Vane-type, two-stage pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9
Figure 3-14. Simplified radial piston pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10
Figure 3-15. Nine-piston radial piston pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11
Figure 3-16. Pintle for a radial piston pump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11
Figure 3-17. Cylinder block for a radial piston pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12
Figure 3-18. Pistons for a radial piston pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12
Figure 3-19. I n-line piston pump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13
Figure 3-20. Bent-axial piston pump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14
Figure 4-1. Single-acting cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
Figure 4-2. Double-acting cylinder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2
Figure 4-3. Nondifferential cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2
Figure 4-4. Telescoping, ram-type, actuating cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3
Figure 4-5. Single-acting, spring-loaded, piston-type cylinder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3
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Figure 4-6. Double-acting, piston-type cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4
Figure 4-7. Cushioned, actuating cylinder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4
Figure 4-8. Applications of cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6
Figure 4-9. Basic operations of a hydraulic motor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7
Figure 4-10. Gear-type motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8
Figure 4-11. Vane-type motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8
Figure 4-12. Pressure differential on a vane-type motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9
Figure 4-13. Flow condition in a vane-type pump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9
Figure 4-14. Rocker arms pushing vanes in a pump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10
Figure 4-15. I n-line-axis, piston-type motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10
Figure 4-16. Swash plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-11
Figure 4-17. Bent-axis, piston-type motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-11
Figure 5-1. Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1
Figure 5-2. Simple relief valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2
Figure 5-3. Compound relief valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3
Figure 5-4. Pressure-reducing valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3
Figure 5-5. X-series, pressure-reducing valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4
Figure 5-6. I nternal construction of an XC-series valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5
Figure 5-7. Sequence valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6
Figure 5-8. Application of sequence valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6
Figure 5-9. Counterbalance valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7
Figure 5-10. Pressure switch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-8
Figure 5-11. Spool valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-9
Figure 5-12. Operation of a simple poppet valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10
Figure 5-13. Operation of sliding-spool, directional-control valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10
Figure 5-14. Swing-type check valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-11
Figure 5-15. Vertical check valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-11
Figure 5-16. Spring-loaded check valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-11
Figure 5-17. Standard check valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-12
Figure 5-18. Restriction check valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-12
FM 5-499
xi
Page
Figure 5-19. Pilot-operated check valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-13
Figure 5-20. Pilot-operated check valve, second type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-13
Figure 5-21. Two-way valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-14
Figure 5-22. Flow conditions in a circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-15
Figure 5-23. Working view of poppet-type, four-way valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-16
Figure 5-24. Schematic of a four-way, directional-control, sliding-spool valve. . . 5-17
Figure 5-25. Closed-center spool valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-18
Figure 5-26. Open-center spool valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-18
Figure 5-27. Shifting spool by hand lever . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-20
Figure 5-28. Spool shifted by pilot pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-21
Figure 5-29. Solenoid-operated, sliding-spool, directional-control valve. . . . . . . . 5-21
Figure 5-30. Cross section of a gate valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-22
Figure 5-31. Operation of a globe valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-22
Figure 5-32. Sectional view of a needle valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-22
Figure 5-33. Fixed restrictor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-23
Figure 5-34. Variable restrictor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-23
Figure 5-35. Orifice check valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-23
Figure 5-36. Flow equalizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-24
Figure 5-37. Typical meter-in circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-25
Figure 5-38. Typical meter-out circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26
Figure 5-39. Spring tester. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-28
Figure 5-40. Valve inspection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-29
Figure 5-41. Volume-control valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-29
Figure 5-42. Pressure-control valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-29
Figure 5-43. Cartridge-type relief valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-30
Figure 5-44. Readings on a cartridge-type relief valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-30
Figure 6-1. Graphical-circuit diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1
Figure 6-2. USASI graphical symbols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2
Figure 6-3. Reservoir symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4
Figure 6-4. Hydraulic line symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4
FM 5-499
xii
Page
Figure 6-5. Crossing lines A and B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5
Figure 6-6. Pump symbols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5
Figure 6-7. Motor symbols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6
Figure 6-8. Cylinder symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6
Figure 6-9. Pressure-control-valve symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6
Figure 6-10. Relief-valve symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7
Figure 6-11. Sequence-valve symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7
Figure 6-12. Check-valve symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8
Figure 6-13. Counterbalance-valve symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8
Figure 6-14. Pressure-reducing-valve symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9
Figure 6-15. Flow-control-valve symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9
Figure 6-16. Unloading-valve symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9
Figure 6-17. Four-way, directional-control-valve symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10
Figure 6-18. Mobile directional-control-valve symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10
Figure 6-19. Fluid-conditioner symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11
Figure 6-20. Accumulator symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11
Figure 6-21. Hydraulic-lift circuit in neutral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11
Figure 6-22. Manual-steering-gear layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12
Figure 6-23. Power-steering layout. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12
Figure 6-24. Semi-integral power-steering system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13
Figure 6-25. Hydraulic circuit diagram for a road-patrol truck. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14
Figure 6-26. Hydraulic tester connected to a pumps output. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15
Figure 7-1. Common electrical schematic symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2
Figure 7-2. Comparison of electrical and hydraulic components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3
Figure 7-3. Comparison of electrical and hydraulic circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4
Figure 7-4. Schematic diagrams illustrating zero reference point . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9
Figure 7-5. Battery installed between earth ground and chassis ground. . . . . . . 7-11
FM 5-499
xiii
Tables
Page
Table 2-1. Figure colors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-9
Table 5-1. Classifications of directional-control valves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-16
Table 6-1. Problems and solutions with pump operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17
Table 6-2. Problems and solutions with actuating mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-19
Table 6-3. Problems and solutions with heating oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-20
Table 6-4. Problems and solutions with fluid motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-21
Table 6-5. Problems and solutions with accumulator operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-21
Table A-1. Metric conversion chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendi x-1
FM 5-499
xiv
Preface
Thi s fi el d manual (FM) serves as a gui de for personnel who operate and mai ntai n mi l i tar y
equi pment usi ng hydr aul i c-powered control systems. I t i ncl udes general i nformati on cover-
i ng basi c hydraul i cs and descri bes the properti es and characteri sti cs of fl ui ds and several
types of pumps, motors, val ves, and control s. Thi s manual al so deal s wi th pi pi ng, tubi ng,
and hoses used to convey fl ui d under pressure. I t descri bes the functi ons and types of reser-
voi rs, strai ners, fi l ters, and accumul ator s. I t di scusses the purposes and types of seal s and
packi ngs used i n fl ui d power systems.
The contents of thi s manual are appl i cabl e to both nucl ear and nonnucl ear warfare.
The Appendi x contai ns an Engl i sh to metri c measurement conversi on chart.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Acknowl edgment i s grateful l y made to the organi zati ons l i sted bel ow for permi tti ng the use
of copyri ghted materi al i n prepar i ng thi s manual .
Deer e & Company
Mol i ne, I l l i noi s
Hydraulics. "Reproduced by permi ssi on of Deere & Company. c 1997. Deer e & Company. Al l
ri ghts reser ved."
Vi cker s, I nc.
Rochester Hi l l s, Mi chi gan
I ndustrial Hydraulics Manual , Thi rd Edi ti on 1993.
The pr oponent for thi s publ i cati on i s Headquarters (HQ), Uni ted States Army Trai ni ng and
Doctri ne Command (TRADOC). Submi t changes for i mpr ovi ng thi s publ i cati on on Depart-
ment of the Army (DA) Form 2028 (Recommended Changes to Publ i cati ons and Bl ank
Forms) and forward i t to Commandant, USAES, ATTN: ATSE-TD-D-P, Fort Leonard Wood,
MO 65473-6650.
Unl ess otherwi se stated, mascul i ne nouns and pr onouns do not refer excl usi vel y to men.
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Basics 1-1
CHAPTER 1
Hydraulic Basics
Hydraulics is the science of transmitting force and/ or motion through the medium of a
confined liquid. I n a hydraulic device, power is transmitted by pushing on a confined liquid.
Figure 1-1 shows a simple hydraulic device. The transfer of energy takes place because a
quantity of liquid is subject to pressure. To operate liquid-powered systems, the operator
should have a knowledge of the basic nature of liquids. This chapter covers the properties of
liquids and how they act under different conditions.
1-1. Pressure and Force. Pr essur e i s for ce exer ted agai nst a speci fi c ar ea (for ce per uni t
area) expr essed i n pounds per square i nch (psi ). Pressure can cause an expansi on, or resi s-
tance to compr essi on, of a fl ui d that i s bei ng squeezed. A fl ui d i s any l i qui d or gas (vapor ).
For ce i s anythi ng that tends to pr oduce or modi fy (push or pul l ) moti on and i s expr essed i n
pounds.
a. Pressure. An exampl e of pressur e i s the ai r (gas) that fi l l s an automobi l e ti r e. As a
ti r e i s i nfl ated, mor e ai r i s squeezed i nto i t than i t can hol d. The ai r i nsi de a ti r e r esi sts the
squeezi ng by pushi ng outward on the casi ng of the ti r e. The outward push of the ai r i s pres-
sur e. Equal pr essur e throughout a confi ned ar ea i s a character i sti c of any pr essur i zed fl ui d.
For exampl e, i n an i nfl ated ti r e, the outwar d push of the ai r i s uni form thr oughout. I f i t
were not, a ti re woul d be pushed i nto odd shapes because of i ts el asti ci ty.
Ther e i s a
major di ffer ence
between a gas and a
l i qui d. Li qui ds ar e
sl i ghtl y compress-
i bl e (Fi gur e 1-2,
page 1-2). When a
confi ned l i qui d i s
pushed on, pressur e
bui l ds up. The
pressur e i s sti l l
tr ansmi tted
equal l y thr oughout
the contai ner . The
fl ui d's behavi or
makes i t possi bl e to
tr ansmi t a push
thr ough pi pes,
around corner s, and
up and down. A
hydr aul i c system
uses a l i qui d
Confined liquid is
subject to pressure
Weight
Figure 1-1. Basic hydraulic device
FM 5-499
1-2 Hydraulic Basics
because i ts near i ncompressi bi l i ty makes the acti on i nstantaneous as l ong as the system i s
ful l of l i qui d.
Pr essure can be created by squeezi ng or pushi ng on a confi ned fl ui d onl y i f ther e i s a
resi stance to fl ow. The two ways to push on a fl ui d ar e by the acti on of a mechani cal pump
or by the wei ght of the fl ui d. An exampl e of pr essure due to a fl ui d's wei ght woul d be i n an
ocean's depths. The water 's wei ght cr eates the pr essur e, whi ch i ncr eases or decr eases,
dependi ng on the depth.
By knowi ng the wei ght of a cubi c foot of water , you can cal cul ate the pr essur e at any
depth. Fi gur e 1-3 shows a col umn of water 1 foot squar e and 10 feet hi gh, whi ch equates to
10 cubi c feet. (One cubi c foot of water wei ghs 52.4 pounds.) The total wei ght of water i n thi s
col umn i s 624 pounds. The wei ght at the bottom cover s 1,445 squar e i nches (1 squar e foot).
Each squar e i nch of the bottom i s subject to 1/144 of the total wei ght, or 4.33 pounds. Thus,
the pr essur e at thi s depth i s 4.33 psi . You can al so cr eate an equal pr essur e of 4.33 psi i n a
l i qui d usi ng the pump and fi gur es shown i n Fi gur e 1-4, page 1-4.
Befor e pr essur e, head was the onl y way to expr ess pr essur e measur ement. I t was
expr essed as feet of water . Today, head i s sti l l the ver ti cal di stance between two l evel s i n a
fl ui d. I n Fi gur e 1-3, the head between the top and bottom of the water i s 10 feet, whi ch i s
equi val ent to 4.33 psi . Ther efor e, each foot of water i s equal to 0.433 psi .
The earth has an atmosphere of ai r extendi ng 50 mi l es up, and thi s ai r has weight. Thi s ai r
cr eates a head of pr essure that i s cal l ed atmospheri c pr essure. A col umn of ai r 1 square i nch i n
cross secti on and the hei ght of the atmospher e woul d wei gh 14.7 pounds at sea l evel . Thus,
the earth's atmospher i c pressur e i s 14.7 psi at sea l evel . The rol e of atmospher i c pressure i n
A gas is compressible
A liquid resists compression
Figure 1-2. Compressibility
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Basics 1-3
most hydraul i c systems i s si gni fi cant. Fi g-
ure 1-5, page 1-4, shows the i nteracti on of
hydr aul i c and atmospheri c pressur es under
the three sets of condi ti ons l i sted bel ow:
(1) Di agr am A. I n the di agram, the tube
i s open at both ends. When i t i s pl aced i n a
l i qui d, the l i qui d wi l l ri se, i nsi de and out-
si de, i n pr oporti on to the amount of l i qui d
di spl aced by the submer ged tube wal l .
(2) Di agram B. I n the di agram, ends of
the tube ar e cl osed. When pl aced i n a l i qui d,
the l i qui d l evel i n the tube i s for ced down
because the ai r i n the tube must occupy a
space. Ther efor e, the l i qui d i s di spl aced.
The l i qui d l evel outsi de the tube ri ses i n pro-
porti on to the vol ume of the cyl i nder wal l
and the vol ume of the trapped ai r bel ow the
ori gi nal l i qui d l evel . The atmospher i c pr es-
sure (14.7 psi ) on the l i qui d outsi de the tube
i s not heavy enough to for ce the l i qui d i nsi de
the tube upwar d agai nst the pressur e of the
tr apped ai r , whi ch i s mor e than 14.7 psi .
(3) Di agram C. I n the di agram, the
upper end of the tube i s cl osed, but some of
the ai r has been r emoved fr om thi s tube so
that the pr essur e wi thi n the tube i s l ess than
14.7 psi (a par ti al vacuum). A per fect vac-
uum woul d exi st i f al l pr essure wi thi n the
tube coul d be el i mi nated, a condi ti on that
never happens. Because the l i qui d outsi de
the tube i s subject to ful l atmospher i c pr es-
sur e, the l i qui d i s for ced up i nto the tube to
sati sfy the vacuum. How far the l i qui d ri ses
depends on the di ffer ence i n ai r pressur e
between the tr apped ai r and the atmospher e.
b. Force. The rel ati onshi p of force, pres-
sur e, and ar ea i s as fol l ows:
F = PA
wher e
F = force, in pounds
P = pressure, in psi
A =area, in square inches
Figure 1-3. Water column
1 cu ft
weighs
62.4 lb
Total
weight
624 lb
10 ft
4.33 psi
2.165 psi
0.433 psi
1 ft
1 ft
1 ft
144 sq in
FM 5-499
1-4 Hydraulic Basics
Example:
Fi gur e 1-6 shows a pr essur e of 50 psi bei ng
appl i ed to an area of 100 square i nches. The
total force on the area i s
F = PA
F = 50 x 100 = 5,000 pounds
1-2. Pascal's Law. Bl ai se Pascal for mul ated
the basi c l aw of hydraul i cs i n the mi d 17th cen-
tury. He di scovered that pr essure exerted on a
fl ui d acts equal l y i n al l di recti ons. Hi s l aw
states that pressur e i n a confi ned fl ui d i s trans-
mi tted undi mi ni shed i n every di r ecti on and acts
wi th equal for ce on equal areas and at ri ght
angl es to a contai ner 's wal l s.
Fi gur e 1-7 shows the apparatus that Pascal
used to devel op hi s l aw. I t consi sted of two con-
nected cyl i nder s of di ffer ent di ameter s wi th a
l i qui d tr apped between them. Pascal found that
the wei ght of a smal l pi ston wi l l bal ance the
wei ght of a l arger pi ston as l ong as the pi stons
ar eas ar e i n proporti on to the wei ghts. I n the
smal l cyl i nder , a force of 100 pounds on a 1-squar e-
i nch pi ston creates a pr essur e of 100 psi . Accor d-
i ng to Pascal 's Law, thi s pr essure i s transmi tted
undi mi ni shed i n ever y di recti on. I n the l ar ger
A B C
Atmospheric
pressure
Atmospheric
pressure
Figure 1-5. Interaction of hydraulic and atmospheric pressures
Figure 1-4. Pump pressure
Weight
Pump
Area = 10 sq in
Area = 10 sq in
Force = 43.3 lb
Pressure = 4.33 psi
Pressure = 4.33 psi
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Basics 1-5
cyl i nder , the 100 psi of pr essur e fr om the
smal l cyl i nder i s tr ansmi tted to an ar ea of 5
square i nches, whi ch r esul ts i n a for ce of 500
pounds on the second pi ston. The force has
been mul ti pl i ed 5 ti mesa mechani cal advan-
tage of 5 to 1. Usi ng the same factors, you can
deter mi ne the di stance the pi stons move. For
exampl e, i f the smal l pi ston moves down 10
i nches, the l ar ger pi ston wi l l move up 2
i nches. Use the fol l owi ng to deter mi ne the
di stance:
wher e
F
1
= force of the small piston, in pounds
D
1
= distance the small piston moves, in
inches
D
2
= distance the larger piston moves, in
inches
F
2
= force of the larger piston, in pounds
Example: Deter mi ne D
2

D
2
F
1
D
1

F
2
------------------- =
D
2
F
1
D
1

F
2
------------------- = D
2
100 10
500
--------------------- = D
2
2 in =
5
,
0
0
0

p
o
u
n
d
s
f
o
r
c
e
10
10
5
0

p
s
i
100 sq in
100psi
500 lb
100 lb
P
10
1 sq in
5 sq in
W
2
Figure 1-7. Pascals Law apparatus
Figure 1-6. Force, pressure, and area
FM 5-499
1-6 Hydraulic Basics
1-3. Flow. Fl ow i s the movement of a hydr aul i c fl ui d caused by a di fference i n the pressur e
at two poi nts. I n a hydraul i c system, fl ow i s usual l y pr oduced by the acti on of a hydraul i c
pumpa devi ce used to conti nuousl y push on a hydr aul i c fl ui d. The two ways of measuri ng
fl ow are vel oci ty and fl ow rate.
a. Velocity. Vel oci ty i s the aver age speed at whi ch a fl ui d's par ti cl es move past a gi ven
poi nt, measured i n feet per second (fps). Vel oci ty i s an i mportant consi derati on i n si zi ng the
hydr aul i c l i nes that car ry a fl ui d between the components.
b. Flow Rate. Fl ow r ate i s the measur e of how much vol ume of a l i qui d passes a poi nt i n
a gi ven ti me, measur ed i n gal l ons per mi nute (GPM). Fl ow r ate deter mi nes the speed at
whi ch a l oad moves and, ther efore, i s i mportant when consi der i ng power.
1-4. Energy, Work, and Power. Ener gy i s the abi l i ty to do wor k and i s expressed i n foot-
pound (ft l b). The thr ee for ms of ener gy ar e potenti al , ki neti c, and heat. Wor k measur es
accompl i shments; i t r equi r es moti on to make a for ce do wor k. Power i s the r ate of doi ng
wor k or the r ate of ener gy tr ansfer .
a. Potential Energy. Potenti al ener gy i s ener gy due to posi ti on. An object has potenti al
ener gy i n propor ti on to i ts verti cal di stance above the earth's sur face. For exampl e, water
hel d back by a dam r epr esents potenti al ener gy because unti l i t i s r el eased, the water does
not wor k. I n hydr aul i cs, potenti al ener gy i s a stati c factor . When for ce i s appl i ed to a con-
fi ned l i qui d, as shown i n Fi gur e 1-4 (page 1-4), potenti al ener gy i s pr esent because of the
stati c pr essur e of the l i qui d. Potenti al ener gy of a movi ng l i qui d can be r educed by the heat
ener gy r el eased. Potenti al ener gy can al so be r educed i n a movi ng l i qui d when i t tr ansfor ms
i nto ki neti c ener gy. A movi ng l i qui d can, ther efor e, per for m wor k as a r esul t of i ts stati c
pr essur e and i ts momentum.
b. Kinetic Energy. Ki neti c energy i s the energy a body possesses because of i ts moti on.
The gr eater the speed, the gr eater the ki neti c ener gy. When water i s r el eased fr om a dam, i t
rushes out at a hi gh vel oci ty jet, r epr esenti ng ener gy of moti onki neti c ener gy. The
amount of ki neti c ener gy i n a movi ng l i qui d i s di rectl y proporti onal to the squar e of i ts vel oc-
i ty. Pressure caused by ki neti c energy may be cal l ed vel oci ty pressur e.
c. Heat Energy and Friction. Heat ener gy i s the ener gy a body possesses because of i ts
heat. Ki neti c energy and heat energy are dynami c factors. Pascal 's Law deal t wi th stati c
pressur e and di d not i ncl ude the fr i cti on factor. Fri cti on i s the r esi stance to rel ati ve moti on
between two bodi es. When l i qui d fl ows i n a hydraul i c ci rcui t, fri cti on produces heat. Thi s
causes some of the ki neti c ener gy to be l ost i n the for m of heat ener gy.
Al though fri cti on cannot be el i mi nated enti r el y, i t can be contr ol l ed to some extent. The
thr ee mai n causes of excessi ve fri cti on i n hydraul i c systems ar e
Extr emel y l ong l i nes.
Numer ous bends and fi tti ngs or i mproper bends.
Excessi ve vel oci ty from usi ng undersi zed l i nes.
I n a l i qui d fl owi ng thr ough str ai ght pi pi ng at a l ow speed, the par ti cl es of the l i qui d
move i n strai ght l i nes par al l el to the fl ow di recti on. Heat l oss from fr i cti on i s mi ni mal . Thi s
ki nd of fl ow i s cal l ed l ami nar fl ow. Fi gur e 1-8, di agr am A, shows l ami nar fl ow. I f the speed
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Hydraulic Basics 1-7
i ncreases beyond a gi ven
poi nt, turbul ent fl ow devel -
ops. Fi gur e 1-8, di agr am B,
shows tur bul ent fl ow.
Fi gur e 1-9 shows the
di fference i n head because
of pr essur e dr op due to fri c-
ti on. Poi nt B shows no fl ow
resi stance (free-fl ow condi -
ti on); the pr essure at poi nt
B i s zer o. The pr essur e at
poi nt C i s at i ts maxi mum
because of the head at
poi nt A. As the l i qui d fl ows
fr om poi nt C to poi nt B,
fr i cti on causes a pr essur e
dr op fr om maxi mum pr es-
sur e to zer o pr essur e. Thi s
i s r efl ected i n a succeed-
i ngl y decreased head at
poi nts D, E, and F.
d. Relationship
Between Velocity and Pres-
sure. Fi gur e 1-10, page 1-8,
expl ai ns Bernoui l l i 's Pr i n-
ci pl e, whi ch states that the
Laminar flow
Turbulent flow
A
B
Figure 1-8. Laminar and turbulent flow
A
B
C
D E F
Figure 1-9. Effect of friction on pressure
FM 5-499
1-8 Hydraulic Basics
stati c pr essure of a movi ng l i qui d vari es i nversel y wi th i ts vel oci ty; that i s, as vel oci ty
i ncr eases, stati c pr essur e decr eases. I n the fi gur e, the for ce on pi ston X i s suffi ci ent to cr eate
a pressur e of 100 psi on chamber A. As pi ston X moves down, the l i qui d that i s forced out of
chamber A must pass through passage C to reach chamber B. The vel oci ty i ncreases as i t
passes thr ough C because the same quanti ty of l i qui d must pass through a narrower ar ea i n
the same ti me. Some of the 100 psi stati c pressur e i n chamber A i s converted i nto vel oci ty
ener gy i n passage C so that a pressure gauge at thi s poi nt regi sters 90 psi . As the l i qui d
passes through C and r eaches chamber B, vel oci ty decr eases to i ts for mer r ate, as i ndi cated
by the stati c pr essur e r eadi ng of 100 psi , and some of the ki neti c ener gy i s conver ted to
potenti al energy.
Fi gure 1-11 shows the combi ned effects of fri cti on and veloci ty changes. As i n Fi gure 1-9,
page 1-7, pr essur e dr ops fr om maxi mum at C to zer o at B. At D, vel oci ty i s i ncr eased, so the
pressur e head decreases. At E, the head i ncreases as most of the ki neti c energy i s gi ven up
to pr essur e ener gy because vel oci ty i s decr eased. At F, the head drops as vel oci ty i ncreases.
e. Work. To do wor k i n a hydraul i c system, fl ow must be pr esent. Wor k, ther efor e,
exer ts a for ce over a defi ni te di stance. I t i s a measur e of for ce mul ti pl i ed by di stance.
f. Power. The standard uni t of power i s horsepower (hp). One hp i s equal to 550 ft l b of
work every second. Use the fol l owi ng equati on to fi nd power:
P =f x d/ t
wher e
P =power, in hp
f = force, in GPM
d = distance, in psi
t = time (1,714)
100 psi
100 psi
90 psi
Chamber A
100 psi
Passage C
Chamber B
X
Figure 1-10. Bernouillis Principle
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Hydraulic Basics 1-9
F E D
C
B
A
Figure 1-11. Combined effects of friction and velocity changes
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Hydraulic Systems 2-1
CHAPTER 2
Hydraulic Systems
A hydraulic system contains and confines a liquid in such a way that it uses the laws
governing liquids to transmit power and do work. This chapter describes some basic systems
and discusses components of a hydraulic system that store and condition the fluid. The oil
reservoir (sump or tank) usually serves as a storehouse and a fluid conditioner. Filters,
strainers, and magnetic plugs condition the fluid by removing harmful impurities that could
clog passages and damage parts. Heat exchanges or coolers often are used to keep the oil tem-
perature within safe limits and prevent deterioration of the oil. Accumulators, though techni-
cally sources of stored energy, act as fluid storehouses.
2-1. Basic Systems. The advantages of hydr aul i c systems over other methods of power
tr ansmi ssi on ar e
Si mpl er desi gn. I n most cases, a few pr e-engi neer ed components wi l l r epl ace compl i -
cated mechani cal l i nkages.
Fl exi bi l i ty. Hydr aul i c components can be l ocated wi th consi derabl e fl exi bi l i ty. Pi pes
and hoses i n pl ace of mechani cal el ements vi rtual l y el i mi nate l ocati on probl ems.
Smoothness. Hydraul i c systems ar e smooth and qui et i n oper ati on. Vi br ati on i s kept
to a mi ni mum.
Contr ol . Contr ol of a wi de r ange of speed and for ces i s easi l y possi bl e.
Cost. Hi gh effi ci ency wi th mi ni mum fr i cti on l oss keeps the cost of a power tr ansmi s-
si on at a mi ni mum.
Overl oad protecti on. Automati c val ves guard the system agai nst a breakdown fr om
overl oadi ng.
The mai n di sadvantage of a hydraul i c system i s mai ntai ni ng the preci si on parts when
they ar e exposed to bad cl i mates and di r ty atmospher es. Pr otecti on agai nst r ust, cor r osi on,
di r t, oi l deter i orati on, and other adver se envi r onment i s very i mpor tant. The fol l owi ng
par agraphs di scuss several basi c hydraul i c systems.
a. Hydraulic J ack. I n thi s system (Fi gur e 2-1, page 2-2), a r eser voi r and a system of
val ves has been added to Pascal 's hydraul i c l ever to str oke a smal l cyl i nder or pump conti n-
uousl y and r ai se a l arge pi ston or an actuator a notch wi th each str oke. Di agram A shows
an i ntake str oke. An outl et check val ve cl oses by pr essur e under a l oad, and an i nl et check
val ve opens so that l i qui d from the reservoi r fi l l s the pumpi ng chamber . Di agr am B shows
the pump stroki ng downward. An i nl et check val ve cl oses by pr essure and an outl et val ve
opens. Mor e l i qui d i s pumped under a l arge pi ston to rai se i t. To l ower a l oad, a thi rd val ve
(needl e val ve) opens, whi ch opens an ar ea under a l arge pi ston to the r eser voi r . The l oad
then pushes the pi ston down and for ces the l i qui d i nto the r eser voi r .
b. Motor-Reversing System. Fi gur e 2-2, page 2-3, shows a power -dr i ven pump oper ati ng
a r ever si bl e r otar y motor . A r ever si ng val ve di r ects fl ui d to ei ther si de of the motor and back
FM 5-499
2-2 Hydraulic Systems
to the reservoi r. A r el i ef val ve pr otects the system agai nst excess pr essure and can bypass
pump output to the r eser voi r , i f pr essur e r i ses too hi gh.
c. Open-Center System. I n thi s system, a contr ol -val ve spool must be open i n the center
to al l ow pump fl ow to pass thr ough the val ve and return to the reservoi r . Fi gur e 2-3, page
2-4, shows thi s system i n the neutr al posi ti on. To oper ate sever al functi ons si mul taneousl y,
an open-center system must have the cor r ect connecti ons, whi ch ar e di scussed bel ow. An
open-center system i s effi ci ent on si ngl e functi ons but i s l i mi ted wi th mul ti pl e functi ons.
(1) Ser i es Connecti on. Fi gure 2-4, page 2-4, shows an open-center system wi th a ser i es
connecti on. Oi l fr om a pump i s r outed to the thr ee contr ol val ves i n ser i es. The r etur n fr om
the fi r st val ve i s r outed to the i nl et of the second, and so on. I n neutr al , the oi l passes
through the val ves i n ser i es and r etur ns to the r eservoi r, as the arr ows i ndi cate. When a
contr ol val ve i s oper ated, the i ncomi ng oi l i s di ver ted to the cyl i nder that the val ve ser ves.
Return l i qui d fr om the cyl i nder i s di r ected thr ough the r etur n l i ne and on to the next val ve.
Thi s system i s sati sfactor y as l ong as onl y one val ve i s oper ati ng at a ti me. When thi s
happens, the ful l output of the pump at ful l system pr essure i s avai l abl e to that functi on.
However , i f mor e than one val ve i s oper ati ng, the total of the pr essur es r equi r ed for each
functi on cannot exceed the systems r el i ef setti ng.
Figure 2-1. Hydraulic jack
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Systems 2-3
Figure 2-2. Motor-reversing system
FM 5-499
2-4 Hydraulic Systems
Figure 2-3. Open-center system
Figure 2-4. Open-center system with a series connection
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Systems 2-5
(2) Seri es/Paral l el Connecti on. Fi gure 2-5 shows a var i ati on on the ser i es-connected
type. Oi l fr om the pump i s r outed through the contr ol val ves i n ser i es, as wel l as i n paral l el .
The val ves ar e someti mes stacked to al l ow for extr a passages. I n neutr al , a l i qui d passes
thr ough the val ves i n seri es, as the ar r ows i ndi cate. However , when any val ve i s oper ati ng,
the return i s cl osed and the oi l i s avai l abl e to al l the val ves thr ough the paral l el connecti on.
When two or mor e val ves ar e oper ated at once, the cyl i nder that needs the l east pr essur e
wi l l oper ate fi r st, then the cyl i nder wi th the next l east, and so on. Thi s abi l i ty to oper ate two
or more val ves si mul taneousl y i s an advantage over the seri es connecti on.
(3) Fl ow Di vi der . Fi gur e 2-6, page 2-6, shows an open-center system wi th a fl ow di vi der .
A fl ow di vi der takes the vol ume of oi l fr om a pump and di vi des i t between two functi ons. For
exampl e, a fl ow di vi der mi ght be desi gned to open the l eft si de fi r st i n case both control
val ves were actuated si mul taneousl y. Or, i t mi ght di vi de the oi l to both si des, equal l y or by
percentage. Wi th thi s system, a pump must be l ar ge enough to oper ate al l the functi ons
si mul taneousl y. I t must al so suppl y al l the l i qui d at the maxi mum pr essur e of the hi ghest
functi on, meani ng l arge amounts of HP are wasted when operati ng onl y one control val ve.
d. Closed-Center System. I n thi s system, a pump can r est when the oi l i s not r equi r ed to
operate a functi on. Thi s means that a control val ve i s cl osed i n the center, stoppi ng the fl ow
of the oi l fr om the pump. Fi gur e 2-7, page 2-6, shows a cl osed-center system. To oper ate sev-
er al functi ons si mul taneousl y, a cl osed-center system have the fol l owi ng connecti ons:
(1) Fi xed-Di spl acement Pump and Accumul ator. Fi gure 2-8, page 2-7, shows a cl osed-
center system. I n thi s system, a pump of smal l but constant vol ume charges an accumul ator .
Figure 2-5. Open-center system with a series/parallel connection
FM 5-499
2-6 Hydraulic Systems
Figure 2-6. Open-center system with a flow divider
Figure 2-7. Closed-center system
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Systems 2-7
When an accumul ator i s charged to ful l pr essur e, an unl oadi ng val ve di ver ts the pump fl ow
back to a r eservoi r . A check val ve traps the pressur ed oi l i n the ci rcui t.
When a contr ol val ve i s oper ated, an accumul ator di scharges i ts oi l and actuates a cyl i n-
der . As pr essur e begi ns to dr op, an unl oadi ng val ve di r ects the pump fl ow to an accumul ator
to recharge the fl ow. Thi s system, usi ng a smal l capaci ty pump, i s effecti ve when operati ng
oi l i s needed onl y for a shor t ti me. However , when the functi ons need a l ot of oi l for l onger
per i ods, an accumul ator system cannot handl e i t unl ess the accumul ator i s ver y l ar ge.
(2) Vari abl e-Di spl acement Pump. Fi gure 2-9, page 2-8, shows a cl osed-center system
wi th a var i abl e-di spl acement pump i n the neutr al mode. When i n neutr al , oi l i s pumped
unti l the pr essur e r i ses to a pr edeter mi ned l evel . A pr essur e-regul ati ng val ve al l ows the
pump to shut off by i tsel f and mai ntai n thi s pr essur e to the val ve. When the contr ol val ve i s
oper ati ng, oi l i s di ver ted fr om the pump to the bottom of a cyl i nder . The dr op i n pr essur e
caused by connecti ng the pumps pr essur e l i ne to the bottom of the cyl i nder causes the pump
to go back to wor k, pumpi ng oi l to the bottom of the pi ston and r ai si ng the l oad.
When the val ve moves, the top of the pi ston connects to a r etur n l i ne, whi ch al l ows the
return oi l that was forced fr om the pi ston to return to the r eservoi r or pump. When the val ve
r eturns to neutr al , oi l i s tr apped on both si des of the cyl i nder , and the pr essur e passage fr om
the pump i s dead-ended. After thi s sequence, the pump r ests. Movi ng the spool i n the down-
war d posi ti on di r ects oi l to the top of the pi ston, movi ng the l oad downwar d. The oi l fr om the
bottom of the pi ston i s sent i nto the r eturn l i ne.
Fi gure 2-10, page 2-8, shows thi s cl osed-center system wi th a chargi ng pump, whi ch
pumps oi l fr om the r eser voi r to the vari abl e-di spl acement pump. The chargi ng pump suppl i es
Figure 2-8. Fixed-displacement pump and accumulator
FM 5-499
2-8 Hydraulic Systems
Figure 2-9. Variable-displacement pump
Figure 2-10. Closed-center system with charging pump
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Systems 2-9
onl y the makeup oi l requi r ed in a system and pr ovi des some i nl et pr essure to make a vari abl e-
di spl acement pump mor e effi ci ent. The r eturn oi l fr om a system's functi ons i s sent di r ectl y
to the i nl et of a vari abl e-di spl acement pump.
Because todays machi nes need mor e hydraul i c power , a cl osed-center system i s mor e
advantageous. For exampl e, on a tr actor , oi l may be r equi r ed for power steer i ng, power
brakes, r emote cyl i nder s, thr ee-poi nt hi tches, l oaders, and other mounted equi pment. I n
most cases, each functi on r equi r es a di ffer ent quanti ty of oi l . Wi th a cl osed-center system,
the quanti ty of oi l to each functi on can be control l ed by l i ne or val ve si ze or by or i fi ci ng wi th
l ess heat bui l d up when compar ed to the fl ow di vi ders necessary i n a comparabl e open-center
system. Other advantages of a cl osed-center system are as fol l ows:
I t does not r equi r e rel i ef val ves because the pump si mpl y shuts off by i tsel f when
standby pr essure i s r eached. The prevents heat bui l dup i n systems where rel i ef
pressur e i s frequentl y reached.
The si ze of the l i nes, val ves, and cyl i nder s can be tai l or ed to the fl ow r equi r ements
of each functi on.
Reser ve fl ow i s avai l abl e, by usi ng a l arger pump, to ensur e ful l hydr aul i c speed at
l ow engi ne revol uti ons per mi nute (rpm). More functi ons can be served.
I t i s more effi ci ent on functi ons such as brakes, whi ch r equi r e for ce but very l i ttl e
pi ston movement. By hol di ng the val ve open, standby pr essure i s constantl y
appl i ed to the brake pi ston wi th no effi ci ency l oss because the pump has returned
to standby.
2-2. Color Coding. I n thi s manual , the fi gures that show oi l -fl ow condi ti ons or paths ar e
pr epar ed wi th i ndustr i al standardi zed col or codes. Tabl e 2-1 l i sts the col or s for the hydrau-
l i c l i nes and passages that ar e i n many of the fi gur es:
2-3. Reservoirs. A r eser voi r stor es a l i qui d that i s not bei ng used i n a hydraul i c system. I t
al so al l ows gases to expel and for ei gn matter to settl e out fr om a l i qui d.
a. Construction. A pr operl y constructed r eservoi r shoul d be abl e to di ssi pate heat from
the oi l , separate ai r fr om the oi l , and settl e out contami nates that ar e i n i t. Reser voi r s r ange
i n constructi on from smal l steel stampi ngs to l arge cast or fabri cated uni ts. The l ar ge tanks
shoul d be sandbl asted after al l the weldi ng is compl eted and then fl ushed and steam cl eaned.
Doi ng so removes wel di ng scal e and scal e l eft from hot-rol l i ng the steel . The i nner sur face
then shoul d be seal ed wi th a pai nt compati bl e wi th the hydraul i c fl ui d. Nonbl eedi ng red
engi ne enamel i s sui tabl e for petrol eum oi l and seal s i n any r esi dual di rt not removed by
fl ushi ng and steam-cl eani ng.
Table 2-1: Figure colors
Line/Passage Color
Operating pressure Red
Exhaust Blue
Intake or drain Green
Metered flow Yellow
FM 5-499
2-10 Hydraulic Systems
b. Shape. Fi gur e 2-11 shows some of the desi gn featur es of a r eser voi r . I t shoul d be
hi gh and narr ow rather than shal l ow and broad. The oi l l evel shoul d be as hi gh as possi bl e
above the openi ng to a pump's sucti on l i ne. Thi s prevents the vacuum at the l i ne openi ng
from causi ng a vortex or whi rl pool effect, whi ch woul d mean that a system i s pr obabl y tak-
i ng i n ai r . Aerated oi l wi l l not pr operl y tr ansmi t power because ai r i s compressi bl e. Aerated
oi l has a tendency to break down and l ose i ts l ubr i cati ng abi l i ty.
c. Size. Reservoi r si zes wi l l vary. However, a reser voi r must be l arge enough so that i t
has a reser ve of oi l wi th al l the cyl i nders i n a system ful l y extended. An oi l reser ve must be
hi gh enough to prevent a vortex at the sucti on l i ne's openi ng. A reservoi r must have suffi -
ci ent space to hol d al l the oi l when the cyl i nders ar e r etr acted, as wel l as al l ow space for
expansi on when the oi l i s hot.
A common-si ze r eser voi r on a mobi l e machi ne i s a 20- or 30-gal l on tank used wi th a 100-
GPM system. Many 10-GPM systems oper ate wi th 2- or 3-gal l on tanks because these mobi l e
systems oper ate i nter mi ttentl y, not constantl y. For stati onary machi ner y, a rul e of thumb i s
that a r eser voi r s si ze shoul d be two to thr ee ti mes a pumps output per mi nute.
A l ar ge si ze tank i s hi ghl y desi rabl e for cool i ng. The l arge surface ar eas exposed to the
outsi de ai r transfer heat from the oi l . Al so, a l arge tank hel ps settl e out the contami nates
and separates the ai r by r educi ng reci rcul ati on.
d. Location. Most mobi l e equi pment r eser voi r s ar e l ocated above the pumps. Thi s
cr eates a fl ooded-pump-i nl et condi ti on. Thi s condi ti on r educes the possi bi l i ty of pump
Figure 2-11. Design features of a reservoir
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Systems 2-11
cavi tati ona condi ti on where al l the avai l abl e space i s not fi l l ed and often metal par ts wi l l
erode. Fl oodi ng the i nl et al so r educes the vortex tendency at a sucti on pi pe's openi ng.
The l ocati on of a reservoi r affects heat di ssi pati on. I deal l y, al l tank wal l s shoul d be
exposed to the outsi de ai r . Heat moves fr om a hot substance to a col d substance; heat tr ans-
fer i s gr eatest when ther e i s a l ar ge temper atur e di ffer ence. Reser voi r s that ar e bui l t i nto
front-end l oader ar ms are ver y effecti ve i n transferr i ng heat.
e. Ventilation and Pressurization. Most r eser voi r s ar e vented to the atmospher e. A
vent openi ng al l ows ai r to l eave or enter the space above the oi l as the l evel of the oi l goes up
or down. Thi s mai ntai ns a constant atmospheri c pressure above the oi l . A reservoi r fi l ter
cap, wi th a fi l ter el ement, i s often used as a vent.
Some reservoi r s are pressuri zed, usi ng a si mpl e pressure-control val ve rather than a
vented one. A pressur e-control val ve automati cal l y l ets fi l tered ai r i nto a tank but prevents
ai r rel ease unl ess the pr essure reaches a preset l evel . A pr essuri zed reservoi r takes pl ace
when the oi l and ai r i n a tank expand from heat.
f. Line Connections. A pump sucti on and a tank's r etur n l i nes shoul d be attached by
fl anges or by wel ded heavy-duty coupl i ngs. Standard coupl i ngs usual l y ar e not sui tabl e
because they spr ead when wel ded. I f a sucti on l i ne i s connected at the bottom, a coupl i ng
shoul d extend wel l above the bottom, i nsi de the tank; resi dual di rt wi l l not get i n a sucti on
l i ne when a tank or strai ner i s cl eaned. A r etur n l i ne shoul d di scharge near a tank's bottom
al ways bel ow the oi l l evel . A pi pe i s usual l y cut at a 45-degr ee angl e and the fl ow ai med
away from a sucti on l i ne to i mprove ci r cul ati on and cool i ng.
A baffl e pl ate i s used to separate a sucti on l i ne fr om a r etur n l i ne. Thi s causes the
return oi l to ci r cul ate around an outer wal l for cool i ng before i t gets to the pump agai n. A
baffl e pl ate shoul d be about two-thi r ds the hei ght of a tank. The l ower cor ner s are cut di ag-
onal l y to al l ow ci rcul ati on. They must be l arger i n area than a sucti on l i ne's cross secti on.
Otherwi se the oi l l evel between a r etur n and a sucti on si de mi ght be uneven. Baffl i ng al so
prevents oi l from sl oshi ng ar ound when a machi ne i s movi ng. Many l arge r eservoi rs ar e
cross-baffl ed to pr ovi de cool i ng and pr event sl oshi ng.
g. Maintenance. Mai ntenance procedures i ncl ude drai ni ng and cl eani ng a r eservoi r. A
tank shoul d have a di shed bottom that i s fi tted wi th a dr ai n pl ug at i ts l owest poi nt; a pl ug
fi tti ng shoul d be fl ushed wi th the i nsi de of a tank to al l ow for ful l dr ai nage. On l ar ge tanks,
access pl ates may be bol ted on the ends for easy removal and servi ci ng. A reservoi r shoul d
have a si ght gauge or di psti ck for checki ng the oi l l evel to prevent damage fr om l ubri cati on
l oss.
The str ai ner s on a pump's sucti on l i ne may not r equi r e as much mai ntenance. However ,
an el ement i n a fi l ter i n a r etur n l i ne wi l l requi re regul ar changi ng. Therefor e, that fi l ter
shoul d not be i nsi de a reservoi r. When a r eservoi r i s pr essuri zed by compressed ai r, moi s-
tur e can become a mai ntenance pr obl em. A tank shoul d have a water tr ap for moi stur e
r emoval ; i t shoul d be pl aced wher e i t can be i nspected dai l y.
2-4. Strainers and Filters. To keep hydraul i c components performi ng corr ectl y, the
hydr aul i c l i qui d must be kept as cl ean as possi bl e. Forei gn matter and ti ny metal par ti cl es
fr om nor mal wear of val ves, pumps, and other components ar e goi ng to enter a system.
Str ai ner s, fi l ter s, and magneti c pl ugs ar e used to r emove for ei gn par ti cl es fr om a hydr aul i c
FM 5-499
2-12 Hydraulic Systems
l i qui d and ar e effecti ve as safeguar ds agai nst contami nati on. Magneti c pl ugs, l ocated i n a
r eser voi r , ar e used to r emove the i ron or steel par ti cl es fr om a l i qui d.
a. Strainers. A strai ner i s the pri mary fi l ter i ng system that removes l ar ge par ti cl es of
for ei gn matter fr om a hydr aul i c l i qui d. Even though i ts scr eeni ng acti on i s not as good as a
fi l ter's, a strai ner offer l ess resi stance to fl ow. A strai ner usual l y consi sts of a metal frame
wr apped wi th a fi ne-mesh wi re screen or a screeni ng el ement made up of varyi ng thi ckness
of speci al l y processed wi r e. Strai ners ar e used to pump i nl et l i nes (Fi gur e 2-11, page 2-10)
wher e pr essur e dr op must be kept to a mi ni mum.
Fi gur e 2-12 shows a str ai ner i n thr ee possi bl e arr angements for use i n a pump i nl et
l i ne. I f one str ai ner causes excessi ve fl ow fr i cti on to a pump, two or mor e can be used i n par -
al l el . Str ai ner s and pi pe fi tti ngs must al ways be bel ow the l i qui d l evel i n the tank.
b. Filters. A fi l ter r emoves smal l for ei gn par ti cl es fr om a hydr aul i c fl ui d and i s most
effecti ve as a safeguar d agai nst contami nates. Fi l ter s ar e l ocated i n a r eser voi r , a pr essur e
l i ne, a return l i ne, or i n any other l ocati on where necessary. They are cl assi fi ed as ful l fl ow
or propor ti onal fl ow.
(1) Ful l -Fl ow Fi l ter (Fi gure 2-13). I n a ful l -fl ow fi l ter , al l the fl ui d enteri ng a uni t
passes thr ough a fi l teri ng el ement. Al though a ful l -fl ow type provi des a mor e posi ti ve fi l ter -
i ng acti on, i t offers gr eater resi stance to fl ow, par ti cul arl y when i t becomes di rty. A hydrau-
l i c l i qui d enters a ful l -fl ow fi l ter through an i nl et port i n the body and fl ows ar ound an
Oil level
Pump intake
connection
Oil level
Pipe joints submerged
Disconnect union to remove
strainers for cleaning
Access opening should be provided so strainers may be
removed for cleaning without draining tank
Figure 2-12. Hydraulic-system strainers
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Systems 2-13
el ement i nsi de a bowl . Fi l teri ng
occurs as a l i qui d passes thr ough
the el ement and i nto a hol l ow cor e,
l eavi ng the di rt and i mpur i ti es on
the outsi de of the el ement. A fi l -
ter ed l i qui d then fl ows from a hol -
l ow cor e to an outl et por t and i nto
the system.
A bypass r el i ef val ve i n a body
al l ows a l i qui d to bypass the el e-
ment and pass di rectl y through an
outl et por t when the el ement
becomes cl ogged. Fi l ter s that do
not have a bypass rel i ef val ve have
a contami nati on i ndi cator. Thi s
i ndi cator wor ks on the pr i nci pl e of
the di ffer ence i n pr essur e of a fl ui d
as i t enters a fi l ter and after i t
l eaves an el ement. When contami -
nati ng par ti cl es col l ect on the el e-
ment, the di fferenti al pr essur e
acr oss i t i ncr eases. When a pr es-
sur e i ncr ease r eaches a speci fi c
val ue, an i ndi cator pops out, si gni -
fyi ng that the el ement must be
cl eaned or repl aced.
(2) Proporti onal -Fl ow Fi l ters
(Fi gur e 2-14). Thi s fi l ter oper ates
on the ventur i pri nci pl e i n whi ch a
tube has a nar r owi ng thr oat (ven-
tur i ) to i ncr ease the vel oci ty of
fl ui d fl owi ng thr ough i t. Fl ow
thr ough a ventur i throat causes a
pr essur e dr op at the nar r owest
poi nt. Thi s pr essure decr ease
causes a sucki ng acti on that dr aws
a porti on of a l i qui d down around a
car tri dge through a fi l ter el ement
and up i nto a ventur i thr oat. Fi l -
ter i ng occurs for ei ther fl ow di rec-
ti on. Al though onl y a por ti on of a
l i qui d i s fi l ter ed duri ng each cycl e,
constant reci rcul ati on through a
system eventual l y causes al l of a
l i qui d to pass thr ough the el ement.
Repl ace the el ement accor di ng to
appl i cabl e regul ati ons and by
doi ng the fol l owi ng:
Figure 2-13. Full-flow hydraulic filter
Figure 2-14. Proportional-flow filter
FM 5-499
2-14 Hydraulic Systems
Rel i eve the pr essur e.
Remove the bowl fr om the fi l ter s body.
Remove the fi l ter el ement fr om the body, usi ng a sl i ght r ocki ng moti on.
Cl ean or r epl ace the el ement, dependi ng on i ts type.
Repl ace al l ol d O-ri ng packi ngs and backup washers.
Rei nstal l the bowl on the body assembl y. Do not ti ghten the bowl excessi vel y;
check the appropr i ate regul ati ons for speci fi cati ons, as some fi l ter el ements requi r e
a speci fi c tor que.
Pr essuri ze the system and check the fi l ter assembl y for l eaks.
2-5. Filtering Material and Elements. The general cl asses of fil ter materi al s are mechani -
cal, absorbent inacti ve, and absorbent active.
Mechani cal fi l ters contai n cl osel y woven metal scr eens or di scs. They general l y
r emove onl y fai rl y coar se par ti cl es.
Absor bent i nacti ve fi l ters, such as cotton, wood pul p, yar n, cl oth, or resi n, r emove
much smal l er par ti cl es; some r emove water and water -sol ubl e contami nants. The
el ements often ar e tr eated to make them sti cky to attr act the contami nantsfound
i n hydraul i c oi l .
Absor bent acti ve materi al s, such as char coal and Ful l er's Earth (a cl ayl i ke mate-
ri al of ver y fi ne parti cl es used i n the pur i fi cati on of mi neral or vegetabl e-base oi l s),
ar e not recommended for hydr aul i c systems.
The three basi c types of fi l ter el ements ar e sur face, edge, and depth.
A surface-type el ement i s made of cl osel y woven fabr i c or treated paper. Oi l fl ows
through the pores of the fi l ter materi al , and the contami nants are stopped.
An edge-type fi l ter i s made up of paper or metal di scs; oi l fl ows through the spaces
between the di scs. The fi neness of the fi l trati on i s determi ned by the cl oseness of
the di scs.
A depth-type el ement i s made up of thi ck l ayer s of cotton, fel t, or other fi ber s.
2-6. Accumulators. Li ke an el ectr i cal stor age batter y, a hydr aul i c accumul ator stor es
potenti al power, i n thi s case l i qui d under pressur e for futur e conversi on i nto useful wor k.
Thi s wor k can i ncl ude oper ati ng cyl i nder s and fl ui d motor s, mai ntai ni ng the r equi r ed sys-
tem pr essur e i n case of pump or power fai l ur e, and compensati ng for pr essur e l oss due to
l eakage. Accumul ators can be empl oyed as fl ui d di spensers and fl ui d bar ri er s and can pro-
vi de a shock-absorbi ng (cushi oni ng) acti on.
On mi l i tar y equi pment, accumul ators are used mai nl y on the l i ft equi pment to pr ovi de
posi ti ve cl ampi ng acti on on the heavy l oads when a pumps fl ow i s di ver ted to l i fti ng or other
operati ons. An accumul ator acts as a safety devi ce to prevent a l oad fr om bei ng dr opped i n
case of an engi ne or pump fai l ur e or fl ui d l eak. On l i fts and other equi pment, accumul ator s
absorb shock, whi ch r esul ts from a l oad starti ng, stoppi ng, or r eversal .
a. Spring-Loaded Accumulator. Thi s accumul ator i s used i n some engi neer equi pment
hydraul i c systems. I t uses the energy stor ed in spri ngs to create a constant force on the l i qui d
contai ned i n an adjacent ram assembl y. Fi gure 2-15 shows two spri ng-l oaded accumul ators.
The l oad char acter i sti cs of a spri ng are such that the energy storage depends on the
for ce r equi r ed to compr ess s spri ng. The fr ee (uncompr essed) l ength of a spr i ng r epr esents
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Systems 2-15
zer o ener gy stor age. As a spr i ng i s compr essed to the maxi mum i nstal l ed l ength, a mi ni -
mum pr essur e val ue of the l i qui d i n a ram assembl y i s establ i shed. As l i qui d under pr essur e
enter s the ram cyl i nder, causi ng a spri ng to compress, the pr essure on the l i qui d wi l l ri se
because of the i ncreased l oadi ng requi red to compress the spri ng.
b. Bag-Type Accumulator. Thi s accumul ator (Fi gur e 2-16, page 2-16) consi sts of a
seaml ess hi gh-pressur e shel l , cyl i ndri cal i n shape, wi th domed ends and a syntheti c r ubber
bag that separates the l i qui d and gas (usual l y ni trogen) wi thi n the accumul ator. The bag i s
ful l y encl osed i n the upper end of a shel l . The gas system contai ns a hi gh-pressure gas
val ve. The bottom end of the shel l i s seal ed wi th a speci al pl ug assembl y contai ni ng a l i qui d
por t and a safety featur e that makes i t i mpossi bl e to di sassembl e the accumul ator wi th
pressur e i n the system. The bag i s l arger at the top and taper s to a smal l er di ameter at the
bottom. As the pump forces l i qui d i nto the accumul ator shel l , the l i qui d pr esses agai nst the
bag, reduces i ts vol ume, and i ncr eases the pr essur e, whi ch i s then avai l abl e to do wor k.
c. Piston-Type Accumulator. Thi s accumul ator consi sts of a cyl i nder assembl y, a pi ston
assembl y, and two end-cap assembl i es. The cyl i nder assembl y houses a pi ston assembl y and
i ncor por ates pr ovi si ons for securi ng the end-cap assembl ies. An accumul ator contai ns a
free-fl oati ng pi ston wi th l i qui d on one si de of the pi ston and precharged ai r or ni trogen on
the other si de (Fi gur e 2-17, page 2-16). An incr ease of li qui d vol ume decreases the gas vol ume
and i ncr eases gas pr essure, whi ch pr ovi des a wor k potential when the l i qui d is al l owed to di s-
charge.
d. Maintenance. Befor e r emovi ng an accumul ator for repai r s, r el i eve the i nternal pr es-
sure: i n a spri ng-l oaded type, r el i eve the spr i ng tensi on; i n a pi ston or bag type, rel i eve the
gas or l i qui d pr essure.
MULTIPLE SPRINGS SINGLE SPRING
Spring
Spring
Piston
Packing Ram
assembly
Ram
Cylinder
To hydraulic
system
To hydraulic
system
Figure 2-15. Spring-loaded accumulator
FM 5-499
2-16 Hydraulic Systems
Gas valve
Gas bag
Shell
Plug
assembly
Liquid inlet
Gas charging inlet
Compressed
gas
Liquid
Spring-loaded
check valve
(normally open)
PRECHARGED
POSITION
FULLY CHARGED
POSITION
STATIC
POSITION
Figure 2-16. Bag-type accumulator
Hydraulic liquid port Hydraulic liquid port
Barrell assembly
End cap
assembly
Packing and
backup ring
Lubrication passage
Piston assembly
Gas port
Figure 2-17. Piston-type accumulator
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Systems 2-17
2-7. Pressure Gauges and Volume
Meters. Pr essure gauges are used i n
l i qui d-power ed systems to measur e
pr essur e to mai ntai n effi ci ent and safe
oper ati ng l evel s. Pr essur e i s mea-
sured i n psi . Fl ow measurement may
be expr essed i n uni ts of rate of fl ow
GPM or cubi c feet per second (cfs). I t
may al so be expr essed i n ter ms of total
quanti tygal l ons or cubi c feet.
a. Pressure Gauges. Fi gur e 2-18
shows a si mpl e pr essur e gauge. Gauge
r eadi ngs i ndi cate the fl ui d pr essur e set
up by an opposi ti on of for ces wi thi n a
system. Atmospheri c pressure i s neg-
l i gi bl e because i ts acti on at one pl ace i s
bal anced by i ts equal acti on at another
pl ace i n a system.
b. Meters. Measuri ng fl ow
depends on the quanti ti es, fl ow rates, and types of l i qui d i nvol ved. Al l l i qui d meter s (fl ow-
meters) are made to measur e speci fi c l i qui ds and must be used onl y for the pur pose for
whi ch they wer e made. Each meter i s tested and cal i brated.
I n a nutati ng-pi s-
ton-di sc fl owmeter, l i q-
ui d passes through a
fi xed vol ume measur-
i ng chamber , whi ch i s
di vi ded i nto upper and
l ower compartments
by a pi ston di sc (Fi gur e
2-19). Dur i ng oper a-
ti on, one compar tment
i s conti nual l y bei ng
fi l l ed whi l e the other i s
bei ng empti ed. As a
l i qui d passes through
these compar tments,
i ts pressure causes a
pi ston di sc to r ol l
around i n the chamber .
The di sc's movements
oper ate a di al (or
counter ) through gear-
i ng el ements to i ndi -
cate that a col umn of
fl ui d that has passed
thr ough the meter .
Pointer
Red hand
Figure 2-18. Pressure gauge
Figure 2-19. Nutating-piston-disc flowmeter
FM 5-499
2-18 Hydraulic Systems
2-8. Portable Hydraulic-Circuit Testers. Hydr aul i c power i s an effi ci ent method of
del i ver i ng HP by pumpi ng a fl ui d through a cl osed system. I f the amount of fl ow or the pr es-
sur e unknowi ngl y decr eases, the amount of HP del i ver ed to a wor ki ng uni t wi l l be r educed,
and a system wi l l not per for m as i t shoul d.
a. Testers. Por tabl e hydr aul i c-ci r cui t tester s (Fi gur e 2-20) are l i ghtwei ght uni ts you
can use to check or troubl eshoot a hydraul i c-power ed system on the job or i n a mai ntenance
shop. Connect a tester i nto a system's ci r cui t to deter mi ne i ts effi ci ency. Cur rentl y, sev-
eral hydr aul i c-ci r cui t testers ar e on the mar ket. Oper ati ng procedures may var y on di ffer-
ent tester s. Ther efor e, you must fol l ow the oper ati ng di r ecti ons furni shed wi th a tester to
check or troubl eshoot a ci r cui t accuratel y.
b. I mproper Operation. When a hydraul i c system does not oper ate pr oper l y, the tr oubl e
coul d be one of the fol l owi ng:
The pump that propel s the fl ui d may be sl i ppi ng because of a wor n or an i mprop-
erl y set spri ng i n the r el i ef val ve.
The fl ui d may be l eaki ng around the control val ves or past the cyl i nder packi ng.
Si nce hydr aul i c systems ar e confi ned, i t i s di ffi cul t to i denti fy whi ch component i n a sys-
tem i s not wor ki ng pr oper l y. Measur e the fl ow, pr essur e, and temper atur e of a l i qui d at
gi ven poi nts i n a system to i sol ate the mal functi oni ng uni t. I f thi s does not wor k, take the
system apar t and check each uni t for worn par ts or bad packi ng. Thi s type of i nspecti on can
be costl y from the standpoi nt of mai ntenance ti me and downti me of the power system.
2-9. Circulatory Systems. Pi pes and fi tti ngs, wi th thei r necessary seal s, make up a ci rcu-
l ator y system of l i qui d-powered equi pment. Properl y sel ecti ng and i nstal l i ng these compo-
nents ar e very i mportant. I f i mpr operl y
sel ected or i nstal l ed, the r esul t woul d be
ser i ous power l oss or harmful l i qui d con-
tami nati on. The fol l owi ng i s a l i st of some
of the basi c r equi r ements of a ci rcul atory
system:
Li nes must be strong enough to con-
tai n s l i qui d at s desi red worki ng
pressur e and the sur ges i n pr essur e
that may devel op i n s system.
Li nes must be strong enough to sup-
por t the components that ar e
mounted on them.
Ter mi nal fi tti ngs must be at al l junc-
ti ons wher e par ts must be r emoved
for r epai r or r epl acement.
Li ne suppor ts must be capabl e of
dampi ng the shock caused by pr es-
sure surges.
Li nes shoul d have smooth i nter i ors
to r educe turbul ent fl ow.
Li nes must have the cor r ect si ze for
the requi r ed l i qui d fl ow.
Portable tester
series
Figure 2-20. Portable hydraulic-circuit
tester
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Systems 2-19
Li nes must be kept cl ean by r egul ar fl ushi ng or purgi ng.
Sour ces of contami nants must be el i mi nated.
The thr ee common types of l i nes i n l i qui d-power ed systems ar e pi pes, tubi ng, and fl exi -
bl e hose, whi ch ar e al so r efer r ed to as r i gi d, semi ri gi d, and fl exi bl e l i ne.
a. Tubing. The two types of tubi ng used
for hydraul i c l i nes ar e seaml ess and el ectri c
wel ded. Both are sui tabl e for hydr aul i c sys-
tems. Seaml ess tubi ng i s made i n l ar ger si zes
than tubi ng that i s el ectr i c wel ded. Seaml ess
tubi ng i s fl ar ed and fi tted wi th thr eaded com-
pr essi on fi tti ngs. Tubi ng bends easi l y, so
fewer pi eces and fi tti ngs ar e requi red. Unl i ke
pi pe, tubi ng can be cut and fl ar ed and fi tted i n
the fi el d. Gener al l y, tubi ng makes a neater ,
l ess costl y, l ower-mai ntenance system wi th
fewer fl ow r estr i cti ons and l ess chances of
l eakage. Fi gur e 2-21 shows the pr oper
method of i nstal l i ng tubi ng.
Knowi ng the fl ow, type of fl ui d, fl ui d
vel oci ty, and system pressur e wi l l hel p deter-
mi ne the type of tubi ng to use. (Nomi nal
di mensi ons of tubi ng ar e gi ven as fr acti ons i n
i nches or as dash numbers. A dash number
represents a tubes outsi de di ameter [OD] i n
si xteenths of an i nch.) A systems pressur e
deter mi nes the thi ckness of the vari ous tubi ng wal l s. Tubi ng above 1/2 i nch OD usual l y i s
i nstal l ed wi th ei ther fl ange fi tti ngs wi th metal or pr essur e seal s or wi th wel ded joi nts. I f
joi nts ar e wel ded, they shoul d be str ess-r el i eved.
b. Piping. You can use pi pi ng that i s thr eaded wi th scr ewed fi tti ngs wi th di ameter s up
to 1 1/4 i nches and pr essur es of up to 1,000 psi . Wher e pr essur es wi l l exceed 1,000 psi and
requi red di ameter s are over 1 1/4 i nches, pi pi ng wi th wel ded, fl anged connecti ons and
socket-wel ded si ze ar e speci fi ed by nomi nal i nsi de di ameter (I D) di mensi ons. The thr ead
r emai ns the same for any gi ven pi pe si ze r egardl ess of wal l thi ckness. Pi pi ng i s used eco-
nomi cal l y i n l ar ger -si zed hydr aul i c systems wher e l ar ge fl ow i s carr i ed. I t i s par ti cul ar l y
sui ted for l ong, per manent str ai ght l i nes. Pi pi ng i s taper -thr eaded on i ts OD i nto a tapped
hol e or fi tti ng. However, i t cannot be bent. I nstead, fi tti ngs ar e used wherever a joi nt i s
requi red. Thi s r esul ts i n addi ti onal costs and an i ncr eased chance of l eakage.
c. Flexible Hosing. When fl exi bi l i ty i s necessary i n l i qui d-power ed systems, use hose.
Exampl es woul d be connecti ons to uni ts that move whi l e i n oper ati on to uni ts that ar e
attached to a hi nged por ti on of the equi pment or ar e i n l ocati ons that ar e subjected to sever e
vi brati on. Fl exi bl e hose i s usual l y used to connect a pump to a system. The vi br ati on that i s
set up by an oper ati ng pump woul d ul ti matel y cause ri gi d tubi ng to fai l .
(1) Rubber Hose. Rubber hose i s a fl exi bl e hose that consi sts of a seaml ess, syntheti c
rubber tube cover ed wi th l ayer s of cotton br ai d and wi r e br ai d. Fi gur e 2-22, page 2-20,
shows cut-away vi ews of typi cal rubber hose. An i nner tube i s desi gned to wi thstand mater i al
Right Wrong
Figure 2-21. Method of installing tubing
FM 5-499
2-20 Hydraulic Systems
passi ng through i t. A brai d, whi ch may con-
si st of sever al l ayer s, i s the deter mi ni ng factor
i n the str ength of a hose. A cover i s desi gned
to wi thstand exter nal abuse.
When i nstal l i ng fl exi bl e hose, do not twi st
i t. Doi ng so r educes i ts l i ft and may cause i ts
fi tti ngs to l oosen. An i denti fi cati on stri pe that
r uns al ong the hose l ength shoul d not spi ral ,
whi ch woul d i ndi cate twi sti ng (Fi gur e 2-23).
Pr otect fl exi bl e hose fr om chafi ng by wr appi ng
i t l i ghtl y wi th tape, when necessary.
The mi ni mum bend r adi us for fl exi bl e
hose vari es accor di ng to i ts si ze and constr uc-
ti on and the pr essur e under whi ch a system
wi l l oper ate. Consul t the appl i cabl e publ i ca-
ti ons that contai n the tabl es and gr aphs whi ch show the mi ni mum bend radi i for the di ffer -
ent types of i nstal l ati ons. Bends that ar e too shar p wi l l r educe the bur sti ng pressur e of
fl exi bl e hose consi der abl y bel ow i ts rated val ue.
Do not i nstal l fl exi bl e hose so that i t wi l l be subjected to a mi ni mum of fl exi ng duri ng
operati on. Never stretch hose ti ghtl y between two fi tti ngs. When under pr essure, fl exi bl e
hose contr acts i n l ength and expands i n di ameter .
(2) Tefl on -Type Hose. Thi s i s a fl exi bl e hose that i s desi gned to meet the requi re-
ments of hi gher operati ng pr essures and temperatures i n today's fl ui d-power ed systems.
The hose consi sts of a chemi cal resi n that i s pr ocessed and pul l ed i nto a desi r ed-si ze tube
Figure 2-22. Flexible rubber hose
RIGHT
WRONG
Figure 2-23. Installing flexible hose
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Systems 2-21
shape. I t i s cover ed wi th stai nl ess-steel wi r e that i s brai ded over the tube for str ength and
pr otecti on. Tefl on-type hose wi l l not absor b moi stur e and i s unaffected by al l fl ui ds used i n
todays fl ui d-power ed systems. I t i s nonfl ammabl e; however , use an asbestos fi r e sl eeve
where the possi bi l i ty of an open fl ame exi sts.
Careful l y handl e al l Tefl on-type hose dur i ng r emoval or i nstal l ati on. Shar p or excessi ve
bendi ng wi l l ki nk or damage the hose. Al so, the fl exi bl e-type hose tends to for m i tsel f to the
i nstal l ed posi ti on i n a ci rcul atory system.
d. I nstallation. Fl ari ng and br azi ng ar e the most common methods of connecti ng tub-
i ng. Prepari ng a tube for i nstal l ati on usual l y i nvol ves cutti ng, fl ari ng, and bendi ng. After
cutti ng a tube to the corr ect l ength, cut i t squar el y and careful l y r emove any i nternal or
external burr s.
I f you use fl are-type fi tti ngs, you must fl ar e the tube. A fl are angl e shoul d extend 37
degr ees on each si de of the center l i ne. The ar eas outer edge shoul d extend beyond the max-
i mum sl eeve's I D but not i ts OD. Fl ar es that ar e too shor t ar e l i kel y to be squeezed thi n,
whi ch coul d r esul t i n l eaks or br eaks. Fl ar es that ar e too l ong wi l l sti ck or jam dur i ng
assembl y.
Keep the l i nes as shor t and fr ee of bends as possi bl e. However , bends ar e pr efer r ed to
el bows or shar p tur ns. Try not to assembl e the tubi ng i n a strai ght l i ne because a bend
tends to el i mi nate str ai n by absor bi ng vi brati on and compensati ng for temper atur e expan-
si on and contracti on.
I nstal l al l the l i nes so you can remove them wi thout di smantl i ng a ci rcui ts components
or wi thout bendi ng or spr i ngi ng them to a bad angl e. Add suppor ts to the l i nes at fr equent
i nter val s to mi ni mi ze vi br ati on or movement; never wel d the l i nes to the suppor ts. Si nce
fl exi bl e hose has a tendency to shor ten when subjected to pr essur e, al l ow enough sl ack to
compensate for thi s pr obl em.
Keep al l the pi pes, tubes, or fi tti ngs cl ean and fr ee fr om scal e and other for ei gn matter .
Cl ean i r on or steel pi pes, tubes, and fi tti ngs wi th a boi l er -tube wi r e br ush or wi th com-
mer ci al pi pe-cl eani ng equi pment. Remove r ust and scal e fr om shor t, str ai ght pi eces by
sandbl asti ng them, as l ong as no sand par ti cl es wi l l r emai n l odged i n bl i nd hol es or pockets
after you fl ush a pi ece. I n the case of l ong pi eces or pi eces bent to compl ex shapes, r emove
r ust and scal e by pi ckl i ng (cl eani ng metal i n a chemi cal bath). Cap and pl ug the open ends
of the pi pes, tubes, and fi tti ngs that wi l l be stored for a l ong peri od. Do not use r ags or waste
for thi s purpose because they deposi t harmful l i nt that can cause sever e damage i n a
hydr aul i c system.
2-10. Fittings and Connectors. Fi tti ngs ar e used to connect the uni ts of a fl ui d-power ed
system, i ncl udi ng the i ndi vi dual secti ons of a ci rcul atory system. Many di ffer ent types of
connectors ar e avai l abl e for fl ui d-powered systems. The type that you wi l l use wi l l depend
on the type of ci r cul atory system (pi pe, tubi ng, or fl exi bl e hose), the fl ui d medi um, and the
maxi mum oper ati ng pr essur e of a system. Some of the most common types of connector s ar e
descri bed bel ow:
a. Threaded Connectors. Thr eaded connectors are used i n some l ow-pressur e l i qui d-
power ed systems. They ar e usual l y made of steel , copper , or br ass, i n a var i ety of desi gns
(Fi gur e 2-24, page 2-22). The connector s are made wi th standard femal e threadi ng cut on
the i nsi de surface. The end of the pi pe is threaded wi th outsi de (mal e) thr eads for connecti ng.
FM 5-499
2-22 Hydraulic Systems
Figure 2-24. Threaded-pipe connectors
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Systems 2-23
Standar d pi pe thr eads ar e taper ed sl i ghtl y
to ensure ti ght connecti ons.
To pr event sei zi ng (thr eads sti cki ng),
appl y a pi pe-thr ead compound to the
thr eads. Keep the two end thr eads fr ee of
the compound so that i t wi l l not contami nate
the fl ui d. Pi pe compound, when i mproperl y
appl i ed, may get i nsi de the l i nes and har m
the pumps and the contr ol equi pment.
b. Flared Connectors. The common con-
nectors used i n ci rcul atory systems consi st
of tube l i nes. These connector s pr ovi de safe,
strong, dependabl e connecti ons wi thout hav-
i ng to thr ead, wel d, or sol der the tubi ng. A
connector consi sts of a fi tti ng, a sl eeve, and
a nut (see Fi gure 2-25).
Fi tti ngs ar e made of steel , al umi num al l oy, or br onze. The fi tti ngs shoul d be of a mate-
ri al that i s si mi l ar to that of a sl eeve, nut, and tubi ng. Fi tti ngs ar e made i n uni ons, 45- and
90-degr ee el bows, Ts, and vari ous other shapes. Fi gur e 2-26, page 2-24, shows some of the
most common fi tti ngs used wi th fl ar ed connector s.
Fi tti ngs are avai l abl e i n many di fferent thread combi nati ons. Uni ons have tube connec-
ti ons on each end; el bows have tube connecti ons on one end and a mal e pi pe thr ead, femal e
pi pe thread, or a tube connecti on on the opposi te end; crosses and Ts have several di fferent
combi nati ons.
Tubi ng used wi th fl ar ed connector s must be fl ar ed befor e bei ng assembl ed. A nut fi ts
over a sl eeve and, when ti ghtened, dr aws the sl eeve and tubi ng fl ar e ti ghtl y agai nst a mal e
fi tti ng to form a seal . A mal e fi tti ng has a cone-shaped surface wi th the same angl e as the
i nsi de of a fl ar e. A sl eeve suppor ts the tube so that vi br ati on does not concentr ate at the
edge of a fl ar e but that i t does di str i bute the sheari ng acti on over a wi der ar ea for added
strength. Ti ghten the tubi ng nuts wi th a torque wrench to the val ue speci fi ed i n appl i cabl e
regul ati ons.
I f an al umi num al l oy fl ar ed connector l eaks after ti ghteni ng to the speci fi ed tor que, do
not ti ghten i t fur ther . Di sassembl e the l eaki ng connector and cor r ect the faul t. I f a steel
connector l eaks, you may ti ghten i t 1/6 tur n beyond the speci fi ed tor que i n an attempt to
stop the l eak. I f you ar e unsuccessful , di sassembl e i t and r epai r i t.
Fl ared connector s wi l l l eak i f
A fl ar e i s di stor ted i nto the nut threads.
A sl eeve i s cracked.
A fl ar e i s cr acked or spl i t.
A fl ar e i s out-of-round.
A fl ar e i s eccentri c to the tubes OD.
A fl are's i nsi de i s r ough or scr atched.
A fi tti ng cone i s rough or scr atched.
Fitting
Nut
Sleeve
Tubing
Figure 2-25. Flared-tube connector
FM 5-499
2-24 Hydraulic Systems
Figure 2-26. Flared-tube fittings
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Systems 2-25
The thr eads of a fi tti ng or
nut are di rty, damaged, or
broken.
c. Flexible-Hose Couplings. I f
a hose assembl y i s fabri cated wi th
fi el d attachabl e coupl i ngs (Fi gure
2-27), use the same coupl i ngs when
fabri cati ng the r epl acement assem-
bl y, as l ong as the fai l ure (l eak or
break) di d not occur at a coupl i ng.
I f fai l ure occurr ed at a coupl i ng,
di scar d i t.
When measur i ng a r epl ace-
ment hose assembl y for scr ew-on
coupl i ngs, measur e fr om the edge
of a r etai ni ng bol t (Fi gur e 2-28).
Pl ace the hose i n hose bl ocks and
then i n a bench vi ce (Fi gur e 2-29).
Use the fr ont or r ear por ti on of a
hacksaw bl ade for cutti ng. (I f you
use the mi ddl e porti on of a bl ade, i t coul d twi st and break.) For effecti ve cutti ng, a bl ade
shoul d have 24 or 32 teeth per i nch. To r emove an ol d coupl i ng on a hose assembl y that i s
fabri cated wi th permanentl y attached coupl i ngs, you just di scard the enti re assembl y (see
Fi gur e 2-30, page 2-26).
d. Reusable Fittings. To use a ski ved fi tti ng (Fi gure 2-31, page 2-26), you must stri p
(ski ve) the hose to a l ength equal to that fr om a notch on a fi tti ng to the end of the fi tti ng. (A
notch on a femal e porti on of a fi tti ng i n Fi gur e 2-31 i ndi cates i t to be a ski ved fi tti ng.) To
assembl e a conductor usi ng ski ved fi tti ngs
Straight 45bent tube
90bent tube
long drop
90bent tube
short drop
Figure 2-27. Field-attachable couplings
Measure from edge
of hex
Length
measurement
Measure from edge
of retaining bolt
Figure 2-28. Hose-length measurement
Figure 2-29. Hose cutting
FM 5-499
2-26 Hydraulic Systems
Figure 2-30. Permanently attached couplings
Figure 2-31. Skived fitting
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Systems 2-27
Deter mi ne the l ength of the ski ve.
Make a cut ar ound the hose wi th a shar p kni fe. Make sur e that you cut compl etel y
thr ough the r ubber cover of the hose.
Cut l engthwi se to the end of the hose (Fi gure 2-32). Li ft the hose fl ap and r emove
i t wi th pl i ers.
Repeat the pr ocess on the opposi te end of the hose.
Pl ace the femal e porti on of the fi tti ng i n a bench vi ce (Fi gure 2-33) and secur e i t i n
pl ace.
Lubri cate the ski ved por ti on of the hose wi th hose l ubr i cant (hydraul i c fl ui d or
engi ne oi l , i f necessary).
I nser t the hose i nto the femal e socket and turn the hose countercl ockwi se unti l i t
bottoms on the shoul der of the femal e socket, then back off 1/4 turn.
Pl ace the femal e socket i n an upr i ght posi ti on (Fi gur e 2-34, page 3-28) and i nsert
the mal e ni ppl e i nto the femal e socket.
Turn the mal e ni ppl e cl ockwi se (Fi gur e 2-35, page 3-28) unti l the hex i s wi thi n 1/32
i nch of the femal e socket.
Repeat the above pr ocess on the opposi te end of the hose.
When assembl i ng conductors usi ng nonski ved-type fi tti ngs, fol l ow the above proce-
dur es. However , do not ski ve a hose. Nonski ved fi tti ngs do not have a notch on the femal e
porti on of a fi tti ng (Fi gure 2-36, page 2-28).
Fi gur e 2-37, page 2-28, di agram A, shows a femal e hose coupl i ng. One end of the hose
has a spi r al r i dge (cour se thr ead) that provi des a gri ppi ng acti on on the hose. The other end
(smal l end) has machi ne thr eads i nto whi ch the mal e, fi xed or swi vel ni ppl e, i s i nser ted.
Fi gur e 2-37, di agram B shows the mal e adapter , and di agram C shows the mal e and the
femal e swi vel body. These fi tti ngs contai n a fi xed or swi vel hex-nut connector on one end.
The opposi te end i s taper ed and has machi ne thr eads that mate wi th the thr eads i n a femal e
fi tti ng. Wi th a l ong taper i nser ted i nto a hose and screwed i nto a femal e coupl i ng, the taper
Figure 2-32. Trimming a hose Figure 2-33. Female portion of a fitting
FM 5-499
2-28 Hydraulic Systems
Figure 2-34. Male and female portions
of a fitting
Figure 2-35. Tightening a fitting
Figure 2-36. Nonskived fitting
Female hose
coupling
A
Male
adapter
B
(Male and female)
swivel body
C
Figure 2-37. Fittings
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Systems 2-29
tends to expand a hose, for ci ng i t agai nst the
i nsi de di ameter of a femal e fi tti ng.
Fi gure 2-38 shows the assembl y of a
cl amp-type coupl i ng. I f you use thi s coupl i ng,
do not ski ve the hose. Lubr i cate the I D of a
hose and the OD of a stem. Cl amp a hose stem
i n a bench vi ce and i nstal l a hose. Turn the
hose counter cl ockwi se unti l i t bottoms agai nst
the shoul der of the stem (Fi gur e 2-38, di agram
A). I f you do not have a vi ce, for ce the stem
i nto the hose by pushi ng or str i ki ng the stem
wi th a wooden bl ock. Pl ace the cl amp hal ves i n
posi ti on (Fi gure 2-38, di agram B) and draw
them together wi th a vi ce or wi th extr a l ong
bol ts unti l the standard bol ts protrude far
enough to gri p the nuts. Remove the extra l ong
bol ts and pl ace retai ni ng bol ts through the
cl amp. Ti ghten the nuts unti l you get the
requi r ed torque (Fi gure 2-38, di agram C).
NOTE: You may have to
retighten the bolts after the
hose assembly has been operat-
ing about 10 to 20 hours. Use
clamp-type couplings on hose
assemblies with diameters of 1
inch or greater. Use reusable
screw-type fittings on hose
assemblies with diameters less
than 1 inch.
2-11. Leakage. Any hydraul i c system wi l l
have a cer tai n amount of l eakage. Any l eakage
wi l l r educe effi ci ency and cause power l oss.
Some l eakage i s bui l t i n (pl anned), some i s not.
Leakage may be i nternal , external , or both.
a. I nternal. Thi s type of l eakage (nonposi -
ti ve) must be bui l t i nto hydr aul i c components
to l ubri cate val ve spool s, shafts, pi stons, bear-
i ngs, pumpi ng mechani sms, and other movi ng
par ts. I n some hydraul i c val ves and pump and
motor compensator contr ol s, l eakage paths ar e
bui l t i n to pr ovi de preci se contr ol and to avoi d
hunti ng (osci l l ati on) of spool s and pi stons. Oi l
i s not l ost i n i nter nal l eakage; i t r eturns to a r eser voi r through r etur n l i nes or speci al l y pr o-
vi ded dr ai n passages.
Too much i nter nal l eakage wi l l sl ow down actuator s. The power l oss i s accompani ed by
the heat gener ated at a l eakage path. I n some i nstances, excess l eakage i n a val ve coul d
cause a cyl i nder to dr i ft or even cr eep when a val ve i s supposedl y i n neutr al . I n the case of
A
B
C
Figure 2-38. Assembly of clamp-type
coupling
FM 5-499
2-30 Hydraulic Systems
fl ow or pressur e-control val ves, l eakage can often r educe effecti ve control or even cause con-
tr ol to be l ost.
Normal wear i ncr eases i nternal l eakage, whi ch provi des l arger fl ow paths for the l eak-
i ng oi l . An oi l that i s l ow i n vi scosi ty l eaks mor e r eadi l y than a heavy oi l . Ther efor e an oi l s
vi scosi ty and vi scosi ty i ndex are i mportant consi derati ons i n pr ovi di ng or preventi ng i nter-
nal l eakage. I nter nal l eakage al so i ncr eases wi th pr essur e, just as hi gher pr essur e causes a
gr eater fl ow thr ough an ori fi ce. Operati ng above the r ecommended pr essures adds the dan-
ger of excessi ve i nternal l eakage and heat generati on to other possi bl e harmful effects.
A bl own or ruptured i nternal seal can open a l arge enough l eakage path to di vert al l of a
pump's del i very. When thi s happens, everythi ng except the oi l fl ow and heat generati on at a
l eakage poi nt can stop.
b. External. External l eakage can be hazardous, expensi ve, and unsi ghtl y. Faul ty
i nstal l ati on and poor mai ntenance ar e the pri me causes of external l eakage. Joi nts may
l eak because they were not put together proper l y or because shock and vi brati on i n the l i nes
shook them l oose. Addi ng suppor ts to the l i nes pr events thi s. I f assembl ed and i nstal l ed
corr ectl y, components sel dom l eak. However, fai l ur e to connect drai n l i nes, excessi ve pres-
sures, or contami nati on can cause seal s to bl ow or be damaged, r esul ti ng i n exter nal l eakage
fr om the components.
c. Prevention. Pr oper i nstal l ati on, control of operati ng condi ti ons, and pr oper mai nte-
nance hel p prevent l eakage.
(1) I nstal l ati on. I nstal l i ng pi pi ng and tubi ng accor di ng to a manufactur er 's recommen-
dati ons wi l l pr omote l ong l i fe of external seal s. Vi brati on or stresses that resul t fr om
i mpr oper i nstal l ati on can shake l oose connecti ons and cr eate puddl es. Avoi d pi nchi ng, cock-
i ng, or i ncor r ectl y i nstal l i ng seal s when assembl i ng the uni ts. Use any speci al tool s that the
manufacturer recommends for i nstal l i ng the seal s.
(2) Operati ng Condi ti ons. To ensur e correct seal l i fe, you must control the operati ng
condi ti ons of the equi pment. A shaft seal or pi ston-r od seal exposed to moi stur e, sal t, di r t, or
any other abrasi ve contami nate wi l l have a shor tened l i fe span. Al so, oper ator s shoul d
al ways tr y to keep thei r l oads wi thi n the r ecommended l i mi ts to pr event l eakage caused by
excessi ve pressur es.
(3) Mai ntenance. Regul ar fi l ter and oi l changes, usi ng a hi gh-qual i ty hydr aul i c oi l , add
to seal l i fe. Usi ng i nfer i or oi l coul d wear on a seal and i nter fer e wi th desi r abl e oi l pr oper ti es.
Pr oper mai ntenance prevents i mpur i ty deposi ts and ci rcul ati ng i ngr edi ents that coul d wear
on a dynami c seal .
Never use addi ti ves wi thout approval fr om the equi pment and oi l suppl i ers. Lubr i ca-
ti on can be cri ti cal to a seal 's l i fe i n dynami c appl i cati ons. Syntheti cs do not absorb much oi l
and must be l ubri cated qui ckl y or they wi l l r ub. Leather and fi ber do absor b oi l . Manufac-
turers recommend soaki ng a seal over ni ght i n oi l before i nstal l i ng i t. Do not i nstal l a seal
dry. Al ways coat i t i n cl ean hydraul i c oi l before i nstal l i ng i t.
2-12. Seals. Seal s ar e packi ng mater i al s used to pr event l eaks i n l i qui d-power ed systems.
A seal i s any gasket, packi ng, seal ri ng, or other par t desi gned speci fi cal l y for seal i ng. Seal -
i ng appl i cati ons are usual l y stati c or dynami c, dependi ng i f the parts bei ng seal ed move i n
r el ati on to one another . Seal i ng keeps the hydraul i c oi l fl owi ng i n passages to hol d pr essur e
and keep for ei gn mater i al s fr om getti ng i nto the hydr aul i c passages. To prevent l eakage,
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Systems 2-31
use a posi ti ve seal i ng method, whi ch
i nvol ves usi ng actual seal i ng par ts or
mater i al s. I n most hydr aul i c compo-
nents, you can use nonposi ti ve seal i ng
(l eakage for l ubri cati on) by fi tti ng the
par ts cl osel y together . The str ength
of an oi l fi l m that the par ts sl i de
agai nst provi des an effecti ve seal .
a. Static Seals. Pi pe-threaded
seal s, seal ri ngs used wi th tube fi t-
ti ngs, val ve end-cap seal s, and other
seal s on nonmovi ng parts are stati c
seal s. Mounti ng gaskets and seal s
are stati c, as ar e seal s used i n maki ng
connecti ons between components. A
stati c seal or gasket i s pl aced between
par ts that do not move i n r el ati on to
each other . Fi gure 2-39 shows some
typi cal stati c seal s i n fl anged connec-
ti ons.
b. Dynamic Seals. I n a dynami c
seal i ng appl i cati on, ei ther a reci pro-
cati ng or a r otar y moti on occur s between the two
par ts bei ng seal ed; for exampl e, a pi ston-to-bar -
rel seal i n a hydraul i c cyl i nder or a dri ve-shaft
seal i n a pump or motor .
(1) O-Ri ng (Fi gur e 2-40). An O-ri ng i s a
posi ti ve seal that i s used i n stati c and dynami c
appl i cati ons. I t has r epl aced the fl at gasket on
hydr aul i c equi pment. When bei ng i nstal l ed,
an O-ri ng i s squeezed at the top and bottom i n
i ts gr oove and agai nst the mati ng par t. I t i s
capabl e of seal i ng ver y hi gh pr essur e. Pr essur e
for ces the seal agai nst the si de of i ts gr oove,
and the r esul t i s a posi ti ve seal on thr ee si des.
Dynami c appl i cati ons of an O-ri ng ar e usual l y
l i mi ted to reci procati ng par ts that have rel a-
ti vel y shor t moti on.
To r emove an O-ri ng seal , you need a spe-
ci al tool made of soft i ron or al umi num or a
brass rod (Fi gure 2-41, page 2-32). Make sur e
that the tool s edges ar e fl at and that you pol i sh
any burrs and rough sur faces.
(2) Backup Ri ng (Fi gure 2-42, page 2-32).
Usual l y, made of sti ff nyl on, you can use a
backup ri ng wi th an O-ri ng so that i t i s not
BASIC FLANGE JOINTS
Gasket
Simple
METAL-TO-METAL JOINTS
Tongue-and groove
Tongue-and groove
Figure 2-39. Static seals
No
pressure
Pressure
Figure 2-40. O-ring placement
FM 5-499
2-32 Hydraulic Systems
forced i nto the space between the mati ng
parts. A combi nati on of hi gh pressur e and
cl earance between the parts coul d cal l for a
backup ri ng.
(3) Lathe-Cut Seal . Thi s seal i s l i ke an O-
ri ng but i s squar e i n cross-secti on rather than
round. A l athe-cut ri ng i s cut fr om extruded
tubes, whi l e an O-ri ng must be i ndi vi dual l y
mol ded. I n many stati c appl i cati ons, r ound-
and squar e-secti on seal s ar e i nter changeabl e, i f
made fr om the same mater i al .
(4) T-Ri ng Seal (Fi gure 2-43). Thi s seal i s
rei nforced wi th back-up ri ngs on each si de. A T-
ri ng seal i s used i n reci procati ng dynami c appl i -
cati ons, parti cul arl y on cyl i nder pi stons and
ar ound pi ston r ods.
(5) Li p Seal (Fi gur e 2-44). Thi s a dynami c
seal used mai nl y on r otati ng shafts. A seal i ng
l i p pr ovi des a posi ti ve seal agai nst l ow pr es-
sur e. A l i p i s i nstal l ed towar d the pr essur e
sour ce. Pr essur e agai nst a l i p bal l oons i t out to
ai d i n seal i ng. Very hi gh pr essure, however ,
can get past thi s ki nd of seal because i t does not
have the backup suppor t that an O-r i ng has.
Someti mes, doubl e-l i p seal s ar e
used on the shafts of r eversi bl e pumps
or motor s. Rever si ng a uni t can gi ve
an al ternati ng pressure and vacuum
condi ti on i n the chamber adjacent to a
seal . A doubl e-l i p seal , therefore, pre-
vents oi l from getti ng out or ai r and
di r t fr om getti ng i n.
(6) Cup Seal (Fi gur e 2-45). Thi s i s
a posi ti ve seal that i s used on hydraul i c
cyl i nder pi stons and seal s much l i ke a
l i p seal . A cup seal i s backed up so that
i t can handl e ver y hi gh pr essur es.
(7) Pi ston Ri ng (Fi gur e 2-46). A
pi ston ri ng i s used to seal pressur e at
the end of a reci pr ocati ng pi ston. I t
hel ps keep fr i cti on at a mi ni mum i n a
hydraul i c cyl i nder and offers l ess resi s-
tance to movement than a cup seal . A
pi ston ri ng i s used i n many compl ex
components and systems to seal fl ui d
passages l eadi ng from hol l ow r otati ng
Surface must be smooth and
free from scratches.
Corners must not be dented
or bumped.
0.005 radius desired.
Flatten as shown and polish
off burrs and edges.
Figure 2-41. O-ring removal tool
O ring
Pressure
Back-up ring
Figure 2-42. Backup ring
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Systems 2-33
shafts. I t i s fi ne for hi gh pressures but may not pr ovi de a posi ti ve seal . A posi ti ve seal i s
mor e l i kel y to occur when pi ston r i ngs are pl aced si de by si de. Often, a pi ston ri ng i s
desi gned to al l ow some l eakage for l ubri cati on.
(8) Face Seal (Fi gur e 2-47, page 2-34). Thi s seal has two smooth, fl at el ements that run
together to seal a rotati ng shaft. One el ement i s metal l i c and the other i s nonmetal l i c. The
el ements ar e attached to a shaft and a body so that one face i s stati onar y and the other tur ns
agai nst i t. One el ement i s often spri ng-l oaded to take up wear . A face seal i s used pr i mar i l y
when ther e i s hi gh speed, pr essur e, and temper atur e.
c. Packing. Packi ng i s a type of twi sted or woven fi ber or soft metal str ands that ar e
packed between the two par ts bei ng seal ed. A packi ng gl and suppor ts and backs up the
packi ng. Packi ng (Fi gur e 2-48) can be ei ther stati c or dynami c. I t has been and i s used as a
rotati ng shaft seal , a r eci pr ocati ng pi ston-r od seal , and a gasket i n many stati c appl i cati ons.
I n stati c appl i cati ons, a seal i s r epl aci ng a packi ng. A compressi on packi ng i s usual l y
pl aced i n a coi l or l ayer ed i n a bor e and compressed by ti ghteni ng a fl anged member. A
mol ded packi ng i s mol ded i nto a pr eci se cross-secti onal form, such as a U or V. Sever al
Seal
Back-up ring
Figure 2-43. T-ring seal
Spring
lip
High
pressure
Seal housing
Figure 2-44. Lip seal
Cylinder
Cup seals
Piston
Figure 2-45. Cup seal
Piston
Seal ring
Cylinder
barrel
O ring
Figure 2-46. Piston ring
FM 5-499
2-34 Hydraulic Systems
packi ngs can be used together , wi th a backup
that i s spri ng-l oaded to compensate for wear .
d. Seal Materials. The earl i est seal i ng
materi al s for hydr aul i c components wer e
mai nl y l eather, cork, and i mpregnated fi ber s.
Curr entl y, most seal i ng materi al s i n a hydr au-
l i c system ar e made fr om syntheti c mater i al s
such as ni tri l e, si l i cone, and neoprene.
(1) Leather Seal s. Leather i s sti l l a good
seal i ng mater i al and has not been compl etel y
r epl aced by el astomer s. I t i s tough, r esi sts
abrasi on, and has the abi l i ty to hol d l ubri cat-
i ng fl ui ds i n i ts fi ber s. I mpregnati ng l eather
wi th syntheti c r ubber i mproves the l eather 's
seal i ng abi l i ty and r educes i ts fr i cti on.
Leather's di sadvantages are that i t tends to
squeal when i t i s dry, and i t cannot stand hi gh
temper atur es.
(2) Ni tri l e Seal s. Ni tr i l e i s a compar a-
ti vel y tough mater i al wi th excel l ent wear abi l -
i ty. I ts composi ti on vari es to be compati bl e
wi th petr ol eum oi l s, and i t can easi l y be
mol ded i nto di ffer ent seal shapes. Some
ni tr i l e seal s can be used, wi thout di ffi cul ty, i n
temper atur es r angi ng fr om -40 degr ees Fahr-
enhei t to +230 F.
(3) Si l i cone Seal s. Si l i cone i s an el as-
tomer that has a much wi der temper atur e
r ange than some ni tr i l e seal s have. Si l i cone
cannot be used for reci procati ng seal s because
i t i s not as tough. I t tear s, el ongates, and
abrades fai rl y easi l y. Many l i p-type shaft
seal s made fr om si l i cone are used i n extreme
temperatur e appl i cati ons. Si l i cone O-ri ngs ar e
used for stati c appl i cati ons. Si l i cone has a ten-
dency to swel l si nce i t absor bs a fai r vol ume of
oi l whi l e runni ng hot. Thi s i s an advantage, i f
the swel l i ng i s not objecti onabl e, because a seal can r un dry for a l onger ti me at star t-up.
(4) Neoprene. At ver y l ow temper atur es, neopr ene i s compati bl e wi th petr ol eum oi l .
Above 150 degr ees, i t has a habi t of cooki ng or vul cani zi ng, maki ng i t l ess useful .
(5) Nyl on. Nyl on i s a pl asti c (al so known as fl uoro-el astomer ) that combi nes fl uori ne
wi th a syntheti c rubber . I t i s used for backup ri ngs, has seal i ng materi al s i n speci al appl i ca-
ti ons, and has a very hi gh heat r esi stance.
Housing
Sealing face
Preloading
spring
Shaft
High pressure
Low pressure
Figure 2-47. Face seal
Compression
packings
Pressure
Figure 2-48. Compression packing
FM 5-499
Pumps 3-1
CHAPTER 3
Pumps
Hydraulic pumps convert mechanical energy from a prime mover (engine or electric
motor) into hydraulic (pressure) energy. The pressure energy is used then to operate an actu-
ator. Pumps push on a hydraulic fluid and create flow.
3-1. Pump Classifications. Al l pumps cr eate fl ow. They oper ate on the di spl acement
pri nci pl e. Fl ui d i s taken i n and di spl aced to another poi nt. Pumps that di schar ge l i qui d i n a
conti nuous fl ow ar e nonposi ti ve-di spl acement type. Pumps that di scharge vol umes of l i qui d
separ ated by peri ods of no di scharge are posi ti ve-di spl acement type.
a. Nonpositive-Displacement Pumps. Wi th thi s pump, the vol ume of l i qui d del i ver ed for
each cycl e depends on the resi stance offer ed to fl ow. A pump pr oduces a force on the l i qui d
that i s constant for each parti cul ar speed of the pump. Resi stance i n a di scharge l i ne pro-
duces a for ce i n the opposi te di recti on. When these forces are equal , a l i qui d i s i n a state of
equi l i bri um and does not fl ow.
I f the outl et of a nonposi ti ve-di spl acement pump i s compl etel y cl osed, the di scharge
pr essur e wi l l ri se to the maxi mum for a pump oper ati ng at a maxi mum speed. A pump wi l l
churn a l i qui d and pr oduce heat. Fi gure 3-1 shows a nonposi ti ve-di spl acement pump. A
water wheel pi cks up the fl ui d and moves i t.
b. Positive-Displacement Pumps. Wi th thi s pump, a defi ni te vol ume of l i qui d i s del i v-
ered for each cycl e of pump operati on, regardl ess of resi stance, as l ong as the capaci ty of the
power uni t dri vi ng a pump i s not exceeded. I f an outl et i s compl etel y cl osed, ei ther the uni t
dri vi ng a pump wi l l stal l or somethi ng wi l l break. Ther efore, a posi ti ve-di spl acement-type
pump requi res a pr essure regul ator or pr essure-r el i ef val ve i n the system. Fi gure 3-2, page
3-2, shows a r eci pr ocati ng-type, posi ti ve-di spl acement pump.
Fi gure 3-3, page 3-2, shows
another posi ti ve-di spl acement
pump. Thi s pump not onl y creates
fl ow, but i t al so backs i t up. A
seal ed case around the gear traps
the fl ui d and hol ds i t whi l e i t
moves. As the fl ui d fl ows out of
the other si de, i t i s seal ed agai nst
backup. Thi s seal i ng i s the posi -
ti ve par t of di spl acement. Wi th-
out i t, the fl ui d coul d never
over come the r esi stance of the
other parts i n a system.
c. Characteristics. The thr ee
contrasti ng characteri sti cs i n the
Figure 3-1. Nonpositive-displacement pump
FM 5-499
3-2 Pumps
operati on of posi ti ve- and nonposi ti ve-di spl acement pumps are as fol l ows:
Nonposi ti ve-di spl acement pumps pr ovi de a smooth, conti nuous fl ow; posi ti ve-
di spl acement pumps have a pul se wi th each str oke or each ti me a pumpi ng cham-
ber opens to an outl et por t.
Pr essur e can r educe a nonposi ti ve pumps del i ver y. Hi gh outl et pr essur e can
stop any output; the l i qui d si mpl y r eci r cul ates i nsi de the pump. I n a posi ti ve-
di spl acement pump, pr essur e affects the output onl y to the extent that i t
i ncr eases i nter nal l eakage.
Nonposi ti ve-di spl acement pumps, wi th the i nl ets and outl ets connected hydr aul i -
cal l y, cannot create a vacuum suffi ci ent for sel f-pri mi ng; they must be star ted
wi th the i nl et l i ne ful l of l i qui d and fr ee of ai r . Posi ti ve-di spl acement pumps often
ar e sel f-pr i mi ng when star ted properl y.
3-2. Performance. Pumps are usual l y rated accor di ng to thei r vol umetr i c output and pr es-
sure. Vol umetri c output (del i very rate or capaci ty) i s the amount of l i qui d that a pump can
del i ver at i ts outl et por t per uni t of ti me at a gi ven dr i ve speed, usual l y expr essed i n GPM or
cubi c i nches per mi nute. Because changes i n pump dri ve affect vol umetri c output, pumps
ar e someti mes r ated accor di ng to di spl ace-
ment, that i s the amount of l i qui d that
they can del i ver per cycl e or cubi c i nches
per r evol uti on.
Pr essur e i s the for ce per uni t ar ea of a
l i qui d, usual l y expr essed i n psi . (Most of
the pressur e i n the hydraul i c systems cov-
ered i n thi s manual i s created by resi s-
tance to fl ow.) Resi stance i s usual l y
caused by a restri cti on or obstr ucti on i n a
path or fl ow. The pressur e devel oped i n a
system has an effect on the vol umetri c
output of the pump suppl yi ng fl ow to a
system. As pr essur e i ncreases, vol umetri c
output decr eases. Thi s dr op i n output i s
caused by an i ncr ease i n i nter nal l eakage
(sl i ppage) fr om a pump's outl et si de to i ts
i nl et si de. Sl i ppage i s a measur e of a
pumps effi ci ency and usual l y i s expressed
i n percent. Some pumps have gr eater
i nter nal sl i ppage than other s; some
pumps ar e r ated i n ter ms of vol umetr i c
output at a gi ven pr essur e.
3-3. Displacement. Di spl acement i s the
amount of l i qui d transfer red from a
pumps i nl et to i ts outl et i n one r evol uti on
or cycl e. I n a r otary pump, di spl acement
i s expr essed i n cubi c i nches per r evol uti on
and i n a r eci pr ocati ng pump i n cubi c
i nches per cycl e. I f a pump has mor e than
Figure 3-2. Reciprocating-type, positive-
displacement pump
Figure 3-3. Positive-displacement pump
FM 5-499
Pumps 3-3
one pumpi ng chamber, i ts di spl acement i s equal to the di spl acement of one chamber mul ti -
pl i ed by the number of chamber s. Di spl acement i s ei ther fi xed or var i abl e.
a. Fixed-Displacement Pump. I n thi s pump, the GPM output can be changed onl y by
varyi ng the dri ve speed. The pump can be used i n an open-center systema pumps output
has a fr ee-fl ow path back to a reservoi r i n the neutr al condi ti on of a ci rcui t.
b. Variable-Displacement Pump. I n thi s pump, pumpi ng-chamber si zes can be changed.
The GPM del i ver y can be changed by movi ng the di spl acement control , changi ng the dri ve
speed, or doi ng both. The pump can be used i n a cl osed-center systema pump conti nues to
operate agai nst a l oad i n the neutral condi ti on.
3-4. Slippage. Sl i ppage i s oi l l eaki ng fr om a pressure outl et to a l ow-pressur e area or back
to an i nl et. A drai n passage al l ows l eaki ng oi l to r etur n to an i nl et or a r eser voi r . Some sl i p-
page i s desi gned i nto pumps for l ubri cati on purposes. Sl i ppage wi l l i ncrease wi th pressur e
and as a pump begi ns to wear . Oi l fl ow through a gi ven or i fi ce si ze depends on the pressur e
dri p. An i nternal l eakage path i s the same as an ori fi ce. Therefor e, i f pressur e i ncreases,
mor e fl ow wi l l occur through a l eakage path and l ess from an outl et port. Any i ncr ease i n
sl i ppage i s a l oss of effi ci ency.
3-5. Designs. I n most rotar y hydraul i c pumps (Fi gur e 3-3), the desi gn i s such that the
pumpi ng chamber s i ncr ease i n si ze at the i nl et, thereby cr eati ng a vacuum. The chambers
then decr ease i n si ze at the outl et to push fl ui d i nto a system. The vacuum at the i nl et i s
used to cr eate a pressure di fference so that fl ui d wi l l fl ow from a reser voi r to a pump. How-
ever , i n many systems, an i nl et i s charged or super charged; that i s, a posi ti ve pr essur e
rather than a vacuum i s cr eated by a pr essuri zed r eser voi r , a head of fl ui d above the i nl et, or
even a l ow-pr essure-chargi ng pump. The essenti al s of any hydraul i c pump are
A l ow-pressur e i nl et port, whi ch carr ys fl ui d from the reservoi r .
A hi gh-pressur e outl et port connected to the pressure l i ne.
Pumpi ng chamber(s) to carry a fl ui d from the i nl et to the outl et port.
A mechani cal means for acti vati ng the pumpi ng chamber(s).
Pumps may be cl assi fi ed accor di ng to the speci fi c desi gn used to cr eate the fl ow of a l i q-
ui d. Most hydraul i c pumps ar e ei ther centr i fugal , r otary, or r eci pr ocati ng.
a. Centrifugal Pump. Thi s pump general l y i s used where a l arge vol ume of fl ow i s
requi red at rel ati vel y l ow pressur es. I t can be connected i n seri es by feedi ng an outl et of one
pump i nto an i nl et of another . Wi th thi s arrangement, the pumps can devel op fl ow agai nst
hi gh pr essur es. A centr i fugal pump i s a nonposi ti ve-di spl acement pump, and the two most
common types ar e the vol ute and the di ffuser .
(1) Vol ute Pump (Fi gur e 3-4, page 3-4). Thi s pump has a ci rcul ar pumpi ng chamber
wi th a centr al i nl et por t (sucti on pi pe) and an outl et por t. A r otati ng i mpel l er i s l ocated i n a
pumpi ng chamber . A chamber between the casi ng and the center hub i s the vol ute. Li qui d
enter s a pumpi ng chamber through a centr al i nl et (or eye) and i s tr apped between the whi rl -
i ng i mpel l er bl ades. Centr i fugal for ce thr ows a l i qui d outwar d at a hi gh vel oci ty, and a con-
tour of a casi ng di r ects a movi ng l i qui d through an outl et por t.
(2) Di ffuser Pump (Fi gur e 3-5). Si mi l ar to a vol ute type, a di ffuser pump has a ser i es of
stati onary bl ades (the di ffuser) that curve i n the opposi te di recti on from whi r l i ng i mpel l er
FM 5-499
3-4 Pumps
bl ades. A di ffuser reduces the vel oc-
i ty of a l i qui d, decreases sl i ppage, and
increases a pump's abi l i ty to devel op
fl ow agai nst resi stance.
b. Rotary Pump. I n thi s posi ti ve-
di spl acement-type pump, a r otary
moti on carr i es a l i qui d from a pumps
i nl et to i ts outl et. A r otary pump i s
usual l y cl assi fi ed accor di ng to the
type of el ement that actual l y tr ans-
mi ts a l i qui d, that i s, a gear -, vane-,
or pi ston-type r otar y pump.
c. Reciprocating Pump. A r eci p-
rocati ng pump depends on a reci pro-
cati ng moti on to transmi t a l i qui d
fr om a pumps i nl et to i ts outl et. Fi g-
ure 3-2, page 3-2, shows a si mpl i fi ed
reci procati ng pump. I t consi sts of a
cyl i nder that houses a r eci pr ocati ng
pi ston, Fi gur e 3-2, 1; an i nl et val ve,
Fi gur e 3-2, 2; and an outl et val ve, Fi g-
ur e 3-2, 3, whi ch di r ect fl ui d to and
fr om a cyl i nder . When a pi ston moves
to the l eft, a par ti al vacuum that i s
created dr aws a bal l off i ts seat, al l ow-
i ng a l i qui d to be drawn through an
i nl et val ve i nto a cyl i nder . When a
pi ston moves to the ri ght, a bal l
r eseats and cl oses an i nl et val ve.
However , the for ce of a fl ow unseats a
bal l , al l owi ng a fl ui d to be forced out
of a cyl i nder thr ough an outl et val ve.
3-6. Gear Pumps. Gear pumps ar e
external , i nter nal , or l obe types.
a. External. Fi gur e 3-6 shows
the operati ng pr i nci pl e of an external
gear pump. I t consi sts of a dr i vi ng
gear and a dri ven gear encl osed i n a cl osel y fi tted housi ng. The gear s r otate i n opposi te
di r ecti ons and mesh at a poi nt i n the housi ng between the i nl et and outl et por ts. Both sets
of teeth pr oject outwar d fr om the center of the gear s. As the teeth of the two gear s separate,
a parti al vacuum forms and dr aws l i qui d through an i nl et port i nto chamber A. Li qui d i n
chamber A i s tr apped between the teeth of the two gear s and the housi ng so that i t i s car r i ed
through two separate paths ar ound to chamber B. As the teeth agai n mesh, they pr oduce a
force that dr i ves a l i qui d through an outl et por t.
Figure 3-4. Volute pump
Figure 3-5. Diffuser pump
FM 5-499
Pumps 3-5
b. I nternal. Fi gure 3-7
shows an i nter nal gear
pump. The teeth of one gear
pr oject outwar d, whi l e the
teeth of the other gear pr oject
i nward towar d the center of
the pump. One gear wheel
stands i nsi de the other . Thi s
type of gear can r otate, or be
rotated by, a sui tabl y con-
structed compani on gear. An
external gear i s di rectl y
attached to the dri ve shaft of
a pump and i s pl aced off-cen-
ter i n r el ati on to an i nternal
gear . The two gear s mesh on
one si de of a pump chamber ,
between an i nl et and the di s-
char ge. On the opposi te si de
of the chamber , a cr escent-
shaped form stands i n the
space between the two gear s to pr ovi de a cl ose tol er ance.
The r otati on of the i nter nal gear by a shaft causes the exter nal gear to r otate, si nce the
two are i n mesh. Ever ythi ng i n the chamber r otates except the cr escent, causi ng a l i qui d to
be tr apped i n the gear spaces as they pass the cr escent. Li qui d i s carri ed fr om an i nl et to the
di schar ge, where i t i s for ced out of a pump by the gear s meshi ng. As l i qui d i s car ri ed away
Figure 3-6. External gear pump
Figure 3-7. Internal gear pump
FM 5-499
3-6 Pumps
from an i nl et si de of a pump, the pressur e
i s di mi ni shed, and l i qui d i s for ced i n fr om
the suppl y sour ce. The si ze of the cr escent
that separates the i nternal and exter nal
gear s deter mi nes the vol ume del i very of
thi s pump. A smal l crescent al l ows mor e
vol ume of a l i qui d per revol uti on than a
l ar ger cr escent.
c. Lobe. Fi gur e 3-8 shows a l obe
pump. I t di ffers from other gear pumps
because i t uses l obed el ements i nstead of
gear s. The el ement dri ve al so di ffer s i n a
l obe pump. I n a gear pump, one gear
dri ves the other . I n a l obe pump, both el e-
ments ar e dri ven through sui tabl e external
gear i ng.
3-7. Vane Pumps. I n a vane-type pump,
a sl otted r otor spl i ned to a dr i ve shaft
r otates between cl osel y fi tted si de pl ates
that are i nsi de of an el l i pti cal - or ci r cul ar-shaped r i ng. Pol i shed, hardened vanes sl i de i n
and out of the rotor sl ots and fol l ow the ri ng contour by centri fugal force. Pumpi ng cham-
ber s ar e for med between succeedi ng vanes, car ryi ng oi l fr om the i nl et to the outl et. A par ti al
vacuum i s cr eated at the i nl et as the space between vanes i ncr eases. The oi l i s squeezed out
at the outl et as the pumpi ng chamber s si ze decr eases.
Because the nor mal wear poi nts i n a vane pump ar e the vane ti ps and a r i ngs sur face,
the vanes and ri ng ar e speci al l y har dened and ground. A vane pump i s the onl y desi gn that
has automati c wear compensati on bui l t i n. As wear occurs, the vanes si mpl y sl i de far ther
out of the r otor sl ots and conti nue to fol l ow a ri ngs contour . Thus effi ci ency r emai ns hi gh
throughout the l i fe of the pump.
a. Characteristics. Di spl acement of a vane-type pump depends on the wi dth of the ri ng
and r otor and the throw of the cam ri ng. I nterchangeabl e ri ngs are desi gned so a basi c
pump conver ts to sever al di spl acements. Bal anced desi gn vane pumps al l ar e fi xed di spl ace-
ment. An unbal anced desi gn can be bui l t i n ei ther a fi xed- or vari abl e-di spl acement pump.
Vane pumps have good effi ci ency and durabi l i ty i f oper ated i n a cl ean system usi ng the cor -
r ect oi l . They cover the l ow to medi um-hi gh pr essur e, capaci ty, and speed r anges. Package
si ze i n rel ati on to output i s smal l . A vane pump i s general l y qui et, but wi l l whi ne at hi gh
speeds.
b. Unbalanced Vane Pumps. I n the unbal anced desi gn, (Fi gur e 3-9), a cam ri ngs shape
i s a true ci rcl e that i s on a di ffer ent centerl i ne from a rotors. Pump di spl acement depends
on how far a rotor and ri ng ar e eccentri c. The advantage of a true-ci rcl e ri ng i s that control
can be appl i ed to vary the eccentri ci ty and thus vary the di spl acement. A di sadvantage i s
that an unbal anced pr essur e at the outl et i s effecti ve agai nst a smal l ar ea of the r otor s edge,
i mposi ng si de l oads on the shaft. Thus ther e i s a l i mi t on a pumps si ze unl ess very l arge
heari ngs and heavy supports are used.
c. Balanced Vane Pumps. I n the bal anced desi gn (Fi gur e 3-10), a pump has a stati on-
ar y, el l i pti cal cam r i ng and two sets of i nter nal por ts. A pumpi ng chamber i s for med
Figure 3-8. Lobe pump
FM 5-499
Pumps 3-7
between any two vanes twi ce
i n each revol uti on. The two
i nl ets and outl ets ar e 180
degr ees apar t. Back pr es-
sur es agai nst the edges of a
r otor cancel each other .
Recent desi gn i mprovements
that al l ow hi gh operati ng
speeds and pressur es have
made thi s pump the most
uni ver sal i n the mobi l e-
equi pment fi el d.
d. Double Pumps. Vane-
type doubl e pumps (Fi gur e 3-
11, page 3-8) consi st of two
separ ate pumpi ng devi ces.
Each i s contai ned i n i ts own r espec-
ti ve housi ng, mounted i n tandem, and
dri ven by a common shaft. Each pump
al so has i ts own i nl et and outl et por ts, whi ch may be combi ned by usi ng mani fol ds or pi pi ng.
Desi gn vari ati ons are avai l abl e i n whi ch both cartri dges are contai ned wi thi n one body. An
addi ti onal pump i s someti mes attached to the head end to suppl y auxi l i ary fl ow r equi r e-
ments.
Doubl e pumps may be used to pr ovi de fl ui d fl ow for two separate ci rcui ts or combi ned
for fl ow requi rements for a si ngl e ci rcui t. Combi ni ng pump del i ver i es does not al ter the
maxi mum pr essur e r ati ng of ei ther car tr i dge. Separate ci rcui ts r equi r e separ ate pr essur e
contr ol s to l i mi t maxi mum pr essur e i n each ci r cui t.
Fi gur e 3-12, page 3-8, shows an
i nstal l ati on i n whi ch doubl e pumps
are used to provi de fl ui d fl ow for oper-
ati on of a cyl i nder i n rapi d advance
and feed. I n ci rcui t B, two rel i ef
val ves are used to contr ol pumpi ng
oper ati on. I n ci rcui t A, one r el i ef val ve
and one unl oadi ng val ve ar e used to
control pumpi ng operati ons. I n both
ci r cui ts, the del i veri es of the pump
car tri dges ar e combi ned after passi ng
thr ough the val ves. Thi s combi ned
fl ow i s di r ected to a four -way val ve
and to the r est of the ci rcui t.
I n ci rcui t B, an upper r el i ef val ve
i s vented when a cyl i nder r od r eaches
and tr i ps a pi l ot val ve. A vented r el i ef
val ve di rects the del i very of a shaft-
end pump car tr i dge fr eel y back to a
tank. Another r el i ef val ve contr ol s the
maxi mum pr essur e of a ci r cui t. An
Figure 3-10. Balanced vane pump
Figure 3-9. Unbalanced vane pump
FM 5-499
3-8 Pumps
Head
Packing
Body
Bearing
Flange
Head
Bushing
Ring
Rotor
Bushing
Shaft
Flange
Gasket
Bearing
Packing
Gaskets
Bushing Ring Rotor
Bushing
Figure 3-11. Vane-type double pump
A
CIRCUIT USING REMOTE-
CONTROLLED UNLOADING VALVE
B
CIRCUIT USING VENTING-
TYPE RELIEF VALVE
Figure 3-12. Fluid flow from vane-type double pumps
FM 5-499
Pumps 3-9
unl oadi ng val ve and a rel i ef val ve i n ci rcui t A do the same operati on. The output of both
pump car tr i dges combi nes to suppl y fl ui d for a r api d advance por ti on of a cycl e. When the
output of one ci r cui t r eturns to the tank, after r eachi ng a cer tai n poi nt i n the cycl e, the other
ci r cui t compl etes the advance por tion of a cycl e. Both pump outputs are then combi ned for rapi d
return.
e. Two-Stage Pumps. Two-stage pumps consi st of two separate pump assembl i es con-
tai ned i n one housi ng. The pump assembl i es are connected so that fl ow from the outl et of
one i s di r ected i nter nal l y to the i nl et of the other . Si ngl e i nl et and outl et por ts ar e used for
system connecti ons. I n constructi on, the pumps consi st of separate pumpi ng cartri dges
dri ven by a common dr i ve shaft contai ned i n one housi ng. A di vi di ng val ve i s used to equal -
i ze the pr essure l oad on each stage and corr ect for mi nor fl ow di ffer ences from ei ther car -
tr i dge.
I n oper ati on, devel opi ng
fl ui d fl ow for each cartri dge
i s the same as for si ngl e
pumps. Fi gure 3-13 shows
fl ui d fl ow i n a vane-type,
two-stage pump. Oi l from a
reservoi r enters a pumps
i nl et port and passes to the
outl ets of the fi r st-stage
pump cartri dge. (Passages i n
a pumps body carr y the di s-
char ge from thi s stage to an
i nl et of the second stage.)
Outl et passages i n the sec-
ond stage di r ect the oi l to an
outl et por t of the pump. Pas-
sage U connects both cham-
ber s on the i nl et si de of a
second-stage pump and
assur es equal pressur e i n
both chamber s. (Pressur es
ar e those that ar e i mposed on
a pump from external
sources.)
A di vi di ng val ve (see Fi gur e 3-13) consi sts of sl i di ng pi stons A and B. Pi ston A i s
exposed to outl et pressure through passage V. Pi ston B i s exposed to the pressur e between
stages through passage W. The pi stons r espond to mai ntai n a pressur e l oad on a fi rst-stage
pump equal to hal f the outl et pr essur e at a second-stage pump. I f the di scharge fr om the
fi r st stage exceeds the vol ume that can be accepted at the second stage, a pr essur e r i se
occurs i n passage W. The unbal anced force acti ng on pi ston B causes the pi stons to move i n
such a manner that excess oi l fl ows past pi ston B through passage Y to the i nl et chamber of
a fi r st-stage car tri dge. Fl ui d thr ottl i ng across pi ston B i n thi s manner mai ntai ns pr essure
i n passage V.
I f the di schar ge from a fi rst-stage pump i s l ess than the vol ume requi red at a second-
stage pump, a reduced pressur e occurs at pi ston B. An unbal anced force acti ng on pi ston A
Figure 3-13. Vane-type, two-stage pump
FM 5-499
3-10 Pumps
causes the pi stons to move so that oi l fl ows past pi ston A i nto passages X and W to r epl eni sh
a second-stage pump and cor rect the unbal anced condi ti on. Passages Z and Y provi de a
means for l eakage ar ound the pi stons to return to the i nl et chamber of a fi r st-stage pump.
Pi stons A and B al ways seek a posi ti on that equal l y di vi des the l oad between the two pump-
i ng uni ts.
3-8. Piston Pumps. Pi ston pumps are ei ther radi al or axi al .
a. Radial. I n a r adi al pi ston pump (Fi gure 3-14), the pi stons ar e arr anged l i ke wheel
spokes i n a short cyl i ndri cal bl ock. A dri ve shaft, whi ch i s i nsi de a ci rcul ar housi ng, rotates
a cyl i nder bl ock. The bl ock
tur ns on a stati onar y pi ntl e
that contai ns the i nl et and
outl et por ts. As a cyl i nder
bl ock turns, centri fugal for ce
sl i ngs the pi stons, whi ch fol -
l ow a ci rcul ar housi ng. A
housi ngs center l i ne i s offset
from a cyl i nder bl ocks center-
l i ne. The amount of eccentri c-
i ty between the two
deter mi nes a pi ston str oke
and, ther efor e, a pumps di s-
pl acement. Control s can be
appl i ed to change a housi ngs
l ocati on and ther eby var y a
pumps del i ver y fr om zer o to
maxi mum.
Fi gur e 3-15 shows a ni ne-
pi ston, r adi al pi ston pump.
When a pump has an uneven
number of pi stons, no mor e
than one pi ston i s compl etel y bl ocked by a pi ntl e at one ti me, whi ch r educes fl ow pul sati ons.
Wi th an even number of pi stons spaced around a cyl i nder bl ock, two pi stons coul d be bl ocked
by a pi ntl e at the same ti me. I f thi s happens, thr ee pi stons woul d di scharge at one ti me and
four at another ti me, and pul sati ons woul d occur i n the fl ow. A pi ntl e, a cyl i nder bl ock, the
pi stons, a r otor , and a dr i ve shaft consti tute the mai n wor ki ng par ts of a pump.
(1) Pi ntl e. A pi ntl e i s a round bar that serves as a stati onary shaft ar ound whi ch a cyl -
i nder bl ock turns. A pi ntl e shaft (Fi gur e 3-16) has four hol es bor ed fr om one end l engthwi se
through par t of i ts l ength. Two hol es ser ve as an i ntake and two as a di scharge. Two sl ots
ar e cut i n a si de of the shaft so that each sl ot connects two of the l engthwi se hol es. The sl ots
are i n-l i ne wi th the pi stons when a cyl i nder bl ock i s assembl ed on a pi ntl e. One of these
sl ots provi des a path for a l i qui d to pass from the pi stons to the di scharge hol es bored i n a
pi ntl e. Another sl ot connects the two i nl et hol es to the pi stons when they ar e drawi ng i n l i q-
ui d. The di scharge hol es are connected through appropri ate fi tti ngs to a di scharge l i ne so
that a l i qui d can be di rected i nto a system. The other pai r of hol es i s connected to an i nl et
l i ne.
Figure 3-14. Simplified radial piston pump
FM 5-499
Pumps 3-11
(2) Cyl i nder Bl ock. A cyl i nder
bl ock (Fi gur e 3-17, page 3-12) i s a
bl ock of metal wi th a hol e bor ed
thr ough i ts center to fi t the pi ntl es
and cyl i nders hol es that are bored
equal di stances apart ar ound i ts
outsi de edge. The cyl i nders hol es
connect wi th the hol e that recei ves
a pi ntl e. Desi gns di ffer ; some cyl i n-
der s appear to be al most sol i d,
whi l e other s have spokel i ke cyl i n-
der s r adi ati ng out fr om the center .
A cyl i nder s and pi ntl es hol es ar e
accur atel y machi ned so that l i qui d
l oss around a pi ston i s mi ni mal .
(3) Pi stons. Pi stons ar e manu-
factur ed i n di fferent desi gns (see
Fi gur e 3-18, page 3-12). Di agram A
shows a pi ston wi th smal l wheel s
that r ol l around the i nsi de cur ve of
a r otor . Di agr am B shows a pi ston
i n whi ch a coni cal edge of the top
bear s di r ectl y agai nst a r eacti on
ri ng of the r otor . I n thi s desi gn, a
pi ston goes back and for th i n a cyl i nder whi l e i t r otates about i ts axi s so that the top sur face
wi l l wear uni for ml y. Di agram C shows a pi ston attached to cur ved pl ates. The curved
pl ates bear agai nst and sl i de around the i nsi de sur face of a r otor . The pi stons si des ar e
accur atel y machi ned to fi t the cyl i nder s so
that ther e i s a mi ni mum l oss of l i qui d
between the wal l s of a pi ston and cyl i nder .
No pr ovi si on i s made for usi ng pi ston r i ngs
to hel p seal agai nst pi ston l eakage.
(4) Rotor s. Rotor desi gns may di ffer
fr om pump to pump. A r otor consi sts of a
ci r cul ar ri ng, machi ne fi ni shed on the
i nsi de, agai nst whi ch the pi stons bear . A
r otor r otates wi thi n a sl i de bl ock, whi ch can
be shi fted fr om si de to si de to control the
pi stons l ength of stroke. A sl i de bl ock has
two pai rs of machi ned surfaces on the exte-
ri or so that i t can sl i de i n tr acks i n the
pump case.
(5) Dri ve Shaft. A dri ve shaft i s connected to a cyl i nder bl ock and i s dr i ven by an out-
si de for ce such as an el ectr i c motor .
b. Axial Piston Pumps. I n axi al pi ston pumps, the pi stons stroke i n the same di r ecti on
on a cyl i nder bl ocks centerl i ne (axi al l y). Axi al pi ston pumps may be an i n-l i ne or angl e
Case
Slide block
Rotor
Cylinder
Piston
Pintle
Figure 3-15. Nine-piston radial piston pump
Port
Port
Figure 3-16. Pintle for a radial piston
pump
FM 5-499
3-12 Pumps
desi gn. I n capaci ty, pi ston pumps range fr om
l ow to ver y hi gh. Pressur es are as hi gh as
5,000 psi , and dri ve speeds are medi um to
hi gh. Effi ci ency i s hi gh, and pumps gener al l y
have excel l ent durabi l i ty. Petr ol eum oi l fl ui ds
ar e usual l y requi red. Pul sati ons i n del i very
ar e smal l and of medi um fr equency. The
pumps ar e qui et i n operati on but may have a
gr owl or whi ne, dependi ng on condi ti on.
Except for i n-l i ne pumps, whi ch ar e compact
i n si ze, pi ston pumps ar e heavy and bul ky.
(1) I n-Li ne Pump. I n an i n-l i ne pi ston
pump (Fi gur e 3-19, di agram A), a dri ve shaft
and cyl i nder bl ock ar e on the same center l i ne.
Reci procati on of the pi stons i s caused by a
swash pl ate that the pi stons run agai nst as a
cyl i nder bl ock r otates. A dr i ve shaft tur ns a
cyl i nder bl ock, whi ch car ri es the pi stons
ar ound a shaft. The pi ston shoes sl i de agai nst
a swash pl ate and ar e hel d agai nst i t by a
shoe pl ate. A swash pl ates angl e causes the
cyl i nder s to r eci pr ocate i n thei r bor es. At the
poi nt wher e a pi ston begi ns to r etr act, an
openi ng i n the end of a bor e sl i des over an
i nl et sl ot i n a val ve pl ate, and oi l i s drawn i nto
a bor e through somewhat l ess than hal f a r ev-
ol uti on. Ther e i s a sol i d ar ea i n a val ve pl ate
as a pi ston becomes ful l y r etr acted. As a pi s-
ton begi ns to extend, an openi ng i n a cyl i nder
bar r el moves over an outl et sl ot, and oi l i s
for ced out a pr essur e por t.
(a) Di spl acement. Pump di spl acement
depends on the bor e and str oke of a pi ston and
the number of pi stons. A swash pl ates angl e
(Fi gur e 3-19, di agr am B) deter mi nes the
str oke, whi ch can var y by changi ng the angl e.
I n a fi xed angl es uni t, a swash pl ate i s stati onary i n the housi ng. I n a vari abl e uni ts, i t i s
mounted on a yoke, whi ch can tur n on pi ntl es. Di ffer ent contr ol s can be attached to the pi n-
tl es to vary pump del i ver y fr om zer o to the maxi mum. Wi th cer tai n control s, the di r ecti on of
fl ow can be r ever sed by swi ngi ng a yoke past center . I n the center posi ti on, a swash pl ate i s
perpendi cul ar to the cyl i nders, and ther e i s no pi ston reci procati on; no oi l i s pumped.
(b) Components. The major components of a typi cal , fi xed-di spl acement i n-l i ne pump
ar e the housi ng, a beari ng-supported dr i ve shaft, a rotati ng gr oup, a shaft seal , and a val ve
pl ate. A val ve pl ate contai ns an i nl et and an outl et por t and functi ons as the back cover. A
rotati ng gr oup consi sts of a cyl i nder bl ock that i s spl i ned to a dr i ve shaft, a spl i ned spher i cal
washer , a spr i ng, ni ne pi stons wi th shoes, a swash pl ate, and a shoe pl ate. When a group i s
assembl ed, a spr i ng for ces a cyl i nder bl ock agai nst a val ve pl ate and a spher i cal washer
Figure 3-17. Cylinder block for a radial
piston pump
Figure 3-18. Pistons for a radial piston
pump
FM 5-499
Pumps 3-13
agai nst a shoe pl ate. Thi s acti on hol ds the pi ston shoes agai nst a swash pl ate, ensur i ng
that the pi stons wi l l r eci procate as the cyl i nder turns. A swash pl ate i s stati onar y i n a fi xed-
di spl acement desi gn.
(c) Oper ati on. A vari abl e-di spl acement i n-l i ne pump oper ates the same as a fi xed angl e
except that a swash pl ate i s mounted on a pi voted yoke. A yoke can be swung to change a
pl ate angl e and thus change a pumps di spl acement. A yoke can be posi ti oned manual l y
wi th a screw or l ever or by a compensator control , whi ch posi ti ons a yoke automati cal l y to
mai ntai n constant output pr essure under vari abl e fl ow requi rements. A compensator con-
tr ol consi sts of a val ve that i s bal anced between a spr i ng and system pr essur e and a spri ng-
l oaded, yoke-actuati ng pi ston that i s control l ed by a val ve. A pumps compensator control
thus r educes i ts output onl y to the vol ume r equi r ed to mai ntai n a pr eset pr essur e. Maxi -
mum del i ver y i s al l owed onl y when pressur e i s l ess than a compensators setti ng.
(2) Wobbl e-Pl ate I n-Li ne Pump. Thi s i s a vari ati on of an i n-l i ne pi ston pump. I n thi s
desi gn, a cyl i nder bar r el does not turn; a pl ate wobbl es as i t tur ns, and the wobbl i ng pushes
the pi stons i n and out of the pumpi ng chamber s i n a stati onary cyl i nder bar r el . I n a wobbl e-
pl ate pump, separ ate i nl et and outl et check val ves ar e requi red for each pi ston, si nce the pi s-
tons do not move past a por t.
A
B
Figure 3-19. In-line piston pump
FM 5-499
3-14 Pumps
(3) Bent-Axi s Axi al Pi ston Pump. I n an angl e- or a bent-axi s-type pi ston pump (Fi gure
3-20), the pi ston rods are attached by bal l joi nts to a dri ve shafts fl ange. A uni ver sal l i nk
keys a cyl i nder bl ock to a shaft so that they r otate together but at an offset angl e. A cyl i nder
bar r el turns agai nst a sl otted val ve pl ate to whi ch the por ts connect. Pumpi ng acti on i s the
same as an i n-l i ne pump. The angl e of offset deter mi nes a pumps di spl acement, just as the
swash pl ates angl e determi nes an i n-l i ne pump's di spl acement. I n fi xed-del i very pumps,
the angl e i s constant. I n var i abl e model s, a yoke mounted on pi ntl es swi ngs a cyl i nder bl ock
to var y di spl acement. Fl ow di recti on can be r eversed wi th appropri ate contr ol s.
3-9. Pump Operation. The fol l owi ng par agraphs address some of the pr obl ems that coul d
occur when a pump i s operati ng:
a. Overloading. One ri sk of over l oadi ng i s the danger of excess tor que on a dri ve shaft.
Tor que i s ci rcul ar for ce on an object. An i ncrease i n pressur e/pump di spl acement wi l l
i ncrease the torque on a shaft i f pump di spl acement/pressure remai ns constant. Often i n a
gi ven package si ze, a hi gher GPM pump wi l l have a l ower pr essur e rati ng than a l ower GPM
pump. Someti mes a fi el d conversi on to get more speed out of an actuator wi l l cause a pump
to be over l oaded. You may need a l ar ger pump.
b. Excess Speed. Runni ng a pump at too hi gh a speed causes l oss of l ubri cati on, whi ch
can cause earl y fai l ur e. I f a needed del i very r equi r es a hi gher dr i ve speed than a pump's rat-
i ng, use a hi gher di spl acement pump. Excess speed al so runs a ri sk of damage from cavi ta-
ti on.
c. Cavitation. Cavi tati on occur s wher e avai l abl e fl ui d does not fi l l an exi sti ng space. I t
often occurs i n a pumps i nl et when condi ti ons are not ri ght to suppl y enough oi l to keep an
i nl et fl ooded. Cavi tati on causes the metal i n an i nl et to er ode and the hydraul i c oi l to deter i -
orate qui cker. Cavi tati on can occur i f ther e i s too much resi stance i n an i nl ets l i ne, i f a res-
Figure 3-20. Bent-axis axial piston pump
FM 5-499
Pumps 3-15
er voi rs oi l l evel i s too far bel ow the i nl et, or i f an oi l s vi scosi ty i s too hi gh. I t can al so occur
i f ther e i s a vacuum or even a sl i ght posi ti ve pr essur e at the i nl et. A badl y cavi tati ng pump
has oi l bubbl es expl odi ng i n the voi d. The onl y way to be sur e a pump i s not cavi tati ng i s to
check the i nl et wi th a vacuum gauge.
To pr event cavi tati on, keep the i nl et cl ean and free of obstructi ons by usi ng the correct
l ength of an i nl ets l i ne wi th mi ni mum bends. Another method i s to charge an inl et. The eas-
iest way to do thi s i s to fl ood i t by locating the reservoi r above the pumps i nl et. I f thi s i s not
possi bl e and you cannot create good i nl et condi ti ons, use a pressur i zed reser voi r . You can
al so use an auxi l i ar y pump to mai ntai n a suppl y of oi l to an i nl et at l ow pr essur e. You coul d
use a centri fugal pump, but i t i s mor e common to use a posi ti ve-di spl acement gear pump
wi th a pressur e-rel i ef val ve that i s set to mai ntai n the desi r ed char gi ng pr essure.
d. Operating Problems. Pressure l oss, sl ow operati on, no del i very, and noi se ar e com-
mon operati ng probl ems i n a pump.
(1) Pr essur e Loss. Pr essur e l oss means that ther e i s a hi gh l eakage path i n a system. A
badl y worn pump coul d cause pr essure l oss. A pump wi l l l ose i ts effi ci ency gradual l y. The
actuator speed sl ows down as a pump wear s. However , pr essur e l oss i s mor e often caused by
l eaks somewher e el se i n a system (r el i ef val ve, cyl i nder s, motor s).
(2) Sl ow Oper ati on. Thi s can be caused by a worn pump or by a par ti al oi l l eak i n a sys-
tem. Pr essur e wi l l not dr op, however , i f a l oad moves at al l . Ther efor e, hp i s sti l l bei ng used
and i s bei ng converted i nto heat at a l eakage poi nt. To fi nd thi s poi nt, feel the components
for unusual heat.
(3) No Del i very. I f oi l i s not bei ng pumped, a pump
Coul d be assembl ed i ncorrectl y.
Coul d be dr i ven i n the wr ong di recti on.
Has not been pri med. The reasons for no pr i me are usual l y i mproper start-up,
i nl et restri cti ons, or l ow oi l l evel i n a reser voi r .
Has a broken dri ve shaft.
(4) Noi se. I f you hear any unusual noi se, shut down a pump i mmedi atel y. Cavi tati on
noi se i s caused by a r estr i cti on i n an i nl et l i ne, a di r ty i nl et fi l ter , or too hi gh a dr i ve speed.
Ai r i n a system al so causes noi se. Ai r wi l l sever el y damage a pump because i t wi l l not have
enough l ubri cati on. Thi s can occur fr om l ow oi l i n a r eser voi r , a l oose connecti on i n an i nl et,
a l eaki ng shaft seal , or no oi l i n a pump befor e star ti ng. Al so, noi se can be caused by wor n
or damaged par ts, whi ch wi l l spr ead har mful par ti cl es through a system, causi ng mor e dam-
age i f an oper ati on conti nues.
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Actuators 4-1
CHAPTER 4
Hydraulic Actuators
A hydraulic actuator receives pressure energy and converts it to mechanical force and
motion. An actuator can be linear or rotary. A linear actuator gives force and motion outputs
in a straight line. I t is more commonly called a cylinder but is also referred to as a ram,
reciprocating motor, or linear motor. A rotary actuator produces torque and rotating motion.
I t is more commonly called a hydraulic motor or motor.
4-1. Cylinders. A cyl i nder i s a hydraul i c actuator that i s constructed of a pi ston or pl unger
that oper ates i n a cyl i ndri cal housi ng by the acti on of l i qui d under pr essur e. Fi gur e 4-1
shows the basi c par ts of a cyl i nder . A cyl i nder housi ng i s a tube i n whi ch a pl unger (pi ston)
oper ates. I n a r am-type cyl i nder , a r am actuates a l oad di r ectl y. I n a pi ston cyl i nder , a pi s-
ton r od i s connected to a pi ston to actuate a l oad. An end of a cyl i nder fr om whi ch a r od or
pl unger protrudes i s a rod end. The opposi te end i s a head end. The hydraul i c connecti ons
are a head-end port and a rod-end por t (fl ui d suppl y).
a. Single-Acting Cylinder. Thi s cyl i nder (Fi gur e 4-1) onl y has a head-end port and i s
operated hydraul i cal l y i n one di recti on. When oi l i s pumped i nto a port, i t pushes on a
pl unger , thus extendi ng i t. To r eturn or r etr act a cyl i nder , oi l must be r el eased to a r eser -
voi r . A pl unger r etur ns ei ther because of the wei ght of a l oad or fr om some mechani cal for ce
such as a spr i ng. I n mobi l e equi pment, fl ow to and from a si ngl e-acti ng cyl i nder i s control l ed
by a rever si ng di r ecti onal val ve of a si ngl e-acti ng type.
b. Double-Acting Cylinder. Thi s cyl i n-
der (Fi gure 4-2, page 4-2) must have por ts
at the head and r od ends. Pumpi ng oi l i nto
the head end moves a pi ston to extend a
rod whi l e any oi l i n the rod end i s pushed
out and r etur ned to a r eser voi r . To r etr act
a r od, fl ow i s r ever sed. Oi l fr om a pump
goes i nto a rod end, and a head-end por t i s
connected to al l ow r eturn fl ow. The fl ow
di r ecti on to and fr om a doubl e-acti ng cyl i n-
der can be contr ol l ed by a doubl e-acti ng
di r ecti onal val ve or by actuati ng a control
of a r ever si bl e pump.
c. Differential Cylinder. I n a di fferen-
ti al cyl i nder , the ar eas wher e pr essur e i s
appl i ed on a pi ston are not equal . On a
head end, a ful l pi ston area i s avai l abl e for
appl yi ng pressur e. At a r od end, onl y an
annul ar ar ea i s avai l abl e for appl yi ng
pressur e. A rods area i s not a factor, and
Fluid
supply
Rod end
Ram
Gland nut
Cylinder
housing
Head end
Packed
gland
Figure 4-1. Single-acting cylinder
FM 5-499
4-2 Hydraulic Actuators
what space i t does take up r educes
the vol ume of oi l i t wi l l hol d. Two
general rul es about a di fferenti al
cyl i nder are that
Wi th an equal GPM
del i very to ei ther end, a
cyl i nder wi l l move
faster when r etr acti ng
because of a reduced vol -
ume capaci ty.
Wi th equal pressur e at
ei ther end, a cyl i nder
can exer t mor e for ce
when extendi ng because
of the gr eater pi ston
area. I n fact, i f equal
pressur e i s appl i ed to
both por ts at the same
ti me, a cyl i nder wi l l
extend because of a
hi gher r esul ti ng force
on a head end.
d. Nondifferential Cylinder.
Thi s cyl i nder (Fi gur e 4-3) has a pi s-
ton r od extendi ng fr om each end. I t
has equal thrust and speed ei ther
way, provi ded that pressure and fl ow
ar e unchanged. A nondi fferenti al cyl i nder i s rarel y used on mobi l e equi pment.
e. Ram-Type Cylinder. A ram-type cyl i nder i s a cyl i nder i n whi ch a cr oss-secti onal ar ea
of a pi ston rod i s mor e than one-hal f a cr oss-secti onal area of a pi ston head. I n many cyl i n-
ders of thi s type, the rod and pi ston heads have equal areas. A ram-type actuati ng cyl i nder
i s used mai nl y for push
functi ons r ather than
pul l .
Fi gur e 4-1, page 4-1,
shows a si ngl e-acti ng,
ram-type cyl i nder . A si n-
gl e-acti ng r am appl i es
force i n one di r ecti on.
Thi s cyl i nder i s often
used i n a hydraul i c jack.
I n a doubl e-acti ng, r am-
type cyl i nder , both
str okes of a r am ar e pr o-
duced by pressur i zed
fl ui d. Fi gure 4-2 shows
thi s cyl i nder .
Figure 4-2. Double-acting cylinder
Figure 4-3. Nondifferential cylinder
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Actuators 4-3
Fi gure 4-4 shows a tel escop-
i ng, ram-type, actuati ng cyl i nder,
whi ch can be a si ngl e- or doubl e-
acti ng type. I n thi s cyl i nder, a
seri es of rams are nested i n a tel e-
scopi ng assembl y. Except for the
smal l est r am, each ram i s hol l ow
and ser ves as a cyl i nder housi ng
for the next smal l er r am. A r am
assembl y i s contai ned i n a mai n
cyl i nder housi ng, whi ch al so pr o-
vi des the fl ui d por ts. Al though an
assembl y requi res a smal l space
wi th al l of the r ams retracted, a
tel escopi ng acti on of an assembl y
provi des a r el ati vel y l ong str oke
when the r ams ar e extended.
f. Piston-Type Cylinder. I n
thi s cyl i nder , a cross-secti onal
ar ea of a pi ston head i s r efer r ed to
as a pi ston-type cyl i nder . A pi s-
ton-type cyl i nder i s used mai nl y
when the push and pul l functi ons
are needed.
A si ngl e-acti ng, pi ston-type cyl i nder uses fl ui d pr essur e to appl y force i n one di recti on.
I n some desi gns, the for ce of gravi ty moves a pi ston i n the opposi te di r ecti on. However , most
cyl i nder s of thi s type appl y force i n both di recti ons. Fl ui d pr essure provi des force i n one
di recti on and spr i ng tensi on provi des force i n the opposi te di recti on.
Fi gur e 4-5 shows a si ngl e-
acti ng, spri ng-l oaded, pi ston-
type cyl i nder . I n thi s cyl i nder , a
spri ng i s l ocated on the r od si de
of a pi ston. I n some spr i ng-
l oaded cyl i nder s, a spri ng i s
l ocated on a bl ank si de, and a
fl ui d por t i s on a r od end of a cyl -
i nder .
Most pi ston-type cyl i nder s
are doubl e-acti ng, whi ch means
that fl ui d under pr essur e can be
appl i ed to ei ther si de of a pi ston
to pr ovi de movement and appl y
force i n a correspondi ng di r ec-
ti on. Fi gure 4-6 shows a doubl e-
acti ng pi ston-type cyl i nder.
Figure 4-4. Telescoping, ram-type, actuating
cylinder
Fluid port
Piston
Return spring
Piston rod
Air vent
Seals
Figure 4-5. Single-acting, spring-loaded, piston-
type cylinder
FM 5-499
4-4 Hydraulic Actuators
Thi s cyl i nder contai ns one pi ston and pi ston-r od assembl y and operates fr om fl ui d fl ow i n
ei ther di r ecti on. The two fl ui d por ts, one near each end of a cyl i nder , al ter nate as an i nl et
and an outl et, dependi ng on the di recti onal -contr ol val ve fl ow di recti on. Thi s i s an unbal -
anced cyl i nder , whi ch means that ther e i s a di fference i n the effecti ve wor ki ng area on the
two si des of a pi ston. A cyl i nder i s nor mal l y i nstal l ed so that the head end of a pi ston car ri es
the greater l oad; that i s, a cyl i nder car ri es the gr eater l oad duri ng a pi ston-rod extensi on
str oke.
Fi gur e 4-6 shows a bal -
anced, doubl e-acti ng, pi ston-
type cyl i nder . The effecti ve
worki ng area on both si des of
a pi ston i s the same, and i t
exerts the same for ce i n both
di recti ons.
g. Cushioned Cylinder.
To sl ow an acti on and prevent
shock at the end of a pi ston
str oke, some actuati ng cyl i n-
ders ar e constr ucted wi th a
cushi oni ng devi ce at ei ther or both ends of a cyl i nder. Thi s cushi on i s usual l y a meter i ng
devi ce bui l t i nto a cyl i nder to restr i ct the fl ow at an outl et port, ther eby sl owi ng down the
moti on of a pi ston. Fi gur e 4-7 shows a cushi oned actuati ng cyl i nder.
h. Lockout Cylinders. A
l ockout cyl i nder i s used to
l ock a suspensi on mechani sm
of a tr acked vehi cl e when a
vehi cl e functi ons as a stabl e
pl atform. A cyl i nder al so
ser ves as a shock absor ber
when a vehi cl e i s movi ng.
Each l ockout cyl i nder i s con-
nected to a r oad ar m by a
contr ol l ever . When each
road wheel moves up, a con-
trol l ever forces the respec-
ti ve cyl i nder to compr ess.
Hydraul i c fl ui d i s forced
ar ound a pi ston head thr ough r estr i ctor por ts causi ng a cyl i nder to act as a shock absor ber .
When hydraul i c pressure i s appli ed to an i nl et por t on each cyl i nders connecti ng eye, an inner
contr ol -val ve pi ston i s forced agai nst a spri ng i n each cyl i nder. Thi s acti on cl oses the r estri c-
tor por ts, bl ocks the mai n pi stons moti on i n each cyl i nder , and l ocks the suspensi on system.
4-2. Construction and Application. A cyl i nder i s constructed of a barrel or tube, a pi ston
and rod (or ram), two end caps, and sui tabl e oil seal s. A barr el is usual l y seaml ess steel tubi ng,
or cast, and the i nter i or i s fi ni shed ver y true and smoothl y. A steel pi ston r od i s hi ghl y pol -
i shed and usual l y har d chr ome-pl ated to r esi st pi tti ng and scor i ng. I t i s suppor ted i n the
end cap by a bushi ng or pol i shed surface.
Figure 4-6. Double-acting, piston-type cylinder
Figure 4-7. Cushioned, actuating cylinder
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Actuators 4-5
The cyl i nder 's por ts ar e bui l t i nto the end caps, whi ch can be scr ewed on to the tubes,
wel ded, or attached by ti e bol ts or bol ted fl anges. I f the cyl i nder bar r el i s cast, the head-end
cap may be i ntegral wi th i t. Mounti ng pr ovi si ons often are made i n the end caps, i ncl udi ng
fl anges for stati onar y mounti ng or cl evi ses for swi ngi ng mounts.
Seal s and wi pers ar e i nstal l ed i n the rod's end cap to keep the rod cl ean and to prevent
external l eakage around the r od. Other poi nts where seal s ar e used are at the end cap and
joi nts and between the pi ston and barr el . Dependi ng on how the r od i s attached to the pi s-
ton, a seal may be needed. I nternal l eakage shoul d not occur past a pi ston. I t wastes energy
and can stop a l oad by a hydrostati c l ock (oi l trapped behi nd a pi ston).
Fi gure 4-8, page 4-6, shows force-and-moti on appl i cati ons of cyl i nder s. Because fl ui d
power systems have many requi rements, actuati ng cyl i nder s are avai l abl e i n di ffer ent
shapes and si zes. A cyl i nder -type actuator i s ver sati l e and may be the most tr oubl e-fr ee
component of fl ui d-power ed systems. A cyl i nder and a mechani cal member of a uni t to be
actuated must be al i gned corr ectl y. Any mi sal i gnment wi l l cause excessi ve wear of a pi ston,
a pi ston rod, and the seal s. Al so, a pi ston rod and an actuati ng uni t must stay pr operl y
adjusted. Cl ean the exposed ends of the pi ston r ods to ensur e that for ei gn matter does not
get i nto the cyl i nders.
4-3. Maintenance. Hydr aul i c cyl i nders are compact and rel ati vel y si mpl e. The key poi nts
to watch ar e the seal s and pi vots. The fol l owi ng l i sts servi ce ti ps i n mai ntai ni ng cyl i nders:
a. External Leakage. I f a cyl i nders end caps are l eaki ng, ti ghten them. I f the l eaks sti l l
do not stop, r epl ace the gasket. I f a cyl i nder l eaks around a pi ston rod, repl ace the packi ng.
Make sur e that a seal l i p faces towar d the pr essure oi l . I f a seal conti nues to l eak, check
par agraphs 4-3e through i.
b. I nternal Leakage. Leakage past the pi ston seal s i nsi de a cyl i nder can cause sl uggi sh
movement or settl i ng under l oad. Pi ston l eakage can be caused by worn pi ston seal s or ri ngs
or scored cyl i nder wal l s. The l atter may be caused by di rt and gri t i n the oi l .
NOTE: When repairing a cylinder, replace all the seals and packings
before reassembly.
c. Creeping Cylinder. I f a cyl i nder cr eeps when stopped i n mi dstr oke, check for i nter nal
l eakage (paragraph 4-3b). Another cause coul d be a worn contr ol val ve.
d. Sluggish Operation. Ai r i n a cyl i nder i s the most common cause of sl uggi sh acti on.
I nter nal l eakage i n a cyl i nder i s another cause. I f an acti on i s sl uggi sh when star ti ng up a
system, but speeds up when a system i s warm, check for oi l of too hi gh a vi scosi ty (see the
machi ne's oper ati ng manual ). I f a cyl i nder i s sti l l sl uggi sh after these checks, test the whol e
ci r cui t for worn components.
e. Loose Mounting. Pi vot poi nts and mounts may be l oose. The bol ts or pi ns may need
to be ti ghtened, or they may be worn out. Too much sl op or fl oat i n a cyl i nders mounti ngs
damages the pi ston-rod seal s. Peri odi cal l y check al l the cyl i nders for l oose mounti ngs.
f. Misalignment. Pi ston r ods must wor k i n-l i ne at al l ti mes. I f they ar e si de-l oaded, the
pi ston r ods wi l l be gal l ed and the packi ngs wi l l be damaged, causi ng l eaks. Eventual l y, the
pi ston r ods may be bent or the wel ds br oken.
FM 5-499
4-6 Hydraulic Actuators
Figure 4-8. Applications of cylinders
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Actuators 4-7
g. Lack of Lubrication. I f a pi ston rod has no l ubri cati on, a r od packi ng coul d sei ze,
whi ch woul d resul t i n an err ati c str oke, especi al l y on si ngl e-acti ng cyl i nder s.
h. Abrasives on a Piston Rod. When a pi ston r od extends, i t can pi ck up di r t and other
mater i al . When i t r etr acts, i t carr i es the gri t i nto a cyl i nder , damagi ng a r od seal . For thi s
r eason, r od wi per s ar e often used at the r od end of a cyl i nder to cl ean the r od as i t retracts.
Rubber boots ar e al so used over the end of a cyl i nder i n some cases. Pi ston r ods r usti ng i s
another pr obl em. When stor i ng cyl i nder s, al ways r etr act the pi ston r ods to pr otect them. I f
you cannot r etr act them, coat them wi th gr ease.
i . Burrs on a Piston Rod. Exposed pi ston r ods can be damaged by i mpact wi th har d
objects. I f a smooth sur face of a r od i s marr ed, a r od seal may be damaged. Cl ean the bur r s
on a r od i mmedi atel y, usi ng crocus cl oth. Some rods are chrome-pl ated to r esi st wear .
Repl ace the seal s after r estor i ng a r od surface.
j. Air Vents. Si ngl e-acti ng cyl i nders (except ram types) must have an ai r vent i n the dr y
si de of a cyl i nder . To pr event di r t fr om getti ng i n, use di ffer ent fi l ter devi ces. Most ar e sel f-
cl eani ng, but i nspect them per i odi cal l y to ensur e that they oper ate pr oper l y.
4-4. Hydraulic Motors. Hydr aul i c motor s conver t hydraul i c ener gy i nto mechani cal
ener gy. I n i ndustri al hydr aul i c ci rcui ts, pumps and motors are nor mal l y combi ned wi th a
proper val vi ng and pi pi ng to form a hydr aul i c-power ed tr ansmi ssi on. A pump, whi ch i s
mechani cal l y l i nked to a pri me mover , dr aws fl ui d fr om a r eser voi r and for ces i t to a motor .
A motor , whi ch i s mechani cal l y l i nked to the wor kl oad, i s actuated by thi s fl ow so that
moti on or tor que, or both, ar e conveyed to the wor k. Fi gur e 4-9 shows the basi c oper ati ons of
a hydraul i c motor .
Figure 4-9. Basic operations of a hydraulic motor
FM 5-499
4-8 Hydraulic Actuators
The pr i nci pal rati ngs of a motor ar e tor que, pressur e, and di spl acement. Torque and
pressure rati ngs i ndi cate how much l oad a motor can handl e. Di spl acement i ndi cates how
much fl ow i s requi red for a speci fi ed dr i ve speed and i s expressed i n cubi c i nches per revol u-
ti ons, the same as pump di spl acement. Di spl acement i s the amount of oi l that must be
pumped i nto a motor to tur n i t one revol uti on. Most motor s are fi xed-di spl acement; how-
ever , var i abl e-di spl acement pi s-
ton motor s ar e i n use, mai nl y i n
hydr ostati c dr i ves. The mai n
types of motor s ar e gear , vane,
and pi ston. They can be uni di -
r ecti onal or r ever si bl e. (Most
motor s desi gned for mobi l e
equi pment ar e r ever si bl e.)
a. Gear-Type Motors. Fi g-
ur e 4-10 shows a gear -type
motor . Both gear s ar e dr i ven
gear s, but onl y one i s connected
to the output shaft. Oper ati on i s
essenti al l y the r ever se of that of
a gear pump. Fl ow fr om the
pump enters chamber A and
fl ows i n ei ther di r ecti on around
the i nsi de surface of the casi ng,
for ci ng the gear s to r otate as
i ndi cated. Thi s r otar y moti on i s
then avai l abl e for work at the
output shaft.
b. Vane-Type Motors. Fi g-
ur e 4-11 shows a vane-type
motor . Fl ow fr om the pump
enter s the i nl et, for ces the r otor
and vanes to r otate, and passes
out through the outl et. Motor
r otati on causes the output shaft
to r otate. Si nce no centri fugal
for ce exi sts unti l the motor
begi ns to r otate, somethi ng,
usual l y spri ngs, must be used to
i ni ti al l y hol d the vanes agai nst
the casi ng contour . However ,
spri ngs usual l y ar e not neces-
sary i n vane-type pumps
because a dri ve shaft i ni ti al l y
suppl i es centri fugal force to
ensur e vane-to-casi ng contact.
Figure 4-10. Gear-type motor
Figure 4-11. Vane-type motor
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Actuators 4-9
Vane motor s ar e bal anced
hydr aul i cal l y to pr event a r otor
fr om si de-l oadi ng a shaft. A
shaft i s suppor ted by two bal l
bear i ngs. Tor que i s devel oped
by a pressur e di ffer ence as oi l
from a pump i s forced through a
motor . Fi gur e 4-12 shows pr es-
sure di fferenti al on a si ngl e
vane as i t passes the i nl et por t.
On the trai l i ng si de open to the
i nl et por t, the vane i s subject to
ful l system pressur e. The
chamber l eadi ng the vane i s
subject to the much l ower outl et
pressur e. The di fference i n
pr essur e exer ts the for ce on the
vane that i s, i n effect, tangen-
ti al to the r otor . Thi s pressur e
di fference i s effecti ve across
vanes 3 and 9 as shown i n Fi g-
ur e 4-13. The other vanes ar e
subject to essenti al l y equal for ce
on both si des. Each wi l l devel op
tor que as the r otor tur ns. Fi g-
ure 4-13 shows the fl ow condi -
ti on for counter cl ockwi se
rotati on as vi ewed from the
cover end. The body port i s the
i nl et, and the cover por t i s the
outl et. Reverse the fl ow, and
the rotati on becomes cl ockwi se.
I n a vane-type pump, the
vanes are pushed out agai nst a
cam ri ng by centri fugal force
when a pump i s started up. A
desi gn motor uses steel -wi r e
rocker arms (Fi gur e 4-14, page
4-10) to push the vanes agai nst
the cam ri ng. The arms pi vot on
pi ns attached to the r otor . The
ends of each ar m suppor t two
vanes that ar e 90 degr ees apar t.
When the cam ri ng pushes vane
A i nto i ts sl ot, vane B sl i des out.
The r ever se al so happens. Amo-
tor s pr essure pl ate functi ons the
same as a pump's. I t seal s the
si de of a r otor and ri ng agai nst
Figure 4-12. Pressure differential on a vane-type
motor
Figure 4-13. Flow condition in a vane-type pump
FM 5-499
4-10 Hydraulic Actuators
i nternal l eakage, and i t feeds system
pr essur e under the vanes to hol d them
out agai nst a r i ng. Thi s i s a si mpl e
operati on i n a pump because a pr es-
sur e pl ate i s ri ght by a hi gh-pr essur e
por t i n the cover .
c. Piston-Type Motors. Pi ston-
type motors can be i n-l i ne-axi s or
bent-axi s types.
(1) I n-Li ne-Axi s, Pi ston-Type
Motors. These motors (Fi gure 4-15) ar e
al most i denti cal to the pumps. They
ar e bui l t-i n, fi xed- and var i abl e-di s-
pl acement model s i n sever al si zes.
Torque i s devel oped by a pr essur e dr op
through a motor . Pr essur e exer ts a
for ce on the ends of the pi stons, whi ch
i s tr ansl ated i nto shaft r otati on. Shaft
r otati on of most model s can be
r ever sed anyti me by r ever si ng the fl ow
di recti on.
Oi l fr om a pump i s for ced i nto the cyl i nder bor es thr ough a motor s i nl et por t. Force on
the pi stons at thi s poi nt pushes them agai nst a swash pl ate. They can move onl y by sl i di ng
al ong a swash pl ate to a poi nt further away from a cyl i nder s barr el , whi ch causes i t to
r otate. The barr el i s then spl i ned to a shaft so that i t must tur n.
Figure 4-14. Rocker arms pushing vanes
in a pump
Figure 4-15. In-line-axis, piston-type motor
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Actuators 4-11
A motor's di spl acement depends on the angl e of a swash pl ate (Fi gure 4-16). At maxi -
mum angl e, di spl acement i s at i ts hi ghest because the pi stons tr avel at maxi mum l ength.
When the angl e i s reduced, pi ston tr avel shortens, r educi ng di spl acement. I f fl ow r emai ns
constant, a motor runs faster, but tor que i s decr eased. Torque i s gr eatest at maxi mum di s-
pl acement because the component of pi ston for ce paral l el to a swash pl ate i s gr eatest.
(2) Bent-Axi s, Pi ston-Type Motor s. These motor s ar e al most i denti cal to the pumps.
They ar e avai l abl e i n fi xed- and vari abl e-di spl acement model s (Fi gur e 4-17), i n sever al si zes.
Vari abl e-di spl acement motors can be control l ed mechani cal l y or by pr essure compensa-
ti on. These motor s oper ate si mi l ar l y to i n-l i ne motor s except that pi ston thrust i s agai nst a
dri ve-shaft fl ange. A paral l el component of thrust causes a fl ange to tur n. Torque i s maxi -
mum at maxi mum di spl acement; speed i s at a mi ni mum. Thi s desi gn pi ston motor i s ver y
heavy and bul ky, par ti cul arl y the var i abl e-di spl acement motor . Usi ng these motor s on
mobi l e equi pment i s l i mi ted.
Al though some pi ston-
type motor s are control l ed by
di r ecti onal -control val ves, they
are often used i n combi nati on
wi th var i abl e-di spl acement
pumps. Thi s pump-motor
combi nati on (hydraul i c tr ans-
mi ssi on) i s used to pr ovi de a
tr ansfer of power between a
dri vi ng el ement, such as an
el ectri c motor, and a dri ven
el ement. Hydr aul i c transmi s-
si ons may be used for appl i ca-
ti ons such as a speed reducer ,
vari abl e speed dri ve, constant
speed or constant torque
Figure 4-16. Swash plate
Cylinder block
C
y
lin
d
e
r

b
lo
c
k
a
x
is
Output shaft
axis
Output shaft
Pistons
Valve plate
Figure 4-17. Bent-axis, piston-type motor
FM 5-499
Hydraulic Actuators 4-12
dri ve, and torque converter. Some advantages a hydraul i c transmi ssi on has over a mechan-
i cal transmi ssi on i s that i t has
Qui ck, easy speed adjustment over a wi de range whi l e the power source i s oper at-
i ng at constant (most effi ci ent) speed.
Rapi d, smooth accel er ati on or decel er ati on.
Contr ol over maxi mum tor que and power .
A cushi oni ng effect to r educe shock l oads.
A smooth rever sal of moti on.
FM 5-499
Valves 5-1
CHAPTER 5
Valves
Valves are used in hydraulic systems to control the operation of the actuators. Valves reg-
ulate pressure by creating special pressure conditions and by controlling how much oil will
flow in portions of a circuit and where it will go. The three categories of hydraulic valves are
pressure-control, flow- (volume-) control, and directional -control (see Figure 5-1). Some
valves have multiple functions, placing them into more than one category. Valves are rated
by their size, pressure capabilities, and pressure drop/ flow.
5-1. Pressure-Control Valves. A pr essur e-contr ol val ve may l i mi t or r egul ate pr essur e,
cr eate a par ti cul ar pr essur e condi ti on r equi r ed for contr ol , or cause actuator s to oper ate i n a
speci fi c or der . Al l pur e pr essur e-contr ol val ves oper ate i n a condi ti on appr oachi ng hydr aul i c
bal ance. Usual l y the bal ance i s ver y si mpl e: pr essur e i s effecti ve on one si de or end of a bal l ,
poppet, or spool and i s opposed by a spr i ng. I n oper ati on, a val ve takes a posi ti on wher e
hydr aul i c pr essur e bal ances a spr i ng for ce. Si nce spri ng for ce var i es wi th compr essi on, di s-
tance and pr essur e al so can vary. Pr essur e-contr ol val ves ar e sai d to be i nfi ni te posi ti oni ng.
Thi s means that they can take a posi ti on anywhere between two fi ni te fl ow condi ti ons,
whi ch changes a l arge vol ume of fl ow to a smal l vol ume, or pass no fl ow.
Most pressur e-control val ves ar e cl assi fi ed as nor mal l y cl osed. Thi s means that fl ow to
a val ve's i nl et por t i s bl ocked from an outl et por t unti l ther e i s enough pressur e to cause an
unbal anced operati on. I n normal l y open val ves, free fl ow occur s thr ough the val ves unti l
they begi n to oper ate i n bal ance. Fl ow i s par ti al l y r estr i cted or cut off. Pr essur e over r i de i s
a character i sti c of nor mal l y cl osed-pr essure control s when they are operati ng i n bal ance.
Because the force of a compressi on spr i ng i ncreases as i t l owers, pressure when the val ves
fi r st crack i s l ess than when they are passi ng a l arge vol ume or ful l fl ow. The di fference
between a ful l fl ow and cr acki ng pressur e i s cal l ed over ri de.
Figure 5-1. Valves
FM 5-499
5-2 Valves
a. Relief Valves. Rel i ef val ves ar e the most common type of pr essur e-contr ol val ves.
The r el i ef val ves functi on may var y, dependi ng on a system's needs. They can pr ovi de over -
l oad pr otecti on for ci rcui t components or l i mi t the for ce or tor que exer ted by a l i near actua-
tor or r otar y motor .
The i nter nal desi gn of al l r el i ef val ves i s basi cal l y si mi l ar . The val ves consi st of two sec-
ti ons: a body secti on contai ni ng a pi ston that i s retai ned on i ts seat by a spri ng(s), depend-
i ng on the model , and a cover or pi l ot-val ve secti on that hydraul i cal l y contr ol s a body
pi stons movement. The adjusti ng screw adjusts thi s contr ol wi thi n the range of the val ves.
Val ves that pr ovi de emer gency over l oad pr otecti on do not oper ate as often si nce other
val ve types ar e used to l oad and unl oad a pump. However , rel i ef val ves shoul d be cl eaned
regul ar l y by r educi ng thei r pressure adjustments to fl ush out any possi bl e sl udge deposi ts
that may accumul ate. Oper ati ng
under reduced pressur e wi l l cl ean
out sl udge deposi ts and ensur e that
the val ves operate properl y after the
pr essur e i s adjusted to i ts pr escri bed
setti ng.
(1) Si mpl e Type. Fi gur e 5-2
shows a si mpl e-type rel i ef val ve.
Thi s val ve i s i nstal l ed so that one
por t i s connected to the pr essur e l i ne
or the i nl et and the other por t to the
r eser voi r . The bal l i s hel d on i ts seat
by thr ust of the spri ng, whi ch can be
changed by turni ng the adjusti ng
scr ew. When pr essur e at the val ves
i nl et i s i nsuffi ci ent to over come
spr i ng for ce, the bal l r emai ns on i ts
seat and the val ve i s cl osed, pr event-
i ng fl ow through i t. When pr essur e
at the val ves i nl et exceeds the
adjusted spr i ng for ce, the bal l i s
forced off i ts seat and the val ve i s
opened. Li qui d fl ows fr om the pres-
sure l i ne through the val ve to the
reservoi r . Thi s di versi on of fl ow pr e-
vents fur ther pr essure i ncrease i n
the pr essure l i ne. When pressur e
decr eases bel ow the val ves setti ng,
the spri ng r eseats the bal l and the
val ve i s agai n cl osed.
The pr essure at whi ch a val ve fi r st begi ns to pass fl ow i s the cracki ng pressur e of a
val ve. The pr essure at whi ch a val ve passes i ts ful l -rated capaci ty i s the ful l -fl ow pressur e
of a val ve. Because of spri ng rate, a ful l -fl ow pr essur e i s hi gher than a cracki ng pressur e.
Thi s condi ti on i s referr ed to as pressur e overri de. A di sadvantage of a si mpl e-type r el i ef
val ve i s i ts rel ati vel y hi gh-pressur e overri de at i ts rated capaci ty.
Figure 5-2. Simple relief valve
FM 5-499
Valves 5-3
(2) Compound
Type. Fi gure 5-3
shows a compound-
type rel i ef val ve.
Passage C i s used
to keep the pi ston
i n hydraul i c bal -
ance when the
val ve's i nl et pr es-
sur e i s l ess than i ts
setti ng (di agram
A). The val ve set-
ti ng i s deter mi ned
by an adjusted
thr ust of spri ng 3
agai nst poppet 4.
When pr essur e at
the val ves i nl et
reaches the val ves
setti ng, pr essur e i n
passage D al so
ri ses to overcome the thr ust of spri ng 3. When fl ow thr ough passage C creates a suffi ci ent
pressur e drop to over come the thrust of spr i ng 2, the pi ston i s r ai sed off i ts seat (di agr am B).
Thi s al l ows fl ow to pass thr ough the di schar ge por t to the reser voi r and prevents further ri se
i n pr essur e.
b. Pressure-Reducing Valves. These val ves l i mi t pr essur e on a branch ci rcui t to a l esser
amount than requi red i n a mai n ci rcui t. For exampl e, i n a system, a branch-ci rcui t pr essur e
i s l i mi ted to 300 psi , but a mai n ci rcui t must operate at 800 psi . A rel i ef val ve i n a mai n ci r-
cui t i s adjusted to a setti ng above 800 psi to meet a mai n ci r cui t's r equi r ements. However , i t
woul d surpass a br anch-ci rcui t pr essure of 300 psi . Ther efore, besi des a rel i ef val ve i n a
mai n ci rcui t, a
pressur e-reduc-
i ng val ve must be
i nstal l ed i n a
branch ci rcui t
and set at 300
psi . Fi gur e 5-4
shows a pressur e-
reduci ng val ve.
I n a pr essure-
reduci ng val ve
(di agram A),
adjusti ng the
spri ngs compres-
si on obtai ns the
maxi mum br anch-
ci r cui t pr essur e.
The spr i ng al so
hol ds spool 1 i n
Figure 5-3. Compound relief valve
Figure 5-4. Pressure-reducing valve
FM 5-499
5-4 Valves
the open posi ti on. Li qui d from the mai n ci rcui t enter s the val ve at the i nl et por t C, fl ows
past the val ve spool , and enter s the br anch ci rcui t thr ough the outl et por t D. Pr essur e at
the outl et port acts through the passage E to the bottom of spool . I f the pr essure i s i nsuffi -
ci ent to over come the thrust of the spr i ng, the val ve r emai ns open.
The pr essur e at the outl et por t (di agram B) and under the spool exceeds the equi val ent
thrust of the spr i ng. The spool r i ses and the val ve i s parti al l y cl osed. Thi s i ncreases the
val ve's r esi stance to fl ow, cr eates a gr eater pr essur e dr op thr ough the val ve, and r educes the
pr essur e at the outl et por t. The spool wi l l posi ti on i tsel f to l i mi t maxi mum pr essur e at the
outl et por t r egar dl ess of pr essur e fl uctuati ons at the i nl et por t, as l ong as wor kl oad does not
cause back fl ow at the outl et por t. Back fl ow woul d cl ose the val ve and pr essure woul d
i ncr ease.
(1) X-Ser i es Type. Fi gur e 5-5 shows the i nter nal constructi on of an X-seri es pressur e-
reduci ng val ve. The two major assembl i es are an adjustabl e pi l ot-val ve assembl y i n the
cover , whi ch determi nes the operati ng pr essure of the val ve, and a spool assembl y i n the
body, whi ch r esponds to the acti on of the pi l ot val ve to l i mi t maxi mum pr essur e at the outl et
por t.
The pi l ot-val ve assembl y consi sts of a poppet 1, spri ng 2, and adjusti ng scr ew 3. The
posi ti on of the adjusti ng scr ew sets the spr i ng l oad on the poppet, whi ch deter mi nes the set-
ti ng of the val ve. The spool assembl y consi sts of spool 4 and spri ng 5. The spr i ng i s a l ow-
r ate spr i ng, whi ch tends to for ce the spool downwar d and hol d the val ve open. The posi ti on
of the spool deter mi nes the si ze of passage C.
Figure 5-5. X-series, pressure-reducing valve
FM 5-499
Valves 5-5
When pr essur e at the val ve i nl et (di agram A) does not exceed the pr essur e setti ng, the
val ve i s compl etel y open. Fl ui d passes fr om the i nl et to the outl et wi th mi ni mal r esi stance
i n the r ated capaci ty of the val ve. Passage D connects the outl et por t to the bottom of the
spool . Passage E connects the chamber s at each end of the spool . Fl ui d pr essur e at the out-
l et por t i s pr esent on both ends of the spool . When these pr essur es ar e equal , the spool i s
hydr aul i cal l y bal anced. The onl y effecti ve for ce on the spool i s the downwar d thrust of the
spri ng, whi ch posi ti ons the spool and tends to mai ntai n passage C at i ts maxi mum si ze.
When the pr essur e at the val ves outl et (di agr am B) appr oaches the pr essur e setti ng of
the val ve, the l i qui d's pr essure i n chamber H i s suffi ci ent to overcome the thrust of the
spr i ng and for ce the poppet off i ts seat. The pi l ot val ve l i mi ts the pr essur e i n chamber F.
Mor e pr essur e r i ses as the outl et pushes the spool upwar d agai nst the combi ned for ce of the
spri ng and the pr essure i n chamber F.
As the spool moves upwar d, i t r estr i cts the openi ng to cr eate a pr essur e dr op between
the i nl et and outl et por ts. Pr essur e at the outl et i s l i mi ted to the sum of the equi val ent
for ces of spri ngs 2 and 5. I n nor mal oper ati on, passage C never cl oses compl etel y. Fl ow
must pass through to meet any wor k requi rements on the l ow-pressur e si de of the val ve pl us
the fl ow requi red through passage E to mai ntai n the pressure dr op needed to hol d the spool
at the control posi ti on. Fl ow thr ough restri cted passage E i s conti nual when the val ve i s
control l i ng the reduced pressur e. Thi s fl ow i s out the drai n port and shoul d be returned
di r ectl y to the tank.
(2) XC-Ser i es Type. An
XC-ser i es pressure-reduci ng
val ve l i mi ts pr essure at the out-
l et i n the same way the X-ser i es
does when fl ow i s fr om i ts i nl et
por t to i ts outl et por t. An i nte-
gr al check val ve al l ows r ever se
fr ee fl ow fr om outl et to i nl et
port even at pressur es above the
val ve setti ng. However, the
same pressur e-reduci ng acti on
i s not pr ovi ded for thi s di r ecti on
of fl ow. Fi gur e 5-6 shows the
i nternal constructi on of an XC-
ser i es val ve.
c. Sequence Valves.
Sequence val ves contr ol the
oper ati ng sequence between two
branches of a ci rcui t. The
val ves ar e commonl y used to
regul ate an operati ng sequence
of two separ ate wor k cyl i nder s
so that one cyl i nder begi ns
stroki ng when the other com-
pl etes str oki ng. Sequence
val ves used i n thi s manner ensur e that ther e i s mi ni mum pr essur e equal to i ts setti ng on the
fi r st cyl i nder duri ng the subsequent operati ons at a l ower pressur e.
Figure 5-6. Internal construction of an XC-series
valve
FM 5-499
5-6 Valves
Fi gur e 5-7, di agram A, shows how to obtai n the oper ati on of a sequenci ng pr essur e by
adjusti ng a spr i ng's compressi on, whi ch hol ds pi ston 1 i n the cl osed posi ti on. Li qui d enters
the val ve at i nl et por t C, fl ows freel y past pi ston 1, and enter s the pr i mar y ci rcui t through
port D. When pr essure of the l i qui d fl owi ng thr ough the val ve i s bel ow the val ves setti ng,
the for ce acti ng upwar d on pi ston 1 i s l ess than the downwar d force of the spri ng 2. The pi s-
ton i s hel d down and the val ve i s i n the cl osed posi ti on.
When r esi stance i n
the pr i mar y ci rcui t
causes the pr essur e to
ri se so i t over comes the
force of spr i ng 2, pi ston 1
ri ses. The val ve i s then
open (Fi gur e 5-7, di a-
gr am B). Li qui d enter -
i ng the val ve can now
fl ow thr ough port E to
the secondar y ci rcui t.
Fi gur e 5-8 shows an
appl i cati on of a
sequence val ve. The
val ve i s set at a pr essur e
i n excess of that r equi r ed
to start cyl i nder 1 (pri -
mary cyl i nder ). I n i ts
Figure 5-7. Sequence valve
Figure 5-8. Application of sequence valve
FM 5-499
Valves 5-7
fi r st oper ati ng sequence, pump fl ow goes through por ts A and C (pri mary ports) to for ce cyl -
i nder 1 to stroke. The val ve stays cl osed because the pr essure of cyl i nder 1 i s bel ow the
val ves setti ng. When cyl i nder 1 fi ni shes str oki ng, fl ow i s bl ocked, and the system pr essur e
i nstantl y i ncreases to the val ve setti ng to open the val ve. Pump fl ow then starts cyl i nder 2
(secondary cyl i nder ).
Dur i ng thi s phase, the fl ow of pi l ot oi l thr ough the bal ance or i fi ce governs the posi ti on of
the mai n pi ston. Thi s pi ston thr ottl es fl ow to por t B (secondar y por t) so that pr essur e equal
to the val ve setti ng i s mai ntai ned on the pr i mar y ci r cui t duri ng movement of cyl i nder 2 at a
l ower pressur e. Back pressur e created by the resi stance of cyl i nder 2 cannot i nter fere wi th
the throttl i ng acti on because the secondary pressure bel ow the stem of the mai n pi ston al so
i s appl i ed thr ough the drai n hol e to the top of the stem and ther eby cancel ed out. When cyl -
i nder 2 i s r etr acted, the r eturn fl ow fr om i t bypasses the sequence val ve through the check
val ve.
d. Counterbalance Valves. A counter bal ance val ve al l ows free fl ow of fl ui d i n one di rec-
ti on and mai ntai ns a resi stance to fl ow i n another di recti on unti l a certai n pressure i s
reached. A val ve i s nor mal l y l ocated i n a l i ne between a di recti onal -contr ol val ve and an out-
l et of a ver ti cal l y mounted actuati ng cyl i nder , whi ch suppor ts wei ght or must be hel d i n posi -
ti on for a per i od of ti me. A
counter bal ance val ve ser ves as a
hydr aul i c resi stance to an actuat-
i ng cyl i nder . For exampl e, a
counter bal ance val ve i s used i n
some hydr aul i cal l y oper ated for k
l i fts. I t offer s a r esi stance to the
fl ow from an actuati ng cyl i nder
when a for k i s l ower ed. I t al so
hel ps suppor t a for k i n the up
posi ti on.
Fi gur e 5-9 shows a counter -
bal ance val ve. The val ve el ement
i s bal ance-spool val ve 4 that con-
si sts of two pi stons whi ch are per-
manentl y fi xed on ei ther end of
the shaft. The i nner pi ston areas
ar e equal ; ther efor e, pr essur e acts
equal l y on both ar eas regar dl ess
of the posi ti on of the val ve, and
has no effect on the movement of
the val ve, hence, the ter m bal -
anced. A smal l pi l ot pi ston i s
attached to the bottom of the
spool val ve.
When the val ve i s i n the
cl osed posi ti on, the top pi ston of
the spool val ve bl ocks di scharge
port 8. I f fl ui d fr om the actuati ng
Figure 5-9. Counterbalance valve
FM 5-499
5-8 Valves
uni t enter s i nl et por t 5, i t cannot fl ow through the val ve because di scharge por t 8 i s bl ocked.
However, fl ui d wi l l fl ow through the pi l ot passage 6 to the smal l pi l ot pi ston. As the pres-
sur e i ncr eases, i t acts on the pi l ot pi ston unti l i t over comes the pr eset pr essur e of spri ng 3.
Thi s for ces the spool up and al l ows the fl ui d to fl ow ar ound the shaft of the spool val ve and
out the di schar ge por t 8.
Dur i ng r ever se fl ow, the fl ui d enter s por t 8. Spri ng 3 for ces spool val ve 4 to the cl osed
posi ti on. The fl ui d pr essure overcomes the spri ng tensi on of check val ve 7. I t opens and
al l ows fr ee fl ow around the shaft of the spool val ve and out por t 5. The oper ati ng pr essur e of
the val ve can be adjusted by turni ng adjustment screw 1, whi ch i ncreases or decr eases the
tensi on of the spr i ng. Thi s adjustment depends on the wei ght that the val ve must suppor t.
Smal l amounts of fl ui d wi l l l eak around the top pi ston of the spool val ve and i nto the
ar ea ar ound spri ng 3. An accumul ati on woul d cause a hydr aul i c l ock on the top of the spool
val ve (si nce a l i qui d cannot be compr essed). Drai n 2 pr ovi des a passage for thi s fl ui d to fl ow
to por t 8.
e. Pressure Switches.
Pr essur e swi tches ar e
used i n vari ous appl i ca-
ti ons that r equi r e an adjus-
tabl e, pressure-actuated
el ectri cal swi tch to make or
br eak an el ectr i cal ci rcui t
at a pr edeter mi ned pres-
sur e. An el ectr i cal ci rcui t
may be used to actuate an
el ectri cal l y control l ed val ve
or control an el ectri c-
motor starter or a si gnal
l i ght. Fi gure 5-10 shows a
pr essur e swi tch. Li qui d,
under pr essur e, enter s
chamber A. I f the pr essur e
exceeds the adjusted pr es-
sur e setti ng of the spr i ng behi nd bal l 1, the bal l i s unseated. The l i qui d fl ows i nto chamber
B and moves pi ston 2 to the r i ght, actuati ng the l i mi t to make or br eak an el ectr i cal ci r cui t.
When pressure i n chamber A fal l s bel ow the setti ng of the spri ng behi nd bal l 1, the
spr i ng r eseats bal l 1. The l i qui d i n chamber B i s thr ottl ed past val ve 3 and bal l 4 because of
the acti on of the spri ng behi nd pi ston 2. The ti me requi red for the l i mi t swi tch to return to
i ts normal posi ti on i s deter mi ned by val ve 3s setti ng.
5-2. Directional-Control Valves. Di r ecti onal -contr ol val ves al so control fl ow di recti on.
However, they vary consi der abl y i n physi cal char acter i sti cs and operati on. The val ves may
be a
Poppet type, i n whi ch a pi ston or bal l moves on and off a seat.
Rotary-spool type, i n whi ch a spool r otates about i ts axi s.
Figure 5-10. Pressure switch
FM 5-499
Valves 5-9
Sl i di ng-spool type, i n whi ch a spool sl i des axi al l y i n a bor e. I n thi s type, a spool i s
often cl assi fi ed accordi ng to the fl ow condi ti ons created when i t i s i n the normal or
neutr al posi ti on. A cl osed-center spool bl ocks al l val ve por ts fr om each other when i n
the normal posi ti on. I n an open-center spool , al l val ve ports ar e open to each other
when the spool i s i n the normal posi ti on.
Di recti onal -contr ol val ves may al so be cl assi fi ed accordi ng to the method used to actuate
the val ve el ement. A poppet-type val ve i s usual l y hydraul i cal l y oper ated. A r otar y-spool
type may be manual l y (l ever or pl unger acti on), mechani cal l y (cam or tri p acti on), or el ectri -
cal l y (sol enoi d acti on) oper ated. A sl i di ng-spool type may be manual l y, mechani cal l y, el ectr i -
cal l y, or hydr aul i cal l y oper ated, or i t may be oper ated i n combi nati on.
Di recti onal -contr ol val ves may al so be cl assi fi ed accor di ng to the number of posi ti ons of
the val ve el ements or the total number of fl ow paths provi ded i n the extreme posi ti on. For
exampl e, a three-posi ti on, four-way val ve has two extreme posi ti ons and a center or neutral
posi ti on. I n each of the two extreme posi ti ons, ther e are two fl ow paths, maki ng a total of
four fl ow paths.
Spool val ves (see Fi gur e 5-11) ar e popul ar on moder n hydr aul i c systems because they
Can be pr eci si on-gr ound for fi ne-oi l meter i ng.
Can be made to handl e fl ows i n many di r ecti ons by addi ng extra l ands and oi l
por ts.
Stack easi l y i nto one compact contr ol package, whi ch i s i mportant on mobi l e sys-
tems.
Spool val ves, however , r equi r e good
mai ntenance. Di r ty oi l wi l l damage the
mati ng surfaces of the val ve l ands, causi ng
them to l ose thei r accuracy. Di r t wi l l cause
these val ves to sti ck or wor k er r ati cal l y.
Al so, spool val ves must be accur atel y
machi ned and fi tted to thei r bor es.
a. Poppet Valve. Fi gure 5-12, page 5-10,
shows a si mpl e poppet val ve. I t consi sts
pri mari l y of a movabl e poppet that cl oses
agai nst a val ve seat. Pr essur e fr om the
i nl et tends to hol d the val ve ti ghtl y cl osed.
A sl i ght for ce appl i ed to the poppet stem
opens the poppet. The acti on i s si mi l ar to
the val ves of an automobi l e engi ne. The
poppet stem usual l y has an O-ri ng seal to
prevent l eakage. I n some val ves, the pop-
pets are hel d i n the seated posi ti on by
spri ngs. The number of poppets i n a val ve
depends on the pur pose of the val ve.
Figure 5-11. Spool valve
FM 5-499
5-10 Valves
b. Sliding-Spool Valve. Fi gure 5-13 shows a
sl i di ng-spool val ve. The val ve el ement sl i des back
and for th to bl ock and uncover ports i n the housi ng.
Someti mes cal l ed a pi ston type, the sl i di ng-spool
val ve has a pi ston of whi ch the i nner areas ar e equal .
Pr essur e fr om the i nl et por ts acts equal l y on both
i nner pi ston ar eas r egar dl ess of the posi ti on of the
spool . Seal i ng i s done by a machi ne fi t between the
spool and val ve body or sl eeve.
c. Check Valves. Check val ves are the most commonl y used i n fl ui d-powered systems.
They al l ow fl ow i n one di r ecti on and pr event fl ow i n the other di recti on. They may be
i nstal l ed i ndependentl y i n a l i ne, or they may be i ncor porated as an i ntegr al part of a
sequence, counterbal ance, or pressur e-reduci ng val ve. The val ve el ement may be a sl eeve,
cone, bal l , poppet, pi ston, spool , or di sc. For ce of the movi ng fl ui d opens a check val ve; back-
fl ow, a spri ng, or gravi ty cl oses the val ve. Fi gur es 5-14, 5-15 and 5-16 show vari ous types of
check val ves.
(1) Standard Type (Fi gur e 5-17, page 5-12). Thi s val ve may be a r i ght-angl e or an i n-
l i ne type, dependi ng on the r el ati ve l ocati on of the por ts. Both types oper ate on the same
pri nci pl e. The val ve consi sts essenti al l y of a poppet or bal l 1 hel d on a seat by the for ce of
spr i ng 2. Fl ow di r ected to the i nl et por t acts agai nst spri ng 2 to unseat poppet 1 and open
the val ve for through fl ow (see Fi gur e 5-17, di agram B, for both val ve types). Fl ow enter i ng
the val ve through the outl et por t combi nes wi th spri ng acti on to hol d poppet 1 on i ts seat to
check r ever se fl ow.
These val ves ar e avai l abl e wi th vari ous cr acki ng pr essur es. Conventi onal appl i cati ons
usual l y use the l i ght spri ng because i t ensures reseati ng the poppet r egardl ess of the val ve's
Figure 5-12. Operation of a sim-
ple poppet valve
Figure 5-13. Operation of sliding-spool,
directional-control valve
FM 5-499
Valves 5-11
mounti ng posi ti on. Heavy
spri ng uni ts ar e gener al l y used
to ensur e the avai l abi l i ty of at
l east the mi ni mum pr essur e
r equi r ed for pi l ot oper ati ons.
(2) Restri cti on Type (Fi g-
ur e 5-18, page 5-12). Thi s
val ve has or i fi ce pl ug 1 i n the
nose of poppet 2, whi ch makes
i t di ffer ent fr om a conven-
ti onal , r i ght-angl e check val ve.
Fl ow di r ected to the i nl et por t
opens the val ve, al l owi ng fr ee
fl ow through the val ve.
Rever se fl ow di r ected i n through
the outl et por t seats poppet 2.
Fl ow i s r estr i cted to the amount
of oi l , whi ch can be al ter ed, to
al l ow a sui tabl e bl eed when the
poppet i s cl osed. Uses of a
r estri cti on check val ve can be to
contr ol the l ower i ng speed of a
down-movi ng pi ston and the
r ate of decompr essi on i n l ar ge
pr esses.
(3) Pi l ot-Operated Type
(Fi gur e 5-19, page 5-13). I n di a-
gram A, the val ve has poppet 1
seated on stati onary sl eeve 2 by
spri ng 3. Thi s val ve opens the same as a
conventi onal check val ve. Pressur e at the
i nl et por ts must be suffi ci ent to over come
the combi ned for ces of any pr essur e at the
outl et por t and the l i ght thr ust of spri ng 3
so that poppet 1 r ai ses and al l ows fl ow
from the i nl et ports through the outl et
por t. I n thi s si tuati on, ther e i s no pr essur e
r equi r ed at the pi l ot por t.
I n di agr am B, the val ve i s cl osed to
prevent rever se fl ow. Pr essure at the out-
l et por t and the thrust of spr i ng 3 hol d pop-
pet 1 on i ts seat to bl ock the fl ow. I n thi s
case, the pi l ot por t has no pr essur e.
I n di agr am C, pr essure appl i ed at the
pi l ot por t i s suffi ci ent to over come the
thrust of spr i ng 3. The net for ces exer ted
Figure 5-14. Swing-type check valve
Figure 5-15. Vertical check valve
Figure 5-16. Spring-loaded check valve
FM 5-499
5-12 Valves
A
B
Figure 5-17. Standard check valve
Figure 5-18. Restriction check valve
FM 5-499
Valves 5-13
by pressur es at the other ports rai se pi ston 4 to unseat poppet 1 and al l ow control l ed fl ow
fr om the outl et to the i nl et por ts. Wi th no pr essur e at the i nl et por ts, pi l ot pr essur e must
exceed 40 per cent of that i mposed at outl et to open the poppet.
Fi gur e 5-20 shows another pi l ot-oper ated check val ve. Thi s val ve consi sts of poppet 1
secured to pi ston 3. Poppet 1 i s hel d agai nst seat 4 by the acti on of spri ng 2 on pi ston 3. I n
di agr am A, the val ve i s i n the free-fl ow posi ti on. Pressure at the i nl et port, acti ng downward
agai nst poppet 1, i s suffi ci ent to overcome the combi ned forces of spr i ng 2 agai nst pi ston 3
and the pr essur e, i f any, at the outl et por t. (The pr essur e at the outl et por t i s exer ted over a
gr eater effecti ve ar ea than that at the i nl et because of the poppet stem.) The drai n post i s
open to the tank, and ther e i s no pr essur e at the pi l ot por t. Di agram B shows the val ve i n a
posi ti on to pr event r ever se fl ow, wi th no pr essur e at the pi l ot por t and the drai n openi ng to
the tank.
Figure 5-19. Pilot-operated check valve
Figure 5-20. Pilot-operated check valve, second type
FM 5-499
5-14 Valves
Di agram C shows the pi l ot oper ati on of the val ve. When suffi ci ent pr essur e i s appl i ed at
the pi l ot port to overcome the thrust of spri ng 2 pl us the net effect of pressur e at the other
por ts, poppet 1 i s unseated to al l ow r ever se fl ow. Pi l ot pr essur e must be equal to about 80
per cent of that i mposed at the outl et por t to open the val ve and al l ow r ever se fl ow.
d. Two-Way Valve. A two-way val ve i s general l y used to control the di recti on of fl ui d
fl ow i n a hydraul i c ci r cui t and i s a sl i di ng-spool type. Fi gure 5-21 shows a two-way, sl i di ng-
spool , di recti onal -contr ol val ve. As the spool moves back and for th, i t ei ther al l ows or pre-
vents fl ui d fl ow through the val ve. I n ei ther shi fted posi ti on i n a two-way val ve, a pr essur e
por t i s open to one cyl i nder por t, but the opposi te cyl i nder por t i s not open to a tank. A tank
port on thi s val ve i s used pri mari l y for drai ni ng.
e. Four-Way Valves. Four-way, di r ecti onal -control val ves are used to control the di r ec-
ti on of fl ui d fl ow i n a hydraul i c ci rcui t, whi ch contr ol s the di recti on of movement of a work
cyl i nder or the r otati on of a fl ui d motor . These val ves are usual l y the sl i di ng-spool type. A
typi cal four-way, di r ecti onal -control val ve has four ports:
One pr essur e por t i s connected to a pr essur e l i ne.
One r eturn or exhaust por t i s connected to a r eser voi r .
Two wor ki ng por ts ar e connected, by l i nes, to an actuati ng uni t.
Four-way val ves consi st of a r ectan-
gul ar cast body, a sl i di ng spool , and a way
to posi ti on a spool . A spool i s pr eci si on-
fi tted to a bor e through the l ongi tudi nal
axi s of a val ves body. The l ands of a spool
di vi de thi s bor e i nto a ser i es of separ ate
chamber s. Por ts i n a val ves body l ead
i nto a chamber so that a spool 's posi ti on
deter mi nes whi ch por ts ar e open to each
other and whi ch ones ar e seal ed off fr om
each other . Por ts that ar e seal ed off fr om
each other i n one posi ti on may be i nter -
connected i n another posi ti on. Spool posi -
ti oni ng i s accompl i shed manual l y,
mechani cal l y, el ectri cal l y, or hydraul i -
cal l y or by combi ng any of the four .
Fi gur e 5-22 shows how the spool posi -
ti on determi nes the possi bl e fl ow condi -
ti ons i n the ci rcui t. The four ports ar e
mar ked P, T, A, and B: P i s connected to
the fl ow sour ce; T to the tank; and A and
B to the r especti ve por ts of the wor k cyl i n-
der , hydr aul i c motor , or some other val ve
i n the ci rcui t. I n di agr am A, the spool i s
i n such a posi ti on that por t P i s open to
por t A, and por t B i s open to por t T. Por ts
A and B ar e connected to the por ts of the
cyl i nder , fl ow through por t P, and cause
Figure 5-21. Two-way valve
FM 5-499
Valves 5-15
the pi ston of the cyl i nder to move to the r i ght. Retur n fl ow fr om the cyl i nder passes thr ough
por ts B and T. I n di agram B, por t P i s open to por t B, and the pi ston moves to the l eft.
Retur n fl ow from the cyl i nder passes thr ough ports A and T.
Tabl e 5-1, page 5-16, l i sts some of the cl assi fi cati ons of di r ecti onal -control val ves. These
val ves coul d be i denti fi ed accor di ng to the
Number of spool posi ti ons.
Number of fl ow paths i n the extreme posi ti ons.
Fl ow pattern i n the center or crossover posi ti on.
Method of shi fti ng a spool .
Method of provi di ng spool return.
(1) Poppet-Type Val ve. Fi gure 5-23, page 5-16, shows a typi cal four-way, poppet-type,
di r ecti onal -control val ve. I t i s a manual l y operated val ve and consi sts of a group of conven-
ti onal spri ng-l oaded poppets. The poppets ar e encl osed i n a common housi ng and are i nter -
connected by ducts so as to di rect the fl ui d fl ow i n the desi red di recti on.
The poppets ar e actuated by cams on the camshaft. They ar e arr anged so that the
shaft, whi ch i s rotated by i ts contr ol l i ng l ever, wi l l open the cor rect poppet combi nati ons to
di r ect the fl ui d fl ow through the desi red l i ne to the actuati ng uni t. At the same ti me, fl ui d
wi l l be di r ected from the opposi te l i ne of the actuati ng uni t through the val ve and back to the
r eser voi r or exhausted to the atmospher e.
Figure 5-22. Flow conditions in a circuit
FM 5-499
5-16 Valves
Spri ngs hol d the poppets to thei r
seats. A camshaft unseats them to
al l ow fl ui d fl ow thr ough the val ve.
The camshaft i s control l ed by movi ng
the handl e. The val ve i s oper ated by
movi ng the handl e manual l y or by
connecti ng the handl e, by mechani cal
l i nkage, to a contr ol handl e. On the
camshaft ar e thr ee O-ri ng packi ngs
to pr event i nter nal and external l eak-
age. The camshaft has two l obes
(rai sed porti ons). The contour
(shape) of these l obes i s such that
when the shaft i s pl aced i n the neu-
tral posi ti on, the l obes wi l l not touch
any of the poppets.
Figure 5-23. Working view of poppet-type, four-
way valve
Table 5-1. Classifications of directional-control valves
Classification Description
Path-of-flow type Two way
Four way
Allows a total of two possible flow paths in two
extreme spool positions
Allows a total of four possible flow paths in two
extreme spool positions
Control type Manual operated
Pilot operated
Solenoid operated
Solenoid controlled, pilot oper-
ated
Hand lever is used to shift the spool.
Hydraulic pressure is used to shift the spool.
Solenoid action is used to shift the spool.
Solenoid action is used to shift the integral pilot
spool, which directs the pilot flow to shift the main
spool.
Position type Two position
Three position
Spool has two extreme positions of dwell.
Spool has two extreme positions plus one interme-
diate or center position.
Spring type Spring offset
No spring
Spring centered
Spring action automatically returns the spool to the
normal offset position as soon as shifter force is
released. (Spring offset is always a two-way
valve.)
Spool is not spring-loaded; it is moved only by
shifter force, and it remains where it is shifted (may
be two- or three-position type, but three-position
type uses detent).
Spring action automatically returns the spool to the
center position as soon as the shifter force is
released. (Spring-centered is always a three-
position valve.)
Spool type Open center
Closed center
Tandem center
Partially closed center
Semi-open center
These are five of the more common spool types.
They refer to the flow pattern allowed when the
spool is in the center position (three-position
valves) or in the cross-over position (two-position
valves).
FM 5-499
Valves 5-17
One cam l obe oper ates the two pr essur e poppets; the other l obe oper ates the two r eturn/
exhaust poppets. To stop the r otati ng camshaft at the exact posi ti on, a stop pi n i s secur ed to
the body and extended thr ough a cutout secti on of the camshaft fl ange. Thi s stop pi n pr e-
vents over tr avel by ensur i ng that the cam l obes stop r otati ng when the poppets have
unseated as hi gh as they can go.
Fi gur e 5-23 shows a wor ki ng vi ew of a poppet-type, four-way val ve. The camshaft
r otates by movi ng the contr ol handl e i n ei ther di r ecti on fr om neutr al . The l obes r otate,
unseati ng one pr essur e poppet and one r eturn/exhaust poppet. The val ve i s now i n a wor k-
i ng posi ti on. Pressur e fl ui d, enteri ng the pr essure port, travel s through the ver ti cal fl ui d
passages i n both pr essur e poppet seats. Si nce onl y one pr essur e poppet i s unseated by the
cam l obe, the fl ui d fl ows past the open poppet to the i nsi de of the poppet seat. I t then fl ows
out one wor ki ng por t and to the actuati ng uni t. Return fl ui d fr om the actuati ng uni t enter s
the other wor ki ng por t. I t then fl ows thr ough the di agonal fl ui d passages, past the unseated
r eturn poppet, thr ough the ver ti cal fl ui d passages, and out the r eturn/exhaust por t. By
rotati ng the camshaft i n the opposi te di r ecti on unti l the stop pi n hi ts, the opposi te pressur e
and return poppets are unseated, and the fl ui d fl ow i s reversed. Thi s causes the actuati ng
uni t to move i n the opposi te di r ecti on.
(2) Sl i di ng-Spool Val ve. The four-way, sl i di ng-spool , di recti onal -control val ve i s si mpl e
i n operati on pri nci pl e and i s pr obabl y the most durabl e and tr oubl e free of al l four-way,
di r ecti onal -control val ves i n current use. Fi gur e 5-24 shows a typi cal four-way, sl i di ng-
spool , di r ecti onal -contr ol val ve. The val ve body contai ns four fl ui d por ts: pr essur e, r eturn/
exhaust, and two wor ki ng por ts (r efer r ed to as cyl i nder por ts). A hol l ow steel sl eeve fi ts i nto
the mai n bor e of the body. Ar ound the outsi de di ameter of the sl eeve ar e O-ri ng gaskets.
These O-ri ngs for m a seal between the sl eeve and the body.
I n Fi gur e 5-24, di agr am A, the val ve i s at the far r i ght i n i ts cyl i nder . Li qui d fr om the
pump fl ows to the ri ght end of the cyl i nder por t, whi l e l i qui d fr om the l eft end r eturns to the
reservoi r. I n di agram C, the si tuati on i s r everse. The pi ston i s to the far l eft i n i ts cyl i nder.
Li qui d fr om the pump fl ows to the l eft end of the cyl i nder por t, whi l e l i qui d fr om the r i ght
end r etur ns to the reservoi r. I n di agram B, the pi ston i s i n an i ntermedi ate posi ti on. Fl ow
thr ough the val ve from the pump i s shut off, and both ends of the cyl i nder can dr ai n to the
Figure 5-24. Schematic of a four-way, directional-control, sliding-spool valve
FM 5-499
5-18 Valves
r eser voi r unl ess other val ves ar e set to contr ol the fl ow.
I n a closed-center spool val ve, a pi ston i s sol i d, and al l passages through a val ve ar e bl ocked
when a pi ston i s center ed i n i ts cyl i nder (see Fi gur e 5-24, di agram B). A cl osed-center val ve
i s used when a si ngl e pump or an accumul ator per for ms mor e than one oper ati on and wher e
ther e must be no pressur e l oss i n shi fti ng a str oke di r ecti on at a wor k poi nt.
I n an open-center spool val ve, the spool s on a pi ston ar e sl otted or channel ed so that al l
passages ar e open to each other
when a pi ston i s center ed (see Fi gur e
5-25). I n some open-center val ves,
passages to a cyl i nder por t ar e
bl ocked when a val ve i s center ed and
l i qui d fr om a pump i s carri ed
through a pi ston and out the other
si de of a val ve to a r eser voi r (see Fi g-
ur e 5-26). Li qui d must be carri ed to
both ends of a pi ston of a di recti onal
val ve to keep i t bal anced. I nstead of
di schar gi ng i nto a r eser voi r when a
val ve i s center ed, l i qui d may be
di r ected to other val ves so that a set
of oper ati ons i s per for med i n
sequence.
Open-center val ves are used
when a work cyl i nder does not have
to be hel d i n posi ti on by pr essur e and
wher e power i s used to per for m a si n-
gl e oper ati on. These val ves al so
avoi d shock to a system when a val ve
spool i s moved from one posi ti on to
another, si nce i n the i ntermedi ate
Figure 5-25. Closed-center spool valve
Figure 5-26. Open-center spool valve
FM 5-499
Valves 5-19
posi ti on, pr essure i s temporar i l y rel i eved by l i qui d passi ng from a pump di r ectl y to the r es-
ervoi r .
(3). Manual l y Oper ated Four -Way Val ve. Thi s val ve i s used to contr ol the fl ow di r ecti on
manual l y. A spool i s shi fted by oper ati ng a hand l ever (Fi gur e 5-27, page 5-20). I n a spr i ng-
offset model , a spool i s normal l y i n an extr eme out posi ti on and i s shi fted to an extreme i n
posi ti on by movi ng a l ever toward a val ve. Spr i ng acti on automati cal l y r etur ns both spool
and l ever to the normal out posi ti on when a l ever i s rel eased. I n a two-posi ti on, no-spr i ng
model , a spool i s shi fted back to i ts or i gi nal posi ti on. (Fi gur e 5-27 does not show thi s val ve.)
I n a three-posi ti on no-spr i ng model , a detent (a devi se whi ch l ocks the movement) retai ns a
spool i n any one of the thr ee sel ected posi ti ons after l ever force i s r el eased. I n a thr ee-posi -
ti on, spri ng-center ed model , a l ever i s used to shi ft a spool to ei ther extr eme posi ti on away
fr om the center . Spr i ng acti on automati cal l y r etur ns a spool to the center posi ti on when a
l ever i s r el eased.
(4) Pi l ot-Operated, Four-Way Val ve. Thi s type of val ve i s used to contr ol the fl ow di rec-
ti on by usi ng a pi l ot pressure. Fi gure 5-28, page 5-21, shows two uni ts i n whi ch the spool i s
shi fted by appl yi ng the pi l ot pr essur e at ei ther end of the spool . I n the spri ng-offset model ,
the spool i s hel d i n i ts normal offset posi ti on by spri ng thrust and shi fted to i ts other posi ti on
by appl yi ng pi l ot pressur e to the fr ee end of the spool . Removi ng pi l ot pressur e shi fts the
spool back to i ts normal offset posi ti on. A detent does not hol d thi s val ve, so pi l ot pressur e
shoul d be mai ntai ned as l ong as the val ve i s i n the shi fted posi ti on.
(5) Sol enoi d-Oper ated, Two- and Four -Way Val ves. These val ves ar e used to contr ol the
di r ecti on of hydr aul i c fl ow by el ectri cal means. A spool i s shi fted by energi zi ng a sol enoi d
that i s l ocated at one or both ends of the spool . When a sol enoi d i s ener gi zed, i t for ces a push
r od agai nst the end of a spool . A spool shi fts away fr om the sol enoi d and towar d the opposi te
end of the val ve body (see Fi gur e 5-29, page 5-21). I n a spr i ng-offset model , a si ngl e sol enoi d
shi fts a spri ng-l oaded spool . When a sol enoi d i s deener gi zed, a spr i ng r etur ns a spool to i ts
ori gi nal posi ti on.
5-3. Flow-Control Valves. Fl ow-contr ol val ves are used to contr ol an actuators speed by
meteri ng fl ow. Meteri ng i s measuri ng or regul ati ng the fl ow rate to or from an actuator . A
water faucet i s an exampl e of a fl ow-control val ve. Fl ow r ate vari es as a faucet handl e i s
tur ned cl ockwi se or counter cl ockwi se. I n a cl osed posi ti on, fl ow stops. Many fl ow-contr ol
val ves used i n fl ui d-power ed systems ar e si mi l ar i n desi gn and oper ati on to a water faucets.
I n hydr aul i c ci r cui ts, fl ow-contr ol val ves ar e gener al l y used to contr ol the speed of
hydr aul i c motor s and wor k spi ndl es and the tr avel r ates of tool heads or sl i des. Fl ow-contr ol
val ves i ncor por ate an i ntegral pr essur e compensator , whi ch causes the fl ow r ate to r emai n
substanti al l y uni form regardl ess of changes i n workl oad. A nonpr essure, compensated fl ow
control , such as a needl e val ve or fi xed r estr i cti on, al l ows changes i n the fl ow r ate when
pressur e drop through i t changes.
Vari ati ons of the basi c fl ow-contr ol val ves are the fl ow-contr ol -and-check val ves and the
fl ow-control -and-over l oad r el i ef val ves. Model s i n the fl ow-control -and-check-val ve seri es
i ncor porate an i ntegral check val ve to al l ow rever se free fl ow. Model s i n the fl ow-contr ol -
and-overl oad-rel i ef-val ve seri es i ncorpor ate an i ntegr al rel i ef val ve to l i mi t system pressur e.
Some of these val ves ar e gasket-mounted, and some are panel -mounted.
FM 5-499
5-20 Valves
Figure 5-27. Shifting spool by hand lever
FM 5-499
Valves 5-21
a. Gate Valve. I n thi s type of val ve, a wedge or gate contr ol s the fl ow. To open and cl ose
a passage, a handwheel moves a wedge or gate up and down acr oss a fl ow l i ne. Fi gur e 5-30,
page 5-22, shows the pr i nci pal el ements of a gate val ve. Ar ea A shows the l i ne connecti on
and the outsi de str uctur e of the val ve; ar ea B shows the wedge or gate i nsi de the val ve and
the stem to whi ch the gate and the handwheel ar e attached. When the val ve i s opened, the
gate stands up i nsi de
the bonnet wi th i ts
bottom fl ush wi th the
wal l of the l i ne. When
the val ve i s cl osed, the
gate bl ocks the fl ow by
standi ng strai ght
acr oss the l i ne wher e i t
rests fi r ml y agai nst
the two seats that
extend compl etel y
around the l i ne.
A gate val ve
al l ows a strai ght fl ow
and offer s l i ttl e or no
resi stance to the fl ui d
fl ow when the val ve i s
compl etel y open.
Someti mes a gate
val ve i s i n the par ti al l y
open posi ti on to
restri ct the fl ow rate.
Figure 5-28. Spool shifted by pilot pressure
Pressure
In
Return Return
Valve
spool
Solenoid 2 Solenoid 1
Actuator
Figure 5-29. Solenoid-operated, sliding-spool, directional-
control valve
FM 5-499
5-22 Valves
However, i ts mai n use i s i n the ful l y open or ful l y
cl osed posi ti ons. I f the val ve i s l eft partl y open, the
val ve's face stands i n the fl ui d fl ow, whi ch wi l l act on
the face and cause i t to er ode.
b. Globe Valve. A di sc, whi ch i s scr ewed di r ectl y
on the end of the stem, i s the contr ol l i ng member of a
gl obe val ve. A val ve i s cl osed by l ower i ng a di sc i nto a
val ve seat. Si nce fl ui d fl ows equal l y on al l si des of the
center of suppor t when a val ve i s open, there i s no
unbal anced pr essure on a di sc to cause uneven wear .
Fi gure 5-31 shows a gl obe val ve.
c. Needle Valve. A needl e val ve i s si mi l ar i n
desi gn and oper ati on to a gl obe val ve. I nstead of a
di sc, a needl e val ve has a l ong, taper ed poi nt at the
end of a val ve stem. Fi gur e 5-32 shows a secti onal
vi ew of a needl e val ve. A l ong taper al l ows a needl e
val ve to open or cl ose gradual l y. A needl e val ve i s
used to contr ol fl ow
I nto del i cate gauges, whi ch coul d be dam-
aged i f hi gh-pressure fl ui d was suddenl y
del i ver ed.
At the end of an operati on when wor k
moti on shoul d hal t sl owl y.
At other poi nts wher e pr eci se fl ow adjust-
ments ar e necessary.
At poi nts wher e a smal l fl ow r ate i s desi r ed.
Control
wheel
B
A
Seal
Bonnet
Gate
Control
screw
Seat
Figure 5-30. Cross section of a
gate valve
Control screw
Disc
Seat
Figure 5-31. Operation of a globe valve
Closed
Open
Figure 5-32. Sectional view of a
needle valve
FM 5-499
Valves 5-23
d. Restrictor. A restri ctor i s used i n l i qui d-powered
systems to l i mi t the movement speed of cer tai n actu-
ati ng devi ces by l i mi ti ng fl ow rate i n a l i ne. Fi gure 5-
33 shows a fi xed restr i ctor. Fi gure 5-34 shows a var i -
abl e r estr i ctor , whi ch var i es the r estr i cti on amount
and i s a modi fi ed needl e val ve. Thi s val ve can be pr e-
adjusted to al ter the oper ati ng ti me of a parti cul ar
subsystem. Al so, i t can be adjusted to meet the
requi rements of a parti cul ar system.
e. Orifice Check Valve. Thi s val ve i s used in li qui d-
power ed systems to al l ow nor mal speed of oper ati on
i n one di recti on and l i mi ted speed i n
another . Fi gur e 5-35 shows two or i fi ce
check val ves.
f. Flow Equalizer. A fl ow equal -
i zer (fl ow di vi der) i s used i n some
hydr aul i c systems to synchroni ze the
oper ati on of two actuati ng uni ts. An
equal i zer di vi des a si ngl e str eam of
fl ui d from a di r ecti onal -contr ol val ve
i nto two equal str eams. Each actuat-
i ng uni t r ecei ves the same fl ow r ate;
both move i n uni son. When the two
str eams of r etur n fl ui d oper ate i n oppo-
si te di r ecti ons, a fl ow equal i zer com-
bi nes them at an equal r ate. Thus, a
fl ow equal i zer synchroni zes the actuat-
i ng uni ts' movements dur i ng both
operati onal di recti ons.
Fi gur e 5-36, page 5-24, shows one
type of fl ow equal i zer ; the valve is i n the
spl i tti ng (di vi ded-fl ow) posi ti on. Fl ui d,
under pressure from the di recti onal -
control val ve, enters por t 3. Thi s pres-
sure overcomes spri ng tensi on and
Figure 5-33. Fixed restrictor
Adjusting
screw
Bonnet
Figure 5-34. Variable restrictor
Inlet
Inlet
Outlet
Outlet
3
4
2
1
5
A
B
1. Outlet port 4. Inlet port
2. Cone 5. Orifice
3. Orifice
Figure 5-35. Orifice check valve
FM 5-499
5-24 Valves
Figure 5-36. Flow equalizer
FM 5-499
Valves 5-25
for ces pl ug 4 down and uncover s the two or i fi ces i n sl eeve 2. The fl ui d then spl i ts and shoul d
fl ow equal l y thr ough si de passages 1 and 5. The fl ui d fl ows thr ough
Spl i tti ng check val ves 7 and 15.
Meter i ng gr ooves 10 and 14.
Por ts 9 and 13.
The connecti ng l i nes to the actuati ng cyl i nder s.
Any di fference i n the fl ow rate between the two passages r esul ts i n a pressure di fferen-
ti al between these two passages. Fr ee-fl oati ng meter i ng pi ston 11 shi fts to equal i ze the
i nternal pressur e, equal i zi ng the fl ow.
5-4. Valve Installation. Si nce a fl ow-contr ol val ve meter s fl ow i n one di recti on onl y, the
i nl et and outl et por ts must be cor r ectl y connected i n a ci r cui t i n r el ati on to the fl ow di r ecti on
to be meter ed. A val ve's dr ai n connecti on must be pi ped to a tank so that a connecti on wi l l
not be subjected to possi bl e pr essur e surges. The l ocati on of a fl ow-contr ol val ve wi th
r espect to wor kl oad has an affect on a ci rcui t's oper ati ng character i sti cs. The thr ee basi c
types of fl ow-contr ol -
val ve i nstal l ati ons
are the meter-i n,
meter-out, and bl eed-
off ci r cui ts.
a. Meter-I n Cir-
cuit (Fi gure 5-37).
Wi th thi s ci r cui t, a
fl ow-control val ve i s
i nstal l ed i n a pres-
sur e l i ne that l eads to
a wor k cyl i nder . Al l
fl ow enter i ng a wor k
cyl i nder i s fi r st
meter ed through a
fl ow-control val ve.
Si nce thi s meter i ng
acti on i nvol ves reduc-
i ng fl ow from a pump
to a wor k cyl i nder , a
pump must del i ver
mor e fl ui d than i s
r equi r ed to actuate a cyl i nder at the desi r ed speed. Excess fl ui d r eturns to a tank thr ough a
r el i ef val ve. To conser ve power and avoi d undue str ess on a pump, a r el i ef val ves setti ng
shoul d be onl y sl i ghtl y hi gher than a wor ki ng pr essur es, whi ch a cyl i nder r equi r es.
A meter -i n ci rcui t i s i deal i n appl i cati ons wher e a l oad al ways offer s a posi ti ve r esi s-
tance to fl ow duri ng a contr ol l ed str oke. Exampl es woul d be feedi ng gri nder tabl es, wel di ng
machi nes, mi l l i ng machi nes, and r otary hydr aul i c motor dri ves. A fl ow-contr ol -and-check
val ve used i n thi s type of ci rcui t woul d al l ow r ever se fr ee fl ow for the r etur n str oke of a cyl i n-
der , but i t woul d not pr ovi de contr ol of r etur n str oke speed.
Figure 5-37. Typical meter-in circuit
FM 5-499
5-26 Valves
b. Meter-Out
Circuit (Fi gur e 5-38,
page 5-26). Wi th a
meter -out ci rcui t, a
fl ow-control val ve i s
i nstal l ed on the
return si de of a cyl -
i nder so that i t con-
tr ol s a cyl i nder 's
actuati on by meter-
i ng i ts di scharge
fl ow. A r el i ef val ve
i s set sl i ghtl y above
the operati ng pres-
sur e that i s requi red
by the type of wor k.
Thi s type of ci r-
cui t i s i deal for over-
haul i ng l oad
appl i cati ons i n whi ch a wor kl oad tends to pul l an operati ng pi ston faster than a pump's
del i ver y woul d warr ant. Exampl es woul d be for dri l l i ng, reami ng, bori ng, tur ni ng, thread-
i ng, tappi ng, cutti ng off, and col d sawi ng machi nes. A fl ow-contr ol -and-check val ve used i n
thi s ci rcui t woul d al l ow rever se free fl ow, but i t woul d not provi de a control of return stroke
speed.
c. Bleed-Off Circuit. A typi cal bl eed-off ci r cui t i s not i nstal l ed di rectl y i n a feed l i ne. I t
i s Td i nto thi s l i ne wi th i ts outl et connected to a return l i ne. A val ve regul ates fl ow to a cyl -
i nder by di ver ti ng an adjustabl e por ti on of a pumps fl ow to a tank. Si nce fl ui d del i ver ed to a
wor k cyl i nder does not have to pass thr ough a fl ow-control val ve, excess fl ui d does not have
to be dumped through a rel i ef val ve. Thi s type of ci rcui t usual l y i nvol ves l ess heat genera-
ti on because pressur e on a pump equal s the work r esi stance duri ng a feed operati on.
d. Compensated Flow. The fl ow-contr ol val ves pr evi ousl y di scussed do not compensate
for changes i n fl ui d temperatur e or pressure and are consi dered noncompensati ng val ves.
Fl ow rate through these val ves can var y at a fi xed setti ng i f ei ther the pr essur e or the fl ui d's
temper ature changes. Vi scosi ty i s the i nternal resi stance of a fl ui d that can stop i t fr om
fl owi ng. A l i qui d that fl ows easi l y has a hi gh vi scosi ty. Vi scosi ty changes, whi ch can resul t
from temper ature changes, can cause l ow var i ati ons thr ough a val ve. Such a val ve can be
used i n l i qui d-powered systems where sl i ght fl ow vari ati ons ar e not cri ti cal consi derati on
factor s.
However, some systems r equi r e extremel y accurate contr ol of an actuati ng devi ce. I n
such a system, a compensated fl ow-control val ve i s used. Thi s val ve automati cal l y changes
the adjustment or pressur e dr op acr oss a restri cti on to pr ovi de a constant fl ow at a gi ven set-
ti ng. A val ve meter s a constant fl ow regar dl ess of vari ati on i n system pressur e. A compen-
sated fl ow-control val ve i s used mai nl y to meter fl ui d fl owi ng i nto a ci rcui t; however, i t can
be used to meter fl ui d as i t l eaves a ci rcui t. For cl ari ty, thi s manual wi l l refer to thi s val ve
as a fl ow r egul ator .
Figure 5-38. Typical meter-out circuit
FM 5-499
Valves 5-27
5-5. Valve Failures and Remedies. Hydraul i c val ves are preci si on-made and must be
very accurate i n control l i ng a fl ui ds pressure, di recti on, and vol ume wi thi n a system. Gen-
eral l y, no packi ngs ar e used on val ves si nce l eakage i s sl i ght, as l ong as the val ves are care-
ful l y fi tted and kept i n good condi ti on.
Contami nants, such as di rt i n the oi l , are the major pr obl ems i n val ve fai l ures. Smal l
amounts of di r t, l i nt, r ust, or sl udge can cause annoyi ng mal functi ons and extensi vel y dam-
age val ve par ts. Such mater i al wi l l cause a val ve to sti ck, pl ug smal l openi ngs, or abrade the
mati ng sur faces unti l a val ve l eaks. Any of these condi ti ons wi l l r esul t i n poor machi ne
oper ati on, or even compl ete stoppage. Thi s damage may be el i mi nated i f oper ator s use car e
i n keepi ng out di r t.
Use onl y the speci fi ed oi l s i n a hydr aul i c system. Fol l ow the r ecommendati ons i n a
machi nes oper ator 's manual . Because oxi dati on pr oduces rust par ti cl es, use an oi l that wi l l
not oxi di ze. Change the oi l and ser vi ce the fi l ter s r egul arl y.
a. Servicing Valves. Do the fol l owi ng befor e ser vi ci ng a val ve:
Di sconnect the el ectr i cal power sour ce befor e r emovi ng a hydraul i c val ves compo-
nents. Doi ng so el i mi nates star ti ng the equi pment acci dental l y or shor ti ng out
the tool s.
Move a val ve's contr ol l ever i n al l di r ecti ons to r el ease the systems hydraul i c
pressur e before di sconnecti ng any hydr aul i c val ve components.
Bl ock up or l ower al l hydraul i c worki ng uni ts to the ground befor e di sconnecti ng
any par ts.
Cl ean a val ve and i ts surr oundi ng area befor e r emovi ng any par t for servi ce. Use
steam-cl eani ng equi pment i f avai l abl e; however , do not al l ow water to enter a sys-
tem. Be certai n that al l hose and l i ne connecti ons are ti ght.
Use fuel oi l or other sui tabl e sol vents to cl ean wi th i f steam cl eani ng i s not possi -
bl e. However , never use pai nt thi nner or acetone. Pl ug the por t hol es i mmedi -
atel y after di sconnecti ng the l i nes.
b. Disassembling Valves. Do the fol l owi ng when di sassembl i ng a val ve:
Do not per form servi ce wor k on a hydr aul i c val ves i nter i or on the shop fl oor , on
the ground, or wher e ther e i s danger of dust or di r t bei ng bl own i nto the par ts.
Use onl y a cl ean bench area. Be certai n that al l tool s ar e cl ean and free of grease
and di r t.
Be careful to i denti fy the parts when di sassembl i ng for l ater r eassembl y. Spool s
are sel ecti vel y fi tted to val ve bodi es and must be returned to those same bodi es.
You must reassembl e the val ve secti ons i n the same order .
CAUTION
Be very careful when removing a backup plug on a
spring-loaded valve. Personal injury could result.
FM 5-499
5-28 Valves
Be ver y car eful when you have to cl amp a val ve housi ng i n a vi se. Do not damage
the component. I f possi bl e, use a vi se equi pped wi th l ead or br ass jaws, or pr otect
the component by wrappi ng i t i n a pr otecti ve coveri ng.
Make sur e that you seal al l the val ve's housi ng openi ngs when you remove the
components duri ng ser vi ce wor k. Doi ng so wi l l pr event for ei gn mater i al fr om
enter i ng the housi ng.
Use a pr ess to r emove spri ngs that ar e under hi gh pr essur e.
Wash al l val ve components i n a cl ean mi ner al -oi l sol vent (or other noncorrosi ve
cl eaner). Dry the parts wi th compressed ai r, and pl ace them on a cl ean surface
for i nspecti on. Do not wi pe a val ve wi th waste paper or rags. Li nt deposi ts on
any par ts may enter the hydraul i c system and cause tr oubl e.
Do not use carbon tetr achl or i de as a cl eani ng sol vent; i t can deter i or ate the r ub-
ber seal s.
Coat the par ts wi th a r ust-i nhi bi ti ng hydrau-
l i c oi l i mmedi atel y after cl eani ng and dryi ng
them. Make sur e to keep the par ts cl ean and
free from moi stur e unti l you rei nstal l them.
I nspect the val ve spri ngs careful l y when di s-
assembl i ng them. Repl ace al l the spri ngs
that show si gns of bei ng cocked or cr ooked or
ones that contai n broken, fractured, or rusty
coi l s.
Use a spr i ng tester to check the str ength of
the spr i ngs, i n pounds, compr essed to a spec-
i fi ed l ength (see Fi gur e 5-39).
c. Repairing Valves. The fol l owi ng par agraphs
addr ess r epai r of di r ecti onal -contr ol , vol ume-contr ol ,
and pr essur e-contr ol val ves:
(1) Di recti onal -Contr ol Val ves. Di recti onal -con-
tr ol -val ve spool s are i nstal l ed i n the val ve housi ng by a
sel ect hone fi t. Thi s i s done to provi de the cl osest possi -
bl e fi t between a housi ng and a spool for mi ni mum
i nternal l eakage and maxi mum hol di ng qual i ti es. To
make thi s cl ose fi t, you woul d need speci al factor y tech-
ni ques and equi pment. Therefore, most val ve spool s
and bodi es ar e furni shed for servi ce onl y i n matched sets and ar e not avai l abl e i ndi vi dual l y
for repl acement.
When r epai ri ng these val ves, i nspect the val ve spool s and bor es for burr s and scor i ng as
shown i n Fi gur e 5-40. The spool s may become coated wi th i mpuri ti es from the hydraul i c oi l .
When scori ng or coati ng i s not deep enough to cause a l eakage pr obl em, pol i sh the sur faces
wi th cr ocus cl oth. Do not r emove any of the val ve mater i al . Repl ace a val ves body and spool
i f scor i ng or coati ng i s excessi ve. I f a val ves acti on was er r ati c or sti cky befor e you r emoved
i t, i t may be unbal anced because of wear on the spool s or body; r epl ace the val ve.
Figure 5-39. Spring tester
FM 5-499
Valves 5-29
(2) Vol ume-Control Val ve. On val ve spool s
wi th or i fi ces, i nspect for cl oggi ng fr om di r t or
other for ei gn matter (see Fi gur e 5-41). Cl ean a
val ve wi th compr essed ai r or a smal l wi r e.
Rewash al l the par ts thor oughl y to r emove al l
emer y or metal par ti cl es. Any such abr asi ves
coul d qui ckl y damage an enti re hydr aul i c sys-
tem. Check a val ve spool for fr eedom of move-
ment i n a bor e. When l i ghtl y oi l ed, a val ve
shoul d sl i de i nto a bor e from i ts own wei ght.
(3) Pr essur e-Contr ol Val ve (Fi gur e 5-42).
Check for a weak r el i ef-val ve spr i ng wi th a
spr i ng tester i f system checks have i ndi cated
l ow pressur e. You can remedy thi s by repl aci ng
a spr i ng or by addi ng shi ms to i ncrease the com-
pressi on of a spri ng, i n some cases. Never add
so many shi ms that a spri ng i s compr essed sol i d.
(4) Val ve Seats and Poppets. Check the
val ve seats for possi bl e l eakage by scor i ng.
Repl ace a val ve i f fl at spots appear on a seat or
on the poppets. You can surface pol i sh the
metal val ve seats and poppets i f the scor i ng i s
not deep. Do not r emove any val ve mater i al .
Some seats and val ve poppets ar e made of
nyl on, whi ch i s l ong wear i ng and el asti c enough
to confor m per fectl y to mati ng surfaces, gi vi ng a
ti ght seal . The nyl on seats on the poppet val ves
wi l l take wear , wi th no damage to the mati ng
metal poi nt. When r epai ri ng these val ves,
al ways repl ace the nyl on parts wi th new nyl on
servi ce parts.
(5) Nonadjustabl e, Cartri dge-Type Rel i ef
Val ves. I f a r el i ef val ve's screen or or i fi ce
becomes pl ugged, oi l cannot enter i ts body to
equal i ze the pressure i n an area between an
or i fi ce pl ate and a pi l ot assembl y (see Fi gur e 5-
43, page 5-30). Thi s pl uggi ng causes a val ve to
open at l ower pressures than i t shoul d. The
resul t i s sl uggi sh oper ati ng hydraul i c uni ts.
Keep a r el i ef val ve's screen and ori fi ce cl ean at
al l ti mes. Al so check the O-ri ngs for damage,
whi ch mi ght cause l eakage.
Each rel i ef val ve's cartri dge i s stamped wi th
a par t number , a pr essur e l i mi t, and the date of
manufactur e (see Fi gur e 5-44, page 5-30). Use
Inspect seal
for leakage.
Check for
scoring
on lands.
Inspect for burring
of edges.
Look for coating
in this area.
Figure 5-40. Valve inspection
Check orifice
for clogging.
Inspect valve
spool for scoring.
Inspect
spring.
Check for burring
at edges of ports.
Figure 5-41. Volume-control valve
Check mating
seats.
Look for scoring
on valve.
Inspect for burring
in housing bore.
Figure 5-42. Pressure-control valve
FM 5-499
5-30 Valves
thi s code when testi ng the cartri dges. Test a
val ve's cartri dges for pressur e setti ng by
i nstal l i ng them i n a system and oper ati ng i t
unti l you r each the val ve's openi ng pres-
sur e. Read the pr essur e on a gauge that i s
i nstal l ed i n a val ve's ci rcui t.
5-6. Valve Assembly. Do the fol l owi ng
when assembl i ng val ves:
Ensure that the val ves ar e cl ean.
Wash thei r parts i n kerosene, bl ow
dry them wi th ai r , and then di p them
i n hydraul i c oi l wi th r ust i nhi bi tor to
prevent r usti ng. Doi ng so wi l l ai d i n
assembl y and provi de i ni ti al l ubri ca-
ti on. You can use petr ol eum jel l y to
hol d the seal i ng ri ngs i n pl ace duri ng
assembl y.
Doubl e check to make sur e that a val ve's mati ng surfaces ar e fr ee of bur rs and pai nt.
Repl ace al l the seal s and gaskets when r epai ri ng a val ve assembl y. Soak the new
seal s and gaskets i n cl ean hydraul i c oi l befor e assembl i ng. Doi ng so wi l l prevent
damage and hel p seal a val ves par ts.
Make sur e that you i nsert a val ves spool s i n thei r matched bor es. You must assem-
bl e a val ves secti ons i n thei r correct order .
Make sur e that there i s no di stor ti on when mounti ng val ves. Di storti on can be
caused by uneven tensi on on the mounti ng bol ts and oi l -l i ne fl anges, uneven mount-
i ng surfaces, i mproper val ve l ocati on, or i nsuffi ci ent al l owance for l i ne expansi on
when the oi l temper atur e r i ses. Any of these coul d r esul t i n val ve-spool bi ndi ng.
Check the acti on of a val ves spool s
after you ti ghten the bol ts. I f ther e
i s any sti cki ng or bi ndi ng, adjust the
tensi on of the mounti ng bol ts.
5-7. Troubleshooting Valves. Li sted
bel ow ar e areas that you can di agnose i n
hydraul i c val ves. When worki ng on a spe-
ci fi c machi ne, r efer to a machi ne's techni cal
manual for mor e i nformati on.
a. Pressure-Control Valves. The fol l ow-
i ng l i sts i nformati on when troubl eshooti ng
rel i ef, pressur e-reduci ng, pr essure-
sequence, and unl oadi ng val ves:
(1) Rel i ef Val ves. Consi der the fol l ow-
i ng when tr oubl eshooti ng r el i ef val ves
because they have l ow or errati c pr essur e:
Check screen
for clogging.
Inspect O-rings
for damage.
Inspect for
clogged orifice.
Check seats
for damage.
Figure 5-43. Cartridge-type relief valve
Part number
Pressure limit
Date of manufacture
Figure 5-44. Readings on a cartridge-type
relief valve
FM 5-499
Valves 5-31
Adjustment i s i ncor r ect.
Di r t, chi p, or bur r s ar e hol di ng the val ve par ti al l y open.
Poppets or seats ar e wor n or damaged.
Val ve pi ston i n the mai n body i s sti cki ng.
Spri ng i s weak.
Spri ng ends ar e damaged.
Val ve i n the body or on the seat i s cocki ng.
Or i fi ce or bal ance hol d i s bl ocked.
Consi der the fol l owi ng when troubl eshooti ng r el i ef val ves because they have no pr es-
sur e:
Or i fi ce or bal ance hol e i s pl ugged.
Poppet does not seat.
Val ve has a l oose fi t.
Val ve i n the body or the cover bi nds.
Spri ng i s broken.
Di rt, chi p, or burr s are hol di ng the val ve parti al l y open.
Poppet or seat i s worn or damaged.
Val ve i n the body or on the seat i s cocki ng.
Consi der the fol l owi ng when troubl eshooti ng r el i ef val ves because they have excessi ve
noi se or chatter :
Oi l vi scosi ty i s too hi gh.
Poppet or seat i s faul ty or worn.
Li ne pr essure has excessi ve return.
Pr essur e setti ng i s too cl ose to that of another val ve i n the ci r cui t.
An i mpr oper spri ng i s used behi nd the val ve.
Consi der the fol l owi ng when troubl eshooti ng r el i ef val ves because you cannot adjust
them proper l y wi thout getti ng excessi ve system pr essur e:
Spri ng i s broken.
Spri ng i s fati gued.
Val ve has an i mproper spri ng.
Dr ai n l i ne i s r estr i cted.
Consi der the fol l owi ng when troubl eshooti ng r el i ef val ves because they mi ght be over-
heati ng the system:
Oper ati on i s conti nuous at the r el i ef setti ng.
Oi l vi scosi ty i s too hi gh.
Val ve seat i s l eaki ng.
FM 5-499
Valves 5-32
(2) Pressure-Reduci ng Val ves. Consi der the fol l owi ng when troubl eshooti ng pressure-
reduci ng val ves because they have er rati c pressure:
Di rt i s i n the oi l .
Poppet or seat i s worn.
Or i fi ce or bal ance hol e i s r estri cted.
Val ve spool bi nds i n the body.
Dr ai n l i ne i s not open fr eel y to a r eser voi r .
Spri ng ends ar e not squar e.
Val ve has an i mproper spri ng.
Spri ng i s fati gued.
Val ve needs an adjustment.
Spool bore i s worn.
(3) Pressure-Sequence Val ves. Consi der the fol l owi ng when troubl eshooti ng pr essure-
sequence val ves because the val ve i s not functi oni ng proper l y:
I nstal l ati on was i mpr oper .
Adjustment was i mpr oper .
Spri ng i s br oken.
For ei gn matter i s on a pl unger seat or i n the or i fi ces.
Gasket i s l eaky or bl own.
Dr ai n l i ne i s pl ugged.
Val ve cover s are not ti ghtened proper l y or are i nstal l ed wrong.
Val ve pl unger i s worn or scor ed.
Val ve-stem seat i s worn or scor ed.
Or i fi ces ar e too l ar ge, whi ch causes a jerky operati on.
Bi ndi ng occurs because movi ng par ts are coated wi th oi l i mpur i ti es (due to over-
heati ng or usi ng i mproper oi l ).
Consi der the fol l owi ng when troubl eshooti ng pressur e-sequence val ves because ther e i s
a pr ematur e movement to the secondary oper ati on:
Val ve setti ng i s too l ow.
An excessi ve l oad i s on a pr i mary cyl i nder .
A hi gh i ner ti a l oad i s on a pr i mary cyl i nder .
Consi der the fol l owi ng when troubl eshooti ng pressur e-sequence val ves because ther e i s
no movement or the secondary oper ati on i s sl ow:
Val ve setti ng i s too hi gh.
Rel i ef-val ve setti ng i s too cl ose to that of a sequence val ve.
Val ve spool bi nds i n the body.
FM 5-499
Valves 5-33
(4) Unl oadi ng Val ves. Consi der the fol l owi ng when troubl eshooti ng th ese val ves
because a val ve fai l s to compl etel y unl oad a pump:
Val ve setti ng i s too hi gh.
Pump does not bui l d up to the unl oadi ng val ve pr essur e.
Val ve spool bi nds i n the body.
b. Directional-Control Valves. Di recti onal -contr ol val ves i ncl ude spool , rotar y, and
check val ves. Consi der the fol l owi ng when tr oubl eshooti ng these val ves because there i s
faul ty or i ncompl ete shi fti ng:
Contr ol l i nkage i s wor n or i s bi ndi ng.
Pi l ot pressur e i s i nsuffi ci ent.
Sol enoi d i s burned out or faul ty.
Center i ng spri ng i s defecti ve.
Spool adjustment i s i mpr oper .
Consi der the fol l owi ng when troubl eshooti ng di recti onal -control val ves because the
actuati ng cyl i nder cr eeps or dr i fts:
Val ve spool i s not center i ng pr oper l y.
Val ve spool i s not shi fted compl etel y.
Val ve-spool body i s wor n.
Leakage occurs past the pi ston i n a cyl i nder .
Val ve seats ar e l eaki ng.
Consi der the fol l owi ng when troubl eshooti ng di recti onal -control val ves because a cyl i n-
der l oad drops wi th the spool i n the centered posi ti on:
Li nes fr om the val ve housi ng ar e l oose.
O-r i ngs on l ockout spri ngs or pl ugs are l eaki ng.
Lockout spr i ng i s br oken.
Rel i ef val ves ar e l eaki ng.
Consi der the fol l owi ng when troubl eshooti ng di recti onal -control val ves because a cyl i n-
der l oad drops sl i ghtl y when i t i s rai sed:
Check-val ve spr i ng or seat i s defecti ve.
Spool val ve's posi ti on i s adjusted i mpr operl y.
Consi der the fol l owi ng when troubl eshooti ng di recti onal -contr ol val ves because the oi l
heats (cl osed-center systems):
Val ve seat l eaks (pr essure or return ci r cui t).
Val ves ar e not adjusted properl y.
c. Volume-Control Valves. Vol ume-contr ol val ves i ncl ude fl ow-control and fl ow-di vi der
val ves. Consi der the fol l owi ng when tr oubl eshooti ng these val ves because ther e ar e vari a-
ti ons i n fl ow:
FM 5-499
Valves 5-34
Val ve spool bi nds i n the body.
Cyl i nder or motor l eaks.
Oi l vi scosi ty i s too hi gh.
Pressure drop i s i nsuffi ci ent across a val ve.
Oi l i s di rty.
Consi der the fol l owi ng when troubl eshooti ng vol ume-control val ves because of err ati c
pr essur e:
Val ve's poppet or seat i s wor n.
Oi l i s di rty.
Consi der the fol l owi ng when troubl eshooti ng vol ume-control val ves because of i mpr oper
fl ow:
Val ve was not adjusted properl y.
Val ve-pi ston tr avel i s restr i cted.
Passages or ori fi ce i s r estri cted.
Val ve pi ston i s cocked.
Rel i ef val ves l eak.
Oi l i s too hot.
Consi der the fol l owi ng when troubl eshooti ng vol ume-control val ves because the oi l
heats:
Pump speed i s i mpr oper .
Hydraul i c functi ons ar e hol di ng i n rel i ef.
Connecti ons ar e i ncorrect.
FM 5-499
Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting 6-1
CHAPTER 6
Circuit Diagrams and
Troubleshooting
Hydraulic-circuit diagrams are complete drawings of a hydraulic circuit. I ncluded in
the diagrams is a description, a sequence of operations, notes, and a components list. Accu-
rate diagrams are essential to the designer, the people who build the machine, and the person
who repairs it. Hydraulic mechanisms are precision units, and their continued smooth oper-
ation depends on frequent inspection and servicing. Personnel must maintain the equipment
and system by performing frequent inspections and servicing. The systems must be kept
clean, with the oil and filters changed at established intervals.
6-1. Hydraulic-Circuit Diagrams. The four types of hydraul i c-ci r cui t di agrams ar e bl ock,
cutaway, pi ctori al , and graphi cal . These di agrams show the
Components and how they wi l l i nter act.
Manufacturi ng engi neer and assembl er how to connect the components.
Fi el d techni ci an how the system wor ks, what each component shoul d be doi ng,
and wher e the oi l shoul d be goi ng so that the techni ci an can di agnose and r epai r
the system.
a. Block Diagram. A bl ock di agram shows the components wi th l i nes between the
cl ocks, whi ch i ndi cate connecti ons and/or i nter acti ons.
b. Cutaway Diagram. A cutaway di agram shows the i nternal constr ucti on of the com-
ponents as wel l as the fl ow paths. Because the di a-
gr am uses col or s, shades, or var i ous patter ns i n the
l i nes and passages, i t can show the many di fferent
fl ow and pr essure condi ti ons.
c. Pictorial Diagram. A pi ctor i al di agram shows
a ci rcui ts pi pi ng arrangement. The components are
seen exter nal l y and ar e usual l y i n a cl ose reproduc-
ti on of thei r actual shapes and si zes.
d. Graphical Diagram. A graphi cal di agram
(Fi gur e 6-1), the short-hand system of the i ndustr y,
i s usual l y prefer red for desi gn and tr oubl eshooti ng.
Si mpl e geometri c symbol s represent the components
and thei r contr ol s and connecti ons.
6-2. United States of American Standards Insti-
tute (USASI) Graphical Symbols. The USASI , the ol d Ameri can Standards Associ ati on
(ASA), and the Joi nt I ndustr y Conference (JI C) are three systems of symbol s used i n ci rcui t
di agr ams. Thi s manual uses the USASI symbol s shown i n Fi gure 6-2, pages 6-2 and 6-3.
Steering circuit
Lift
circuit
Double
pump
Reservoir
Figure 6-1. Graphical-circuit
diagram
FM 5-499
6-2 Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting
Figure 6-2. USASI graphical symbols
FM 5-499
Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting 6-3
Figure 6-2. USASI graphical symbols (continued)
FM 5-499
6-4 Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting
a. Reservoir. The symbol for a r eser -
voi r i s a r ectangl e; the hori zontal si de i s
the l ongest si de (see Fi gur e 6-3). I f a r es-
er voi r i s vented to the atmospher e, the
top of the symbol i s open. I f a r eser voi r
i s pr essuri zed, the top i s cl osed. Li nes
that connect to a r eser voi r usual l y ar e
dr awn fr om the top, r egar dl ess of wher e
they connect. I f the l i ne ter mi nates
bel ow the fl ui d l evel , i t i s dr awn to the
bottom of the symbol . A l i ne connected
to the bottom of a r eser voi r may be
dr awn fr om the bottom of the symbol , i f
the bottom connecti on i s essenti al to the
system's oper ati on. For exampl e, when
the pump's i nl et must be charged or fl ooded by a posi ti ve head of oi l above the i nl et's port,
they woul d be posi ti oned above the pump symbol and the sucti on l i ne drawn out the bottom
of the symbol . Every reservoi r has at l east two hydraul i c l i nes connected to i t; some have
mor e. The r eser voi r i s usual l y the onl y component pi ctur ed mor e than once so that compo-
nents and return or drai n l i nes to and from the reservoi r are represented cor rectl y.
b. Lines. Fi gur e 6-4 shows the symbol s for hydr aul i c l i nes, whi ch ar e as fol l ows:
Worki ng l i ne: A sol i d l i ne that represents a hydraul i c pi pe, tube, hose, or other
conductor that carri es the l i qui d between components.
Pi l ot l i ne: Long dashes that represent control l i nes.
Dr ai n l i ne: Short dashes that r epresent the dr ai n l i nes for l eaki ng oi l .
Fl exi bl e l i ne: A sol i d, arced l i ne that i s dr awn between two dots whi ch represents
a fl exi bl e l i ne i n the system.
Fi gure 6-5, di agram A, shows crossed l i nes
that ar e not connected. Systems 1 and 2 r epr e-
sent two ways to i ndi cate an i nter secti on, one
wi th a l oop, one wi thout a l oop. Di agr am B
shows l i nes that ar e connected. The l i nes i n
system 1 use a dot at the cr ossi ng, i ndi cati ng
that l oops ar e used to desi gnate the cr ossi ng.
The l i nes i n system 2 do not use a dot at the
crossi ng, i ndi cati ng that l oops are not used at
the cr ossi ng.
c. Pump. The basi c symbol of a pump i s a
ci r cl e wi th a bl ack tri angl e i n the ci rcl e poi nt-
i ng outwar d (see Fi gur e 6-6). The pr essur e l i ne
fr om the pump i s drawn fr om the ti p of the tr i angl e; the sucti on l i ne i s drawn opposi te i t.
The tr i angl e i ndi cates the fl ow di r ecti on. I f a pump i s r ever si bl e, i t wi l l have two tr i angl es,
one poi nti ng out of each por t. Por t connecti ons to the pump (or any other component except
the r eser voi r ) ar e at the poi nts wher e the l i nes touch the symbol s. A vari abl e (or adjustabl e)
component i s desi gnated by an ar r ow drawn thr ough the components at a 45-degr ee angl e.
Vented
reservoir
Pressurized
reservoir
Line terminating
above fluid level
Line terminating
below fluid level
Figure 6-3. Reservoir symbols
Working line
Pilot line
Drain line
Flexible line
Figure 6-4. Hydraulic line symbols
FM 5-499
Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting 6-5
d. Motor. Motor symbol s ar e ci rcl es wi th
bl ack tr i angl es poi nti ng i nward, i ndi cati ng that
the motor r ecei ves pr essur e ener gy (see Fi gur e
6-7, page 6-6). One tri angl e i ndi cates a nonre-
ver si bl e motor ; two tr i angl es i ndi cate a r ever s-
i bl e motor. Fl ow di r ecti on i n a si ngl e tri angl e
i s the way the tri angl e poi nts. I n the rever si bl e
motor, studyi ng the pump and val ve symbol s i s
the way to tr ace the fl ow di recti on. The arrows
that are outsi de the l i nes show the fl ow di r ec-
ti on, whi ch i s al ways away from the pump's
pr essur e por t and i nto the motor por t that i s
connected to the pr essur e l i ne. The opposi te
por t then di scharges back to the tank.
e. Cylinder. The basi c cyl i nder symbol i s a
si mpl e r ectangl e (a barr el ) and a T-shaped fi g-
ure (a pi ston and a rod). The symbol can be
drawn i n any posi ti on. The fol l owi ng descr i bes
four di fferent cyl i nder symbol s (see Fi gure 6-8,
page 6-6):
Si ngl e-acti ng cyl i nder : One hydraul i c
l i ne drawn to the basi c cyl i nder symbol ;
the end opposi te the por t i s open.
Doubl e-acti ng cyl i nder : Both ends of
the symbol ar e cl osed; two l i nes meet
the basi c cyl i nder symbol at the por t
connecti ons.
Doubl e-end rod cyl i nder: A r od l i ne
extends fr om each end of the basi c cyl i n-
der symbol .
Cushi oned cyl i nder : Smal l r ectangl es
ar e pl aced agai nst the pi ston l i ne. I f the
cushi on has an adjustabl e or i fi ce, a
sl anted arrow i s dr awn acr oss the sym-
bol . There i s no symbol for fl ow di rec-
ti on, so l i nes must be watched to see
wher e they ar e connected, whi ch shoul d
hel p deter mi ne fl ow.
f. Pressure-Control Valves. The basi c symbol
is a squar e wi th exter nal por t connecti ons and
an ar r ow i nsi de to show the fl ow di r ecti on (see
Fi gur e 6-9, page 6-6). Thi s val ve oper ates by
bal anci ng the pump outl et to the r eser voi r .
System 1
to loop
System 2
not to loop
Nonconnecting lines
A
System 1 to dot
System 2 not to dot
Connecting lines
B
Figure 6-5. Crossing lines A and B
Fixed displacement
Variable
displacement
(simplified)
Variable displacement
pressure compensated
(complete)
Reversible with
lever control
Figure 6-6. Pump symbols
FM 5-499
6-6 Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting
(1) Rel i ef Val ve (Fi gure 6-10). The r el i ef
val ve's symbol goes between the pr essure l i ne and
the tank. The fl ow-di recti on arr ow poi nts away
from the pr essure-l i ne port and toward the tank
por t. When pr essur e i n the system over comes the
val ve spri ng, fl ow i s from the pr essure port to the
tank por t.
(2) Sequence Val ve (Fi gur e 6-11). A sequence
val ve uses the r el i ef val ve. However , the i nl et
por t i s connected to a pr i mary cyl i nder l i ne; the
outl et por t i s connected to the secondar y cyl i nder
l i ne. Pi l ot pressure fr om the pri mar y cyl i nder
l i ne sequences the fl ow to the outl et por t when i t
reaches the val ve's setti ng. Si nce the sequence
val ve i s external l y drai ned, a drai n connecti on i s
added to the symbol at the drai n's l ocati on i n the
val ve.
(3) Check Val ve (Fi gur e 6-12, page 6-8). A
check val ve uses a sequence val ve for free return
fl ow when the cyl i nder s ar e r ever sed. I n Fi gur e
6-12, di agr am A shows the val ves as separ ate
uni ts. Di agr am B shows the check val ve bui l t i nto
the sequence val ve. The box around the val ves i s
an encl osur e, whi ch shows the l i mi ts of a compo-
nent or an assembl y that contai ns mor e than one
component. The encl osur e i s an al ter nate l ong
and short dashed l i ne. External ports ar e
assumed to be on the encl osure l i ne and i ndi cate
connecti ons to the components.
Valves
Valves
Nonreversible
motor
Reversible
motor
Figure 6-7. Motor symbols
Ports
Double-acting
Port Port
or
Single-acting
Double end rod
Adjustable Nonadjustable
Cushioned
Figure 6-8. Cylinder symbols
Inlet
Inlet
Spring
Pilot
pressure
Outlet Outlet
NORMALLY
CLOSED
NORMALLY
OPEN
Figure 6-9. Pressure-control-valve
symbols
FM 5-499
Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting 6-7
(4) Counter bal ance Val ve (Fi gur e 6-
13, page 6-8). A counter bal ance val ve i s
a normal l y cl osed pressur e-control wi th
an i ntegral check valve. A di r ectly con-
troll ed val ve uses the same symbol as i n
Fi gure 6-13, wi th the pr i mar y port con-
nected to the bottom por t of the cyl i nder
and the secondar y por t to the di rec-
ti onal val ve. The val ve i s dr ai ned i nter -
nal l y, so the symbol shows no drai n
connecti on. I f the val ve body has two
pri mary por ts, the symbol shoul d show
one of them pl ugged.
(5) Pressur e-Reduci ng Val ve. Fi g-
ure 6-14, page 6-9 shows the nor mal l y
opened pressur e-reduci ng val ve. The
symbol shows the outl et pr essure oppo-
si te the spri ng to modul ate or shut off
the fl ow when the val ve setti ng i s
reached.
g. Flow-Control Valves. Fi gure 6-15,
page 6-9, shows the symbol s for the
basi c fl ow-contr ol, adjustabl e and nonad-
justabl e val ves. The fi gur e al so shows
the symbol for a compl etel y adjustabl e,
pr essur e-compensated, fl ow-contr ol
val ve wi th a bui l t-i n bypass.
h. Directional-Control Valves. A
di r ecti onal -control -val ve symbol uses a
mul ti pl e envel ope system that has a
separ ate r ectangl e for each posi ti on. Al l
the por t connecti ons ar e made to the
envel ope, whi ch shows the neutral con-
di ti on of the val ve. Arrows i n each
envel ope show the fl ow paths when the
val ve shi fts to that posi ti on.
(1) Unl oadi ng Val ve (Fi gur e 6-16,
page 6-9). The symbol for thi s val ve has
two envel opes. I n the nor mal l y cl osed
posi ti on, fl ow i s shown bl ocked i nsi de
the val ve. The spri ng contr ol i s pl aced
adjacent to thi s envel ope, i ndi cati ng
that the spr i ng contr ol s thi s posi ti on.
The exter nal pi l ot pr essur e i s pl aced
agai nst the bottom envel ope, i ndi cati ng
the fl ow condi tion when the pi l ot pressure
Pressure line
Pump Relief valve
Figure 6-10. Relief-valve symbol
Relief valve Pump
Directional valve
Sequence valve
To primary
cylinder
To secondary
cylinder
Drain
Figure 6-11. Sequence-valve symbol
FM 5-499
6-8 Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting
A - SEPARATE UNITS
B - INTEGRAL SEQUENCE
AND CHECK
Directional
valve
Sequence
valve
To primary
cylinder
No-flow
direction
Free-flow
direction
To secondary
cylinder
Check
valve
Pump
Relief valve
Component enclosure
Figure 6-12. Check-valve symbol
Plugged
port
To directional valve
Enclosure
Counterbalance
and check valve
Figure 6-13. Counterbalance-valve symbol
FM 5-499
Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting 6-9
takes over . I f the l ower envel ope wer e super i mposed on the top envel ope, the symbol woul d
show that the fl ow path's ar r ow connects the pump outl et to the r eser voi r .
(2) Ordi nary Four-Way Val ve (Fi gur e 6-17, page 6-10). I f thi s val ve i s a two-posi ti on
val ve, the symbol wi l l have two envel opes. I f the val ve has a center posi ti on, the symbol wi l l
have thr ee envel opes. The actuati ng-contr ol symbol s ar e pl aced at the ends of the envel opes.
The extreme envel opes show the fl ow condi ti ons when thei r adjacent control s are actuated.
(3) Mobi l e Di r ecti onal -Val ve Secti on (Fi gur e 6-18, page 6-10). The symbol for thi s val ve
secti on resembl es a four-way-val ve symbol ; however , i t has added connecti ons and fl ow
paths to r epr esent the bypass passage. Ther e i s a separate envel ope for each fi ni te posi ti on,
and connecti ons are shown to the center or neutral posi ti on. The symbol shows a manual
l ever contr ol wi th center i ng spri ngs at
each end.
i . Accessories. The symbol for a fl ui d
condi ti oner i s a square (Fi gure 6-19,
page 6-11) that i s turned 45 degrees and
has the por t connecti ons to the cor ner s.
A dotted l i ne at r i ght angl es to the por t
connecti ons i ndi cates that the condi -
ti oner i s a fi l ter or str ai ner . A cool er
symbol has a sol i d l i ne at a ri ght angl e to
the fl ui d l i ne wi th energy tri angl es (i ndi -
cati ng heat) poi nti ng out. An accumul a-
tor (Fi gur e 6-20, page 6-11) symbol i s an
oval , wi th added i nsi de detai l s to i ndi -
cate spri ng l oad, gas charge, or other fea-
tur es.
Reduced-pressure outlet
Figure 6-14. Pressure-reducing-valve
symbol
Nonadjustable
Adjustable
Figure 6-15. Flow-control-valve symbol
From pump
To pilot-pressure
source
Figure 6-16. Unloading-valve symbol
FM 5-499
6-10 Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting
Two-position, controlled
by external pilot pressure
Two-position, controlled
by solenoids
Three-position, spring-centered,
closed-center controlled by soleniod
with internal pilot pressure
Solenoid-
control
symbol
Solenoid control
with internal pilot
pressure
A B
P T
Figure 6-17. Four-way, directional-control-valve symbol
Manual control
Check valve in
pressure line
Float detent
Spring centered
By-pass passage
View A
Double-acting D-spool
View C
Floating C-spool
View B
Motor B-spool
View D
Single-acting T-spool
Figure 6-18. Mobile directional-control-valve symbol
Other titles available online www.govmedia.com
FM 5-499
Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting 6-11
6-3. Typical Mobile Circuits. Hydraul i c-l i ft, power-steer i ng, and r oad-patrol -truck ci r-
cui ts ar e consi der ed typi cal mobi l e ci r cui ts.
a. Hydraulic-Lift Circuit. Fi gure 6-21 shows the l i ft porti on of the hydraul i c system.
The ci r cui t has two cyl i nder s: a si ngl e-acti ng l i ft cyl i nder and a doubl e-acti ng ti l t cyl i nder.
The l i ft cyl i nder moves the l i fti ng for k up and down. The ti l t cyl i nder ti l ts the mast back
and for th to suppor t or dump the l oad.
A two-secti on, mul ti pl e-uni t di r ecti onal val ve control s the cyl i nder's operati on. The fi r st
val ve has a doubl e-acti ng D-spool to operate the ti l t cyl i nder, hydr aul i cal l y, i n ei ther di r ec-
ti on. The outer envel opes show the typi cal four fl ow paths for reversi ng the cyl i nder. The
second val ve has a si ngl e-acti ng T-spool to oper ate the l i ft cyl i nder . Thi s cyl i nder i s
returned by gravi ty;
the bypass unl oads
the pump.
The pump i s
dri ven by the l i ft
tr uck's engi ne and
suppl i es the ci rcui t
from the l arge vol -
ume end. The encl o-
sur e ar ound the two
pump symbol s i ndi -
cates that both
pumpi ng uni ts ar e
contai ned i n a si ngl e
assembl y. The same
appl i es to the two
di r ecti onal val ves
and the r el i ef val ve
that are encl osed.
They are i n a si ngl e
assembl y.
Filter or strainer
Figure 6-19. Fluid-conditioner
symbols
Spring loaded
Gas charged
Figure 6-20. Accumulator symbol
Lift cylinder
T-spool
section
D-spool section
To steering
circuit
Tilt cylinder
Figure 6-21. Hydraulic-lift circuit in neutral
FM 5-499
Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting 6-12
Fi gur e 6-21 shows the ci rcui t i n neutr al ; the val ves ar e center ed. I f the fi gur e wer e to
show the oper ati ng mode, the outer envel opes on the val ve symbol s woul d be shi fted over to
al i gn wi th the por ts at the center envel opes. The ar rows i n the envel opes woul d then show
the fl ow paths fr om the pr essur e i nl et to the cyl i nder s and/or the r etur n fl ow to tank.
b. Power-Steering Circuits. Hydraul i c
power steer i ng i ncor por ates a hydraul i c boost
i nto a basi c manual -steer i ng system. A basi c
manual -steeri ng system i s an arrangement of
gear s i n a box that mul ti pl i es the i nput tor que
fr om the steer i ng wheel to a much gr eater
tor que at the steer i ng shaft (Fi gur e 6-22). The
steer i ng shaft, thr ough the pi tman arm (or
steer i ng-shaft arm), tr ansmi ts thi s i ncr eased
tor que thr ough the steer i ng l i nkage to the
steer i ng arms that turn the wheel s. The basi c
system of manual -steeri ng gears and steeri ng
l i nkage i s a steeri ng wheel , steeri ng gear , and
l i nkage to the steer ed wheel .
The hydraul i c boost, whi ch i s a mechani -
cal l y oper ated hydraul i c ser vo, may be appl i ed
to the steer i ng l i nkage (Fi gure 6-23) or wi thi n
the steer i ng gear . Steer i ng-wheel movement
actuates the steer i ng val ve, whi ch di r ects the
fl ui d under pr essur e to the steer i ng-val ve body
that fol l ows the val ve spool . Hydraul i c boost i s
appl i ed onl y when the steer i ng wheel i s bei ng
moved.
An i ntegr al power -steer i ng system has the
hydr aul i c-boost subsystem bui l t i nto the
mechani cal steer i ng gear . The steer i ng val ve
i s actuated by movi ng the steer i ng shaft. The
val ve contr ol s the oper ati on of the power cyl i n-
der . Thrust fr om the power cyl i nder i s tr ans-
mi tted di rectl y to the steeri ng shaft. Road
shock transmi tted back from the wheel s i s
taken up i n the steer i ng gear .
Fi gur e 6-24, page 6-13, shows the semi -
i ntegr al power -steer i ng system, or val ve-on-
gear system. The steer i ng val ve i s bui l t i nto
the steer i ng gear . The power cyl i nder i s
attached to the vehi cl e's fr ame and to the l i nk-
age. Road shock and thrust are absorbed i n
the fr ame.
c. Road-Patrol-Truck Circuits. Fi gure 6-25,
page 6-14, di agr ams A and B respecti vel y,
shows a r oad-patrol tr uck's hydraul i c system
and a hydraul i c ci r cui t's schemati c, as a com-
par i son. The tr uck needs thr ee doubl e-acti ng
Wheel
Wheel pivot
(king pin or ball studs)
Steering arm
Linkage
Pitman arm Steering shaft
Steering gear
Steering wheel
Figure 6-22. Manual-steering-gear
layout
Integral steering unit
Pitman arm
C
A
D
B
Figure 6-23. Power-steering layout
FM 5-499
Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting 6-13
cyl i nder s to oper ate i ts bl ades and dump body: a pl ow hoi st cyl i nder for the front pl ow, an
under bl ade cyl i nder , and a dump-body hoi st cyl i nder . The tr uck al so has a power -steer i ng
system operated from one-hal f of the doubl e pump. (The steer i ng system has been omi tted
from di agr am B). The schemati c shows that the thr ee cyl i nders are operated through a
thr ee-spool , mobi l e di r ecti onal val ve fed fr om the l ar ge vol ume end of the doubl e pump.
6-4. Troubleshooting. Personnel shoul d fol l ow a system when troubl eshooti ng. The fol -
l owi ng shows the STOP system:
Study the ci rcui t di agrams.
Test by usi ng a rel i abl e tester .
Organi ze the knowl edge gai ned from the ci r cui t-test resul ts.
Per form r epai rs, taki ng ti me to do the job wel l .
a. Causes of I mproper Operations. I f i mpr oper oper ati on does occur , the cause can gen-
eral l y be tr aced to one of the fol l owi ng:
Use of the wrong oi l vi scosi ty or type.
I nsuffi ci ent fl ui d i n the system.
Presence of ai r i n the system.
Mechani cal damage or str uctur al fai l ur e.
I nternal or external l eakage.
Di r t, decomposed packi ng, water , sl udge, r ust, and other for ei gn matter i n the
system.
I mpr oper adjustments.
Heat exchanger that i s pl ugged, di r ty, or l eaki ng.
b. Testing a Hydraulic Circuit. To test compl ete or i ndi vi dual par ts of a hydraul i c ci r-
cui t, use a hydr aul i c ci rcui t tester (see para-
gr aph 2-8, page 2-18). The best tester to use i s
a compact por tabl e uni t that can check fl ow,
pressur e, and temperatur e.
c. Comparing Test Results with Specifica-
tions. Hydr aul i c-power ed systems ar e power -
tr ansmi ssi on systems. The onl y pur pose of the
components and the ci rcui t i s the contr ol l ed
tr ansfer of power fr om the motor shaft to the
poi nt of effecti ve work.

wher e
HP = hydraulic horsepower
f =flow, in GPM
p = pressure, in psi
HP
fp
1 714 ,
--------------- =
Steering column
Steering valve
Steering gear
Figure 6-24. Semi-integral power-
steering system
FM 5-499
6-14 Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting
Figure 6-25. Hydraulic circuit diagram for a road-patrol truck
FM 5-499
Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting 6-15
By measur i ng those two factor s at the same ti me, i t i s possi bl e to read the effecti ve out-
put at any poi nt. Compari ng test r esul ts wi th speci fi cati ons wi l l gi ve the necessar y faul t-
fi ndi ng facts.
d. Slippage. Al l hydr aul i c systems have some sl i ppage (see par agr aph 3-4, page, page
3-3) even when new. As wear i ncr eases, sl i ppage at wear poi nts i ncr eases, causi ng a
decr ease i n GPM. However , system pr essur e i s mai ntai ned. I n ti me, wear can be so great
that al l fl ow i s l ost. Onl y at a compl ete breakdown wi l l a pr essure gauge show where the
tr oubl e i s. Conducti ng a fl ow, pr essur e, and temper atur e (FPT) test woul d have i ndi cated
such a pr obl em and avoi ded a compl ete breakdown.
NOTE: At low oil temperature and low pressure (or light loads) the
machine will continue to operate but at less speed.
e. Flow and Pressure. Al ways test fl ow and pr essur e together . Connect a hydr aul i c
tester i nto the hydr aul i c ci rcui t at var i ous poi nts to i sol ate and check components (pumps,
val ves, or cyl i nders) for effi ci ency. Fi gure 6-26 shows a hydraul i c tester, connected to the
pump's output, checki ng the fl ow at vari ous pressur es that, i n turn, checks the pump's per -
formance agai nst the recommended speci fi cati on. When i sol ati ng and testi ng i ndi vi dual
components wi th a hydraul i c tester, di rect the return fl ui d to the reser voi r . I f the fl ui d
returns to the reservoi r through the system's pi pi ng, you wi l l not get a cor rect readi ng
because of bui l dup of back pr essur e.
Test the
whol e ci rcui t as
descr i bed, and
then i sol ate por-
ti ons and test
for a compl ete
anal ysi s of the
system. I f a test
on a ful l ci rcui t
i ndi cates a mal -
functi on, i sol ate
a por ti on and
test the r emai n-
i ng por ti ons
unti l you fi nd
the mal functi on-
i ng par t. Gener -
al l y, cyl i nder s
wi l l fai l fi rst.
Packi ng wi l l
wear because of fri cti on and l oadi ng agai nst the cyl i nder wal l s. Ther efore, i sol ate the cyl i n-
ders fi rst. I f test r esul ts i ndi cate that the ci rcui t i s operati ng properl y, the cyl i nders have a
probl em. Dur i ng testi ng, deter mi ne the setti ng and condi ti on of the rel i ef val ve. I f fur ther
tests are necessary, i sol ate the di recti onal -control val ve to check the pump's effi ci ency and
i nl et hose.
f. Other Conditions. Other probl ems coul d occur that are not di rectl y rel ated to nor
caused by the vari ous parts of the hydraul i c system. These pr obl ems coul d show the same
TROUBLESHOOTING A HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
Isolate and check the following:
Directional-control valves
for leakage, efficiency.
Systems relief valves
for leakage, proper settings.
Pumps GPM flow at
various pressures.
Cylinders efficiency.
Figure 6-26. Hydraulic tester connected to a pumps output
FM 5-499
6-16 Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting
general mal functi ons of an i mproperl y operati ng system. Exampl es are l eaki ng hose, pack-
i ng gl ands, and seal s, whi ch woul d be vi sual l y evi dent; a bi nd i n the di recti onal -control
val ve or the cyl i nder 's pi ston r od; a dented or defor med hydr aul i c cyl i nder ; or a cr i mped or
r estr i cted pr essure l i ne, whi ch woul d be har der to detect.
g. Specific Troubles, Causes, and Solutions. Tabl es 6-1 through 6-5, pages 6-17 through
6-21 l i st some possi bl e probl ems and sol uti ons i n a hydr aul i c system.
FM 5-499
Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting 6-17
Table 6-1. Problems and solutions with pump operations
No Fuel Delivery
Problems Solutions
Fluid level in the reservoir is low. Add the recommended oil; check the level on both sides of
the tank's baffle to be certain that the pump suction is sub-
merged.
Oil intake pipe or inlet filter is plugged. Clean the filter; otherwise, remove the obstruction.
Air leak in the inlet line prevents priming or causes
noise and irregular action of the control circuit.
Repair the leaks.
The pump shaft turns too slowly to prime itself
(vane-type pumps only).
Check the appropriate manual's minimum speed recommen-
dations.
The oil viscosity is too heavy to pick up the prime. Use a lighter oil viscosity; follow the appropriate manual's
recommended temperatures and services.
Shaft rotates in the wrong direction. Reverse the rotation immediately to prevent seizure and
parts from breaking due to lack of oil.
Pump shaft is broken, parts are broken inside the
pump, or the shear pin or shear linkage is broken.
See the appropriate manual for replacement instructions.
Pump has dirt in it. Dismantle and clean the pump; flush the system.
The stroke is incorrect on variable delivery pumps. See the appropriate manual for instructions.
No Pressure in the System
Pump does not deliver oil for any reasons given in
above section.
Follow the remedies given.
Relief-valve setting is not high enough.
Relief valve leaks.
Relief-valve spring is broken.
Increase the pressure setting of the valve; check the
appropriate manual for the correct pressure.
Check the seat for score marks and reseat.
Replace the spring and readjust the valve.
Vane is stuck in the rotor slots (vane-type pumps
only).
Inspect for wedged chips; inspect the oil for excessive vis-
cosity.
The head is loose (very infrequent occurrence). Tighten the head; check the appropriate manuals before
tightening.
Oil to the tank recirculates freely through the sys-
tem.
Check to see if a return line is open due to either a direc-
tional valve set in the open-center neutral position or some
other valve is left open.
Control valves have internal leakage. Block off various parts of the circuit to determine where the
leak is; repair when located.
Noisy Pump
Intake line, filter, or restricted intake pipe is partially
clogged.
Clean out the intake or strainer, or eliminate the restrictions;
ensure that the inlet line is open.
FM 5-499
6-18 Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting
Table 6-1. Problems and solutions with pump operations (continued)
Noisy Pump (continued)
Problems Solutions
Air leaks occur at the pump's intake piping joints.
Air leaks are present at the pump's shaft packing.
Air is drawn in through the inlet pipe openings.
Pour oil on the joints while listening for a change in the
operating sounds; tighten the joints as required.
Pour oil around the shaft while listening for a change in
the operating sounds; follow the appropriate manual
instructions when changing the packing.
Ensure that the inlet and return lines are well below the oil
level in the reservoir; add oil to the reservoir if necessary.
Air bubbles are present in the intake oil. Use hydraulic oil that has a foam depressant.
Reservoir's air vent is plugged. Clean or replace the breather.
Pump is running too fast. See the appropriate manuals for recommended maximum
speeds.
Oil viscosity is too high. Use a lower oil viscosity; check the appropriate manuals for
the recommended temperatures and services.
Coupling is misaligned. Realign the coupling.
Pump vane is stuck (vane-type pump). Inspect the pump for wedged chips or sticky oil; reassemble.
Parts are worn or broken. Replace worn or broken parts.
External Oil Leaks
Shaft packing is worn. Replace the worn parts.
A head of oil is present on an inlet-pipe connection. Keep all the joints tight; slight leakage may be necessary.
Excessive Wear
Abrasive matter in the hydraulic oil is being circu-
lated through the pump.
Install an adequate filter or replace the oil more often.
Oil viscosity is too low for working conditions. Check the appropriate manual's recommendations or the
lubrication chart for information.
Sustained high pressure occurs above the maxi-
mum pump rating.
Check the relief or regular valve's maximum setting.
Drive is misaligned or belt drive is tight. Check the parts; correct the problem.
Air recirculation is causing a chatter in the system. Remove the air from the system.
Broken Parts Inside the Pump Housing
Excessive pressure above the maximum pump rat-
ing is present.
Check the relief or regulator valve's maximum setting.
Seizure occurs due to lack of oil. Check the reservoir level, oil filter, and possibility of restric-
tion in the inlet line.
Solid matter is being wedged in the pump. Install a filter in the suction line.
Head screws are too tight. Check appropriate manuals recommendations; adjust.
FM 5-499
Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting 6-19
Table 6-2. Problems and solutions with actuating mechanism
Inoperative System
Problems Solutions
System fails because of any problem listed in
Tables 6-1 through 6-5.
Follow recommened solution.
Mechanism Creeps (Stopped in Intermediate Position)
Internal leakage occurs in the actuating cylinders or
operating valves.
Replace the piston packing or cylinder, if the walls are
scored; replace or repair the valve.
Longer Operating Times Than Specified
Air is present in the system. Bleed the system.
Actuating cylinder or directional-control valve has
an internal leak.
Replace the piston packing or replace the cylinder if the
walls are scored; replace or repair the valve; clean the unit to
remove foreign matter; check the cam clearance.
Pump is worn. Repair or replace the pump.
Action is sluggish on start up but less so after oper-
ating temperatures have increased, or action slows
down after warm up. Depending on equipment and
circuit design, could indicate that the oil viscosity is
too high.
Check appropriate manuals lubrication order.
External Oil Leaks
End caps leak. Tighten caps, if possible, or replace the gasket.
Chevron seals leak. Adjust or replace the seals.
Abnormal Packing-Gland Wear
Cylinder is not securely fastened to the frame,
causing it to vibrate.
Tighten the cylinder; check it periodically.
Cylinder and piston-rod extension are misaligned. Check the parts; correct the problem.
Side load occurs on the piston rod. Check for cylinder alignment or worn pins or ball joints.
FM 5-499
6-20 Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting
Table 6-3. Problems and solutions with heating oil
Heating Caused by Power Unit (Reservoir, Pump, Relief Valve, Coolers)
Problems Solutions
Relief valve is set at a higher pressure than neces-
sary; excess oil dissipated through increased slip-
page in various parts or through the relief valve or
directional valve.
Check manual for the correct pressure; reset the relief valve.
Internal oil leaks occur due to wear in the pump. Repair or replace the pump.
Oil viscosity is too high. Check appropriate manual for correct oil viscosity to use at
various temperatures.
Overhauled pumps may be assembled too tightly,
which reduces clearances and increases friction.
Follow the appropriate manuals when rebuilding a pump.
Pump has leaking check or relief valves. Repair or replace the valves.
Oil cooler or coolant functions improperly in cut off. Inspect cooler; clean inside and outside; ensure that air flow
or coolant flow around fins is not cut off.
Conditions in System Cause Excessive Heating
Lines are restricted. Replace the lines if they are crimped; remove any obstruc-
tion if lines are partially plugged.
Large pump deliveries do not unload properly. Ensure that the open-center valves are neutralized and that
any pressure-relieving valves are in the correct position.
(Allow only small pumps to stay at high pressures when run-
ning idle for long periods.)
Radiation is insufficient. Use artificial cooling.
Pump has internal leaks. Locate leaks; replace the packing.
Reservoir is too small to provide adequate cooling. Replace unit with a larger reservoir.
Valves or piping is undersized. Check flow velocity through the lines and valves; compare
them with the manuals recommendations. If velocity is
excessive, install larger equipment.
Other titles available online www.govmedia.com
FM 5-499
Circuit Diagrams and Troubleshooting 6-21
Table 6-4. Problems and solutions with fluid motors
Motor Turns in the Wrong Direction
Problems Solutions
Conductors are crossed between the control valve
and the motor.
Check circuit to determine the correct conductor connection
between the control valve and motor.
Motor Does Not Turn or Does Not Develop Proper Speed or Torque
Systems overload-relief-valve adjustment is not set
high enough.
Check systems pressure; reset the relief valve.
Relief valve sticks open. Clean or replace the relief valve; adjust.
Oil to the reservoir freely recirculates through the
system.
Check control-valve linkage; directional-control valve may be
in open-center neutral.
Driven mechanism binds because of misalignment. Check the motor shaft for alignment.
Pump does not deliver enough GPM or pressure. Check pumps GPM and pressure; repair or replace.
Motor yoke is not set at the proper angle. Adjust the pumps yoke angle.
External Oil Leak From the Motor
Seals leak (drain may not be connected from motor
to tank).
Check motor for 3rd line (a drain line that must go to tank
used on piston and vane motors).
NOTE: See Table 6-1 for improper operation of pump.
Table 6-5. Problems and solutions with accumulator operation
Sudden Drop in Accumulator Pressure (Position of Selector Valve is Changed)
Problems Solutions
Accumulator has an internal or external leak. Repair the leak or replace the accumulator.
No Pressure When Pump Stops Running (Normal Pressure When Pump Was Running)
Hydraulic line has a leaking gas or check valve. Replace the check or the gas valve.
Sluggish Response for Accumulator
Oil screen in the accumulator stops. Dismantle the accumulator; clean the screen.
Gas precharge is not sufficient. Precharge according to recommendations in the manual;
check for gas leaks.
NOTE: Release all internal pressure before making repairs on accumulators.
FM 5-499
Electrical Devices: Troubleshooting and Safety 7-1
CHAPTER 7
Electrical Devices:
Troubleshooting and Safety
This chapter describes the process of locating the cause of malfunctions in electrical cir-
cuits associated with hydraulic-control systems. The information includes testing devices
and types of grounding points. Also addressed in this chapter are the safety measures person-
nel should take when working on or around electrical circuits.
7-1. Hydraulics and Electricity. Hydr aul i cs and el ectri ci ty are often compared because
the systems have si mi l ar i ti es. A hydr aul i c ci rcui t r equi r es a power sour ce (usual l y a pump),
a l oad devi ce (actuator), and conductors. The ci rcui ts di ffer mai nl y i n the
Types of devi ces used to contr ol , di r ect, and r egul ate the hydr aul i c fl ui d fl ow.
Type and capaci ty of the actuator s used to accompl i sh the wor k, whi ch var i es,
dependi ng on the appl i cati on.
An el ectr i cal ci rcui t al so r equi r es a power sour ce (batter y, gener ator ), a l oad devi ce
(l i ght, bel l , motor ), and pr oper connecti ons. An assor tment of devi ces al so contr ol s, di r ects,
and regul ates the fl ow of el ectri cal current.
Hydraul i c and el ectri cal components are usual l y r epresented on di agr ams by thei r own
set of standar di zed symbol s. El ectr i cal di agrams are often cal l ed schemati cs. Fi gure 7-1,
page 7-2, shows some of the more common symbol s. Hydraul i c and el ectri cal systems and
ci r cui ts have many di ffer ences. For exampl e, el ectr i cal cur r ent i s i nvi si bl e, hydr aul i c fl ui d i s
not; el ectr i cal curr ent fl ows through sol i d wi r es, hydr aul i c fl ui d fl ows through hol l ow l i nes.
Fi gur e 7-2, page 7-3, shows symbol s for el ectr i cal and hydr aul i c components. Fi gur e 7-3,
page 7-4, compares a hydraul i c ci r cui t and an el ectri cal ci r cui t.
7-2. Troubleshooting Electrical Devices. El ectri cal troubl eshooti ng i s the process of
l ocati ng the cause of mal functi ons i n el ectri cal ci rcui ts. The fol l owi ng par agraphs contai n
some general tr oubl eshooti ng i nformati on as wel l as speci fi c tests for deter mi ni ng the status
of some el ectr i cal devi ces. Ski l l i n troubl eshooti ng el ectr i cal equi pment and ci r cui ts
requi res
Knowl edge of el ectri cal pri nci pl es to understand how a ci rcui t or devi ce shoul d func-
ti on.
Ski l l i n readi ng and i nterpr eti ng el ectri cal schemati cs, di agrams, product data, and
so forth.
Ski l l i n oper ati ng test equi pment and i nter pr eti ng test measur ements.
Abi l i ty to anal yze probl ems i n a l ogi cal manner .
Fol l owi ng systemati c steps that nar r ow down the pr obl em to a smal l er ar ea of the
equi pment i s much mor e effi ci ent than tr i al -and-er r or methods. The tr oubl eshooti ng
FM 5-499
7-2 Electrical Devices: Troubleshooting and Safety
Figure 7-1. Common electrical schematic symbols
FM 5-499
Electrical Devices: Troubleshooting and Safety 7-3
Figure 7-2. Comparison of electrical and hydraulic components
FM 5-499
7-4 Electrical Devices: Troubleshooting and Safety
Power source
M
Pressure drop
(Restriction
orifice)
Directional valve
Load
(motor)
Regulation
(relief valve)
Pressure reference
(tank)
Pump
Motor
HYDRAULIC CIRCUIT
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
Power source
Power supply
Voltage drop
Directional switch
Load
(motor)
(Resistor)
Regulation
(zener diode)
Motor M
Generator
Voltage reference
(ground)
Figure 7-3. Comparison of electrical and hydraulic circuits
FM 5-499
Electrical Devices: Troubleshooting and Safety 7-5
procedur e detai l ed bel ow can be very useful i n organi zi ng the probl em-sol vi ng effort and
reduci ng equi pment downti me:
a. Procedure. The fol l owi ng tr oubl eshooti ng procedure consi sts of fi ve steps that you
shoul d per for m i n or der . These steps r epr esent the most r el i abl e method of l earni ng and
appl yi ng a l ogi cal appr oach to pr obl em sol vi ng and can be appl i ed to any equi pment, r egar d-
l ess of si ze.
(1) Step One: I denti fy the Symptom. A symptom i s an exter nal i ndi cati on that a ci r-
cui t or devi ce i s not functi oni ng cor rectl y. You can i denti fy a symptom by i nvesti gati ng the
probl em by si ght, sound, smel l , and touch. For exampl e, vi sual l y i nspecti ng the equi pment
may r eveal that a ci rcui t component has overheated and changed col or or that an i ndi ctor
l amp whi ch shoul d be on i s not. A pecul i ar odor may l ead you to di scover mel ted i nsul ati on,
or a chatteri ng noi se coul d i ndi cate that a sol enoi d i s about to fai l . Movi ng control s or
adjusti ng knobs may change the probl em or have no effect at al l . The fact that the equi p-
ment i s not oper ati ng i s a symptom.
I f someone el se was oper ati ng the equi pment when i t fai l ed, ask the per son i f he
noti ced anythi ng unusual befor e i t fai l ed. Funny noi ses, thi ngs that do not l ook qui te r i ght,
and i mpr oper oper ati ng sequences are symptoms that coul d l ead to the cause of the pr obl em.
I f you cannot fi nd any i mmedi atel y i denti fi abl e symptoms, tr y operati ng the equi pment once
you deter mi ne that i t i s safe to do so. Watch what wor ks and what does not wor k. Note any-
thi ng that does not seem ri ght, no matter how smal l . Take the ti me to conduct a thor ough
i nvesti gati on.
(2) Step Two: Anal yze the Symptom. I n thi s step, you i denti fy the functi ons wher e
symptoms i ndi cate a mal functi on. Use the i nformati on you obtai ned duri ng your i denti fi ca-
ti on, al ong wi th the schemati c and functi onal bl ock di agr ams and knowl edge of how the
equi pment i s supposed to oper ate, to make l ogi cal techni cal deducti ons. For exampl e, after
car eful exami nati on, you fi nd that a cl amp i n a pl asti c-i njecti on mol di ng machi ne wi l l not
pr essur i ze. Fur ther anal ysi s, wi thout usi ng test equi pment, nar r ows the pr obl em to a cl amp
that i s cl osed, cl amp pr essuri zati on, or prefi l l shi ft, any of whi ch mi ght contai n the faul ty
ci r cui t.
(3) Step Thr ee: I sol ate the Si ngl e Faul ty Functi on. I n thi s step, you use test equi p-
ment to deci de whi ch faul ty functi on i s actual l y causi ng the mal functi on. When maki ng
these tests, use the fol l owi ng gui del i nes:
Make onl y those tests that ar e safe to make.
Make the l east di ffi cul t tests fi rst.
Test those functi ons fi r st that wi l l el i mi nate one or mor e of the other possi bl e
faul ty functi ons.
For exampl e, i f taki ng an ohmmeter r eadi ng can deter mi ne the faul t, do not take a
vol tmeter r eadi ng as that r equi r es power on the equi pment. I f you must di sassembl e hal f of
the machi ne to r each a test poi nt, per form a si mpl er test fi r st. Test at a mi dway poi nt i n the
ci r cui tr y, i f possi bl e. A good readi ng at the mi dway poi nt el i mi nates the precedi ng functi ons
and i ndi cates that the probl em i s i n the r emai ni ng ci r cui ts. A faul ty si gnal at the mi dway
poi nt means that the probl em i s i n the functi ons that process the si gnal before the mi dway
poi nt.
FM 5-499
7-6 Electrical Devices: Troubleshooting and Safety
I n the i njecti on mol di ng exampl e, test the cl amp's pressur i zati on ci rcui ts wher e the
cl amp's ful l y cl osed si gnal i nput ei ther el i mi nates that functi on or confi r ms that the cause of
the pr obl em i s a cl amp that i s not ful l y cl osed and, therefore, cannot be pr essuri zed. Con-
ti nue testi ng i nputs and outputs of the suspect functi ons unti l you i denti fy and confi rm the
si ngl e faul ty functi on.
(4) Step Four : I sol ate the Faul ty Ci rcui t. I n thi s step, you l ocate the si ngl e mal func-
ti oni ng ci rcui t wi thi n a functi onal gr oup of ci rcui ts. Use the accumul ated symptom and test
data to cl ose i n on the si ngl e faul ty ci rcui t. Fol l ow the gui del i nes fr om step thr ee, but appl y
them to the ci r cui ts r el ated to the faul ty functi on. Use schemati c and bl ock di agrams to
l ocate test poi nts.
I n the i njecti on-mol di ng-machi ne exampl e, assume that the cl amp's ful l y cl osed si gnal
i s not present at the i nput to the cl amp's pressur i zati on ci rcui ts. Test wi thi n the cl amps
cl osed ci r cui ts unti l you i denti fy a si ngl e faul ty ci r cui t. The fi rst test may reveal that the
output of the cl amp's ful l y cl osed ci r cui t i s bad. A check of the i nputs to thi s ci rcui t may i ndi -
cate that the i nput from a cl amp's cl osed-l i mi t swi tch i s bad but that al l others are good.
You can now i denti fy the pr obl em as bei ng associ ated wi th one of the rel ati vel y few parts
contai ned i n a si ngl e ci rcui t.
(5) Step Fi ve: Locate/Ver i fy the Cause of the Mal functi on. The tests you make i n thi s
step i denti fy the fai l i ng par t wi thi n the faul ty ci rcui t. Test the ci rcui t unti l you fi nd the
cause of the mal functi on. Exami ne and test the faul ty part to veri fy that i t has caused the
probl em and produced the observed symptoms.
I n checki ng out the cl amp's ful l y cl osed ci r cui t, for exampl e, r emove the suspected l i mi t
swi tch fr om the ci rcui t and test i t wi th an ohmmeter to deter mi ne i f the swi tch's contacts ar e
cl osi ng cor r ectl y to compl ete the ci r cui t. Connect the ohmmeter across the contacts of the
swi tch and actuate the swi tch's arm sever al ti mes whi l e checki ng the meter r eadi ng. I f the
contacts cl ose pr oper l y, the meter shoul d r ead zer o ohms when the ar m i s i n one posi ti on and
i nfi ni ty when the ar m i s i n the other posi ti on.
I f the meter poi nter does not move when the swi tch arm i s actuated, di sassembl e and
exami ne the swi tch. I f thi s l ast exami nati on reveal s that the mechani cal l i nkage connecti ng
the swi tch's arm to the contacts i s broken, then you have found the cause of the mal functi on.
A fi nal anal ysi s shoul d show that thi s cause expl ai ns the obser ved symptoms. However , the
pr ocedur e i s not compl ete unti l you ver i fy the fi ndi ngs. I n thi s exampl e, you woul d i nstal l a
new l i mi t swi tch i n the ci r cui t and operate the equi pment to confi r m that you have fi xed the
probl em.
b. Testing Devices. The fol l owi ng par agr aphs outl i ne some basi c el ectr i cal tests that
you can conduct on speci fi c pi eces of equi pment that were di scussed earl i er. As part of a
tr oubl eshooti ng test, you shoul d mechani cal l y i nspect these devi ces. Al so, i f spar e par ts ar e
avai l abl e, substi tute a good par t for a suspect par t as a qui ck method of returni ng the equi p-
ment to oper ati on. Test the suspect part and ei ther r epai r i t or di scar d i t.
(1) Potenti ometer . Si nce a potenti ometer i s a var i abl e-r esi stance devi ce, i t shoul d be
di sconnected fr om i ts ci rcui t and tested wi th an ohmmeter , i f i t i s suspect. Onl y two of the
thr ee l eads need to be di sconnected for thi s test. Be ver y car eful when adjusti ng smal l
potenti ometer s on pr i nted ci r cui t boar ds. They ar e qui te fr agi l e and can easi l y be br oken i f
r otated beyond the end stops. Test a potenti ometer as fol l ows:
FM 5-499
Electrical Devices: Troubleshooting and Safety 7-7
Deter mi ne the expected r esi stance val ue fr om a schemati c di agr am for the ci r cui t.
The val ue may al so be pr i nted on the case of the devi ce.
Connect the ohmmeter acr oss the ends of the potenti ometer and confi rm that the
r eadi ng matches the expected val ue.
Remove a test l ead fr om one end and move i t to the mi ddl e ter mi nal .
Rotate the shaft or turn the scr ew that vari es the r esi stance of the devi ce. The
ohmmeter r eadi ng shoul d i ndi cate zer o ohms at one end of the shaft r otati on and
the ful l expected r esi stance val ue of the potenti ometer at the other end. I t shoul d
al so show a smooth change i n r esi stance as the shaft i s turned.
Move the l ead that i s sti l l connected to an end ter mi nal over to the other end.
Rotate the shaft agai n whi l e l ooki ng for the same smooth tr ansi ti on from zer o to
maxi mum r esi stance.
(2) Sol enoi d Coi l . I f a sol enoi d i s thought to be faul ty, do the fol l owi ng:
Remove i t fr om the machi ne (pl ug the opened por ts on the val ves i f necessary).
Di sassembl e and exami ne the sol enoi d for si gns of over heati ng or mechani cal
probl ems.
Test the sol enoi d coi l by attachi ng an ohmmeter (set to a l ow resi stance r ange)
acr oss the coi l termi nal s. I f the coi l i s good, the meter wi l l show a r el ati vel y l ow
readi ng (a few thousand ohms or l ess). A zer o readi ng woul d i ndi cate that the coi l
wi ndi ngs ar e shor ted to each other , pr obabl y as a r esul t of mel ted i nsul ati on. An
i nfi ni ty r eadi ng on the ohmmeter means that the coi l has opened up and i s defec-
ti ve.
(3) Rel ay. Test a suspect r el ay as fol l ows:
Actuate the r el ay armatur e, manual l y.
Remove the r el ay fr om the equi pment.
Exami ne the rel ay careful l y for si gns of mechani cal probl ems.
Check the rel ay coi l i n the same way as a sol enoi d coi l , i f you do not fi nd any
mechani cal probl ems. Test the el ectr i cal contacts wi th an ohmmeter as you do
the swi tch contacts. The meter shoul d r ead zer o when the contacts ar e cl osed and
i nfi ni ty when they are open.
Test the nor mal l y open and the nor mal l y cl osed ci r cui ts.
(4) Transfor mer . When you deter mi ne, by vol tage r eadi ngs or symptom i nfor mati on,
that a tr ansfor mer may be the cause of a mal functi on, check the pri mar y and the secondary
coi l r esi stance wi th an ohmmeter . Di sconnect one end of the pri mary wi ndi ng and one end of
the secondary wi ndi ng fr om the r est of the ci rcui t befor e testi ng. I f the fai l ur e i s the r esul t of
an open wi ndi ng, the ohmmeter wi l l read i nfi ni ty when connected acr oss the defecti ve wi nd-
i ng. I f the fai l ur e i s caused by shor ted turns wi thi n a wi ndi ng, the probl em i s mor e di ffi cul t
to di agnose because the ohmmeter wi l l i ndi cate a ver y l ow r esi stance. Si nce a wi ndi ng con-
si sts of a l ength of conductor wound i nto a coi l , the r esi stance r eadi ngs ar e nor mal l y qui te
l ow anyway. I f you suspect shor ted turns
Use the expected pr i mary and secondary oper ati ng vol tages to deter mi ne the
appr oxi mate tur ns r ati o. Di vi de the secondar y vol tage i nto the pri mary vol tage to
get the r ati o. For exampl e, 120 vol ts di vi ded by 24 vol ts equal s a r ati o of 5:1.
FM 5-499
7-8 Electrical Devices: Troubleshooting and Safety
Use thi s r ati o to compar e the measur ed pri mary r esi stance to the measur ed sec-
ondar y r esi stance. I n the exampl e, i f the pr i mary r esi stance i s 20 ohms, then the
secondary r esi stance shoul d be about 4 ohms (20/5).
Be sur e to adjust the zer o-ohms contr ol befor e maki ng the measur ement; hol d the test
probes by the i nsul ated porti on onl y. You may have di ffi cul ty deter mi ni ng i f the r eadi ng i s
accurate si nce the measur ement i s so cl ose to the l ow end of the ohms scal e. Compar e the
readi ngs to a r epl acement transformers, i f one i s avai l abl e. To posi ti vel y veri fy that the
transformer i s faul ty, you may have to substi tute a good tr ansfor mer for the suspect one.
(5) Di ode. You can use a si mpl e r esi stance check wi th an ohmmeter to test a di ode's
abi l i ty to pass current i n one di recti on onl y. To test a suspect di ode
Remove one end of the di ode from the ci rcui t.
Connect the posi ti ve ohmmeter l ead to the anode and the negati ve l ead to the
cathode. When the ohmmeter i s connected thi s way, the di ode i s for ward bi ased,
and the measur ed r eadi ng shoul d be ver y l ow. Set the ohmmeter for the appr opri -
ate di ode test r ange.
Rever se the ohmmeter connecti ons. When the negati ve ohmmeter l ead i s
attached to the anode and the posi ti ve l ead i s attached to the cathode, the di ode i s
rever se bi ased, and the meter shoul d r ead a hi gh resi stance.
A good di ode shoul d have real l ow resi stance when for ward bi ased and hi gh r esi stance
when reverse bi ased. I f the di ode reads a hi gh resi stance i n both di recti ons, i t i s probabl y
open. I f the readi ngs are l ow i n both di r ecti ons, the di ode i s shorted. A defecti ve di ode coul d
show a di ffer ence i n forwar d and backwar d resi stance. I n thi s case, the rati o of forward to
backwar d r esi stance i s the i mpor tant factor . The actual r ati o depends on the type of di ode.
As a rul e of thumb, a smal l si gnal di ode shoul d have a rati o of several hundr ed to one. A
power recti fi er can oper ate wi th a r ati o as l ow as ten to one.
7-3. Ground. Every el ectri cal ci rcui t has a poi nt of refer ence to whi ch al l ci rcui t vol tages
ar e compared. Thi s r eference poi nt i s cal l ed gr ound, and ci r cui t vol tages are ei ther posi ti ve
or negati ve wi th respect to ground. Connecti ons to ground that are made for safety r easons
refer to earth gr ound. When vol tage measurements are taken, the di fference of potenti al
between a poi nt i n the ci r cui t and a ground poi nt i s measured by the vol tmeter . Thi s type of
gr ound i s r efer r ed to as chassi s or common ground.
a. Earth Ground. I ni ti al l y, gr ound r efer r ed to the ear th i tsel f and si nce has r epr esented
a poi nt of zer o potenti al or zer o vol ts. A shor t ci rcui t wi thi n a devi ce that connects l i ve vol t-
age to the frame coul d cause a ser i ous shock to anyone touchi ng i t. However , i f the frame i s
connected to earth ground, i t i s hel d at the safe potenti al of zer o vol ts, as the ear th i tsel f
absorbs the vol tage.
Today, a thi r d pr ong on grounded power pl ugs connects most stati onar y equi pment to
ear th gr ound thr ough the el ectr i cal wi r i ng system. Some equi pment i s connected to ear th
gr ound by a conductor that goes fr om the metal fr ame of the equi pment to a l ong copper r od
that i s dri ven i nto the earth. Some appl i ances ar e often grounded by connecti ng the conduc-
tor to a water pi pe r unni ng i nto the gr ound. I n any case, the fr ames of al l equi pment con-
nected to the earth ar e at the same zer o vol t potenti al . Thi s pr events shocks that mi ght
occur shoul d a person touch two pi eces of ungrounded equi pment at the same ti me.
FM 5-499
Electrical Devices: Troubleshooting and Safety 7-9
b. Chassis or Common Ground. I n some cases, el ectr i cal ci rcui ts used today ar e not con-
nected di r ectl y to ear th ground; however , they sti l l r equi r e a poi nt of r efer ence or a common
poi nt to whi ch el ements of each ci r cui t ar e connected. For exampl e, a por tabl e battery-oper-
ated transi stor radi o does not have a ground conductor connecti ng i t wi th the ear th. A str i p
of conducti ng foi l on the i nter nal ci rcui t boar d i s used as the common poi nt. I n an automo-
bi l e battery, the negati ve termi nal i s gener al l y connected to the engi ne bl ock or chassi s
frame by a heavy cabl e. The connecti ng poi nt, as wel l as every other poi nt on the metal
frame, i s consi der ed to be a gr ound for the el ectr i cal ci rcui ts of the vehi cl e. The rubber ti r es
i nsul ate the vehi cl e fr om the earth gr ound. I n these exampl es, gr ound i s si mpl y a zer o r efer -
ence poi nt i n an el ectri cal ci rcui t and i s refer red to as chassi s ground. Al l vol tages i n the ci r-
cui t ar e measur ed wi th r espect to thi s common poi nt.
c. Zero Reference Point. Wi thout a zero refer ence poi nt, vol tage coul d not be expressed
as a posi ti ve or negati ve val ue. The schemati c di agrams i n Fi gure 7-4 i l l ustrate thi s poi nt:
Di agram A shows a vol tmeter connected to the two termi nal s of a 6-vol t, dr y-cel l
batter y. Wi thout a gr ound i n the ci rcui t, the measur ed vol tage i s 6 vol ts between
the two ter mi nal s. I t i s nei ther posi ti ve nor negati ve.
Di agram B shows that the negati ve batter y ter mi nal i s connected to ground. The
vol tmeter measures the di ffer ence of potenti al between the posi ti ve termi nal and
6 V
battery
Voltmeter
indicates 6 V.
It is neither +
nor -.
V
V
+
+
+
+
-
-
- -
V
12 V
+
+
+
A
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
C
-
-
-
-
Voltmeter
indicates -6 V.
Voltmeter
indicates +6 V.
B
+6 V
-6 V
A. VOLTAGE READING
WITHOUT GROUND
B. NEGATIVE TERMINAL
GROUNDED
C. POSITIVE TERMINAL
GROUNDED
D. PLACEMENT OF GROUND PROVIDES
BOTH POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE VOLTAGE
Figure 7-4. Schematic diagrams illustrating zero reference point
Other titles available online www.govmedia.com
FM 5-499
7-10 Electrical Devices: Troubleshooting and Safety
the ground poi nt. The measured vol tage i s +6 vol ts because the ungrounded ter-
mi nal i s 6 vol ts mor e posi ti ve than the gr ound or zer o r eference poi nt.
Di agram C shows that the vol tmeter measur e -6 vol ts when the posi ti ve ter mi nal
of the batter y i s connected to the zer o r efer ence poi nt. The ungrounded batter y
ter mi nal i s now 6 vol ts mor e negati ve than the r efer ence poi nt.
Di agram D shows two 6-vol t batter i es that ar e connected i n ser i es. The vol tage
between poi nts A and C i s 12 vol ts. When a ground i s pl aced at poi nt B, whi ch i s
between the two batter i es, + 6 vol ts ar e avai l abl e between poi nts A and B, and -6
vol ts are avai l abl e between poi nts C and B. (Many modern el ectr oni c ci rcui ts
requi re both posi ti ve and negati ve vol tage for pr oper operati on. Thi s woul d be
i mpossi bl e wi thout a zero reference poi nt i n the ci r cui t.)
d. I solation Between Earth and Chassis Ground. I ndustri al equi pment often requi res
an ear th and a separate chassi s ground for pr oper operati on. The ear th ground repr esents
an actual potenti al of zero vol ts, whi l e the chassi s gr ound i s used onl y as a refer ence poi nt
and may be at some potenti al above or bel ow the ear th ground. I n these cases, the earth
gr ound and the chassi s gr ound are not connected together at any poi nt i n the equi pment.
However, duri ng i nstal l ati on or r epai rs, the chassi s ground may be i nadvertentl y connected
to the earth gr ound. To check for thi s condi ti on, use a 1.5-vol t, D-cel l batter y and hol der ,
connecti ng wi r es, and a vol tmeter . Make sur e that the equi pment i s OFF befor e maki ng the
test.
I n Fi gur e 7-5, the battery i s i nstal l ed between the chassi s ground and the ear th gr ound.
The vol tmeter , set to measur e 1.5 vol ts di r ect curr ent (DC), i s connected acr oss the batter y.
I f a connecti on exi sts between the chassi s and the earth gr ound, i t wi l l pl ace a short ci rcui t
acr oss the batter y, and the vol tmeter wi l l i ndi cate zer o vol ts. I f thi s i s the case, tempor ari l y
di sconnect one end of the batter y to keep i t fr om di schargi ng whi l e l ooki ng for the i mpr oper
connecti on between the grounds. When you fi nd the connecti on, r emove i t and r econnect the
batter y and the meter . The vol tmeter shoul d r ead the batter y potenti al of 1.5 vol ts. I f the
vol tmeter readi ng i s sti l l zero vol ts, an i mproper connecti on sti l l exi sts i n the equi pment.
Repeat the test unti l the vol tmeter r eads the batter y vol tage. Remember to di sconnect the
batter y after compl eti ng the test.
7-4. Safety. Effecti ve safety measures are a bl end of common sense and the knowl edge of
basi c el ectr i cal and hydraul i c pri nci pl es and of how a system or ci rcui t oper ates, i ncl udi ng
any dangers associ ated wi th that operati on. General safety i nformati on and safety practi ces
ar e l i sted bel ow. The l i st i s not al l i ncl usi ve, i s not i ntended to al ter or r epl ace curr entl y
establ i shed safety practi ces, and does not i ncl ude safety practi ces for hydr aul i c equi pment.
a. I nformation. When worki ng wi th el ectri cal equi pment, consi der the fol l owi ng i nfor -
mati on regardi ng safety:
I njuri es associ ated wi th el ectr i cal wor k may i ncl ude el ectr i cal shocks; burns; and
puncture, l acerati on, or abrasi on wounds.
Current fl owi ng through the body can be fatal . As l i ttl e as 0.01 amp pr oduces
muscl e paral ysi s and extreme breathi ng di ffi cul ty i n the average person; perma-
nent physi cal damage and death can resul t fr om 0.1 amp fl owi ng through the
hear t.
The amount of current recei ved fr om an el ectr i cal shock depends on the vol tage
appl i ed and the r esi stance of that par t of the body through whi ch the curr ent
FM 5-499
7-12 Electrical Devices: Troubleshooting and Safety
Never work on l i ve ci rcui ts when wet, as thi s l owers the bodys resi stance and
i ncreases the chance for a fatal shock.
Never work al one on el ectr i cal equi pment. Shocks above 0.01 amp can paral yze
your muscl es and l eave you unabl e to remove yoursel f from the source of the cur-
rent fl ow. Al ways be sure someone el se i s around to hel p i n an emergency.
Use the pr oper equi pment for ci rcui t testi ng. Check for cor r ect juncti on setti ngs,
range swi tches, proper i nsul ati on on test probes, and so for th.
Remove al l watches, r i ngs, chai ns, and any other metal jewel ry that may come i n
contact wi th an el ectr i cal potenti al or get caught i n movi ng mechani cal par ts. Do
thi s befor e you wor k on any el ectr i cal equi pment, ci rcui t, or batter y.
Have a good under standi ng about the ci r cui t you are worki ng on. Thi nk about
what you need to do befor e wor ki ng on the ci r cui t. Ask for hel p i f you do not know
enough about the task you ar e to per for m.
FM 5-499
Appendix-225
Appendix A
Metric Conversion Chart
A-1. Purpose. Thi s char t compl i es wi th curr ent Army di recti ves whi ch state that the Metr i c
System wi l l be i ncorporated i nto al l new publ i cati ons. Thi s Appendi x wi l l provi de a char t to
conver t the Engl i sh measur ements to Metr i c.
Table A-1. Metric conversion chart
To Convert Into Multiply By
Cubic feet
Cubic Centimeters
28,320.0 x 10
4
Cubic Meters 0.02832
Liters 28.32
Cubic inches
Cubic Centimeters 28,320.0
Cubic Meters
1.639 x 10
-5
Liters 0.01639
Feet
Centimeters 6.0
Kilometers
3.048 x 10
4
Meters 0.3048
Millimeters 304.8
Foot pound
BTU
1.286 x 10
-3
Kilowatt-hours
3.766 x 10
-7
Gallons
Cubic Centimeters 3,785.0
Cubic Feet 0.1337
Cubic Inches 231.0
Cubic Meters
3.785 x 10
-3
Liters 3.785
horsepower
BTU per min 42.44
hp (metric) 1.014
FM 5-499
Appendix-226
Temperature Conversi on Chart: Cel si us = 5/9 (F - 32)
Fahrenhei t = 9/5 (C + 32)
Inches
Centimeters 2.540
Meters
2.540 x 10
-2
Millimeters 25.40
Miles (statute)
Centimeters
1.6093 x 10
5
Meters 1,609.3
Kilometers 1.609.3
Miles/hr
cms/sec 44.70
kms/hr 1.609
kms/min 0.02682
Pounds Kilograms 0.4536
Pounds/sq in (psi) kgs/sq meter 703.1
Square Inches sq centimeters 6.452
Square feet
sq cms 929.0
sq meters 0.09290
sq millimeters
9.290 x 10
4
Square miles
sq kms 2.590
sq meters
2.590 x 10
6
Tons
Kilograms 907.1848
Tons (metric) .9078
Yards
Centimeters 91.44
Kilometers
9.144 x 10
-4
Meters 0.9144
Millimeters 914.4
Table A-1. Metric conversion chart
To Convert Into Multiply By
FM 5-499
Glossary-227
Glossary
F degr ee Fahr ehhei t
AC al ter nati ng current
ASA Amer i can Standar ds Associ ati on
ATTN attenti on
axial piston pump A pump i n whi ch the pi stons str oke i n the same di rec-
ti on on the cyl i nder bl ock's centerl i ne; these pumps
are ei ther an i n-l i ne or angl e desi gn.
Bernoulli's Principle Law whi ch states that the stati c pr essur e of a movi ng
l i qui d vari es i nversel y wi th i ts vel oci ty; that i s, as ve-
l oci ty i ncr eases, stati c pr essur e decr eases.
BTU Bri ti sh ther mal uni t
capacity Same as vol umetri c output.
cavitation A condi ti on that occur s i n pumpi ng when avai l abl e
fl ui d does not fi l l the exi sti ng space; cavi tati on causes
er osi on of the metal i n the i nl et and speeds deter i or a-
ti on of the hydraul i c oi l .
centrifugal pump A nonposi ti ve-di spl acement pump that i s used i n a
hydr aul i c system wher e a l arge vol ume of fl ow i s r e-
qui red at rel ati vel y l ow pressures; a centr i fugal pump
i s ei ther a vol ute or di ffuser type.
cfs cubi c foot (feet) per second
chassis ground The di ffer ence of potenti al between a poi nt i n the ci r -
cui t and a ground poi nt that i s measured by the vol t-
meter . Al so cal l ed common ground. See also earth
ground; ground; zero reference point.
FM 5-499
Glossary-228
closed-center system A pump system wher e the pump conti nues to oper ate
agai nst a l oad i n the neutr al condi ti on.
common ground Same as chassis ground.
cyl cyl i nder
cylinder A hydraul i c actuator that i s constructed of a pi ston or
pl unger whi ch oper ates i n a cyl i ndr i cal housi ng by the
acti on of l i qui d under pressur e; a cyl i nder can be one
of sever al types: si ngl e acti ng, doubl e acti ng, di ffer en-
ti al , nondi ffer enti al , ram type, pi ston type, cushi oned,
or l ockout.
DA Department of the Ar my
DC di r ect current
delivery rate Same as vol umetri c output.
directional-control valves Val ves that control the fl ow di recti on; they can be a
poppet, a sl i di ng-spool , a check, a two-way, or a four-
way val ve. See also flow-control valves, pressure-
control valves; valves.
displacement The amount of l i qui d that i s tr ansfer r ed fr om the
pump's i nl et to i ts outl et i n one r evol uti on or cycl e;
di spl acement i s ei ther fi xed or var i abl e. See al so
fi xed-di spl acement pump; var i abl e-di spl acement
pump.
displacement principle Pr i nci pl e whi ch expl ai ns how fl ui d i s taken i n at one
poi nt and i s di spl aced to another poi nt; di spl acement
i s ei ther nonposi ti ve or posi ti ve. See also nonposi ti ve-
di spl acement pump; posi ti ve-di spl acement pump.
earth ground Connecti ons to ground that are made for safety r ea-
sons. See also chassis ground; ground; zero refer-
ence point.
energy The abi l i ty to do wor k, expr essed i n ft l b. See also
friction; heat energy; kinetic energy; potential
energy.
fixed-displacement pump A pump i n whi ch the GPM output can be changed onl y
by var yi ng the dri ve speed. See also displacement;
variable-displacement pump.
flow The movement of the hydr aul i c fl ui d caused by a di f-
ference i n the pressur e at two poi nts; vel oci ty and
fl ow r ate ar e the two ways to measur e fl ow. See also
FM 5-499
Glossary-229
flow rate; vel oci ty.
flow rate The measur e of how much vol ume of a l i qui d passes a
gpoi nt i n a gi ven ti me, measur e i n GPM. See also
flow; velocity.
flow-control valves Val ves that ar e used to contr ol the actuator speed by
meteri ng the fl ow; they can be a gate, a gl obe, a nee-
dl e, a restri ctor, an ori fi ce-check, or a fl ow-equl i zer
val ve. See also directional-control valves;
pressure-control valves; valves.
FM fi el d manual
force Anythi ng that tends to pr oduce or modi fy moti on, ex-
pr essed i n pounds.
fps foot (feet) per second
FPT fl ow, pressure, and temperatur e
friction The resi stance to r el ati ve moti on between two bodi es.
See also energy; heat energy; kinetic energy; po-
tential energy.
ft foot (feet)
ft lb foot-pound
GPM gal l on(s) per mi nute
ground A poi nt of r eference i n an el ectri cal ci r cui t to whi ch al l
ci r cui t vol tages are compared; ci r cui t vol tages are ei -
ther posi ti ve or negati ve wi th r espect to ground. See
also chassis ground; earth ground; zero refer-
ence point.
head The ver ti cal di stance between two l evel s i n a fl ui d.
heat energy The energy a body possesses because of i ts heat; con-
si der ed a dynami c factor . See also energy; friction
kinetic energy; potential energy.
hp hor sepower ; standard uni t of power ; one HP i s equal
to 550 ft l b of wor k ever y second.
HP hydr aul i c hp
HQ headquarters
hydraulic actuator A pi ece of equi pment that r ecei ves pr essur e ener gy
FM 5-499
Glossary-230
and conver ts i t to mechni cal for ce and moti on.
hydraulic motors A pi ece of equi pment that conver ts hydr aul i c energy
i nto mechani cal ener gy; hydraul i c motor s can be gear ,
vane, or pi ston types.
hydraulic testers l i ghtwei ght uni ts used to check or tr oubl eshoot a hy-
dr aul i c-power ed system.
hydraulics The sci ence of tr ansmi tti ng force and/or moti on
thr ough the medi um of a confi ned l i qui d.
ID i nsi de di ameter
J IC Joi nt I ndustry Confer ence
kinetic energy The ener gy a body possesses because of i ts moti on; the
amount of ki neti c ener gy i n a movi ng l i qui d i s di rectl y
pr opor ti onal to the squar e of i ts vel oci ty; consi der ed a
dynami c factor . See also friction; heat energy; po-
tential energy; velocity pressure.
laminar flow Fl ow that occurs when par ti cl es of a l i qui d move i n
strai ght l i nes par al l el to the fl ow di r ecti on. See also
turbulent flow.
lb pound
MO Mi ssour i
N C nor mal l y cl osed
N O normal l y open
nonpositive-displacement pump Thi s type of pump di schar ges l i qui d i n a conti nuous
fl ow. See also displacement principle; positive-
displacement pump.
OD outsi de di ameter
open-center system A pump system wher e the pump's output has a fr ee
fl ow path back to the reser voi r i n the ci rcui t's neutral
condi ti on.
Pascal's Law Basi c l aw of hydr aul i cs that Bl ai se Pascal for mul ated
i n the 17th century; Pascal states that pressure i n a
FM 5-499
Glossary-231
confi ned fl ui d i s transmi tted undi mi ni shed i n every
di r ecti on and acts wi th equal for ce on equal ar ea and
at ri ght angl es to the contai ner 's wal l s.
positive-displacement pump Thi s type of pump di schar ges vol umes of l i qui d that
ar e separated by per i ods of no di scharge. See also dis-
placement principle; nonpositive-displacement
pump.
potential energy Energy due to posi ti on; i n hydr aul i cs, potenti al ener -
gy i s a stati c factor . See also energy; friction; heat
energy; kinetic energy.
pressure The for ce exer ted agai nst a speci fi c ar ea, expr essed i n
psi .
pressure-control valves Val ves that may l i mi t or r egul ate pr essur e, cr eate a
par ti cul ar pr essure condi ti on requi red for control , or
cause actuator s to oper ate i n a speci fi c or der . Pr es-
sure-contr ol val ves can be a r el i ef, a pr essure-r educ-
i ng, a sequence, or a counter bal ance val ve. See also
directional-control valves; flow-control valves;
valves.
psi pound(s) per square i nch
radial piston pump A pump i n whi ch the pi stons ar e arr anged l i ke wheel
spokes i n a shor t cyl i ndr i cal bl ock.
reciprocating pump A type of pump that depends on a reci procati ng mo-
ti on to transmi t l i qui d fr om i ts i nl et si de to i ts outl et
si de.
resistance A condi ti on i n a hydr aul i c system that i s usual l y
caused by a r estri cti on or obstructi on i n the path or
fl ow.
rotary pump A posi ti ve-di spl acement pump i n whi ch r otary moti on
car ri es the l i qui d fr om the pump's i nl et to i ts oul et.
rpm revol uti on(s) per mi nute
slippage The measur e of a pump's effi ci ency expr essed i n per -
cent; oi l l eaks fr om the pr essur e outl et to a l ow-pr es-
sur e ar ea or back to the i nl et; some sl i ppage i s
desi gned i nto pump systems for l ubr i cati on pur poses.
SPDT si ngl e pol e-doubl e throw swi tch
SPST si ngl e pol e-si ngl e throw swi tch
sq in square i nches
Other titles available online www.govmedia.com
FM 5-499
Glossary-232
STOP system Tr oubl eshooti ng system i n hydr aul i cs i n whi ch a per-
son shoul d Study the ci r uci t di agrams, Test by usi ng
a r el i abl e tester , Organi ze the knowl edge gai ned fr om
the ci rcui t-test r esul ts, and Per for m r epai r s, taki ng
ti me to do the job wel l .
torque Ci rcul ar for ce on an object.
turbulent flow Fl ow that devel ops when fl ow speed i ncr eases beyond
a gi ven poi nt. See also laminar flow.
two-stage pump A pump that consi sts of two separate pump assem-
bl i es that are contai ned i n one housi ng.
typical mobile circuits Hydraul i c-l i ft, power -steeri ng, and r oad-patrol -truck
ci r cui ts.
USAES Uni ted States Army Engi neer School
USASI Uni ted States of Amer i can Standar ds I nsti tute
valves Objects i n a hydr aul i c system that control the opera-
ti on of the actuator s; val ves r egul ate pressur e by cr e-
ati ng speci al pressur e condi ti ons and by contr ol l i ng
how much oi l wi l l fl ow i n porti ons of the ci rcui t and
wher e i t wi l l go. See also directional-control
valves; flow-control valves; pressure-control
valves.
vane-type pump A pump i n whi ch a sl otted r otor spl i ned to a dri ve
shaft r otates between cl osel y fi tted si de pl ates that
are i nsi de of an el l i pti cal - or ci r cul ar-shaped r i ng;
vane pumps can be coubl e, unbal anced, or bal anced.
variable-displacement pump A pump i n whi ch the pumpi ng-chamber si zes can be
changed; the GPM del i very can be changed by movi ng
the di spl acement contr ol , changi ng the dri ve speed, or
doi ng both. See also displacement; fixed-
displacement pump.
velocity The aver age speed of a fl ui d's par ti cl es past a gi ven
poi nt, measured i n fps. See also flow; flow rate.
velocity pressure Pr essure caused by ki neti c energy. See also kinetic
energy.
volumetric output The amount of l i qui d a pump can del i ver at i ts outl et
por t per uni t of ti me at a gi ven dr i ve speed, usual l y
expr essed i n GPM or cubi c i nches per mi nute. Al so
cal l ed delivery rate or capacity.
FM 5-499
Glossary-233
V vol t
VOM vol t-ohm-mi l l ammeter
work The measure of force mul ti pl i ed by di stance.
zero reference point vol tage poi nt i n an el ectri cal ci rcui t that i s nei ther
negati ve or posi ti ve. See also chassis ground, earth
ground; ground.
FM 5-499
References-1
References
SOURCES USED
These ar e the sources quoted or paraphrased i n thi s publ i cati on.
Nonmilitary Publications
Hydraulics. Deer e and Company Servi ce Publ i cati ons, Mol i ne, I l l i noi s. 1997.
I ndustrial Hyydraulics Manual. Vi ckers Trai ni ng Center , Rochester Hi l l s, Mi chi gan. 1993.
DOCUMENTS NEEDED
These documents must be avai l abl e to the user s of thi s publ i cati on;
Department of the Army Forms
DA For m 2028. Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms. Februar y 1974.
Index
A
accumulators (para 2-6)
bag-type (para 2-6b)
maintenance of (para 2-6d)
piston-type (para 2-6c)
spring-loaded (para2-6a)
actuator
air vents (para 4-3j)
American Standards Association (ASA) (para 6-2)
area (para 1-1b)
ASA. See American Standards Association (ASA)
assembling a clamp-type coupling (para 2-10d)
assembling a conductor (para 2-10d)
B
baffle plate (para 2-3f)
bends in tubing (para 2-9d)
Bernouillis principle (para 1-4d)
C
camshaft (para 5-2d(1))
capacity (para 3-2)
centrifugal force (para 4-4b)
cfs. See cubic foot (feet) per second (cfs)
circuits
hydraulic-lift (para 6-3a)
mobile (para 6-3a)
operation problems in (para 6-4a)
power-steering (para 6-3b)
road-patrol-truck (para 6-3c)
testing (para 6-4b)
troubleshooting (para 6-4)
circulatory system (para 2-9)
requirements (para 2-9)
colors in figures (para 2-2)
connecting tubing (para 2-9d)
connectors (para 2-10)
flared (para 2-10b)
threaded (para 2-10a)
couplings (para 2-3f)
flexible-hose (para 2-10c)
cubic foot (feet) per second (cfs) (para 2-7)
cylinder block (para 3-8a(2)), (para 3-8a(5))
cylinder housing (para 4-1)
cylinder ports (para 4-2)
cylinders (para 4-1)
construction of (para 4-2)
cushioned (para 4-1g)
differential (para 4-1c)
double-acting (4-1b)
lockout (para 4-1h)
nondifferential (para 4-1d)
piston (para 4-1)
piston-type (para 4-1f)
problems with, abrasives on a piston rod (para 4-3h)
problems with, burrs on a piston rod (para 4-3i)
problems with, creeping (para 4-3c)
problems with, loose mounting (para 4-3e)
problems with, misalignment (para 4-3f)
problems with, no lubrication (para 4-3g)
problems with, sluggish operation (para 4-3d)
ram-type (para 4-1), (para 4-1e)
single-acting (para 4-1a)
D
dash number of tubing (para 2-9a)
delivery rate (para 3-2)
diagrams
hydraulic-circuit (para 6-1)
hydraulic-circuit, block (para 6-1a)
hydraulic-circuit, cutaway (para 6-1b)
diode (para 7-2b(5))
displacement (para 3-3), (para 4-4), (para 4-4c(1))
distance (para 1-2)
drive shaft (para 3-8b(1))
E
electrical equipment (para 7-4a)
practices (para 7-4b)
safety (para 7-4)
energy (para 1-4)
heat (para 1-4c)
kinetic (para 1-4b), (para 1-4d)
potential (para 1-4a), (para 1-4d
F
filters (para 2-4b)
active, absorbent (para 2-5)
element, depth-type (para 2-5)
element, edge-type (para 2-5)
element, surface-type (para 2-5)
full-flow (para 2-4b(1))
inactive, absorbent (para 2-5)
mechanical (para 2-5)
proportional-flow (para 2-4b(2))
fittings (para 2-10)
crosses (para 2-10b)
elbows (para 2-10b)
skived (para 2-10d)
unions (para 2-10b)
flared connectors leaking (para 2-10b)
flaring a tube (para 2-9d)
flow (para 1-3), (para 2-7), (para 3-1), (para 5-2c(2)), (para 5-2e)
laminar (para 1-4c)
turbulent (para 1-4c)
flow, pressure, and temperature (FPT) (para 6-4d)
fluid pressure (para 4-1f)
foot (feet) per second (fps) (para 1-3a)
foot-pound (ft lb) (para 1-4)
force (para 1-1b), (para 1-2)
fps. See foot (feet) per second (fps)
FPT. See flow, pressure, and temperature (FPT)
friction (para 1-4c), (para 1-4d)
ft lb. See foot-pound (ft lb)
G
gallon(s) per minute (GPM) (para 1-3b)
gas (para 1-1)
gauges
pressure (para 2-7)
GPM. See gallon(s) per minute (GPM)
gravity (para 4-1f)
ground (para 7-3)
chassis or common (para 7-3b)
earth (para 7-3a)
zero reference point (para 7-3c)
H
head (para 1-1a), (para 1-4c)
horsepower (HP) (para 1-4f), (para 2-1c(3))
hose (para 2-9c(1))
rubber (para 2-9c(1))
Teflon-type (para 2-9c(2))
HP. See horsepower (HP)
hydraulic balance (para 5-1)
hydraulic boost (para 6-3b)
hydraulic motors (para 4-4)
bent-axis piston-type (para 4-4c(2))
gear-type (para 4-4a)
in-line-axis piston-type (para 4-4c(1))
piston-type (para 4-4c)
principal ratings of (para 4-4)
vane-type (para 4-4b)
variable-displacement (para 4-4c(2))
hydraulic pump essentials (para 3-5)
hydraulic systems (para 2-1)
closed-center (para 2-1d), (para 2-1d), (para 2-1d)
hydraulic-jack (para 2-1a)
improperly operating (para 2-8b)
motor-reversing (para 2-1b)
open-center (para 2-1c)
problems with (para 6-4f)
solutions for (para 6-4g)
with fixed-displacement pump and accumulator (para 2-1d(1))
with flow divider (para 2-1c(3))
with series connection (para 2-1c(1))
with series/parallel connection (para 2-1c(2))
with variable-displacement pump (para 2-1c(2))
hydraulic transmission (para 4-4c(2))
I
ID. See inside diameter (ID)
inside diameter (ID) (para 2-9b)
J
JIC. See Joint Industry Conference (JIC)
Joint Industry Conference (JIC) (para 6-2)
L
leakage
external (para 2-11b), (para 4-3a)
in a hydraulic system (para 2-11)
internal (para 2-11a), (para 4-3b)
prevention of (para 2-11c)
prevention of by properly operating equipment (para 2-11c(2))
prevention of through maintenance of equipment (para 2-11c(3))
prevention of through proper installation of materials (para 2-11c(1))
lines in liquid-powered systems (para 2-9)
flexible hosing (para 2-9c)
piping (para 2-9b)
tubing (para 2-9a)
liquid (para 1-1a), (para 1-4c)
levels (para 1-1a(1))
M
metering (para 5-3)
meters (para 2-7b)
nutating-piston-disc type (para 2-7b)
O
OD. See outside diameter (OD)
O-ring (para 5-2a), (para 5-2e(1)), (para 5-23(2))
O-rings (para 2-12b(1))
outside diameter (OD) (para 2-9a)
override (para 5-1)
P
packing (para 2-12c)
Pascals law (para 1-2)
pilot-valve assembly (para 5-1b(1))
pintle (para 3-8a(1))
pistons (para 3-8a(3))
Pitman arm (para 6-3b)
pivots (para 4-3)
port connections (para 6-2c)
potentiometer (para 7-2b(1))
pound(s) per square inch (psi) (para 1-1), (para 1-1a(2))
power (para 1-4f)
power-steering system (para 6-3b)
pressure (para 1-1), (para 1-1a), (para 2-7), (para 3-2), (para 4-4b), (para 5-1b), (para 5-1b(1))
atmospheric (para 1-1a), (para 1-1a(2)), (para 2-7a)
static (para 1-4c), (para 1-4d)
pressure plate (para 4-4b)
pressure switches (para 5-1e)
psi. (Emphasis>See pound(s) per square inch (psi)
psi. See pound(s) per square inch (psi)
pump
volute (para 3-5a)
pump cavitation (para 2-3d)
pumps
centrifugal (para 3-5a)
characteristics of (para 3-1c)
characteristics of vane-type (para 3-7a)
charging (para 2-1d(2))
design (para 3-5)
diffuser (para 3-5a(2))
displacement (para 3-8b(1)(a))
external gear (para 3-6a)
fixed-displacement (para 3-3a)
in-lin, operation of (para 3-8b(1)(c))
in-line, components of (para 3-8b(1)(b))
in-line, wobble-plate type (para 3-8b(2))
internal gear (para 3-6b)
lobe (para 3-6c)
nonpositive-displacement (para 3-1a)
operating problems, cavitation (para 3-9c)
operating problems, excess speed (para 3-9b)
operating problems, no delivery (para 3-9d(3))
operating problems, noise (para 3-9d(4))
operating problems, overloading (para 3-9)
operating problems, pressure loss (para 3-9d(1))
operating problems, slow operation (para 3-9d(2))
piston (para 3-8)
piston, axial-type (para 3-8b)
piston, bent-axis type (para 3-8b(3))
piston, in-line-type (para 3-8b(1))
piston, radial-type (para 3-8a)
positive-displacement (para 3-1b)
reciprocating (para 3-5c)
two-stage design (para 3-7e)
types of (para 3-a)
vane (para 3-7)
vane-type, balanced design (para 3-7c)
vane-type, double design (para 3-7d)
vane-type, unbalanced design (para 3-7b)
variable-displacement (para 3-3b)
R
relay (para 7-2b(3))
replacing hose (para 2-10c)
reservoir (para 2-3), (para 6-2a)
construction of (para 2-3a)
location of (para 2-3d)
shape of (para 2-3b)
size of (para 2-3c)
ventilation and pressurization of (para 2-3e)
reservoirs
line connections for (para 2-3f)
maintenance of (para 2-3g)
resistance (para 3-2), (para 5-1c)
revolution(s) per minute (rpm) (para 2-1d(2))
rings
backup (para 2-12b(2))
piston (para 2-12b(7))
rotors (para 3-8a(4))
rpm. See revolution(s) per minute (rpm)
S
seals (para 2-12), (para 4-2), (para 4-3)
cup (para 2-12b(6))
dynamic (para 2-12b)
face (para 2-12b(8))
lathe-cut (para 2-12b(3))
leather (para 2-12d(1))
lip (para 2-12b(5))
materials (para 2-12d)
neoprene (para 2-12d(4))
nitrile (para 2-12d(2))
nylon (para 2-12d(5))
silicone (para 2-12d(3))
static (para 2-12a)
T-ring (para 2-12b(4))
seizing in connectors (para 2-10a)
sleeve (para 2-10b)
slippage (para 3-2)
solenoid coil (para 7-2b(2))
spring tester (para 5-5b)
strainer (para 2-4a)
swash plate (para 3-8b(1)), (para 3-8b(1)(a)), (para 4-4c(1))
symbols
accumulator (para 6-2i)
cooler (para 6-2i)
cylinder (para 6-2e)
cylinder, cushioned (para 6-2e)
cylinder, double-acting (para 6-2e)
cylinder, double-end rod (para 6-2e)
cylinder, single-acting (para 6-2e)
drain line (para 6-2b)
flexible line (para 6-2b)
fluid conditioner (para 6-2i)
graphical, United States of American Standards Institute (USASI) (para 6-2)
hydraulic lines (para 6-2b)
motor (para 6-2d)
pilot line (para 6-2b)
pump (para 6-2c)
reservoir (para 6-2a)
valves, check (para 6-2f(3))
Other titles available online www.govmedia.com
valves, counterbalance (para 6-2f(4)
valves, directional-control (para 6-2h)
valves, flow-control (para 6-2g)
valves, four-way (para 6-2h(2))
valves, mobile directional (para 6-2h(3)
valves, pressure-control (para 6-2f)
valves, pressure-reducing (para 6-2f(5))
valves, relief (para 6-2f(1))
valves, sequence (para 6-2f(2))
valves, unloading (para 6-2h(1))
working line (para 6-2b)
T
testers
hydraulic-circuit (para 2-8a)
testing devices for electical circuits. See potentiometer, solenoid coil, relay, transformer, diode
torque (para 4-4b), (para 4-4c(2))
transformer (para 7-2b(4))
troubleshooting procedures for electrical circuits (para 7-2a)
analyze the symptom (para 7-2a(2))
identify the symptom (para 7-2a(1))
isolate the faulty circuit (para 7-2a(4))
isolate the single faulty function (para 7-2a(3))
locate/verify the cause of the malfunction (para 7-2a(5))
tube installation (para 2-9d)
tube maintenance (para 2-9d)
U
USASI. See symbols
graphical, United States of American Standards Institute (USASI)
V
valves (para 2-1a)
assembly of (para 5-6)
check (para 5-2c)
check, elements of (para 5-2c)
check, orifice (para 5-3e)
check, pilot-operated (para 5-2c(3))
check, pilot-operated-type (para 5-2c(3))
check, restriction-type (para 5-2c(2))
check, standard-type (para 5-2c(1))
closed-center spool (para 5-2e(2))
compensated flow for (para 5-4d)
compound-relief-type (para 5-1a(2))
control (para 2-1c(1)), (para 2-1d), (para 2-1d(1))
counterbalance (para 5-1d)
repairing (para 5-5c)
restrictor (para 5-3d)
rotary-spool-type (para 5-2)
seats and poppets (para 5-5c(4))
sequence (para 5-1c)
sequence, application of (para 5-1c)
servicing (para 5-5a)
simple-relief-type (para5-1a(1))
sliding-spool (para 5-2b)
sliding-spool-type (para 5-2)
solenoid-operated two-and four-way (para 5-2e(5))
troubleshooting of (para 5-7)
two-way (para 5-2d)
unloading-type, unloading problem (para 5-7a(4))
variations of flow-control (para 5-3)
volume-control (para 5-5c(2))
volume-control, flow-variation problem (para 5-7c)
volume-control, improper-flow problem (para 5-7c)
volume-control, oil-heating problem (para 5-7c)
volume-control, pressure problem (para 5-7c)
XC-series pressure-reducing (para 5-1b(2))
X-series pressure-reducing (para 5-1b(1))
velocity (para 1-3a), (para 1-4d)
venturi throat (para 2-4b(2))
volumetric output (para 3-2)
W
weight para 1-1a)
water (para 1-1a)
wipers (para 4-2)
work (para 1-4e)
working parts of a pump (para 3-8a)
Y
yoke (para3-8b(1)(c))
FM 5-499
1 AUGUST 1997
By Order of the Secretary of the Army:
DENNIS J. REIMER
General, United States Army
Official: Chief of Staff
Administrative Assistant to the
Secretary of the Army
03710
DISTRIBUTION:
Active Army, Army National Guard, and U.S. Army Reserve: To be distributed in
accordance with the initial distribution number 115487, requirements for FM 5-499.

Training Solutions

Training Solutions

Hydraulics

Training Manual 3

Basic Hydraulic System & Components

TABLE OF CONTENTS


Section Page

Subcourse Overview ................................................................................................................... i

Terminal Learning Objective....................................................................................................... ii

Administrative Instructions ......................................................................................................... iv

Grading and Certification Instructions ........................................................................................ iv

Lesson 1: Hydraulic Reservoirs, Filters, Pumps,
Accumulators, and Motors ........................................................................................ 1

Practice Exercise ....................................................................................................... 19

Answer Key and Feedback ....................................................................................... 22

Lesson 2: Basic Construction and Operation of Hydraulic
Actuating Devices, Flow Control, and Directional
Devices....................................................................................................................... 25

Practice Exercise ....................................................................................................... 43

Answer Key and Feedback ....................................................................................... 46

Lesson 3: Hydraulic Pressure-Limiting, Controlling, and
Sensing Devices......................................................................................................... 49

Practice Exercise ....................................................................................................... 55

Answer Key and Feedback ....................................................................................... 58

Examination ................................................................................................................................ 61

Appendix: Glossary ..................................................................................................................... 69

Student Inquiry Sheets







iii AL0926

GRADING AND CERTIFICATION INSTRUCTIONS

Examination: This subcourse contains a multiple-choice examination covering the material contained in
this subcourse. After studying the lessons and working through the practice exercises, complete the
examination. Mark your answers in the subcourse booklet, then transfer them to the ACCP Examination
Response Sheet. Completely black out the lettered oval which corresponds to your selection (A, B, C,
or D). Use a number 2 lead pencil to mark your responses. When you complete the ACCP examination
response sheet, mail it in the preaddressed envelope you received with this subcourse. You will receive
an examination score in the mail. You will receive Four credit hours for successful completion of this
examination.





































iv AL0926

LESSON 1

HYDRAULIC RESERVOIRS, FILTERS, PUMPS, ACCUMULATORS, AND MOTORS


STP Tasks: 552-758-1063
552-758-1071



OVERVIEW


LESSON DESCRIPTION:

In this lesson you will learn the basic operation of the hydraulic reservoirs, filters, pumps, accumulators,
and motors.

TERMINAL LEARNING OBJECTIVE:

ACTION: After this lesson you will demonstrate knowledge of hydraulic reservoirs, filters,
pumps, accumulators, and motors.

CONDITIONS: You will study the material in this lesson in a classroom environment or at your
home.

STANDARD: You will correctly answer all the questions in the practice exercise before you
proceed to the next lesson.

REFERENCES: The material contained in this lesson was derived from the following publications:
AR 310-25, AR 310-50, FM 1-500, FM 1-509, TM 1-1500-204-23 Series, TM 55-
1510-Series (Fixed Wing Maintenance Manuals), TM 55-1520-Series (Rotary wing
Maintenance Manuals) and TM 4301A 05 0267 (Air Force)














1 AL0926

INTRODUCTION

A means of storing hydraulic fluid and minimizing contamination is necessary to any aircraft hydraulic
system. These functions are performed by reservoirs and filters. The component which causes fluid
flow in a hydraulic system--the heart of any hydraulic system--can be a hand pump, power-driven pump,
accumulator, or any combination of the three. Finally, a means of converting hydraulic pressure to
mechanical rotation is sometimes necessary, and this is accomplished by a hydraulic motor.

HYDRAULIC RESERVOIRS

The hydraulic reservoir is a container for holding the fluid required to supply the system, including a
reserve to cover any losses from minor leakage and evaporation. The reservoir can be designed to
provide space for fluid expansion, permit air entrained in the fluid to escape, and to help cool the fluid.
Figure 1-1 shows two typical reservoirs. Compare the two reservoirs item by item and, except for the
filters and bypass valve, notice the similarities.

Filling reservoirs to the top during servicing leaves no space for expansion. Most reservoirs are
designed with the rim at the filler neck below the top of the reservoir to prevent overfilling. Some
means of checking the fluid level is usually provided on a reservoir. This may be a glass or plastic sight
gage, a tube, or a dipstick. Hydraulic reservoirs are either vented to the atmosphere or closed to the
atmosphere and pressurized. A description of each type follows.

Vented Reservoir. A vented reservoir is one that is open to atmospheric pressure through a vent line.
Because atmospheric pressure and gravity are the forces which cause the fluid to flow to the pump, a
vented reservoir is mounted at the highest point in the hydraulic system. Air is drawn into and
exhausted from the reservoir through a vent line. A filter is usually installed in the vent line to prevent
foreign material from being taken into the system.

Pressurized Reservoir. A pressurized reservoir is sealed from the atmosphere. This reservoir is
pressurized either by engine bleed air or by hydraulic pressure produced within the hydraulic system
itself. Pressurized reservoirs are used on aircraft intended for high altitude flight, where atmospheric
pressure is not enough to cause fluid flow to the pump.

In reservoirs pressurized by engine bleed air, the amount of air pressure is determined by an air
pressure regulator--usually 10 to 15 pounds per square inch (psi) gage. An example of a












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hydraulically pressurized reservoir used in the CH-47 hydraulic system is shown in Figure 1-2.

This reservoir, or tank as it is referred to by Boeing-Vertol, is constructed of a metal housing with
two internal pistons, one fixed and the other a floating piston which slides along a central tube.
Attached to the floating piston is a larger tube that projects through the forward end of the tank and is
calibrated to indicate FULL and REFILL fluid levels for ramp-up and ramp-down positions.


Figure 1-1. Typical Hydraulic Reservoirs.

Hydraulic fluid at 3,000 psi flows into the central tube as shown in Figure 1-2, passes through two
outlet holes, and applies pressure at the piston area between the two tubes. Because the smaller piston
has a .5-square-inch (sq in) exposed surface and the floating piston has a 30-sq-in exposed surface, the
3,000-psi pressure acting upon the smaller forward area produces an opposing pressure of 50 psi on the
return fluid stored at the rear of the piston.







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Additional Reservoir Components. Many reservoirs, as shown in Figure 1-1, are constructed with
baffles or fins to keep the fluid from swirling and foaming. Foaming can cause air to become entrained
in the system.

Filters are incorporated in some reservoirs to filter the fluid before it leaves the reservoir.

A bypass valve is used to ensure that the pump does not starve if the filter becomes clogged.

A standpipe is used in a reservoir which supplies a normal and an emergency system. The main
system draws its fluid from the standpipe, which is located at a higher elevation. This ensures an
adequate fluid supply to the secondary system if the main system fails.


Figure 1-2. Hydraulic Reservoir Pressurized With Hydraulic Fluid.

HYDRAULIC FILTER

Contamination of hydraulic fluid is one of the common causes of hydraulic system troubles. Installing
filter units in the pressure and return lines of a hydraulic system allows




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contamination to be removed from the fluid before it reaches the various operating components. Filters
of this type are referred to as line filters.

Line Filter Construction. A typical line filter is shown in Figure 1-3. It has two major parts--the
filter case, or bowl, and the filter head. The bowl holds the head that screws into it. The head has an
inlet port, outlet port, and relief valve. Normal fluid flow is through the inlet port, around the outside of
the element, through the element to the inner chamber, and out through the outlet port. The bypass
valve lets the fluid bypass the filter element if it becomes clogged.


Figure 1-3. Typical Line Filter Assembly.

Types of Filter Elements. The most common filtering element used on Army aircraft is the micronic
type. It is a disposable unit made of treated cellulose and is formed into accordion pleats, as shown in
Figure 1-3. Most filter elements are



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capable of removing all contaminants larger than 10 to 25 microns (1 micron equals 0.00004 inch).

Another type is the cuno filter element. It has a stack of closely spaced disks shaped like spoked
wheels. The hydraulic fluid is filtered as it passes between the disks.

HAND-OPERATED HYDRAULIC PUMP

The heart of any hydraulic system is the pump which converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
The source of mechanical energy may be an electric motor, the engine, or the operator's muscle.

Pumps powered by muscle are called hand pumps. They are used in emergencies as backups for power
pumps and for ground checks of the hydraulic system. The double-action hand pump produces fluid
flow with every stroke and is the only type used on Army aircraft.

Handle to the Right. The double-action hand pump, shown in Figure 1-4, consists of a cylinder
piston with built-in check valve, piston rod, operating handle, and a check valve built into the inlet port.
As the handle is moved to the right, the piston and rod also move to the right. On this stroke, the inlet
check valve opens as a result of the partial vacuum caused by the movement of the piston, allowing fluid
to be drawn into the left chamber. At the same time, the inner check valve closes. As the piston moves
to the right, the fluid in the right chamber is forced out into the system.


Figure 1-4. Double-Action Hand Pump.








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Handle to the Left. When the handle is moved to the left, the piston and rod assembly also move to
the left. The inlet check valve now closes, preventing the fluid in the left chamber from returning to the
reservoir. At the same time, the pistonhead check valve opens, allowing the fluid to enter the right
chamber.

Fluid Into the System. The pump produces pressure on both strokes because of the difference in
volume between the right and left chambers. The piston rod takes up a good share of the space in the
right chamber. Therefore, the excess fluid is forced out of the pump and into the hydraulic system,
creating fluid pressure.

PUMP-DRIVEN HYDRAULIC PUMPS

Power-driven pumps receive their driving force from an external power source, such as the aircraft
engine. This force is converted into energy in the form of fluid pressure. The four basic types of power-
driven hydraulic pumps are gear, vane, diaphragm, and piston. Of these, the piston type is most
commonly found in Army aircraft. The reason for this is that it operates more efficiently at higher
pressures and has a longer life than any of the others. Piston pumps are further categorized as either
constant delivery or variable delivery.

Pumps are coupled to their driving units by a short, splined coupling shaft, commonly called a drive
coupling. As shown in Figure 1-5, the shaft is designed with a weakened center section called a shear
section, with just enough strength to run the pump under normal circumstances. Should some trouble
develop within the pump causing it to turn unusually hard, the shear section will break. This prevents
damage to the pump or driving unit.


Figure 1-5. Pump Drive Coupling.

Constant-delivery piston pumps deliver a given quantity of fluid per revolution of the drive coupling,
regardless of pressure demands. The quantity of fluid delivered per minute depends on








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pump revolutions per minute (rpm). In a system requiring constant pressure, this type of pump must be
used with a pressure regulator. The two types of constant-delivery piston pumps used in Army aircraft
are the angular and cam.

Angular Piston Pump Construction. The basic components of an angular piston pump are shown in
Figure 1-6. They are--

(1) A rotating group consisting of a coupling shaft, universal link, connecting rods, pistons,
and cylinder block.

(2) A stationary group consisting of the valve plate and the pump case or housing.

The cylinder bores lie parallel to, and are evenly spaced around, the pump axis. For this reason, a
piston pump is often referred to as an axial piston pump.

Packings on seals are not required to control piston-to-bore leakage. This is controlled entirely by
close machining and accurate fit between piston and bore. The clearance is only enough to allow for
lubrication by the hydraulic fluid and slight expansion when the parts become heated. Pistons are
individually fitted to their bores during manufacture and must not be changed from pump to pump or
bore to bore.

Pump Operation. As the coupling shaft is turned by the pump power source, the pistons and cylinder
block turn along with it because they are interconnected. The angle that exists between the cylinder
block and coupling shaft causes the pistons to move back and forth in their respective cylinder bores as
the coupling is turned:

During the first half of a revolution of the pump, a cylinder is aligned with the inlet port in
the valve plate. At this time the piston is moving away from the valve plate and drawing
hydraulic fluid into the cylinder. During the second half of the revolution, the cylinder is
lining up with the outlet port in the valve plate. At this time, the piston is moving toward the
valve plate, thus causing fluid previously drawn into the cylinder to be forced out through the
outlet port.

Fluid is constantly being drawn into and expelled out of the pump as it turns. This provides a
multiple overlap of the individual spurts of fluid forced from the cylinders and results in
delivery of a smooth, nonpulsating flow of fluid from the pump.











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Cam-Piston Pumps. A cam is used to cause the stroking of the pistons in a cam-piston pump. Two
variations are used: in one the cam rotates and the cylinder block is stationary, and in the other the cam
is stationary and the cylinder block rotates. Both cam-piston pumps are described below:


Figure 1-6. Typical Angular Piston Pump.

Rotating-cam pump. The rotating-cam pump is the one most commonly used in Army
aviation. As the cam turns in a rotating-cam pump (Figure 1-7), its high and low points pass
alternately and in turn under each


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piston. It pushes the piston further into its bore, causing fluid to be expelled from the bore. When the
falling face of the cam comes under a piston, the piston's return spring pulls the piston down in its bore.
This causes fluid to be drawn into the bore.

Each bore has a check valve that opens to allow fluid to be expelled from the bore by the piston's
movement. These valves are closed by spring pressure during inlet strokes of the pistons. This fluid is
drawn into the bores only through the central inlet passages. The bores only through the central inlet
passages. The movement of the pistons in drawing in and expelling fluid is overlapping, resulting in a
nonpulsating fluid flow.


Figure 1-7. Typical Rotating-Cam Piston Pump.

Stationary-cam pump. The operation and construction of a stationary-cam pump are
identical to that of the rotating cam except that the cylinder block turns, not the cam. The
stationary-cam pump is not used on the Army's OV-1, AH-1G, and UH-1C.








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VARIABLE-DELIVERY PISTON PUMPS

A variable-delivery piston pump automatically and instantly varies the amount of fluid delivered to the
pressure circuit of a hydraulic system to meet varying system demands. This is accomplished by using a
compensator, which is an integral part of the pump. The compensator is sensitive to the amount of
pressure present in the pump and in the hydraulic system pressure circuit. When the circuit pressure
rises, the compensator causes the pump output to decrease.

Conversely, when circuit pressure drops, the compensator causes pump output to increase. There are
two ways of varying output--demand principle (cam) and stroke-reduction principle (angular).

Demand Principle. The demand principle (Figure 1-8) is based on varying pump output to fill the
system's changing demands by making the piston stroke effective in varying degrees.


Figure 1-8. Variable-Delivery Demand-Principle Cam Pump.







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The pistons are designed with large hollow centers. The centers are intersected by cross-drilled
relief holes that open into the pump case. Each piston is equipped with a movable sleeve, which can
block the relief holes. When these holes are not blocked, fluid displaced by the pistons is discharged
through the relief holes into the pump case, instead of past the pump check valves and out the outlet
port.

When full fluid flow is required, the sleeves are positioned to block the relief holes for the entire
length of piston stroke. When zero flow is required, the sleeves are positioned not to block the flow
during any portion of the piston stroke. For requirements between zero and full flow, the relief holes are
uncovered or blocked accordingly.

The sleeves are moved into their required positions by a device called a pump compensator piston.
The sleeves and compensator piston are interconnected by means of a spider. Fluid pressure for the
compensator piston is obtained from the discharge port (system pressure) through a control orifice.

Stroke-Reduction Principle. The stroke-reduction principle (Figure 1-9) is based on varying the
angle of the cylinder block in an angular pump. This controls the length of the piston's stroke and thus
the volume per stroke.

The cylinder block angle change is achieved by using a yoke that swivels around a pivot pin called a
pintle. The angle is automatically controlled by using a compensator assembly consisting of a pressure-
control valve, pressure-control piston, and mechanical linkage that is connected to the yoke.

As system pressure increases, the pilot valve opens a passageway allowing fluid to act on the control
piston. The piston moves, compressing its spring, and through mechanical linkage moves the yoke
toward the zero flow (zero angle) position. As system pressure decreases, the pressure is relieved on the
piston, and its spring moves the pump into the full flow position.

HYDRAULIC ACCUMULATORS

The purpose of a hydraulic accumulator is to store hydraulic fluid under pressure. It may be used to--:

Dampen hydraulic shocks which may develop when pressure surges occur in hydraulic systems.

Add to the output of a pump during peak load operation of the system, making it possible to use
a pump of much smaller capacity than would otherwise be required.











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Absorb the increases in fluid volume caused by increases in temperature.

Act as a source of fluid pressure for starting aircraft auxiliary power units (APUs).

Assist in emergency operations.


Figure 1-9. Variable Stroke-Reduction Pump.


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Accumulators are divided into types according to the means used to separate the air fluid chambers;
these are the diaphragm, bladder, and piston accumulators.

Diaphragm Accumulator. The diaphragm accumulator consists of two hollow, hemispherical metal
sections bolted together at the center. Notice in Figure 1-10 that one of the halves has a fitting to attach
the unit to the hydraulic system; the other half is equipped with an air valve for charging the unit with
compressed air or nitrogen. Mounted between the two halves is a synthetic rubber diaphragm that
divides the accumulator into two sections. The accumulator is initially charged with air through the air
valve to a pressure of approximately 50 percent of the hydraulic system pressure. This initial air charge
forces the diaphragm upward against the inner surface of the upper section of the accumulator.


Figure 1-10. Diaphragm Accumulator.

When fluid pressure increases above the initial air charge, fluid is forced into the upper chamber
through the system





14 AL0926

pressure port, pushing the diaphragm down and further compressing the air in the bottom chamber.
Under peak load, the air pressure in the lower chamber forces fluid back into the hydraulic system to
maintain operating pressure. Also, if the power pump fails, the compressed air forces a limited amount
of pressurized fluid into the system.

Bladder Accumulator. The bladder accumulator operates on the same principle and for the same
purpose as the diaphragm accumulator but varies in construction, as shown in Figure 1-11. The unit is a
one-piece metal sphere with a fluid pressure inlet at the top and an opening at the bottom for inserting
the bladder. A large screw-type plug at the bottom of the accumulator is a retainer for the bladder that
also seals the unit. A high-pressure air valve is also incorporated in the retainer plug. Fluid enters
through the system pressure port. As fluid pressure increases above the initial air charge of the
accumulator, it forces the bladder downward against the air


Figure 1-11. Bladder Accumulator.




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charge, filling the upper chamber with fluid pressure. The broken lines in Figure 1-11 indicate the
approximate position of the bladder at the time of the initial air charge.

Piston Accumulator. The piston accumulator serves the same purpose and operates by the same
principles as do the diaphragm and bladder accumulators. As shown in Figure 1-12, the unit consists of
a cylinder and piston assembly with ports on each end. Fluid pressure from the system enters the left
port, forcing the piston down against the initial air charge in the right chamber of the cylinder. A high-
pressure air valve is located at the right port for charging the unit. A drilled passage from the fluid side
of the piston to the outside of the piston provides lubrication between the cylinder walls and the piston.


Figure 1-12. Piston Accumulator.

HYDRAULIC MOTORS

Hydraulic motors are installed in hydraulic systems to use hydraulic pressure in obtaining powered
rotation. A hydraulic motor does just the opposite of what a power-driven pump does. A pump receives
rotative force from an engine or other driving unit and converts it into hydraulic pressure. A hydraulic
motor receives hydraulic fluid pressure and converts it into rotative force.

Figure 1-13 shows a typical hydraulic motor. The two main ports through which fluid pressure is
received and return fluid is discharged are marked A and B, respectively. The motor has a cylinder
block-and-piston assembly in which the bores and pistons are in axial arrangement, the same as in a
hydraulic pump. Hydraulic motors can be instantly started, stopped, or reversed under any degree of
load; they can be stalled by










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overload without damage. The direction of rotation of a hydraulic motor can be changed by reversing
the flow of fluid into the ports of the motor.


Figure 1-13. Typical Hydraulic Motor.

SUMMARY

The basic components of any hydraulic system are reservoirs, filters, and pumps (hand or power-driven).
The reservoir holds the fluid supply for the system and helps cool the fluid. Filters are used to ensure
that no contamination reaches the components in a hydraulic system. The pleated micronic filter is the
most common.

The pump converts mechanical energy to fluid flow. The most common power-driven pump is the
piston pump. In all but the simplest hydraulic systems, variable-delivery pumps are used. A variable-
delivery pump delivers only the amount of fluid demanded by the system. This is accomplished through
the use of a compensator.

Depending on the type of aircraft, hydraulic accumulators and hydraulic motors can also be found in the
system. Accumulators are used primarily to supply pressure for starting auxiliary power units and
emergency hydraulic pressure. Hydraulic motors perform a variety of functions, including raising and
lowering cargo doors, operating rescue hoists, and positioning wing flaps.









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LESSON 1

PRACTICE EXERCISE

The following items will test your grasp of the material covered in this lesson. There is only one correct
answer for each item. When you have completed the exercise, check your answers with the answer key
that follows. If you answer any item incorrectly, study again that part of the lesson which contains the
portion involved.

1. The pistons and cylinder block rotate at what RPM?

___ A. The same.
___ B. 500 RPM.
___ C. 750 RPM.
___ D. 1500 RPM.

2. How many types of hydraulic reservoirs are there?

___ A. One.
___ B. Two.
___ C. Three.
___ D. Four.

3. The stationary-cam pump is NOT used on what three Army aircraft?

___ A. UH-1H, AH-1S, and OV-1B.
___ B. UH-1D, AH-1H, and OV-1.
___ C. OV-1A, AH-1G, and UH-1E.
___ D. OV-1, AH-1G, and UH-1C.

4. What type of pump is often used in Army aviation?

___ A. Piston pump.
___ B. Rotating-cam pump.
___ C. Demand-principle compensator pump.
___ D. Rotating-compensator pump.

5. What is used to control piston-to-bore leakage in piston pumps?

___ A. Wiper rings.
___ B. O-rings.
___ C. Seals.
___ D. Close machining.




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6. What type hydraulic pump would you most likely find on an Army AH-1?

___ A. Compensator pump.
___ B. Drive pump.
___ C. Piston pump.
___ D. Auxiliary pump.

7. The angular pump uses what type of compensator?

___ A. Stroke-reduction.
___ B. Reduction-stroke.
___ C. Cam-reduction.
___ D. Piston-reduction.

8. What component in a hydraulic system protects against pressure surges?

___ A. Double-check valve.
___ B. Stationary-cam pump.
___ C. Accumulator.
___ D. Hand-operated pump.

9. What type of pump has a check valve built into the piston?

___ A. Double-action hand pump.
___ B. Single-action hand pump.
___ C. Single-action cam pump.
___ D. Double-action cam pump.

10. What valve opens as the handle is moved to the right?

___ A. Double check valve.
___ B. Single check valve.
___ C. Outlet check valve.
___ D. Inlet check valve.













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LESSON 1

PRACTICE EXERCISE

ANSWER KEY AND FEEDBACK


Item Correct Answer and Feedback

1. A. The same RPM.

Both operate alike because they are connected. (Page 8)

2. B. 2.

The two types of reservoirs are classified as vented and pressurized. (Page 2)

3. D. OV-l, AH-1G, and UH-1C.

All Army aircraft do not have the stationary-cam pump as an operating component. (Page
10)

4. B. Rotating-cam pump.

More Army aircraft use the rotating-cam pump than any type. (Page 9)

5. D. Close machining.

The piston and bore fit so closely that no other component is necessary to stop leakage.
(Page 8)

6. C. Piston pump.

The Army has selected the most efficient, longest-lasting hydraulic pump to be used on its
aircraft. (Page 7)

7. A. Stroke-reduction principle.

The length of the stroke can be controlled by angling the cylinder block. (Page 12)

8. C. Accumulator.

The accumulator can absorb increases in fluid volume to prevent damage to the system.
(Page 12)



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9. A. Double-action hand pump.

The double-action hand pump has two check valves which allow fluid to be drawn into the
left and right chambers. (Page 6)

10. D. Inlet check valve.

Moving the handle to the right results in a slight vacuum, which opens the inlet check valve
as a result of the partial vacuum caused by the movement of the piston, allowing fluid to be
drawn into the left chamber. (Page 6)





































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24 AL0926

LESSON 2

BASIC CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF HYDRAULIC
ACTUATING DEVICES, FLOW CONTROL, AND DIRECTIONAL DEVICES


STP Tasks: 552-758-1003
552-758-1071


OVERVIEW


LESSON DESCRIPTION:

In this lesson you will learn the basic construction and operation of hydraulic actuating devices, flow
control, and directional devices.

TERMINAL LEARNING OBJECTIVE:

ACTION: After this lesson you will demonstrate a knowledge of the basic construction and
operation of hydraulic actuating devices, flow control, and directional devices.

CONDITIONS: You will study the material in this lesson in a classroom environment or at home.

STANDARD: You will correctly answer all the questions in the practice exercise before you
proceed to the next lesson.

REFERENCES: The material contained in this lesson was derived from the following publications:
AR 310-25, AR 310-50, FM 1-500, FM 1-509, TM 1-1500-204-23 Series, TM 55-
1510-Series, TM 55-1520-Series and TM 4301A 05 0267 (Airforce).


INTRODUCTION


So that fluid pressure produced by a pump can be used to move some object, the pressure must be
converted to usable forces by









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means of an actuating unit. A device called an actuating cylinder is used to impart powered straight-line
motion to a mechanism.

Hydraulic systems must also have devices to control or direct the fluid pressure to the various
components. Such devices include selector valves, check valves, ratchet valves, irreversible valves,
sequence valves, and priority valves. Each is described in the paragraphs that follow.

ACTUATING CYLINDERS

A basic actuating cylinder consists of a cylinder housing, one or more pistons and piston rods, and one
or more seals. The cylinder housing contains a polished bore in which the piston operates and one or
more ports through which fluid enters and leaves the bore. The piston and rod form an assembly which
moves forward and backward within the cylinder bore. The piston rod moves into and out of the
cylinder housing through an opening in one or both ends. The seals are used to prevent leakage between
the piston and cylinder bore, and between the piston rod and housing. The two major types of actuating
cylinders are single-action and double-action.

Single-Action Actuating Cylinder. The single-action actuating cylinder, shown in Figure 2-1,
consists of a cylinder housing with one fluid port, a piston and rod assembly, a piston return spring, and
seals.

When no pressure is applied to the piston, the return spring holds it and the rod assembly in the
retracted position. When hydraulic pressure is applied to the inlet port, the piston, sealed to the cylinder
wall by an O-ring, does not allow the fluid to pass. This causes the piston to extend.

As the piston and rod extend, the return spring compresses. A vent on the spring side of the piston
allows air to escape. When pressure is relieved, the return spring forces the piston to retract, pushing the
fluid out of the cylinder. A wiper in the housing keeps the piston rod clean.

The cylinder can be pressure-operated in one direction only. A three-way control valve is normally
used to control cylinder operation.

Double-Action Actuating Cylinder. The double-action actuating cylinder consists of a cylinder with
a port at either end and a piston and rod assembly extending through one end of the cylinder (Figure 2-
2).












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Pressure applied at port A causes the piston to extend, forcing the fluid on the opposite side of the
piston out of port B. When pressure is applied to port B, the piston and rod retract, forcing the fluid in
the opposite chamber out through port A.


Figure 2-1. Single-Action Actuating Cylinder.

This type of cylinder is powered in both directions by hydraulic pressure. A selector valve is
normally used to control a double-action actuating cylinder. Selector valves are discussed in the next
paragraph.


Figure 2-2. Double-Action Actuating Cylinder.

SELECTOR VALVES

Used in hydraulic systems to control the direction of operation of a mechanism, selector valves are also
referred to as directional control valves or control valves. They provide pathways for the simultaneous
flow of two streams of fluid, one under pressure into the actuating unit, and the other, a return stream,
out of the actuating unit. The selector valves have




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various numbers of ports determined by the requirements of the system in which the valve is used.
Selector valves with four ports are the most commonly used; they are referred to as four-way valves.
Selector valves are further classified as closed-center or open-center types.

Closed-Center Selector Valve. When a closed-center selector valve is placed in the the OFF
position, its pressure passage is blocked to the flow of fluid. Therefore, no fluid can flow through its
pressure port, and the hydraulic system stays at operating pressure at all times. The four-way, closed-
center selector valve is the most commonly used selector valve in aircraft hydraulics. There are two
types:

The rotor-type, closed-center selector valve is shown in Figure 2-3. It has a rotor as its valving
device. The rotor is a thick circular disk with drilled fluid passages. It is placed in its various
operating positions by relative movement of the valve control handle. In the OFF position, the
rotor is positioned to close all ports. In the first ON position, the rotor interconnects the pressure
port with the number 1 cylinder port. The number 2 cylinder port is open to return. In the
second ON position the reverse takes place.

The spool-type, closed-center selector valve, is shown in Figure 2-4. This valve has a housing
containing four ports and a spool (pilot valve). The spool is made from a round shaft having
machined sections forming spaces to allow hydraulic fluid to pass. A drilled passage in the spool
interconnects the two end chambers of the selector valve. The large diameters of the spool are
the bearing and sealing surfaces and are called "lands" (see Glossary). In operation, the spool
valve is identical to the rotor type.
























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Figure 2-3. Typical Rotor Closed-Center Selector Valve.

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Figure 2-4. Typical Spool Closed-Center Selector Valve.

Open-Center Selector Valve. In external appearance, the open-center selector valve looks like the
closed-center one. Like closed-center valves, open-center selector valves have four ports and operate in
one OFF and two ON



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positions. The difference between the closed-center and open-center valves is in the OFF position. In
the closed-center valve none of the ports are open to each other in the OFF position. In the open-center
valve, the pressure and return ports are open to each other when the valve is OFF. In this position, the
output of the system pump is returned through the selector valve to the reservoir with little resistance.
Hence, in an open-center system, operating pressure is present only when the actuating unit is being
operated.

An open-center, rotor-type selector valve is shown in Figure 2-5. As you can see, when the valve is
in the OFF position, fluid from the pump enters the pressure port, passes through the open center
passage in the rotor, and back to the reservoir. When the valve is in either of the two ON positions, it
functions the same as a closed-center valve.


Figure 2-5. Typical Open-Center Rotor Selector Valve.

An open-center, spool-type selector valve is shown in Figure 2-6. Notice that this valve differs from
the closed-center type in that a third land is machined on the spool. This land is used to cover the
pressure port when the valve is in the OFF position. It provides an inter-passage in the spool which
allows fluid from the pump to return to the reservoir. Operation in both of the ON positions is the same
as the closed-center selector valve.











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Figure 2-6. Typical Open-Center Spool Selector Valve.

Hydraulic systems are classified as open-center or closed-center depending upon the type of selector
valves used. In an open-

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center system that has more than one selector valve, the valves are arranged one behind the other (in
series).

In a closed-center system, the valves are arranged parallel to each other. An open-center system has
fluid flow but no pressure in the system when the selector valve is off.

In a closed-center system, fluid is under pressure throughout the system when the hydraulic pump is
operating. Both systems are discussed in the paragraphs that follow.

Open-Center System. Figure 2-7 shows a basic open-center hydraulic system which uses a relief
valve to limit system pressure. As was mentioned earlier, this type of system


Figure 2-7. Basic Open-Center Hydraulic System.

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has fluid flow but no pressure until some hydraulic device is operated. When the selector valves are
OFF, fluid flows from the reservoir to the pump through the open-center passage of each valve, then
back to the reservoir. No restrictions exist in the system; therefore, no pressure is present. When one
valve is placed in the operating position, a restriction is created by the device the valve controls. Fluid
then flows under pressure to that hydraulic device.

Closed-Center System. Figure 2-8 shows a basic closed-center system. Fluid is under pressure
throughout a closed-center system when the pump is operating. When the selector valves are in the OFF
position, fluid cannot flow through the closed centers. This causes pressure to build in the system; it is
available at any time a selector valve is turned on. A relief valve is used to keep system pressure from
going above a predetermined amount when all valves are off.


Figure 2-8. Basic Closed-Center System.





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HYDRAULIC SERVO

A servo is a combination of a selector valve and an actuating cylinder in a single unit. When the pilot
valve of a servo is opened by the operator, it is automatically closed by movement of the servo (or
actuating) unit as explained below. Hydraulic servos are used in aircraft when precise control is
necessary over the distance a component moves.

Typical Hydraulic Servo. Figure 2-9 shows a typical hydraulic servo. In operation, when the pilot
valve is displaced from center, pressure is directed to one chamber of the power piston. The other
chamber is open to return flow. As the power piston travels the pilot valve housing travels because the
two are attached. The pilot valve itself is being held stationary by the operator, and the ports again
become blocked by the lands of the pilot valve stopping the piston when it has moved the required
distance.


Figure 2-9. Hydraulic Servo Incorporating Sloppy Link and Bypass Valve.

Servo Sloppy Link. Notice the servo sloppy link in Figure 2-9. It is the connection point between
the control linkage, pilot valve, and servo piston rod. Its purpose is to permit the servo piston to be
moved either by fluid pressure or manually. The sloppy link provides a limited amount of slack between
connecting linkage and pilot valve. Because of the slack between the piston rod and the connecting
linkage, the pilot valve can be moved to an ON position by the connecting linkage without moving the
piston rod.








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Bypass Valve. A bypass valve is provided to minimize the resistance of the servo piston to
movement when it must be moved manually. The valve opens automatically when there is no operating
pressure on the servo. This allows fluid to flow freely between the chambers on each side of the piston.

IRREVERSIBLE VALVE

During normal aircraft operation, external forces from an aircraft's control surfaces, such as rotor blades
and ailerons, tend to move servo cylinders. This movement creates a pumplike action in the servo called
feedback. The irreversible valve prevents feedback through the servo to the control stick.

Figure 2-10 is a simplified schematic version of an irreversible valve. The broken-line block represents
the housing of the


Figure 2-10. Simplified Irreversible Valve.


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valve. The check valve allows fluid from the pump to flow in the normal direction as shown by the
arrow. Feedback forces tend to move the servo piston opposite to the direction of pump-produced
pressure. This tends to force fluid backward through the irreversible valve. The check valve keeps the
servo piston from yielding to feedback by locking the rear-ward flow of fluid. The relief valve is a
safety device to limit the pressure produced by feedback-induced movement of the servo piston. It
opens to allow fluid to bypass to the return line if the feedback pressure exceeds a predetermined safe
limit.

RATCHET VALVE

A ratchet valve is used with a double-action actuating cylinder to aid in holding a load in the position
where it has been moved. The ratchet valve ensures that there is trapped fluid on each side of the
actuating cylinder piston. This is necessary for the cylinder to lock a load against movement in either
direction.

A typical ratchet valve is shown in Figure 2-11. It consists of a housing with four ports, a polished bore,
two ball check valves and a piston. The piston has extensions on either end to unseat the two ball check
valves. Springs keep these valves on their seats when no pressure is applied to the system.


Figure 2-11. Typical Application of Ratchet Valve.







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Valve Operation With no Pressure. In A, Figure 2-11, the ratchet valve is shown with no pressure
applied. The piston is centered in its bore and both ball check valves are closed. This locks the
actuating cylinder in position by trapping all fluid in the cylinder.

Valve Operation With Pressure Applied. In B, Figure 2-11, the ratchet valve is shown with pressure
applied to port 1. This forces the piston to the right where it unseats ball check valve b. Pressure
entering port 1 also unseats ball check valve a on the left side. Fluid then flows through the ratchet
valve and the piston moves to the right.

CHECK VALVES

A check valve is installed in a hydraulic system to control the direction flow of hydraulic fluid. The
check valve allows free flow of fluid in one direction, but no flow or a restricted one in the other
direction.

There are two general designs in check valves. One has its own housing and is connected to other
components with tubing or hose. Check valves of this design are called in-line check valves. In the
other design, the check valve is part of another component and is called an integral check valve. It will
not be covered because its operation is identical to the in-line check valve. The two types of in-line
check valves, simple and orifice, are described in the following paragraphs.

Simple In-Line Check Valve. As illustrated in Figure 2-12, the simple inline check valve consists of
a casing, inlet and outlet ports, and a ball-and-spring assembly. The ball and spring permit full fluid
flow in one direction and block flow completely in the opposite direction. Fluid pressure forces the ball
off its seat against the spring pressure, permitting fluid flow. When flow stops, the spring forces the ball
against its seat, blocking reverse flow.

Orifice In-Line Check Valve. The orifice check valve shown in Figure 2-13 is used to allow free
flow in one direction and limited flow in the opposite direction. This is accomplished by drilling a
passage in the valve seat connecting the inlet side of the valve to the outlet side.

SEQUENCE VALVE

A sequence valve, shown in Figure 2-14, is placed in a hydraulic system to delay the operation of one
portion of that system until another portion of the same system has functioned. For












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Figure 2-12. Simple In-Line Check Valve.


Figure 2-13. Orifice In-Line Check Valve.

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example, it would be undesirable for the landing gear to retract before the gear compartment doors are
completely open. A sequence valve actuated by the fully open door would allow pressure to enter the
landing gear retract cylinder.

The sequence valve consists of a valve body with two ports, a ball and seal spring-loaded to the closed
position, and a spring-loaded plunger. Compressing the plunger spring off-seats the ball and allows the
passage of fluid to the desired actuator. The typical sequence valve is mechanically operated, or it can
be solenoid-operated by means of microswitches. In either case, the valve is operated at the completion
of one phase of a multiphase hydraulic cycle.


Figure 2-14. Mechanically Actuated Sequence Valve.

PRIORITY VALVE

A priority valve is installed in some hydraulic systems to provide adequate fluid flow to essential units.
The valve is installed in the line between a nonessential actuating unit and its source of pressure. It
permits free, unrestrained flow of fluid to nonessential units as long as system pressure is






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normal. When system pressure drops below normal, the priority valve automatically reduces the flow of
fluid to the nonessential units.

The priority valve (Figure 2-15) resembles a check valve in both external appearance and internal
operation. A spring acts against a hollow piston to maintain contact with a valve seat. With no system
pressure, the priority valve is in the Spring-loaded position, closed. The piston is against the valve seat.
As pressure is applied to the system, fluid passes through the valve seat and also through drilled
passages to act against the face of the piston. With normal flow and pressure, the piston moves against
the spring tension and allows passage of fluid. If pressure decreases, the spring forces the piston to seat,
assuring a supply of fluid for the essential portion of the system.


Figure 2-15. Typical Priority Valve.

SUMMARY

The hydraulic actuating cylinder is used to convert fluid pressure to straight-line motion. The two types
are single-and double-acting.

Selector valves are used with actuating cylinders to control their operation. The typical selector valve
has two ON






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positions to extend and retract the cylinder and one OFF position.

Hydraulic systems are classified as either open-center or closed-center. Open-center systems have only
open-center selector valves and closed-center systems only closed-center valves.

Hydraulic servos are physical combinations of actuators and selector valves. They are used when
precise control of movement is required and normally found in the flight control system of an aircraft.
Irreversible valves are used in line with servos to prevent feedback to the flight controls.

Ratchet valves are locking devices for actuating cylinders; they
hold the cylinders in any desired position.

If full fluid flow in one direction only is required, a simple in-line check valve is used. When full flow
in one direction and restricted flow in the opposite direction is desired, an orifice check valve is used.

When more than one function must be performed in a hydraulic system and a definite order must be
followed, sequence valves are used. Sequence valves ensure that the proper order of operations is
maintained. In a reduction of pressure or fluid flow, certain components can be cut out of the hydraulic
system to ensure an adequate supply of fluid for the essential components, such as flight controls.
Priority valves are used to automatically shut off the supply of fluid to nonessential components.



























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LESSON 2

PRACTICE EXERCISE

The following items will test your grasp of the material covered in this lesson. There is only one correct
answer for each item. When you have completed the exercise, check your answers with the answer key
that follows. If you answer any item incorrectly, study again that part of the lesson which contains the
portion involved.

1. The piston in a double-action actuating cylinder can--

___ A. retract only.
___ B. extend only.
___ C. retract and extend.
___ D. neither extend nor retract.

2. What type of valve prevents feedback through the servo to the control stick?

___ A. Ratchet valve.
___ B. Spool selector valve.
___ C. Orifice check valve.
___ D. Irreversible valve.

3. What is used to limit system pressure?

___ A. Relief valve.
___ B. Check valve.
___ C. Ratchet valve.
___ D. Selector valve.

4. What type of valve is installed in a closed-center hydraulic system?

___ A. Return valve.
___ B. Check valve.
___ C. Ratchet valve.
___ D. Selector valve.

5. What controls the direction of fluid flow?

___ A. Relief valve.
___ B. Check valve.
___ C. Ratchet valve.
___ D. Selector valve.




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6. What valve resembles a check valve in appearance and operation?

___ A. Selector valve.
___ B. Priority valve.
___ C. Sequence valve.
___ D. Ratchet valve.

7. What is used to prevent leakage in the single-action actuating cylinder?

___ A. Polished bore.
___ B. Close-tolerance machining.
___ C. Wiper rings.
___ D. Seals.

8. What holds the piston in the retracted position in a single-action actuating cylinder?

___ A. Fluid pressure.
___ B. Static pressure.
___ C. Spring pressure.
___ D. Return pressure.

9. What is used with double-action cylinders to hold loads?

___ A. Relief valve.
___ B. Check valve.
___ C. Ratchet valve.
___ D. Selector valve.

10. What permits limited flow in one direction and full flow in the other direction?

___ A. Sequence valve.
___ B. Selector valve.
___ C. Orifice check valve.
___ D. Priority valve.













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LESSON 2

PRACTICE EXERCISE

ANSWER KEY AND FEEDBACK

Item Correct Answer and Feedback

1. C. Retract and extend.

The piston of a double-action actuating cylinder can move in either direction, depending on
which of the two ports has pressure applied. (Page 27)

2. D. Irreversible valve.

The irreversible valve prevents the shock and vibration of the rotor blades from feeding
back to the pilot's hands through the control stick. (Page 36)

3. A. Relief valve.

A relief valve does just what the name implies. It releases pressure at a predetermined
pressure level. (Page 33)

4. D. Selector valve.

The selector valve determines the flow of fluid. (Page 34)

5. B. Check valve.

A check valve basically allows fluid to flow only in one direction. When fluid flow tries to
reverse its direction, the reverse direction of fluid pushes a ball against its seat and shuts off
any reverse fluid flow. (Page 38)

6. B. Priority valve.

Allows flow of fluid to nonessential parts as long as the pressure remains normal. As soon
as there is a pressure drop, it immediately reduces pressure to any nonessential
components. (Page 41)









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7. D. Seals.

Seals are used to prevent leakage in fluid-operated components. (Page 26)

8. C. Spring pressure.

The spring prevents the piston from moving until an overriding fluid force is applied
against it. (Page 26)

9. C. Ratchet valve.

This valve allows enough trapped fluid on both sides of the piston to lock a load against
movement in either direction. (Page 37)

10. C. Orifice check valve.

A small passage is formed in the valve seat which connects the inlet side to the outlet side.
When fluid tries to reverse the flow, the ball closes against the seat and only a small portion
is allowed to flow through the small passage. (Page 38)




























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48 AL0926

LESSON 3

HYDRAULIC PRESSURE-LIMITING, CONTROLLING, AND SENSING DEVICES

STP Tasks: 552-758-1003
552-758-1006
552-758-1071


OVERVIEW


LESSON DESCRIPTION:

In this lesson you will learn the basic construction and operation of hydraulic pressure-limiting,
controlling, and sensing devices.

TERMINAL LEARNING OBJECTIVE:

ACTION: After this lesson unit you will demonstrate knowledge of the basic construction and
operation of hydraulic controlling, pressure-limiting, and sensing devices.

CONDITIONS: You will study the material in this lesson in a classroom environment or at home.

STANDARD: You will correctly answer all the questions in the practice exercise before you
proceed to the subcourse examination.

REFERENCES: The material contained in this lesson was derived from the following publications.
AR 310-25, AR 310-50, FM 1-500, FM 1-509, TM 1-1500-204-23 Series, TM 55-
1510-Series, TM 55-1520-Series, and TM 4301A 05 0267 (Airforce).


INTRODUCTION

The hydraulic systems in modern Army aircraft operate at pressures up to 3,000 psi. These systems
must be protected against excessively high pressure that can cause seals and lines to fail. Pressure relief
valves are used to keep system pressure from exceeding a predetermined safe limit.

A complex hydraulic system can use any number of components: actuators, servos, irreversible valves,
selector valves, check valves, accumulators, hydraulic motors, etc. Each of these various components in
one hydraulic system can operate most efficiently at a different pressure. In systems having a single
hydraulic pump, pressure reducers are used to vary operating pressures to the different components.





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If hydraulic pressure becomes too low for safe operation, a hydraulic pressure switch can be used to
close an electrical circuit. This actuates a warning light in the cockpit or turns on a secondary system, or
does both.

In this chapter you will learn of the devices used to limit, control, and sense hydraulic pressure.

PRESSURE RELIEF VALVES

A relief valve is installed in any system containing a confined liquid subject to pressure. The use of
relief valves falls into one or more of three categories:

In the first category, a relief valve is used to protect a hydraulic system if the pump compensator
fails. The relief valve is adjusted to open at a pressure slightly higher than normal system
operating pressure.

In the second category, a relief valve is used to protect a system subject to pressure increases
caused by thermal expansion.

In the third category, a relief valve is used as the sole means of pressure control in a hydraulic
system.

Relief Valves. The configurations for relief valves are either two-port or four-port. Both types
operate in the same way. The main reason for additional ports is convenience in connecting the
plumbing. For simplicity, only the two-port pressure relief valve is described in this text.

Two-Port Relief Valve. A typical two-port relief valve is shown in Figure 3-1. It consists of a
housing with an inlet and an outlet port, a valving device, a compression spring, and an adjustment
screw. When the hydraulic system is pressurized, the pressure acts against the valving device; in this
case, a ball. The ball is held against its seat by a coil spring. When the fluid pressure is great enough
against the ball to overcome the

















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force of the spring, the ball is unseated and allows fluid to pass.

The exact pressure at which this takes place is called the cracking pressure. This pressure can be
adjusted to any desired pressure by means of the pressure adjustment screw. Fluid passing the valving
ball flows into return lines and back to the reservoir.


Figure 3-1. Pressure Relief Valve.

PRESSURE REDUCER

A pressure reducer provides more than one level of pressure in a system that has a single hydraulic
pump. The reducer (Figure 3-2) consists of a three-port housing, piston, poppet and spring, adjusting
spring, and adjusting screw. A poppet is a valving device with a flat face. The three ports of the
housing are input pressure port, reduced-pressure port, and return port.



51 AL0926


Figure 3-2. Pressure Reducer.

Withholding Pressure. The pressure reducer operates on the principle of withholding pressure rather
than relieving it. With no pressure in the system, the adjusting spring tension holds the poppet open. As
system pressure builds up, fluid passes through the poppet to the reduced-pressure port. When the
pressure acting against the piston exceeds the force of the adjusting spring in the pressure reducer, the
poppet moves to close the inlet port. Further buildup of system pressure does not affect the reduced
pressure until it decreases enough to allow the inlet to be opened by spring tension.

Relieving Pressure. Pressure reducers also relieve increased pressure resulting from thermal
expansion. As the pressure at the reduced pressure port increases, the piston moves against the adjusting
spring, opening the return port and relieving the excessive pressure.

PRESSURE SWITCHES

A pressure switch is designed to open or close an electrical circuit in response to a predetermined
hydraulic pressure; the switch activates a warning or protective device. At a set minimum pressure, the
switch can turn on a light to warn the pilot, turn a pump off, or activate a solenoid-controlled valve. The
types of pressure switches, piston and diaphragm, commonly used in Army aircraft are described in the
following paragraphs.

Piston Pressure Switch. The piston pressure switch (Figure 3-3) consists of a housing, a cylinder
bore and piston, an adjustable spring for loading the piston, a microswitch and linkage for transmitting
movements of the piston to the microswitch. The housing has a pressure port for connection to system
pressure and an electrical receptable for connecting the switch to an electrical circuit.








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Figure 3-3. Piston Pressure Switch.


Diaphragm Pressure Switch. The diaphragm pressure switch consists of a housing, a diaphragm, an
adjustable spring to load the diaphragm, a microswitch, and linkage for transmitting movements of the
diaphragm to the microswitch. The housing has ports for the same functions as those in the piston
switch.

Pressure Switch Operation. The two types of pressure switches have the same operating principles;
only the piston one is covered here. Fluid pressure enters the pressure port and moves the face of the
piston against the adjustment spring.

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When the pressure becomes great enough to overcome the force of the spring, the piston moves and
causes the pivot lever to rotate. The movement of the lever is transmitted through the linkage to the
microswitch button. This closes the electrical circuit.

SUMMARY

Hydraulic systems have devices to protect against excessive pressure. These are called pressure relief
valves. The valves are adjustable and are set to open at a point slightly above maximum system
pressure. When this occurs, the fluid is returned to the system reservoir.

Pressure reducers are used to deliver the correct pressure to each component in a hydraulic system. This
makes it possible to use one hydraulic pump, delivering one set pressure in a system that requires several
different pressures.

Pressure switches are physical combinations of a hydraulic device (pressure port, piston, and sprint) and
an electrical device (microswitch and wiring). Pressure switches are used to sense hydraulic pressure.
Depending on the switch, if the pressure is too high or too low, the microswitch closes and energizes a
valve, stops or starts a pump, or illuminates a warning light.





























54 AL0926

LESSON 3

PRACTICE EXERCISE

The following items will test your grasp of the material covered in this lesson. There is only one correct
answer for each item. When you have completed the exercise, check your answers with the answer key
that follows. If you answer any item incorrectly, study again that part of the lesson which contains the
portion involved.

1. What are the configurations for relief valves?

___ A. One and two ports.
___ B. One and four ports.
___ C. Two and four ports.
___ D. Two and three ports.

2. What part of a single hydraulic pump provides more than one level of pressure in a hydraulic
system?

___ A. Return port.
___ B. Pressure reducer.
___ C. Pressure port.
___ D. Compression spring.

3. How many types of pressure switches are most often used on Army aircraft?

___ A. One.
___ B. Two.
___ C. Three.
___ D. Four.

4. What device is used to protect against excessive pressure?

___ A. Pressure relief valve.
___ B. Pressure reducer valve.
___ C. Pressure sequence valve.
___ D. Pressure selector valve.

5. Pressure switches are used to sense--

___ A. excessive pressure.
___ B. electrical current.
___ C. hydraulic pressure.
___ D. electrical voltage.



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56 AL0926

6. What is used to relieve increased pressure from thermal expansion?

___ A. Pressure sequential valve.
___ B. Pressure selector valve.
___ C. Pressure relief valve.
___ D. Pressure reducer valve.

7. When a pressure switch senses a drop in system fluid pressure, what does the switch activate?

___ A. Warning device.
___ B. Sensing device.
___ C. Pressure device.
___ D. Sequential device.

8. What are the two types of pressure switches commonly used in Army aircraft?

___ A. Sensing and warning.
___ B. Piston and diaphragm.
___ C. Warning and diaphragm.
___ D. Diaphragm and sensing.

9. What does the piston pressure switch consist of?

___ A. Cylinder housing, bore and piston, microswitch.
___ B. Housing, cylinder bore and piston, microswitch, spring.
___ C. Piston, cylinder bore and switch spring, microswitch.
___ D. Warning device, cylinder bore and piston.

10. What is the term used to describe the action of fluid pressure in a valve becoming high enough
against the ball to overcome the force of the spring?

___ A. Spring pressure.
___ B. Reducing pressure.
___ C. Cylinder pressure.
___ D. Cracking pressure.












57 AL0926

LESSON 3

PRACTICE EXERCISE

ANSWER KEY AND FEEDBACK

Item Correct Answers and Feedback

1. C. Two and four ports.

There are two configurations for relief valves. They are two- and four-port and are used to
relieve pressure. A four-port relief valve is for connecting additional plumbing that may be
incorporated into a more complex hydraulic system. (Page 50)

2. B. Pressure reducer.

A pressure reducer provides the different pressures which are required to operate some
components. (Page 51)

3. C. Two.

There are only two types of pressure switches used in Army aircraft. (Page 52)

4. A. Pressure relief valve.

In a pressure relief valve, when fluid pressure reaches a certain point, the relief valve opens
to relieve excessive fluid pressure, allowing it to return to the system reservoir. (Page 50)

5. C. hydraulic pressure.

This switch senses any under- or over-pressurization of hydraulic fluid. (Page 52)

6. D. Pressure reducer valve.

The pressure reducer valve senses abnormal pressure buildup and opens to relieve the
excessive pressure. (Page 52)

7. A. Warning device.

A pressure switch activates a warning device at a predetermined fluid pressure. (Page 52)







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8. B. Piston and diaphragm.

There are two types of pressure switches used in Army aircraft. (Page 52)

9. B. Housing, cylinder bore and piston, microswitch, spring.

The main components of a pressure switch are housing, cylinder bore and piston,
microswitch, spring. (Page 52)

10. D. Cracking pressure.

The cracking pressure is the pressure above normal at which the relief valve will-open.
(Page 51)


































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APPENDIX
GLOSSARY

Accumulator--device for storing liquid under pressure, usually consisting of a chamber separated into a
gas compartment and a liquid compartment by a bladder, piston, or diaphragm. An accumulator also
smooths out pressure surges in a hydraulic system.

Actuating cylinder--device that converts fluid power into linear mechanical force and motion.

Actuating cylinder, double-action--actuating cylinder in which both strokes are produced by pressurized
fluid.

Actuating cylinder, single-action--actuating cylinder in which one stroke is produced by pressurized
fluid and the other stroke is produced by some other force, such as gravity or spring tension.

Angular piston pump--hydraulic pump that has the cylinder block placed at an angle to the drive shaft
plate where the pistons are attached. The angular configuration causes the pistons to stroke as the pump
shaft is turned.

Baffle--metal plate installed in a reservoir to keep the fluid from swirling and surging.

Bladder--synthetic rubber bag inserted in an accumulator to hold the air charge.

Bypass valve--valve used to allow fluid to go around a filtering element if the element becomes clogged.

Cam pump--type of hydraulic pump that utilizes a cam to cause stroking of the pistons.

Check valve--valve that permits fluid flow in one direction, but prevents flow in the reverse direction.

Closed-center valve--type of valve that has its pressure passage blocked to fluid flow when the valve is
in the OFF position.

Cracking pressure--pounds per square inch pressure at which the valving device of a pressure relief
valve clears its seat just enough to permit fluid to seep through.

Diaphragm--synthetic rubber device that divides an accumulator into two separate compartments, one
for air and the other for
fluid.

Displacement--volume of fluid that can pass through a pump, motor, or cylinder in a single revolution or
stroke.

Double-action actuating cylinder--See Actuating cylinder, double-action.




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Drive coupling--device that transmits torque from a driving unit to a hydraulic pump drive shaft.

Efficiency--ratio of output power to input power, generally expressed as a percentage.

Energy--ability or capacity to do work.

Filter--device used to remove contaminants from hydraulic fluid.

Fixed-displacement pump--pump in which the volume of fluid per cycle cannot be varied.

Fluid--any liquid, gas, or mixture thereof.

Hydraulics--that branch of mechanics or engineering that deals with the action or use of liquids forced
through tubes or lines under pressure to operate various mechanisms.

Irreversible valve--device used in conjunction with a servo to block feedback.

Land--smooth machined surface on the spool of a spool selector valve.

Micron--millionth of a meter, or about 0.00004 inch.

Open-center valve--type of valve that has its pressure passage open to return when the valve is in the
OFF position.

Orifice--device used to restrict the flow of fluid in order to slow the operation of a component.

Pilot valve--valve used to control the operation of another valve, the spool in a selector valve.

Piston--that part of an actuating cylinder, servo, or motor that the hydraulic fluid works against. In a
pump, the pistons work against the fluid.

Poppet--valving device similar to the valves found in an automobile engine.

Port--opening for the intake or exhaust of fluid.

Power--rate of doing work or expending energy.

Pressure--amount of force distributed over each unit area expressed in pounds per square inch (psi).

Pressure reducer--device for lowering the pressure in a hydraulic system to allow a component to
operate at a lower pressure than the rest of the system.






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Pressure relief valve--pressure control valve used to keep system pressure from exceeding
predetermined limits.

Pressure switch--electrical switch operated by the increase or decrease of fluid pressure.

Priority valve--valve used to route fluid to those components requiring immediate completion of action
when a reduction in normal system flow and pressure occurs.

Pump--device that converts mechanical energy into fluid energy.

Ratchet valve--valve used with double-action actuator cylinders to aid the cylinder in holding a load in
the position selected by the operator.

Reservoir--container that serves primarily as a supply source of the fluid for a hydraulic system.

Selector valve--valve used to control the direction of movement of an actuating unit.

Servo--device used to convert a small movement into a greater movement or force.

Sloppy link--point of interconnection between control linkage, pilot valve, and servo piston rod in a
servo.

Standpipe--pipe located in a reservoir where the main hydraulic system draws its fluid.

Stroke--distance a piston moves in its bore from bottom to top, a single movement of a piston from one
end of its range to the other.

Thermal expansion--increase in volume of a substance due to temperature change.

Variable-delivery pump--type of pump in which the volume of fluid per cycle can be varied.















*U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 2000-528-075/20366

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Training Solutions

Training Solutions

Hydraulics

Training Manual 4

Fluid Power

C ONT E NT S
CHAPTER
1. I ntroducti on to Fl ui d Power.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Forces i n Li qui ds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Hydraul i c Fl ui ds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. Fl ui d Li nes and Fi tti ngs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6. Val ves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7. Seal i ng Devi ces and Materi al s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8. Measurement and Pressure Control Devi ces . . . . . . . . . .
9. Reservoi rs, Strai ners, Fi l ters, and Accumul ators . . . . . .
10. Actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11. Pneumati cs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12. Basi c Di agrams and Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
APPENDI X
I . Gl ossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I I . Mechani cal Symbol s Other than Aeronauti cal
for Fl ui d Power Di agrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I I I . Aeronauti cal Mechani cal Symbol s for Fl ui d
Power Di agrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Page
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5-1
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AI I -1
AI I I -1
I NDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I NDEX-1
. . .
iii
CREDI TS
The compani es l i sted bel ow have provi ded permi ssi on to use certai n
tradenames/trademarks i n thi s edi ti on of Fluid Power. Permi ssi on to use these
tradenames/trademarks i s grateful l y acknowl edged. Permi ssi on to reproduce
or use these tradenames/trademarks must be obtai ned from the source.
SOURCE TEXT ON PAGE
DuPont
Greene, Tweed and Company
Mi nnesota Rubber
5-8
7-5
7-15
iv
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO FLUID POWER
Fl ui d power i s a term whi ch was created to
i ncl ude the generati on, control , and appl i cati on
of s mooth , effecti v e power of pu mped or
compressed fl ui ds (ei ther l i qui ds or gases) when
thi s power i s used to provi de force and moti on
to mechani sms. Thi s force and moti on maybe i n
the form of pushi ng, pul l i ng, rotati ng, regul ati ng,
or dri vi ng. Fl ui d power i ncl udes hydraul i cs, whi ch
i nvol ves l i qui ds, and pneumati cs, whi ch i nvol ves
gases. Li qui ds and gases are si mi l ar i n many
respects. The di fferences are poi nted out i n the
appropri ate areas of thi s manual .
Thi s manual presents many of the funda-
mental concepts i n the fi el ds of hydraul i cs and
pneumati cs. I t i s i ntended as a basi c reference for
al l personnel of the Navy whose duti es and
responsi bi l i ti es requi re them to have a knowl edge
of the fundamental s of fl ui d power . Conse-
quentl y, emphasi s i s pl aced pri mari l y on the
theory of operati on of typi cal fl ui d power systems
and components that have appl i cati ons i n naval
equi pment. Many appl i cati ons of fl ui d power are
presented i n thi s manual to i l l ustrate the functi ons
and operati on of di fferent systems and com-
ponents. However, these are onl y representati ve
of the many appl i cati ons of fl ui d power i n naval
equi pment. I ndi vi dual trai ni ng manual s for each
rate provi de i nformati on concerni ng the appl i ca-
ti on of fl ui d power to speci fi c equi pment for
whi ch the rati ng i s responsi bl e.
A br i ef summar y of the contents of thi s
tr ai ni ng manual i s gi ven i n the fol l owi ng
par agr aphs:
Chapter 2 covers the characteri sti cs of l i qui ds
and the factors affecti ng them. I t al so expl ai ns
the behavi or of l i qui ds at rest, i denti fi es the
characteri sti cs of l i qui ds i n moti on, and expl ai ns
the operati on of basi c hydraul i c components.
Chapter 3 di scusses the qual i ti es of fl ui ds
acceptabl e for hydraul i c systems and the types of
fl ui ds used. I ncl uded ar e secti ons on safety
precauti ons to fol l ow when handl i ng potenti al l y
hazar dous fl ui ds, l i qui d contami nati on, and
control of contami nants.
Chapter 4 covers the hydraul i c pump, the
component i n the hydr aul i c system whi ch
generates the force requi red for the system to
perform i ts desi gn functi on. The i nformati on
provi ded covers cl assi fi cati ons, types, operati on,
and constructi on of pumps.
Chapter 5 deal s wi th the pi pi ng, tubi ng and
fl exi bl e hoses, and connectors used to carry fl ui ds
under pressure.
Chapter 6 di scusses the cl assi fi cati on, types,
and operati on of val ves used i n the control of
fl ow, pressure, and di recti on of fl ui ds.
Chapter 7 covers the types and purposes of
seal i ng devi ces used i n fl ui d power systems,
i ncl udi ng the di fferent materi al s used i n thei r
constr ucti on. Addi ti onal l y, the gui del i nes for
sel ecti ng, i nstal l i ng, and removi ng O-ri ngs are
i ncl uded.
Chapter 8 di scusses the operati on of devi ces
used to measure and regul ate the pressure of fl ui ds
and to measure the temperature of fl ui ds.
Chapter 9 descri bes the functi ons and types
of reservoi rs, strai ners, fi l ters, and accumul ators,
and thei r uses i n fl ui d power systems.
Chapter 10 di scusses the types and operati on
of actuator s used to tr ansfor m the ener gy
generated by hydraul i c systems i nto mechani cal
force and moti on.
Chapter 11 deal s wi th pneumati cs. I t di scusses
the ori gi n of pneumati cs, the characteri sti cs and
compressi bi l i ty of gases, and the most commonl y
used gases i n pneumati c systems. Al so, secti ons
are i ncl uded to cover safety precauti ons and the
potenti al hazards of compressed gases.
Chapter 12 i denti fi es the types of di agrams
encountered i n fl ui d power systems. Thi s chapter
al so di scusses how components of chapters 4, 5,
6, 8, 9, and 10 are combi ned to form and operate
together as a system.
A gl ossary of terms commonl y used i n fl ui d
power i s provi ded i n appendi x I . Appendi x I I
provi des symbol s used i n aeronauti cal mechani cal
1-1
systems, and appendi x I I I provi des symbol s used
i n nonaeronauti cal mechani cal systems.
The remai nder of chapter 1 i s devoted to the
advantages and probl ems of fl ui d power appl i -
cati ons. I ncl uded are bri ef secti ons on the hi story,
devel opment, and appl i cati ons of hydraul i cs,
the states of matter.
ADVANTAGES OF FLUID POWER
and
The extensi ve use of hydraul i cs and pneuma-
ti cs to transmi t power i s due to the fact that
properl y constructed fl ui d power systems possess
a number of favor abl e char acter i sti cs. They
el i mi nate the need for compl i cated systems of
gears, cams, and l evers. Moti on can be trans-
mi tted wi thout the sl ack i nherent i n the use of
sol i d machi ne parts. The fl ui ds used are not
subject to breakage as are mechani cal parts, and
the mechani sms are not subjected to great wear.
The di fferent parts of a fl ui d power system
can be conveni entl y l ocated at wi del y separated
poi nts, si nce the forces generated are rapi dl y
transmi tted over consi derabl e di stances wi th smal l
l oss. These forces can be conveyed up and down
or around corners wi th smal l l oss i n effi ci ency and
wi thout compl i cated mechani sms. Ver y l ar ge
forces can be control l ed by much smal l er ones and
can be transmi tted through comparati vel y smal l
l i nes and ori fi ces.
I f the system i s wel l adapted to the work i t i s
requi red to perform, and i f i t i s not mi sused, i t
can pr ovi de smooth, fl exi bl e, uni for m acti on
wi thout vi brati on, and i s unaffected by vari ati on
of l oad. I n case of an overl oad, an automati c
rel ease of pressure can be guaranteed, so that the
system i s protected agai nst breakdown or strai n.
Fl ui d power systems can provi de wi del y vari abl e
moti ons i n both rotary and strai ght-l i ne trans-
mi ssi on of power. The need for control by hand
can be mi ni mi zed. I n addi ti on, fl ui d power
systems are economi cal to operate.
The questi on may ari se as to why hydraul i cs
i s used i n some appl i cati ons and pneumati cs i n
others. Many factors are consi dered by the user
and/or the manufacturer when determi ni ng whi ch
type of system to use i n a speci fi c appl i cati on.
Ther e ar e no har d and fast r ul es to fol l ow;
however, past experi ence has provi ded some
sound i deas that are usual l y consi dered when such
deci si ons are made. I f the appl i cati on requi res
speed, a medi um amount of pressure, and onl y
fai rl y accurate control , a pneumati c system may
be used. I f the appl i cati on requi res onl y a medi um
amount of pressure and a more accurate control ,
a combi nati on of hydraul i cs and pneumati cs may
be used. I f the appl i cati on requi res a great amount
of pressure and/or extremel y accurate control , a
hydraul i c system shoul d be used.
SPECIAL PROBLEMS
The extreme fl exi bi l i ty of fl ui d power el ements
presents a number of probl ems. Si nce fl ui ds have
no shape of thei r own, they must be posi ti vel y
confi ned throughout the enti re system. Speci al
consi derati on must be gi ven to the structural
i ntegri ty of the parts of a fl ui d power system.
Strong pi pes and contai ners must be provi ded.
Leaks must be pr evented. Thi s i s a ser i ous
probl em wi th the hi gh pressure obtai ned i n many
fl ui d power i nstal l ati ons.
The operati on of the system i nvol ves constant
movement of the fl ui d wi thi n the l i nes and
components. Thi s movement causes fr i cti on
wi thi n the fl ui d i tsel f and agai nst the contai ni ng
surfaces whi ch, i f excessi ve, can l ead to seri ous
l osses i n effi ci ency. Forei gn matter must not be
al l owed to accumul ate i n the system, where i t wi l l
cl og smal l passages or score cl osel y fi tted parts.
Chemi cal acti on may cause corrosi on. Anyone
worki ng wi th fl ui d power systems must know how
a fl ui d power system and i ts components operate,
both i n terms of the general pri nci pl es common
to al l physi cal mechani sms and of the pecul i ari ti es
of the parti cul ar arrangement at hand.
HYDRAULICS
The word hydraulics i s based on the Greek
word for water, and ori gi nal l y covered the study
of the physi cal behavi or of water at rest and i n
moti on. Use has broadened i ts meani ng to i ncl ude
the behavi or of al l l i qui ds, al though i t i s pri mari l y
concerned wi th the moti on of l i qui ds.
Hydraul i cs i ncl udes the manner i n whi ch
l i qui ds act i n tanks and pi pes, deal s wi th thei r
properti es, and expl ores ways to take advantage
of these properti es.
DEVELOPMENT OF HYDRAULICS
Al th ou gh th e moder n dev el opmen t of
hydraul i cs i s comparati vel y recent, the anci ents
were fami l i ar wi th many hydraul i c pri nci pl es and
thei r appl i cati ons. The Egypti ans and the anci ent
peopl e of Persi a, I ndi a, and Chi na conveyed water
1-2
al ong channel s for i r r i gati on and domesti c
purposes, usi ng dams and sl ui ce gates to control
the fl ow. The anci ent Cretans had an el aborate
pl umbi ng system. Archi medes studi ed the l aws of
fl oati ng and submerged bodi es. The Romans
constructed aqueducts to carry water to thei r
ci ti es.
After the breakup of the anci ent worl d, there
were few new devel opments for many centuri es.
Then, over a compar ati vel y shor t per i od,
begi nni ng near the end of the seventeenth century,
I tal i an physi ci st, Evangel i sta Torri cel l e, French
physi ci st, Edme Mar i otte, and l ater , Dani el
Bernoul l i conducted experi ments to study the
el ements of for ce i n the di schar ge of water
through smal l openi ngs i n the si des of tanks and
through short pi pes. Duri ng the same peri od,
Bl ai se Pascal , a French sci enti st, di scovered the
fundamental l aw for the sci ence of hydraul i cs.
Pascal s l aw states that i ncrease i n pressure on
the surface of a confi ned fl ui d i s transmi tted
undi mi ni shed throughout the confi ni ng vessel or
system (fi g. 1-1). (Thi s i s the basi c pri nci pl e of
hydraul i cs and i s covered i n detai l i n chapter 2
of thi s manual .)
For Pascal s l aw to be made effecti ve for
practi cal appl i cati ons, i t was necessary to have a
pi ston that fi t exactl y. I t was not unti l the l atter
part of the ei ghteenth century that methods were
found to make these snugl y fi tted parts requi red
i n hydraul i c systems. Thi s was accompl i shed by
the i nventi on of machi nes that were used to cut
and shape the necessary cl osel y fi tted parts and,
parti cul arl y, by the devel opment of gaskets and
packi ngs. Si nce that ti me, components such as
val ves, pumps, actuati ng cyl i nders, and motors
have been devel oped and r efi ned to mak e
hydraul i cs one of the l eadi ng methods of trans-
mi tti ng power.
Figure 1-1.Force transmitted through fluid.
Use of Hydraulics
The hydraul i c press, i nvented by Engl i shman
John Br ahmah, was one of the fi r st wor k-
abl e pi eces of machi nery devel oped that used
hydraul i cs i n i ts operati on. I t consi sted of a
pl unger pump pi ped to a l arge cyl i nder and a ram.
Thi s press found wi de use i n Engl and because i t
provi ded a more effecti ve and economi cal means
of appl yi ng l arge forces i n i ndustri al uses.
Today, hydraul i c power i s used to operate
many di ffer ent tool s and mechani sms. I n a
garage, a mechani c rai ses the end of an auto-
mobi l e wi th a hydraul i c jack. Denti sts and barbers
use hydraul i c power, through a few strokes of a
control l ever, to l i ft and posi ti on thei r chai rs to
a conveni ent worki ng hei ght. Hydraul i c doorstops
keep heavy door s fr om sl ammi ng. Hydr aul i c
brakes have been standard equi pment on auto-
mobi l es si nce the 1930s. Most automobi l es are
equi pped wi th automati c transmi ssi ons that are
hydraul i cal l y operated. Power steeri ng i s another
appl i cati on of hydr aul i c power . Constr ucti on
workers depend upon hydraul i c power for the
oper ati on of var i ous components of thei r
equi pment. For exampl e, the bl ade of a bul l dozer
i s normal l y operated by hydraul i c power.
Duri ng the peri od precedi ng Worl d War I I ,
the Navy began to appl y hydraul i cs to naval
mechani sms extensi vel y. Si nce then, naval
appl i cati ons have i ncreased to the poi nt where
many i ngeni ous hydraul i c devi ces are used i n the
sol uti on of probl ems of gunnery, aeronauti cs, and
navi gati on. Aboard shi p, hydraul i c power i s used
to operate such equi pment as anchor wi ndl asses,
cranes, steeri ng gear, remote control devi ces, and
power dri ves for el evati ng and trai ni ng guns and
rocket l aunchers. El evators on ai rcraft carri ers use
hydraul i c power to transfer ai rcraft from the
hangar deck to the fl i ght deck and vi ce versa.
Hydraul i cs and pneumati cs (chapter 11) are
combi ned for some appl i cati ons. Thi s combi na-
ti on i s referred to as hydropneumati cs. A n
exampl e of thi s combi nati on i s the l i ft used i n
garages and servi ce stati ons. Ai r pressure i s
appl i ed to the surface of hydraul i c fl ui d i n a
reservoi r. The ai r pressure forces the hydraul i c
fl ui d to rai se the l i ft.
STATES OF MATTER
The materi al that makes up the uni verse i s
known as matter. Matter i s defi ned as any
substance that occupi es space and has wei ght.
1-3
Matter exi sts i n three states: sol i d, l i qui d, and gas;
each has di sti ngui shi ng characteri sti cs. Sol i ds have
a defi ni te vol ume and a defi ni te shape; l i qui ds
have a defi ni te vol ume, but take the shape of thei r
contai ni ng vessel s; gases have nei ther a defi ni te
shape nor a defi ni te vol ume. Gases not onl y take
the shape of the contai ni ng vessel , but al so expand
and fi l l the vessel , regardl ess of i ts vol ume.
Exampl es of the states of matter are i ron, water,
and ai r.
Matter can change from one state to another.
Water i s a good exampl e. At hi gh temperatures
i t i s i n the gaseous state known as steam. At
moderate temperatures i t i s a l i qui d, and at l ow
temperatures i t becomes i ce, whi ch i s defi ni tel y
a sol i d state. I n thi s exampl e, the temperature i s
the domi nant factor i n determi ni ng the state the
substance assumes.
Pressure i s another i mportant factor that wi l l
affect changes i n the state of matter. At pressures
l ower than atmospheri c pressure, water wi l l boi l
and thus change i nto steam at temperatures l ower
than 212 Fahrenhei t (F). Pressure i s al so a cri ti cal
factor i n changi ng some gases to l i qui ds or sol i ds.
Normal l y, when pressure and chi l l i ng are both
appl i ed to a gas, the gas assumes a l i qui d state.
Li qui d ai r, whi ch i s a mi xture of oxygen and
ni trogen, i s produced i n thi s manner.
I n the study of fl ui d power, we are concerned
pri mari l y wi th the properti es and characteri sti cs
of l i qui ds and gases. However, you shoul d keep
i n mi nd that the properti es of sol i ds al so affect
the characteri sti cs of l i qui ds and gases. The l i nes
and components, whi ch are sol i ds, encl ose and
contr ol the l i qui d or gas i n thei r r especti ve
systems.
1-4
CHAPTER 2
FORCES IN LIQUIDS
The study of l i qui ds i s di vi ded i nto two mai n
parts: l i qui ds at rest (hydrostati cs) and l i qui ds i n
moti on (hydraul i cs).
The effects of l i qui ds at r est can often
be expressed by si mpl e formul as. The effects
of l i qui ds i n moti on ar e mor e di ffi cul t to
expr ess due to fr i cti onal and other factor s
whose acti ons cannot be expressed by si mpl e
mathemati cs.
I n chapter 1 we l earned that l i qui ds have a
defi ni te vol ume but take the shape of thei r
contai ni ng vessel . Ther e ar e two addi ti onal
characteri sti cs we must expl ore pri or to pro-
ceedi ng.
Li qui ds ar e al most i ncompr essi bl e. For
exampl e, i f a pressure of 100 pounds per square
i nch (psi ) i s appl i ed to a gi ven vol ume of water
that i s at atmospheri c pressure, the vol ume wi l l
decrease by onl y 0.03 percent. I t woul d take a
force of approxi matel y 32 tons to reduce i ts
vol ume by 10 percent; however, when thi s force
i s removed, the water i mmedi atel y returns to i ts
ori gi nal vol ume. Other l i qui ds behave i n about
the same manner as water.
Another char acter i sti c of a l i qui d i s the
tendency to keep i ts free surface l evel . I f the
surface i s not l evel , l i qui ds wi l l fl ow i n the
di recti on whi ch wi l l tend to make the surface
l evel .
LIQUIDS AT REST
I n studyi ng fl ui ds at r est, we ar e con-
cer ned wi th the tr ansmi ssi on of for ce and
the factors whi ch affect the forces i n l i qui ds.
Addi ti onal l y, pressure i n and on l i qui ds and
factor s affecti ng pr essur e ar e of gr eat i m-
portance.
PRESSURE AND FORCE
The ter ms force and pressure ar e u s ed
extensi vel y i n the study of fl ui d power . I t
i s essenti al that we di sti ngui sh between the
ter ms. For ce means a total push or pul l .
I t i s the push or pul l exer ted agai nst the
total area of a parti cul ar surface and i s expressed
i n pounds or grams. Pressure means the amount
of push or pul l (force) appl i ed to each uni t area
of the surface and i s expressed i n pounds per
s qu ar e i n ch (l b/i n
2
) or gr ams per squar e
centi meter (gm/cm
2
). Pressure maybe exerted i n
one di recti on, i n several di recti ons, or i n al l
di recti ons.
Computing Force, Pressure, and Area
A for mul a i s used i n computi ng for ce,
pressure, and area i n fl ui d power systems. I n thi s
formul a, P refers to pressure, F i ndi cates force,
and A represents area.
Force equal s pressure ti mes area. Thus, the
formul a i s wri tten
Equati on 2-1.
Pressure equal s force di vi ded by area. By
rearrangi ng the formul a, thi s statement may be
condensed i nto
Equati on 2-2.
Si nce area equal s force di vi ded by pressure,
the formul a i s wri tten
Equati on 2-3.
2-1
Figure 2-1.Device for determining the arrangement of the
force, pressure, and area formula.
Fi gure 2-1 i l l ustrates a memory devi ce for
recal l i ng the di fferent vari ati ons of thi s formul a.
Any l etter i n the tri angl e may be expressed as the
product or quoti ent of the other two, dependi ng
on i ts posi ti on wi thi n the tri angl e.
For exampl e, to fi nd area, consi der the l etter
A as bei ng set off to i tsel f, fol l owed by an equal
si gn. Now l ook at the other two l etters. The l etter
F i s above the l etter P; therefore,
NOTE: Someti mes the ar ea may not be
expr essed i n squar e uni ts. I f the sur face i s
r ectangul ar , you can deter mi ne i ts ar ea by
mul ti pl yi ng i ts l ength (say, i n i nches) by i ts wi dth
(al so i n i nches). The majori ty of areas you wi l l
consi der i n these cal cul ati ons are ci rcul ar i n shape.
Ei ther the radi us or the di ameter may be gi ven,
but you must know the radi us i n i nches to fi nd
the area. The radi us i s one-hal f the di ameter. To
determi ne the area, use the formul a for fi ndi ng
the area of a ci rcl e. Thi s i s wri tten A = rmz, where
A i s the area, n i s 3.1416 (3.14 or 3 1/7 for most
cal cul ati ons), and r
2
i ndi cates the radi us squared.
Atmospheric Pressure
The atmosphere i s the enti re mass of ai r that
surrounds the earth. Whi l e i t extends upward for
about 500 mi l es, the secti on of pri mary i nterest
i s the porti on that rests on the earths surface and
extends upward for about 7 1/2 mi l es. Thi s l ayer
i s cal l ed the troposphere.
I f a col umn of ai r 1-i nch square extendi ng al l
the way to the top of the atmosphere coul d
be wei ghed, thi s col umn of ai r woul d wei gh
approxi matel y 14.7 pounds at sea l evel . Thus,
atmospheri c pressure at sea l evel i s approxi matel y
14.7 psi .
As one ascends, the atmospheri c pressure
decreases by approxi matel y 1.0 psi for every 2,343
feet. However, bel ow sea l evel , i n excavati ons and
depressi ons, atmospheri c pressure i ncreases.
Pressures under water di ffer from those under ai r
onl y because the wei ght of the water must be
added to the pressure of the ai r.
Atmospheri c pressure can be measured by any
of sever al methods. The common l abor ator y
method uses the mercury col umn barometer. The
hei ght of the mer cur y col umn ser ves as an
i ndi cator of atmospheri c pressure. At sea l evel and
at a temperature of 0 Cel si us (C), the hei ght of
the mercury col umn i s approxi matel y 30 i nches,
or 76 centi meters. Thi s represents a pressure of
approxi matel y 14.7 psi . The 30-i nch col umn i s
used as a reference standard.
Another devi ce used to measure atmospheri c
pressure i s the aneroi d barometer. The aneroi d
bar ometer uses the change i n shape of an
evacuated metal cel l to measure vari ati ons i n
atmospheri c pressure (fi g. 2-2). The thi n metal of
the aneroi d cel l moves i n or out wi th the vari ati on
of pressure on i ts external surface. Thi s movement
i s transmi tted through a system of l evers to a
poi nter, whi ch i ndi cates the pressure.
The atmospher i c pr essur e does not var y
uni forml y wi th al ti tude. I t changes more rapi dl y
at l ower al ti tudes because of the compressi bi l i ty
of the ai r, whi ch causes the ai r l ayers cl ose to the
earths surface to be compressed by the ai r masses
above them. Thi s effect, however, i s parti al l y
counteracted by the contracti on of the upper
Figure 2-2.Simple diagram of the aneroid barometer.
2-2
l ayer s due to cool i ng. The cool i ng tends to
i ncrease the densi ty of the ai r.
Atmospheri c pressures are qui te l arge, but i n
most i nstances practi cal l y the same pressure i s
present on al l si des of objects so that no si ngl e
surface i s subjected to a great l oad.
Atmospheri c pressure acti ng on the surface of
a l i qui d (fi g. 2-3, vi ew A) i s transmi tted equal l y
throughout the l i qui d to the wal l s of the contai ner,
but i s bal anced by the same atmospheri c pressure
acti ng on the outer wal l s of the contai ner. I n vi ew
B of fi gure 2-3, atmospheri c pressure acti ng on
the surface of one pi ston i s bal anced by the same
pressure acti ng on the surface of the other pi ston.
The di fferent areas of the two surfaces make no
di fference, si nce for a uni t of area, pressures are
bal anced.
TRANSMISSION OF FORCES
THROUGH LIQUIDS
When the end of a sol i d bar i s struck, the mai n
force of the bl ow i s carri ed strai ght through the
bar to the other end (fi g. 2-4, vi ew A). Thi s
happens because the bar i s ri gi d. The di recti on
of the bl ow al most enti r el y deter mi nes the
di recti on of the transmi tted force. The more ri gi d
Figure 2-4.Transmission of force: (A) solid; (B) fluid.
the bar, the l ess force i s l ost i nsi de the bar or
tr ansmi tted outwar d at r i ght angl es to the
di recti on of the bl ow.
When a force i s appl i ed to the end of a col umn
of confi ned l i qui d (fi g. 2-4, vi ew B), i t i s
transmi tted strai ght through to the other end and
al so equal l y and undi mi ni shed i n every di recti on
throughout the col umnforward, backward, and
si dewaysso that the contai ni ng vessel i s l i teral l y
fi l l ed wi th pressure.
An exampl e of thi s di stri buti on of force i s
i l l ustrated i n fi gure 2-5. The fl at hose takes on
Figure 2-3.Effects of atmospheric pressure. Figure 2-5.Distribution of force.
2-3
a ci rcul ar cross secti on when i t i s fi l l ed wi th water
under pressure. The outward push of the water
i s equal i n every di recti on.
So far we have expl ai ned the effects of
atmospheri c pressure on l i qui ds and how external
forces are di stri buted through l i qui ds. Let us now
focus our attenti on on forces generated by the
wei ght of l i qui ds themsel ves. To do thi s, we must
fi rst di scuss densi ty, speci fi c gravi ty, and Pascal s
l aw.
Density and Specific Gravity
The densi ty of a substance i s i ts wei ght per uni t
vol ume. The uni t vol ume i n the Engl i sh system
of measurement i s 1 cubi c foot. I n the metri c
system i t i s the cubi c centi meter; therefore, densi ty
i s expressed i n pounds per cubi c foot or i n grams
per cubi c centi meter.
To fi nd the densi ty of a substance, you must
know i ts wei ght and vol ume. You then di vi de i ts
wei ght by i ts vol ume to fi nd the wei ght per uni t
vol ume. I n equati on form, thi s i s wri tten as
Equati on 2-4.
EXAMPLE: The l i qui d that fi l l s a certai n
contai ner wei ghs 1,497.6 pounds. The
contai ner i s 4 feet l ong, 3 feet wi de, and
2 feet deep. I ts vol ume i s 24 cubi c feet
(4 ft x 3 ft x 2 ft). I f 24 cubi c feet of thi s
l i qui d wei ghs 1,497.6 pounds, then 1 cubi c
foot wei ghs
or 62.4 pounds. Therefore, the densi ty of
the l i qui d i s 62.4 pounds per cubi c foot.
Thi s i s the densi ty of water at 4C and i s
usual l y used as the standar d for compar i ng
densi ti es of other substances. The temperature of
4C was sel ected because water has i ts maxi mum
densi ty at thi s temperature. I n the metri c system,
the densi ty of water i s 1 gr am per cubi c
centi meter. The standard temperature of 4C i s
used whenever the densi ty of l i qui ds and sol i ds
i s measured. Changes i n temperature wi l l not
change the wei ght of a substance but wi l l change
the vol ume of the substance by expansi on or
contracti on, thus changi ng the wei ght per uni t
vol ume.
I n physi cs, the word specific i mpl i es a rati o.
Wei ght i s the measure of the earths attracti on for
a body. The earths attracti on for a body i s cal l ed
gravi ty. Thus, the rati o of the wei ght of a uni t
vol ume of some substance to the wei ght of an
equal vol ume of a standard substance, measured
under standard pressure and temperature con-
di ti ons, i s cal l ed speci fi c gr avi ty. The ter ms
specific weight and specific density are someti mes
used to express thi s rati o.
The fol l owi ng formul as are used to fi nd the
speci fi c gravi ty (sp gr) of sol i ds and l i qui ds, wi th
water used as the standard substance.
or ,
The same formul as are used to fi nd the speci fi c
gravi ty of gases by substi tuti ng ai r, oxygen, or
hydrogen for water.
I f a cubi c foot of a certai n l i qui d wei ghs 68.64
pounds, then i ts speci fi c gravi ty i s 1.1,
Thus, the speci fi c gravi ty of the l i qui d i s the
rati o of i ts densi ty to the densi ty of water. I f the
speci fi c gravi ty of a l i qui d or sol i d i s known, the
densi ty of the l i qui d or sol i d maybe obtai ned by
mul ti pl yi ng i ts speci fi c gravi ty by the densi ty of
water. For exampl e, i f a certai n hydraul i c l i qui d
has a speci fi c gravi ty of 0.8, 1 cubi c foot of the
l i qui d wei ghs 0.8 ti mes as much as a cubi c foot
of water0.8 ti mes 62.4, or 49.92 pounds. I n the
metri c system, 1 cubi c centi meter of a substance
wi th a speci fi c gravi ty of 0.8 wei ghs 1 ti mes 0.8,
or 0.8 grams. (Note that i n the metri c system the
speci fi c gravi ty of a l i qui d or sol i d has the same
numeri cal val ue as i ts densi ty, because water
wei ghs 1 gram per cubi c centi meter.)
Speci fi c gravi ty and densi ty are i ndependent
of the si ze of the sampl e under consi derati on and
depend onl y on the substance of whi ch i t i s made.
A devi ce cal l ed a hydrometer i s used for
measuri ng the speci fi c gravi ty of l i qui ds.
2-4
Pascals Law
Recal l from chapter 1 that the foundati on of
modern hydraul i cs was establ i shed when Pascal
di scovered that pressure i n a fl ui d acts equal l y i n
al l di recti ons. Thi s pressure acts at ri ght angl es
to the contai ni ng sur faces. I f some type of
pressure gauge, wi th an exposed face, i s pl aced
beneath the surface of a l i qui d (fi g. 2-6) at a
speci fi c depth and poi nted i n di fferent di recti ons,
the pressure wi l l read the same. Thus, we can say
that pr essur e i n a l i qui d i s i ndependent of
di recti on.
Pressure due to the wei ght of a l i qui d, at any
l evel , depends on the depth of the fl ui d from the
surface. I f the exposed face of the pressure gauges,
fi gure 2-6, are moved cl oser to the surface of the
l i qui d, the i ndi cated pressure wi l l be l ess. When
the depth i s doubl ed, the i ndi cated pressure i s
doubl ed. Thus the pressure i n a l i qui d i s di rectl y
proporti onal to the depth.
Consi der a contai ner wi th ver ti cal si des
(fi g. 2-7) that i s 1 foot l ong and 1 foot wi de. Let
i t be fi l l ed wi th water 1 foot deep, provi di ng 1
cubi c foot of water. We l earned earl i er i n thi s
chapter that 1 cubi c foot of water wei ghs 62.4
pounds. Usi ng thi s i nformati on and equati on 2-2,
P = F/A, we can cal cul ate the pressure on the
bottom of the contai ner.
Si nce there are 144 square i nches i n 1 square foot,
Thi s can be stated as fol l ows: the wei ght of a
col umn of water 1 foot hi gh, havi ng a cross-
secti onal area of 1 square i nch, i s 0.433 pound.
I f the depth of the col umn i s tri pl ed, the
wei ght of the col umn wi l l be 3 x 0.433, or 1.299
pounds, and the pressure at the bottom wi l l be
1.299 l b/i n
2
(psi ), si nce pressure equal s the force
di vi ded by the area. Thus, the pressure at any
depth i n a l i qui d i s equal to the wei ght of the
col umn of l i qui d at that depth di vi ded by the
Figure 2-6.Pressure of a liquid is independent of direction.
cross-secti onal area of the col umn at that depth.
The vol ume of a l i qui d that produces the pressure
i s referred to as the fl ui d head of the l i qui d. The
pressure of a l i qui d due to i ts fl ui d head i s al so
dependent on the densi ty of the l i qui d.
I f we l et A equal any cross-secti onal area of
a l i qui d col umn and h equal the depth of the
col umn, the vol ume becomes Ah. Usi ng equati on
2-4, D = W/V, the wei ght of the l i qui d above area
A i s equal to AhD.
Figure 2-7.Water pressure in a 1-cubic-foot container.
2-5
Si nce pressure i s equal to the force per uni t area,
set A equal to 1. Then the formul a pressure
becomes
P = h D Equati on 2-5.
I t i s essenti al that h and D be expressed i n si mi l ar
uni ts. That i s, i f D i s expressed i n pounds per
cubi c foot, the val ue of h must be expressed i n
feet. I f the desi red pressure i s to be expressed i n
pounds per square i nch, the pressure formul a,
equati on 2-5, becomes
Equati on 2-6.
Pas cal was al s o th e fi r s t to pr ov e by
exper i ment that the shape and vol ume of a
contai ner i n no way al ters pressure. Thus i n fi gure
2-8, i f the pressure due to the wei ght of the l i qui d
at a poi nt on hori zontal l i ne H i s 8 psi , the
pressure i s 8 psi everywhere at l evel H i n the
system. Equati on 2-5 al so shows that the pressure
i s i ndependent of the shape and vol ume of a
contai ner.
Pressure and Force in Fluid Power Systems
Figure 2-9.Force transmitted through fluid.
of the shape of the contai ner. Consi der the effect
of thi s i n the system shown i n fi gure 2-9. I f there
i s a resi stance on the output pi ston and the i nput
pi ston i s pushed downward, a pressure i s created
through the fl ui d, whi ch acts equal l y at ri ght
angl es to surfaces i n al l parts of the contai ner.
I f force 1 i s 100 pounds and the area of the
i nput pi ston i s 10 square i nches, then the pressure
i n the fl ui d i s 10 psi
Recal l that, accordi ng to Pascal s l aw, any
force appl i ed to a confi ned fl ui d i s transmi tted
i n al l di recti ons throughout the fl ui d regardl ess
NOTE: Fl ui d pressure cannot be created
wi thout resi stance to fl ow. I n thi s case, resi stance
Figure 2-8.Pressure relationship
2-6
with shape.
i s pr ovi ded by the equi pment to whi ch the
output pi ston i s attached. The for ce of r e-
si stance acts agai nst the top of the output
pi ston. The pr essur e cr eated i n the system
by the i nput pi ston pushes on the undersi de of
the output pi ston wi th a force of 10 pounds on
each square i nch.
I n thi s case, the fl ui d col umn has a uni form
cross secti on, so the area of the output pi ston
i s the same as the area of the i nput pi ston,
or 10 squar e i nches. Ther efor e, the upwar d
for ce on the output pi ston i s 100 pounds
(10 psi x 10 sq. i n.), the same as the force appl i ed
to the i nput pi ston. Al l that was accompl i shed i n
thi s system was to transmi t the 100-pound force
around the bend. However, thi s pri nci pl e under-
l i es practi cal l y al l mechani cal appl i cati ons of fl ui d
power.
At thi s poi nt you shoul d note that si nce
Pascal s l aw i s i ndependent of the shape of
the contai ner , i t i s not necessar y that the
tube connecti ng the two pi stons have the same
cross-secti onal area of the pi stons. A connecti on
of any si ze, shape, or l ength wi l l do, as l ong as
an unobstructed passage i s provi ded. Therefore,
the system shown i n fi gure 2-10, wi th a rel ati vel y
smal l , bent pi pe connecti ng two cyl i nder s,
wi l l act exactl y the same as the system shown i n
fi gure 2-9.
MULTIPLICATION OF FORCES. Con-
si der the si tuati on i n fi gure 2-11, where the i nput
pi ston i s much smal l er than the output pi ston.
Assume that the area of the i nput pi ston i s 2
square i nches. Wi th a resi stant force on the output
pi ston a downward force of 20 pounds acti ng on
the i nput pi ston creates a pressure of ~ or 10 psi
Figure 2-10.Transmitting force through a small pipe.
Figure 2-11.Multiplication of forces.
i n the fl ui d. Al though thi s force i s much smal l er
than the force appl i ed i n fi gures 2-9 and 2-10, the
pressure i s the same. Thi s i s because the force i s
appl i ed to a smal l er area.
Thi s pressure of 10 psi acts on al l parts of the
fl ui d contai ner , i ncl udi ng the bottom of the
output pi ston. The upward force on the output
pi ston i s 200 pounds (10 pounds of pressure on
each square i nch). I n thi s case, the ori gi nal force
has been mul ti pl i ed tenfol d whi l e usi ng the same
pressure i n the fl ui d as before. I n any system wi th
these di mensi ons, the rati o of output force to
i nput force i s al ways ten to one, regardl ess of the
appl i ed force. For exampl e, i f the appl i ed force
of the i nput pi ston i s 50 pounds, the pressure i n
the system wi l l be 25 psi . Thi s wi l l support a
resi stant force of 500 pounds on the output pi ston.
The system works the same i n reverse. I f we
change the appl i ed force and pl ace a 200-pound
force on the output pi ston (fi g. 2-11), maki ng i t
the i nput pi ston, the output force on the i nput
pi ston wi l l be one-tenth the i nput force, or 20
pounds. (Someti mes such resul ts are desi red.)
Therefore, i f two pi stons are used i n a fl ui d power
system, the force acti ng on each pi ston i s di rectl y
proporti onal to i ts area, and the magni tude of
each force i s the product of the pressure and the
area of each pi ston.
Note the whi te arrows at the bottom of fi gure
2-11 that i ndi cate up and down movement. The
movement they represent wi l l be expl ai ned l ater
i n the di scussi on of vol ume and di stance factors.
2-7
DIFFERENTIAL AREAS. Consi der the
speci al si tuati on shown i n fi gure 2-12. Here, a
si ngl e pi ston (1) i n a cyl i nder (2) has a pi ston rod
(3) attached to one of i ts si des. The pi ston rod
extends out of one end of the cyl i nder. Fl ui d under
pressure i s admi tted equal l y to both ends of the
cyl i nder. The opposed faces of the pi ston (1)
behave l i ke two pi stons acti ng agai nst each other.
The area of one face i s the ful l cross-secti onal area
of the cyl i nder, say 6 square i nches, whi l e the area
of the other face i s the area of the cyl i nder mi nus
the area of the pi ston rod, whi ch i s 2 square
i nches. Thi s l eaves an effecti ve area of 4 square
i nches on the ri ght face of the pi ston. The pressure
on both faces i s the same, i n thi s case, 20 psi .
Appl yi ng the rul e just stated, the force pushi ng
the pi ston to the ri ght i s i ts area ti mes the pressure,
or 120 pounds (20 x 6). Li kewi se, the for ce
pushi ng the pi ston to the l eft i s i ts area ti mes the
pressure, or 80 pounds (20 x 4). Therefore, there
i s a net unbal anced force of 40 pounds acti ng to
the r i ght, and the pi ston wi l l move i n that
di recti on. The net effect i s the same as i f the pi ston
and the cyl i nder had the same cross-secti onal area
as the pi ston rod.
VOLUME AND DISTANCE FACTORS.
You have l earned that i f a force i s appl i ed to a
system and the cross-secti onal areas of the i nput
and output pi stons are equal , as i n fi gures 2-9 and
2-10, the force on the i nput pi ston wi l l support
an equal resi stant force on the output pi ston. The
pressure of the l i qui d at thi s poi nt i s equal to the
force appl i ed to the i nput pi ston di vi ded by the
pi stons area. Let us now l ook at what happens
when a force greater than the resi stance i s appl i ed
to the i nput pi ston.
I n the system i l l ustrated i n fi gure 2-9, assume
that the resi stance force on the output pi ston i s
100 psi . I f a force sl i ghtl y greater than 100 pounds
i s appl i ed to the i nput pi ston, the pressure i n the
system wi l l be sl i ghtl y greater than 10 psi . Thi s
i ncrease i n pressure wi l l overcome the resi stance
force on the output pi ston. Assume that the i nput
pi ston i s forced downward 1 i nch. The movement
di spl aces 10 cubi c i nches of fl ui d. The fl ui d must
go somewhere. Si nce the system i s cl osed and the
fl ui d i s practi cal l y i ncompressi bl e, the fl ui d wi l l
move to the ri ght si de of the system. Because the
output pi ston al so has a cross-secti onal area of
10 square i nches, i t wi l l move 1 i nch upward to
accommodate the 10 cubi c i nches of fl ui d. You
may general i ze thi s by sayi ng that i f two pi stons
i n a cl osed system have equal cross-secti onal areas
and one pi ston i s pushed and moved, the other
pi ston wi l l move the same di stance, though i n the
opposi te di recti on. Thi s i s because a decrease i n
vol ume i n one part of the system i s bal anced by
one equal i ncrease i n vol ume i n another part of
the system.
Appl y thi s reasoni ng to the system i n fi gure
2-11. I f the i nput pi ston i s pushed down a di stance
Figure 2-12.Differential areas on a piston.
2-8
of 1 i nch, the vol ume of fl ui d i n the l eft cyl i nder
wi l l decrease by 2 cubi c i nches. At the same ti me,
the vol ume i n the ri ght cyl i nder wi l l i ncrease by
2 cubi c i nches. Si nce the di ameter of the ri ght
cyl i nder cannot change, the pi ston must move
upward to al l ow the vol ume to i ncrease. The
pi ston wi l l move a di stance equal to the vol ume
i ncrease di vi ded by the surface area of the pi ston
(equal to the surface area of the cyl i nder). I n thi s
exampl e, the pi ston wi l l move one-tenth of an i nch
(2 cu. i n. 20 sq. i n.). Thi s l eads to the second
basi c rul e for a fl ui d power system that contai ns
two pi stons: The di stances the pi stons move are
i nversel y proporti onal to the areas of the pi stons.
Or more si mpl y, i f one pi ston i s smal l er than the
other, the smal l er pi ston must move a greater
di stance than the l arger pi ston any ti me the pi stons
move.
LIQUIDS IN MOTION
I n the operati on of fl ui d power systems, there
must be a fl ow of fl ui d. The amount of fl ow wi l l
vary from system to system. To understand fl ui d
power systems i n acti on, i t i s necessar y to
understand some of the characteri sti cs of l i qui ds
i n moti on.
Li qui ds i n moti on have characteri sti cs di f-
ferent from l i qui ds at rest. Fri cti onal resi stances
wi thi n a fl ui d (vi scosi ty) and i nerti a contri bute to
these di fferences. (Vi scosi ty i s di scussed i n chapter
3.) I nertia, whi ch means the resi stance a mass
offers to bei ng set i n moti on, wi l l be di scussed
l ater i n thi s secti on. There are other rel ati onshi ps
of l i qui ds i n moti on wi th whi ch you must become
fami l i ar. Among these are vol ume and vel oci ty
of fl ow, fl ow r ate and speed, l ami nar and
turbul ent fl ow, and more i mportantl y, the force
and energy changes whi ch occur i n fl ow.
VOLUME AND VELOCITY OF FLOW
The vol ume of a l i qui d passi ng a poi nt i n a
gi ven ti me i s known as i ts volume of flow or fl ow
rate. The vol ume of fl ow i s usual l y expressed i n
gal l ons per mi nute (gpm) and i s associ ated wi th
rel ati ve pressures of the l i qui d, such as 5 gpm at
40 psi .
The velocity of flow or vel oci ty of the fl ui d
i s defi ned as the average speed at whi ch the fl ui d
moves past a gi ven poi nt. I t i s usual l y expressed
i n feet per second (fps) or feet per mi nute (fpm).
Vel oci ty of fl ow i s an i mportant consi derati on i n
si zi ng the hydraul i c l i nes. (Hydraul i c l i nes are
di scussed i n chapter 5.)
Vol ume and vel oci ty of fl ow ar e often
consi der ed together . Wi th other condi ti ons
unal ter edthat i s, wi th v ol u me of i n pu t
unchangedthe vel oci ty of fl ow i ncreases as the
cross secti on or si ze of the pi pe decreases, and the
vel oci ty of fl ow decreases as the cross secti on
i ncreases. For exampl e, the vel oci ty of fl ow i s sl ow
at wi de parts of a stream and rapi d at narrow
parts, yet the vol ume of water passi ng each part
of the stream i s the same.
I n fi gure 2-13, i f the cross-secti onal area of
the pi pe i s 16 square i nches at poi nt A and 4
square i nches at poi nt B, we can cal cul ate the
rel ati ve vel oci ty of fl ow usi ng the fl ow equati on
Q = v A Equati on 2-7.
where Q i s the vol ume of fl ow, v i s the vel oci ty
of fl ow and A i s the cross-secti onal area of the
l i qui d. Si nce the vol ume of fl ow at poi nt A, Q
1
,
i s equal to the vol ume of fl ow at poi nt B, Q
2
, we
can use equati on 2-7 to determi ne the rati o of the
Figure 2-13.Volume and velocity of flow.
2-9
vel oci ty of fl ow at poi nt A, v
1
, to the vel oci ty of
fl ow at poi nt B, v
2
.
Si n ce Q
1
= Q
2
, A
1
v
1
= A
2
v
2
From fi gure 2-13; A
1
= 16sq. i n., A
2
= 4sq. i n.
Substi tuti ng: 16v
1
= 4V
2
or v
2
= 4v
I
Therefore, the vel oci ty of fl ow at poi nt B i s four
ti mes the vel oci ty of fl ow at poi nt A.
VOLUME OF FLOW AND SPEED
I f you consi der the cyl i nder vol ume you must
fi l l and the di stance the pi ston must travel , you
can rel ate the vol ume of fl ow to the speed of the
pi ston. The vol ume of the cyl i nder i s found by
mul ti pl yi ng the pi ston area by the l ength the pi ston
must travel (stroke).
Suppose you have deter mi ned that two
cyl i nders have the same vol ume and that one
cyl i nder i s twi ce as l ong as the other. I n thi s case,
the cross-secti onal area of the l onger tube wi l l be
hal f of the cross-secti onal area of the other tube.
I f fl ui d i s pumped i nto each cyl i nder at the same
rate, both pi stons wi l l reach thei r ful l travel at the
same ti me. However, the pi ston i n the smal l er
cyl i nder must travel twi ce as fast because i t has
twi ce as far to go.
There are two ways of control l i ng the speed
of the pi ston, (1) by varyi ng the si ze of the cyl i nder
and (2) by varyi ng the vol ume of fl ow (gpm) to
the cyl i nders. (Hydraul i c cyl i nders are di scussed
i n detai l i n chapter 10. )
STREAMLINE AND
TURBULENT FLOW
At l ow vel oci ti es or i n tubes of smal l di ameter,
fl ow i s streaml i ned. Thi s means that a gi ven
parti cl e of fl ui d moves strai ght forward wi thout
bumpi ng i nto other parti cl es and wi thout crossi ng
thei r paths. Streaml i ne fl ow i s often referred to
as l ami nar fl ow, whi ch i s defi ned as a fl ow
si tuati on i n whi ch fl ui d moves i n paral l el l ami na
or l ayers. As an exampl e of streaml i ne fl ow,
consi der fi gure 2-14, whi ch i l l ustrates an open
stream fl owi ng at a sl ow, uni form rate wi th l ogs
fl oati ng on i ts surface. The l ogs represent parti cl es
of fl ui d. As l ong as the stream fl ows at a sl ow,
uni form rate, each l og fl oats downstream i n i ts
Figure 2-14.Streamline flow.
own path, wi thout crossi ng or bumpi ng i nto the
other.
I f the stream narrows, however, and the
vol ume of fl ow remai ns the same, the vel oci ty
of fl ow i ncr eases. I f the vel oci ty i ncr eases
suffi ci entl y, the water becomes turbul ent. (See
fi g. 2-15.) Swi rl s, eddi es, and cross-moti ons are
set up i n the water. As thi s happens, the l ogs are
thrown agai nst each other and agai nst the banks
of the stream, and the paths fol l owed by di fferent
l ogs wi l l cross and recross.
Parti cl es of fl ui d fl owi ng i n pi pes act i n the
same manner. The fl ow i s streaml i ned i f the fl ui d
fl ows sl owl y enough, and remai ns streaml i ned at
greater vel oci ti es i f the di ameter of the pi pe i s
smal l . I f the vel oci ty of fl ow or si ze of pi pe i s
i ncreased suffi ci entl y, the fl ow becomes turbul ent.
Whi l e a hi gh vel oci ty of fl ow wi l l produce
turbul ence i n any pi pe, other factors contri bute
to turbul ence. Among these are the roughness of
the i nsi de of the pi pe, obstructi ons, the degree of
curvature of bends, and the number of bends i n
the pi pe. I n setti ng up or mai ntai ni ng fl ui d power
systems, care shoul d be taken to el i mi nate or
Figure 2-15.Turbulent flow.
2-10
mi ni mi ze as many causes of tur bul ence as
possi bl e, si nce the energy consumed by turbul ence
i s wasted. Li mi tati ons rel ated to the degree
and number of bends of pi pe are di scussed i n
chapter 5.
Whi l e desi gners of fl ui d power equi pment do
what they can to mi ni mi ze turbul ence, i t cannot
be avoi ded. For exampl e, i n a 4-i nch pi pe at 68F,
fl ow becomes turbul ent at vel oci ti es over approxi -
matel y 6 i nches per second or about 3 i nches per
second i n a 6-i nch pi pe. These vel oci ti es are far
bel ow those commonl y encountered i n fl ui d power
systems, where vel oci ti es of 5 feet per second and
above are common. I n streaml i ned fl ow, l osses
due to fri cti on i ncrease di rectl y wi th vel oci ty. Wi th
turbul ent fl ow these l osses i ncrease much more
r api dl y.
FACTORS INVOLVED IN FLOW
An understandi ng of the behavi or of fl ui ds i n
moti on, or sol i ds for that matter, requi res an
understandi ng of the term inertia. I nerti a i s the
term used by sci enti sts to descri be the property
possessed by al l forms of matter that makes the
matter resi st bei ng moved i f i t i s at rest, and
l i kewi se, resi st any change i n i ts rate of moti on
i f i t i s movi ng.
The basi c statement cover i ng i ner ti a i s
Newtons fi rst l aw of moti oni nerti a. Si r I saac
Newton was a Bri ti sh phi l osopher and mathe-
mati ci an. Hi s fi rst l aw states: A body at rest tends
to remain at rest, and a body in motion tends to
remain in motion at the same speed and direction,
unless acted on by some unbalanced force.
Thi s si mpl y says what you have l ear ned by
experi encethat you must push an object to start
i t movi ng and push i t i n the opposi te di recti on
to stop i t agai n.
A fami l i ar i l l ustrati on i s the effort a pi tcher
must exert to make a fast pi tch and the opposi ti on
the catcher must put forth to stop the bal l .
Si mi l arl y, consi derabl e work must be performed
by the engi ne to make an automobi l e begi n
to rol l ; al though, after i t has attai ned a certai n
vel oci ty, i t wi l l rol l al ong the road at uni form
speed i f just enough effor t i s expended to
overcome fri cti on, whi l e brakes are necessary to
stop i ts moti on. I nerti a al so expl ai ns the ki ck or
recoi l of guns and the tremendous stri ki ng force
of projecti l es.
Inertia
To
and Force
overcome the tendency of an object to
resi st any change i n i ts state of rest or moti on,
some force that i s not otherwi se cancel ed or
unbal anced must act on the obj ect. Some
unbal anced force must be appl i ed whenever fl ui ds
are set i n moti on or i ncreased i n vel oci ty; whi l e
conversel y, forces are made to do work el sewhere
whenever fl ui ds i n moti on ar e r etar ded or
stopped.
There i s a di rect rel ati onshi p between the
magni tude of the force exerted and the i nerti a
agai nst whi ch i t acts. Thi s force i s dependent
on two factor s: (1) the mass of the obj ect
(whi ch i s proporti onal to i ts wei ght), and (2)
the r ate at whi ch the vel oci ty of the object
i s changed. The rul e i s that the force i n
pounds requi red to overcome i nerti a i s equal
to the wei ght of the object mul ti pl i ed by the
change i n vel oci ty, measured i n feet per second,
and di vi ded by 32 ti mes the ti me i n seconds
requi red to accompl i sh the change. Thus, the rate
of change i n vel oci ty of an object i s proporti onal
to the force appl i ed. The number 32 appears
because i t i s the conversi on factor between wei ght
and mass.
There are fi ve physi cal factors that can act on
a fl ui d to affect i ts behavi or. Al l of the physi cal
acti ons of fl ui ds i n al l systems are determi ned by
the rel ati onshi ps of these fi ve factors to each
other. Summari zi ng, these fi ve factors are as
fol l ows:
1. Gravi ty, whi ch acts at al l ti mes on al l
bodi es, regardl ess of other forces
2. Atmospher i c pr essur e, whi ch acts on
any par t of a system exposed to the open
ai r
3. Speci fi c appl i ed forces, whi ch mayor may
not be present, but whi ch, i n any event, are
enti rel y i ndependent of the presence or absence
of moti on
4. I nerti a, whi ch comes i nto pl ay whenever
there i s a change from rest to moti on or the
opposi te, or whenever ther e i s a change i n
di recti on or i n rate of moti on
5. Fri cti on, whi ch i s al ways present whenever
there i s moti on
2-11
Fi gure 2-16 i l l ustrates a possi bl e rel ati onshi p
of these factors wi th respect to a parti cl e of fl ui d
(P) i n a system. The di fferent forces are shown
i n terms of head, or i n other words, i n terms of
verti cal col umns of fl ui d requi red to provi de
the for ces. At the par ti cul ar moment under
consi derati on, a parti cl e of water (P) i s bei ng acted
on by appl i ed force (A), by atmospheri c pressure
(B), and by gravi ty (C) produced by the wei ght
of the fl ui d standi ng over i t. The parti cl e possesses
suffi ci ent i nerti a or vel oci ty head to ri se to l evel
P1, si nce head equi val ent to F was l ost i n fri cti on
as P passed through the system. Si nce atmospheri c
pressure (B) acts downward on both si des of the
system, what i s gai ned on one si de i s l ost on the
other.
I f al l the pressure acti ng on P to force i t
through the nozzl e coul d be recovered i n the form
of el evati on head, i t woul d ri se to l evel Y. I f
account i s taken of the bal ance i n atmospheri c
pressure, i n a fri cti onl ess system, P woul d ri se to
l evel X, or preci sel y as hi gh as the sum of the
gravi ty head and the head equi val ent to the
appl i ed force.
Kinetic Energy
I t was previ ousl y poi nted out that a force must
be appl i ed to an object i n order to gi ve i t a vel oci ty
or to i ncrease the vel oci ty i t al ready has. Whether
the force begi ns or changes vel oci ty, i t acts over
a certai n di stance. A force acti ng over a certai n
di stance i s work. Work and al l forms i nto whi ch
i t can be changed ar e cl assi fi ed as ener gy.
Obvi ousl y then, energy i s requi red to gi ve an
object vel oci ty. The greater the energy used, the
greater the vel oci ty wi l l be.
Di sr egar di ng fr i cti on, for an object to be
brought to rest or for i ts moti on to be sl owed
down, a force opposed to i ts moti on must be
appl i ed to i t. Thi s force al so acts over some
di stance. I n thi s way energy i s gi ven up by the
object and del i vered i n some form to whatever
opposes i ts conti nuous moti on. The movi ng object
i s therefore a means of recei vi ng energy at one
pl ace (where i ts moti on i s i ncreased) and del i veri ng
i t to another poi nt (wher e i t i s stopped or
retarded). Whi l e i t i s i n moti on, i t i s sai d to
contai n thi s energy as energy of moti on or kinetic
ener gy.
Si nce energy can never be destroyed, i t fol l ows
that i f fri cti on i s di sregarded the energy del i vered
to stop the object wi l l exactl y equal the energy
that was requi red to i ncrease i ts speed. At al l ti mes
the amount of ki neti c energy possessed by an
object depends on i ts wei ght and the vel oci ty at
whi ch i t i s movi ng.
Figure 2-16.Physical factors governing fluid flow.
2-12
The mathemati cal rel ati onshi p for ki neti c
energy i s stated i n the rul e: Ki neti c energy i n
foot-pounds i s equal to the force i n pounds whi ch
created i t, mul ti pl i ed by the di stance through
whi ch i t was appl i ed, or to the wei ght of the
movi ng object i n pounds, mul ti pl i ed by the square
of i ts vel oci ty i n feet per second, and di vi ded by
64.s
The r el ati onshi p between i ner ti a for ces,
vel oci ty, and ki neti c energy can be i l l ustrated by
anal yzi ng what happens when a gun fi res a
projecti l e agai nst the armor of an enemy shi p. (See
fi g. 2-17.) The expl osi ve force of the powder i n
the breach pushes the projecti l e out of the gun,
gi vi ng i t a hi gh vel oci ty. Because of i ts i nerti a,
the projecti l e offers opposi ti on to thi s sudden
vel oci ty and a reacti on i s set up that pushes the
gun backward (ki ck or recoi l ). The force of the
expl osi on acts on the projecti l e throughout i ts
movement i n the gun. Thi s i s force acti ng through
a di stance produci ng work. Thi s work appears as
ki neti c energy i n the speedi ng projecti l e. The
resi stance of the ai r produces fri cti on, whi ch uses
some of the energy and sl ows down the projecti l e.
Eventual l y, however, the projecti l e hi ts i ts target
and, because of the i nerti a, tri es to conti nue
movi ng. The target, bei ng rel ati vel y stati onary,
tends to remai n stati onary because of i ts i nerti a.
The resul t i s that a tremendous force i s set up that
ei ther l eads to the penetrati on of the armor or
the shatteri ng of the projecti l e. The projecti l e
i s si mpl y a means of transferri ng energy, i n
thi s i nstance for destructi ve purpose, from the
gun to the enemy shi p. Thi s energy i s transmi tted
i n the for m of ener gy of moti on or ki neti c
ener gy.
A si mi l ar acti on takes pl ace i n a fl ui d power
system i n whi ch the fl ui d takes the pl ace of the
projecti l e. For exampl e, the pump i n a hydraul i c
Figure 2-17.Relationship of inertia, velocity, and kinetic
energy.
system i mpar ts ener gy to the fl ui d, whi ch
overcomes the i nerti a of the fl ui d at rest and
causes i t to fl ow through the l i nes. The fl ui d fl ows
agai nst some type of actuator that i s at rest. The
fl ui d tends to conti nue fl owi ng, overcomes the
i nerti a of the actuator, and moves the actuator
to do work. Fri cti on uses up a porti on of the
energy as the fl ui d fl ows through the l i nes and
components.
RELATIONSHIP OF FORCE,
PRESSURE, AND HEAD
I n deal i ng wi th fl ui ds, forces are usual l y
consi dered i n rel ati on to the areas over whi ch they
are appl i ed. As previ ousl y di scussed, a force
acti ng over a uni t area i s a pressure, and pressure
can al ternatel y be stated i n pounds per square i nch
or i n terms of head, whi ch i s the verti cal hei ght
of the col umn of fl ui d whose wei ght woul d
produce that pressure.
I n most of the appl i cati ons of fl ui d power i n
the Navy, appl i ed forces greatl y outwei gh al l other
forces, and the fl ui d i s enti rel y confi ned. Under
these ci rcumstances i t i s customary to thi nk of the
forces i nvol ved i n terms of pressures. Si nce the
term head i s encountered frequentl y i n the study
of fl ui d power, i t i s necessary to understand what
i t means and how i t i s rel ated to pressure and
for ce.
Al l fi ve of the factors that control the acti ons
of fl ui ds can, of course, be expressed ei ther as
force, or i n terms of equi val ent pressures or head.
I n each si tuati on, the di fferent factors are referred
to i n the same terms, si nce they can be added and
subtracted to study thei r rel ati onshi p to each
other.
At thi s poi nt you need to revi ew some terms
i n general use. Gravi ty head, when i t i s i mportant
enough to be consi dered, i s someti mes referred
to as head. The effect of atmospheri c pressure i s
referred to as atmospheri c pressure. (Atmospheri c
pressure i s frequentl y and i mproperl y referred to
as sucti on.) I nerti a effect, because i t i s al ways
di rectl y rel ated to vel oci ty, i s usual l y cal l ed
vel oci ty head; and fri cti on, because i t represents
a l oss of pressure or head, i s usual l y referred to
as fri cti on head.
STATIC AND DYNAMIC FACTORS
Gr avi ty, appl i ed for ces, and atmospher i c
pressure are stati c factors that appl y equal l y to
2-13
fl ui ds at rest or i n moti on, whi l e i nerti a and
fri cti on are dynami c factors that appl y onl y to
fl ui ds i n moti on. The mathemati cal sum of
gravi ty, appl i ed force, and atmospheri c pressure
i s the stati c pressure obtai ned at any one poi nt
i n a fl ui d at any gi ven ti me. Stati c pressure exi sts
i n addi ti on to any dynami c factors that may al so
be present at the same ti me.
Remember, Pascal s l aw states that a pressure
set up i n a fl ui d acts equal l y i n al l di recti ons and
at ri ght angl es to the contai ni ng surfaces. Thi s
covers the si tuati on onl y for fl ui ds at rest or
practi cal l y at rest. I t i s true onl y for the factors
maki ng up stati c head. Obvi ousl y, when vel oci ty
becomes a factor i t must have a di recti on, and
as previ ousl y expl ai ned, the force rel ated to the
vel oci ty must al so have a di r ecti on, so that
Pascal s l aw al one does not appl y to the dynami c
factors of fl ui d power.
The dynami c factors of i nerti a and fri cti on are
rel ated to the stati c factors. Vel oci ty head and
fri cti on head are obtai ned at the expense of stati c
head. However, a porti on of the vel oci ty head can
al ways be reconverted to stati c head. Force, whi ch
can be produced by pressure or head when deal i ng
wi th fl ui ds, i s necessary to start a body movi ng
i f i t i s at rest, and i s present i n some form when
the moti on of the body i s arrested; therefore,
whenever a fl ui d i s gi ven vel oci ty, some part of
i ts ori gi nal stati c head i s used to i mpart thi s
vel oci ty, whi ch then exi sts as vel oci ty head.
BERNOULLIS PRINCIPLE
Consi der the system i l l ustrated i n fi gure 2-18.
Chamber A i s under pressure and i s connected by
a tube to chamber B, whi ch i s al so under pressure.
The pressure i n chamber A i s stati c pressure of
100 psi . The pressure at some poi nt (X) al ong the
connecti ng tube consi sts of a vel oci ty pressure of
Figure 2-18.Relation of static and dynamic factors
Bernoullis principle.
10 psi exerted i n a di recti on paral l el to the l i ne
of fl ow, pl us the unused stati c pressure of 90 psi ,
whi ch sti l l obeys Pascal s l aw and operates equal l y
i n al l di recti ons. As the fl ui d enters chamber B
i t i s sl owed down, and i ts vel oci ty i s changed back
to pressure. The force requi red to absorb i ts
i nerti a equal s the force requi red to start the fl ui d
movi ng ori gi nal l y, so that the stati c pressure i n
chamber B i s equal to that i n chamber A.
Thi s si tuati on (fi g. 2-18) di sregards fri cti on;
therefore, i t woul d not be encountered i n actual
pr acti ce. For ce or head i s al so r equi r ed to
overcome fri cti on but, unl i ke i nerti a effect, thi s
force cannot be recovered agai n, al though the
energy represented sti l l exi sts somewhere as heat.
Therefore, i n an actual system the pressure i n
chamber B woul d be l ess than i n chamber A by
the amount of pr essur e used i n over comi ng
fri cti on al ong the way.
At al l poi nts i n a system the stati c pressure i s
al ways the ori gi nal stati c pressure, l ess any vel oci ty
head at the poi nt i n questi on and l ess the fri cti on
head consumed i n reachi ng that poi nt. Si nce both
the vel oci ty head and the fri cti on head represent
energy that came from the ori gi nal stati c head,
and si nce energy cannot be destroyed, the sum of
the stati c head, the vel oci ty head, and the fri cti on
head at any poi nt i n the system must add up to
the or i gi nal stati c head. Thi s i s known as
Ber noul l i 's pr i nci pl e, whi ch states: For the
horizontal flow of fluid through a tube, the sum
of the pressure and the kinetic energy per unit
volume of the fluid is constant. Thi s pr i nci pl e
governs the rel ati ons of the stati c and dynami c
factors concerni ng fl ui ds, whi l e Pascal s l aw states
the manner i n whi ch the stati c factors behave
when taken by themsel ves.
MINIMIZING FRICTION
Fl ui d power equi pment i s desi gned to reduce
fri cti on to the l owest possi bl e l evel . Vol ume and
vel oci ty of fl ow are made the subject of careful
study. The proper fl ui d for the system i s chosen.
Cl ean, smooth pi pe of the best di mensi ons for the
parti cul ar condi ti ons i s used, and i t i s i nstal l ed
al ong as di rect a route as possi bl e. Sharp bends
and sudden changes i n cross-secti onal areas are
avoi ded. Val ves, gauges, and other components
are desi gned to i nterrupt fl ow as l i ttl e as possi bl e.
Careful thought i s gi ven to the si ze and shape of
the openi ngs. The systems are desi gned so they
2-14
can be kept cl ean i nsi de and vari ati ons from
normal operati on can easi l y be detected and
r emedi ed.
OPERATION OF HYDRAULIC
COMPONENTS
To tr ansmi t and contr ol power thr ough
pr essur i zed fl ui ds, an ar r angement of i nter -
connected components i s r equi r ed. Such an
arrangement i s commonl y referred to as a system.
The number and arrangement of the components
vary from system to system, dependi ng on the
parti cul ar appl i cati on. I n many appl i cati ons, one
mai n system suppl i es power to several subsystems,
whi ch are someti mes referred to as ci rcui ts. The
compl ete system may be a smal l compact uni t;
more often, however, the components are l ocated
at wi del y separated poi nts for conveni ent control
and operati on of the system.
The basi c components of a fl ui d power system
are essenti al l y the same, regardl ess of whether the
system uses a hydraul i c or a pneumati c medi um.
There are fi ve basi c components used i n a system.
These basi c components are as fol l ows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Reservoi r or recei ver
Pump or compressor
Li nes (pi pe, tubi ng, or fl exi bl e hose)
Di recti onal control val ve
Actuati ng devi ce
Several appl i cati ons of fl ui d power requi re
onl y a si mpl e system; that i s, a system whi ch uses
onl y a few components i n addi ti on to the fi ve
basi c components. A few of these appl i cati ons are
presented i n the fol l owi ng paragraphs. We wi l l
expl ai n the operati on of these systems bri efl y at
thi s ti me so you wi l l know the purpose of each
component and can better under stand how
hydraul i cs i s used i n the operati on of these
systems. More compl ex fl ui d power systems are
descri bed i n chapter 12.
HYDRAULIC J ACK
The hydraul i c jack i s perhaps one of the
si mpl est for ms of a fl ui d power system. By
movi ng the handl e of a smal l devi ce, an i ndi vi dual
can l i ft a l oad wei ghi ng several tons. A smal l
i ni ti al force exerted on the handl e i s transmi tted
by a fl ui d to a much l arger area. To understand
thi s better, study fi gure 2-19. The smal l i nput
pi ston has an area of 5 square i nches and i s
di rectl y connected to a l arge cyl i nder wi th an
output pi ston havi ng an area of 250 square i nches.
The top of thi s pi ston forms a l i ft pl atform.
I f a force of 25 pounds i s appl i ed to the i nput
pi ston, i t produces a pressure of 5 psi i n the fl ui d,
that i s, of cour se, i f a suffi ci ent amount of
resi stant force i s acti ng agai nst the top of the
output pi ston. Di sregardi ng fri cti on l oss, thi s
pressure acti ng on the 250 square i nch area of the
output pi ston wi l l support a resi stance force of
1,250 pounds. I n other words, thi s pressure coul d
overcome a force of sl i ghtl y under 1,250 pounds.
An i nput force of 25 pounds has been transformed
i nto a worki ng force of more than hal f a ton;
however, for thi s to be true, the di stance travel ed
by the i nput pi ston must be 50 ti mes greater than
the di stance travel ed by the output pi ston. Thus,
for every i nch that the i nput pi ston moves, the
output pi ston wi l l move onl y one-fi fti eth of an
i n c h .
Thi s woul d be i deal i f the output pi ston needed
to move onl y a short di stance. However, i n most
i nstances, the output pi ston woul d have to be
capabl e of movi ng a greater di stance to serve a
practi cal appl i cati on. The devi ce shown i n fi gure
2-19 i s not capabl e of movi ng the output pi ston
farther than that shown; therefore, some other
means must be used to rai se the output pi ston to
a greater hei ght.
Figure 2-19.Hydraulic jack.
2-15
The output pi ston can be rai sed hi gher and
mai ntai ned at thi s hei ght i f addi ti onal components
are i nstal l ed as shown i n fi gure 2-20. I n thi s
i l l ustrati on the jack i s desi gned so that i t can be
rai sed, l owered, or hel d at a constant hei ght.
These resul ts are attai ned by i ntroduci ng a number
of val ves and al so a reserve suppl y of fl ui d to be
used i n the system.
Noti ce that thi s system contai ns the fi ve basi c
componentsthe reservoi r; cyl i nder 1, whi ch
serves as a pump; val ve 3, whi ch serves as a
di recti onal control val ve; cyl i nder 2, whi ch serves
as the actuati ng devi ce; and l i nes to transmi t the
fl ui d to and from the di fferent components. I n
addi ti on, thi s system contai ns two val ves, 1 and
2, whose functi ons are expl ai ned i n the fol l owi ng
di scussi on.
As the i nput pi ston i s rai sed (fi g. 2-20, vi ew
A), val ve 1 i s cl osed by the back pressure from
the wei ght of the output pi ston. At the same ti me,
val ve 2 i s opened by the head of the fl ui d i n the
reservoi r. Thi s forces fl ui d i nto cyl i nder 1. When
the i nput pi ston i s l owered (fi g. 2-20, vi ew B), a
pressure i s devel oped i n cyl i nder 1. When thi s
pressure exceeds the head i n the reservoi r, i t cl oses
val ve 2. When i t exceeds the back pressure from
the output pi ston, i t opens val ve 1, forci ng fl ui d
i nto the pi pel i ne. The pressure from cyl i nder 1 i s
Figure 2-20.Hydraulic jack; (A) up stroke; (B) downstroke.
thus transmi tted i nto cyl i nder 2, where i t acts to
rai se the output pi ston wi th i ts attached l i ft
pl atform. When the i nput pi ston i s agai n rai sed,
the pressure i n cyl i nder 1 drops bel ow that i n
cyl i nder 2, causi ng val ve 1 to cl ose. Thi s prevents
the return of fl ui d and hol ds the output pi ston
wi th i ts attached l i ft pl atform at i ts new l evel .
Duri ng thi s stroke, val ve 2 opens agai n al l owi ng
a new suppl y of fl ui d i nto cyl i nder 1 for the next
power (downward) stroke of the i nput pi ston.
Thus, by repeated strokes of the i nput pi ston, the
l i ft pl atform can be progressi vel y rai sed. To l ower
the l i ft pl atform, val ve 3 i s opened, and the fl ui d
from cyl i nder 2 i s returned to the reservoi r.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
The hydr aul i c br ake system used i n the
automobi l e i s a mul ti pl e pi ston system. A mul ti pl e
pi ston system al l ows forces to be transmi tted to
two or more pi stons i n the manner i ndi cated i n
fi gure 2-21. Note that the pressure set up by the
force appl i ed to the i nput pi ston (1) i s transmi tted
undi mi ni shed to both output pi stons (2 and 3),
and that the resul tant force on each pi ston i s
proporti onal to i ts area. The mul ti pl i cati on of
forces from the i nput pi ston to each output pi ston
i s the same as that expl ai ned earl i er.
The hydraul i c brake system from the master
cyl i nder s to the wheel cyl i nder s on most
Figure 2-21.Multiple piston system.
2-16
automobi l es operates i n a way si mi l ar to the
system i l l ustrated i n fi gure 2-22.
When the br ake pedal i s depr essed, the
pressure on the brake pedal moves the pi ston
wi thi n the master cyl i nder, forci ng the brake fl ui d
from the master cyl i nder through the tubi ng and
fl exi bl e hose to the wheel cyl i nders. The wheel
cyl i nders contai n two opposed output pi stons,
each of whi ch i s attached to a brake shoe fi tted
i nsi de the brake drum. Each output pi ston pushes
the attached brake shoe agai nst the wal l of the
brake drum, thus retardi ng the rotati on of the
wheel . When pressure on the pedal i s rel eased, the
spri ngs on the brake shoes return the wheel
cyl i nder pi stons to thei r rel eased posi ti ons. Thi s
acti on for ces the di spl aced br ake fl ui d back
through the fl exi bl e hose and tubi ng to the master
cyl i nder.
The force appl i ed to the brake pedal produces
a pr opor ti onal for ce on each of the output
pi stons, whi ch i n turn appl y the brake shoes
fr i cti onal l y to the tur ni ng wheel s to r etar d
rotati on.
As previ ousl y menti oned, the hydraul i c brake
system on most automobi l es operates i n a si mi l ar
way, as shown i n fi gure 2-22. I t i s beyond the
scope of thi s manual to di scuss the vari ous brake
systems.
Figure 2-22.An automobile brake system.
2-17
CHAPTER 3
HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
Duri ng the desi gn of equi pment that requi res
fl ui d power , many factor s ar e consi der ed i n
sel ecti ng the type of system to be usedhydraul i c,
pneumati c, or a combi nati on of the two. Some
of the factors are requi red speed and accuracy of
operati on, surroundi ng atmospheri c condi ti ons,
economi c condi ti ons, avai l abi l i ty of repl acement
fl ui d, requi red pressure l evel , operati ng tempera-
ture range, contami nati on possi bi l i ti es, cost of
transmi ssi on l i nes, l i mi tati ons of the equi pment,
l ubri ci ty, safety to the operators, and expected
servi ce l i fe of the equi pment.
After the type of system has been sel ected,
many of these same factors must be consi dered
i n sel ecti ng the fl ui d for the system. Thi s chapter
i s devoted to hydraul i c fl ui ds. I ncl uded i n i t are
secti ons on the properti es and characteri sti cs
desi red of hydraul i c fl ui ds; types of hydraul i c
fl ui ds; hazards and safety precauti ons for worki ng
wi th, handl i ng, and di sposi ng of hydr aul i c
l i qui ds; types and control of contami nati on; and
sampl i ng.
PROPERTIES
I f fl ui di ty (the physi cal property of a substance
that enabl es i t to fl ow) and i ncompressi bi l i ty were
the onl y properti es requi red, any l i qui d not too
thi ck mi ght be used i n a hydr aul i c system.
However, a sati sfactory l i qui d for a parti cul ar
system must possess a number of other properti es.
The most i mportant properti es and some charac-
teri sti cs are di scussed i n the fol l owi ng paragraphs.
VISCOSITY
Vi scosi ty i s one of the most i mpor tant
properti es of hydraul i c fl ui ds. I t i s a measure of
a fl ui ds resi stance to fl ow. A l i qui d, such as
gasol i ne, whi ch fl ows easi l y has a l ow vi scosi ty;
and a l i qui d, such as tar, whi ch fl ows sl owl y has
a hi gh vi scosi ty. The vi scosi ty of a l i qui d i s
affected by changes i n temperature and pressure.
As the temperature of a l i qui d i ncreases, i ts
vi scosi ty decreases. That i s, a l i qui d fl ows more
easi l y when i t i s hot than when i t i s col d. The
vi scosi ty of a l i qui d i ncreases as the pressure on
the l i qui d i ncreases.
A sati sfactory l i qui d for a hydraul i c system
must be thi ck enough to gi ve a good seal at
pumps, motors, val ves, and so on. These com-
ponents depend on cl ose fi ts for creati ng and
mai ntai ni ng pr essur e. Any i nter nal l eakage
through these cl earances resul ts i n l oss of pressure,
i nstantaneous contr ol , and pump effi ci ency.
Leakage l osses are greater wi th thi nner l i qui ds
(l ow vi scosi ty). A l i qui d that i s too thi n wi l l al so
al l ow rapi d weari ng of movi ng parts, or of parts
that operate under heavy l oads. On the other
hand, i f the l i qui d i s too thi ck (vi scosi ty too hi gh),
the i nternal fri cti on of the l i qui d wi l l cause an
i ncrease i n the l i qui ds fl ow resi stance through
cl ear ances of cl osel y fi tted par ts, l i nes, and
i nternal passages. Thi s resul ts i n pressure drops
thr oughout the system, sl uggi sh oper ati on
of the equi pment, and an i ncrease i n power
consumpti on.
Measurement of Viscosity
Vi scosi ty i s normal l y determi ned by measuri ng
the ti me requi red for a fi xed vol ume of a fl ui d
(at a gi ven temper atur e) to fl ow thr ough a
cal i brated ori fi ce or capi l l ary tube. The i nstru-
ments used to measure the vi scosi ty of a l i qui d
are known as vi scometers or vi scosi meters.
Several types of vi scosi meters are i n use today.
The Saybol t vi scometer, shown i n fi gure 3-1,
measures the ti me requi red, i n seconds, for 60
mi l l i l i ters of the tested fl ui d at 100F to pass
through a standard ori fi ce. The ti me measured i s
3-1
Figure 3-1.Saybolt viscometer.
used to express the fl ui ds vi scosi ty, i n Saybol t
uni versal seconds or Saybol t furol seconds.
The gl ass capi l l ary vi scometers, shown i n
fi gure 3-2, are exampl es of the second type of
vi scometer used. These vi scometers are used to
measure ki nemati c vi scosi ty. Li ke the Saybol t
vi scometer, the gl ass capi l l ary measures the ti me
i n seconds requi red for the tested fl ui d to fl ow
through the capi l l ary. Thi s ti me i s mul ti pl i ed by
the temperature constant of the vi scometer i n use
to provi de the vi scosi ty, expressed i n centi strokes.
The fol l owi ng for mul as may be used to
convert centi strokes (cSt uni ts) to approxi mate
Saybol t uni versal seconds (SUS uni ts).
For SUS val ues between 32 and 100:
For SUS val ues greater than 100:
Al though the vi scometers di scussed above are
used i n l aboratori es, there are other vi scometers
i n the suppl y system that are avai l abl e for l ocal
use. These vi scometers can be used to test the
vi scosi ty of hydraul i c fl ui ds ei ther pri or to thei r
bei ng added to a system or peri odi cal l y after they
have been i n an operati ng system for a whi l e.
Figure 3-2.Various styles of glass capillary viscometers.
3-2
Addi ti onal i nformati on on the vari ous types
of vi scometers and thei r operati on can be found
i n the Physical Measurements Training Manual,
NAVAI R 17-35QAL-2.
Viscosity Index
The vi scosi ty i ndex (V.I .) of an oi l i s a number
that i ndi cates the effect of temperature changes
on the vi scosi ty of the oi l . A l ow V.I . si gni fi es
a rel ati vel y l arge change of vi scosi ty wi th changes
of temperature. I n other words, the oi l becomes
extremel y thi n at hi gh temperatures and extremel y
thi ck at l ow temperatures. On the other hand, a
hi gh V.I . si gni fi es r el ati vel y l i ttl e change i n
vi scosi ty over a wi de temperature range.
An i deal oi l for most pur poses i s one
that mai ntai ns a constant vi scosi ty throughout
temperature changes. The i mportance of the V.I .
can be shown easi l y by consi deri ng automoti ve
l ubr i cants. An oi l havi ng a hi gh V.I . r esi sts
excessi ve thi ckeni ng when the engi ne i s col d and,
consequentl y, promotes rapi d starti ng and prompt
ci rcul ati on; i t resi sts excessi ve thi nni ng when the
motor i s hot and thus provi des ful l l ubri cati on and
prevents excessi ve oi l consumpti on.
Another exampl e of the i mportance of the V.I .
i s the need for a hi gh V.I . hydraul i c oi l for mi l i tary
ai rcraft, si nce hydraul i c control systems may be
exposed to temperatures rangi ng from bel ow
65F at hi gh al ti tudes to over 100F on the
ground. For the proper operati on of the hydraul i c
control system, the hydraul i c fl ui d must have a
suffi ci entl y hi gh V.I . to perform i ts functi ons at
the extremes of the expected temperature range.
Li qui ds wi th a hi gh vi scosi ty have a greater
resi stance to heat than l ow vi scosi ty l i qui ds whi ch
have been deri ved from the same source. The
average hydraul i c l i qui d has a rel ati vel y l ow
vi scosi ty. Fortunatel y, there i s a wi de choi ce of
l i qui ds avai l abl e for use i n the vi scosi ty range
requi red of hydraul i c l i qui ds.
The V.I . of an oi l may be determi ned i f i ts
vi scosi ty at any two temperatures i s known.
Tabl es, based on a l arge number of tests, are
i ssued by the Amer i can Soci ety for Testi ng
and Mater i al s (ASTM). These tabl es per mi t
cal cul ati on of the V.I . from known vi scosi ti es.
LUBRICATING POWER
I f moti on takes pl ace between surfaces i n
contact, fri cti on tends to oppose the moti on.
When pressure forces the l i qui d of a hydraul i c
system between the surfaces of movi ng parts, the
l i qui d spreads out i nto a thi n fi l m whi ch enabl es
the parts to move more freel y. Di fferent l i qui ds,
i ncl udi ng oi l s, vary greatl y not onl y i n thei r
l ubri cati ng abi l i ty but al so i n fi l m strength. Fi l m
strength i s the capabi l i ty of a l i qui d to resi st bei ng
wi ped or squeezed out from between the surfaces
when spread out i n an extremel y thi n l ayer. A
l i qui d wi l l no l onger l ubri cate i f the fi l m breaks
down, si nce the moti on of part agai nst part wi pes
the metal cl ean of l i qui d.
Lubri cati ng power vari es wi th temperature
changes; therefore, the cl i mati c and worki ng
condi ti ons must enter i nto the determi nati on of
the l ubr i cati ng qual i ti es of a l i qui d. Unl i ke
vi scosi ty, whi ch i s a physi cal pr oper ty, the
l ubri cati ng power and fi l m strength of a l i qui d
i s di r ectl y r el ated to i ts chemi cal natur e.
Lubri cati ng qual i ti es and fi l m strength can be
i mproved by the addi ti on of certai n chemi cal
agents.
CHEMICAL STABILITY
Chemi cal stabi l i ty i s another property whi ch
i s exceedi ngl y i mportant i n the sel ecti on of a
hydraul i c l i qui d. I t i s defi ned as the l i qui ds abi l i ty
to resi st oxi dati on and deteri orati on for l ong
peri ods. Al l l i qui ds tend to undergo unfavorabl e
changes under severe operati ng condi ti ons. Thi s
i s the case, for exampl e, when a system operates
for a consi der abl e per i od of ti me at hi gh
temper atur es.
Excessi ve temperatures, especi al l y extremel y
hi gh temperatures, have a great effect on the l i fe
of a l i qui d. The temperature of the l i qui d i n the
reservoi r of an operati ng hydraul i c system does
not al ways i ndi cate the operati ng condi ti ons
throughout the system. Local i zed hot spots occur
on beari ngs, gear teeth, or at other poi nts where
the l i qui d under pressure i s forced through smal l
ori fi ces. Conti nuous passage of the l i qui d through
these poi nts may produce l ocal temperatures hi gh
enough to carboni ze the l i qui d or turn i t i nto
sl udge, yet the l i qui d i n the reservoi r may not
i ndi cate an excessi vel y hi gh temperature.
Li qui ds may break down i f exposed to ai r,
water, sal t, or other i mpuri ti es, especi al l y i f they
are i n constant moti on or subjected to heat. Some
metal s, such as zi nc, l ead, brass, and copper, have
undesi r abl e chemi cal r eacti ons wi th cer tai n
l i qui ds.
These chemi cal reacti ons resul t i n the forma-
ti on of sl udge, gums, carbon, or other deposi ts
whi ch cl og openi ngs, cause val ves and pi stons to
sti ck or l eak, and gi ve poor l ubri cati on to movi ng
3-3
parts. Once a smal l amount of sl udge or other
deposi ts i s formed, the rate of formati on general l y
i ncreases more rapi dl y. As these deposi ts are
for med, cer tai n changes i n the physi cal and
chemi cal properti es of the l i qui d take pl ace. The
l i qui d usual l y becomes dar ker , the vi scosi ty
i ncreases and damagi ng aci ds are formed.
The extent to whi ch changes occur i n di fferent
l i qui ds depends on the type of l i qui d, type of
refi ni ng, and whether i t has been treated to
pr ovi de fur ther r esi stance to oxi dati on. The
stabi l i ty of l i qui ds can be i mpr oved by the
addi ti on of oxi dati on i nhi bi tor s. I nhi bi tor s
sel ected to i mprove stabi l i ty must be compati bl e
wi th the other requi red properti es of the l i qui d.
FREEDOM FROM ACIDITY
An i deal hydraul i c l i qui d shoul d be free from
aci ds whi ch cause corrosi on of the metal s i n the
system. Most l i qui ds cannot be expected to remai n
compl etel y noncorrosi ve under severe operati ng
condi ti ons. The degree of aci di ty of a l i qui d, when
new, may be sati sfactory; but after use, the l i qui d
may tend to become corrosi ve as i t begi ns to
deter i or ate.
Many systems are i dl e for l ong peri ods after
operati ng at hi gh temperatures. Thi s permi ts
moi sture to condense i n the system, resul ti ng i n
rust formati on.
Certai n corrosi on- and rust-preventi ve addi -
ti ves are added to hydraul i c l i qui ds. Some of these
addi ti ves are effecti ve onl y for a l i mi ted peri od.
Therefore, the best procedure i s to use the l i qui d
speci fi ed for the system for the ti me speci fi ed by
the system manufacturer and to protect the l i qui d
and the system as much as possi bl e fr om
contami nati on by forei gn matter, from abnormal
temperatures, and from mi suse.
FLASHPOINT
Fl ashpoi nt i s the temperature at whi ch a l i qui d
gi ves off vapor i n suffi ci ent quanti ty to i gni te
momentari l y or fl ash when a fl ame i s appl i ed. A
hi gh fl ashpoi nt i s desi rabl e for hydraul i c l i qui ds
because i t provi des good resi stance to combusti on
and a l ow degr ee of evapor ati on at nor mal
temperatures. Requi red fl ashpoi nt mi ni mums
vary from 300F for the l i ghtest oi l s to 510F for
the heavi est oi l s.
FIRE POINT
Fi re poi nt i s the temperature at whi ch a
substance gi ves off vapor i n suffi ci ent quanti ty
to i gni te and conti nue to burn when exposed to
a spark or fl ame. Li ke fl ashpoi nt, a hi gh fi re poi nt
i s requi red of desi rabl e hydraul i c l i qui ds.
MINIMUM TOXICITY
Toxi ci ty i s defi ned as the qual i ty, state, or
degree of bei ng toxi c or poi sonous. Some l i qui ds
contai n chemi cal s that are a seri ous toxi c hazard.
These toxi c or poi sonous chemi cal s may enter the
body through i nhal ati on, by absorpti on through
the ski n, or through the eyes or the mouth. The
resul t i s si ckness and, i n some cases, death.
Manufactur er s of hydr aul i c l i qui ds str i ve to
produce sui tabl e l i qui ds that contai n no toxi c
chemi cal s and, as a resul t, most hydraul i c l i qui ds
are free of harmful chemi cal s. Some fi re-resi stant
l i qui ds are toxi c, and sui tabl e protecti on and care
i n handl i ng must be provi ded.
DENSITY AND COMPRESSIBILITY
A fl ui d wi th a speci fi c gravi ty of l ess than 1.0
i s desi red when wei ght i s cri ti cal , al though wi th
proper system desi gn, a fl ui d wi th a speci fi c
gravi ty greater than one can be tol erated. Where
avoi dance of detecti on by mi l i tary uni ts i s desi red,
a fl ui d whi ch si nks rather than ri ses to the surface
of the water i s desi rabl e. Fl ui ds havi ng a speci fi c
gravi ty greater than 1.0 are desi red, as l eaki ng
fl ui d wi l l si nk, al l owi ng the vessel wi th the l eak
to remai n undetected.
Recal l from chapter 2 that under extreme
pressure a fl ui d may be compressed up to 7
per cent of i ts or i gi nal vol ume. Hi ghl y com-
pressi bl e fl ui ds produce sl uggi sh system operati on.
Thi s does not present a seri ous probl em i n smal l ,
l ow-speed operati ons, but i t must be consi dered
i n the operati ng i nstructi ons.
FOAMING TENDENCIES
Foam i s an emul si on of gas bubbl es i n the
fl ui d. Foam i n a hydraul i c system resul ts from
compressed gases i n the hydraul i c fl ui d. A fl ui d
under hi gh pressure can contai n a l arge vol ume
of ai r bubbl es. When thi s fl ui d i s depressuri zed,
as when i t reaches the reservoi r, the gas bubbl es
i n the fl ui d expand and pr oduce foam. Any
amount of foami ng may cause pump cavi tati on
and produce poor system response and spongy
3-4
control . Therefore, defoami ng agents are often
added to fl ui ds to prevent foami ng. Mi ni mi zi ng
ai r i n fl ui d systems i s di scussed l ater i n thi s
chapter.
CLEANLINESS
Cl eanl i ness i n hydraul i c systems has recei ved
consi derabl e attenti on recentl y. Some hydraul i c
systems, such as aerospace hydraul i c systems, are
extr emel y sensi ti ve to contami nati on. Fl ui d
cl eanl i ness i s of pri mary i mportance because
contami nants can cause component mal functi on,
pr event pr oper val ve seati ng, cause wear i n
components, and may i ncrease the response ti me
of servo val ves. Fl ui d contami nants are di scussed
l ater i n thi s chapter.
The i nsi de of a hydraul i c system can onl y be
kept as cl ean as the fl ui d added to i t. I ni ti al fl ui d
cl eanl i ness can be achi eved by observi ng stri ngent
cl eanl i ness requi rements (di scussed l ater i n thi s
chapter) or by fi l teri ng al l fl ui d added to the
system.
TYPES OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
There have been many l i qui ds tested for use
i n hydraul i c systems. Currentl y, l i qui ds bei ng used
i ncl ude mi ner al oi l , water , phosphate ester ,
water -based ethyl ene gl ycol compounds, and
si l i cone fl ui ds. The three most common types of
hydraul i c l i qui ds are petrol eum-based, syntheti c
fi re-resi stant, and water-based fi re-resi stant.
PETROLEUM-BASED FLUIDS
The most common hydraul i c fl ui ds used i n
shi pboard systems are the petrol eum-based oi l s.
These fl ui ds contai n addi ti ves to protect the fl ui d
from oxi dati on (anti oxi dant), to protect system
metal s from corrosi on (anti corrosi on), to reduce
tendency of the fl ui d to foam (foam suppressant),
and to i mprove vi scosi ty.
Petrol eum-based fl ui ds are used i n surface
shi ps el ectr ohydr aul i c steer i ng and deck
machi ner y systems, submar i nes hydr aul i c
systems, and ai rcraft automati c pi l ots, shock
absorbers, brakes, control mechani sms, and other
hydraul i c systems usi ng seal materi al s compati bl e
wi th petrol eum-based fl ui ds.
SYNTHETIC FIRE-RESISTANT FLUIDS
Petr ol eum-based oi l s contai n most of the
desi red properti es of a hydraul i c l i qui d. However,
they are fl ammabl e under normal condi ti ons and
can become expl osi ve when subjected to hi gh
pressures and a source of fl ame or hi gh tempera-
tures. Nonfl ammabl e syntheti c l i qui ds have been
devel oped for use i n hydraul i c systems where fi re
hazards exi st.
Phosphate Ester Fire-Resistant Fluid
Phosphate ester fi r e-r esi stant fl ui d for
shi pboard use i s covered by speci fi cati on MI L-
H-19457. There are certai n trade names cl osel y
associ ated wi th these fl ui ds. However, the onl y
acceptabl e fl ui ds conformi ng to MI L-H-19457 are
the ones l i sted on the current Qual i fi ed Products
Li st (QPL) 19457. These fl ui ds wi l l be del i vered
i n contai ners marked MI L-H-19457C or a l ater
speci fi cati on r evi si on. Phosphate ester i n
contai ners marked by a brand name wi thout a
speci fi cati on i denti fi cati on must not be used i n
shi pboard systems, as they may contai n toxi c
chemi cal s.
These fl ui ds wi l l burn i f suffi ci ent heat and
fl ame ar e appl i ed, but they do not suppor t
combusti on. Drawbacks of phosphate ester fl ui ds
are that they wi l l attack and l oosen commonl y
used pai nts and adhesi ves, deteri orate many types
of i nsul ati ons used i n el ectr i cal cabl es, and
deter i or ate many gasket and seal mater i al s.
Therefore, gaskets and seal s for systems i n whi ch
phosphate ester fl ui ds are used are manufactured
of speci fi c materi al s. Naval Ships Technical
Manual, chapter 262, speci fi es pai nts to be used
on exteri or surfaces of hydraul i c systems and
components i n whi ch phosphate ester fl ui d i s used
and on shi p structure and decks i n the i mmedi ate
vi ci ni ty of thi s equi pment. Naval Ships Technical
Manual, chapter 078, speci fi es gasket and seal
materi al s used. NAVAI R 01-1A-17 al so contai ns
a l i st of materi al s resi stant to phosphate ester
fl ui ds.
Trade names for phosphate ester fl ui ds, whi ch
do not conform to MI L-H-19457 i ncl ude Pydraul ,
Skydrol , and Fyre Safe.
PHOSPHATE ESTER FLUID SAFETY.
As a mai ntenance person, operator, supervi sor,
or crew member of a shi p, squadron, or naval
shor e i nstal l ati on, you must under stand the
hazards associ ated wi th hydraul i c fl ui ds to whi ch
you may be exposed.
3-5
Phosphate ester fl ui d conformi ng to speci fi -
cati on MI L-H-19457 i s used i n ai rcraft el evators,
bal l ast val ve operati ng systems, and repl eni sh-
ment-at-sea systems. Thi s type of fl ui d contai ns
a contr ol l ed amount of neur otoxi c mater i al .
Because of the neurotoxi c effects that can resul t
from i ngesti on, ski n absorpti on, or i nhal ati on of
these fl ui ds, be sur e to use the fol l owi ng
precauti ons:
1. Avoi d contact wi th the fl ui ds by weari ng
protecti ve cl othi ng.
2. Use chemi cal goggl es or face shi el ds to
protect your eyes.
3. I f you are expected to work i n an
atmosphere contai ni ng a fi ne mi st or spray,
wear a conti nuous-fl ow ai rl i ne respi rator.
4. Thoroughl y cl ean ski n areas contami nated
by thi s fl ui d wi th soap and water.
5. I f you get any fl ui d i n your eyes, fl ush them
wi th runni ng water for at l east 15 mi nutes
and seek medi cal attenti on.
I f you come i n contact wi th MI L-H-19457
fl ui d, report the contact when you seek medi cal
ai d and whenever you have a routi ne medi cal
exami nati on.
Naval Ships Technical Manual, chapter 262,
contai ns a l i st of protecti ve cl othi ng, al ong wi th
nati onal stock numbers (NSN), for use wi th fl ui ds
conformi ng to MI L-H-19457. I t al so contai ns
procedures for repai r work and for l ow-l evel
l eakage and massi ve spi l l s cl eanup.
PHOSPHATE ESTER FLUID DISPOSAL.
Waste MI L-H-19457 fl ui ds and refuse (rags and
other materi al s) must not be dumped at sea. Fl ui d
shoul d be pl aced i n bung-type drums. Rags and
other materi al s shoul d be pl aced i n open top
drums for shore di sposal . These drums shoul d be
marked wi th a warni ng l abel stati ng thei r content,
safety precauti ons, and di sposal i nstructi ons.
Detai l ed i nstructi ons for phosphate ester fl ui ds
di sposal can be found i n Naval Ships Technical
Manual, chapter 262, and OPNAVI NST 5090.1.
Silicone Synthetic Fire-Resistant Fluids
Si l i cone syntheti c fi re-resi stant fl ui ds are
frequentl y used for hydraul i c systems whi ch
requi re fi re resi stance, but whi ch have onl y
margi nal requi rements for other chemi cal or
physi cal properti es common to hydraul i c fl ui ds.
Si l i cone fl ui ds do not have the detr i mental
characteri sti cs of phosphate ester fl ui ds, nor
do they provi de the corrosi on protecti on and
l ubri cati on of phosphate ester fl ui ds, but they are
excel l ent for fi r e pr otecti on. Si l i cone fl ui d
conformi ng to MI L-S-81087 i s used i n the mi ssi l e
hol ddown and l ockout system aboard submari nes.
Lightweight Synthetic Fire-Resistant Fluids
I n appl i cati ons wher e wei ght i s cr i ti cal ,
l i ghtwei ght syntheti c fl ui d i s used i n hydraul i c
systems. MI L-H-83282 i s a syntheti c, fi re-resi stant
hydraul i c fl ui d used i n mi l i tary ai rcraft and
hydrofoi l s where the requi rement to mi ni mi ze
wei ght di ctates the use of a l ow-vi scosi ty fl ui d.
I t i s al so the most commonl y used fl ui d i n avi ati on
support equi pment. NAVAI R 01-1A-17 contai ns
addi ti onal i nformati on on fl ui ds conformi ng to
speci fi cati on MI L-H-83282.
WATER-BASED FIRE-RESISTANT
FLUIDS
The most wi del y used water-based hydraul i c
fl ui ds may be cl assi fi ed as water-gl ycol mi xtures
and water-syntheti c base mi xtures. The water-
gl ycol mi xture contai ns addi ti ves to protect i t from
oxi dati on, corrosi on, and bi ol ogi cal growth and
to enhance i ts l oad-carryi ng capaci ty.
Fi re resi stance of the water mi xture fl ui ds
depends on the vapori zati on and smotheri ng
effect of steam generated from the water. The
water i n water-based fl ui ds i s constantl y bei ng
dri ven off whi l e the system i s operati ng. There-
fore, frequent checks to mai ntai n the correct rati o
of water are i mportant.
The water -based fl ui d used i n catapul t
r etr acti ng engi nes, jet bl ast defl ector s, and
weapons el evators and handl i ng systems conforms
to MI L-H-22072.
The safety precauti ons outl i ned for phosphate
ester fl ui d and the di sposal of phosphate ester
fl ui d al so appl y to water-based fl ui d conformi ng
to MI L-H-22072.
CONTAMINATION
Hydr aul i c fl ui d contami nati on may be
descri bed as any forei gn materi al or substance
whose presence i n the fl ui d i s capabl e of adversel y
affecti ng system performance or rel i abi l i ty. I t may
assume many di fferent forms, i ncl udi ng l i qui ds,
gases, and sol i d matter of vari ous composi ti on,
si zes, and shapes. Sol i d matter i s the type most
often found i n hydraul i c systems and i s general l y
3-6
referred to as parti cul ate contami nati on. Con-
tami nati on i s al ways present to some degree, even
i n new, unused fl ui d, but must be kept bel ow a
l evel that wi l l adversel y affect system operati on.
Hydr aul i c contami nati on contr ol consi sts of
requi rements, techni ques, and practi ces necessary
to mi ni mi ze and control fl ui d contami nati on.
CLASSIFICATION
There are many types of contami nants whi ch
are harmful to hydraul i c systems and l i qui ds.
These contami nants may be di vi ded i nto two
di fferent cl assesparti cul ate and fl ui d.
Particulate Contamination
Thi s cl ass of contami nants i ncl udes organi c,
metal l i c sol i d, and i norgani c sol i d contami nants.
These contami nants are di scussed i n the fol l owi ng
paragraphs.
ORGANIC CONTAMINATION. Organi c
sol i ds or semi sol i ds found i n hydraul i c systems
are produced by wear, oxi dati on, or pol ymeri za-
ti on. Mi nute parti cl es of O-ri ngs, seal s, gaskets,
and hoses are present, due to wear or chemi cal
reacti ons. Syntheti c products, such as neoprene,
si l i cones, and hypal on, though r esi stant to
chemi cal reacti on wi th hydraul i c fl ui ds, produce
smal l wear parti cl es. Oxi dati on of hydraul i c fl ui ds
i ncreases wi th pressure and temperature, al though
anti oxi dants are bl ended i nto hydraul i c fl ui ds to
mi ni mi ze such oxi dati on. The abi l i ty of a
hydr aul i c fl ui d to r esi st oxi dati on or pol y-
meri zati on i n servi ce i s defi ned as i ts oxi dati on
stabi l i ty. Oxi dati on products appear as organi c
aci ds, asphal ti cs, gums, and varni shes. These
products combi ne wi th parti cl es i n the hydraul i c
fl ui d to form sl udge. Some oxi dati on products are
oi l sol ubl e and cause the hydr aul i c fl ui d to
i ncrease i n vi scosi ty; other oxi dati on products are
not oi l sol ubl e and form sedi ment.
METALLIC SOLID CONTAMINATION.
Metal l i c contami nants are al most al ways present
i n a hydraul i c system and wi l l range i n si ze from
mi croscopi c parti cl es to parti cl es readi l y vi si bl e
to the naked eye. These parti cl es are the resul t of
weari ng and scori ng of bare metal parts and
pl ati ng materi al s, such as si l ver and chromi um.
Al though practi cal l y al l metal s commonl y used
for parts fabri cati on and pl ati ng may be found
i n hydraul i c fl ui ds, the major metal l i c materi al s
found are ferrous, al umi num, and chromi um
parti cl es. Because of thei r conti nuous hi gh-speed
i nternal movement, hydraul i c pumps usual l y
contr i bute most of the metal l i c par ti cul ate
contami nati on present i n hydraul i c systems. Metal
parti cl es are al so produced by other hydraul i c
system components, such as val ves and actuators,
due to body wear and the chi ppi ng and weari ng
away of smal l pi eces of metal pl ati ng materi al s.
I NORGANI C SOLI D CONTAMI NA-
TION. Thi s contami nant group i ncl udes dust,
pai nt parti cl es, di rt, and si l i cates. Gl ass parti cl es
from gl ass bead peeni ng and bl asti ng may al so
be found as contami nants. Gl ass parti cl es are very
undesi rabl e contami nants due to thei r abrasi ve
effect on syntheti c rubber seal s and the very fi ne
surfaces of cri ti cal movi ng parts. Atmospheri c
dust, di rt, pai nt parti cl es, and other materi al s are
often drawn i nto hydraul i c systems from external
sources. For exampl e, the wet pi ston shaft of a
hydr aul i c actuator may dr aw some of these
forei gn materi al s i nto the cyl i nder past the wi per
and dynami c seal s, and the contami nant materi al s
ar e then di sper sed i n the hydr aul i c fl ui d.
Contami nants may al so enter the hydraul i c fl ui d
duri ng mai ntenance when tubi ng, hoses, fi tti ngs,
and components are di sconnected or repl aced. I t
i s therefore i mportant that al l exposed fl ui d ports
be seal ed wi th approved protecti ve cl osures to
mi ni mi ze such contami nati on.
Fluid Contamination
Ai r, water, sol vent, and other forei gn fl ui ds
are i n the cl ass of fl ui d contami nants.
AIR CONTAMINATION. Hydraul i c fl ui ds
are adversel y affected by di ssol ved, entrai ned, or
free ai r. Ai r may be i ntroduced through i mproper
mai ntenance or as a resul t of system desi gn. Any
mai ntenance operati on that i nvol ves breaki ng i nto
the hydraul i c system, such as di sconnecti ng or
removi ng a l i ne or component wi l l i nvari abl y
resul t i n some ai r bei ng i ntroduced i nto the
system. Thi s sour ce of ai r can and must be
mi ni mi zed by prebi l l i ng repl acement components
wi th new fi l tered fl ui d pri or to thei r i nstal l ati on.
Fai l i ng to prefi l l a fi l ter el ement bowl wi th fl ui d
i s a good exampl e of how ai r can be i ntroduced
i nto the system. Al though prebi l l i ng wi l l mi ni mi ze
i ntroducti on of ai r, i t i s sti l l i mportant to vent the
system where venti ng i s possi bl e.
Most hydraul i c systems have bui l t-i n sources
of ai r. Leaky seal s i n gas-pressuri zed accumul ators
and reservoi rs can feed gas i nto a system faster
3-7
than i t can be removed, even wi th the best of
mai ntenance. Another l esser known but major
source of ai r i s ai r that i s sucked i nto the system
past actuator pi ston rod seal s. Thi s usual l y occurs
when the pi ston rod i s stroked by some external
means whi l e the actuator i tsel f i s not pressuri zed.
WATER CONTAMINATION. Water i s a
ser i ous contami nant of hydr aul i c systems.
Hydr aul i c fl ui ds ar e adver sel y affected by
di ssol ved, emul si fi ed, or fr ee water . Water
contami nati on may resul t i n the formati on of i ce,
whi ch i mpedes the operati on of val ves, actuators,
and other movi ng parts. Water can al so cause the
formati on of oxi dati on products and corrosi on
of metal l i c surfaces.
SOLVENT CONTAMINATION. Sol vent
contami nati on i s a speci al form of forei gn fl ui d
contami nati on i n whi ch the ori gi nal contami -
nati ng substance i s a chl ori nated sol vent. Chl ori -
nated sol vents or thei r r esi dues may, when
i ntroduced i nto a hydraul i c system, react wi th any
water present to form hi ghl y corrosi ve aci ds.
Chl ori nated sol vents, when al l owed to com-
bi ne wi th mi nute amounts of water often found
i n operati ng hydraul i c systems, change chemi cal l y
i nto hydrochl ori c aci ds. These aci ds then attack
i nter nal metal l i c sur faces i n the system,
parti cul arl y those that are ferrous, and produce
a severe rust-l i ke corrosi on. NAVAI R 01-1A-17
and NSTM, chapter 556, contai n tabl es of
sol vents for use i n hydraul i c mai ntenance.
FOREIGN-FLUIDS CONTAMINATION.
Hydraul i c systems can be seri ousl y contami nated
by forei gn fl ui ds other than water and chl ori nated
sol vents. Thi s type of contami nati on i s general l y
a resul t of l ube oi l , engi ne fuel , or i ncorrect
hydraul i c fl ui d bei ng i ntroduced i nadvertentl y i nto
the system duri ng servi ci ng. The effects of such
contami nati on depend on the contami nant, the
amount i n the system, and how l ong i t has been
present.
NOTE: I t i s extremel y i mportant that the
di fferent types of hydraul i c fl ui ds are not mi xed
i n one system. I f di fferent type hydraul i c fl ui ds
are mi xed, the characteri sti cs of the fl ui d requi red
for a speci fi c pur pose ar e l ost. Mi xi ng the
di fferent types of fl ui ds usual l y wi l l resul t i n a
heavy, gummy deposi t that wi l l cl og passages and
requi re a major cl eani ng. I n addi ti on, seal s and
packi ng i nstal l ed for use wi th one fl ui d usual l y
are not compati bl e wi th other fl ui ds and damage
to the seal s wi l l resul t.
ORIGIN OF CONTAMINATION
Recal l that contami nants are produced from
wear and chemi cal r eacti ons, i ntr oduced by
i mproper mai ntenance, and i nadvertentl y i ntro-
duced duri ng servi ci ng. These methods of con-
tami nant i ntroducti on fal l i nto one of the four
major areas of contami nant ori gi n.
1. Parti cl es ori gi nal l y contai ned i n the system.
These parti cl es ori gi nate duri ng the fabri cati on
and storage of system components. Wel d spatter
and sl ag may remai n i n wel ded system com-
ponents, especi al l y i n r eser voi r s and pi pe
assembl i es. The presence i s mi ni mi zed by proper
desi gn. For exampl e, seam-wel ded overl appi ng
joi nts are preferred, and arc wel di ng of open
secti ons i s usual l y avoi ded. Hi dden passages i n
val ve bodi es, i naccessi bl e to sand bl asti ng or other
methods of cl eani ng, are the mai n source of
i ntroducti on of core sand. Even the most careful l y
desi gned and cl eaned casti ng wi l l al most i nvari -
abl y free some sand parti cl es under the acti on of
hydraul i c pressure. Rubber hose assembl i es al ways
contai n some l oose par ti cl es. Most of these
parti cl es can be removed by fl ushi ng the hose
befor e i nstal l ati on; however , some par ti cl es
wi thstand cl eani ng and are freed l ater by the
acti on of hydraul i c pressure.
Parti cl es of l i nt from cl eani ng rags can
cause abrasi ve damage i n hydraul i c systems,
especi al l y to cl osel y fi tted movi ng par ts. I n
addi ti on, l i nt i n a hydraul i c system packs easi l y
i nto cl earances between packi ng and contacti ng
sur faces, l eadi ng to component l eakage and
decreased effi ci ency. Li nt al so hel ps cl og fi l ters
pr ematur el y. The use of the pr oper wi pi ng
materi al s wi l l reduce or el i mi nate l i nt contami na-
ti on. The wi pi ng materi al s to be used for a gi ven
appl i cati on wi l l be determi ned by
a.
b.
c.
substances bei ng wi ped or absorbed,
the amount of absorbency requi red,
and/or
the requi red degree of cl eanl i ness.
These wi pi ng mater i al s ar e categor i zed for
contami nati on control by the degree of l i nt or
debri s that they may deposi t duri ng use. For
i nter nal hydr aul i c r epai r s, thi s factor i tsel f
wi l l determi ne the choi ce of wi pi ng materi al .
3-8
NAVAI R 01-1A-17 and NSTM, chapter 556,
provi des i nformati on on l ow-l i nt wi pi ng cl oths.
Rust or corrosi on i ni ti al l y present i n a
hydr aul i c system can usual l y be tr aced to
i mproper storage of materi al s and component
parts. Parti cl es can range i n si ze from l arge fl akes
to abrasi ves of mi croscopi c di mensi ons. Proper
preservati on of stored parts i s hel pful i n el i mi -
nati ng corrosi on.
2. Parti cl es i ntroduced from outsi de sources.
Parti cl es can be i ntroduced i nto hydraul i c systems
at poi nts where ei ther the l i qui d or certai n worki ng
parts of the system (for exampl e, pi ston rods) are
at l east i n temporary contact wi th the atmosphere.
The most common contami nant i ntr oducti on
areas are at the refi l l and breather openi ngs,
cyl i nder rod packi ngs, and open l i nes where
components are removed for repai r or repl ace-
ment. Contami nati on ari si ng from carel essness
duri ng servi ci ng operati ons i s mi ni mi zed by the
use of fi l ters i n the system fi l l l i nes and fi nger
str ai ner s i n the fi l l er adapter of hydr aul i c
reservoi rs. Hydr aul i c cyl i nder pi ston r ods
i ncorporate wi per ri ngs and dust seal s to prevent
the dust that settl es on the pi ston rod duri ng i ts
outward stroke from enteri ng the system when the
pi ston rod retracts. Caps and pl ugs are avai l abl e
and shoul d be used to seal off the open l i nes when
a comp on en t i s r emov ed f or r ep a i r or
repl acement.
3. Parti cl es created wi thi n the system duri ng
operati on. Contami nants created duri ng system
operati on are of two general typesmechani cal
and chemi cal . Parti cl es of a mechani cal nature are
formed by weari ng of parts i n fri cti onal contact,
such as pumps, cyl i nders, and packi ng gl and
components. These wear parti cl es can vary from
l arge chunks of packi ngs down to steel shavi ngs
that are too smal l to be trapped by fi l ters.
The major source of chemi cal contami -
nants i n hydraul i c l i qui d i s oxi dati on. These
contami nants are formed under hi gh pressure and
temperatures and are promoted by the chemi cal
acti on of water and ai r and of metal s l i ke copper
and i ron oxi des. Li qui d-oxi dati on products appear
i ni ti al l y as organi c aci ds, asphal ti nes, gums,
and varni shessometi mes combi ned wi th dust
parti cl es as sl udge. Li qui d-sol ubl e oxi dati on
products tend to i ncrease l i qui d vi scosi ty, whi l e
i nsol ubl e types separate and form sedi ments,
especi al l y on col der el ements such as heat
exchanger coi l s.
Li qui ds contai ni ng anti oxi dants have l i ttl e
tendency to form gums and sl udge under normal
operati ng condi ti ons. However, as the tempera-
ture i ncreases, resi stance to oxi dati on di mi ni shes.
Hydraul i c l i qui ds that have been subjected to
excessi vel y hi gh temperatures (above 250F for
most l i qui ds) wi l l break down, l eavi ng mi nute
parti cl es of asphal ti nes suspended i n the l i qui ds.
The l i qui d changes to brown i n col or and i s
referred to as decomposed l i qui d. Thi s expl ai ns
the i mportance of keepi ng the hydraul i c l i qui d
temperature bel ow speci fi c l evel s.
The second contami nant-produci ng chemi -
cal acti on i n hydraul i c l i qui ds i s one that permi ts
these l i qui ds to react wi th certai n types of rubber.
Thi s reacti on causes structural changes i n the
rubber, turni ng i t bri ttl e, and fi nal l y causi ng i ts
compl ete di si ntegrati on. For thi s reason, the
compati bi l i ty of system l i qui d wi th seal s and hose
materi al i s a very i mportant factor.
4. Parti cl es i ntroduced by forei gn l i qui ds. One
of the most common forei gn-fl ui d contami nants
i s water, especi al l y i n hydraul i c systems that
requi re petrol eum-based l i qui ds. Water, whi ch
enters even the most careful l y desi gned system by
condensati on of atmospheri c moi sture, normal l y
settl es to the bottom of the r eser voi r . Oi l
movement i n the reservoi r di sperses the water i nto
fi ne dr opl ets, and agi tati on of the l i qui d i n
the pump and i n hi gh-speed passages forms an
oi l -water-ai r emul si on. Thi s emul si on normal l y
separates duri ng the rest peri od i n the system
r eser voi r ; but when fi ne dust and cor r osi on
parti cl es are present, the emul si on i s chemi cal l y
changed by hi gh pr essur es i nto sl udge. The
damagi ng acti on of sl udge expl ai ns the need for
effecti ve fi l trati on, as wel l as the need for water
separati on qual i ti es i n hydraul i c l i qui ds.
CONTAMINATION CONTROL
Mai ntai ni ng hydraul i c fl ui d wi thi n al l owabl e
contami nati on l i mi ts for both water and parti cu-
l ate matter i s cruci al to the care and protecti on
of hydraul i c equi pment.
Fi l ters (di scussed i n chapter 9) wi l l provi de
adequate control of the parti cul ar contami nati on
pr obl em dur i ng al l nor mal hydr aul i c system
operati ons i f the fi l trati on system i s i nstal l ed
properl y and fi l ter mai ntenance i s performed
properl y. Fi l ter mai ntenance i ncl udes changi ng
el ements at proper i nterval s. Control of the si ze
and amount of contami nati on enteri ng the system
fr om any other sour ce i s the r esponsi bi l i ty
3-9
of the personnel who servi ce and mai ntai n the
equi pment. Duri ng i nstal l ati on, mai ntenance, and
repai r of hydraul i c equi pment, the retenti on of
cl eanl i ness of the system i s of par amount
i mpor tance for subsequent sati sfactor y per -
for mance.
The fol l owi ng mai ntenance and ser vi ci ng
procedures shoul d be adhered to at al l ti mes to
provi de proper contami nati on control :
1. Al l tool s and the work area (workbenches
and test equi pment) shoul d be kept i n a cl ean,
di rt-free condi ti on.
2. A sui tabl e contai ner shoul d al ways be
provi ded to recei ve the hydraul i c l i qui d that i s
spi l l ed duri ng component removal or di sassembl y.
NOTE: The reuse of drai ned hydraul i c
l i qui d i s prohi bi ted i n most hydraul i c systems. I n
some l arge-capaci ty systems the reuse of fl ui d i s
permi tted. When l i qui d i s drai ned from these
systems for reuse, i t must be stored i n a cl ean and
sui tabl e contai ner. The l i qui d must be strai ned
and/or fi l tered when i t i s returned to the system
r eser voi r .
3. Befor e hydr aul i c l i nes or fi tti ngs ar e
di sconnected, the affected area shoul d be cl eaned
wi th an approved dry-cl eani ng sol vent.
4. Al l hydraul i c l i nes and fi tti ngs shoul d be
capped or pl ugged i mmedi atel y after di scon-
necti on.
5. Befor e any hydr aul i c components ar e
assembl ed, thei r parts shoul d be washed wi th an
approved dry-cl eani ng sol vent.
6. After the par ts have been cl eaned i n
dry-cl eani ng sol vent, they shoul d be dr i ed
thor oughl y wi th cl ean, l ow-l i nt cl oths and
l ubri cated wi th the recommended preservati ve or
hydraul i c l i qui d before assembl y.
NOTE: Onl y cl ean, l ow l i nt type I or I I
cl oths as appropri ate shoul d be used to wi pe or
dry component parts.
7. Al l packi ngs and gaskets shoul d be repl aced
duri ng the assembl y procedures.
8. Al l parts shoul d be connected wi th care to
avoi d stri ppi ng metal sl i vers from threaded areas.
Al l fi tti ngs and l i nes shoul d be i nstal l ed and
tor qued accor di ng to appl i cabl e techni cal
i nstr ucti ons.
9. Al l hydraul i c servi ci ng equi pment shoul d
be kept cl ean and i n good operati ng condi ti on.
Some hydraul i c fl ui d speci fi cati ons, such as
MI L-H-6083, MI L-H-46170, and MI L-H-83282,
contai n parti cl e contami nati on l i mi ts that are so
l ow that the products are packaged under cl ean
room condi ti ons. Very sl i ght amounts of di rt,
rust, and metal parti cl es wi l l cause them to
fai l the speci fi cati on l i mi t for contami nati on.
Si nce these fl ui ds are usual l y al l packaged i n
hermeti cal l y seal ed contai ners, the act of openi ng
a contai ner may al l ow more contami nants i nto the
fl ui d than the speci fi cati on al l ows. Therefore,
extreme care shoul d be taken i n the handl i ng of
these fl ui ds. I n openi ng the contai ner for use,
observati on, or tests, i t i s extremel y i mportant that
the can be opened and handl ed i n a cl ean
envi ronment. The area of the contai ner to be
opened shoul d be fl ushed wi th fi l tered sol vent
(petrol eum ether or i sopropyl al cohol ), and the
devi ce used for openi ng the contai ner shoul d be
thoroughl y ri nsed wi th fi l tered sol vent. After the
contai ner i s opened, a smal l amount of the
materi al shoul d be poured from the contai ner and
di sposed of pr i or to pour i ng the sampl e for
anal ysi s. Once a contai ner i s opened, i f the
contents are not total l y used, the unused porti on
shoul d be di scarded. Si nce the l evel of con-
tami nati on of a system contai ni ng these fl ui ds
must be kept l ow, mai ntenance on the systems
components must be per for med i n a cl ean
envi ronment commonl y known as a control l ed
envi ronment work center. Speci fi c i nformati on
about the control l ed envi ronment work center can
be found i n the Aviation Hydraulics Manual,
NAVAI R 01-1A-17.
HYDRAULIC FLUID SAMPLING
The condi ti on of a hydraul i c system, as wel l
as i ts probabl e future performance, can best be
determi ned by anal yzi ng the operati ng fl ui d. Of
parti cul ar i nterest are any changes i n the physi cal
and chemi cal properti es of the fl ui d and excessi ve
parti cul ate or water contami nati on, ei ther of
whi ch i ndi cates i mpendi ng troubl e.
Excessi ve parti cul ate contami nati on of the
fl ui d i ndi cates that the fi l ters are not keepi ng the
system cl ean. Thi s can resul t from i mproper fi l ter
mai ntenance, i nadequate fi l ters, or excessi ve
ongoi ng corrosi on and wear.
Oper ati ng equi pment shoul d be sampl ed
accordi ng to i nstructi ons gi ven i n the operati ng
3-10
and mai ntenance manual for the par ti cul ar
equi pment or as di rected by the MRCs.
1. Al l sampl es shoul d be taken from ci rcu-
l ati ng systems, or i mmedi atel y upon shutdown,
whi l e the hydraul i c fl ui d i s wi thi n 5C (9F) of
normal system operati ng temperature. Systems
not up to temperature may provi de nonrepre-
sentati ve sampl es of system di r t and water
content, and such sampl es shoul d ei ther be
avoi ded or so i ndi cated on the anal ysi s report. The
fi rst oi l comi ng from the sampl i ng poi nt shoul d
be di scarded, si nce i t can be very di rty and does
not represent the system. As a general rul e, a
vol ume of oi l equi val ent to one to two ti mes the
vol ume of oi l contai ned i n the sampl i ng l i ne and
val ve shoul d be drai ned before the sampl e i s
taken.
2. I deal l y, the sampl e shoul d be taken from
a val ve i nstal l ed speci fi cal l y for sampl i ng. When
sampl i ng val ves are not i nstal l ed, the taki ng of
sampl es from l ocati ons where sedi ment or water
can col l ect, such as dead ends of pi pi ng, tank
drai ns, and l ow poi nts of l arge pi pes and fi l ter
bowl s, shoul d be avoi ded i f possi bl e. I f sampl es
are taken from pi pe drai ns, suffi ci ent fl ui d shoul d
be drai ned before the sampl e i s taken to ensure
that the sampl e actual l y represents the system.
Sampl es are not to be taken from the tops of
reservoi rs or other l ocati ons where the contami -
nati on l evel s are normal l y l ow.
3. Unl ess otherwi se speci fi ed, a mi ni mum of
one sampl e shoul d be taken for each system
l ocated whol l y wi thi n one compar tment. For
shi ps systems extendi ng i nto two or mor e
compartments, a second sampl e i s requi red. An
excepti on to thi s r equi r ement i s submar i ne
external hydraul i c systems, whi ch requi re onl y one
sampl e. Ori gi nal sampl e poi nts shoul d be l abel ed
and the same sampl e poi nts used for successi ve
sampl i ng. I f possi bl e, the fol l owi ng sampl i ng
l ocati ons shoul d be sel ected:
a. A l ocati on that provi des a sampl e
representati ve of fl ui d bei ng suppl i ed
to system components
b. A return l i ne as cl ose to the suppl y tank
as practi cal but upstream of any return
l i ne fi l ter
c. For systems requi ri ng a second sampl e,
a l ocati on as far from the pump as
practi cal
Operati on of the sampl i ng poi nt shoul d not
i ntroduce any si gni fi cant amount of external
contami nants i nto the col l ected fl ui d. Addi ti onal
i nformati on on hydraul i c fl ui d sampl i ng can be
found i n NAVAI R 01-1A-17.
Most fl ui d sampl es are submi tted to shore
l aboratori es for anal ysi s. NAVAI R 17-15-50-1
and NSTM, chapter 556, contai n detai l s on
col l ecti ng, l abel i ng, and shi ppi ng sampl es.
NAVAI R 01-1A-17 contai ns procedures for
uni t l evel , both aboard shi p and ashore, testi ng
of avi ati on hydraul i c fl ui ds for water, parti cul ate,
and chl ori nated sol vent contami nati on.
3-11
CHAPTER 4
PUMPS
Pumps are used for some essenti al servi ces i n
the Navy. Pumps suppl y water to the boi l ers, draw
condensati on from the condensers, suppl y sea
water to the fi remai n, ci rcul ate cool i ng water for
cool ers and condensers, pump out bi l ges, transfer
fuel , suppl y water to the di sti l l i ng pl ants, and
serve many other purposes. Al though the pumps
di scussed i n thi s chapter are used pri mari l y i n
hydraul i c systems, the pri nci pl es of operati on
appl y as wel l to the pumps used i n other systems.
PURPOSE
The purpose of a hydraul i c pump i s to suppl y
a fl ow of fl ui d to a hydraul i c system. The pump
does not create system pressure, si nce pressure can
be created onl y by a resi stance to the fl ow. As the
pump provi des fl ow, i t transmi ts a force to the
fl ui d. As the fl ui d fl ow encounters resi stance, thi s
force i s changed i nto a pressure. Resi stance to
fl ow i s the resul t of a restri cti on or obstructi on
i n the path of the fl ow. Thi s restri cti on i s normal l y
the work accompl i shed by the hydraul i c system,
but can al so be restri cti ons of l i nes, fi tti ngs, and
val ves wi thi n the system. Thus, the pressure i s
control l ed by the l oad i mposed on the system or
the acti on of a pressure-regul ati ng devi ce.
OPERATION
A pump must have a conti nuous suppl y of
fl ui d avai l abl e to the i nl et port to suppl y fl ui d to
the system. As the pump forces fl ui d through the
outl et port, a parti al vacuum or l ow-pressure area
i s created at the i nl et port. When the pressure at
the i nl et port of the pump i s l ower than the l ocal
atmospheri c pressure, atmospheri c pressure acti ng
on the fl ui d i n the reservoi r forces the fl ui d i nto
the pumps i nl et. I f the pump i s l ocated at
a l evel l ower than the reservoi r, the force of
gravi ty suppl ements atmospheri c pressure on the
reservoi r. Ai rcraft and mi ssi l es that operate at
hi gh al ti tudes are equi pped wi th pressuri zed
hydr aul i c r eser voi r s to compensate for l ow
atmospher i c pr essur e encounter ed at hi gh
al ti tudes.
PERFORMANCE
Pumps are normal l y rated by thei r vol umetri c
output and pressure. Vol umetri c output i s the
amount of fl ui d a pump can del i ver to i ts outl et
port i n a certai n peri od of ti me at a gi ven speed.
Vol umetri c output i s usual l y expressed i n gal l ons
per mi nute (gpm). Si nce changes i n pump speed
affect vol umetri c output, some pumps are rated
by thei r di spl acement. Pump di spl acement i s the
amount of fl ui d the pump can del i ver per cycl e.
Si nce most pumps use a rotary dri ve, di spl acement
i s usual l y expressed i n terms of cubi c i nches per
revol uti on.
As we stated previ ousl y, a pump does not
create pressure. However, the pressure devel oped
by the restri cti ons i n the system i s a factor that
affects the vol umetri c output of the pump. As the
system pressure i ncreases, the vol umetri c output
decreases. Thi s drop i n vol umetri c output i s the
resul t of an i ncrease i n the amount of i nternal
l eakage from the outl et si de to the i nl et si de of
the pump. Thi s l eakage i s referred to as pump
sl i ppage and i s a factor that must be consi dered
i n al l pumps. Thi s expl ai ns why most pumps are
rated i n terms of vol umetri c output at a gi ven
pressure.
CLASSIFICATION OF PUMPS
Many di fferent methods are used to cl assi fy
pumps. Terms such as nonpositive displacement,
posi ti ve di spl acement, fi xed di spl acement,
variable displacement, fixed delivery, variable
delivery, constant volume, and others are used to
descri be pumps. The fi rst two of these terms
descri be the fundamental di vi si on of pumps; that
4-1
i s, al l pumps are ei ther nonposi ti ve di spl acement
or posi ti ve di spl acement.
Basi cal l y, pumps that di scharge l i qui d i n a
conti nuous fl ow are referred to as nonposi ti ve
di spl acement, and those that di scharge vol umes
separated by a peri od of no di scharge are referred
to as posi ti ve di spl acement.
Al though the nonposi ti ve-di spl acement pump
normal l y produces a conti nuous fl ow, i t does not
provi de a posi ti ve seal agai nst sl i ppage; therefore,
the output of the pump vari es as system pressure
var i es. I n other wor ds, the vol ume of fl ui d
del i vered for each cycl e depends on the resi stance
to the fl ow. Thi s type of pump produces a force
on the fl ui d that i s constant for each parti cul ar
speed of the pump. Resi stance i n the di scharge
l i ne produces a force i n a di recti on opposi te the
di recti on of the force produced by the pump.
When these forces are equal , the fl ui d i s i n a state
of equi l i bri um and does not fl ow.
I f the outl et of a nonposi ti ve-di spl acement
pump i s compl etel y cl osed, the di scharge pressure
wi l l i ncrease to the maxi mum for that parti cul ar
pump at a speci fi c speed. Nothi ng more wi l l
happen except that the pump wi l l churn the fl ui d
and produce heat.
I n contrast to the nonposi ti ve-di spl acement
pump, the posi ti ve-di spl acement pump provi des
a posi ti ve i nternal seal agai nst sl i ppage. Therefore,
thi s type of pump del i vers a defi ni te vol ume of
fl ui d for each cycl e of pump operati on, regardl ess
of the resi stance offered, provi ded the capaci ty
of the power uni t dr i vi ng the pump i s not
exceeded. I f the outl et of a posi ti ve-di spl acement
pump were compl etel y cl osed, the pressure woul d
i nstantaneousl y i ncrease to the poi nt at whi ch the
uni t dri vi ng the pump woul d stal l or somethi ng
woul d break.
Posi ti ve-di spl acement pumps ar e fur ther
cl assi fi ed as fi xed di spl acement or var i abl e
di spl acement. The fi xed-di spl acement pump
del i vers the same amount of fl ui d on each cycl e.
The output vol ume can be changed onl y by
changi ng the speed of the pump. When a pump
of thi s type i s used i n a hydraul i c system, a
pressure regul ator (unl oadi ng val ve) must be
i ncorporated i n the system. A pressure regul ator
or unl oadi ng val ve i s used i n a hydraul i c system
to control the amount of pressure i n the system
and to unl oad or rel i eve the pump when the
desi red pressure i s reached. Thi s acti on of a
pressure regul ator keeps the pump from worki ng
agai nst a l oad when the hydraul i c system i s at
maxi mum pressure and not functi oni ng. Duri ng
thi s ti me the pressure regul ator bypasses the fl ui d
from the pump back to the reservoi r. (See chapter
6 for mor e detai l ed i nfor mati on concer ni ng
pressure regul ators.) The pump conti nues to
del i ver a fi xed vol ume of fl ui d duri ng each cycl e.
Such terms as fixed delivery, constant delivery,
and constant volume are al l used to i denti fy the
fi xed-di spl acement pump.
The var i abl e-di spl acement pump i s con-
structed so that the di spl acement per cycl e can be
vari ed. The di spl acement i s vari ed through the use
of an i nternal control l i ng devi ce. Some of these
control l i ng devi ces are descri bed l ater i n thi s
chapter.
Pumps may al so be cl assi fi ed accordi ng to the
speci fi c desi gn used to create the fl ow of fl ui d.
Practi cal l y al l hydraul i c pumps fal l wi thi n three
desi gn cl assi fi cati ons-centr i fugal , r otar y, and
reci procati ng. The use of centri fugal pumps i n
hydraul i cs i s l i mi ted and wi l l not be di scussed i n
thi s text.
ROTARY PUMPS
Al l rotary pumps have rotati ng parts whi ch
trap the fl ui d at the i nl et (sucti on) port and force
i t through the di scharge port i nto the system.
Gears, screws, l obes, and vanes are commonl y
used to move the fl ui d. Rotary pumps are posi ti ve
di spl acement of the fi xed di spl acement type.
Rotary pumps are desi gned wi th very smal l
cl earances between rotati ng parts and stati onary
parts to mi ni mi ze sl i ppage from the di scharge
si de back to the sucti on si de. They are desi gned
to oper ate at r el ati vel y moder ate speeds.
Operati ng at hi gh speeds causes erosi on and
excessi ve wear whi ch r esul ts i n i ncr eased
cl earances.
There are numerous types of rotary pumps
and vari ous methods of cl assi fi cati on. They may
be cl assi fi ed by the shaft posi ti onei ther
verti cal l y or hori zontal l y mounted; the type of
dri veel ectri c motor, gasol i ne engi ne, and so
forth; thei r manufacturers name; or thei r servi ce
appl i cati on. However, cl assi fi cati on of rotary
pumps i s general l y made accordi ng to the type of
rotati ng el ement. A few of the most common
types of r otar y pumps ar e di scussed i n the
fol l owi ng paragraphs.
GEAR PUMPS
Gear pumps are cl assi fi ed as ei ther external
or i nternal gear pumps. I n external gear pumps
the teeth of both gears project outward from thei r
4-2
centers (fi g, 4-1). External pumps may use spur
gears, herri ngbone gears, or hel i cal gears to move
the fl ui d. I n an i nternal gear pump, the teeth of
one gear project outward, but the teeth of the
other gear project i nward toward the center of the
pump (fi g. 4-2, vi ew A). I nternal gear pumps may
be ei ther centered or off-centered.
Spur Gear Pump
The spur gear pump (fi g. 4-1) consi sts of two
meshed gears whi ch revol ve i n a housi ng. The
dri ve gear i n the i l l ustrati on i s turned by a dri ve
shaft whi ch i s attached to the power source. The
cl earances between the gear teeth as they mesh and
between the teeth and the pump housi ng are very
smal l .
The i nl et port i s connected to the fl ui d suppl y
l i ne, and the outl et port i s connected to the
pressure l i ne. I n fi gure 4-1 the dri ve gear i s turni ng
i n a countercl ockwi se di recti on, and the dri ven
(i dl e) gear i s turni ng i n a cl ockwi se di recti on. As
Figure 4-2.Off-centered internal gear pump.
the teeth pass the i nl et port, l i qui d i s trapped
between the teeth and the housi ng. Thi s l i qui d i s
carri ed around the housi ng to the outl et port. As
the teeth mesh agai n, the l i qui d between the teeth
i s pushed i nto the outl et por t. Thi s acti on
produces a posi ti ve fl ow of l i qui d i nto the system.
A shearpi n or shear secti on i s i ncorporated i n the
dri ve shaft. Thi s i s to protect the power source
Figure 4-1.Gear-type rotary pump.
4-3
or reducti on gears i f the pump fai l s because of
i s pumped i n the same manner as i n the spur gear
excessi ve l oad or jammi ng of parts.
pump. However, i n the herri ngbone pump, each
set of teeth begi ns i ts fl ui d di scharge phase before
the pr evi ous set of teeth has compl eted i ts
Herringbone Gear Pump
di scharge phase. Thi s over l appi ng and the
rel ati vel y l arger space at the center of the gears
The herri ngbone gear pump (fi g. 4-3) i s a
tend to mi ni mi ze pul sati ons and gi ve a steadi er
modi fi cati on of the spur gear pump. The l i qui d
fl ow than the spur gear pump.
Figure 4-3.Herringbone gear pump.
4-4
He lic al Ge ar Pump
The helical gear pump (fig. 4-4) is still
another modification of the spur gear pump.
Because of the helical gear design, the
overlapping of successive discharges from
spaces between the teeth is even greater than it
is in the herringbone gear pump; therefore, the
discharge flow is smoother. Since the discharge
flow is smooth in the helical pump, the gears
can be designed with a small number of large
teeththus allowing increased capacity without
sacrificing smoothness of flow.
The pumping gears of this type of pump are
driven by a set of timing and driving gears that
help maintain the required close clearances
without actual metallic contact of the pumping
gears. (Metallic contact between the teeth of the
pumping gears would provide a tighter seal
against slippage; however, it would cause rapid
wear of the teeth, because foreign matter in the
liquid would be present on the contact
surfaces.)
Roller bearings at both ends of the gear shafts
maintain proper alignment and minimize the
friction loss in the transmission of power. Suitable
packings are used to prevent leakage around the
shaft.
Off-c e nt e re d Int e rnal Ge ar Pump
This pump is illustrated in figure 4-2, view B.
The drive gear is attached directly to the drive shaft
of the pump and is placed off-center in relation to
the internal gear. The two gears mesh on one side
of the pump, between the suction (inlet) and
discharge ports. On the opposite side of the
chamber, a crescent-shaped form fitted to a close
tolerance fills the space between the two gears.
The rotation of the center gear by the drive
shaft causes the outside gear to rotate, since the
two are meshed. Everything in the chamber rotates
except the crescent. This causes liquid to be
trapped in the gear spaces as they pass the
crescent. The liquid is carried from the suction port
to the discharge port where it is forced out of the
pump by the meshing of the gears. The size of the
crescent that separates the internal and external
gears determines the volume delivery of the pump.
A small crescent allows more volume of liquid per
revolution than a larger crescent.
Figure 4 -4 . He lic al ge ar pump.
4 -5
Centered Internal Gear Pump
Another desi gn of i nter nal gear pump i s
i l l ustrated i n fi gures 4-5 and 4-6. Thi s pump
consi sts of a pai r of gear-shaped el ements, one
wi thi n the other, l ocated i n the pump chamber.
The i nner gear i s connected to the dri ve shaft of
the power source.
The operati on of thi s type of i nternal gear
pump i s i l l ustrated i n fi gure 4-6. To si mpl i fy the
expl anati on, the teeth of the i nner gear and the
spaces between the teeth of the outer gear are
numbered. Note that the i nner gear has one l ess
tooth than the outer gear. The tooth form of each
gear i s rel ated to that of the other i n such a way
that each tooth of the i nner gear i s al ways i n
sl i di ng contact wi th the surface of the outer gear.
Each tooth of the i nner gear meshes wi th the outer
gear at just one poi nt duri ng each revol uti on. I n
the i l l ustrati on, thi s poi nt i s at the X. I n vi ew A,
tooth 1 of the i nner gear i s meshed wi th space 1
of the outer gear. As the gears conti nue to rotate
i n a cl ockwi se di recti on and the teeth approach
poi nt X, tooth 6 of the i nner gear wi l l mesh wi th
space 7 of the outer gear, tooth 5 wi th space 6,
and so on. Duri ng thi s revol uti on, tooth 1 wi l l
mesh wi th space 2; and duri ng the fol l owi ng
revol uti on, tooth 1 wi l l mesh wi th space 3. As a
resul t, the outer gear wi l l rotate at just si x-sevenths
the speed of the i nner gear.
At one si de of the poi nt of mesh, pockets of
i ncreasi ng si ze are formed as the gears rotate,
whi l e on the other si de the pockets decrease i n si ze.
I n fi gure 4-6, the pockets on the ri ght-hand si de
of the drawi ngs are i ncreasi ng i n si ze toward the
bottom of the i l l ustrati on, whi l e those on the
l eft-hand si de are decreasi ng i n si ze toward the
top of the i l l ustr ati on. The i ntak e si de of
the pump woul d therefore be on the ri ght and the
di scharge si de on the l eft. I n fi gure 4-5, si nce the
ri ght-hand si de of the drawi ng was turned over
to show the ports, the i ntake and di scharge appear
Figure 4-5.Centered internal gear pump.
Figure 4-6.Principles of operation of the internal gear
pump.
reversed. Actual l y, A i n one drawi ng covers A i n
the other.
LOBE PUMP
The l obe
operati on as
pump uses the same pri nci pl e of
the external gear pump descri bed
4-6
Figure 4-7.Lobe pump.
previ ousl y. The l obes are consi derabl y l arger than
gear teeth, but there are onl y two or three l obes
on each rotor. A three-l obe pump i s i l l ustrated
i n fi gure 4-7. The two el ements are rotated, one
di rectl y dri ven by the source of power, and the
other through ti mi ng gears. As the el ements
rotate, l i qui d i s trapped between two l obes of each
rotor and the wal l s of the pump chamber and
car r i ed ar ound fr om the sucti on si de to the
di scharge si de of the pump. As l i qui d l eaves the
sucti on chamber, the pressure i n the sucti on
chamber i s l owered, and addi ti onal l i qui d i s forced
i nto the chamber from the reservoi r.
The l obes ar e constr ucted so ther e i s a
conti nuous seal at the poi nts where they meet at
the center of the pump. The l obes of the pump
i l l ustrated i n fi gure 4-7 are fi tted wi th smal l vanes
at the outer edge to i mprove the seal of the pump.
Al though these vanes are mechani cal l y hel d i n
thei r sl ots, they are, to some extent, free to move
outward. Centri fugal force keeps the vanes snug
agai nst the chamber and the other r otati ng
members.
SCREW PUMP
Screw pumps for power transmi ssi on systems
are general l y used onl y on submari nes. Al though
l ow i n effi ci ency and expensi ve, the screw pump
i s sui tabl e for hi gh pressures (3000 psi ), and
del i ver s fl ui d wi th l i ttl e noi se or pr essur e
pul sati on.
Screw pumps are avai l abl e i n several di fferent
desi gns; however, they al l operate i n a si mi l ar
manner. I n a fi xed-di spl acement rotary-type screw
pump (fi g. 4-8, vi ew A), fl ui d i s propel l ed axi al l y
Figure 4-8.Screw pumps.
4-7
i n a constant, uni form fl ow through the acti on
of just three movi ng parts-a power rotor and two
i dl er rotors. The power rotor i s the onl y dri ven
el ement, extendi ng outsi de the pump casi ng for
power connecti ons to an el ectri cal motor. The
i dl er rotors are turned by the power rotor through
the acti on of the meshi ng threads. The fl ui d
pumped between the meshi ng hel i cal threads of
the i dl er and power rotors provi des a protecti ve
fi l m to prevent metal -to-metal contact. The i dl er
rotors perform no work; therefore, they do not
need to be connected by gears to transmi t power.
The encl osures formed by the meshi ng of the
rotors i nsi de the cl ose cl earance housi ng contai n
the fl ui d bei ng pumped. As the rotors turn, these
encl osures move axi al l y, provi di ng a conti nuous
fl ow. Effecti ve per for mance i s based on the
fol l owi ng factors:
1. The rol l i ng acti on obtai ned wi th the thread
desi gn of the rotors i s responsi bl e for the very
qui et pump operati on. The symmetri cal pressure
l oadi ng around the power rotor el i mi nates the
need for radi al beari ngs because there are no
radi al l oads. The cartri dge-type bal l beari ng i n the
pump posi ti ons the power rotor for proper seal
operati on. The axi al l oads on the rotors created
by di scharge pressure are hydraul i cal l y bal anced.
2. The key to screw pump performance i s the
operati on of the i dl er rotors i n thei r housi ng
bores. The i dl er rotors generate a hydrodynami c
fi l m to support themsel ves i n thei r bores l i ke
journal beari ngs. Si nce thi s fi l m i s sel f-generated,
i t depends on three operati ng characteri sti cs of
the pumpspeed, di scharge pressure, and fl ui d
vi scosi ty. The strength of the fi l m i s i ncreased by
i ncreasi ng the operati ng speed, by decreasi ng
pressure, or by i ncreasi ng the fl ui d vi scosi ty. Thi s
i s why screw pump performance capabi l i ti es are
based on pump speed, di scharge pressure, and
fl ui d vi scosi ty.
The suppl y l i ne i s connected at the center of
the pump housi ng i n some pumps (fi g. 4-8, vi ew
B). Fl ui d enters i nto the pumps sucti on port,
whi ch opens i nto chambers at the ends of the
screw assembl y. As the screws turn, the fl ui d fl ows
between the threads at each end of the assembl y.
The threads carry the fl ui d al ong wi thi n the
housi ng toward the center of the pump to the
di scharge port.
VANE PUMP
Vane-type hydraul i c pumps general l y have
ci rcul arl y or el l i pti cal l y shaped i nteri or and fl at
end pl ates. (Fi gure 4-9 i l l ustrates a vane pump
wi th a ci rcul ar i nteri or.) A sl otted rotor i s fi xed
to a shaft that enters the housi ng cavi ty through
one of the end pl ates. A number of smal l
rectangul ar pl ates or vanes are set i nto the sl ots
of the rotor. As the rotor turns, centri fugal force
causes the outer edge of each vane to sl i de al ong
the surface of the housi ng cavi ty as the vanes sl i de
i n and out of the rotor sl ots. The numerous
cavi ti es, formed by the vanes, the end pl ates, the
housi ng, and the rotor, enl arge and shri nk as the
rotor and vane assembl y rotates. An i nl et port i s
i nstal l ed i n the housi ng so fl ui d may fl ow i nto the
cavi ti es as they enl arge. An outl et port i s provi ded
to al l ow the fl ui d to fl ow out of the cavi ti es as
they become smal l .
The pump shown i n fi gure 4-9 i s referred to
as an unbal anced pump because al l of the
pumpi ng acti on takes pl ace on one si de of the
rotor. Thi s causes a si de l oad on the rotor. Some
vane pumps are constructed wi th an el l i pti cal l y
shaped housi ng that forms two separate pumpi ng
areas on opposi te si des of the rotor. Thi s cancel s
out the si de l oads; such pumps are referred to as
bal anced vane.
Usual l y vane pumps are fi xed di spl acement
and pump onl y i n one di r ecti on. Ther e ar e,
however , some desi gns of vane pumps that
provi de vari abl e fl ow. Vane pumps are general l y
restri cted to servi ce where pressure demand does
not exceed 2000 psi . Wear rates, vi brati on, and
noi se l evel s i ncrease rapi dl y i n vane pumps as
pressure demands exceed 2000 psi .
RECIPROCATING PUMPS
The term reciprocating i s defi ned as back-and-
forth moti on. I n the reci procati ng pump i t i s thi s
Figure 4-9.Vane pump.
4-8
back -and-for th moti on of pi stons i nsi de of
cyl i nders that provi des the fl ow of fl ui d. Reci pro-
cati ng pumps, l i ke rotary pumps, operate on
the posi ti ve pr i nci pl ethat i s, each str oke
del i ver s a defi ni te vol ume of l i qui d to the
system.
The master cyl i nder of the automobi l e brake
system, whi ch i s descri bed and i l l ustrated i n
chapter 2, i s an exampl e of a si mpl e reci procati ng
pump. Several types of power-operated hydraul i c
pumps, such as the radi al pi ston and axi al pi ston,
are al so cl assi fi ed as reci procati ng pumps. These
pumps are someti mes cl assi fi ed as rotary pumps,
because a rotary moti on i s i mparted to the pumps
by the source of power. However, the actual
pumpi ng i s performed by sets of pi stons reci pro-
cati ng i nsi de sets of cyl i nders.
HAND PUMPS
There are two types of manual l y operated
r eci pr ocati ng pumpsthe si ngl e-acti on and
the doubl e-acti on. The si ngl e-acti on pump
provi des fl ow duri ng every other stroke, whi l e the
doubl e-acti on provi des fl ow duri ng each stroke.
Si ngl e-acti on pumps ar e fr equentl y used i n
hydraul i c jacks.
A doubl e-acti on hand pump i s i l l ustrated i n
fi gure 4-10. Thi s type of pump i s used i n some
ai rcraft hydraul i c systems as a source of hydraul i c
power for emer genci es, for testi ng cer tai n
subsystems dur i ng pr eventi ve mai ntenance
i nspecti ons, and for determi ni ng the causes of
mal functi ons i n these subsystems.
Thi s pump (fi g. 4-10) consi sts of a cyl i nder,
a pi ston contai ni ng a bui l t-i n check val ve (A), a
pi ston rod, an operati ng handl e, and a check val ve
(B) at the i nl et port. When the pi ston i s moved
Figure 4-10.Hydraulic hand pump.
to the l eft, the force of the l i qui d i n the outl et
chamber and spri ng tensi on cause val ve A to cl ose.
Thi s movement causes the pi ston to force the
l i qui d i n the outl et chamber through the outl et
por t and i nto the system. Thi s same pi ston
movement causes a l ow-pressure area i n the i nl et
chamber. The di fference i n pressure between the
i nl et chamber and the l i qui d (at atmospheri c
pressure) i n the reservi or acti ng on check val ve
B causes i ts spri ng to compress; thus, openi ng the
check val ve. Thi s al l ows l i qui d to enter the i nl et
chamber.
When the pi ston compl etes thi s stroke to the
l eft, the i nl et chamber i s ful l of l i qui d. Thi s
el i mi nates the pressure di fference between the i nl et
chamber and the r eser vi or , ther eby al l owi ng
spri ng tensi on to cl ose check val ve B.
When the pi ston i s moved to the ri ght, the
force of the confi ned l i qui d i n the i nl et chamber
acts on check val ve A. Thi s acti on compresses
the spr i ng and opens check val ve A whi ch
al l ows the l i qui d to fl ow fr om the i ntak e
chamber to the outl et chamber. Because of the
ar ea occupi ed by the pi ston r od, the outl et
chamber cannot contai n al l the l i qui d di scharged
from the i nl et chamber. Si nce l i qui ds do not
compress, the extra l i qui d i s forced out of the
outl et port i nto the system.
PISTON PUMPS
Pi ston pumps ar e made i n a var i ety of
types and confi gurati ons. A basi c di sti ncti on
i s made between axi al and radi al pumps. The
axi al pi ston pump has the cyl i nders paral l el
to each other and the dri ve shaft. The radi al
pi ston desi gn has the cyl i nder s extendi ng
r adi al l y outwar d fr om the dr i ve shaft l i ke
the spokes of a wheel . A fur ther di sti ncti on
i s made between pumps that provi de a fi xed
del i very and those abl e to vary the fl ow of the
fl ui d. Vari abl e del i very pumps can be further
di vi ded i nto those abl e to pump fl ui d from zero
to ful l del i very i n one di recti on of fl ow and those
abl e to pump from zero the ful l del i very i n ei ther
di recti on.
Al l pi ston pumps used i n Navy shi pboard
systems have the cyl i nders bored i n a cyl i nder
bl ock that i s mounted on bear i ngs wi thi n a
housi ng. Thi s cyl i nder bl ock assembl y rotates wi th
the pump dri ve shaft.
4-9
Radial Piston Pumps
Fi gure 4-11 i l l ustrates the operati on of the
radi al pi ston pump. The pump consi sts of a pi ntl e,
whi ch remai ns stati onary and acts as a val ve; a
Figure 4-11.Principles of operation of the radial piston
pump.
cyl i nder bl ock, whi ch revol ves around the pi ntl e
and contai ns the cyl i nders i n whi ch the pi stons
operate; a rotor, whi ch houses the reacti on ri ng
of hardened steel agai nst whi ch the pi ston heads
press; and a sl i de bl ock, whi ch i s used to control
the l ength of the pi ston strokes. The sl i de bl ock
does not revol ve but houses and supports the
rotor, whi ch does revol ve due to the fri cti on set
up by the sl i di ng acti on between the pi ston heads
and the r eacti on r i ng. The cyl i nder bl ock i s
attached to the dri ve shaft.
Referri ng to vi ew A of fi gure 4-11, assume that
space X i n one of the cyl i nders of the cyl i nder
bl ock contai ns l i qui d and that the respecti ve pi ston
of thi s cyl i nder i s at posi ti on 1. When the cyl i nder
bl ock and pi ston ar e r otated i n a cl ockwi se
di recti on, the pi ston i s forced i nto i ts cyl i nder as
i t approaches posi ti on 2. Thi s acti on reduces the
vol umetr i c si ze of the cyl i nder and for ces a
quanti ty of l i qui d out of the cyl i nder and i nto the
outl et port above the pi ntl e. Thi s pumpi ng acti on
i s due to the rotor bei ng off-center i n rel ati on to
the center of the cyl i nder bl ock.
I n fi gure 4-11 vi ew B, the pi ston has reached
posi ti on 2 and has forced the l i qui d out of the
open end of the cyl i nder through the outl et above
the pi ntl e and i nto the system. Whi l e the pi ston
moves from posi ti on 2 to posi ti on 3, the open end
of the cyl i nder passes over the sol i d part of the
pi ntl e; therefore, there i s no i ntake or di scharge
of l i qui d duri ng thi s ti me. As the pi ston and
cyl i nder move from posi ti on 3 to posi ti on 4,
centr i fugal for ce causes the pi ston to move
outward agai nst the reacti on ri ng of the rotor.
Duri ng thi s ti me the open end of the cyl i nder i s
open to the i ntake si de of the pi ntl e and, therefore,
fi l l s wi th l i qui d. As the pi ston moves fr om
posi ti on 4 to posi ti on 1, the open end of the
cyl i nder i s agai nst the sol i d si de of the pi ntl e and
no i ntake or di scharge of l i qui d takes pl ace. After
the pi ston has passed the pi ntl e and starts toward
posi ti on 2, another di scharge of l i qui d takes pl ace.
Al ternate i ntake and di scharge conti nues as the
rotor revol ves about i ts axi s-i ntake on one si de
of the pi ntl e and di scharge on the other, as the
pi ston sl i des i n and out.
Noti ce i n vi ews A and B of fi gure 4-11 that
the center poi nt of the rotor i s di fferent from the
center poi nt of the cyl i nder bl ock. The di fference
of these centers produces the pumpi ng acti on. I f
the rotor i s moved so that i ts center poi nt i s the
same as that of the cyl i nder bl ock, as shown i n
fi gure 4-11, vi ew C, there i s no pumpi ng acti on,
si nce the pi ston does not move back and forth i n
the cyl i nder as i t rotates wi th the cyl i nder bl ock.
4-10
The fl ow i n thi s pump can be reversed by
movi ng the sl i de bl ock, and therefore the rotor,
to the ri ght so the rel ati on of the centers of the
rotor and the cyl i nder bl ock i s reversed from the
posi ti on shown i n vi ews A and B of fi gure 4-11.
Vi ew D shows thi s arrangement. Li qui d enters the
cyl i nder as the pi ston travel s from posi ti on 1 to
posi ti on 2 and i s di scharged from the cyl i nder as
the pi ston travel s from posi ti on 3 to 4.
I n the i l l ustrati ons the rotor i s shown i n the
center, the extreme ri ght, or the extreme l eft i n
rel ati on to the cyl i nder bl ock. The amount of
adjustment i n di stance between the two centers
determi nes the l ength of the pi ston stroke, whi ch
control s the amount of l i qui d fl ow i n and out of
the cyl i nder. Thus, thi s adjustment determi nes the
di spl acement of the pump; that i s, the vol ume of
l i qui d the pump del i vers per revol uti on. Thi s
adjustment may be control l ed i n di fferent ways.
Manual control by a handwheel i s the si mpl est.
The pump i l l ustrated i n fi gure 4-11 i s control l ed
i n thi s way. For automati c control of del i very
to accommodate varyi ng vol ume requi rements
dur i ng the oper ati ng cycl e, a hydr aul i cal l y
control l ed cyl i nder may be used to posi ti on the
sl i de bl ock. A gear-motor control l ed by a push
button or a l i mi t swi tch i s someti mes used for thi s
purpose.
Fi gure 4-11 i s shown wi th four pi stons for the
sake of si mpl i ci ty. Radi al pumps are actual l y
desi gned wi th an odd number of pi stons (fi g.
4-12). Thi s i s to ensure that no more than one
cyl i nder i s compl etel y bl ocked by the pi ntl e at any
one ti me. I f there were an even number of pi stons
spaced evenl y around the cyl i nder bl ock (for
exampl e, ei ght), there woul d be occasi ons when
two of the cyl i nders woul d be bl ocked by the
pi ntl e, whi l e at other ti mes none woul d be
bl ocked. Thi s woul d cause three cyl i nders to di s-
charge at one ti me and four at one ti me, causi ng
pul sati ons i n fl ow. Wi th an odd number of pi stons
spaced evenl y around the cyl i nder bl ock, onl y one
cyl i nder i s compl etel y bl ocked by the pi ntl e at any
one ti me. Thi s reduces pul sati ons of fl ow.
Figure 4-12.Nine-piston radial piston pump.
4-11
Axial Piston Pumps
I n axi al pi ston pumps of the i n-l i ne type,
where the cyl i nders and the dri ve shaft are paral l el
(fi g. 4-13), the reci procati ng moti on i s created by
a cam pl ate, al so known as a wobbl e pl ate, ti l ti ng
pl ate, or swash pl ate. Thi s pl ate l i es i n a pl ane
that cuts across the center l i ne of the dri ve shaft
and cyl i nder barrel and does not rotate. I n a
fi xed-di spl acement pump, the cam pl ate wi l l be
ri gi dl y mounted i n a posi ti on so that i t i ntersects
the center l i ne of the cyl i nder barrel at an angl e
approxi matel y 25 degrees from perpendi cul ar.
Vari abl e-del i very axi al pi ston pumps are desi gned
so that the angl e that the cam pl ate makes wi th
a perpendi cul ar to the center l i ne of the cyl i nder
barrel may be vari ed from zero to 20 or 25 degrees
to one or both si des. One end of each pi ston rod
i s hel d i n contact wi th the cam pl ate as the cyl i nder
bl ock and pi ston assembl y rotates wi th the dri ve
shaft. Thi s causes the pi stons to reci procate wi thi n
the cyI i nders. The l ength of the pi ston stroke i s
proporti onal to the angl e that the cam pl ate i s set
from perpendi cul ar to the center l i ne of the
cyl i nder barrel .
A var i ati on of axi al pi ston pump i s the
bent-axi s type shown i n fi gure 4-14. Thi s type does
not have a ti l ti ng cam pl ate as the i n-l i ne pump
does. I nstead, the cyl i nder bl ock axi s i s vari ed
fr om the dr i ve shaft axi s. The ends of the
Figure 4-14.Bent-axis axial piston pump.
connecti ng rods are retai ned i n sockets on a di sc
that turns wi th the dri ve shaft. The cyl i nder bl ock
i s turned wi th the dri ve shaft by a uni versal joi nt
assembl y at the i ntersecti on of the dri ve shaft and
the cyl i nder bl ock shaft. I n order to vary the pump
di spl acement, the cyl i nder bl ock and val ve pl ate
are mounted i n a yoke and the enti re assembl y
i s swung i n an are around a pai r of mounti ng
pi ntl es attached to the pump housi ng.
The pumpi ng acti on of the axi al pi ston pump
i s made possi bl e by a uni versal joi nt or l i nk.
Figure 4-13.In-line axial piston pump.
4-12
Fi gure 4-15 i s a seri es of drawi ngs that i l l ustrates
how the uni versal joi nt i s used i n the operati on
of thi s pump.
Fi rst, a rocker arm i s i nstal l ed on a hori zontal
shaft. (See fi g. 4-15, vi ew A.) The arm i s joi ned
to the shaft by a pi n so that i t can be swung back
and forth, as i ndi cated i n vi ew B. Next, a ri ng i s
pl aced around the shaft and secured to the rocker
arm so the ri ng can turn from l eft to ri ght as
shown i n vi ew C. Thi s pr ovi des two r otar y
moti ons i n di fferent pl anes at the same ti me and
i n varyi ng proporti ons as may be desi red. The
rocker arm can swi ng back and forth i n one arc,
and the ri ng can si mul taneousl y move from l eft
Figure 4-15.Relationship of the universal joint in operation
of the axial piston pump.
to ri ght i n another arc, i n a pl ane at ri ght angl es
to the pl ane i n whi ch the rocker arm turns.
Next, a ti l ti ng pl ate i s added to the assembl y.
The ti l ti ng pl ate i s pl aced at a sl ant to the axi s
of the shaft, as depi cted i n fi gure 4-15, vi ew D.
The rocker arm i s then sl anted at the same angl e
as the ti l ti ng pl ate, so that i t l i es paral l el to the
ti l ti ng pl ate. The ri ng i s al so paral l el to, and i n
contact wi th, the ti l ti ng pl ate. The posi ti on of the
ri ng i n rel ati on to the rocker arm i s unchanged
from that shown i n fi gure 4-15, vi ew C.
Fi gure 4-15, vi ew E, shows the assembl y after
the shaft, sti l l i n a hori zontal posi ti on, has been
rotated a quarter turn. The rocker arm i s sti l l i n
the same posi ti on as the ti l ti ng pl ate and i s now
perpendi cul ar to the axi s of the shaft. The ri ng
has turned on the rocker pi ns, so that i t has
changed i ts posi ti on i n rel ati on to the rocker arm,
but i t remai ns paral l el to, and i n contact wi th, the
ti l ti ng pl ate.
Vi ew F of fi gure 4-15 shows the assembl y after
the shaft has been rotated another quarter turn.
The parts are now i n the same posi ti on as shown
i n vi ew D, but wi th the ends of the rocker arm
reversed. The ri ng sti l l bears agai nst the ti l ti ng
pl ate.
As the shaft conti nues to rotate, the rocker
arm and the ri ng turn about thei r pi vots, wi th each
changi ng i ts rel ati on to the other and wi th the ri ng
al ways beari ng on the pl ate.
Fi gure 4-15, vi ew G, shows a wheel added to
the assembl y. The wheel i s pl aced upri ght and
fi xed to the shaft, so that i t rotates wi th the shaft.
I n addi ti on, two r ods, A and B, ar e l oosel y
connected to the ti l ti ng ri ng and extend through
two hol es standi ng opposi te each other i n the fi xed
wheel . As the shaft i s rotated, the fi xed wheel
turns perpendi cul ar to the shaft at al l ti mes. The
ti l ti ng ri ng rotates wi th the shaft and al ways
remai ns ti l ted, si nce i t remai ns i n contact wi th the
ti l ti ng pl ate. Referri ng to vi ew G, the di stance
al ong rod A, from the ti l ti ng ri ng to the fi xed
wheel , i s greater than the di stance al ong rod B.
As the assembl y i s rotated, however, the di stance
al ong rod A decreases as i ts poi nt of attachment
to the ti l ti ng ri ng moves cl oser to the fi xed wheel ,
whi l e the di stance al ong rod B i ncreases. These
changes conti nue unti l after a hal f revol uti on, at
whi ch ti me the i ni ti al posi ti ons of the rods have
been reversed. After another hal f revol uti on, the
two rods wi l l agai n be i n thei r ori gi nal posi ti ons.
As the assembl y rotates, the rods move i n and
out through the hol es i n the fi xed wheel . Thi s i s
the way the axi al pi ston pump works. To get a
pumpi ng acti on, pl ace pi stons at the ends of the
4-13
rods, beyond the fi xed wheel , and i nsert them i nto
cyl i nders. The rods must be connected to the
pi stons and to the wheel by bal l and socket joi nts.
As the assembl y rotates, each pi ston moves back
and forth i n i ts cyl i nder. Sucti on and di scharge
l i nes can be arranged so that l i qui d enters the
cyl i nders whi l e the spaces between the pi ston
heads and the bases of the cyl i nders are i ncreasi ng,
and l eaves the cyl i nders duri ng the other hal f of
each revol uti on when the pi stons are movi ng i n
the opposi te di recti on.
The mai n parts of the pump are the dri ve
shaft, pi stons, cyl i nder bl ock, and val ve and swash
pl ates. There are two ports i n the val ve pl ate.
These ports connect di rectl y to openi ngs i n the
face of the cyl i nder bl ock. Fl ui d i s drawn i nto one
por t and for ced out the other por t by the
reci procati ng acti on of the pi stons.
IN-LINE VARIABLE-DISPLACEMENT
AXIAL PISTON PUMP. When the dri ve shaft
i s rotated, i t rotates the pi stons and the cyl i nder
bl ock wi th i t. The swash pl ate pl aced at an angl e
causes the pi stons to move back and forth i n the
cyl i nder bl ock whi l e the shaft, pi ston, cyl i nder
bl ock, and swash pl ate rotate together. (The shaft,
pi ston, cyl i nder bl ock, and swash pl ate together
i s someti mes referred to as the rotati ng group or
assembl y.) As the pi stons r eci pr ocate i n the
cyl i nder bl ock, fl ui d enters one port and i s forced
out the other.
Fi gure 4-13 shows pi ston A at the bottom of
i ts stroke. When pi ston A has rotated to the
posi ti on hel d by pi ston B, i t wi l l have moved
upward i n i ts cyl i nder, forci ng fl ui d through the
outl et port duri ng the enti re di stance. Duri ng the
remai nder of the rotati on back to i t ori gi nal
posi ti on, the pi ston travel s downward i n the
cyl i nder. Thi s acti on creates a l ow-pressure area
i n the cyl i nder. The di fference i n pressure between
the cyl i nder i nl et and the reservoi r causes fl ui d
to fl ow i nto the i nl et port to the cyl i nder. Si nce
each one of the pi stons per for ms the same
operati on i n successi on, fl ui d i s constantl y bei ng
taken i nto the cyl i nder bores through the i nl et port
and di schar ged fr om the cyl i nder bor es i nto
the system. Thi s acti on pr ovi des a steady,
nonpul sati ng fl ow of fl ui d.
The ti l t or angl e of the swash pl ate determi nes
the di stance the pi stons move back and forth i n
thei r cyl i nders; thereby, control l i ng the pump
output.
When the swash pl ate i s at a ri ght angl e to the
shaft, and the pump i s rotati ng, the pi stons do
not reci procate; therefore, no pumpi ng acti on
takes pl ace. When the swash pl ate i s ti l ted away
from a ri ght angl e, the pi stons reci procate and
fl ui d i s pumped.
Si nce the di spl acement of thi s type of pump
i s vari ed by changi ng the angl e of the ti l ti ng box,
some means must be used to control the changes
of thi s angl e. Vari ous methods are used to control
thi s movementmanual , el ectri c, pneumati c, or
hydraul i c.
STRATOPOWER PUMP. Another type of
axi al pi ston pump, someti mes referred to as an
i n-l i ne pump, i s commonl y r efer r ed to as a
Str atopower pump. Thi s pump i s avai l abl e
i n ei ther the fi xed-di spl acement type or the
vari abl e-di spl acement type.
Two major functi ons are performed by the
i nternal parts of the fi xed-di spl acement Strato-
power pump. These functi ons are mechani cal
dri ve and fl ui d di spl acement.
The mechani cal dri ve mechani sm i s shown i n
fi gure 4-16. I n thi s type of pump, the pi stons and
bl ock do not rotate. Pi ston moti on i s caused by
rotati ng the dri ve cam di spl aci ng each pi ston the
ful l hei ght of the dri ve cam duri ng each revol uti on
of the shaft. The ends of the pi stons are attached
to a wobbl e pl ate supported by a freed center pi vot
and are hel d i nconstant contact wi th the cam face.
As the hi gh si de of the r otati ng dr i ve cam
depresses one si de of the wobbl e pl ate, the other
si de of the wobbl e pl ate i s wi thdrawn an equal
amount, movi ng the pi stons wi th i t. The two creep
pl ates are provi ded to decrease wear on the
revol vi ng cam.
A schemati c di agram of the di spl acement of
fl ui d i s shown i n fi gure 4-17. Fl ui d i s di spl aced
by axi al moti on of the pi stons. As each pi ston
advances i n i ts respecti ve cyl i nder bl ock bore,
pressure opens the check val ve and a quanti ty of
fl ui d i s forced past i t. Combi ned back pressure
and check val ve spri ng tensi on cl ose the check
Figure 4-16.Mechanical driveStratopower pump.
4-14
Figure 4-17.Fluid displacementStratopower pump.
val ve when the pi ston advances to i ts foremost
posi ti on. The l ow-pressure area occurri ng i n the
cyl i nder duri ng the pi ston return causes fl ui d to
fl ow from the reservoi r i nto the cyl i nder.
The i nter nal featur es of the var i abl e-
di spl acement Stratopower pump are i l l ustrated i n
fi gure 4-18. Thi s pump operates si mi l arl y to the
fi xed-di spl acement Stratopower pump; however,
thi s pump provi des the addi ti onal functi on of
automati cal l y varyi ng the vol ume output.
Thi s functi on i s control l ed by the pressure i n
the hydraul i c system. For exampl e, l et us take a
pump rated at 3000 psi , and provi di ng fl ow to a
3000 psi system. As system pressure approaches,
say 2850 psi , the pump begi ns to unl oad (del i ver
l ess fl ow to the system) and i s ful l y unl oaded (zero
fl ow) at 3000 psi .
Th e pr es s u r e r egu l ati on an d fl ow ar e
control l ed by i nternal bypasses that automati cal l y
adjust fl ui d del i very to system demands.
The bypass system i s pr ovi ded to suppl y
sel f-l ubri cati on, parti cul arl y when the pump i s i n
nonfl ow operati on. The ri ng of bypass hol es i n
the pi stons are al i gned wi th the bypass passage
each ti me a pi ston reaches the very end of i ts
forward travel . Thi s pumps a smal l quanti ty of
fl ui d out of the bypass passage back to the suppl y
reservoi r and provi des a constant changi ng of
fl ui d i n the pump. The bypass i s desi gned to pump
agai nst a consi derabl e back pressure for use wi th
pressuri zed reservoi rs.
Figure 4-18.Internal features of Stratopower variable-displacement pump.
4-15
CHAPTER 5
FLUID LINES AND FITTINGS
The control and appl i cati on of fl ui d power
woul d be i mpossi bl e wi thout sui tabl e means of
transferri ng the fl ui d between the reservoi r, the
power source, and the poi nts of appl i cati on. Fl ui d
l i nes are used to transfer the fl ui d, and fi tti ngs
are used to connect the l i nes to the power source
and the poi nts of appl i cati on.
Thi s chapter i s devoted to fl ui d l i nes and
fi tti ngs. After studyi ng thi s chapter, you shoul d
have the knowl edge to i denti fy the
monl y used l i nes and fi tti ngs, and
expl ai n the procedure for fabri cati ng,
l abel i ng the l i nes.
TYPES OF LINES
The three types of l i nes used i n
systems ar e pi pe (r i gi d), tubi ng
and hose (fl exi bl e). A number of
consi dered when the type of l i ne i s
most com-
be abl e to
testi ng, and
fl ui d power
(semi ri gi d),
factors are
sel ected for
a parti cul ar fl ui d system. These factors i ncl ude
the type of fl ui d, the requi red system pressure,
and the l ocati on of the system. For exampl e,
heavy pi pe mi ght be used for a l arge stati onary
fl ui d power system, but comparati vel y l i ghtwei ght
tubi ng must be used i n ai r cr aft and mi ssi l e
systems because wei ght and space are cri ti cal
factors. Fl exi bl e hose i s requi red i n i nstal l ati ons
where uni ts must be free to move rel ati ve to each
other.
PIPES AND TUBING
There are three i mportant di mensi ons of any
tubul ar productoutsi de di ameter (OD), i nsi de
di ameter (I D), and wal l thi ckness. Si zes of pi pe
are l i sted by the nomi nal (or approxi mate) I D and
the wal l thi ckness. Si zes of tubi ng are l i sted by
the actual OD and the wal l thi ckness.
SELECTION OF PIPES AND TUBING
The materi al , I D, and wal l thi ckness are
the three pri mary consi derati ons i n the sel ec-
ti on of l i nes for a par ti cul ar fl ui d power
system.
The I D of a l i ne i s i mpor tant, si nce i t
determi nes how much fl ui d can pass through the
l i ne i n a gi ven ti me per i od (r ate of fl ow)
wi thout l oss of power due to excessi ve fri cti on
and heat. The vel oci ty of a gi ven fl ow i s l ess
through a l arge openi ng than through a smal l
openi ng. I f the I D of the l i ne i s too smal l for the
amount of fl ow, excessi ve turbul ence and fri cti on
heat cause unnecessary power l oss and overheated
fl ui d.
Sizing of Pipes and Tubing
Pi pes are avai l abl e i n three di fferent wei ghts:
standard (STD), or Schedul e 40; extra strong
(XS), or Schedul e 80; and doubl e extra strong
(XXS). The schedul e numbers range from 10
to 160 and cover 10 di sti nct sets of wal l
thi ckness. (See tabl e 5-1.) Schedul e 160 wal l
thi ckness i s sl i ghtl y thi nner than the doubl e extra
strong.
As menti oned earl i er, the si ze of pi pes i s
determi ned by the nomi nal (approxi mate) I D. For
exampl e, the I D for a 1/4-i nch Schedul e 40 pi pe
i s 0.364 i nch, and the I D for a 1/2-i nch Schedul e
40 pi pe i s 0.622 i nch.
I t i s i mportant to note that the I Ds of al l pi pes
of the same nomi nal si ze are not equal . Thi s i s
because the OD remai ns constant and the wal l
thi ckness i ncr eases as the schedul e number
i ncreases. For exampl e, a nomi nal si ze 1-i nch
Schedul e 40 pi pe has a 1.049 I D. The same si ze
Schedul e 80 pi pe has a 0.957 I D, whi l e Schedul e
5-1
Table 5-1.Wall Thickness Schedule Designations for Pipe
160 pi pe has a 0.815 I D. I n each case the OD i s
1.315 (tabl e 5-1) and the wal l thi cknesses are
0.133 ( 1315 ; 1M9), 0.179 (1315 ; 9957),
and 0.250 ( 1315~0815) respecti vel y. Note
that the di ffer ence between the OD and I D
i ncl udes two wal l thi cknesses and must be di vi ded
by 2 to obtai n the wal l thi ckness.
Tubi ng di ffers from pi pe i n i ts si ze cl assi -
fi cati on. Tubi ng i s desi gnated by i ts actual OD.
(See tabl e 5-2.) Thus, 5/8-i nch tubi ng has an OD
of 5/8 i nch. As i ndi cated i n the tabl e, tubi ng i s
avai l abl e i n a vari ety of wal l thi cknesses. The
di ameter of tubi ng i s often measur ed and
i ndi cated i n 16ths. Thus, No. 6 tubi ng i s 6/16 or
3/8 i nch, No. 8 tubi ng i s 8/16 or 1/2 i nch, and
so forth.
The wal l thi ckness, materi al used, and I D
determi ne the bursti ng pressure of a l i ne or fi tti ng.
The greater the wal l thi ckness i n rel ati on to the
I D and the stronger the metal , the hi gher the
bursti ng pressure. However, the greater the I D for
a gi ven wal l thi ckness, the l ower the bursti ng
pressure, because force i s the product of area and
pressure.
Materials
The pi pe and tubi ng used i n fl ui d power
systems are commonl y made from steel , copper,
brass, al umi num, and stai nl ess steel . Each of these
metal s has i ts own di sti nct advantages or
di sadvantages i n certai n appl i cati ons.
Steel pi pe and tubi ng are rel ati vel y i nexpensi ve
and are used i n many hydraul i c and pneumati c
systems. Steel i s used because of i ts strength,
sui tabi l i ty for bendi ng and fl angi ng, and
adaptabi l i ty to hi gh pressures and temperatures.
I ts chi ef di sadvantage i s i ts comparati vel y l ow
resi stance to corrosi on.
Copper pi pe and tubi ng are someti mes used
for fl ui d power l i nes. Copper has hi gh resi stance
to corrosi on and i s easi l y drawn or bent. However,
i t i s unsati sfactory for hi gh temperatures and has
a tendency to harden and break due to stress and
vi brati on.
Al umi num has many of the characteri sti cs and
qual i ti es requi red for fl ui d power l i nes. I t has hi gh
resi stance to corrosi on and i s easi l y drawn or bent.
I n addi ti on, i t has the outstandi ng characteri sti c
of l i ght wei ght. Si nce wei ght el i mi nati on i s a vi tal
factor i n the desi gn of ai rcraft, al umi num al l oy
tubi ng i s used i n the majori ty of ai rcraft fl ui d
power systems.
Stai nl ess-steel tubi ng i s used i n certai n areas
of many ai rcraft fl ui d power systems. As a general
rul e, exposed l i nes and l i nes subject to abrasi on
or i ntense heat are made of stai nl ess steel .
An i mpr oper l y pi ped system can l ead to
seri ous power l oss and possi bl e harmful fl ui d
5-2
Table 5-2.Tubing Size Designation
contami nati on. Therefore i n mai ntenance and PREPARATION OF PIPES
repai r of fl ui d power system l i nes, the basi c desi gn AND TUBING
requi rements must be kept i n mi nd. Two pri mary
requi rements are as fol l ows:
1. The l i nes must have the correct I D to
provi de the requi red vol ume and vel oci ty of fl ow
wi th the l east amount of turbul ence duri ng al l
demands on the system.
2. The l i nes must be made of the proper
materi al and have the wal l thi ckness to provi de
suffi ci ent strength to both contai n the fl ui d at the
requi red pressure and wi thstand the surges of
pressure that may devel op i n the system.
Fl ui d power systems are desi gned as compactl y
as possi bl e, to keep the connecti ng l i nes short.
Every secti on of l i ne shoul d be anchored securel y
i n one or more pl aces so that nei ther the wei ght
of the l i ne nor the effects of vi brati on are carri ed
on the joi nts. The ai m i s to mi ni mi ze stress
throughout the system.
Li nes shoul d normal l y be kept as short and
free of bends as possi bl e. However, tubi ng shoul d
not be assembl ed i n a strai ght l i ne, because a bend
tends to el i mi nate strai n by absorbi ng vi brati on
and al so compensates for thermal expansi on and
5-3
contr acti on. Bends ar e pr efer r ed to el bows,
because bends cause l ess of a power l oss. A few
of the correct and i ncorrect methods of i nstal l i ng
tubi ng are i l l ustrated i n fi gure 5-1.
Bends are descri bed by thei r radi us measure-
ments. The i deal bend radi us i s 2 1/2 to 3 ti mes
the I D, as shown i n fi gure 5-2. For exampl e, i f
the I D of a l i ne i s 2 i nches, the radi us of the bend
shoul d be between 5 and 6 i nches.
Whi l e fri cti on i ncreases markedl y for sharper
curves than thi s, i t al so tends to i ncrease up to
a certai n poi nt for gentl er curves. The i ncreases
i n fri cti on i n a bend wi th a radi us of more than
3 pi pe di ameters resul t from i ncreased turbul ence
near the outsi de edges of the fl ow. Parti cl es of
fl ui d must travel a l onger di stance i n maki ng the
change i n di recti on. When the radi us of the bend
i s l ess than 2 1/2 pi pe di ameters, the i ncreased
pressure l oss i s due to the abrupt change i n the
di recti on of fl ow, especi al l y for parti cl es near the
i nsi de edge of the fl ow.
Duri ng your career i n the Navy, you may be
r equi r ed to fabr i cate new tubi ng to r epl ace
damaged or fai l ed l i nes. Fabri cati on of tubi ng
consi sts of four basi c oper ati ons: cutti ng,
deburri ng, bendi ng, and joi nt preparati on.
Tube Cutting and Deburring
The objecti ve of cutti ng tubi ng i s to produce
a square end that i s free from burrs. Tubi ng may
be cut usi ng a standard tube cutter (fi g. 5-3), a
chi pl ess cutter (fi g. 5-4), or a fi ne-toothed
hacksaw i f a tube cutter i s not avai l abl e.
When you use the standard tube cutter, pl ace
the tube i n the cutter wi th the cutti ng wheel at the
poi nt where the cut i s to be made. Appl y l i ght
pressure on the tube by ti ghteni ng the adjusti ng
Figure 5-2.Ideal bend radius.
knob. Too much pressure appl i ed to the cutti ng
wheel at oneti me may deform the tubi ng or cause
excessi ve burrs. Rotate the cutter toward i ts open
si de (fi g. 5-3). As you rotate the cutter, adjust the
ti ghteni ng knob after each compl ete turn to
mai ntai n l i ght pressure on the cutti ng wheel .
When you use the chi pl ess cutter, take the
fol l owi ng steps:
1. Sel ect the chi pl ess cutter accordi ng to
tubi ng si ze.
2. Rotate the cutter head to accept the tubi ng
i n the cutti ng posi ti on. Check that the cutter
ratchet i s operati ng freel y and that the cutter wheel
i s cl ear of the cutter head openi ng (fi g. 5-4).
3. Center the tubi ng on two rol l ers and the
cutti ng bl ade.
4. Use the hex key provi ded wi th the
turn the dri ve screw i n unti l the cutter
touches the tube.
Figure 5-1.Correct and incorrect methods of installing tubing.
5-4
ki t to
wheel
Figure 5-3.Tube cutting.
5. Ti ghten the dri ve screw 1/8 to 1/4 turn. Do
not overti ghten the dri ve screw. Overti ghteni ng
can damage soft tubi ng or cause excessi ve wear
or breakage of the cutter wheel i n hard tubi ng.
6. Swi ng the ratchet handl e back and forth
through the avai l abl e cl earance unti l there i s a
noti ceabl e ease of rotati on. Avoi d putti ng si de
force on the cutter handl e. Si de force wi l l cause
the cutter wheel to break.
7. Ti ghten the dri ve screw an addi ti onal 1/8
to 1/4 turn and swi ng the ratchet handl e back and
forth, reti ghteni ng the dri ve screw as needed unti l
the cut i s compl eted. The compl eted cut shoul d
be 1/2 degree square to the tube centerl i ne.
Figure 5-4.Chipless cutter.
After the tubi ng i s cut, remove al l burrs and
sharp edges from i nsi de and outsi de of the tube
(fi g. 5-5) wi th deburri ng tool s. Cl ean out the
tubi ng. Make sure no forei gn parti cl es remai n.
A conveni ent method for cutti ng tubi ng wi th
a hacksaw i s to pl ace the tube i n a fl ari ng bl ock
and cl amp the bl ock i n a vi ce. After cutti ng the
tubi ng wi th a hacksaw, remove al l saw marks by
fi l i ng.
Tube Bending
The objecti ve i n tube bendi ng i s to obtai n a
smooth bend wi thout fl atteni ng the tube. Tube
bendi ng i s usual l y done wi th ei ther a hand tube
bender or a mechani cal l y operated bender.
Figure 5-5.Properly burred tubing.
5-5
Figure 5-6.Bending tubing with hand-operated tube bender.
HAND TUBE BENDER. The hand tube
tubi ng. The radi us bl ock i s marked i n degrees of
bender shown i n fi gure 5-6 consi sts of a handl e,
bend rangi ng from 0 to 180 degrees. The sl i de bar
a radi us bl ock, a cl i p, and a sl i de bar. The handl e
has a mark whi ch i s l i ned up wi th the zero mark
and sl i de bar are used as l evers to provi de the
on the radi us bl ock. The tube i s i nserted i n the
mechani cal advantage necessary to bend the
tube bender, and after the marks are l i ned up, the
5-6
Figure 5-7.Mechanically operated tube bender.
sl i de bar i s moved around unti l the mark on the
sl i de bar reaches the desi red degree of bend on
the r adi us bl ock. See fi gur e 5-6 for the si x
pr ocedur al steps i n
tube bendi ng wi th the
hand-operated tube bender.
MECHANICAL TUBE BENDER. The
tube bender shown i n fi gure 5-7 i s i ssued as a ki t.
The ki t contai ns the equi pment necessary for
bendi ng tubi ng fr om 1/4 i nch to 3/4 i nch i n
di ameter .
Thi s tube bender i s desi gned for use wi th
ai r cr aft gr ade, hi gh-str engths stai nl ess-steel
tubi ng, as wel l as al l other metal tubi ng. I t i s
desi gned to be fastened to a bench or tri pod. The
base i s formed to provi de a secure gri p i n a vi se.
Thi s type of tube bender uses a hand crank
and gears. The formi ng di e i s keyed to the dri ve
gear and i s secured by a screw.
The for mi ng di e on the mechani cal tube
bender i s cal i brated i n degrees, si mi l arl y to the
radi us bl ock of the hand bender. A l ength of
repl acement tubi ng may be bent to a speci fi ed
number of degrees or i t may be bent to dupl i cate
a bend ei ther i n a damaged tube or i n a pattern.
Dupl i cati ng a bend of a damaged tube or of a
pattern i s done by l ayi ng the sampl e or pattern
on top of the tube bei ng bent and sl owl y bendi ng
the new tube to the requi red bend.
Tube Flaring
Tube fl ari ng i s a method of formi ng the end
of a tube i nto a funnel shape so i t can be hel d by
a threaded fi tti ng. When a fl ared tube i s prepared,
a fl are nut i s sl i pped onto the tube and the end
of the tube i s fl ared. Duri ng tube i nstal l ati on, the
fl are i s seated to a fi tti ng wi th the i nsi de of the
fl are agai nst the cone-shaped end of the fi tti ng,
and the fl are nut i s screwed onto the fi tti ng,
pul l i ng the i nsi de of the fl are agai nst the seati ng
surface of the fi tti ng.
Ei ther of two fl ari ng tool s (fi g. 5-8) may be
used. One gi ves a si ngl e fl are and the other gi ves
a doubl e fl are. The fl ari ng tool consi sts of a spl i t
di e bl ock that has hol es for vari ous si zes of tubi ng,
Figure 5-8.Flaring tools.
5-7
a cl amp to l ock the end of the tubi ng i nsi de the
di e bl ock, and a yoke wi th a compressor screw
and cone that sl i ps over the di e bl ock and forms
the 45-degree fl are on the end of the tube. The
screw has a T-handl e. A doubl e fl ari ng tube has
adaptors that turn i n the edge of the tube before
a regul ar 45-degree doubl e fl are i s made.
To use the si ngl e fl ari ng tool , fi rst check to
see that the end of the tubi ng has been cut off
squarel y and has had the burrs removed from
both i nsi de and outsi de. Sl i p the fl are nut onto
the tube before you make the fl are. Then, open
the di e bl ock. I nsert the end of the tubi ng i nto
the hol e correspondi ng to the OD of the tubi ng
so that the end protrudes sl i ghtl y above the top
face of the di e bl ocks. The amount by whi ch the
tubi ng extends above the bl ocks determi nes the
fi ni shed di ameter of the fl are. The fl are must be
l arge enough to seat properl y agai nst the fi tti ng,
but smal l enough that the threads of the fl are nut
wi l l sl i de over i t. Cl ose the di e bl ock and secure
the tool wi th the wi ng nut. Use the handl e of the
yoke to ti ghten the wi ng nut. Then pl ace the yoke
over the end of the tubi ng and ti ghten the handl e
to force the cone i nto the end of the tubi ng. The
compl eted fl are shoul d be sl i ghtl y vi si bl e above
the face of the di e bl ocks.
FLEXIBLE HOSE
Shock-resi stant, fl exi bl e hose assembl i es are
requi red to absorb the movements of mounted
equi pment under both normal operati ng condi -
ti ons and extr eme condi ti ons. They ar e al so
used for thei r noi se-attenuati ng properti es and
to connect movi ng parts of certai n equi pment.
The two basi c hose types are syntheti c rubber
and pol ytetr afl uor oethyl ene (PTFE), such as
Du Ponts Tefl on

fl uorocarbon resi n.
Figure 5-9.Synthetic rubber hoses.
pressure ranges: l ow, medi um, and hi gh. The
outer cover i s desi gned to wi thstand external abuse
and contai ns i denti fi cati on marki ngs.
Syntheti c rubber hoses wi th rubber covers are
i denti fi ed wi th the mi l i tary speci fi cati on number,
the si ze by dash number, the quarter and year of
cure or manufacture, and the manufacturers code
i denti fi cati on number or federal suppl y code
number pri nted al ong thei r l ayl i ne (fi g. 5-10, vi ew
A). The l ayl i ne i s a l egi bl e marki ng paral l el to the
l ongi tudi nal axi s of a hose used i n determi ni ng
the strai ghtness or l ay of the hose.
Syntheti c rubber hoses wi th wi re brai d cover
are i denti fi ed by bands (fi g. 5-10, vi ew B) wrapped
around the hose ends and at i nterval s al ong the
l ength of the hose.
Sizing
Rubber hoses are desi gned for speci fi c fl ui d,
temperature, and pr essur e r anges and ar e
provi ded i n vari ous speci fi cati ons. Rubber hoses
(fi g. 5-9) consi st of a mi ni mum three l ayers; a
seaml ess syntheti c rubber tube rei nforced wi th one
or more l ayers of brai ded or spi ral ed cotton, wi re,
or syntheti c fi ber; and an outer cover. The i nner
tube i s desi gned to wi thstand the attack of the
fl ui d that passes through i t. The brai ded or
spi ral ed l ayers determi ne the strength of the hose.
The greater the number of these l ayers, the greater
i s the pressure rati ng. Hoses are provi ded i n three
5-8
The si ze of a fl exi bl e hose i s i denti fi ed by the
dash (-) number, whi ch i s the I D of the hose
expressed i n 16ths of an i nch. For exampl e, the
I D of a -64 hose i s 4 i nches. For a few hose styl es
thi s i s the nomi nal and not the true I D.
Cure Date
Syntheti c rubber hoses wi l l deteri orate from
agi ng. A cure date i s used to ensure that they do
not deteri orate beyond materi al and performance
speci fi cati ons. The cure date i s the quarter and
year the hose was manufactured. For exampl e,
Techni cal Di recti ve for Pi pi ng Devi ces and
Flexible Hose Assemblies, NAVSEA S6430-AE-
TED-010. vol ume 1. provi de detai l ed i nstructi ons
on di scardi ng and downgradi ng of rubber hoses
exceedi ng thei r shel f l i fe.
PFTE
1Q89 or
the fi rst
Figure 5-10.Hose identification.
1/89 means the hose was made duri ng
quarter (1 Jan to 31 Mar) of 1989.
The cure date l i mi ts the l ength of ti me a rubber
hose can be stored, i n bul k or as an assembl y,
pri or to bei ng pl aced i nto servi ce. The storage or
shel f l i fe for rubber hose i s 4 years. For the hose
manufactured i n 1Q89, the storage or shel f l i fe
wi l l end on the 31st of March 1993. At thi s poi nt,
the hose i s no l onger consi dered usabl e and shoul d
be di scarded or downgraded. The Aviation Hose
and Tube Manual, NAVAI R 01-1A-20, and the
5-9
PFTE hose i s a fl exi bl e hose desi gned to meet
the requi rements of hi gher operati ng pressures and
temperatures i n present fl ui d power systems. Thi s
type of hose i s made from a chemi cal resi n, whi ch
i s processed and extruded i nto a tube shaped to
a desi red si ze. I t i s rei nforced wi th one or more
l ayers of brai ded stai nl ess-steel wi re or wi th an
even number of spi ral wrap l ayers wi th an outer
wi re brai d l ayer.
PTFE hose i s unaffected by al l fl ui ds presentl y
used i n fl ui d power systems. I t i s i nert to aci ds,
both concentrated and di l uted. Certai n PFTE
hose may be used i n systems where operati ng
temper atur es r ange fr om 100F to +500F.
PTFE i s nonfl ammabl e; however , wher e the
possi bi l i ty of open fl ame exi sts, a speci al asbestos
fi re sl eeve shoul d be used.
PFTE hose wi l l not absorb moi sture. Thi s,
together wi th i ts chemi cal i nertness and anti -
adhesi ve characteri sti cs, makes i t i deal for mi ssi l e
fl ui d power systems where noncontami nati on and
cl eanl i ness are essenti al .
I n l i eu of l ayl i ne marki ng, PTFE hoses are
i denti fi ed by metal or pl i abl e pl asti c bands at thei r
ends and at i nterval s al ong thei r l ength. Fi gure
5-10, vi ew C, shows a hose l abel for a PTFE hose.
Usual l y the onl y condi ti on that wi l l shorten the
l i fe of PTFE hose i s excessi ve temperature. For
thi s reason there i s no manufacture date l i sted on
the i denti fi cati on tag.
APPLICATION
As menti oned earl i er, fl exi bl e hose i s avai l abl e
i n three pressure ranges: l ow, medi um, and hi gh.
When repl aci ng hoses, i t i s i mportant to ensure
that the repl acement hose i s a dupl i cate of the one
r emoved i n l ength, OD, mater i al , type and
contour, and associ ated marki ngs. I n sel ecti ng
hose, several precauti ons must be observed. The
sel ected hose must
1.
2.
be compati bl e wi th the system fl ui d,
have a rated pressure greater than the desi gn
pressure of the system,
3. be desi gned to gi ve adequate performance and
servi ce for i nfrequent transi ent pressure peaks
up to 150 percent of the worki ng pressure of
the hose, and
4. have a safety factor wi th a burst pressure at
a mi ni mum of 4 ti mes the rated worki ng
pressure.
There are temperature restri cti ons appl i ed to
the use of hoses. Rubber hose must not be used
where the operati ng temperature exceeds 200F.
PTFE hoses i n hi gh-pressure ai r systems must not
be used where the temperature exceeds 350F.
PTFE hoses i n water and steam drai n appl i cati ons
must not be used where the operati ng temperature
exceeds 380F.
FABRICATION AND TESTING
The fabri cati on of fl exi bl e hose assembl i es i s
covered i n appl i cabl e trai ni ng manual s, techni cal
publ i cati ons, and NAVAI R 01-1A-20. After a
hose assembl y has been compl etel y fabri cated i t
must be cl eaned, vi sual l y i nspected for forei gn
materi al s, and proof tested.
A hose assembl y i s pr oof tested by the
appl i cati on of a nondestructi ve pressure for a
mi ni mum of 1 mi nute but not l onger than 5
mi nutes to ensure that i t wi l l wi thstand normal
worki ng pressures. The test pressure, known as
normal proof pressure, i s twi ce the rated worki ng
pressure. Whi l e the test pressure i s bei ng appl i ed,
the hose must not burst, l eak, or show si gns
of fi tti ng separ ati on. NAVAI R 01-1A-20 and
NAVSEA S6430-AE-TED-010, vol ume 1, provi de
detai l ed i nstructi ons on cl eani ng of hoses, cl eani ng
and test medi a, proof pressure and proof testi ng.
After proof testi ng i s compl eted, the hose must
be fl ushed and dri ed and the ends capped or
pl ugged to keep di rt and other contami nants out
of the hose.
IDENTIFICATION
The fi nal step after fabri cati on and sati sfac-
tory testi ng of a hose assembl y i s the attachment
of i denti fi cati on tags as shown i n fi gure 5-11 (for
shi ps) and i n fi gure 5-12 (for ai rcraft). The tag
shown i n fi gure 5-12, vi ew B, i s used i n areas
where a tag maybe drawn i nto an engi ne i ntake.
Hose assembl i es to be i nstal l ed i n ai rcraft fuel and
oi l tanks are marked wi th an approved el ectri c
engraver on the socket-wrench fl ats wi th the
requi red i nformati on.
Figure 5-11.Hose assembly identification tags (ships).
5-10
Figure 5-12.Hose assembly
INSTALLATION
Fl exi bl e hose must
identification tags (aircraft).
not be twi sted duri ng
i nstal l ati on, si nce thi s reduces the l i fe of the hose
consi derabl y and may cause the fi tti ngs to l oosen
as wel l . You can determi ne whether or not a hose
i s twi sted by l ooki ng at the l ayl i ne that runs al ong
the l ength of the hose. I f the l ayl i ne does not spi ral
around the hose, the hose i s not twi sted. I f the
l ayl i ne does spi ral around the hose, the hose i s
twi sted (fi g. 5-13, vi ew B) and must be untwi sted.
Fl exi bl e hose shoul d be protected from chafi ng
by usi ng a chafe-resi stant coveri ng wherever
necessar y.
The mi ni mum bend radi us for fl exi bl e hose
vari es accordi ng to the si ze and constructi on of
the hose and the pr essur e under whi ch the
system operates. Current appl i cabl e techni cal
publ i cati ons contai n tabl es and graphs showi ng
mi ni mum bend radi i for the di fferent types of
i nstal l ati ons. Bends that are too sharp wi l l reduce
the bursti ng pressure of fl exi bl e hose consi derabl y
bel ow i ts rated val ue.
Fl exi bl e hose shoul d be i nstal l ed so that i t wi l l
be subjected to a mi ni mum of fl exi ng duri ng
operati on. Support cl amps are not necessary wi th
short i nstal l ati ons; but for hose of consi derabl e
l ength (48 i nches for exampl e), cl amps shoul d be
pl aced not more than 24 i nches apart. Cl oser
5-11
Figure 5-13.Correct and incorrect installation of flexible
hose.
supports are desi rabl e and i n some cases may be
requi red.
A fl exi bl e hose must never be stretched ti ghtl y
between two fi tti ngs. About 5 to 8 percent of the
total l ength must be al l owed as sl ack to provi de
freedom of movement under pressure. When
under pressure, fl exi bl e hose contracts i n l ength
and expands i n di ameter. Exampl es of correct and
i ncor r ect i nstal l ati ons of fl exi bl e hose ar e
i l l ustrated i n fi gure 5-13.
PFTE hose shoul d be handl ed careful l y duri ng
removal and i nstal l ati on. Some PFTE hose i s pre-
formed duri ng fabri cati on. Thi s type of hose tends
to form i tsel f to the i nstal l ed posi ti on i n the sys-
tem. To ensure i ts sati sfactory functi on and reduce
the l i kel i hood of fai l ure, anyone who works wi th
PFTE hose shoul d observe the fol l owi ng rul es:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Do not exceed recommended bend l i mi ts.
Do not exceed twi sti ng l i mi ts.
Do not strai ghten a bent hose that has
taken a permanent set.
Do not hang, l i ft, or support objects from
PFTE hose.
Once fl exi bl e hose assembl i es are i nstal l ed,
there are no servi ci ng or mai ntenance requi re-
ments other than peri odi c i nspecti ons. These
i nspecti ons are conducted accordi ng to mai nte-
nance i nstructi on manual s (MI Ms), mai ntenance
r equi r ement car ds (MRCs), and depot-l evel
speci fi cati ons.
TYPES OF FITTINGS
AND CONNECTORS
Some type of connector or fi tti ng must be
provi ded to attach the l i nes to the components of
the system and to connect secti ons of l i ne to
each other. There are many di fferent types of
connectors and fi tti ngs provi ded for thi s purpose.
The type of connector or fi tti ng requi red for a
speci fi c system depends on several factors. One
determi ni ng factor, of course, i s the type of fl ui d
l i ne (pi pe, tubi ng, or fl exi bl e hose) used i n
the system. Other determi ni ng factors are the
type of fl ui d medi um and the maxi mum operati ng
pressure of the system. Some of the most common
types of fi tti ngs and connectors are descri bed i n
the fol l owi ng paragraphs.
THREADED CONNECTORS
There are several di fferent types of threaded
connectors. I n the type di scussed i n thi s secti on,
both the connector and the end of the fl ui d l i ne
(pi pe) are threaded. These connectors are used i n
some l ow-pressure fl ui d power systems and are
usual l y made of steel , copper, or brass, and are
avai l abl e i n a vari ety of desi gns.
Threaded connectors are made wi th standard
pi pe threads cut on the i nsi de surface. The end
of the pi pe i s threaded wi th outsi de threads.
Standard pi pe threads are tapered sl i ghtl y to
ensure ti ght connecti ons. The amount of taper i s
approxi matel y 3/4 i nch i n di ameter per foot of
thread.
Metal i s removed when a pi pe i s threaded,
thi nni ng the pi pe and exposi ng new and rough
surfaces. Corrosi on agents work more qui ckl y at
such poi nts than el sewhere. I f pi pes are assembl ed
wi th no protecti ve compound on the threads,
corrosi on sets i n at once and the two secti ons
sti ck together so that the threads sei ze when
di sassembl y i s attempted. The resul t i s damaged
threads and pi pes.
To prevent sei zi ng, a sui tabl e pi pe thread
compound i s someti mes appl i ed to the threads.
The two end thr eads must be kept fr ee of
5-12
compound so that i t wi l l not contami nate the
fl ui d. Pi pe compound, when i mproperl y appl i ed,
may get i nsi de the l i nes and components and
damage pumps and control equi pment.
Another materi al used on pi pe threads i s
seal ant tape. Thi s tape, whi ch i s made of PTFE,
pr ovi des an effecti ve means of seal i ng pi pe
connecti ons and el i mi nates the necessi ty of
torqui ng connecti ons to excessi vel y hi gh val ues
i n order to prevent pressure l eaks. I t al so provi des
for ease of mai ntenance whenever i t i s necessary
to di sconnect pi pe joi nts. The tape i s appl i ed over
the mal e threads, l eavi ng the fi rst thread exposed.
After the tape i s pressed fi rml y agai nst the
threads, the joi nt i s connected.
FLANGE CONNECTORS
Bol ted fl ange connector s (fi g. 5-14) ar e
sui tabl e for most pressures now i n use. The
fl anges are attached to the pi pi ng by wel di ng,
brazi ng, tapered threads (for some l ow-pressure
systems), or rol l i ng and bendi ng i nto recesses.
Those i l l ustrated are the most common types of
fl ange joi nts used. The same types of standard
fi tti ng shapes (tee, cross, el bow, and so forth) are
manufactured for fl ange joi nts. Sui tabl e gasket
materi al must be used between the fl anges.
WELDED CONNECTORS
The subassembl i es of some fl ui d power
systems are connected by wel ded joi nts, especi al l y
i n hi gh-pressure systems whi ch use pi pe for fl ui d
l i nes. The wel di ng i s done accordi ng to standard
Figure 5-14.Four types of bolted flange connectors.
speci fi cati ons whi ch defi ne the materi al s and
techni ques.
BRAZED CONNECTORS
Si l ver-brazed connectors are commonl y used
for joi ni ng nonferrous (copper, brass, and soon)
pi pi ng i n the pressure and temperature range
where thei r use i s practi cal . Use of thi s type of
connector i s l i mi ted to i nstal l ati ons i n whi ch the
pi pi ng temperature wi l l not exceed 425F and the
pressure i n col d l i nes wi l l not-exceed 3,000 psi .
The al l oy i s mel ted by heati ng the joi nt wi th an
oxyacetyl ene torch. Thi s causes the al l oy i nsert
to mel t and fi l l the few thousandths of an i nch
annul ar space between the pi pe and the fi tti ng.
A fi tti ng of thi s type whi ch has been removed
from a pi pi ng system can be rebrazed i nto a
system, as i n most cases suffi ci ent al l oy remai ns
i n the i nsert groove for a second joi nt. New al l oy
i nserts may be obtai ned for fi tti ngs whi ch do not
have suffi ci ent al l oy remai ni ng i n the i nsert for
maki ng a new joi nt.
FLARED CONNECTORS
Fl ared connectors are commonl y used i n fl ui d
power systems contai ni ng l i nes made of tubi ng.
These connectors provi de safe, strong, dependabl e
connecti ons wi thout the need for thr eadi ng,
wel di ng, or sol deri ng the tubi ng. The connector
consi sts of a fi tti ng, a sl eeve, and a nut (fi g. 5-15).
The fi tti ngs are made of steel , al umi num al l oy,
or bronze. The fi tti ng used i n a connecti on shoul d
be made of the same materi al as that of the sl eeve,
the nut, and the tubi ng. For exampl e, use steel
connectors wi th steel tubi ng and al umi num al l oy
Figure 5-15.Flared-tube fitting.
connectors wi th al umi num al l oy tubi ng. Fi tti ngs
are made i n uni on, 45-degree and 90-degree
el bow, tee, and vari ous other shapes (fi g. 5-16).
Tees, crosses, and el bows are sel f-expl anatory.
Uni versal and bul khead fi tti ngs can be mounted
sol i dl y wi th one outl et of the fi tti ng extendi ng
through a bul khead and the other outl et(s) posi -
ti oned at any angl e. Uni versal means the fi tti ng
can assume the angl e requi red for the speci fi c
i nstal l ati on. Bul khead means the fi tti ng i s l ong
enough to pass thr ough a bul khead and i s
desi gned so i t can be secur ed sol i dl y to the
bul khead.
For connecti ng to tubi ng, the ends of the
fi tti ngs are threaded wi th strai ght machi ne threads
to correspond wi th the femal e threads of the nut.
I n some cases, however, one end of the fi tti ng may
be threaded wi th tapered pi pe threads to fi t
Figure 5-16.Flared-tube fittings.
5-13
thr eaded por ts i n pumps, val ves, and other
components. Several of these thread combi nati ons
are shown i n fi gure 5-16.
Tubi ng used wi th fl are connectors must be
fl ared pri or to assembl y. The nut fi ts over the
sl eeve and when ti ghtened, i t draws the sl eeve and
tubi ng fl are ti ghtl y agai nst the mal e fi tti ng to form
a seal .
The mal e fi tti ng has a cone-shaped surface
wi th the same angl e as the i nsi de of the fl are. The
sl eeve supports the tube so vi brati on does not
concentrate at the edge of the fl are, and di stri butes
the sheari ng acti on over a wi der area for added
strength. Tube fl ari ng i s covered i n Tools and
Their Uses, NAVEDTRA 10085 (ser i es), and
other appl i cabl e trai ni ng manual s.
Correct and i ncorrect methods of i nstal l i ng
fl ared-tube connectors are i l l ustrated i n fi gure
5-17. Tubi ng nuts shoul d be ti ghtened wi th a
torque wrench to the val ue speci fi ed i n appl i cabl e
techni cal publ i cati ons.
I f an al umi num al l oy fl ared connector l eaks
after bei ng ti ghtened to the requi red torque, i t
must not be ti ghtened further. Overti ghteni ng may
severel y damage or compl etel y cut off the tubi ng
fl are or may resul t i n damage to the sl eeve or nut.
The l eaki ng connecti on must be di sassembl ed and
the faul t corrected.
I f a steel tube connecti on l eaks, i t may be
ti ghtened 1/6 turn beyond the speci fi ed torque i n
an attempt to stop the l eakage; then i f i t sti l l l eaks,
i t must be di sassembl ed and repai red.
Under ti ghteni ng of connecti ons may be
seri ous, as thi s can al l ow the tubi ng to l eak at the
connector bemuse of i nsuffi ci ent gri p on the fl are
by the sl eeve. The use of a torque wrench wi l l
prevent underti ghteni ng.
CAUTION
A nut shoul d never be ti ghtened when
there i s pressure i n the l i ne, as thi s wi l l tend
to damage the connecti on wi thout addi ng
any appreci abl e torque to the connecti on.
Figure 5-17.Correct and incorrect methods of installing flared fittings.
5-14
FLARELESS-TUBE CONNECTORS
Thi s type of connector el i mi nates al l tube
fl ari ng, yet provi des a safe, strong, and depend-
abl e tube connecti on. Thi s connector consi sts
of a fi tti ng, a sl eeve or fer r ul e, and a nut.
(See fi g. 5-18.)
NOTE
Al though the use of fl ar el ess tube
connectors i s wi despread, NAVSEA pol i cy
i s to reduce or el i mi nate use of fl arel ess
fi tti ngs i n newl y desi gned shi ps; the extent
to whi ch fl arel ess fi tti ngs are approved for
use i n a parti cul ar shi p i s refl ected i n
appl i cabl e shi p drawi ngs.
Fl arel ess-tube fi tti ngs are avai l abl e i n many
of the same shapes and thread combi nati ons as
fl ared-tube fi tti ngs. (See fi g. 5-16.) The fi tti ng has
a counterbore shoul der for the end of the tubi ng
to rest agai nst. The angl e of the counterbore
causes the cutti ng edge of the sl eeve or ferrul e to
cut i nto the outsi de surface of the tube when the
two are assembl ed.
The nut presses on the bevel of the sl eeve and
causes i t to cl amp ti ghtl y to the tube. Resi stance
to vi brati on i s concentrated at thi s poi nt rather
than at the sl eeve cut. When ful l y ti ghtened, the
sl eeve or ferrul e i s bowed sl i ghtl y at the mi dsecti on
and acts as a spri ng. Thi s spri ng acti on of the
sl eeve or ferrul e mai ntai ns a constant tensi on
between the body and the nut and thus prevents
the nut from l ooseni ng.
Pri or to the i nstal l ati on of a new fl arel ess-tube
connector, the end of the tubi ng must be square,
Figure 5-18.Flareless-tube connector.
concentri c, and free of burrs. For the connecti on
to be effecti ve, the cutti ng edge of the sl eeve or
ferrul e must bi te i nto the peri phery of the tube
(fi g. 5-19). Thi s i s ensured by presetti ng the sl eeve
or ferrul e on the tube.
Presetting
Presetti ng consi sts of deformi ng the ferrul e to
bi te i nto the tube OD and deformi ng the end of
the tube to form a shal l ow coni cal ri ng seati ng
surface. The tube and ferrul e assembl y shoul d be
preset i n a presetti ng tool that has an end secti on
i denti cal to a fi tti ng body but whi ch i s made of
speci al l y hardened steel . Thi s tool hardness i s
needed to ensure that al l deformati on at the tube
end seat goes i nto the tube.
Presetti ng i s done wi th a hydraul i c presetti ng
tool or a manual presetti ng tool , ei ther i n the shop
or aboard shi p. The tool vendors i nstructi ons
must be fol l owed for the hydraul i c presetti ng tool .
I f a presetti ng tool i s not avai l abl e, the fi tti ng
body i ntended for i nstal l ati on i s used i n the same
manner as the manual presetti ng tool . (I f an
al umi num fi tti ng i s used, i t shoul d not be reused
i n the system.) The manual tool i s used as fol l ows:
WARNING
Fai l ure to fol l ow these i nstructi ons may
resul t i n i mproperl y preset ferrul es wi th
i nsuffi ci ent bi te i nto the tube. I mproperl y
preset ferrul es have resul ted i n joi nts that
passed hydrostati c testi ng and operated for
weeks or years, then fai l ed catastrophi cal l y
under shock, vi brati on, or normal operat-
i ng l oads. Fl arel ess fi tti ng fai l ures have
Figure 5-19.Unused ferrules.
5-15
caused personnel i njury, damage to equi p-
ment, and unnecessary i nterrupti on of
propul si on power.
1. Cut the tubi ng square and l i ghtl y deburr
the i nsi de and outsi de corners. For corrosi on
resi sti ng steel (CRES) tubi ng, use a hacksaw rather
than a tubi ng cutter to avoi d work hardeni ng the
tube end. For CRES, and i f necessary for other
materi al s, dress the tube end smooth and square
wi th a fi l e. Tube ends wi th i rregul ar cutti ng marks
wi l l not pr oduce sati sfactor y seati ng sur face
i mpressi ons.
2. Test the hardness of the ferrul e by maki ng
a l i ght scratch on the tubi ng at l east 1/2 i nch back
from the tube end, usi ng a sharp corner on the
ferrul e. I f the ferrul e wi l l not scratch the tube,
no bi te wi l l be obtai ned. Thi s test maybe omi tted
for fl ush-type ferrul es where the bi te wi l l be
vi si bl e. Moderate hand pressure i s suffi ci ent for
produci ng the scratch.
3. Lubr i cate the nut thr eads, the fer r ul e
l eadi ng and trai l i ng edges, and the preset tool
threads wi th a thread l ubri cant compati bl e wi th
the system. Sl i de the nut onto the tubi ng so the
threads face the tube end. Note whether the
ferrul e i s a fl ush type or recessed type (fi g. 5-19),
and sl i de the ferrul e onto the tube so the cutti ng
edge i s toward the tube end (l arge end toward the
nut).
4. Bottom the end of the tubi ng i n the
presetti ng tool . Sl i de the ferrul e up i nto the
presetti ng tool , and confi rm that the nut can be
moved down the tube suffi ci entl y to expose at
l east 1/8 i nch of tubi ng past the ferrul e after the
pr esetti ng oper ati on (fi g. 5-20) to al l ow for
i nspecti on of the ferrul e.
5. Whi l e keepi ng the tube bottomed i n the
presetti ng tool , ti ghten the nut onto the fi tti ng
body unti l the ferrul e just gri ps the tube by
fri cti on. Thi s ri ng gri p poi nt may be i denti fi ed by
l i ghtl y turni ng the tube or the presetti ng tool and
sl owl y ti ghteni ng the nut unti l the tube cannot
be tur ned i n the pr esetti ng tool by hand.
Mark the nut and the presetti ng tool at thi s
posi ti on.
6. Ti ghten the nut accordi ng to the number
of turns gi ven i n tabl e 5-3, dependi ng on tube
si ze.
5-16
Figure 5-20.Tube and ferrule assembled for preset-
ting, showing nut position required for inspecting
ferrule.
Inspection
Di sassembl e and i nspect the fi tti ng as fol l ows
(mandatory):
1. Ensure that the end of the tubi ng has an
i mpressi on of the presetti ng tool seat surface
(ci rcul ar appeari ng ri ng) for 360 degrees. A parti al
ci rcl e, a vi si bl y off-center ci rcl e, or a ci rcl e broken
by the roughness of the tube end i s unsati sfactory.
2. Check for proper bi te:
a. For fl ush-type ferrul es, a rai sed ri dge
(fi g. 5-21) of tube metal must be vi si bl e compl etel y
around the tube at the l eadi ng edge of the ferrul e.
The best practi ce i s to obtai n a ri dge about 50
percent of the ferrul e edge thi ckness.
Table 5-3.Number of Turns
Figure 5-21.Ferrules installed on tube, preset and removed
for inspection.
b. For recessed-type ferrul es, the l eadi ng
edge must be snug agai nst the tube OD. Determi ne
thi s vi sual l y and by attempti ng to rock the ferrul e
on the tube.
3. Ensure that the nut end of the ferrul e (both
types) i s col l apsed around the tube to provi de
support agai nst bendi ng l oads and vi brati on.
4. The ferrul e (both types) must have l i ttl e or
no pl ay al ong the di recti on of the tube run. Check
thi s by tryi ng to move the ferrul e back and forth
by hand. The ferrul e wi l l often be free to rotate
on the tubi ng; thi s does not affect i ts functi on.
5. For fl ush-type ferrul es, check that the gap
between the rai sed metal ri dge and the cutti ng end
of the ferrul e stays the same whi l e the ferrul e i s
rotated. (Omi t thi s check for recessed-type ferrul es
or i f the fl ush-type ferrul e wi l l not rotate on the
tube).
6. Check that the mi ddl e porti on of the ferrul e
(both types) i s bowed or sprung i nto an arc. The
l eadi ng edge of the ferrul e may appear fl attened
i nto a cone shape; thi s i s acceptabl e as l ong as
there i s a bowed secti on near the mi ddl e of the
ferrul e. I f the whol e l eadi ng secti on of the ferrul e
i s fl attened i nto a cone wi th no bowed secti on,
the ferrul e (and possi bl y the fi tti ng body, i f used)
has been damaged by overti ghteni ng and wi l l not
seal rel i abl y.
Final Assembly
When you make a fi nal assembl y i n the
system, use the fol l owi ng i nstal l ati on procedure:
1. Lubri cate al l threads wi th a l i qui d that i s
compati bl e wi th the fl ui d to be used i n the system.
2. Pl ace the tube assembl y i n posi ti on and
check for al i gnment.
3. Ti ghten the nut by hand unti l you feel an
i ncrease i n resi stance to turni ng. Thi s i ndi cates
that the sl eeve or ferrul e pi l ot has contacted the
fi tti ng.
4. I f possi bl e, use a torque wrench to ti ghten
fl arel ess tubi ng nuts. Torque val ues for speci fi c
i nstal l ati ons are usual l y l i sted i n the appl i cabl e
techni cal publ i cati ons. I f i t i s not possi bl e to use
a torque wrench, use the fol l owi ng procedures for
ti ghteni ng the nuts:
After the nut i s handti ght, turn the nut 1/6
turn (one fl at on a hex nut) wi th a wrench. Use
a wrench on the connector to prevent i t from
turni ng whi l e ti ghteni ng the nut. After you i nstal l
the tube assembl y, have the system pressure tested.
Shoul d a connecti on l eak, you may ti ghten the
nut an addi ti onal 1/6 turn (maki ng a total of 1/3
turn). I f, after ti ghteni ng the nut a total of 1/3
turn, l eakage sti l l exi sts, remove the assembl y and
i nspect the components of the assembl y for scores,
cracks, presence of forei gn materi al , or damage
from overti ghteni ng.
NOTE: Overti ghteni ng a fl arel ess-tube nut
dri ves the cutti ng edge of the sl eeve or ferrul e
deepl y i nto the tube, causi ng the tube to be
weakened to the poi nt where normal vi brati on
coul d cause the tube to shear. After you compl ete
the i nspecti on (i f you do not fi nd any di s-
crepanci es), reassembl e the connecti on and repeat
the pressure test procedures.
CAUTION: Do not i n any case ti ghten the
nut beyond 1/3 turn (two fl ats on the hex nut);
thi s i s the maxi mum the fi tti ng may be ti ghtened
wi thout the possi bi l i ty of permanentl y damagi ng
the sl eeve or the tube.
CONNECTORS FOR
FLEXIBLE HOSE
As stated previ ousl y, the fabri cati on of fl exi bl e
hose assembl i es i s covered i n appl i cabl e trai ni ng
manual s, techni cal publ i cati ons, and NAVAI R
01-1A-20. There are vari ous types of end fi tti ngs
for both the pi pi ng connecti on si de and the hose
5-17
connecti on si de of hose fi tti ngs. Fi gure 5-22 shows
commonl y used fi tti ngs.
Piping Connection Side of Hose Fitting
The pi pi ng si de of an end fi tti ng comes wi th
several connecti ng vari ati ons: fl ange, JI C 37
fl are, O-ri ng uni on, and spl i t cl amp, to name a
few. Not al l vari eti es are avai l abl e for each hose.
Therefore, i nstal l ers must consul t the mi l i tary
s peci fi cati on an d man u factu r er s data to
determi ne the speci fi c end fi tti ngs avai l abl e.
Hose Connection Side of Hose Fitting
Hose fi tti ngs are attached to the hose by
several methods. Each method i s determi ned by
the fi tti ng manufacturer and takes i nto con-
si derati on such thi ngs as si ze, constructi on, wal l
thi ckness, and pressure rati ng. Hoses used for
fl exi bl e connecti ons use one of the fol l owi ng
methods for attachment of the fi tti ng to the
hose.
ONE-PIECE REUSABLE SOCKET. The
socket component of the fi tti ng i s fabri cated as
a si ngl e pi ece. One-pi ece reusabl e sockets are
screwed or rocked onto the hose OD, fol l owed
by i nserti on of the ni ppl e component.
SEGMENTED, BOLTED SOCKET. The
segmented, bol ted socket consi sts of two or more
segments whi ch are bol ted together on the hose
after i nserti on of the ni ppl e component.
Figure 5-22.End fittings and hose fittings.
5-18
SEGMENTED SOCKET, RI NG AND
BAND ATTACHED. The segmented, ri ng and
band attached socket consi sts of three or more
segments. As wi th the bol t-together segments, the
segments, ri ng and band are put on the hose after
i nserti on of the ni ppl e. A speci al tool i s requi red
to compress the segments.
SEGMENTED SOCKET, RING AND BOLT
ATTACHED. The segmented, ri ng and bol t
attached sock et consi sts of thr ee or mor e
segments. As wi th other segmented socket-type
fi tti ngs, the segments, ri ng, and nuts and bol ts
are put on the hose after i nserti on of the ni ppl e.
SOL I D SOCKET, PERMANENTL Y
ATTACHED. Thi s type of socket i s perma-
nentl y attached to the hose by cr i mpi ng or
swagi ng. I t i s not reusabl e and i s onl y found
on hose assembl i es where operati ng condi ti ons
precl ude the use of other fi tti ng types. Hose
assembl i es wi th thi s type of fi tti ng attachment are
purchased as compl ete hose assembl i es from the
manufacturer.
QUICK-DISCONNECT COUPLINGS
Sel f-seal i ng, qui ck-di sconnect coupl i ngs are
used at var i ous poi nts i n many fl ui d power
systems. These coupl i ngs are i nstal l ed at l ocati ons
where frequent uncoupl i ng of the l i nes i s requi red
for i nspecti on, test, and mai ntenance. Qui ck-
di sconnect coupl i ngs are al so commonl y used i n
pneumati c systems to connect secti ons of ai r hose
and to connect tool s to the ai r pressure l i nes. Thi s
provi des a conveni ent method of attachi ng and
detachi ng tool s and secti ons of l i nes wi thout l osi ng
pressure.
Qui ck-di sconnect coupl i ngs provi de a means
for qui ckl y di sconnecti ng a l i ne wi thout the l oss
of fl ui d fr om the system or the entr ance of
forei gn matter i nto the system. Several types of
qui ck-di sconnect coupl i ngs have been desi gned for
use i n fl ui d power systems. Fi gure 5-23 i l l ustrates
Figure 5-23.Quick-disconnect coupling for air lines.
a coupl i ng that i s used wi th portabl e pneumati c
tool s. The mal e secti on i s connected to the tool
or to the l i ne l eadi ng from the tool . The femal e
secti on, whi ch contai ns the shutoff val ve, i s
i nstal l ed i n the pneumati c l i ne l eadi ng from
the pressure source. These connectors can be
separated or connected by very l i ttl e effort on the
part of the operator.
The most common qui ck-di sconnect coupl i ng
for hydraul i c systems consi sts of two parts, hel d
together by a uni on nut. Each part contai ns a
val ve whi ch i s hel d open when the coupl i ng i s
connected, al l owi ng fl ui d to fl ow i n ei ther
di r ecti on thr ough the coupl i ng. When the
coupl i ng i s di sconnected, a spri ng i n each part
cl oses the val ve, preventi ng the l oss of fl ui d and
entrance of forei gn matter.
MANIFOLDS
Some fl ui d power systems are equi pped wi th
mani fol ds i n the pressure suppl y and/or return
l i nes. A mani fol d i s a fl ui d conductor that
provi des mul ti pl e connecti on ports. Mani fol ds
el i mi nate pi pi ng, reduce joi nts, whi ch are often
a source of l eakage, and conserve space. For
exampl e, mani fol ds may be used i n systems that
contai n several subsystems. One common l i ne
connects the pump to the mani fol d. There are
outl et por ts i n the mani fol d to pr ovi de con-
necti ons to each subsystem. A si mi l ar mani fol d
may be used i n the return system. Li nes from the
control val ves of the subsystem connect to the i nl et
ports of the mani fol d, where the fl ui d combi nes
i nto one outl et l i ne to the r eser voi r . Some
mani fol ds are equi pped wi th the check val ves,
rel i ef val ves, fi l ters, and so on, requi red for the
system. I n some cases, the control val ves are
mounted on the mani fol d i n such a manner that
the ports of the val ves are connected di rectl y to
the mani fol d.
Mani fol ds are usual l y one of three types
sandwi ch, cast, or dri l l ed. The sandwi ch type i s
constructed of three or more fl at pl ates. The
center pl ate (or pl ates) i s machi ned for passages,
and the requi red i nl et and outl et ports are dri l l ed
i nto the outer pl ates. The pl ates are then bonded
together to provi de a l eakproof assembl y. The cast
type of mani fol d i s desi gned wi th cast passages
and dri l l ed ports. The casti ng may be i ron, steel ,
bronze, or al umi num, dependi ng upon the type
of system and fl ui d medi um. I n the dri l l ed type
of mani fol d, al l ports and passages are dri l l ed i n
a bl ock of metal .
5-19
A si mpl e mani fol d i s i l l ustrated i n fi gure 5-24.
Thi s mani fol d contai ns one pressure i nl et port and
several pressure outl et ports that can be bl ocked
off wi th threaded pl ugs. Thi s type of mani fol d
can be adapted to systems contai ni ng vari ous
numbers of subsystems. A thermal rel i ef val ve
may be i ncorporated i n thi s mani fol d. I n thi s case,
the port l abel ed T i s connected to the return l i ne
to provi de a passage for the rel i eved fl ui d to fl ow
to the reservoi r.
Fi gur e 5-25 shows a fl ow di agr am i n a
mani fol d whi ch provi des both pressure and return
passages. One common l i ne provi des pressuri zed
fl ui d to the mani fol d, whi ch di stri butes the fl ui d
to any one of fi ve outl et ports. The return si de
of the mani fol d i s si mi l ar i n desi gn. Thi s mani fol d
i s provi ded wi th a rel i ef val ve, whi ch i s connected
to the pressure and return passages. I n the event
of excessi ve pressure, the rel i ef val ve opens and
al l ows the fl ui d to fl ow from the pressure si de of
the mani fol d to the return si de.
Figure 5-25.Fluid manifoldflow diagram.
PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES
The fabri cati on, i nstal l ati on, and mai ntenance
of al l fl ui d l i nes and connectors are beyond the
scope of thi s trai ni ng manual . However, there are
some general precauti onary measures that appl y
to the mai ntenance of al l fl ui d l i nes.
Regardl ess of the type of l i nes or connectors
used to make up a fl ui d power system, make
certai n they are the correct si ze and strength and
perfectl y cl ean on the i nsi de. Al l l i nes must be
absol utel y cl ean and free from scal e and other
forei gn matter. I ron or steel pi pes, tubi ng, and
fi tti ngs can be cl eaned wi th a boi l er tube
wi re brush or wi th commerci al pi pe cl eani ng
apparatus. Rust and scal e can be removed from
short, strai ght pi eces by sandbl asti ng, provi ded
there i s no danger that sand parti cl es wi l l remai n
l odged i n bl i nd hol es or pockets after the pi ece
Figure 5-24.Fluid manifold.
5-20
i s fl ushed. I n the case of l ong pi eces or pi eces bent Open ends of pi pes, tubi ng, hose, and fi tti ngs
to compl ex shapes, rust and scal e can be removed shoul d be capped or pl ugged when they are to be
by pi ckl i ng (cl eani ng metal i n a chemi cal bath). stored for any consi derabl e peri od. Rags or waste
Parts must be degreased pri or to pi ckl i ng. The must not be used for thi s purpose, because they
manufactur er of the par ts shoul d pr ovi de deposi t harmful l i nt whi ch can cause severe
compl ete pi ckl i ng i nstructi ons. damage to the fl ui d power system.
5-21
CHAPTER 6
VALVES
I t i s al l but i mpossi bl e to desi gn a practi cal
fl ui d power system wi thout some means of
control l i ng the vol ume and pressure of the fl ui d
and di recti ng the fl ow of fl ui d to the operati ng
uni ts. Thi s i s accompl i shed by the i ncorporati on
of di fferent types of val ves. A val ve i s defi ned as
any devi ce by whi ch the fl ow of fl ui d may be
started, stopped, or regul ated by a movabl e part
that opens or obstr ucts passage. As appl i ed
i n fl ui d power systems, val ves ar e used for
contr ol l i ng the fl ow, the pr essur e, and the
di recti on of the fl ui d fl ow.
Val ves must be accurate i n the control of fl ui d
fl ow and pressure and the sequence of operati on.
Leakage between the val ve el ement and the val ve
seat i s r educed to a negl i gi bl e quanti ty by
preci si on-machi ned surfaces, resul ti ng i n careful l y
control l ed cl earances. Thi s i s one of the very
i mportant reasons for mi ni mi zi ng contami nati on
i n fl ui d power systems. Contami nati on causes
val ves to sti ck, pl ugs smal l ori fi ces, and causes
abrasi ons of the val ve seati ng surfaces, whi ch
resul ts i n l eakage between the val ve el ement and
val ve seat when the val ve i s i n the cl osed posi ti on.
Any of these can resul t i n i neffi ci ent operati on
or compl ete stoppage of the equi pment.
Val ves may be control l ed manual l y, el ectri -
cal l y, pneumati cal l y, mechani cal l y, hydraul i cal l y,
or by combi nati ons of two or mor e of these
methods. Factors that determi ne the method of
control i ncl ude the purpose of the val ve, the
desi gn and purpose of the system, the l ocati on of
the val ve wi thi n the system, and the avai l abi l i ty
of the source of power.
The di fferent types of val ves used i n fl ui d
power systems, thei r cl assi fi cati on, and thei r
appl i cati on are di scussed i n thi s chapter.
CLASSIFICATIONS
Val ves are cl assi fi ed accordi ng to thei r use:
fl ow control , pressure control , and di recti onal
control . Some val ves have mul ti pl e functi ons that
fal l i nto more than one cl assi fi cati on.
FLOW CONTROL VALVES
Fl ow control val ves are used to regul ate the
fl ow of fl ui ds i n fl ui d-power systems. Control of
fl ow i n fl ui d-power systems i s i mportant because
the rate of movement of fl ui d-powered machi nes
depends on the rate of fl ow of the pressuri zed
fl ui d. These val ves may be manual l y, hydrau-
l i cal l y, el ectri cal l y, or pneumati cal l y operated.
Some of the di fferent types of fl ow control
val ves are di scussed i n the fol l owi ng paragraphs.
BALL VALVES
Bal l val ves, as the name i mpl i es, are stop
val ves that use a bal l to stop or start a fl ow of
fl ui d. The bal l , shown i n fi gure 6-1, performs the
Figure 6-1.Typical ball valve.
6-1
same functi on as the di sk i n other val ves. As the
val ve handl e i s turned to open the val ve, the bal l
rotates to a poi nt where part or al l of the hol e
through the bal l i s i n l i ne wi th the val ve body i nl et
and outl et, al l owi ng fl ui d to fl ow through the
val ve. When the bal l i s rotated so the hol e i s
perpendi cul ar to the fl ow openi ngs of the val ve
body, the fl ow of fl ui d stops.
Most bal l val ves are the qui ck-acti ng type.
They requi re onl y a 90-degree turn to ei ther
compl etel y open or cl ose the val ve. However,
many are operated by pl anetary gears. Thi s type
of geari ng al l ows the use of a rel ati vel y smal l
handwheel and operati ng force to operate a fai rl y
l arge val ve. The geari ng does, however, i ncrease
the operati ng ti me for the val ve. Some bal l val ves
al so contai n a swi ng check l ocated wi thi n the bal l
to gi ve the val ve a check val ve feature. Fi gure 6-2
shows a bal l -stop, swi ng-check val ve wi th a
pl anetary gear operati on.
I n addi ti on to the bal l val ves shown i n fi gures
6-1 and 6-2, there are three-way bal l val ves that
are used to suppl y fl ui d from a si ngl e source to
one component or the other i n a two-component
system (fi g. 6-3).
Figure 6-2.Typical ball-stop, swing-check valve.
6-2
Figure 6-3.Three-way ball valve.
GATE VALVES
Gate val ves are used when a strai ght-l i ne fl ow
of fl ui d and mi ni mum fl ow restri cti on are needed.
Gate val ves are so-named because the part that
ei ther stops or al l ows fl ow through the val ve
acts somewhat l i ke a gate. The gate i s usual l y
wedge-shaped. When the val ve i s wi de open the
gate i s ful l y drawn up i nto the val ve bonnet. Thi s
l eaves an openi ng for fl ow through the val ve the
same si ze as the pi pe i n whi ch the val ve i s i nstal l ed
(fi g. 6-4). Therefore, there i s l i ttl e pressure drop
or fl ow restri cti on through the val ve.
Gate val ves are not sui tabl e for throttl i ng
purposes. The control of fl ow i s di ffi cul t because
of the val ves desi gn, and the fl ow of fl ui d
sl appi ng agai nst a par ti al l y open gate can
cause extensi ve damage to the val ve. Except as
speci fi cal l y authori zed, gate val ves shoul d not be
used for throttl i ng.
Gate val ves are cl assi fi ed as ei ther ri si ng-stem
or nonri si ng-stem val ves. The nonri si ng-stem
val ve i s shown i n fi gure 6-4. The stem i s threaded
i nto the gate. As the handwheel on the stem i s
rotated, the gate travel s up or down the stem on
the threads whi l e the stem remai ns verti cal l y
stati onary. Thi s type of val ve wi l l al most al ways
have a poi nter i ndi cator threaded onto the upper
end of the stem to i ndi cate the posi ti on of the gate.
Val ves wi th ri si ng stems (fi g. 6-5) are used
when i t i s i mportant to know by i mmedi ate
i nspecti on whether the val ve i s open or cl osed and
when the threads (stem and gate) exposed to the
fl ui d coul d become damaged by fl ui d contami -
nants. I n thi s val ve, the stem ri ses out of the val ve
when the val ve i s opened.
GLOBE VALVES
Gl obe val ves are probabl y the most common
val ves i n exi stence. The gl obe val ve gets i ts name
Figure 6-4.Operation of a gate valve.
6-3
Figure 6-5.Rising stem gate valve.
Figure 6-6.Types of globe valve bodies.
from the gl obul ar shape of the val ve body. Other
types of val ves may al so have gl obul ar-shaped
bodi es. Thus, i t i s the i nternal structure of the
val ve that i denti fi es the type of val ve.
The i nl et and outl et openi ngs for gl obe val ves
ar e ar r anged i n a way to sati sfy the fl ow
requi rements. Fi gure 6-6 shows strai ght-, angl e-,
and cross-fl ow val ves.
The movi ng parts of a gl obe val ve consi st of
the di sk, the val ve stem, and the handwheel . The
stem connects the handwheel and the di sk. I t i s
threaded and fi ts i nto the threads i n the val ve
bonnet.
The part of the gl obe val ve that control s fl ow
i s the di sk, whi ch i s attached to the val ve stem.
(Di sks are avai l abl e i n vari ous desi gns.) The val ve
i s cl osed by turni ng the val ve stem i n unti l the di sk
i s seated i nto the val ve seat. Thi s prevents fl ui d
from fl owi ng through the val ve (fi g. 6-7, vi ew A).
The edge of the di sk and the seat are very
accuratel y machi ned so that they forma ti ght seal
when the val ve i s cl osed. When the val ve i s open
(fi g. 6-7, vi ew B), the fl ui d fl ows through the space
between the edge of the di sk and the seat. Si nce
the fl ui d fl ows equal l y on al l si des of the center
of support when the val ve i s open, there i s no
unbal anced pressure on the di sk to cause uneven
wear. The rate at whi ch fl ui d fl ows through the
val ve i s regul ated by the posi ti on of the di sk i n
rel ati on to the seat. The val ve i s commonl y used
as a ful l y open or ful l y cl osed val ve, but i t may
be used as a throttl e val ve. However, si nce the
seati ng surface i s a rel ati vel y l arge area, i t i s not
sui tabl e as a throttl e val ve, where fi ne adjustments
are requi red i n control l i ng the rate of fl ow.
The gl obe val ve shoul d never be jammed i n
the open posi ti on. After a val ve i s ful l y opened,
the handwheel shoul d be turned toward the cl osed
posi ti on approxi matel y one-hal f turn. Unl ess thi s
i s done, the val ve i s l i kel y to sei ze i n the open
posi ti on, maki ng i t di ffi cul t, i f not i mpossi bl e, to
cl ose the val ve. Many val ves are damaged i n thi s
Figure 6-7.Operation of a globe valve.
6-4
manner. Another reason for not l eavi ng gl obe
val ves i n the ful l y open posi ti on i s that i t i s
someti mes di ffi cul t to determi ne i f the val ve i s
open or cl osed. I f the val ve i s jammed i n the open
posi ti on, the stem may be damaged or broken by
someone who thi nks the val ve i s cl osed, and
attempts to open i t.
I t i s i mportant that gl obe val ves be i nstal l ed
wi th the pressure agai nst the face of the di sk to
keep the system pressure away from the stem
packi ng when the val ve i s shut.
NEEDLE VALVES
Needl e val ves ar e si mi l ar i n desi gn and
operati on to the gl obe val ve. I nstead of a di sk,
a needl e val ve has a l ong tapered poi nt at the end
of the val ve stem. A cross-secti onal vi ew of a
needl e val ve i s i l l ustrated i n fi gure 6-8.
The l ong taper of the val ve el ement permi ts
a much smal l er seati ng surface area than that of
the gl obe val ve; therefore, the needl e val ve i s more
sui tabl e as a throttl e val ve. Needl e val ves are used
to contr ol fl ow i nto del i cate gauges, whi ch
mi ght be damaged by sudden surges of fl ui d under
pressure. Needl e val ves are al so used to control
the end of a work cycl e, where i t i s desi rabl e for
moti on to be brought sl owl y to a hal t, and at other
poi nts where preci se adjustments of fl ow are
necessary and where a smal l rate of fl ow i s
desi r ed.
Al though many of the needl e val ves used i n
fl ui d power systems are the manual l y operated
type (fi g. 6-8), modi fi cati ons of thi s type of val ve
are often used as vari abl e restri ctors. Thi s val ve i s
constructed wi thout a handwheel and i s adjusted
to provi de a speci fi c rate of fl ow. Thi s rate of fl ow
wi l l provi de a desi red ti me of operati on for a
parti cul ar subsystem. Si nce thi s type of val ve can
be adjusted to conform to the requi rements of a
parti cul ar system, i t can be used i n a vari ety of
systems. Fi gure 6-9 i l l ustrates a needl e val ve that
was modi fi ed as a vari abl e restri ctor.
HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC
GLOBE VALVES
The val ve consi sts of a val ve body and a stem
cartri dge assembl y. The stem cartri dge assembl y
i ncl udes the bonnet, gl and nut, packi ng, packi ng
retai ner, handl e, stem, and seat. On smal l val ves
(1/8 and 1/4 i nch) the stem i s made i n one pi ece,
but on l arger si zes i t i s made of a stem, gui de,
and stem retai ner. The val ve di sk i s made of nyl on
and i s swaged i nto ei ther the stem, for 1/8- and
1/4-i nch val ves, or the gui de, for l arger val ves.
The bonnet screws i nto the val ve body wi th
l eft-hand threads and i s seal ed by an O-ri ng
(i ncl udi ng a back-up ri ng).
Figure 6-8.Cross-sectional view of a needle valve. Figure 6-9.Variable restrictor.
6-5
The val ve i s avai l abl e wi th ei ther a ri si ng stem
or a non-ri si ng stem. The ri si ng stem val ve uses
the same port body desi gn as does the non-ri si ng
stem val ve. The stem i s threaded i nto the gl and
nut and screws outward as the val ve i s opened.
Thi s val ve does not i ncorporate provi si ons for
ti ghteni ng the stem packi ng nor repl aci ng the
packi ng whi l e the val ve i s i n servi ce; therefore,
compl ete val ve di sassembl y i s r equi r ed for
mai ntenance. Fi gure 6-10 i l l ustrates a ri si ng stem
hydraul i c and pneumati c gl obe val ve. Addi ti onal
i nformati on on thi s val ve i s avai l abl e i n Standard
Navy Valves, NAVSHI PS 0948-012-5000.
PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES
The safe and effi ci ent oper ati on of fl ui d
power systems, system components, and rel ated
equi pment r equi r es a means of contr ol l i ng
pressure. There are many types of automati c
pressure control val ves. Some of them merel y
provi de an escape for pressure that exceeds a set
pressure; some onl y reduce the pressure to a l ower
pressure system or subsystem; and some keep the
pressure i n a system wi thi n a requi red range.
RELIEF VALVES
Some fl ui d power systems, even when operat-
i ng normal l y, may temporari l y devel op excessi ve
pressure; for exampl e, when an unusual l y strong
work resi stance i s encountered. Rel i ef val ves are
used to control thi s excess pressure.
Rel i ef val ves are automati c val ves used on
system l i nes and equi pment to prevent over-
pressuri zati on. Most rel i ef val ves si mpl y l i ft (open)
at a preset pressure and reset (shut) when the
pressure drops sl i ghtl y bel ow the l i fti ng pressure.
They do not mai ntai n fl ow or pressure at a gi ven
amount, but prevent pressure from ri si ng above
a speci fi c l evel when the system i s temporari l y
overl oaded.
Mai n system r el i ef val ves ar e gener al l y
i nstal l ed between the pump or pressure source and
the fi rst system i sol ati on val ve. The val ve must
be l arge enough to al l ow the ful l output of the
hydr aul i c pump to be del i ver ed back to the
reservoi r. I n a pneumati c system, the rel i ef val ve
control s excess pressure by di schargi ng the excess
gas to the atmosphere.
Figure 6-10.Hydraulic and pneumatic globe valve (rising stem).
6-6
Smal l er rel i ef val ves, si mi l ar i n desi gn and
operati on to the mai n system rel i ef val ve, are often
used i n i sol ated parts of the system where a check
val ve or di recti onal control val ve prevents pressure
from bei ng rel i eved through the mai n system rel i ef
val ve and where pressures must be rel i eved at a
set poi nt l ower than that provi ded by the mai n
system rel i ef. These smal l rel i ef val ves are al so
used to rel i eve pressures caused by thermal
expansi on (see gl ossary) of the fl ui ds.
Fi gure 6-11 shows a typi cal rel i ef val ve. System
pressure si mpl y acts under the val ve di sk at the
i nl et to the val ve. When the system pressure
exceeds the force exerted by the val ve spri ng, the
val ve di sk l i fts off of i ts seat, al l owi ng some of
the system fl ui d to escape through the val ve outl et
unti l the system pressure i s reduced to just bel ow
the rel i ef set poi nt of the val ve.
Al l r el i ef val ves have an adjustment for
i ncreasi ng or decreasi ng the set rel i ef pressure.
Some rel i ef val ves are equi pped wi th an adjusti ng
screw for thi s purpose. Thi s adjusti ng screw i s
usual l y cover ed wi th a cap, whi ch must be
removed before an adjustment can be made. Some
type of l ocki ng devi ce, such as a l ock nut, i s
usual l y provi ded to prevent the adjustment from
changi ng through vi brati on. Other types of rel i ef
val ves are equi pped wi th a handwheel for maki ng
adjustments to the val ve. Ei ther the adjusti ng
screw or the handwheel i s turned cl ockwi se to
i ncrease the pressure at whi ch the val ve wi l l open.
I n addi ti on, most rel i ef val ves are al so provi ded
Figure 6-11.Relief valve.
wi th an operati ng l ever or some type of devi ce to
al l ow manual cycl i ng or gaggi ng the val ve open
for certai n tasks.
Var i ous modi fi cati ons of the r el i ef val ve
shown i n fi gure 6-11 are used to effi ci entl y serve
the requi rements of some fl ui d power systems;
however, thi s rel i ef val ve i s unsati sfactory for
some appl i cati ons. To gi ve you a better under-
standi ng of the operati on of rel i ef val ves, we wi l l
di scuss some of the undesi rabl e characteri sti cs of
thi s val ve.
A si mpl e r el i ef val ve, such as the one
i l l ustrated i n fi gure 6-11, wi th a sui tabl e spri ng
adjustment can be set so that i t wi l l open when
the system pressure reaches a certai n l evel , 500
psi for exampl e. When the val ve does open, the
vol ume of fl ow to be handl ed may be greater than
the capaci ty of the val ve; therefore, pressure i n
the system may i ncrease to several hundred psi
above the set pressure before the val ve bri ngs the
pressure under control . A si mpl e rel i ef val ve wi l l
be effecti ve under these condi ti ons onl y i f i t i s very
l arge. I n thi s case, i t woul d operate sti ffl y and the
val ve el ement woul d chatter back and forth. I n
addi ti on, the val ve wi l l not cl ose unti l the system
pressure decreases to a poi nt somewhat bel ow the
openi ng pressure.
The surface area of the val ve el ement must be
l arger than that of the pressure openi ng i f the
val ve i s to seat sati sfactori l y as shown i n fi gure
6-12. The pressure i n the system acts on the val ve
el ement open to i t. I n each case i n fi gure 6-12,
the force exerted di rectl y upward by system
pressure when the val ve i s cl osed depends on the
area (A) across the val ve el ement where the
el ement seats agai nst the pressure tube. The
moment the val ve opens, however, the upward
force exerted depends on the hori zontal area (B)
of the enti re val ve el ement, whi ch i s greater than
area A. Thi s causes an upward jump of the val ve
el ement i mmedi atel y after i t opens, because the
Figure 6-12.Pressure acting on different areas.
6-7
same pressure acti ng over di fferent areas produces
forces proporti onal to the areas. I t al so requi res
a greater force to cl ose the val ve than was requi red
to open i t. As a resul t, the val ve wi l l not cl ose unti l
the system pressure has decreased to a certai n
poi nt bel ow the pressure requi red to open i t.
Let us assume that a val ve of thi s type i s set
to open at 500 psi . (Refer to fi g. 6-12.) When the
val ve i s cl osed, the pressure acts on area A. I f thi s
area i s 0.5 square i nch, an upward force of 250
pounds (500 ~ 0.5) wi l l be exerted on the val ve
at the moment of openi ng. Wi th the val ve open,
however, the pressure acts on area B. I f area B
i s 1 square i nch, the upward force i s 500 pounds,
or doubl e the force at whi ch the val ve actual l y
opened. For the val ve to cl ose, pressure i n the
system woul d have to decrease wel l bel ow the
poi nt at whi ch the val ve opened. The exact
pressure woul d depend on the shape of the val ve
el ement.
I n some hydraul i c systems, there i s a pressure
i n the return l i ne. Thi s back pressure i s caused
by restri cti ons i n the return l i ne and wi l l vary i n
rel ati on to the amount of fl ui d fl owi ng i n the
return l i ne. Thi s pressure creates a force on the
back of the val ve el ement and wi l l i ncrease the
force necessary to open the val ve and rel i eve
system pressure.
I t fol l ows that si mpl e rel i ef val ves have a
tendency to open and cl ose rapi dl y as they hunt
above and bel ow the set pr essur e, causi ng
pressure pul sati ons and undesi rabl e vi brati ons
and produci ng a noi sy chatter. Because of the
unsati sfactory performance of the si mpl e rel i ef
val ve i n some appl i cati ons, compound rel i ef val ves
wer e devel oped.
Compound rel i ef val ves use the pri nci pl es of
operati on of si mpl e rel i ef val ves for one stage of
thei r acti onthat of the pi l ot val ve. Provi si on i s
made to l i mi t the amount of fl ui d that the pi l ot
val ve must handl e, and ther eby avoi d the
weaknesses of si mpl e r el i ef val ves. (A pi l ot
val ve i s a smal l val ve used for operati ng another
val ve.)
The operati on of a compound rel i ef val ve i s
i l l ustrated i n fi gure 6-13. I n vi ew A, the mai n
val ve, whi ch consi sts of a pi ston, stem, and spri ng,
i s cl osed, bl ocki ng fl ow from the hi gh-pressure
l i ne to the reservoi r. Fl ui d i n the hi gh-pressure l i ne
fl ows around the stem of the mai n val ves as i t
fl ows to the actuati ng uni t. The stem of the mai n
val ve i s hol l ow (the stem passage) and contai ns
the mai n val ve spri ng, whi ch forces the mai n val ve
agai nst i ts seat. When the pi l ot val ve i s open the
stem passage al l ows fl ui d to fl ow from the pi l ot
Figure 6-13.Operation of compound relief valve,
6-8
val ve, around the mai n val ve spri ng, and down
to the return l i ne.
There i s al so a narrow passage (pi ston passage)
through the mai n val ve pi ston. Thi s passage
connects the hi gh-pr essur e l i ne to the val ve
chamber.
The pi l ot val ve i s a smal l , bal l -type, spri ng-
l oaded check val ve, whi ch connects the top of the
passage from the val ve chamber wi th the passage
through the mai n val ve stem. The pi l ot val ve i s
the control uni t of the rel i ef val ve because the
pressure at whi ch the rel i ef val ve wi l l open
depends on the tensi on of the pi l ot val ve spri ng.
The pi l ot val ve spri ng tensi on i s adjusted by
turni ng the adjusti ng screw so that the bal l wi l l
unseat when system pressure reaches the preset
l i mi t.
Fl ui d at l i ne pr essur e fl ows thr ough the
nar r ow pi ston passage to fi l l the chamber .
Because the l i ne and the chamber are connected,
the pressure i n both are equal . The top and
bottom of the mai n pi ston have equal areas;
therefore, the hydraul i c forces acti ng upward
and downward are equal , and there i s no tendency
for the pi ston to move i n ei ther di r ecti on.
The onl y other force acti ng on the mai n val ve
i s that of the mai n val ve spri ng, whi ch hol ds i t
cl osed.
When the pressure i n the hi gh-pressure l i ne
i ncreases to the poi nt at whi ch the pi l ot val ve
i s set, the bal l unseats (fi g. 6-13, vi ew B).
Thi s opens the val ve chamber thr ough the
val ve stem passage to the l ow-pressure return
l i ne. Fl ui d i mmedi atel y begi ns to fl ow out of the
chamber, much faster than i t can fl ow through
the nar r ow pi ston passage. As a r esul t the
chamber pressure i mmedi atel y drops, and the
pi l ot val ve begi ns to cl ose agai n, r estr i cti ng
the outward fl ow of fl ui d. Chamber pressure
therefore i ncreases, the val ve opens, and the cycl e
repeats.
So far, the onl y part of the val ve that has
moved appreci abl y i s the pi l ot, whi ch functi ons
just l i ke any other si mpl e spri ng-l oaded rel i ef
val ve. Because of the smal l si ze of the pi ston
passage, there i s a severe l i mi t on the amount
of overpressure protecti on the pi l ot can provi de
the system. Al l the pi l ot val ve can do i s l i mi t
fl ui d pressure i n the val ve chamber above the
mai n pi ston to a pr eset maxi mum pr essur e,
by al l owi ng excess fl ui d to fl ow through the
pi ston passage, through the stem passage, and
i nto the return l i ne. When pressure i n the system
i ncreases to a val ue that i s above the fl ow capaci ty
of the pi l ot val ve, the mai n val ve opens,
permi tti ng excess fl ui d to fl ow di rectl y to the
return l i ne. Thi s i s accompl i shed i n the fol l owi ng
manner.
As system pressure i ncreases, the upward force
on the mai n pi ston overcomes the downward
force, whi ch consi sts of the tensi on of the mai n
pi ston spri ng and the pressure of the fl ui d i n the
val ve chamber (fi g. 6-13, vi ew C). The pi ston then
ri ses, unseati ng the stem, and al l ows the fl ui d to
fl ow from the system pressure l i ne di rectl y i nto
the return l i ne. Thi s causes system pressure to
decrease rapi dl y, si nce the mai n val ve i s desi gned
to handl e the compl ete output of the pump. When
the pressure returns to normal , the pi l ot spri ng
forces the bal l onto the seat. Pressures are equal
above and bel ow the mai n pi ston, and the mai n
spri ng forces the val ve to seat.
As you can see, the compound val ve over-
comes the greatest l i mi tati on of a si mpl e rel i ef
val ve by l i mi ti ng the fl ow through the pi l ot val ve
to the quanti ty i t can sati sfactori l y handl e. Thi s
l i mi ts the pressure above the mai n val ve and
enabl es the mai n l i ne pressure to open the mai n
val ve. I n thi s way, the system i s rel i eved when an
overl oad exi sts.
PRESSURE REGULATORS
Pressure regul ators, often r efer r ed to as
unl oadi ng val ves, are used i n fl ui d power systems
to regul ate pressure. I n pneumati c systems, the
val ve, commonl y r efer r ed to as a pr essur e
regul ator, si mpl y reduces pressure. Thi s type of
val ve i s di scussed l ater i n thi s chapter under
pressure-reduci ng val ves. I n hydraul i c systems the
pressure regul ator i s used to unl oad the pump and
to mai ntai n and regul ate system pressure at the
desi red val ues. Al l hydraul i c systems do not
r equi r e pr essur e r egul ator s. The open-center
system (di scussed i n chapter 12) does not requi re
a pressure regul ator. Many systems are equi pped
wi th vari abl e-di spl acement pumps (di scussed i n
chapter 4), whi ch contai n a pressure-regul ati ng
devi ce.
Pressure regul ators are made i n a vari ety of
types and by vari ous manufacturers; however, the
6-9
basi c operati ng pri nci pl es of al l regul ators are
si mi l ar to the one i l l ustrated i n fi gure 6-14.
A regul ator i s open when i t i s di recti ng fl ui d
under pressure i nto the system (fi g. 6-14, vi ew A).
I n the cl osed posi ti on (fi g. 6-14, vi ew B), the fl ui d
i n the part of the system beyond the regul ator i s
trapped at the desi red pressure, and the fl ui d from
the pump i s bypassed i nto the return l i ne and back
to the reservoi r. To prevent constant openi ng and
cl osi ng (chatter), the regul ator i s desi gned to open
at a pressure somewhat l ower than the cl osi ng
pressure. Thi s di fference i s known as di fferenti al
or operati ng range. For exampl e, assume that a
pressure regul ator i s set to open when the system
pressure drops bel ow 600 psi , and cl ose when the
pressure ri ses above 800 psi . The di fferenti al or
operati ng range i s 200 psi .
Referri ng to fi gure 6-14, assume that the
pi ston has an area of 1 square i nch, the pi l ot val ve
has a cross-secti onal area of one-fourth square
i nch, and the pi ston spri ng provi des 600 pounds
of force pushi ng the pi ston down. When the
pressure i n the system i s l ess than 600 psi , fl ui d
from the pump wi l l enter the i nl et port, fl ow to
the top of the regul ator, and then to the pi l ot
val ve. When the pressure of the fl ui d at the i nl et
i ncreases to the poi nt where the force i t creates
agai nst the front of the check val ve exceeds the
force created agai nst the back of the check val ve
by system pressure and the check val ve spri ng, the
check val ve opens. Thi s al l ows fl ui d to fl ow i nto
the system and to the bottom of the regul ator
agai nst the pi ston. When the force created by the
system pressure exceeds the force exerted by the
spri ng, the pi ston moves up, causi ng the pi l ot
val ve to unseat. Si nce the fl ui d wi l l take the path
of l east r esi stance, i t wi l l pass thr ough the
regul ator and back to the reservoi r through the
return l i ne.
When the fl ui d from the pump i s suddenl y
al l owed a free path to return, the pressure on the
i nput si de of the check val ve drops and the check
val ve cl oses. The fl ui d i n the system i s then
trapped under pressure. Thi s fl ui d wi l l remai n
pressuri zed unti l a power uni t i s actuated, or unti l
pressure i s sl owl y l ost through normal i nternal
l eakage wi thi n the system.
When the system pressure decreases to a poi nt
sl i ghtl y bel ow 600 psi , the spri ng forces the pi ston
down and cl oses the pi l ot val ve. When the pi l ot
val ve i s cl osed, the fl ui d cannot fl ow di rectl y to
the return l i ne. Thi s causes the pressure to i ncrease
i n the l i ne between the pump and the regul ator.
Thi s pressure opens the check val ve, causi ng the
fl ui d to enter the system.
I n summar y, when the system pr essur e
decreases a certai n amount, the pressure regul ator
wi l l open, sendi ng fl ui d to the system. When the
system pr essur e i ncr eases suffi ci entl y, the
regul ator wi l l cl ose, al l owi ng the fl ui d from the
pump to fl ow through the regul ator and back to
the reservoi r. The pressure regul ator takes the l oad
off of the pump and regul ates system pressure.
Figure 6-14.Hydraulic pressure regulator.
6-10
Figure 6-15.Installation
SEQUENCE VALVES
of sequence valves.
Sequence val ves contr ol the sequence of
operati on between two branches i n a ci rcui t; that
i s, they enabl e one uni t to automati cal l y set
another uni t i nto moti on. An exampl e of the use
of a sequence val ve i s i n an ai rcraft l andi ng gear
actuati ng system.
I n a l andi ng gear actuati ng system, the l andi ng
gear doors must open before the l andi ng gear
starts to extend. Conversel y, the l andi ng gear must
be compl etel y retracted before the doors cl ose. A
sequence val ve i nstal l ed i n each l andi ng gear
actuati ng l i ne performs thi s functi on.
A sequence val ve i s somewhat si mi l ar to a
rel i ef val ve except that, after the set pressure has
been reached, the sequence val ve di verts the fl ui d
to a second actuator or motor to do work i n
another part of the system. Fi gure 6-15 shows an
i nstal l ati on of two sequence val ves that control
the sequence of operati on of three actuati ng
cyl i nders. Fl ui d i s free to fl ow i nto cyl i nder A.
The fi rst sequence val ve (1) bl ocks the passage of
fl ui d unti l the pi ston i n cyl i nder A moves to the
end of i ts stroke. At thi s ti me, sequence val ve 1
opens, al l owi ng fl ui d to enter cyl i nder B. Thi s
acti on conti nues unti l al l three pi stons compl ete
thei r strokes.
There are vari ous types of sequence val ves.
Some are control l ed by pressure and some are
control l ed mechani cal l y.
Pressure-Controlled Sequence Valve
The operati on of a typi cal pressure-control l ed
sequence val ve i s i l l ustrated i n fi gure 6-16. The
openi ng pressure i s obtai ned by adjusti ng the
tensi on of the spri ng that normal l y hol ds the
pi ston i n the cl osed posi ti on. (Note that the top
part of the pi ston has a l arger di ameter than the
l ower part.) Fl ui d enters the val ve through the
i nl et port, fl ows around the l ower part of the
pi ston and exi ts the outl et port, where i t fl ows to
the pri mary (fi rst) uni t to be operated (fi g. 6-16,
vi ew A). Thi s fl ui d pressure al so acts agai nst the
l ower surface of the pi ston.
Figure 6-16.Operation of a pressure-controlled sequence valve.
6-11
When the pri mary actuati ng uni t compl etes i ts
operati on, pressure i n the l i ne to the actuati ng uni t
i ncreases suffi ci entl y to overcome the force of the
spri ng, and the pi ston ri ses. The val ve i s then i n
the open posi ti on (fi g. 6-16, vi ew B). The fl ui d
enteri ng the val ve takes the path of l east resi stance
and fl ows to the secondary uni t.
A drai n passage i s provi ded to al l ow any fl ui d
l eaki ng past the pi ston to fl ow from the top of
the val ve. I n hydraul i c systems, thi s drai n l i ne i s
usual l y connected to the mai n return l i ne.
Mechanically Operated Sequence Valve
The mechani cal l y operated sequence val ve
(fi g. 6-17) i s operated by a pl unger that extends
thr ough the body of the val ve. The val ve i s
mounted so that the pl unger wi l l be operated by
the pri mary uni t.
A check val ve, ei ther a bal l or a poppet, i s
i nstal l ed between the fl ui d ports i n the body. I t
can be unseated by ei ther the pl unger or fl ui d
pr essur e.
Port A (fi g. 6-17) and the actuator of the
pri mary uni t are connected by a common l i ne.
Port B i s connected by a l i ne to the actuator of
the secondary uni t. When fl ui d under pressure
fl ows to the pri mary uni t, i t al so fl ows i nto the
sequence val ve through port A to the seated check
val ve i n the sequence val ve. I n order to operate
the secondary uni t, the fl ui d must fl ow through
the sequence val ve. The val ve i s l ocated so that
the pri mary uni t depresses the pl unger as i t
compl etes i ts operati on. The pl unger unseats
the check val ve and al l ows the fl ui d to fl ow
Figure 6-17.Mechanically operated sequence valve.
thr ough the val ve, out por t B, and to the
secondary uni t.
Thi s type of sequence val ve permi ts fl ow i n
the opposi te di recti on. Fl ui d enters port B and
fl ows to the check val ve. Al though thi s i s return
fl ow from the actuati ng uni t, the fl ui d overcomes
spri ng tensi on, unseats the check val ve, and fl ows
out through port A.
PRESSURE-REDUCING VALVES
Pressure-reduci ng val ves provi de a steady
pressure i nto a system that operates at a l ower
pressure than the suppl y system. A reduci ng val ve
can normal l y be set for any desi red downstream
pressure wi thi n the desi gn l i mi ts of the val ve. Once
the val ve i s set, the reduced pressure wi l l be
mai ntai ned r egar dl ess of changes i n suppl y
pressure (as l ong as the suppl y pressure i s at l east
as hi gh as the reduced pressure desi red) and
regardl ess of the system l oad, provi di ng the l oad
does not exceed the desi gn capaci ty of the reducer.
Figure 6-18.Spring-loaded pressure-reducing valve.
6-12
Ther e ar e var i ous desi gns and types of
pr essur e-r educi ng val ves. The spr i ng-l oaded
r educer and the pi l ot-contr ol l ed val ve ar e
di scussed i n thi s text.
Spring-Loaded Reducer
The spri ng-l oaded pressure-reduci ng val ve
(fi g. 6-18) i s commonl y used i n pneumati c
systems. I t i s often referred to as a pressure
regul ator.
The val ve si mpl y uses spri ng pressure agai nst
a di aphragm to open the val ve. On the bottom
of the di aphragm, the outl et pressure (the pressure
i n the reduced-pressure system) of the val ve forces
the di aphragm upward to shut the val ve. When
the outl et pressure drops bel ow the set poi nt of
the val ve, the spri ng pressure overcomes the outl et
pressure and forces the val ve stem downward,
openi ng the val ve. As the outl et pressure i ncreases,
appr oachi ng the desi r ed val ue, the pr essur e
under the di aphragm begi ns to overcome spri ng
pressure, forci ng the val ve stem upwards, shutti ng
the val ve. You can adjust the downstr eam
pressure by turni ng the adjusti ng screw, whi ch
vari es the spri ng pressure agai nst the di aphragm.
Thi s parti cul ar spri ng-l oaded val ve wi l l fai l i n the
open posi ti on i f a di aphragm rupture occurs.
Pilot-Controlled Pressure-Reducing Valve
Fi gure 6-19 i l l ustrates the operati on of a
pi l ot-control l ed pressure-reduci ng val ve. Thi s
val ve consi sts of an adjustabl e pi l ot val ve, whi ch
control s the operati ng pressure of the val ve, and
a spool val ve, whi ch reacts to the acti on of the
pi l ot val ve.
The pi l ot val ve consi sts of a poppet (1), a
spri ng (2), and an adjusti ng screw (3). The val ve
Figure 6-19.Pilot-controlled pressure-reducing valve.
6-13
spool assembl y consi sts of a val ve spool (10) and
a spri ng (4).
Fl ui d under mai n pressure enters the i nl et port
(11) and under al l condi ti ons i s free to fl ow
through the val ve and the outl et port (5). (Ei ther
port 5 or port 11 maybe used as the hi gh-pressure
por t.)
Fi gure 6-19, vi ew A, shows the val ve i n the
open posi ti on. I n thi s posi ti on, the pressure i n the
reduced-pressure outl et port (6) has not reached
the preset operati ng pressure of the val ve. The
fl ui d al so fl ows through passage 8, through smal l er
passage 9 i n the center of the val ve spool , and i nto
chamber 12. The fl ui d pressure at outl et port 6
i s therefore di stri buted to both ends of the spool .
When these pressures are equal the spool i s hydrau-
l i cal l y bal anced. Spri ng 4 i s a l ow-tensi on spri ng
and appl i es onl y a sl i ght downward force on the
spool . I ts mai n purpose i s to posi ti on the spool
and to mai ntai n openi ng 7 at i ts maxi mum si ze.
As the pressure i ncreases i n outl et port 6 (fi g.
16, vi ew B), thi s pressure i s transmi tted through
passages 8 and 9 to chamber 12. Thi s pressure al so
acts on the pi l ot val ve poppet (1). When thi s
pressure i ncreases above the preset operati ng
pressure of the val ve, i t overcomes the force of
pi l ot val ve spri ng 2 and unseats the poppet. Thi s
al l ows fl ui d to fl ow through the drai n port (15).
Because the smal l passage (9) restri cts fl ow i nto
chamber 12, the fl ui d pressure i n the chamber
drops. Thi s causes a momentary di fference i n
pressure across the val ve spool (10) whi ch al l ows
fl ui d pressure acti ng agai nst the bottom area of
the val ve spool to overcome the downward force
of spri ng 4. The spool i s then forced upward unti l
the pressures across i ts ends are equal i zed. As the
spool moves upward, i t restri cts the fl ow through
openi ng 7 and causes the pressure to decrease i n
the reduced pressure outl et port 6. I f the pressure
i n the outl et port conti nues to i ncrease to a val ue
above the preset pressure, the pi l ot val ve wi l l open
agai n and the cycl e wi l l repeat. Thi s al l ows the
spool val ve to move up hi gher i nto chamber 12;
thus further reduci ng the si ze of openi ng 7.
These cycl es repeat unti l the desi red pressure i s
mai ntai ned i n outl et 6.
When the pressure i n outl et 6 decreases to a
val ue bel ow the preset pressure, spri ng 4 forces
the spool downward, al l owi ng more fl ui d to fl ow
through openi ng 7.
COUNTERBALANCE VALVE
The counterbal ance val ve i s normal l y l ocated
i n the l i ne between a di recti onal control val ve and
the outl et of a ver ti cal l y mounted actuati ng
cyl i nder whi ch supports wei ght or must be hel d
6-14
i n posi ti on for a peri od of ti me. Thi s val ve serves
as a hydraul i c resi stance to the actuati ng cyl i nder.
For exampl e, counterbal ance val ves are used i n
some hydraul i cal l y operated forkl i fts. The val ve
offers a resi stance to the fl ow from the actuati ng
cyl i nder when the fork i s l owered. I t al so hel ps
to support the fork i n the UP posi ti on.
Counterbal ance val ves are al so used i n ai r-
l aunched weapons l oaders. I n thi s case the val ve
i s l ocated i n the top of the l i ft cyl i nder. The val ve
requi res a speci fi c pressure to l ower the l oad. I f
adequate pressure i s not avai l abl e, the l oad cannot
be l owered. Thi s prevents col l apse of the l oad due
to any mal functi on of the hydraul i c system.
One type of counterbal ance val ve i s i l l ustrated
i n fi gure 6-20. The val ve el ement i s a bal anced
spool (4). The spool consi sts of two pi stons
permanentl y fi xed on ei ther end of a shaft. The
i nner surface areas of the pi stons are equal ;
therefore, pressure acts equal l y on both areas
regardl ess of the posi ti on of the val ve and has no
effect on the movement of the val vehence, the
term balanced. The shaft area between the two
pi stons provi des the area for the fl ui d to fl ow
Figure 6-20.Counterbalance valve.
when the val ve i s open. A smal l pi ston (9) i s
attached to the bottom of the spool val ve.
When the val ve i s i n the cl osed posi ti on, the
top pi ston of the spool val ve bl ocks the di scharge
port (8). Wi th the val ve i n thi s posi ti on, fl ui d
fl owi ng from the actuati ng uni t enters the i nl et
port (5). The fl ui d cannot fl ow through the val ve
because di scharge port 8 i s bl ocked. However,
fl ui d wi l l fl ow through the pi l ot passage (6) to the
smal l pi l ot pi ston. As the pressure i ncreases, i t acts
on the pi l ot pi ston unti l i t overcomes the preset
pressure of spri ng 3. Thi s forces the val ve spool
(4) up and al l ows the fl ui d to fl ow around the
shaft of the val ve spool and out di scharge port
8. Fi gure 6-20 shows the val ve i n thi s posi ti on.
Duri ng reverse fl ow, the fl ui d enters port 8. The
spri ng (3) forces val ve spool 4 to the cl osed
posi ti on. The fl ui d pressure overcomes the spri ng
tensi on of the check val ve (7). The check val ve
opens and al l ows free fl ow around the shaft of
the val ve spool and out through port 5.
The operati ng pressure of the val ve can be
adjusted by turni ng the adjustment screw (1),
whi ch i ncreases or decreases the tensi on of the
spri ng. Thi s adjustment depends on the wei ght
that the val ve must support.
I t i s normal for a smal l amount of fl ui d to l eak
around the top pi ston of the spool val ve and i nto
the area around the spri ng. An accumul ati on
woul d cause addi ti onal pressure on top of the
spool val ve. Thi s woul d r equi r e addi ti onal
pressure to open the val ve. The drai n (2) provi des
a passage for thi s fl ui d to fl ow to port 8.
DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES
Di recti onal control val ves are desi gned to
di rect the fl ow of fl ui d, at the desi red ti me, to the
poi nt i n a fl ui d power system where i t wi l l do
work. The dri vi ng of a ram back and forth i n i ts
cyl i nder i s an exampl e of when a di recti onal
control val ve i s used. Vari ous other terms are used
to i denti fy di recti onal val ves, such as sel ector
val ve, transfer val ve, and control val ve. Thi s
manual wi l l use the term di recti onal control val ve
to i denti fy these val ves.
Di r ecti onal contr ol val ves for hydr aul i c
and pneumati c systems are si mi l ar i n desi gn
and oper ati on. However , ther e i s one major
di fference. The return port of a hydraul i c val ve
i s ported through a return l i ne to the reservoi r,
whi l e the si mi l ar port of a pneumati c val ve,
commonl y referred to as the exhaust port, i s
usual l y vented to the atmosphere. Any other
di fferences are poi nted out i n the di scussi on of
the val ves.
Di recti onal control val ves may be operated by
di fferences i n pressure acti ng on opposi te si des
of the val vi ng el ement, or they maybe posi ti oned
manual l y, mechani cal l y, or el ectri cal l y. Often two
or more methods of operati ng the same val ve wi l l
be used i n di fferent phases of i ts acti on.
CLASSIFICATION
Di recti onal control val ves may be cl assi fi ed i n
several ways. Some of the di fferent ways are by
the type of control , the number of ports i n the
val ve housi ng, and the speci fi c functi on of the
val ve. The most common method i s by the type
of val vi ng el ement used i n the constructi on of the
val ve. The most common types of val vi ng
el ements are the bal l , cone or sl eeve, poppet,
r otar y spool , and sl i di ng spool . The basi c
operati ng pri nci pl es of the poppet, rotary spool ,
and sl i di ng spool val vi ng el ements are di scussed
i n thi s text.
Poppet
The poppet fi ts i nto the center bore of the seat
(fi g. 6-21). The seati ng surfaces of the poppet and
the seat are l apped or cl osel y machi ned so that
the center bore wi l l be seal ed when the poppet i s
Figure 6-21.Operation of a simple poppet valve.
6-15
seated (shut). The acti on of the poppet i s si mi l ar
to that of the val ves i n an automobi l e engi ne. I n
most val ves the poppet i s hel d i n the seated
posi ti on by a spri ng.
The val ve consi sts pri mari l y of a movabl e
poppet whi ch cl oses agai nst the val ve seat. I n the
cl osed posi ti on, fl ui d pressure on the i nl et si de
tends to hol d the val ve ti ghtl y cl osed. A smal l
amount of movement from a force appl i ed to the
top of the poppet stem opens the poppet and
al l ows fl ui d to fl ow through the val ve.
The use of the poppet as a-val vi ng el ement i s
not l i mi ted to di recti onal control val ves.
Rotary Spool
The rotary spool di recti onal control val ve
(fi g. 6-22) has a round core wi th one or more
passages or recesses i n i t. The core i s mounted
wi thi n a stati onary sl eeve. As the core i s rotated
wi thi n the stati onary sl eeve, the passages or
recesses connect or bl ock the ports i n the sl eeve.
The ports i n the sl eeve are connected to the
appropri ate l i nes of the fl ui d system.
Sliding spool
The oper ati on of a si mpl e sl i di ng spool
di recti onal control val ve i s shown i n fi gure 6-23.
The val ve i s so-named because of the shape of the
val vi ng el ement that sl i des back and forth to bl ock
and uncover ports i n the housi ng. (The sl i di ng
el ement i s al so referred to as a pi ston.) The i nner
pi ston areas (l ands) are equal . Thus fl ui d under
pressure whi ch enters the val ve from the i nl et ports
CHECK VALVE
Figure 6-22.Parts of a rotary spool directional control
valve.
Figure 6-23.Two-way, sliding spool directional control
valve.
acts equal l y on both i nner pi ston areas regardl ess
of the posi ti on of the spool . Seal i ng i s usual l y
accompl i shed by a ver y cl osel y machi ned fi t
between the spool and the val ve body or sl eeve.
For val ves wi th more ports, the spool i s desi gned
wi th more pi stons or l ands on a common shaft.
The sl i di ng spool i s the most commonl y used type
of val vi ng el ement used i n di recti onal control
val ves.
Check val ves are used i n fl ui d systems to
permi t fl ow i n one di recti on and to prevent fl ow
i n the other di recti on. They are cl assi fi ed as
one-way di recti onal control val ves.
The check val ve may be i nstal l ed i nde-
pendentl y i n a l i ne to al l ow fl ow i n one di recti on
onl y, or i t may be used as an i ntegral part of
gl obe, sequence, counterbal ance, and pressure-
reduci ng val ves.
Check val ves are avai l abl e i n vari ous desi gns.
They are opened by the force of fl ui d i n moti on
fl owi ng i n one di recti on, and are cl osed by fl ui d
attempti ng to fl ow i n the opposi te di recti on. The
force of gravi ty or the acti on of a spri ng ai ds i n
cl osi ng the val ve.
6-16
Figure 6-24.Swing check valve.
Fi gure 6-24 shows a swi ng check val ve. I n the
open posi ti on, the fl ow of fl ui d forces the hi nged
di sk up and al l ows free fl ow through the val ve.
Fl ow i n the opposi te di recti on wi th the ai d of
gravi ty, forces the hi nged di sk to cl ose the passage
and bl ocks the fl ow. Thi s type of val ve i s
someti mes desi gned wi th a spri ng to assi st i n
cl osi ng the val ve.
The most common type of check val ve,
i nstal l ed i n fl ui d-power systems, uses ei ther a bal l
or cone for the seal i ng el ement (fi g. 6-25). As fl ui d
pressure i s appl i ed i n the di recti on of the arrow,
the cone (vi ew A) or bal l (vi ew B) i s forced off
i ts seat, al l owi ng fl ui d to fl ow freel y through the
val ve. Thi s val ve i s known as a spri ng-l oaded
check val ve.
The spri ng i s i nstal l ed i n the val ve to hol d the
cone or bal l on i ts seat whenever fl ui d i s not
fl owi ng. The spri ng al so hel ps to force the cone
or bal l on i ts seat when the fl ui d attempts to fl ow
i n the opposi te di recti on. Si nce the openi ng and
cl osi ng of thi s type of val ve i s not dependent on
gravi ty, i ts l ocati on i n a system i s not l i mi ted to
the verti cal posi ti on.
A modi fi cati on of the spri ng-l oaded check
val ve i s the ori fi ce check val ve (fi g. 6-26). Thi s
Figure 6-25.Spring-loaded check valves. Figure 6-26.Typical orifice check valves.
6-17
val ve al l ows normal fl ow i n one di recti on and
restri cted fl ow i n the other. I t i s often referred
to as a one-way restri ctor.
Fi gure 6-26, vi ew A, shows a cone-type ori fi ce
check val ve. When suffi ci ent fl ui d pressure i s
appl i ed at the i nl et port, i t overcomes spri ng
tensi on and moves the cone off of i ts seat. The
two ori fi ces (2) i n the i l l ustrati on represent several
openi ngs l ocated around the sl anted ci rcumference
of the cone. These ori fi ces al l ow free fl ow of fl ui d
through the val ve whi l e the cone i s off of i ts seat.
When fl ui d pressure i s appl i ed through the outl et
port, the force of the fl ui d and spri ng tensi on
move the cone to the l eft and onto i ts seat. Thi s
acti on bl ocks the fl ow of fl ui d through the val ve,
except through the ori fi ce (1) i n the center of the
cone. The si ze of the ori fi ce (i n the center of the
cone) determi nes the rate of fl ow through the
val ve as the fl ui d fl ows from ri ght to l eft.
Fi gure 6-26, vi ew B, shows a bal l -type ori fi ce
check val ve. Fl ui d fl ow through the val ve from
l eft to ri ght forces the bal l off of i ts seat and
al l ows normal fl ow. Fl ui d fl ow through the val ve
i n the opposi te di recti on forces the bal l onto i ts
seat. Thus, the fl ow i s restri cted by the si ze of the
ori fi ce l ocated i n the housi ng of the val ve.
NOTE: The di recti on of free fl ow through the
or i fi ce check val ve i s i ndi cated by an ar r ow
stamped on the housi ng.
SHUTTLE VALVE
I n certai n fl ui d power systems, the suppl y of
fl ui d to a subsystem must be from more than one
source to meet system requi rements. I n some
systems an emergency system i s provi ded as a
source of pressure i n the event of normal system
fai l ure. The emergency system wi l l usual l y actuate
onl y essenti al components.
The mai n purpose of the shuttl e val ve i s to
i sol ate the normal system from an al ternate or
emergency system. I t i s smal l and si mpl e; yet, i t
i s a very i mportant component.
Fi gure 6-27 i s a cutaway vi ew of a typi cal
shuttl e val ve. The housi ng contai ns three ports
normal system i nl et, al ternate or emergency
system i nl et, and outl et. A shuttl e val ve used to
operate more than one actuati ng uni t may contai n
addi ti onal uni t outl et ports. Encl osed i n the
housi ng i s a sl i di ng part cal l ed the shuttl e. I ts
purpose i s to seal off ei ther one or the other i nl et
ports. There i s a shuttl e seat at each i nl et port.
6-18
Figure 6-27.Shuttle valve.
When a shuttl e val ve i s i n the nor mal
operati on posi ti on, fl ui d has a free fl ow from the
normal system i nl et port, through the val ve, and
out through the outl et port to the actuati ng uni t.
The shuttl e i s seated agai nst the al ternate system
i nl et por t and hel d ther e by nor mal system
pressure and by the shuttl e val ve spri ng. The
shuttl e remai ns i n thi s posi ti on unti l the al ternate
system i s acti vated. Thi s acti on di rects fl ui d under
pressure from the al ternate system to the shuttl e
val ve and forces the shuttl e from the al ternate
system i nl et port to the normal system i nl et port.
Fl ui d from the al ternate system then has a free
fl ow to the outl et port, but i s prevented from
enteri ng the normal system by the shuttl e, whi ch
seal s off the normal system port.
The shuttl e may be one of four types: (1)
sl i di ng pl unger, (2) spri ng-l oaded pi ston, (3)
spri ng-l oaded bal l , or (4) spri ng-l oaded poppet.
I n shuttl e val ves that are desi gned wi th a spri ng,
the shuttl e i s normal l y hel d agai nst the al ternate
system i nl et port by the spri ng.
TWO-WAY VALVES
The term two-way i ndi cates that the val ve
contai ns and control s two functi onal fl ow control
ports-an i nl et and an outl et. A two-way, sl i di ng
spool di recti onal control val ve i s shown i n fi gure
6-23. As the spool i s moved back and forth, i t
ei ther al l ows fl ui d to fl ow through the val ve or
prevents fl ow. I n the open posi ti on, the fl ui d
enters the i nl et port, fl ows around the shaft of
the spool , and through the outl et port. The spool
cannot move back and forth by di fference of
forces set up wi thi n the cyl i nder, si nce the forces
there are equal . As i ndi cated by the arrows agai nst
the pi stons of the spool , the same pressure acts
on equal areas on thei r i nsi de surfaces. I n the
cl osed posi ti on, one of the pi stons of the spool
si mpl y bl ocks the i nl et port, thus preventi ng fl ow
through the val ve.
A number of features common to most sl i di ng
spool val ves are shown i n fi gure 6-23. The smal l
ports at ei ther end of the val ve housi ng provi de
a path for any fl ui d that l eaks past the spool to
fl ow to the reservoi r. Thi s prevents pressure from
bui l di ng up agai nst the ends of the pi stons, whi ch
woul d hi nder the movement of the spool . When
spool val ves become worn, they may l ose bal ance
because of greater l eakage on one si de of the spool
than on the other. I n that event, the spool woul d
tend to sti ck when i t i s moved back and forth.
Smal l grooves are therefore machi ned around the
sl i di ng surface of the pi ston; and i n hydraul i c
val ves, l eaki ng l i qui d wi l l enci rcl e the pi stons and
keep the contacti ng sur faces l ubr i cated and
center ed.
THREE-WAY VALVES
Three-way val ves contai n a pressure port, a
cyl i nder port, and a return or exhaust port. The
three-way di recti onal control val ve i s desi gned to
operate an actuati ng uni t i n one di recti on; i t
permi ts ei ther the l oad on the actuati ng uni t or
a spri ng to return the uni t to i ts ori gi nal posi ti on.
Cam-Operated Three-Way Valves
Fi gure 6-28 shows the operati on of a cam-
oper ated, thr ee-way, poppet-type di r ecti onal
control val ve. Vi ew A shows fl ui d under pressure
forci ng the pi ston outward agai nst a l oad. The
upper poppet (2) i s unseated by the i nsi de cam
(5), permi tti ng fl ui d to fl ow from the l i ne (3) i nto
the cyl i nder to actuate the pi ston. The l ower
poppet (1) i s seated, seal i ng off the fl ow i nto the
return l i ne (4). As the force of the pressuri zed fl ui d
extends the pi ston rod, i t al so compresses the
spri ng i n the cyl i nder.
Vi ew B shows the val ve wi th the control
handl e turned to the opposi te posi ti on. I n thi s
posi ti on, the upper poppet (2) i s seated, bl ocki ng
the fl ow of fl ui d from the pressure l i ne (3). The
l ower poppet (1) i s unseated by the outsi de cam
(6). Thi s rel eases the pressure i n the cyl i nder and
al l ows the spri ng to expand, whi ch forces the
pi ston rod to retract. The fl ui d from the cyl i nder
fl ows through the control val ve and out the return
Figure 6-28.Three-way, poppet-type directional control
valve (cam-operated).
6-19
port (4). I n hydraul i c systems, the return port i s
connected by a l i ne to the reservoi r. I n pneumati c
systems, the return port i s usual l y open to the
atmosphere.
Pilot-Operated Three-Way Valves
A pi l ot-oper ated, poppet-type, thr ee-way
di recti onal control val ve i s shown i n fi gure 6-29.
Val ves of thi s desi gn are often used i n pneumati c
systems. Thi s val ve i s normal l y cl osed and i s
for ced open by fl ui d pr essur e enter i ng the
pi l ot chamber. The val ve contai ns two poppets
connected to each other by a common stem. The
poppets are connected to di aphragms whi ch hol d
them i n a centered posi ti on.
The movement of the poppet i s control l ed by
the pressure i n the pi l ot port and the chamber
above the upper di aphr agm. When the pi l ot
chamber i s not pressuri zed, the l ower poppet i s
seated agai nst the l ower val ve seat. Fl ui d can fl ow
from the suppl y l i ne through the i nl et port and
through the hol es i n the l ower di aphragm to fi l l
the bottom chamber. Thi s pressure hol ds the
l ower poppet ti ghtl y agai nst i ts seat and bl ocks
fl ow from the i nl et port through the val ve. At the
same ti me, due to the common stem, the upper
poppet i s forced off of i ts seat. Fl ui d from the
actuati ng uni t fl ows through the open passage,
around the stem, and through the exhaust port
to the atmosphere.
When the pi l ot chamber i s pressuri zed, the
force acti ng agai nst the di aphragm forces the
poppet down. The upper poppet cl oses agai nst i ts
seat, bl ocki ng the fl ow of fl ui d from the cyl i nder
to the exhaust port. The l ower poppet opens, and
the passage from the suppl y i nl et port to the
cyl i nder port i s open so that the fl ui d can fl ow
to the actuati ng uni t.
The val ve i n fi gure 6-29 i s a normal l y cl osed
val ve. Normal l y open val ves are si mi l ar i n desi gn.
When no pressure i s appl i ed to the pi l ot chamber,
the upper poppet i s for ced off of i ts seat and the
l ower poppet i s cl osed. Fl ui d i s free to fl ow from
the i nl et port through the cyl i nder to the actuati ng
uni t. When pi l ot pressure i s appl i ed, the poppets
are forced downward, cl osi ng the upper poppet
and openi ng the l ower poppet. Fl ui d can now fl ow
from the cyl i nder through the val ve and out the
exhaust port to the atmosphere.
FOUR-WAY VALVES
Most actuati ng devi ces requi re system pressure
for operati on i n ei ther di recti on. The four-way
di recti onal control val ve, whi ch contai ns four
ports, i s used to control the operati on of such
devi ces. The four-way val ve i s al so used i n some
systems to control the operati on of other val ves.
I t i s one of the most wi del y used di recti onal
control val ves i n fl ui d power systems.
The typi cal four-way di recti onal control val ve
has four ports: a pressure port, a return or exhaust
port, and two cyl i nder or worki ng ports. The
pressure port i s connected to the mai n system
pressure l i ne and the return l i ne i s connected to
the reservoi r i n hydraul i c systems. I n pneumati c
systems the return port i s usual l y vented to the
atmosphere. The two cyl i nder ports are connected
by l i nes to the actuati ng uni ts.
Poppet-Type Four-Way Valves
Fi gure 6-30 shows atypi cal four-way, poppet-
type di recti onal control val ve. Thi s i s a manual l y
oper ated val ve and consi sts of a gr oup of
conventi onal spri ng-l oaded poppets. The poppets
ar e encl osed i n a common housi ng and ar e
i nterconnected by ducts to di rect the fl ow of fl ui d
i n the desi red di recti on.
Figure 6-29.Three-way, poppet-type, normally closed directional control valve (pilot-operated).
6-20
The poppets ar e actuated by cams on a
camshaft (fi g. 6-30). The camshaft i s control l ed
by the movement of the handl e. The val ve may
be operated by manual l y movi ng the handl e, or,
i n some cases, the handl e may be connected by
mechani cal l i nkage to a control handl e whi ch i s
l ocated i n a conveni ent pl ace for the operator
some di stance from the val ve.
The camshaft may be rotated to any one
of thr ee posi ti ons (neutr al and two wor ki ng
posi ti ons). I n the neutral posi ti on the camshaft
l obes are not contacti ng any of the poppets. Thi s
assures that the poppet spri ngs wi l l hol d al l four
poppets fi rml y seated. Wi th al l poppets seated,
there i s no fl ui d fl ow through the val ve. Thi s al so
bl ocks the two cyl i nder ports; so when the val ve
i s i n neutral , the fl ui d i n the actuati ng uni t i s
tr apped. Rel i ef val ves ar e i nstal l ed i n both
worki ng l i nes to prevent overpressuri zati on caused
by thermal expansi on.
NOTE: I n some versi ons of thi s type of val ve,
the cam l obes ar e desi gned so that the two
return/exhaust poppets are open when the val ve
i s i n the neutral posi ti on. Thi s compensates for
thermal expansi on, because both worki ng l i nes are
open to the return/exhaust when the val ve i s i n
the neutral posi ti on.
The poppets are arranged so that rotati on of
the camshaft wi l l open the proper combi nati on
of poppets to di rect the fl ow of fl ui d through the
desi red worki ng l i ne to an actuati ng uni t. At the
same ti me, fl ui d wi l l be di r ected fr om the
actuati ng uni t through the opposi te worki ng l i ne,
through the val ve, and back to the reservoi r
(hydr aul i c) or exhausted to the atmospher e
(pneumati c).
To stop rotati on of the camshaft at an exact
posi ti on, a stop pi n i s secured to the body and
extends through a cutout secti on of the camshaft
fl ange. Thi s stop pi n prevents overtravel by
ensuri ng that the camshaft stops rotati ng at the
poi nt wher e the cam l obes have moved the
poppets the greatest di stance from thei r seats and
wher e any fur ther r otati on woul d al l ow the
poppets to start returni ng to thei r seats.
O-ri ngs are spaced at i nterval s al ong the l ength
of the shaft to prevent external l eakage around
the ends of the shaft and i nternal l eakage from
one of the val ve chamber s to another . The
camshaft has two l obes, or rai sed porti ons. The
shape of these l obes i s such that when the shaft
i s pl aced i n the neutral posi ti on the l obes wi l l not
contact any of the poppets.
When the handl e i s moved i n ei ther di recti on
from neutral , the camshaft i s rotated. Thi s rotates
Figure 6-30.Cutaway view of poppet-type, four-way directional control valve.
6-21
the l obes, whi ch unseat one pressure poppet and
one return/exhaust poppet (fi g. 6-31). The val ve
i s now i n the worki ng posi ti on. Fl ui d under
pressure, enteri ng the pressure port, fl ows through
the verti cal fl ui d passages i n both pressure poppets
seats. Si nce onl y one pressure poppet, I N (2), i s
unseated by the cam l obe, the fl ui d fl ows past the
open poppet to the i nsi de of the poppet seat. From
there i t fl ows through the di agonal passages, out
one cyl i nder port, C2, and to the actuati ng uni t.
Return fl ui d from the actuati ng uni t enters the
other cyl i nder port, C1. I t then fl ows through the
correspondi ng fl ui d passage, past the unseated
return poppet, OUT (1), through the verti cal fl ui d
passages, and out the return/exhaust port. When
the camshaft i s rotated i n the opposi te di recti on
to the neutral posi ti on, the two poppets seat and
the fl ow stops. When the camshaft i s further
rotated i n thi s di recti on unti l the stop pi ns hi ts,
the opposi te pressure and return poppets are
unseated. Thi s reverses the fl ow i n the worki ng
l i nes, causi ng the actuati ng uni t to move i n the
opposi te di recti on.
Rotary Spool Valve
Four-way di recti onal control val ves of thi s
type are frequentl y used as pi l ot val ves to di rect
fl ow to and from other val ves (fi g. 6-32). Fl ui d
i s di rected from one source of suppl y through the
rotary val ve to another di recti onal control val ve,
where i t posi ti ons the val ve to di rect fl ow from
another source to one si de of an actuati ng uni t.
Fl ui d from the other end of the mai n val ve fl ows
through a return l i ne, through the rotary val ve
to the return or exhaust port.
The pri nci pal parts of a rotary spool di rec-
ti onal control val ve are shown i n fi gure 6-22.
Figure 6-31.Working view of a poppet-type, four-way
directional control valve.
Figure 6-32.Sliding spool valve controlled by a rotary spool
valve.
Fi gure 6-33 shows the operati on of a rotary spool
val ve. Vi ews A and C show the val ve i n a posi ti on
to del i ver fl ui d to another val ve, whi l e vi ew B
shows the val ve i n the neutral posi ti on, wi th al l
passages through the val ve bl ocked.
Rotary spool val ves can be operated manual l y,
el ectri cal l y, or by fl ui d pressure.
Sliding Spool Valve
The sl i di ng spool four-way di recti onal control
val ve i s si mi l ar i n operati on to the two-way
val ve previ ousl y descri bed i n thi s chapter. I t i s
si mpl e i n i ts pri nci pl e of operati on and i s the
most durabl e and troubl e-free of al l four-way
di recti onal control val ves.
The val ve descri bed i n the fol l owi ng para-
graphs i s a manual l y operated type. The same
pri nci pl e i s used i n many remotel y control l ed
di recti onal control val ves.
The val ve (fi g. 6-34) consi sts of a val ve body
contai ni ng four fl ui d por tspr essur e (P),
Figure 6-33.Operation of a rotary spool, four-way
directional control valve.
6-22
Figure 6-34.Operation of a sliding spool, four-way directional control valve.
6-23
return/exhaust (R), and two cyl i nder ports (C/1
and C2). A hol l ow sl eeve fi ts i nto the mai n bore
of the body. There are O-ri ngs pl aced at i nterval s
around the outsi de di ameter of the sl eeve. These
O-ri ngs form a seal between the sl eeve and the
body, creati ng chambers around the sl eeve. Each
of the chambers i s l i ned up wi th one of the fl ui d
ports i n the body. The dri l l ed passage i n the body
accounts for a fi fth chamber whi ch resul ts i n
havi ng the two outboard chambers connected to
the return/exhaust port. The sl eeve has a pattern
of hol es dri l l ed through i t to al l ow fl ui d to fl ow
from one port to another. A seri es of hol es are
dri l l ed i nto the hol l ow center sl eeve i n each
chamber.
The sl eeve i s prevented from turni ng by a
sl eeve retai ner bol t or pi n whi ch secures i t to the
val ve body.
The sl i di ng spool fi ts i nto the hol l ow center
sl eeve. Thi s spool i s si mi l ar to the spool i n the
two-way val ve, except that thi s spool has three
pi stons or l ands. These l ands ar e l apped or
machi ne fi tted to the i nsi de of the sl eeve.
One end of the sl i di ng spool i s connected to
a handl e ei ther di rectl y or by mechani cal l i nkage
to a more desi rabl e l ocati on. When the control
handl e i s moved, i t wi l l posi ti on the spool wi thi n
the sl eeve. The l ands of the spool then l i ne up
di ffer ent combi nati ons of fl ui d por ts thus
di recti ng a fl ow of fl ui d through the val ve.
The detent spri ng i s a cl othespi n-type spri ng,
secur ed to the end of the body by a spr i ng
retai ni ng bol t. The two l egs of the spri ng extend
down through sl ots i n the sl eeve and fit i nto the
detents. The spool i s gri pped between the two l egs
of the spri ng. To move the spool , enough force
must be appl i ed to spread the two spri ng l egs and
al l ow them to snap back i nto the next detent,
whi ch woul d be for another posi ti on.
Fi gur e 6-34, vi ew A, shows a manual l y
oper ated sl i di ng spool val ve i n the neutr al
posi ti on. The detent spri ng i s i n the center detent
of the sl i di ng spool . The center l and i s l i ned up
wi th the pressure port (P) preventi ng fl ui d from
fl owi ng i nto the val ve through thi s port. The
return/exhaust port i s al so bl ocked, preventi ng
fl ow through that port. Wi th both the pressure
and return ports bl ocked, fl ui d i n the actuati ng
l i nes i s trapped. For thi s reason, a rel i ef val ve i s
usual l y i nstal l ed i n each actuati ng l i ne when thi s
type of val ve i s used.
Fi gure 6-34, vi ew B, shows the val ve i n the
worki ng posi ti on wi th the end of the sl i di ng spool
retracted. The detent spri ng i s i n the outboard
detent, l ocki ng the sl i di ng spool i n thi s posi ti on.
The l ands have shi fted i nsi de the sl eeve, and the
ports are opened. Fl ui d under pressure enters the
sl eeve, passes through i t by way of the dri l l ed
hol es, and l eaves through cyl i nder port C2. Return
fl ui d, fl owi ng from the actuator enters port C1,
fl ows through the sl eeve, and i s di rected out the
return port back to the reservoi r or exhausted to
the atmosphere. Fl ui d cannot fl ow past the spool
l ands because of the l apped surfaces.
Fi gure 6-34, vi ew C, shows the val ve i n the
opposi te worki ng posi ti on wi th the sl i di ng spool
extended. The detent spri ng i s i n the i nboard
detent. The center l and of the sl i di ng spool i s now
on the other si de of the pressure port, and the
fl ui d under pressure i s di rected through the sl eeve
and out port C1. Return fl ui d fl owi ng i n the other
cyl i nder port i s di rected to the dri l l ed passage i n
the body. I t fl ows al ong thi s passage to the other
end of the sl eeve where i t i s di rected out of the
return/exhaust port.
The di r ecti onal contr ol val ves pr evi ousl y
di scussed are for use i n cl osed-center fl ui d power
systems. Fi gure 6-35 shows the operati on of
Figure 6-35.Open center, sliding spool directional control
valve.
6-24
a r epr esentati ve open-center , sl i di ng spool When the spool i s moved to the ri ght of the
di recti onal control val ve. neutral posi ti on, vi ew B, one worki ng l i ne (C1)
i s al i gned to system pressure and the other
When thi s type of val ve i s i n the neutral worki ng l i ne (C2) i s open through the hol l ow
posi ti on (fi g. 6-35, vi ew A), fl ui d fl ows i nto the spool to the return port. Vi ew C shows the fl ow
val ve through the pressure port (P) through the of fl ui d through the val ve wi th the spool moved
hol l ow spool , and return to the reservoi r. to the l eft of neutral .
6-25
CHAPTER 7
SEALI NG DEVI CES AND MATERI ALS
Recal l from chapter 1 that Pascal s theorem,
from whi ch the fundamental l aw for the sci ence
of hydr aul i cs evol ved, was pr oposed i n the
seventeenth century. One sti pul ati on to make the
l aw effecti ve for practi cal appl i cati ons was a
pi ston that woul d fi t the openi ng i n the vessel
ex actl y . However, i t was not unti l the l ate
ei ghteenth century that Joseph Brahmah i nvented
an effecti ve pi ston seal , the cup packi ng. Thi s l ed
to Brahmah's devel opment of the hydraul i c press.
The packi ng was probabl y the most i mportant
i nventi on i n the devel opment of hydraul i cs as a
l eadi ng method of tr ansmi tti ng power . The
devel opment of machi nes to cut and shape cl osel y
fi tted par ts was al so ver y i mpor tant i n the
devel opment of hydraul i cs. However, regardl ess
of how preci se the machi ni ng process i s, some type
of packi ng i s usual l y requi red to make the pi ston,
and many other parts of hydraul i c components,
fi t exactl y. Thi s al so appl i es to the components
of pneumati c systems.
Through years of research and experi ments,
many di fferent materi al s and desi gns have been
created i n attempts to devel op sui tabl e packi ng
devi ces. Sui tabl e materi al s must be durabl e, must
provi de effecti ve seal i ng, and must be compati bl e
wi th the fl ui d used i n the system.
The packi ng materi al s are commonl y referred
to as seal s or seal i ng devi ces. The seal s used i n
fl ui d power systems and components are di vi ded
i nto two general cl asses-stati c seal s and dynami c
seal s.
The stati c seal i s usual l y referred to as a gasket.
The functi on of a gasket i s to provi de a materi al
that can fl ow i nto the surface i rregul ari ti es of
mati ng areas that requi re seal i ng. To do thi s, the
gasket materi al must be under pressure. Thi s
r equi r es that the joi nt be ti ghtl y bol ted or
otherwi se hel d together.
The dynami c seal , commonl y referred to as
a packi ng, i s used to provi de a seal between two
parts that move i n rel ati on to each other.
These two cl assi fi cati ons of seal sgaskets
and packi ngappl y i n most cases; however ,
devi ati ons are found i n some techni cal publ i -
cati ons. Certai n types of seal s (for exampl e, the
O-ri ng, whi ch i s di scussed l ater) may be used
ei ther as a gasket or a packi ng.
Many of the seal s i n fl ui d power systems
prevent external l eakage. These seal s serve two
purposesto seal the fl ui d i n the system and to
keep forei gn matter out of the system. Other seal s
si mpl y prevent i nternal l eakage wi thi n a system.
NOTE: Al though l eakage of any ki nd resul ts
i n a l oss of effi ci ency, some l eakage, especi al l y
i nternal l eakage, i s desi red i n hydraul i c systems
to provi de l ubri cati on of movi ng parts. Thi s al so
appl i es to some pneumati c systems i n whi ch drops
of oi l are i ntroduced i nto the fl ow of ai r i n the
system.
The fi rst part of thi s chapter deal s pri mari l y
wi th the di fferent types of materi al s used i n the
constructi on of seal s. The next secti on i s devoted
to the di fferent shapes and desi gns of seal s and
thei r appl i cati on as gaskets and/or packi ngs i n
fl ui d power systems. Al so i ncl uded i n thi s chapter
are secti ons concerni ng the functi ons of wi pers
and backup washers i n fl ui d power systems and
the sel ecti on, storage, and handl i ng of seal i ng
devi ces.
SEAL MATERIALS
As menti oned pr evi ousl y, many di ffer ent
materi al s have been used i n the devel opment of
seal i ng devi ces. The materi al used for a parti cul ar
appl i cati on depends on sever al factor s: fl ui d
compati bi l i ty, resi stance to heat, pressure, wear
resi stance, hardness, and type of moti on.
The sel ecti on of the correct packi ngs and
gaskets and thei r proper i nstal l ati on are i mportant
factors i n mai ntai ni ng an effi ci ent fl ui d power
system. The types of seal s to be used i n a
parti cul ar pi ece of equi pment i s speci fi ed by the
equi pment manufacturer.
7-1
Often the sel ecti on of seal s i s l i mi ted to seal s
covered by mi l i tary speci fi cati ons. However, there
are occasi ons when nonstandard or propri etary
seal s refl ecti ng the advanci ng state of the art may
be approved. Thus, i t i s i mportant to fol l ow the
manufacturers i nstructi ons when you repl ace
seal s. I f the proper seal i s not avai l abl e, you
shoul d gi ve careful consi derati on i n the sel ecti on
of a sui tabl e substi tute. Consul t the Naval Ships
Technical Manual, mi l i tary standards, mi l i tary
standardi zati on handbooks, and other appl i cabl e
techni cal manual s i f you have any doubts i n
sel ecti ng the proper seal .
Seal s ar e made of mater i al s that have
been car eful l y chosen or devel oped for spe-
ci fi c appl i cati ons. These mater i al s i ncl ude
tetr afl uor oethyl ene (TFE), commonl y cal l ed
Tefl on; syntheti c r ubber (el astomer s); cor k;
l eather; metal ; and asbestos. Some of the most
common materi al s used to make seal s for fl ui d
power systems are di scussed i n the fol l owi ng
paragraphs.
CORK
Cork has several of the requi red properti es,
whi ch makes i t i deal l y sui ted as a seal i ng materi al
i n certai n appl i cati ons. The compressi bi l i ty of
cork seal s makes them wel l sui ted for confi ned
appl i cati ons i n whi ch l i ttl e or no spread of the
materi al i s al l owed. The compressi bi l i ty of cork
al so makes a good seal that can be cut to any
desi red thi ckness and shape to fi t any surface and
sti l l provi de an excel l ent seal .
One of the undesi rabl e characteri sti cs of cork
i s i ts tendency to crumbl e. I f cork i s used as
packi ng or i n areas where there i s a hi gh fl ui d
pressure and/or hi gh fl ow vel oci ty, smal l parti cl es
wi l l be cast off i nto the system. Cork use i n fl ui d
power systems i s therefore l i mi ted. I t i s someti mes
used as gasket materi al s for i nspecti on pl ates of
hydraul i c reservoi rs.
Cork i s general l y recommended for use where
sustai ned temperatures do not exceed 275
0
F.
CORK AND RUBBER
Cork and rubber seal s are made by combi ni ng
syntheti c rubber and cork. Thi s combi nati on has
the properti es of both of the two materi al s.
Thi s means that seal s can be made wi th the
compressi bi l i ty of cork, but wi th a resi stance to
fl ui d comparabl e to the syntheti c rubber on whi ch
they are based. Cork and rubber composi ti on i s
someti mes used to make gaskets for appl i cati ons
si mi l ar to those descri bed for cork gaskets.
LEATHER
Leather i s a cl osel y kni t materi al that i s
general l y tough, pl i abl e, and rel ati vel y resi stant
to abr asi on, wear , str ess, and the effects of
temperature changes. Because i t i s porous, i t i s
abl e to absorb l ubri cati ng fl ui ds. Thi s porosi ty
makes i t necessary to i mpregnate l eather for most
uses. I n general , l eather must be tanned and
treated i n order to make i t useful as a gasket
mater i al . The tanni ng pr ocesses ar e those
normal l y used i n the l eather i ndustry.
Leather i s general l y resi stant to abrasi on
regardl ess of whether the grai n si de or the fl esh
si de i s exposed to abrasi ve acti on. Leather remai ns
fl exi bl e at l ow temperatures and can be forced
wi th comparati ve ease i nto contact wi th metal
fl anges. When pr oper l y i mpr egnated, i t i s
i mpermeabl e to most l i qui ds and some gases,
and capabl e of wi thstandi ng the effects of
temperatures rangi ng from 70
0
F to +220
0
F.
Leather has four basi c l i mi tati ons. Fi rst, the
si ze of the typi cal hi de l i mi ts the si ze of the seal s
that can be made fr om l eather . A second
l i mi tati on i s the number of seal s that ar e
acceptabl e. Another l i mi tati on i s that under heavy
mechani cal pressures l eather tends to extrude.
Fi nal l y, many of the pr oper ti es (such as
i mper meabi l i ty, tensi l e str ength, hi gh- and
l ow-temper atur e r esi stance, pl i abi l i ty, and
compati bi l i ty wi th envi ronment) depend upon the
type of l eather and i mpregnati on. Leathers not
tanned and i mpregnated for speci fi c condi ti ons
and properti es wi l l become bri ttl e, dry, and
compl etel y degreased by exposure to parti cul ar
chemi cal s. Leather i s never used wi th steam
pressure of any type, nor wi th aci d or al kal i
sol uti ons.
Leather may be used as packi ng. When
mol ded i nto Vs and Us, and cups, and other
shapes, i t can be appl i ed as dynami c packi ng,
whi l e i n i ts fl at form i t can be used as strai ght
compressi on packi ng.
METAL
One of the most common metal seal s used i n
Navy equi pment i s copper. Fl at copper ri ngs are
someti mes used as gaskets under adjusti ng screws
to provi de a fl ui d seal . Mol ded copper ri ngs are
someti mes used as packi ng wi th speed gears
operati ng under hi gh pressures. Ei ther type i s
7-2
Figure 7-1.Spiral-wouna metallic-asbestos gasket.
easi l y bent and requi res careful handl i ng. I n
addi ti on, copper becomes hard when used over
l ong peri ods and when subjected to compressi on.
Whenever a uni t or component i s di sassembl ed,
the copper seal i ng ri ngs shoul d be repl aced.
However, i f new ri ngs are not avai l abl e and the
part must be repai red, the ol d ri ng shoul d be
softened by anneal i ng. (Anneal i ng i s the process
of heati ng a metal , then cool i ng i t, to make i t
more pl i abl e and l ess bri ttl e.)
Metal l i c pi ston ri ngs are used as packi ng i n
some fl ui d power actuati ng cyl i nders. These ri ngs
ar e si mi l ar i n desi gn to the pi ston r i ngs i n
automobi l e engi nes.
Metal i s al so used wi th asbestos to form
spi ral -wound metal l i c-asbestos gaskets (fi g. 7-1).
These gaskets are composed of i nterl ocked pl i es
of pr efor med cor r ugated metal and asbestos
stri ps, cal l ed a fi l l er.
The fi l l er may or may not be encased i n a sol i d
metal outer ri ng. These gaskets are used i n fl anged
connecti ons and for connecti ng the body to the
bonnet i n some val ves, and are usual l y requi red
i n speci fi c hi gh-pr essur e, hi gh-temper atur e
appl i cati ons.
RUBBER
The ter m r ubber
and syntheti c rubbers,
cover s many natur al
each of whi ch can be
compounded i nto numer ous var i eti es. The
characteri sti cs of these vari eti es have a wi de range,
as shown i n tabl e 7-1. The tabl e shows, wi th the
excepti on of a few basi c si mi l ari ti es, that rubbers
have di verse properti es and l i mi tati ons; therefore,
speci fi c appl i cati ons requi re careful study before
the seal i ng materi al i s sel ected.
Natural rubbers have many of the charac-
teri sti cs requi red i n an effecti ve seal . However,
thei r very poor resi stance to petrol eum fl ui ds and
rapi d agi ng when exposed to oxygen or ozone l i mi t
thei r use. Today thei r use has al most ceased.
There are two general cl asses of syntheti c
rubber seal s. One cl ass i s made enti rel y of a certai n
syntheti c rubber. The term homogeneous, whi ch
means havi ng uni form structure or composi ti on
throughout, i s frequentl y used to descri be thi s
cl ass of seal . The other cl ass of seal i s made by
i mpregnati ng woven cotton duck or fi ne-weave
asbestos wi th syntheti c rubber. Thi s cl ass i s
someti mes referred to as fabri cated seal s.
Addi ti onal i nformati on on seal i ng materi al s
i s provi ded i n the Military Handbook, Gasket
Materials (Nonmetalic), MI L-HDBK-212; and
the Naval Ships Technical Manual, chapter 078.
TYPES OF SEALS
Fl ui d power seal s are usual l y typed accordi ng
to thei r shape or desi gn. These types i ncl ude
T-seal s, V-ri ngs, O-ri ngs, U-cups and so on. Some
of the most commonl y used seal s are di scussed
i n the remai nder of thi s chapter.
T-SEALS
The T-seal has an el astomeri c bi di recti onal
seal i ng el ement resembl i ng an i nverted l etter T.
Thi s seal i ng el ement i s al ways pai red wi th two
speci al extrusi on-resi sti ng backup ri ngs, one on
each si de of the T. The basi c T-seal confi gurati on
i s shown i n fi gure 7-2, vi ew A. The backup ri ngs
Fi gur e7-2. T-seal s.
7-3
Table 7-l.Comparison of Physical Properties for Some Hydraulic Fluid Seal Materials
Figure 7-3.V-rings.
7-4
are si ngl e turn, bi as cut, and usual l y made of TFE,
mol ybdenum-di sul fi de-i mpregnated nyl on, or a
combi nati on of TFE and nyl on. Nyl on i s wi del y
used for T-seal backup ri ngs because i t provi des
excel l ent resi stance to extrusi on and has l ow
fri cti on characteri sti cs.
The speci al T-ri ng confi gurati on adds stabi l i ty
to the seal , el i mi nati ng spi ral i ng and rol l i ng.
T-seal s are used i n appl i cati ons where l arge
cl earances coul d occur as a resul t of the expansi on
of the thi n-wal l ed hydraul i c cyl i nder. The T-ri ng
i s i nstal l ed under radi al compressi on and provi des
a posi ti ve seal at zero or l ow pressure. Backup
ri ngs, one on each si de, ri de free of T-ri ng fl anges
and the rod or cyl i nder wal l (fi g. 7-2, vi ew B).
These cl earances keep seal fri cti on to a mi ni mum
at l ow pressure. When pressure i s appl i ed (fi g. 7-2,
vi ew C), the T-ri ng acts to provi de posi ti ve seal i ng
acti on as fl ui d pressure i ncreases. One frequentl y
used T-ri ng, manufactured by Greene, Tweed and
Company, (cal l ed a G-Tri ng
1
), i ncorporates a
uni que, patented backup ri ng feature. One corner
on the I D of each radi us-styl ed backup ri ng on
the G-Tri ng

set has been rounded to mate wi th

the i nsi de corner of the rubber T. Fi gure 7-2, vi ews
B and C, shows the G-Tri ng

.
There i s no mi l i tary standard part numberi ng
system by whi ch T-seal s can be i denti fi ed. I n
general , each manufacturer i ssues propri etary part
numbers to i denti fy seal s. However, i t i s common
practi ce to i denti fy T-seal si zes by the same
dash numbers used for equi val ent O-ri ng si zes
(di scussed l ater i n thi s chapter) as defi ned by
AS568 and MS28775 di mensi on standar ds.
Typi cal l y, an O-ri ng groove that accepts a certai n
O-ri ng dash number wi l l accept the same dash
number T-seal .
I n the absence of an exi sti ng mi l i tary standard
for i denti fyi ng T-seal s, a new and si mpl e
1
G-Tring

is a Greene, Tweed Trademark,

numberi ng system was created to i denti fy T-seal s
requi red for hydraul i c actuators (pi ston seal s onl y)
wi thout reference to a parti cul ar manufacturers
part number. The Navy number i s composed of
the l etters G-T fol l owed by a dash number of three
di gi ts and one l etter, R, S, or T (for exampl e,
G-T-217T). The three di gi ts are the appropri ate
O-ri ng si ze dash number accordi ng to AS568 or
MS28775. The l etters R, S, and T desi gnate the
number of backup ri ngs that the groove of the
T-seal i s desi gned to accommodate: none, one,
or two, respecti vel y.
V-RINGS
The V-ri ng i s one of the most frequentl y used
dynami c seal s i n shi p ser vi ce al though i ts
i denti fi cati on, i nstal l ati on, and performance are
probabl y most mi sunderstood. Properl y sel ected
and i nstal l ed, V-ri ngs can provi de excel l ent servi ce
l i fe; otherwi se, probl ems associ ated wi th fri cti on,
rod and seal wear, noi se, and l eakage can be
expected.
The V-ri ng i s the part of the packi ng set that
does the seal i ng. I t has a cross secti on resembl i ng
the l etter V, (fi g. 7-3) from whi ch i ts name i s
deri ved. To achi eve a seal , the V-ri ng must be
i nstal l ed as part of a packi ng set or stack, whi ch
i ncl udes one mal e adapter, one femal e adapter,
and several V-ri ngs (fi g. 7-4). The mal e adapter
i s the fi rst ri ng on the pressure end of the packi ng
stack and i s fl at on one si de and wedge-shaped
on the other to contai n the V of the adjacent
V-ri ng. The femal e adapter, the l ast ri ng of the
Figure 7-4.Outside packed V-ring installations.
7-5
packi ng stack, i s fl at on one si de and V-shaped
on the other to properl y support the adjacent
V-ri ng. Proper desi gn and i nstal l ati on of the
femal e adapter has si gni fi cant i mpact on the
ser vi ce l i fe and per for mance of the V-r i ngs
because the femal e adapter bri dges the cl earance
gap between the movi ng surfaces and resi sts
extrusi on.
The packi ng set i s i nstal l ed i n a cavi ty that i s
sl i ghtl y deeper than the free stack hei ght (the
nomi nal overal l hei ght of a V-ri ng packi ng set,
i ncl udi ng the mal e and femal e adapter s as
measured before i nstal l ati on) and as wi de as the
nomi nal cross secti on of the V-ri ngs. Thi s cavi ty,
cal l ed a packi ng gl and or stuffi ng box, contai ns
and supports the packi ng around the shaft, rod,
or pi ston. Adjustment of the packi ng gl and depth
through the use of shi ms or spacers i s usual l y
necessar y to obtai n the cor r ect squeeze or
cl earance on the packi ng stack for good servi ce
l i fe.
Two basi c i nstal l ati ons appl y to V-r i ng
packi ngs. The more common i s referred to as an
outsi de packed i nstal l ati on, i n whi ch the packi ng
seal s agai nst a shaft or rod, as shown i n fi gure
7-4. The i nsi de packed i nstal l ati on, i s shown as
a pi ston seal i n fi gure 7-5. When V-ri ng packi ng
i s to be used i n an i nsi de packed i nstal l ati on, onl y
endl ess ri ng packi ng shoul d be used. Where
pr essur es exi st i n both di r ecti ons, as on a
doubl e-acti ng pi ston, opposi ng sets of packi ng
Figure 7-5.Inside packed V-ring installation.
shoul d al ways be i nstal l ed so the seal i ng l i ps face
away from each other as i n fi gure 7-5. Thi s
prevents trappi ng pressure between the sets of
packi ngs. The femal e adapters i n i nsi de packed
i nstal l ati ons shoul d al ways be l ocated adjacent to
a fi xed or ri gi d part of the pi ston.
O-RINGS
An O-ri ng i s doughnut-shaped. O-ri ngs are
usual l y mol ded from rubber compounds; how-
ever, they can be mol ded or machi ned from pl asti c
materi al s. The O-ri ng i s usual l y fi tted i nto a
r ectangul ar gr oove (usual l y cal l ed a gl and)
machi ned i nto the mechani sm to be seal ed. An
O-r i ng seal consi sts of an O-r i ng mounted
i n the gl and so that the O-ri ngs cross secti on
i s compr essed (squeezed) when the gl and i s
assembl ed (fi g. 7-6).
An O-ri ng seal i ng system i s often one of the
fi rst seal i ng systems consi dered when a fl ui d
cl osur e i s desi gned because of the fol l owi ng
advantages of such a system:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Si mpl i ci ty
Ruggedness
Low cost
Ease of i nstal l ati on
Ease of mai ntenance
No adjustment requi red
No cri ti cal torque i n cl ampi ng
Figure 7-6.O-ring installed in a gland.
7-6
8.
9.
10.
11.
Low di storti on of structure
Smal l space requi rement
Rel i abi l i ty
Effecti veness over wi de pr essur e and
temperature ranges
As stated previ ousl y, O-ri ngs are used i n both
stati c (as gaskets) and dynami c (as packi ng)
appl i cati ons. An O-ri ng wi l l al most al ways be the
most sati sfactor y choi ce of seal s i n stati c
appl i cati ons i f the fl ui ds, temperatures, pressure,
and geometry permi t.
Standard O-ri ng packi ngs are not speci fi cal l y
desi gned to be used as r otar y seal s. When
i nfr equent r otar y moti on or l ow per i pher al
vel oci ty i s i nvol ved standard O-ri ng packi ngs may
be used, provi ded consi stent surface fi ni shes over
the enti re gl and are used and eccentri ci ti es are
accuratel y control l ed. O-ri ngs cannot compensate
for out-of-round or eccentri cal l y rotati ng shafts.
As rotary seal s, O-ri ngs perform sati sfactori l y
i n two appl i cati on areas:
1. I n l ow-speed appl i cati ons where the surface
speed of the shaft does not exceed 200 ft/mi n
2. I n hi gh-speed moderate-pressure appl i -
cati ons, between 50 and 800 psi
The use of l ow-fri cti on extrusi on-resi stant
devi ces i s hel pful i n prol ongi ng the l i fe and
i mprovi ng the performance of O-ri ngs used as
rotary seal s.
O-ri ngs are often used as reci procati ng seal s
i n hydraul i c and pneumati c systems. Whi l e best
sui ted for short-stroke, rel ati vel y smal l di ameter
appl i cati ons, O-ri ngs have been used successful l y
i n l ong-str oke, l ar ge di ameter appl i cati ons.
Gl ands for O-ri ngs used as reci procati ng seal s are
usual l y desi gned accordi ng to MI L-G-5514 to
provi de a squeeze that vari es from 8 to 10 percent
mi ni mum and 13.5 to 16 percent maxi mum. A
squeeze of 20 percent i s al l owed on O-ri ngs wi th
a cross secti on of 0.070-i nch or l ess. I n some
reci procati ng pneumati c appl i cati ons, a fl oati ng
O-ri ng desi gn may si mul taneousl y reduce fri cti on
and wear by mai ntai ni ng no squeeze by the gl and
on the O-ri ng. When ai r pressure enters the
cyl i nder, the ai r pressure fl attens the O-ri ng,
causi ng suffi ci ent squeeze to seal duri ng the
stroke. I f the return stroke does not use pneumati c
power, the O-ri ng returns to i ts round cross
secti on, mi ni mi zi ng drag and wear on the return
stroke.
Identification
As a mai ntenance per son or super vi sor
worki ng wi th fl ui d power systems, you must be
abl e to posi ti vel y i denti fy, i nspect, and i nstal l the
correct si ze and type of O-ri ng to ensure the best
possi bl e servi ce. These tasks can be di ffi cul t si nce
part numbers cannot be put di rectl y on the seal s
and because of the conti nual i ntroducti on of new
types of seal s and obsol escence of others. (Naval
Ships Technical Manual, chapter 078, contai ns
a tabl e that cross-references obsol ete and current
O-ri ng speci fi cati ons for shi p appl i cati ons.)
O-ri ngs are packaged i n i ndi vi dual l y seal ed
envel opes. O-ri ng seal s manufactured to govern-
ment speci fi cati ons are marked accordi ng to the
requi rements of the speci fi c mi l i tary speci fi cati on
and standard. The requi red marki ng for each
package i s as fol l ows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Nati onal stock number (NSN)
Nomencl ature
Mi l i tary part number
Materi al speci fi cati on
Manufacturers
Manufacturers
Manufactur er s
name
compound number
batch number
Contract number
Cure date
NOTE: Keep preformed packi ngs i n thei r
ori gi nal envel opes, whi ch provi de preservati on,
protecti on, i denti fi cati on, and cure date.
When you sel ect an O-ri ng for i nstal l ati on,
careful l y observe the i nformati on on the package.
I f you cannot posi ti vel y i denti fy an O-r i ng,
di scar d i t. The par t number on the seal ed
package provi des the most rel i abl e and compl ete
i denti fi cati on.
7-7
Sizes
A standar di zed dash number system for
O-ri ng si zes i s used i n many mi l i tary and i ndustri al
speci fi cati ons. The O-ri ng si ze i s i denti fi ed by a
dash number rather than the actual di mensi ons
for conveni ence. The basi s for the dash numbers
i s contai ned i n Aerospace Standard AS568. For
nongasket O-ri ngs (packi ng), the dash numbers
are di vi ded i nto groups of one hundred. Each
hundred group i denti fi es the cross secti on si ze of
the O-ri ngs wi thi n the group (tabl e 7-2).
The 900 seri es dash numbers contai ned i n
AS568 i denti fy al l the presentl y standardi zed
strai ght thread tube fi tti ng boss gaskets. Wi th the
excepti on of -901, the l ast two di gi ts of the dash
desi gnate the tube si ze i n 16ths of an i nch. For
exampl e, the -904 si ze i s for a 1/4-i nch tube.
Dimensions
The cri ti cal di mensi ons of an O-ri ng are i ts I D,
i ts cross secti onal di ameter (W), and the hei ght
and wi dth of the resi dual mol di ng fl ash (see
fi g. 7-7).
Nomi nal di mensi ons have been used to
descri be O-ri ng si zes, al though thi s practi ce i s
rapi dl y bei ng repl aced by the use of dash numbers.
The actual i nsi de di ameter of a seal wi l l be sl i ghtl y
l ess than the nomi nal I D, but the actual OD wi l l
Table 7-2.O-Ring Dash Numbers Versus Cross Section
Sizes
be sl i ghtl y l arger than the nomi nal OD. For
exampl e, an AS568-429 O-ri ng i s descri bed i n
nomi nal di mensi ons as 5 i nches I D by 5-1/2 i nches
OD by 1/4-i nch W. Actual di mensi ons are 4.975
i nches I D by 5.525 i nches OD by 0.275 i nches W.
Specifications
Mater i al and per for mance r equi r ements
for O-r i ngs ar e often i denti fi ed i n mi l i tar y
speci fi cati ons. The di mensi ons of these O-ri ngs
wi l l usual l y be found i n accompanyi ng sl ash sheets
(whi ch bear the speci fi cati on number and are a
part of the speci fi cati on) or wi l l be i denti fi ed by
vari ous drawi ngs and standards that rel ate to the
speci fi cati on. I ncl uded among the speci fi cati ons
ar e Ai r For ce-Navy Standar ds (AN), Mi l i -
tary Standards (MS), and Nati onal Aerospace
Standards (NAS). I f the speci fi cati on does not
i denti fy si zes, the si zes shoul d be i denti fi ed by the
AS568 dash number . Usual l y, you can use
drawi ngs, techni cal manual s, and al l owance parts
l i sts (APLs) to i denti fy repl acement O-ri ngs.
(Notes 2 and 3 of tabl e 7-1 l i st some of the
frequentl y used mi l i tary speci fi cati ons).
Cure Date
A cure date i s as appl i cabl e to natural or
syntheti c O-ri ngs as i t i s to rubber hoses. Thi s date
i s the basi s for determi ni ng the age of O-ri ngs.
I t i s extremel y i mportant that the cure date be
noted on al l packages.
Shelf Life and Expiration Date
Al l el astomers change gradual l y wi th age;
some change mor e r api dl y than other s. The
shel f l i fe for rubber products i s contai ned i n
MI L-HDBK-695.
Check the age of natural or syntheti c rubber
pr efor med pack i ngs befor e i nstal l ati on to
determi ne whether they are acceptabl e for use.
Make a posi ti ve i denti fi cati on, i ndi cati ng the
source, cure date, and expi rati on date. Ensure that
thi s i nformati on i s avai l abl e for al l packi ng used.
Shel f l i fe requi rements do not appl y once the
packi ng i s i nstal l ed i n a component.
The expi rati on date i s the date after whi ch
packi ng shoul d not be i nstal l ed. The expi rati on
date of al l packi ngs can be determi ned by addi ng
the shel f l i fe to the cure date.
7-8
Replacement
Fi gure 7-8 shows a typi cal O-ri ng i nstal l ati on.
When such an i nstal l ati on shows si gns of i nternal
or exter nal l eakage, the component must be
di sassembl ed and the seal s repl aced. Someti mes
components must be reseal ed because of the age
l i mi tati ons of the seal s. The O-ri ng shoul d al so
be repl aced whenever a gl and that has been i n
servi ce i s di sassembl ed and reassembl ed.
Often a poor O-ri ng i nstal l ati on begi ns when
an ol d seal i s removed. O-ri ng removal i nvol ves
worki ng wi th parts that have cri ti cal surface
fi ni shes. I f hardened-steel , poi nted, or sharp-
edged tool s are used for removal of O-ri ngs or
backup ri ngs, scratches, abrasi ons, dents, and
other deformi ti es on cri ti cal seal i ng surfaces can
resul t i n seal fai l ure whi ch, i n turn, can resul t i n
Figure 7-7.Critical dimensions of an O-ring.
mi ght scratch or mar component surfaces or
damage the O-r i ng. An O-r i ng tool k i t i s
avai l abl e i n the suppl y system for O-ri ng i n-
stal l ati on or removal . I f these tool s are not on
hand, speci al tool s can be made for thi s purpose.
A few exampl es of tool s used i n the removal
and i nstal l ati on of O-ri ngs are i l l ustrated i n
functi onal fai l ure of
When r emovi ng
not use poi nted or
the equi pment.
or i nstal l i ng O-r i ngs, do
sharp-edged tool s whi ch
Figure 7-8.Typical O-ring instalation.
7-9
fi gure 7-9. These tool s shoul d be fabri cated from
soft metal such as brass or al umi num; however,
tool s made from phenol i c rod, wood, or pl asti c
may al so be used.
Tool surfaces must be wel l rounded, pol i shed,
and free of burrs. Check the tool s often, especi al l y
the surfaces that come i n contact wi th O-ri ng
grooves and cri ti cal pol i shed surfaces.
Noti ce i n fi gur e 7-9, vi ew A, how the
hook-type removal tool i s posi ti oned under the
O-ri ng and then l i fted to al l ow the extractor tool ,
as wel l as the removal tool , to pul l the O-ri ng from
i ts cavi ty. Vi ew B shows the use of another type
of extractor tool i n the removal of i nternal l y
i nstal l ed O-ri ngs.
I n vi ew C, noti ce the extractor tool posi ti oned
under both O-ri ngs at the same ti me. Thi s method
of mani pul ati ng the tool posi ti ons both O-ri ngs,
whi ch al l ows the hook-type r emoval tool to
extract both O-ri ngs wi th mi ni mum effort. Vi ew
D shows practi cal l y the same removal as vi ew C,
except for the use of a di fferent type of extractor
tool .
The removal of external O-ri ngs i s l ess di ffi cul t
than the removal of i nternal l y i nstal l ed O-ri ngs.
Vi ews E and F show the use of a spoon-type
extractor, whi ch i s posi ti oned under the seal . After
the O-r i ng i s di sl odged fr om i ts cavi ty, the
spoon i s hel d stati onary whi l e the pi ston i s
si mul taneousl y rotated and wi thdrawn. Vi ew F
i s si mi l ar to vi ew E, except that onl y one O-ri ng
i s i nstal l ed, and a di fferent type of extractor tool
i s used. The wedge-type extractor tool i s i nserted
beneath the O-ri ng; the hook-type removal tool
hooks the O-ri ng. A sl i ght pul l on the l atter tool
removes the O-ri ng from i ts cavi ty.
After removi ng al l O-ri ngs, cl eani ng of the
affected parts that wi l l recei ve new O-ri ngs i s
Figure 7-9.O-ring tools and O-ring removal.
7-10
mandatory. Ensure that the area used for such
i n s tal l ati on s i s cl ean an d fr ee fr om al l
contami nati on.
Remove each O-ri ng that i s to be i nstal l ed
from i ts seal ed package and i nspect i t for defects
such as bl emi shes, abrasi ons, cuts, or punctures.
Al though an O-ri ng may appear perfect at fi rst
gl ance, sl i ght surface fl aws may exi st. These are
often capabl e of preventi ng sati sfactory O-ri ng
performance. O-ri ngs shoul d be rejected for fl aws
that wi l l affect thei r performance.
By rol l i ng the ri ng on an i nspecti on cone or
dowel , the i nner di ameter surface can be checked
for smal l cracks, parti cl es of forei gn materi al , and
other i rregul ari ti es that wi l l cause l eakage or
shorten i ts l i fe. The sl i ght stretchi ng of the ri ng
when i t i s rol l ed i nsi de out wi l l hel p to reveal some
defects not otherwi se vi si bl e. A further check of
each O-ri ng shoul d be made by stretchi ng i t
between the fi ngers, but care must be taken not to
exceed the el asti c l i mi ts of the rubber. Fol l owi ng
these i nspecti on practi ces wi l l prove to be a
mai ntenance economy. I t i s far more desi rabl e to
take care i denti fyi ng and i nspecti ng O-ri ngs than to
repeatedl y overhaul components wi th faul ty seal s.
After i nspecti on and pri or to i nstal l ati on,
l ubri cate the O-ri ng, and al l the surfaces that i t
must sl i de over wi th a l i ght coat of the system fl ui d
or a l ubri cant approved for use i n the system.
Consul t the appl i cabl e techni cal i nstructi on or
Naval Ships Technical Manual for the correct
l ubri cant for pneumati c systems.
Assembl y must be made wi th care so that the
O-ri ng i s properl y pl aced i n the groove and not
damaged as the gl and i s cl osed. Duri ng some
i nstal l ati ons, such as on a pi ston, i t wi l l be
necessary to stretch the O-ri ng. Stretch the O-ri ng
as l i ttl e and as uni forml y as possi bl e. Avoi d rol l i ng
or twi sti ng the O-ri ng when maneuveri ng i t i nto
pl ace. Keep the posi ti on of the O-ri ng mol d l i ne
constant. O-ri ngs shoul d not be l eft i n a twi sted
condi ti on after i nstal l ati on.
I f the O-ri ng i nstal l ati on requi res spanni ng or
i nserti ng through sharp-threaded areas, ri dges,
sl ots, and edges, use protecti ve measures, such as
the O-ri ng enteri ng sl eeve (fi g. 7-10, vi ew A). I f
Figure 7-10.O-ring installation.
7-11
the recommended O-ri ng enteri ng sl eeve (a soft,
thi n wal l , metal l i c sl eeve) i s not avai l abl e, paper
sl eeves and covers may be fabri cated by usi ng the
seal package (gl ossy si de out) or l i nt-free bond
paper (see vi ews B and C of fi g. 7-10).
After you pl ace the O-r i ng i n the cavi ty
provi ded, gentl y rol l the O-ri ng wi th your fi ngers
to remove any twi st that mi ght have occurred
duri ng the i nstal l ati on. After i nstal l ati on, an
O-ri ng shoul d seat snugl y but freel y i n i ts groove.
I f backup ri ngs are i nstal l ed i n the groove, be
certai n the backup ri ngs are i nstal l ed on the
correct si de of the ri ng.
BACKUP RINGS
Backup ri ngs, al so referred to as retai ner ri ngs,
anti extrusi on devi ces, and nonextrusi on ri ngs, are
washer-l i ke devi ces that are i nstal l ed on the
l ow-pressure si de of packi ng to prevent extrusi on
of the packi ng materi al . Backup ri ngs i n dynami c
seal s mi ni mi ze erosi on of the packi ng materi al s
and subsequent fai l ure of the seal . At l ower
pressures, backup ri ngs wi l l prol ong the normal
wear l i fe of the packi ng. At hi gher pressures,
backup ri ngs permi t greater cl earances between
the movi ng parts. Normal l y, backup ri ngs are
requi red for operati ng pressures over 1500 psi .
Backup r i ngs can be made of pol ytetr a-
fl uoroethyl ene, hard rubber, l eather, and other
materi al s. The most common materi al currentl y
used i s tetrafl uoroethyl ene (TFE). Backup ri ngs
are avai l abl e as si ngl e-turn conti nuous (uncut or
sol i d), si ngl e-turn (bi as) cut, and spi ral cut. See
fi gure 7-11. Leather ri ngs are al ways furni shed i n
sol i d r i ng for m (unspl i t). Ri ngs of TFE ar e
avai l abl e i n al l three types.
Packaging and Storing
Backup ri ngs are not col or-coded or otherwi se
marked and must be i denti fi ed from the packagi ng
l abel s. The dash number fol l owi ng the mi l i tary
standard number found on the package i ndi cates
the si ze, and usual l y rel ates di rectl y to the dash
number of the O-ri ngs for whi ch the backup ri ng
i s di mensi onal l y sui ted. Backup ri ngs made of
TFE do not deteri orate wi th age and do not have
shel f l i fe l i mi tati ons. TFE backup r i ngs ar e
provi ded by manufacturer ei ther i n i ndi vi dual l y
seal ed packages or on mandrel s. I f unpackaged
ri ngs are stored for a l ong ti me wi thout the use
of mandrel s, a condi ti on of overl ap may devel op.
Overl ap occurs when the I D of the backup ri ng
becomes smal l er and i ts ends overl ap each other.
To correct thi s overl ap condi ti on, stack TFE ri ngs
on a mandrel of the correct di ameter, and cl amp
the ri ngs wi th thei r coi l s fl at and paral l el . Pl ace
the ri ngs i n an oven at a maxi mum temperature
of 177
0
C (350
0
F) for approxi matel y 10 mi nutes.
Do not over heat them because fumes fr om
decompos i n g TFE ar e tox i c. Remov e an d
water-quench the ri ngs. Store the ri ngs at room
temperature before you use them (preferabl y for
48 hours).
Installation
Care must be taken i n handl i ng and i nstal l i ng
backup ri ngs. Do not i nsert them wi th sharp
tool s. Backup r i ngs must be i nspected pr i or
to usi ng them for evi dence of compr essi on
damage, scratches, cuts, ni cks, or frayed con-
di ti ons. I f O-ri ngs are to be repl aced where
backup ri ngs are i nstal l ed i n the same groove,
never r epl ace the O-r i ng wi thout r epl aci ng
the backup ri ngs, or vi ce versa. Many seal s
use two backup ri ngs, one on ei ther si de of the
O-ri ng (fi g. 7-12). Two backup ri ngs are used
pri mari l y i n si tuati ons (such as a reci procati ng
pi ston seal ) where al ternati ng pressure di recti on
can cause packi ng to be extruded on both si des
of the gl and.
Figure 7-11.Types of backup rings.
7-12
Figure 7-12.Backup ring configuration.
I f onl y one backup ri ng i s used, pl ace the
backup r i ng on the l ow-pr essur e si de of the
packi ng (fi g. 7-13, vi ew A). When a backup ri ng
i s pl aced on the hi gh-pressure si de of the packi ng,
the pressure agai nst the rel ati vel y hard surface of
the backup ri ng forces the softer packi ng agai nst
the l ow-pressure si de of the gl and, resul ti ng i n a
rapi d fai l ure due to extrusi on (fi g. 7-13, vi ew B).
When dual backup ri ngs are i nstal l ed, stagger
the spl i t scarfed ends as shown i n fi gure 7-14.
When i nstal l i ng a spi ral cut backup ri ng (MS28782
or MS28783), be sure to wi nd the ri ng correctl y
to ease i nstal l ati on and ensure opti mum per-
for mance.
When TFE spi ral ri ngs are bei ng i nstal l ed i n
i nternal grooves, the ri ng must have a ri ght-hand
Figure 7-13.Location of a single backup ring.
Figure 7-14.Installation of cut dual backup rings.
7-13
Figure 7-15.Installation of TFE back up rings (internal).
7-14
spi ral . Fi gure 7-15, vi ew A, shows how to change
the di recti on of the spi ral . The ri ng i s then
stretched sl i ghtl y, as shown i n vi ew B pri or to
i nstal l ati on i nto the groove. Whi l e the TFE ri ng
i s bei ng i nserted i nto the groove, rotate the
component i n a cl ockwi se di recti on. Thi s wi l l tend
to expand the ri ng di ameter and reduce the
possi bi l i ty of damagi ng the ri ng.
When TFE spi ral ri ngs are bei ng i nstal l ed i n
external grooves, the ri ng shoul d have a l eft-hand
spi ral . As the ri ng i s bei ng i nserted i nto the
gr oove, r otate the component i n a cl ockwi se
di recti on. Thi s acti on wi l l tend to contract the ri ng
di ameter and reduce the possi bi l i ty of damagi ng
the ri ng.
I n appl i cati ons where a l eather backup ri ng
i s cal l ed for, pl ace the smooth-grai ned si de of the
l eather next to the ri ng. Do not cut l eather backup
ri ngs. Use a l eather backup ri ng as one conti nuous
ri ng and l ubri cate the ri ng pri or to i nstal l i ng i t,
parti cul arl y the smal l er si zes. I f stretchi ng i s
necessary for proper i nstal l ati on, soak the backup
ri ng i n the system fl ui d or i n an acceptabl e
l ubri cant at room temperature for at l east 30
mi nutes.
or two backup ri ngs, dependi ng upon the speci fi c
seal groove appl i cati on and wi dth. The Quad-
Ri ngseal works wel l i n, both hydraul i c and
pneumati c systems.
Many Quad-Ri ng seal si zes have been
assi gned NSNs and are stocked i n the Federal
Suppl y System. Quad-Ri ngseal s i n manu-
facturers si zes desi gnated as Q1 through Q88 are
i nter changeabl e wi th O-r i ngs confor mi ng to
AN6227. Li kewi se, Quad-Ri ngseal s i n com-
mer ci al si zes Q101 thr ough Q152 ar e i nter -
changeabl e wi th O-ri ngs conformi ng to AN6230
i n the respecti ve dash si zes from 1 through52.
Ther efor e, the Quad-Ri ng seal stock par t
number uses the AN standard O-ri ng desi gnati ons
AN6227 and AN6230 and the commerci al Q dash
number desi gnati on. For exampl e, NSNs are
found under such reference part numbers as
AN6227Q10 and AN6230Q103. I f the l etter Q
does not fol l ow AN6227 or AN6230, the part
number i s an O-ri ng not a Quad-Ri ngseal .
I f Quad-Ri ngseal s are not avai l abl e for
mai ntenance acti ons, appropri ate si zed O-ri ngs
can be i nstal l ed and they work sati sfactori l y.
QUAD-O-DYN SEALS
QUAD-RINGS
The Quad-Ri ngseal i s a speci al confi gura-
ti on ri ng packi ng, manufactured by the Mi nnesota
Rubber . As opposed to an O-r i ng, a Quad-
Ri ngseal has a more square cross-secti onal
shape wi th rounded corners (fi g. 7-16). The Quad-
Ri ngseal desi gn offers more stabi l i ty than the
O-r i ng desi gn and pr acti cal l y el i mi nates the
spi ral i ng or twi sti ng that i s someti mes encountered
wi th the O-ri ng.
Quad-Ri ngs seal s ar e compl etel y i nter -
changeabl e wi th O-ri ngs i n the si zes offered by
the manufacturer. They may be i nstal l ed wi th one
The Quad-O-Dyn, al so manufactur ed by
Mi nnesota Rubber , i s a speci al for m of the
Quad-Ri ng. The Quad-O-Dyn di ffers from the
Quad-Ri ng i n confi gurati on (fi g. 7-17), i s harder,
i s subject to greater squeeze, and i s made of a
di fferent materi al . The Quad-O-Dynseal al so
works wel l i n O-ri ngs gl ands.
The Quad-O-Dyni s used i n rel ati vel y few
appl i cati ons. However , for di ffi cul t dynami c
seal i ng appl i cati ons, the Quad-O-Dyn can
perform better than the Quad-Ri ng. Quad-O-
Dynri ngs are i nstal l ed i n submari ne hydraul i c
systems pl ant accumul ators.
Figure 7-16.Quad-Ring.
7-15
Figure 7-17.Quad-O-Dyn seal.
U-CUPS AND U-PACKINGS
Th e di s ti n cti on between U -cu ps a n d
U-packi ngs resul ts from the di fference i n materi al s
used i n thei r fabri cati on. The U-cup i s usual l y
made of h omogen eou s s y n th eti c r u bber ;
U-packi ngs are usual l y made of l eather or fabri c-
rei nforced rubber. Speci al aspects of each type wi l l
be di scussed separatel y. However, al l U-cups and
U-packi ngs have cross secti ons resembl i ng the
l etter U. Both types are bal anced packi ngs, both
seal on the I D and the OD, and both are appl i ed
i ndi vi dual l y, not i n stacks l i ke V-ri ngs. Si ze
di fferences between U-cups and U-packi ngs are
usual l y substanti al enough to pr event i nter -
changeabi l i ty. There are a few si zes wi th smal l er
di ameters and cross secti ons that may appear
to be di mensi onal l y equi val ent but ar e not.
Therefore, U-packi ngs shoul d not be substi tuted
for U-cups (or vi ce versa) i n any i nstal l ati on.
U-CUPS
The U-cup (fi g. 7-18) has been a popul ar
packi ng i n the past because of i nstal l ati on ease
and l ow fri cti on. U-cups are used pri mari l y for
pressures bel ow 1500 psi , but hi gher pressures are
possi bl e wi th the use of anti extrusi on ri ngs. For
doubl e-acti ng pi stons, two U-cups are i nstal l ed
i n separate grooves, back-to-back or heel -to-heel .
Two U-cups are never used i n the same groove.
Thi s heel -to-heel type of i nstal l ati on i s common
for si ngl e-acti ng (monodi recti onal ) seal s, such as
U-cups and V-ri ngs, and i s necessary to prevent
a pressure trap (hydraul i c l ock) between two
packi ngs. I nstal l ati on of two U-cups wi th seal i ng
l i ps faci ng each other can resul t i n hydraul i c l ock
and must be avoi ded.
Leather U-Packings
As a rul e, l eather U-packi ngs are made wi th
strai ght si de wal l s (no fl ared seal i ng l i ps). See
fi gure 7-19. The l eather may be chemi cal l y treated
or otherwi se i mpregnated to i mprove i ts per-
formance. Leather U-packi ngs are avai l abl e i n
standard si zes conformi ng to i ndustri al speci fi ca-
ti ons. For support, the cavi ty of the U-packi ng
shoul d contai n a metal pedestal ri ng or shoul d be
fi l l ed wi th a sui tabl e materi al . Leather U-packi ngs
wi th an i ntegral pedestal support have been
i nstal l ed i n some submari ne steeri ng and di vi ng
ram pi ston seal s.
CUP PACKINGS
Cup packi ngs resembl e a cup or deep di sh wi th
a hol e i n the center for mounti ng (fi g. 7-20). Cup
seal s are used excl usi vel y to seal pi stons i n both
l ow- and hi gh-pr essur e hydr aul i c and pneu-
mati c servi ce. They are produced i n l eather,
homogeneous syntheti c r ubber , and fabr i c-
rei nforced syntheti c rubber. Al though the cup
packi ng l i p fl ares outward, the rubbi ng contact
i s made at the l i p onl y when the fl ui d pressure i s
l ow. As the fl ui d pressure i ncreases, the cup heel
expands outward unti l i t contacts the cyl i nder
wal l , at whi ch poi nt hi gh-pressure seal i ng i s i n
effect. As the pressure l oadi ng shi fts the seal i ng
l i ne to the cup heel , the l i p i s actual l y pul l ed i nto
the cup and away from the cyl i nder wal l . On the
return stroke when the pressure i s rel axed, the heel
wi l l shri nk sl i ghtl y, l eavi ng onl y the l i p i n contact
wi th the wal l , avoi di ng unnecessary wear at the
heel .
For reci procati ng pi stons, two cups i nstal l ed
back-to-back i n separate gl ands are requi red.
FLANGE PACKINGS
Fl ange packi ngs are used excl usi vel y i n l ow-
pressure, outsi de-packed i nstal l ati ons, such as rod
Figure 7-18.Typical U-cup seal. Figure 7-19.U-packing.
7-16
Figure 7-20.Cup packing.
seal s. The fl ange
made of l eather,
(someti mes cal l ed
fabri c-rei nforced
the hat) i s
r ubber , or
homogeneous rubber. Li p seal i ng occurs onl y on
the packi ng I D (fi g. 7-21). Fl ange packi ngs are
general l y used onl y for rod seal s when other
packi ngs such as V-ri ngs or U-seal s cannot be
used.
DIRT EXCLUSION SEALS
(WIPERS AND SCRAPERS)
Di r t excl usi on devi ces ar e essenti al i f a
sati sfactory l i fe i s to be obtai ned from most rod
seal s. The smooth fi ni shed movi ng rod surface,
i f not encl osed or protected by some sort of
coveri ng, wi l l accumul ate a coati ng of dust or
abrasi ve materi al that wi l l be dragged or carri ed
i nto the packi ng assembl y area on the return rod
stroke. Excl usi on devi ces cal l ed wi pers or scrapers
are desi gned to remove thi s coati ng. Whi l e the
ter ms wi per an d scr aper ar e often u s ed
i nterchangeabl y, i t i s useful to reserve scraper
Figure 7-21.Typical flange packing cross section.
for metal l i p-type devi ces that remove heavi l y
encr usted deposi ts of di r t or other abr asi ve
materi al that woul d merel y defl ect a softer l i p and
be carri ed i nto the cyl i nder. Someti mes a rod wi l l
have both a scraper and a wi per, the former to
remove heavy deposi ts and the l atter to excl ude
any dust parti cl es that remai n. Whenever metal l i c
scrapers are used wi th fel t wi pers i n the same
groove, the fel t wi per must not be compressed nor
restri cted i n any way that affects i ts functi on as
a l ubri cator. A wi per i nstal l ed i n a seal assembl y
i n a pneumati c appl i cati on may remove too much
oi l fr om the r od, r equi r i ng some method of
repl aci ng the oi l . A common remedy i s to provi de
a peri odi cal l y oi l ed fel t ri ng between the wi per
and the seal . Fel t wi pers provi de l ubri cati on
to extended oper ati ng r ods, thus i ncr easi ng
component wear l i fe. These wi pers are onl y used
to provi de l ubri cati on to parts.
Much l onger l i fe coul d be obtai ned from most
seal s i f proper attenti on were gi ven to wi pers and
scrapers. Often, wi per or scraper fai l ure i s not
noti ced when a seal packi ng fai l s. As a resul t, onl y
the packi ng i s repl aced, and the same worn wi per
or scr aper i s r ei nstal l ed to destr oy another
packi ng. Check the wi per or scraper condi ti on
upon i ts removal . I f the wi per i s worn, di rty, or
embedded wi th metal l i c parti cl es, repl ace i t wi th
a new one. I t i s usual l y good practi ce to repl ace
the wi per every ti me you repl ace the seal and even
more frequentl y i f the wi per i s readi l y accessi bl e
wi thout component di sassembl y. I f repl acements
are not avai l abl e, wash di rty wi pers that are sti l l
i n good condi ti on wi th sui tabl e sol vent and
rei nstal l them. Remember that a wi per or scraper
i s del i ber atel y i nstal l ed as a sacr i fi ci al par t
to protect and preserve the seal i ng packi ng.
Therefore, from a users standpoi nt, wi pers and
scrapers shoul d be i nspected and repl aced as
necessary.
STORAGE OF SEALS
Proper storage practi ces must be observed to
prevent deformati on and deteri orati on of seal s.
Most syntheti c r ubber s ar e not damaged by
storage under i deal condi ti ons. However, most
syntheti c rubbers wi l l deteri orate when exposed
to heat, l i ght, oi l , grease, fuel s, sol vents, thi nners,
moi sture, strong drafts, or ozone (form of oxygen
formed from an el ectri cal di scharge). Damage by
exposure i s magni fi ed when rubber i s under
tensi on, compressi on, or stress. There are several
7-17
condi ti ons to be avoi ded, whi ch i ncl ude the
fol l owi ng:
1. Defor mati on as a r esul t of i mpr oper
stacki ng of parts and storage contai ners.
2. Creasi ng caused by force appl i ed to corners
and edges, and by squeezi ng between boxes and
storage contai ners.
3. Compressi on and fl atteni ng, as a resul t of
storage under heavy parts.
4. Punctures caused by stapl es used to attach
i denti fi cati on.
5. Deformati on and contami nati on due to
hangi ng the seal s from nai l s or pegs. Seal s shoul d
be kept i n thei r ori gi nal envel opes, whi ch provi de
preservati on, protecti on, i denti fi cati on, and cure
date.
6. Contami nati on by pi er ci ng the seal ed
envel ope to store O-ri ngs on rods, nai l s, or wi re
hangi ng devi ces.
7. Contami nati on by fl ui ds l eaki ng from parts
stored above and adjacent to the seal surfaces.
8. Contami nati on caused by adhesi ve tapes
appl i ed to seal surfaces. A torn seal package
shoul d be secur ed wi th a pr essur e-sensi ti ve
moi stureproof tape, but the tape must not contact
the seal surfaces.
9. Retenti on of overage parts as a resul t
of i mproper storage arrangement or i l l egi bl e
i denti fi cati on. Seal s shoul d be arranged so the
ol der seal s are used fi rst.
7-18
CHAPTER 8
MEASUREMENT AND PRESSURE
CONTROL DEVICES
For safe and effi ci ent operati on, fl ui d power
systems are desi gned to operate at a speci fi c
pressure and/or temperature, or wi thi n a pressure
and/or temperature range.
You have l earned that the l ubri cati ng power
of hydraul i c fl ui ds vari es wi th temperature and
that excessi vel y hi gh temperatures reduce the l i fe
of hydr aul i c fl ui ds. Addi ti onal l y, you have
l ear ned that the mater i al s, di mensi ons, and
method of fabri cati on of fl ui d power components
l i mi t the pressure and temperature at whi ch a
system operates. You have al so l earned of means
of automati cal l y control l i ng pressure i n both
hydraul i c and pneumati c systems.
Most fl ui d power systems are provi ded wi th
pressure gauges and thermometers for measuri ng
and i ndi cati ng the pressure and/or the tempera-
ture i n the system. Addi ti onal l y, vari ous tempera-
ture and pressure swi tches are used to warn of an
adverse pressure or temperature condi ti on. Some
swi tches wi l l even shut the system off when an
adverse condi ti on occurs. These devi ces wi l l be
di scussed i n thi s chapter.
PRESSURE GAUGES
Many pressure-measuri ng i nstruments are
cal l ed gauges. However , thi s secti on wi l l be
restri cted to two mechani cal i nstruments that
contai n el asti c el ements that respond to pressures
found i n fl ui d power systemsthe Bourdon-tube
and bel l ows gauges.
BOURDON TUBE GAUGES
The majori ty of pressure gauges i n use have
a Bourdon-tube as a measuri ng el ement. (The
gauge i s named for i ts i nventor, Eugene Bourdon,
a French engi neer.) The Bourdon tube i s a devi ce
that senses pressure and converts the pressure to
di spl acement. Si nce the Bourdon-tube di spl ace-
ment i s a functi on of the pressure appl i ed, i t may
be mechani cal l y ampl i fi ed and i ndi cated by a
poi nter. Thus, the poi nter posi ti on i ndi rectl y
i ndi cates pressure.
The Bour don-tube gauge i s avai l abl e i n
vari ous tube shapes: curved or C-shaped, hel i cal ,
and spi ral . The si ze, shape, and materi al of the
tube depend on the pressure range and the type
of gauge desi red. Low-pressure Bourdon tubes
(pressures up to 2000 psi ) are often made of
phosphor bronze. Hi gh-pressure Bourdon tubes
(pressures above 2000 psi ) are made of stai nl ess
steel or other hi gh-strength materi al s. Hi gh-
pressure Bourdon tubes tend to have more ci rcul ar
cross secti ons than thei r l ower-range counterparts,
whi ch tend to have oval cr oss secti ons. The
Bour don tube most commonl y used i s the
C-shaped metal tube that i s seal ed at one end and
open at the other (fi g. 8-1).
Figure 8-1.Simplex Bourdon-tube pressure gauge.
8-1
C-shaped Bourdon Tube
The C-shaped Bourdon tube has a hol l ow,
el l i pti cal cross secti on. I t i s cl osed at one end and
i s connected to the fl ui d pressure at the other end.
When pr essur e i s appl i ed, i ts cr oss secti on
becomes mor e ci r cul ar , causi ng the tube to
strai ghten out, l i ke a garden hose when the water
i s fi rst turned on, unti l the force of the fl ui d
pressure i s bal anced by the el asti c resi stance of
the tube materi al . Si nce the open end of the tube
i s anchored i n a fi xed posi ti on, changes i n pressure
move the cl osed end. A poi nter i s attached to the
cl osed end of the tube through a l i nkage arm and
a gear and pi ni on assembl y, whi ch rotates the
poi nter around a graduated scal e.
Bour don-tube pr essur e gauges ar e often
cl assi fi ed as si mpl ex or dupl ex, dependi ng upon
whether they measur e one pr essur e or two
pressures. A si mpl ex gauge has onl y one Bourdon
tube and measures onl y one pressure. The pressure
gauge shown i n fi gure 8-1 i s a si mpl ex gauge. A
red hand i s avai l abl e on some gauges. Thi s hand
i s manual l y posi ti oned at the maxi mum operati ng
pressure of the system or porti on of the system
i n whi ch the gauge i s i nstal l ed.
When two Bourdon tubes are mounted i n
a si ngl e case, wi th each mechani sm acti ng
i ndependentl y but wi th the two poi nters mounted
on a common di al , the assembl y i s cal l ed a dupl ex
gauge. Fi gure 8-2 shows a dupl ex gauge wi th vi ews
of the di al and the operati ng mechani sm. Note
that each Bourdon tube has i ts own pressure
connecti on and i ts own poi nter. Dupl ex gauges
are used to gi ve a si mul taneous i ndi cati on of the
pr essur e fr om two di ffer ent l ocati ons. For
exampl e, i t may be used to measure the i nl et and
outl et pr essur es of a str ai ner to obtai n the
di fferenti al pressure across i t.
Di fferenti al pressure may al so be measured
wi th Bourdon-tube gauges. One ki nd of Bourdon-
tube di fferenti al pressure gauge i s shown i n
fi gure 8-3. Thi s gauge has two Bourdon tubes
but onl y one poi nter. The Bourdon tubes are
connected i n such a way that they i ndi cate the
pressure di fference, rather than ei ther of two
actual pressures.
As menti oned earl i er, Bourdon-tube pressure
gauges are used i n many hydraul i c systems. I n thi s
appl i cati on they ar e usual l y r efer r ed to as
hydraul i c gauges. Bourdon-tube hydraul i c gauges
are not parti cul arl y di fferent from other types of
Bour don-tube gauges i n how they oper ate;
however, they do someti mes have speci al desi gn
features because of the extremel y hi gh system
pressures to whi ch they may be exposed. For
Figure 8-2.Duplex Bourdon-tube pressure gauge.
8-2
Figure 8-3.Bourdon-tube differential pressure gauge.
exampl e, some hydraul i c gauges have a speci al
type of spri ng-l oaded l i nkage that i s capabl e of
taki ng overpressure and underpressure wi thout
damage to the movement and that keeps the
poi nter from sl ammi ng back to zero when the
pressure i s suddenl y changed. A hydraul i c gauge
that does not have such a devi ce must be protected
by a sui tabl e check val ve. Some hydraul i c gauges
may al so have speci al di al s that i ndi cate both the
pressure (i n psi ) and the correspondi ng total force
bei ng appl i ed, for exampl e tons of force produced
by a hydraul i c press.
Spiral and Helical Bourdon Tubes
Spi ral and hel i cal Bourdon tubes (fi gs. 8-4 and
8-5) are made from tubi ng wi th a fl attened cross
Figure 8-4.Spiral Bourdon tube.
secti on. Both were desi gned to provi de more travel
of the tube ti p, pri mari l y for movi ng the recordi ng
pen of pressure recorders.
BELLOWS ELASTIC ELEMENTS
A bel l ows el asti c el ement i s a convol uted uni t
that expands and contracts axi al l y wi th changes
i n pressure. The pressure to be measured can be
appl i ed to ei ther the outsi de or the i nsi de of the
bel l ows; i n practi ce, most bel l ows measuri ng
Figure 8-5.Helical Bourdon tube.
8-3
Figure 8-6.Simple bellows gauge.
devi ces have the pressure appl i ed to the outsi de
of the bel l ows (fi g. 8-6).
Simple Bellows Elements
Bel l ows el asti c el ements are made of brass,
phosphor br onze, stai nl ess steel , beryl l i um-
copper, or other metal sui tabl e for the i ntended
servi ce of the gauge. Moti on of the el ement
(bel l ows) i s transmi tted by sui tabl e l i nkage and
gears to a di al poi nter. Most bel l ows gauges are
spr i ng-l oadedthat i s, a spr i ng opposes the
bel l ows and thus prevents ful l expansi on of the
bel l ows. Li mi ti ng the expansi on of the bel l ows i n
thi s way protects the bel l ows and prol ongs i ts l i fe.
Because of the el asti ci ty i n both the bel l ows and
the spri ng i n a spri ng-l oaded bel l ows el ement, the
rel ati onshi p between the appl i ed pressure and
bel l ows movement i s l i near.
Dual Bellows Indicators
Another type of bel l ows el ement i s the dual -
bel l ows el ement. Fi gure 8-7 i s a schemati c di agram
of thi s i ndi cator. Dual -bel l ows el ement pressure
i ndi cators are used throughout the Navy as fl ow-
measuri ng, l evel -i ndi cati ng, or pressure-i ndi cati ng
devi ces.
Figure 8-7.Differential pressure sensor dual bellows.
8-4
Figure 8-8.Dual bellows assembly.
When i n operati on, the bel l ows wi l l move i n
proporti on to the di fference i n pressure appl i ed
across the bel l ows uni t assembl y. The l i near
moti on of the bel l ows i s pi cked up by a dri ve arm
and transmi tted as a rotary moti on through a
torque tube assembl y (fi g. 8-8). The i ndi cati ng
mechani sm mul ti pl i es rotati on of the torque tube
through a gear and pi ni on to the i ndi cati ng
poi nter.
Bel l ows el ements are used i n vari ous appl i -
cati ons where the pressure-sensi ti ve devi ce must
be power ful enough to oper ate not onl y the
i ndi cati ng poi nter but al so some type of recordi ng
devi ce.
PRESSURE SWITCHES
Often when a measured pressure reaches a
certai n maxi mum or mi ni mum val ue, i t i s desi r-
abl e to have an al arm sound a warni ng, a l i ght
to gi ve a si gnal , or an auxi l i ary control system to
energi ze or de-energi ze. A pressure swi tch i s the
devi ce commonl y used for thi s purpose.
One of the si mpl est pressure swi tches i s the
si ngl e-pol e, si ngl e-throw, qui ck-acti ng type shown
i n fi gure 8-9. Thi s swi tch i s contai ned i n a metal
Figure 8-9.Typical pressure switch.
8-5
case that has a removabl e cover, an el ectri cal
connecti on, and a pressure-sensi ng connecti on.
The swi tch contai ns a seaml ess metal l i c bel l ows
l ocated i n i ts housi ng. Changes i n the measured
pressure causes the bel l ows to work agai nst an
adjustabl e spri ng. Thi s spri ng determi nes the
pressure requi red to actuate the swi tch. Through
sui tabl e l i nkage, the spri ng causes the contacts to
open or cl ose the el ectri cal ci rcui t automati cal l y
when the operati ng pressure fal l s bel ow or ri ses
above a speci fi ed val ue. A permanent magnet i n
the swi tch mechani sm provi des a posi ti ve snap on
both the openi ng and cl osi ng of the contacts. The
swi tch i s constantl y energi zed. However, i t i s the
cl osi ng of the contacts that energi zes the enti re
el ectri cal ci rcui t.
Another pr essur e swi tch i s an el ectr i c-
hydraul i c assembl y that i s used for shutti ng off
the pumps motor whenever the system pressure
exceeds a pre-determi ned maxi mum val ue (fi g.
8-10). The swi tch i s mounted on the pump housi ng
so that the formers l ow pressure ports drai n
di rectl y i nto the pump housi ng.
Thi s pressure swi tch pri nci pal l y consi sts of a
fl ange-mounted hydraul i c val ve to whi ch i s fi xed
a normal l y cl osed el ectri cal l i mi t swi tch.
The val ve consi sts of two hydr aul i cal l y
i nterconnected components, the pi l ot val ve sub-
assembl y, whi ch bol ts on the bottom of the
body (l ), functi ons to sense system pr essur e
conti nuousl y and i ni ti ates pressure swi tch acti on
whenever thi s pressure exceeds the adjusted setti ng
of the pi l ot adjustment. System pr essur e i s
di rected i nto the bottom port and i s appl i ed
agai nst the exposed ti p of the pi l ot pi ston (5). Thi s
pi ston i s hel d on i ts seat by compressi on from the
pi ston spri ng (6) whi ch i s dependent on the
posi ti on of the adjusti ng screw (8). Whenever the
pressure causes a force suffi ci entl y l arge enough
to rai se the pi l ot pi ston from i ts seat, fl ui d
fl ows through an i nterconnecti ng passage to the
actuati ng pi ston (2) chamber. The accompanyi ng
fl ui d force rai ses the actuati ng pi ston agai nst the
for ce of spr i ng 3 and causes depr essi on of
the extended swi tch pl unger . Thi s, i n tur n,
di sconnects the contai ned el ectri cal swi tch, whi ch
may be connected i nto the pump motors el ectri c
suppl y system.
Pressure swi tches come i n many si zes and
confi gurati ons dependi ng on how they wi l l be
used.
Figure 8-10.Electric-hydraulic pressure switch.
TEMPERATURE-MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS
Temper atur e i s the degr ee of hotness or
col dness of a substance measured on a defi ni te
scal e. Temperature i s measured when a measuri ng
i nstrument, such as a thermometer, i s brought
i nto contact wi th the medi um bei ng measured.
Al l temperature-measuri ng i nstruments use
some change i n a materi al to i ndi cate temperature.
Some of the effects that are used to i ndi cate
temperature are changes i n physi cal properti es and
al tered physi cal di mensi ons. One of the more
i mportant physi cal properti es used i n temperature-
measuri ng i nstruments i s the change i n the l ength
of a mater i al i n the for m of expansi on and
contracti on.
Consi der the uni for m homogeneous bar
i l l ustrated i n fi gure 8-11. I f the bar has a gi ven
8-6
Figure 8-11.Expansion of a bar.
l ength (L
O
) at some temperature and i s heated, i t
wi l l expand (L
f
). The amount of expansi on (AL)
i s a functi on of the or i gi nal l ength and the
temperature i ncrease. The amount a materi al
changes i n l ength wi th temperature i s cal l ed the
l i near coeffi ci ent of expansi on.
The l i near coeffi ci ent of expansi on for a
materi al i s a physi cal property of that materi al
and descr i bes i ts behavi or wi th r espect to
temper atur e.
BIMETALLIC EXPANSION
THERMOMETER
I f two materi al s wi th di fferent l i near coef-
fi ci ents are bonded together, as the temperature
changes thei r rate of expansi on wi l l be di fferent.
Thi s wi l l cause the enti re assembl y to bend i n an
arc as shown i n fi gure 8-12.
When the temperature i s rai sed, an arc i s
formed around the materi al wi th the smal l er
expansi on coeffi ci ent. Si nce thi s assembl y i s
formed by joi ni ng two di ssi mi l ar materi al s, i t i s
known as a bi metal l i c el ement.
A modi fi cati on of thi s bi metal l i c stri p serves
as the basi s for one of the si mpl est and most
commonl y encountered temperature-measuri ng
i nstruments, the bi metal l i c thermometer.
Fi gure 8-13 shows a bi metal l i c thermometer.
I n i t, a bi metal l i c stri p i s wound i n the form of
a l ong hel i x. One end of the hel i x i s hel d ri gi d.
As the temperature vari es, the hel i x tri es to wi nd
or unwi nd. Thi s causes the free end to rotate. The
Figure 8-12.Effect of unequal expansion of a bimetallic
strip.
free end i s connected to a poi nter. The poi nter
actual l y i ndi cates angul ar rotati on of the hel i x;
however, si nce the rotati on i s l i near and a functi on
of temperature, the scal e i s marked i n uni ts of
temper atur e.
DISTANT-READING THERMOMETERS
Di stant-readi ng di al thermometers are used
when the i ndi cati ng porti on of the i nstrument
must be pl aced at a di stance from where the
temperature i s bei ng measured. The di stant-
readi ng thermometer has a l ong capi l l ary, some
Figure 8-13.Bimetallic thermometer.
8-7
as l ong as 125 feet, whi ch separates the sensi ng
bul b from the Bourdon tube and di al (fi g. 8-14).
There are three basi c types of di stant-readi ng
thermometers: the l i qui d fi l l ed, the gas fi l l ed,
and the combi nati on l i qui d-vapor fi l l ed. The
thermometers are fi l l ed wi th fl ui d (l i qui d or gas)
at some temperature and seal ed. Al most the enti re
vol ume of the fl ui d i s i n the sensi ng bul b.
As the temperature of the bul b changes, the
vol ume of the fl ui d tr i es to change. Si nce
the vol ume of the thermometer (sensi ng bul b,
capi l l ar y, and Bour don tube) i s constant, a
pressure change occurs wi thi n the thermometer.
Thi s pressure change causes the Bourdon tube to
strai ghten out (wi th an i ncrease i n pressure),
worki ng a system of l evers and gears, whi ch causes
the thermometer poi nter to move over the di al and
regi ster temperature.
TEMPERATURE SWITCHES
Temperature swi tches operate from tempera-
ture changes occurri ng i n an encl osure, or i n the
ai r surroundi ng the temperature-sensi ng el ement.
The operati on of the temperature swi tch i s si mi l ar
to the operati on of the pressure swi tch shown i n
fi gure 8-9; both swi tches are operated by changes
i n pressure. The temperature el ement i s arranged
so a change i n temperature causes a change i n the
i nternal pressure of a seal ed-gas or ai r-fi l l ed bul b
Figure 8-14.Distant-reading, Bourdon-tube thermometers.
or hel i x, whi ch i s connected to the actuati ng devi ce
by a smal l tube or pi pe. Fi gure 8-15 shows a
temperature swi tch and two types of sensi ng
el ements.
A temperature change causes a change i n the
vol ume of the seal ed-i n gas, whi ch causes
movement of a bel l ows. The movement i s
transmi tted by a pl unger to the swi tch arm. The
movi ng contact i s on the arm. A fi xed contact may
be arranged so the swi tch wi l l open or cl ose on
a temperature ri se. Thi s al l ows the swi tch contacts
to be arranged to cl ose when the temperature
drops to a predetermi ned val ue and to open when
the temperature ri ses to the desi red val ue. The
reverse acti on can be obtai ned by a change i n the
contact posi ti ons.
GAUGE SNUBBERS
The i rregul ari ty of i mpul ses appl i ed to the
fl ui d power system by some pumps or ai r
compressors causes the gauge poi nter to osci l l ate
vi ol entl y. Thi s makes readi ng of the gauge not
onl y di ffi cul t but often i mpossi bl e. Pr essur e
osci l l ati ons and other sudden pressure changes
exi sti ng i n fl ui d power systems wi l l al so affect the
del i cate i nternal mechani sm of gauges and cause
ei ther damage to or compl ete destructi on of the
Figure 8-15.Temperature switch with two types of sensing
elements. A. Bulb unit. B. Helix unit.
8-8
gauge. A pressure gauge snubber i s therefore
i nstal l ed i n the l i ne that l eads to the pressure
gauge.
The purpose of the snubber i s to dampen the
osci l l ati ons and thus provi de a steady readi ng and
protecti on for the gauge. The basi c components
of a snubber are the housi ng, fi tti ng assembl y wi th
a fi xed ori fi ce di ameter, and a pi n and pl unger
assembl y (fi g. 8-16). The snubbi ng acti on i s
obtai ned by meteri ng fl ui d through the snubber.
The fi tti ng assembl y ori fi ce restri cts the amount
of fl ui d that fl ows to the gauge, thereby snubbi ng
the force of a pressure surge. The pi n i s pushed
and pul l ed through the ori fi ce of the fi tti ng
assembl y by the pl unger, keepi ng i t cl ean and at
a uni form si ze.
Figure 8-16.Pressure gauge snubber.
8-9
CHAPTER 9
RESERVOIRS, STRAINERS, FILTERS,
AND ACCUMULATORS
Fl ui d power systems must have a suffi ci ent
and conti nuous suppl y of uncontami nated fl ui d
to operate effi ci entl y. As stated i n chapter 3 and
emphasi zed throughout thi s manual , the fl ui d
must be kept free of al l forei gn matter.
Thi s chapter cover s hydr aul i c r eser voi r s,
var i ous types of str ai ner s and fi l ter s, and
accumul ators i nstal l ed i n fl ui d power systems.
RESERVOIRS
A hydraul i c system must have a reserve of
fl ui d i n addi ti on to that contai ned i n the pumps,
actuators, pi pes, and other components of the
system. Thi s reserve fl ui d must be readi l y avai l abl e
to make up l osses of fl ui d from the system, to
make up for compr essi on of the fl ui d under
pr essur e, and to compensate for the l oss of
vol ume as the fl ui d cool s. Thi s extra fl ui d i s
contai ned i n a tank usual l y cal l ed a reservoi r. A
reservoi r may someti mes be referred to as a sump
tank, servi ce tank, operati ng tank, suppl y tank,
or base tank.
I n addi ti on to provi di ng storage for the reserve
fl ui d needed for the system, the reservoi r acts as
a radi ator for di ssi pati ng heat from the fl ui d and
as a settl i ng tank wher e heavy par ti cl es of
contami nati on may settl e out of the fl ui d and
remai n harml essl y on the bottom unti l removed
by cl eani ng or fl ushi ng of the reservoi r. Al so, the
reservoi r al l ows entrai ned ai r to separate from the
fl ui d.
Most reservoi rs have a capped openi ng for
fi l l i ng, an ai r vent, an oi l l evel i ndi cator or di p
sti ck, a return l i ne connecti on, a pump i nl et or
sucti on l i ne connecti on, a drai n l i ne connecti on,
and a drai n pl ug (fi g. 9-1). The i nsi de of the
reservoi r general l y wi l l have baffl es to prevent
excessi ve sl oshi ng of the fl ui d and to put a
parti ti on between the fl ui d return l i ne and the
pump sucti on or i nl et l i ne. The parti ti on forces
the returni ng fl ui d to travel farther around the
tank before bei ng drawn back i nto the acti ve
Figure 9-1.Nonpressurized reservoir (ground or ship
installation).
system through the pump i nl et l i ne. Thi s ai ds i n
settl i ng the contami nati on and separati ng the ai r
from the fl ui d.
Large reservoi rs are desi rabl e for cool i ng. A
l arge reservoi r al so reduces reci rcul ati on whi ch
hel ps settl e contami nati on and separate ai r. As
a thumb rul e, the i deal reservoi r shoul d be two
to three ti mes the pump output per mi nute.
However, due to space l i mi tati ons i n mobi l e and
aerospace systems, the benefi ts of a l arge reservoi r
may have to be sacri fi ced. But, they must be l arge
enough to accommodate thermal expansi on of the
fl ui d and changes i n fl ui d l evel due to system
operati on. Reservoi rs are of two general types
nonpressuri zed and pressuri zed.
NONPRESSURIZED RESERVOIRS
Hydr aul i c systems desi gned to oper ate
equi pment at or near sea l evel are normal l y
equi pped wi th nonpressuri zed reservoi rs. Thi s
i ncl udes the hydraul i c systems of ground and shi p
9-1
i nstal l ati ons. A typi cal reservoi r for use wi th
ground and shi p i nstal l ati ons i s shown i n fi gure
9-1. Thi s type of reservoi r i s made of hot rol l ed
steel pl ates and has wel ded seams. The ends extend
bel ow the bottom of the reservoi r and serve as
supports. The bottom of the reservoi r i s convex,
and a drai n pl ug i s i ncorporated at the l owest
poi nt.
Nonpressuri zed reservoi rs are al so used i n
sever al tr anspor t-, patr ol -, and uti l i ty-type
ai rcraft. These ai rcraft are not desi gned for vi ol ent
maneuvers and, i n some cases, do not fl y at hi gh
al ti tude. Those ai rcraft that have nonpressuri zed
reservoi rs i nstal l ed and that fl y at hi gh al ti tudes
have the reservoi rs i nstal l ed wi thi n a pressuri zed
area. (Hi gh al ti tude i n thi s si tuati on means an
al ti tude where atmospheri c pressure i s i nadequate
to mai ntai n suffi ci ent fl ow of fl ui d to the
hydraul i c pumps.)
Most nonpressuri zed ai rcraft reservoi rs are
constructed i n a cyl i ndri cal shape (fi g. 9-2). The
outer housi ng i s manufactured from a strong
corrosi on-resi stant metal . Fi l ter el ements are
normal l y i nstal l ed i nternal l y wi thi n the reservoi r
to cl ean returni ng system hydraul i c fl ui d. Some
of the ol der ai rcraft have a fi l ter bypass val ve
i nstal l ed to al l ow fl ui d to bypass the fi l ter i f the
fi l ter becomes cl ogged. Reservoi rs that are fi l l ed
by pouri ng fl ui d di rectl y i nto them have a fi l l er
(fi nger) strai ner assembl y i nstal l ed i n the fi l l er wel l
to strai n out i mpuri ti es as the fl ui d enters the
reservoi r.
Figure 9-2.Nonpressurized aircraft reservoir.
The quanti ty of fl ui d i n the r eser voi r i s
i ndi cated by ei ther a gl ass tube, a di recti ng gauge,
or a fl oat-type rod, whi ch i s vi si bl e through a
transparent dome i nstal l ed on the reservoi r.
PRESSURIZED RESERVOIRS
A pressuri zed reservoi r i s requi red i n hydraul i c
systems where atmospheri c pressure i s i nsuffi ci ent
to mai ntai n a net posi ti ve sucti on head (NPSH)
to the pump. There are two common types of
pr essur i zed r eser voi r sfl ui d-pr essur i zed and
ai r -pr essur i zed.
Fluid-Pressurized Reservoir
Some ai rcraft hydraul i c systems use fl ui d
pr essur e for pr essur i zi ng the r eser voi r . The
reservoi r shown i n fi gure 9-3 i s of thi s type. Thi s
r eser voi r i s di vi ded i nto two chamber s by a
fl oati ng pi ston. The pi ston i s forced downward
i n the reservoi r by a compressi on spri ng wi thi n
the pressuri zi ng cyl i nder and by system pressure
enteri ng the pressuri zi ng port of the cyl i nder.
The pressuri zi ng port i s connected di rectl y to
the pressure l i ne. When the system i s pressuri zed,
pressure enters the pressure port, thus pressuri zi ng
the reservoi r. Thi s pressuri zes the pump sucti on
l i ne and the reservoi r return l i ne to the same
pr essur e.
The reservoi r shown i n fi gure 9-3 has fi ve
por tspump sucti on, r etur n, pr essur i zi ng,
overboard drai n, and bl eed. Fl ui d i s suppl i ed to
the pump through the pump sucti on port. Fl ui d
returns to the reservoi r from the system through
the return port. Pressure from the pump enters
the pressuri zi ng cyl i nder i n the top of the reservoi r
through the pressuri zi ng port. The overboard
drai n port i s used to drai n the reservoi r whi l e
performi ng mai ntenance, and the bl eed port i s
used as an ai d when servi ci ng the reservoi r.
Air-Pressurized Reservoirs
Ai r-pressuri zed reservoi rs, such as the one
shown i n fi gure 9-4, are currentl y used i n many
hi gh-performance naval ai rcraft. The reservoi r i s
cyl i ndri cal i n shape and has a pi ston i nstal l ed
i nternal l y to separate the ai r and fl ui d chambers.
Ai r pressure i s usual l y provi ded by engi ne bl eed
ai r. The pi ston rod end protrudes through the
reservoi r end cap and i ndi cates the fl ui d quanti ty.
The quanti ty i ndi cati on may be seen by i nspecti ng
the di stance the pi ston rod protrudes from the
reservoi r end cap. The reservoi r i s provi ded wi th
9-2
Figure 9-3.Typical fluid-pressurized reservoir.
threaded openi ngs for connecti ng fi tti ngs and
components. Fi gure 9-4 shows several components
i nstal l ed i n l i nes l eadi ng to and from the reservoi r;
however, thi s may not be the case i n actual
i nstal l ati on. The ai r rel i ef val ve, bl eeder val ve, and
soon, may rei nstal l ed di rectl y on the reservoi r.
Because the reservoi r i s pressuri zed, i t can
normal l y be i nstal l ed at any al ti tude and sti l l
mai ntai n a posi ti ve fl ow of fl ui d to the pump.
Figure 9-4.Air-pressurized reservoir.
Some ai r-pressuri zed reservoi rs al so have
di rect contact of fl ui d to gas. These reservoi rs are
i nstal l ed i n l arge systems and may be cyl i ndri cal
or rectangul ar i n shape. They contai n an oi l l evel
i ndi cator, a pump i nl et or sucti on l i ne connecti on,
a return l i ne, a gas pressuri zati on and venti ng
connecti on, and a drai n l i ne connecti on or a drai n
pl ug. These reservoi rs are pressuri zed by ai r from
the shi ps servi ce ai r system or ni trogen banks.
These reservoi rs are found on board ai rcraft
carri ers and submari nes.
ACCUMULATORS
An accumul ator i s a pressure storage reservoi r
i n whi ch hydraul i c fl ui d i s stored under pressure
from an external source. The storage of fl ui d
under pressure serves several purposes i n hydraul i c
systems.
I n some hydraul i c systems i t i s necessary to
mai ntai n the system pressure wi thi n a speci fi c
pressure range for l ong peri ods of ti me. I t i s very
di ffi cul t to mai ntai n a cl osed system wi thout some
l eakage, ei ther external or i nternal . Even a smal l
l eak can cause a decrease i n pressure. By usi ng
an accumul ator, l eakage can be compensated for
9-3
Figure 9-5.Cross-section view of a piston-type accumulator with a tailrod.
9-4
and the system pressure can be mai ntai ned wi thi n
an acceptabl e range for l ong peri ods of ti me.
Accumul ator s al so compensate for ther mal
expansi on and contracti on of the l i qui d due to
vari ati ons i n temperature.
A l i qui d, fl owi ng at a hi gh vel oci ty i n a pi pe
wi l l cr eate a backwar d sur ge when stopped
suddenl y by the cl osi ng of a val ve. Thi s sudden
stoppage causes i nstantaneous pressures two to
three ti mes the operati ng pressure of the system.
These pressures, or shocks, produce objecti onal
noi se and vi brati ons whi ch can cause consi derabl e
damage to pi pi ng, fi tti ngs, and components. The
i ncorporati on of an accumul ator enabl es such
shocks and surges to be absorbed or cushi oned
by the entrapped gas, thereby reduci ng thei r
effects. The accumul ator al so dampens pressure
surges caused by pul sati ng del i very from the
pump.
Ther e ar e ti mes when hydr aul i c systems
requi re l arge vol umes of l i qui d for short peri ods
of ti me. Thi s i s due to ei ther the operati on of l arge
cyl i nders or the necessi ty of operati ng two or more
ci rcui ts si mul taneousl y. I t i s not economi cal to
i nstal l a pump of such l arge capaci ty i n the system
for onl y i ntermi ttent usage, parti cul arl y i f there
i s suffi ci ent ti me duri ng the worki ng cycl e for an
accumul ator to store up enough l i qui d to ai d the
pump duri ng these peak demands.
The energy stored i n accumul ators maybe al so
used to actuate hydraul i cal l y operated uni ts i f
normal hydraul i c system fai l ure occurs.
Four types of accumul ators used i n Navy
hydraul i c systems are as fol l ows:
1. Pi ston type
2. Bag or bl adder type
3. Di rect-contact gas-to-fl ui d type
4. Di aphragm type
PISTON-TYPE ACCUMULATORS
Pi s ton -ty pe accu mu l ator s con s i s t of a
cyl i ndri cal body cal l ed a barrel , cl osures on each
end cal l ed heads, and an i nternal pi ston. The
pi ston may be fi tted wi th a tai l rod, whi ch extends
through one end of the cyl i nder (fi g. 9-5), or i t
may not have a tai l rod at al l (fi g. 9-6). I n the l atter
case, i t i s r efer r ed to as a fl oati ng pi ston.
Hydraul i c fl ui d i s pumped i nto one end of the
cyl i nder and the pi ston i s forced toward the
opposi te end of the cyl i nder agai nst a capti ve
Figure 9-6.Floating piston-type accumulator.
9-5
charge of ai r or an i nert gas such as ni trogen.
Someti mes the amount of ai r charge i s l i mi ted to
the vol ume wi thi n the accumul ator ; other
i nstal l ati ons may use separate ai r fl asks whi ch are
pi ped to the ai r si de of the accumul ator. Pi ston
accumul ators may be mounted i n any posi ti on.
The gas porti on of the accumul ator may be
l ocated on ei ther si de of the pi ston. For exampl e,
i n submari ne hydraul i c systems wi th tai l rod
pi stons, the gas i s usual l y on the bottom and the
fl ui d on top; i n surface shi ps wi th fl oati ng pi stons,
the gas i s usual l y on the top. The ori entati on of
the accumul ator and the type of accumul ator are
based upon such cri teri a as avai l abl e space,
mai ntenance accessi bi l i ty, si ze, need for external
moni tor i ng of the pi stons l ocati on (tai l r od
i ndi cati on), contami nati on tol erance, seal l i fe, and
safety. The purpose of the pi ston seal s i s to keep
the fl ui d and the gas separate.
Usual l y, tai l rod accumul ators use two pi ston
seal s, one for the ai r si de and one for the oi l si de,
wi th the space between them vented to the
atmosphere through a hol e dri l l ed the l ength of
the tai l rod. When the pi ston seal s fai l i n thi s type
of accumul ator, ai r or oi l l eakage i s apparent.
However , seal fai l ur e i n fl oati ng pi ston or
nonvented tai l rod accumul ators wi l l not be as
obvi ous. Therefore, more frequent attenti on to
venti ng or drai ni ng the ai r si de i s necessary. An
i ndi cati on of wor n and l eaki ng seal s can be
detected by the presence of si gni fi cant amounts
of oi l i n the ai r si de.
BLADDER-TYPE ACCUMULATORS
Bl adder- or bag-type accumul ators consi st of
a shel l or case wi th a fl exi bl e bl adder i nsi de the
shel l . See fi gure 9-7. The bl adder i s l arger i n
di ameter at the top (near the ai r val ve) and
gradual l y tapers to a smal l er di ameter at the
bottom. The syntheti c rubber i s thi nner at the top
of the bl adder than at the bottom. The operati on
of the accumul ator i s based on Barl ows formul a
for hoop stress, whi ch states: The stress i n a
ci rcl e i s di rectl y proporti onal to i ts di ameter and
wal l thi ckness. Thi s means that for a certai n
thi ckness, a l arge di ameter ci rcl e wi l l stretch faster
than a smal l di ameter ci rcl e; or for a certai n
di ameter, a thi n wal l hoop wi l l stretch faster than
a thi ck wal l hoop. Thus, the bl adder wi l l stretch
around the top at i ts l argest di ameter and thi nnest
wal l thi ckness, and then wi l l gradual l y stretch
downward and push i tsel f outward agai nst the
wal l s of the shel l . As a resul t, the bl adder i s
capabl e of squeezi ng out al l the l i qui d from.
Figure 9-7.Bladder-type accumulator.
the accumul ator . Consequentl y, the bl adder
accumul ator has a very hi gh vol umetri c effi ci ency.
I n other wor ds, thi s type of accumul ator i s
capabl e of suppl yi ng a l arge percentage of the
stored fl ui d to do work.
The bl adder i s precharged wi th ai r or i nert gas
to a speci fi ed pressure. Fl ui d i s then forced i nto
the area around the bl adder, further compressi ng
the gas i n the bl adder. Thi s type of accumul ator
has the advantage that as l ong as the bl adder i s
i ntact there i s no exposure of fl ui d to the gas
charge and therefore l ess danger of an expl osi on.
DIRECT-CONTACT GAS-TO-FLUID
ACCUMULATORS
Di r ect-contact gas-to-fl ui d accumul ator s
general l y are used i n very l arge i nstal l ati ons where
i t woul d be very expensi ve to requi re a pi ston-
or bl adder -type accumul ator . Thi s type of
accumul ator consi sts of a ful l y encl osed cyl i nder,
mounted i n a verti cal posi ti on, contai ni ng a l i qui d
9-6
port on the bottom and a pneumati c chargi ng port
at the top (fi g. 9-8). Thi s type of accumul ator i s
used i n some ai rpl ane el evator hydraul i c systems
where several thousand gal l ons of fl ui d are needed
to suppl ement the output of the hydraul i c pumps
for rai si ng the el evator pl atform. The di rect
contact between the ai r or gas and the hydraul i c
fl ui d tends to entrai n excessi ve amounts of gas
i n the fl ui d. For thi s r eason, di r ect contact
accumul ators are general l y not used for pressures
over 1200 psi . The use of thi s type of accumul ator
wi th fl ammabl e fl ui d i s dangerous because there
i s a possi bi l i ty of expl osi on i f any oxygen i s
present i n the gas, and pressure surges generate
excessi ve heat. For thi s reason, safety fl ui ds are
used i n thi s type of i nstal l ati on.
DIAPHRAGM ACCUMULATORS
The di aphr agm-type accumul ator i s con-
structed i n two hal ves whi ch are ei ther screwed
or bol ted together. A syntheti c rubber di aphragm
i s i nstal l ed between both hal ves, maki ng two
chambers. Two threaded openi ngs exi st i n the
assembl ed component. The openi ng at the top,
as shown i n fi gure 9-9, contai ns a screen di sc
whi ch prevents the di aphragm from extrudi ng
thr ough the thr eaded openi ng when system
pressure i s depl eted, thus rupturi ng the di a-
phragm. On some desi gns the screen i s repl aced
by a button-type protector fastened to the center
Figure 9-8.Direct-contact gas-to-fluid accumulator.
Figure 9-9.Diaphragm accumulator.
of the di aphragm. An ai r val ve for pressuri zi ng
the accumul ator i s l ocated i n the gas chamber end
of the sphere, and the l i qui d port to the hydraul i c
system i s l ocated on the opposi te end of the
sphere. Thi s accumul ator operates i n a manner
si mi l ar to that of the bl adder-type accumul ator.
FILTRATION
You have l earned that mai ntai ni ng hydraul i c
fl ui ds wi thi n al l owabl e l i mi ts i s cr uci al to
the care and protecti on of hydraul i c equi pment.
Whi l e every effort must be made to prevent
contami nants from enteri ng the system, con-
tami nants whi ch do fi nd thei r way i nto the system
must be removed. Fi l trati on devi ces are i nstal l ed
at key poi nts i n fl ui d power systems to remove
the contami nants that enter the system al ong
wi th those that are generated duri ng normal
operati ons.
Fi l trati on devi ces for hydraul i c systems di ffer
somewhat from those of pneumati c systems.
Therefore, they wi l l be di scussed separatel y.
The fi l teri ng devi ces used i n hydraul i c systems
are commonl y referred to as strai ners and fi l ters.
Si nce they share a common functi on, the terms
strainer and filter are often used i nterchangeabl y.
As a general rul e, devi ces used to remove l arge
parti cl es of forei gn matter from hydraul i c fl ui ds
are referred to as strai ners, whi l e those used to
remove the smal l est parti cl es are referred to as
fi l ters.
9-7
STRAINERS
Strai ners are used pri mari l y to catch onl y very
l arge parti cl es and wi l l be found i n appl i cati ons
where thi s type of protecti on i s requi red. Most
hydraul i c systems have a strai ner i n the reservoi r
at the i nl et to the sucti on l i ne of the pump. A
strai ner i s used i n l i eu of a fi l ter to reduce i ts
chance of bei ng cl ogged and starvi ng the pump.
However, si nce thi s strai ner i s l ocated i n the
reservoi r, i ts mai ntenance i s frequentl y negl ected.
When heavy di rt and sl udge accumul ate on the
sucti on strai ner, the pump soon begi ns to cavi tate.
Pump fai l ure fol l ows qui ckl y.
FILTERS
Th e mos t common dev i ce i n s tal l ed i n
hydraul i c systems to prevent forei gn parti cl es and
contami nati on from remai ni ng i n the system are
referred to as fi l ters. They may be l ocated i n the
reservoi r, i n the return l i ne, i n the pressure l i ne,
or i n any other l ocati on i n the system where the
desi gner of the system deci des they are needed to
safeguard the system agai nst i mpuri ti es.
Fi l ter s ar e cl assi fi ed as ful l fl ow and
proporti onal or parti al fl ow. I n the ful l -fl ow type
of fi l ter, al l the fl ui d that enters the uni t passes
thr ough the fi l ter i ng el ement, whi l e i n the
proporti onal -fl ow type, onl y a porti on of the fl ui d
passes through the el ement.
Full-Flow Filter
The ful l -fl ow fi l ter provi des a posi ti ve fi l teri ng
acti on; however , i t offer s r esi stance to fl ow,
parti cul arl y when the el ement becomes di rty.
Hydraul i c fl ui d enters the fi l ter through the i nl et
port i n the body and fl ows around the fi l ter
el ement i nsi de the fi l ter bowl . Fi l teri ng takes pl ace
as the fl ui d passes through the fi l teri ng el ement
and i nto the hol l ow core, l eavi ng the di rt and
i mpuri ti es on the outsi de of the fi l ter el ement.
The fi l tered fl ui d then fl ows from the hol l ow
core through the outl et port and i nto the system
(fi g. 9-10).
Some ful l -fl ow fi l ters are equi pped wi th a
contami nati on i ndi cator (fi g. 9-11). These
i ndi cators, al so known as di fferenti al pressure
i ndi cators, are avai l abl e i n three typesgauge
i ndi cators, mechani cal pop-up i ndi cators, and
el ectri cal wi th mechani cal pop-up i ndi cators. As
contami nati ng par ti cl es col l ect on the fi l ter
el ement, the di fferenti al pressure across the
el ement i ncreases. I n some i nstal l ati ons usi ng
Figure 9-10.Full-flow hydraulic filter.
gauges as i ndi cators, the di fferenti al pressure must
be obtai ned by subtracti ng the readi ngs of two
gauges l ocated somewhere al ong the fi l ter i nl et
and outl et pi pi ng. For pop-up i ndi cators, when
the i ncrease i n pressure reaches a speci fi c val ue,
an i ndi cator (usual l y i n the fi l ter head) pops out,
si gni fyi ng that the fi l ter must be cl eaned or
repl aced. A l ow-temperature l ockout feature i s
i nstal l ed i n most pop-up types of contami nati on
i ndi cators to el i mi nate the possi bi l i ty of fal se
i ndi cati ons due to col d weather because the
pressure di fferenti al may be much hi gher wi th a
col d fl ui d due to i ncreased vi scosi ty.
Fi l ter el ements used i n fi l ters that have a
contami nati on i ndi cator ar e not nor mal l y
r emoved or r epl aced unti l the i ndi cator i s
actuated. Thi s decreases the possi bi l i ty of system
contami nati on fr om outsi de sour ces due to
unnecessary handl i ng.
The use of the nonbypassi ng type of fi l ter
el i mi nates the possi bi l i ty of contami nated fl ui d
bypassi ng the fi l ter el ement and contami nati ng the
enti re system. Thi s type of fi l ter wi l l mi ni mi ze the
necessi ty for fl ushi ng the enti re system and l essen
the possi bi l i ty of fai l ure of pumps and other
components i n the system.
A bypass rel i ef val ve i s i nstal l ed i n some fi l ters.
The bypass rel i ef val ve al l ows the fl ui d to bypass
the fi l ter el ement and pass di rectl y through the
outl et port i n the event that the fi l ter el ement
becomes cl ogged. These fi l ters may or may not
be equi pped wi th the contami nati on i ndi cator.
Fi gur e 9-11 shows a ful l -fl ow bypass-type
9-8
Figure 9-11.Full-flow bypass-type hydraulic filter (with contamination indicator).
9-9
hydraul i c fi l ter wi th a contami nati on i ndi cator.
Fi gur e 9-12 shows a ful l -fl ow bypass-type
hydraul i c fi l ter wi thout a contami nati on i ndi cator.
A fi l ter bypass i ndi cator provi des a posi ti ve
i ndi cati on, when acti vated, that fl ui d i s bypassi ng
the fi l ter el ement by fl owi ng through the bypass
rel i ef val ve. Thi s i ndi cator shoul d not be confused
wi th the pop-up di fferenti al pressure i ndi cator
previ ousl y di scussed whi ch si mpl y moni tors the
pressure across the el ement. Wi th the bypass
i ndi cator, a si mi l ar pop-up button i s often used
to si gnal that mai ntenance i s needed. However,
the bypass i ndi cators further si gnal that, as a
resul t of the hi gh di fferenti al pressures across the
el ement, an i nternal bypass rel i ef val ve has l i fted
and some of the fl ui d i s bypassi ng the el ement.
I denti fi cati on of the type of i nstal l ed i ndi cator
can be obtai ned from fi l ter mani fol d drawi ngs or
rel ated equi pment manual s. Both a fl ui d bypass
i ndi cator and a di fferenti al pressure i ndi cator or
gauge may be i nstal l ed on the same fi l ter
assembl y.
As wi th di fferenti al pressure i ndi cators, bypass
rel i ef i ndi cators can be acti vated by pressure
surges, such as may devel op duri ng col d starts or
r api d system pr essur i zati on. On some r el i ef
i ndi cators, the pop-up button, or whatever si gnal
devi ce i s used, wi l l return to a normal posi ti on
when the surge passes and pressure i s reduced.
Other rel i ef i ndi cators may conti nue to i ndi cate
a bypass condi ti on unti l they are manual l y reset.
Figure 9-12.Full-flow bypass-type hydraulic filter.
Befor e cor r ecti ve acti on i s taken based on
i ndi cator readi ngs, the bypass condi ti on shoul d
be veri fi ed at normal operati ng temperature and
fl ow condi ti ons by attempti ng to r eset the
i ndi cator.
Proportional-Flow Filter
Thi s type of fi l ter operates on the venturi
pri nci pl e. (See gl ossary.) As the fl ui d passes
through the venturi throat a drop i n pressure i s
created at the narrowest poi nt. See fi gure 9-13.
A porti on of the fl ui d fl owi ng toward and away
from the throat of the venturi fl ows through the
passages i nto the body of the fi l ter. A fl ui d
passage connects the hol l ow core of the fi l ter wi th
the throat of the venturi . Thus, the l ow-pressure
area at the throat of the venturi causes the fl ui d
under pressure i n the body of the fi l ter to fl ow
through the fi l ter el ement, through the hol l ow
core, i nto the l ow-pressure area, and then return
to the system. Al though onl y a porti on of the fl ui d
i s fi l tered duri ng each cycl e, constant reci rcul ati on
through the system wi l l eventual l y cause al l the
fl ui d to pass through the fi l ter el ement.
Figure 9-13.Proportional-flow filter.
9-10
Filter Rating
Fi l ters are rated i n several waysabsol ute,
mean, and nomi nal . The absol ute fi l trati on rati ng
i s the di ameter i n mi crons of the l argest spheri cal
parti cl e that wi l l pass through the fi l ter under a
certai n test condi ti on. Thi s rati ng i s an i ndi cati on
of the l argest openi ng i n the fi l ter el ement. The
mean fi l trati on rati ng i s the measurement of the
average si ze of the openi ngs i n the fi l ter el ement.
The nomi nal fi l trati on rati ng i s usual l y i nterpreted
to mean the si ze of the smal l est parti cl es of whi ch
90 percent wi l l be trapped i n the fi l ter at each pass
through the fi l ter.
Filter Elements
Fi l ter el ements general l y may be di vi ded i nto
two cl assessurface and depth. Surface fi l ters are
made of cl osel y woven fabri c or treated paper wi th
a uni form pore si ze. Fl ui d fl ows through the pores
of the fi l ter mater i al and contami nants ar e
stopped on the fi l ter s sur face. Thi s type of
el ement i s desi gned to prevent the passage of a
hi gh percentage of sol i ds of a speci fi c si ze. Depth
fi l ters, on the other hand, are composed of l ayers
of fabri c or fi bers whi ch provi de many tortuous
paths for the fl ui d to fl ow through. The pores or
passages must be l arger than the rated si ze of the
fi l ter i f parti cl es are to be retai ned i n the depth
of the medi a r ather than on the sur face.
Consequentl y, there i s a stati sti cal probabi l i ty
that a rather l arge parti cl e may pass through a
depth-type fi l ter.
Fi l ter el ements may be of the 5-mi cron, woven
mesh, mi croni c, porous metal , or magneti c type.
The mi cr oni c and 5-mi cr on el ements have
noncl eanabl e fi l ter medi a and are di sposed of
when they are removed. Porous metal , woven
mesh, and magneti c fi l ter el ements are usual l y
desi gned to be cl eaned and reused.
5-MICRON NONCLEANABLE FILTER
ELEMENTS. The most common 5-mi cron fi l ter
medi um i s composed of organi c and i norgani c
fi bers i ntegral l y bonded by epoxy resi n and faced
wi th a metal l i c mesh upstream and downstream
for protecti on and added mechani cal strength.
Fi l ters of thi s type are not to be cl eaned under
any ci rcumstances and wi l l be marked Di sposabl e
or Noncl eanabl e.
Another 5-mi cron fi l ter medi um uses l ayers
of very fi ne stai nl ess-steel fi bers drawn i nto a
random but control l ed matri x. Fi l ter el ements
Figure 9-14.Cross-section of a stainless steel hydraulic filter
element.
of thi s mater i al may be ei ther cl eanabl e or
noncl eanabl e, dependi ng upon thei r constructi on.
WOVEN WI RE-MESH FI LTER ELE-
MENTS. Fi l ters of thi s type are made of
stai nl ess steel and are general l y rated as 15 or 25
mi cron (absol ute). Fi gure 9-14 shows a magni fi ed
cross secti on of a woven wi re-mesh fi l ter el ement.
Thi s type of fi l ter i s reusabl e.
MICRONIC HYDRAULIC FILTER ELE-
MENT. The term micronic is deri ved from the
word micron. I t coul d be used to descri be any
fi l ter el ement; however, through usage, thi s term
has become associ ated wi th a speci fi c fi l ter wi th
a fi l teri ng el ement made of a speci al l y treated
cel l ul ose paper (fi g. 9-15). The fi l ter shown i n
fi gure 9-10 i s a typi cal mi croni c hydraul i c fi l ter.
Thi s fi l ter i s desi gned to remove 99 percent of al l
parti cl es 10 to 20 mi crons i n di ameter or l arger.
Figure 9-15.Micronic filter element.
9-11
&
The repl aceabl e el ement i s made of speci al l y
treated convol uti ons (wri nkl es) to i ncrease i ts
di rt-hol di ng capaci ty. The el ement i s noncl eanabl e
and shoul d be repl aced wi th a new fi l ter el ement
duri ng mai ntenance i nspecti ons.
MAGNETIC FILTERS. Some hydraul i c
systems have magneti c fi l ters i nstal l ed at strategi c
poi nts. Fi l ters of thi s type are desi gned pri mari l y
to trap any ferrous parti cl es that may be i n the
system.
PNEUMATIC GASES
Cl ean, dry gas i s requi red for the effi ci ent
oper ati on of pneumati c systems. Due to the
normal condi ti ons of the atmosphere, free ai r
sel dom sati sfi es these requi rements adequatel y.
The atmosphere contai ns both dust and i mpuri ti es
i n vari ous amounts and a substanti al amount of
moi sture i n vapor form.
Sol i ds, such as dust, rust, or pi pe scal e i n
pneumati c systems, may l ead to excessi ve wear
and fai l ure of components and, i n some cases,
may prevent the pneumati c devi ces from operati ng.
Moi sture i s al so very harmful to the system. I t
washes l ubri cati on from movi ng parts, thereby
ai di ng corrosi on and causi ng excessi ve wear of
components. Moi sture wi l l al so settl e i n l ow spots
i n the system and freeze duri ng col d weather,
causi ng a stoppage of the system or ruptured l i nes.
An i deal fi l ter woul d remove al l di rt and
moi stur e fr om a pneumati c system wi thout
causi ng a pressure drop i n the process. Obvi ousl y,
such a condi ti on can onl y be appr oached; i t
cannot be attai ned.
Removal of Solids
The r emoval of sol i ds fr om the gas of
pneumati c systems i s general l y done by screeni ng
(fi l teri ng), centri fugal force, or a combi nati on of
the two. I n some cases, the removal of moi sture
i s done i n conjuncti on wi th the removal of sol i ds.
Some types of ai r fi l ters are si mi l ar i n desi gn
and operati on to the hydraul i c fi l ters di scussed
earl i er. Some materi al s used i n the constructi on
of el ements for ai r fi l ters are woven screen wi re,
steel wool , fi ber gl ass, and fel t fabri cs. El ements
made of these materi al s are often used i n the uni t
that fi l ters the ai r as i t enters the compressor.
Por ous metal and cer ami c el ements ar e
commonl y used i n fi l ters that are i nstal l ed i n the
compressed ai r suppl y l i nes. These fi l ters al so use
a control l ed ai r path to provi de some fi l trati on.
I nternal desi gn causes the ai r to fl ow i n a ci rcul ar
path wi thi n the bowl (fi g. 9-16). Heavy parti cl es
and water dropl ets are thrown out of the ai rstream
and drop to the bottom of the bowl . The ai r then
fl ows through the fi l ter el ement, whi ch fi l ters out
most of the smal l er parti cl es. Thi s type of fi l ter
i s desi gned wi th a drai n val ve at the bottom of
the bowl . When the val ve i s opened wi th ai r
pressure i n the system, the accumul ati on of sol i ds
and water wi l l be bl own out of the bowl .
An ai r fi l ter that uses movi ng mechani cal
devi ces as an el ement i s i l l ustrated i n fi gure 9-17.
As compressed ai r passes through the fi l ter the
force revol ves a number of mul ti -bl ade rotors at
hi gh speed. Moi sture and di rt are caught on the
bl ades of the rotors. The whi rl i ng bl ades hurl the
i mpuri ti es by centri fugal force to the outer ri ms
of the rotors and to the i nner wal l s of the fi l ter
housi ng. Here, contami nati ng matter i s out of the
ai rstream and fal l s to the bottom of the bowl
where i t must be drai ned at peri odi c i nterval s.
Removal of Moisture
The removal of moi sture from compressed ai r
i s i mportant for a compressed ai r system. I f ai r
at atmospheri c pressure, even at a very l ow rel ati ve
humi di ty, i s compressed to 3000 or 4500 psi , i t
becomes satur ated wi th water vapor . Some
moi sture i s removed by the i ntercool ers and
after cool er s (see gl ossar y). Al so, ai r fl asks,
recei vers, and banks are provi ded wi th l ow poi nt
drai ns to al l ow peri odi c drai ni ng of any col l ected
moi sture. However, many uses of ai r requi re ai r
wi th an even smal l er moi sture content than can
be obtai ned through these methods. Moi sture i n
Figure 9-16.Air filter.
9-12
Figure 9-17.Air filter using rotating blades as element.
ai r l i nes can create probl ems whi ch are potenti al l y
hazardous, such as the freezi ng of val ves and
control s. Thi s can occur, for exampl e, i f very hi gh
pressure ai r i s throttl ed to a very l ow pressure at
a hi gh fl ow rate. The venturi effect of the throttl ed
ai r produces very l ow temperatures whi ch wi l l
cause any moi sture i n the ai r to freeze i nto i ce.
Thi s makes the val ve (especi al l y an automati c
val ve) ei ther ver y di ffi cul t or i mpossi bl e to
operate. Al so, dropl ets of water can cause seri ous
water hammer i n an ai r system whi ch has hi gh
pressure and a hi gh fl ow rate and can cause
corrosi on, rust, and di l uti on of l ubri cants wi thi n
the system. For these r easons, ai r dr i er s
(dehydrator, air purifier, and desiccator are al l
terms used by di fferent manufacturers to i denti fy
these components) are used to dry the compressed
ai r. Some water removal devi ces are si mi l ar i n
desi gn and operati on to the fi l ters shown i n fi gures
9-16 and 9-17. Two basi c types of ai r dehydrators
are the refri gerated-type and the desi ccant-type.
REFRIGERATED-TYPE DEHYDRATORS.
I n refri gerated-type dehydrators, compressed ai r
i s passed over a set of refri gerated cool i ng coi l s. Oi l
and moi sture vapors condense from the ai r and can
be col l ected and removed vi a a l ow poi nt drai n.
DESICCANT-TYPE DEHYDRATORS. A
desi ccant i s a chemi cal substance wi th a hi gh
capaci ty to absorb water or moi sture. I t al so has
the capaci ty to gi ve off that moi sture so that the
desi ccant can be reused.
Some compressed ai r system dehydrators use
a pai r of desi ccant towers (fl asks ful l of desi ccant).
One i s kept i n servi ce dehydrati ng the compressed
ai r, whi l e the other one i s bei ng reacti vated. A
desi ccant tower i s normal l y reacti vated by passi ng
dry, heated ai r through i t i n the di recti on opposi te
the normal dehydrati on ai rfl ow.
Another type of chemi cal dri er i s shown i n
fi gure 9-18. Thi s uni t consi sts of the housi ng, a
cartri dge contai ni ng a chemi cal agent, a fi l ter
(si ntered bronze), and a spri ng. Vari ous types of
absorbent chemi cal s are used by the di fferent
manufactur er s i n the constr ucti on of the
cartri dges. To ensure proper fi l teri ng, the ai r must
pass through the dri er i n the proper di recti on. The
correct di recti on of fl ow i s i ndi cated by an arrow
and the word FLOW pri nted on the si de of the
cartri dge.
Figure 9-18.Chemical drier.
9-13
CHAPTER 10
ACTUATORS
One of the outstandi ng features of fl ui d power
systems i s that force, generated by the power
suppl y, contr ol l ed and di r ected by sui tabl e
val vi ng, and transported by l i nes, can be con-
verted wi th ease to al most any ki nd of mechani cal
moti on desi red at the very pl ace i t i s needed.
Ei ther l i near (strai ght l i ne) or rotary moti on can
be obtai ned by usi ng a sui tabl e actuati ng devi ce.
An actuator i s a devi ce that converts fl ui d
power i nto mechani cal for ce and moti on.
Cyl i nders, motors, and turbi nes are the most
common types of actuati ng devi ces used i n fl ui d
power systems.
Thi s chapter descr i bes var i ous types of
actuati ng cyl i nder s and thei r appl i cati ons,
di fferent types of fl ui d motors, and turbi nes used
i n fl ui d power systems.
CYLINDERS
An actuati ng cyl i nder i s a devi ce that converts
fl ui d power to l i near, or strai ght l i ne, force and
moti on. Si nce l i near moti on i s a back-and-forth
moti on al ong a strai ght l i ne, thi s type of actuator
i s someti mes referred to as a reci procati ng, or
l i near, motor. The cyl i nder consi sts of a ram or
pi ston operati ng wi thi n a cyl i ndri cal bore. Actuat-
i ng cyl i nders may be i nstal l ed so that the cyl i nder
i s anchored to a stati onary structure and the ram
or pi ston i s attached to the mechani sm to be
operated, or the pi ston or ram may be anchored
to the stati onar y str uctur e and the cyl i nder
attached to the mechani sm to be operated.
Actuati ng cyl i nder s for pneumati c and
hydr aul i c systems ar e si mi l ar i n desi gn and
operati on. Some of the vari ati ons of ram- and
pi ston-type actuati ng cyl i nders are descri bed i n
the fol l owi ng paragraphs.
RAM-TYPE CYLINDERS
The terms ram and piston are often used
i nterchangeabl y. However, a ram-type cyl i nder i s
usual l y consi dered one i n whi ch the cross-secti onal
area of the pi ston rod i s more than one-hal f the
cross-secti onal area of the movabl e el ement. I n
most actuati ng cyl i nders of thi s type, the rod and
the movabl e el ement have equal areas. Thi s type
of movabl e el ement i s frequentl y referred to as
a pl unger.
The ram-type actuator i s used pri mari l y to
push rather than to pul l . Some appl i cati ons
requi re si mpl y a fl at surface on the external part
of the ram for pushi ng or l i fti ng the uni t to
be operated. Other appl i cati ons requi re some
mechani cal means of attachment, such as a cl evi s
or eyebol t. The desi gn of ram-type cyl i nders vari es
i n many other respects to sati sfy the requi rements
of di fferent appl i cati ons.
Single-Acting Ram
The si ngl e-acti ng ram (fi g. 10-1) appl i es force
i n onl y one di recti on. The fl ui d that i s di rected
i nto the cyl i nder di spl aces the ram and forces i t
outward, l i fti ng the object pl aced on i t. Si nce there
Figure 10-1.Single-acting ram-type actuating cylinder.
10-1
i s no provi si on for retracti ng the ram by fl ui d
power, when fl ui d pressure i s rel eased, ei ther the
wei ght of the object or some mechani cal means,
such as a spri ng, forces the ram back i nto the
cyl i nder. Thi s for ces the fl ui d back to the
reservoi r.
The si ngl e-acti ng ram-type actuati ng cyl i nder
i s often used i n the hydraul i c jack. The el evators
used to move ai rcraft to and from the fl i ght deck
and hangar deck on ai rcraft carri ers al so use
cyl i nders of thi s type. I n these el evators, the
cyl i nders are i nstal l ed hori zontal l y and operate the
el evator through a seri es of cabl es and sheaves.
Fl ui d pressure forces the ram outward and l i fts
the el evator. When fl ui d pressure i s rel eased from
the ram, the wei ght of the el evator forces the ram
back i nto the cyl i nder. Thi s, i n turn, forces the
fl ui d back i nto the reservoi r.
Double-Acting Ram
A doubl e-acti ng ram-type cyl i nder i s i l l ustrated
i n fi gure 10-2. I n thi s cyl i nder, both strokes of
the ram are produced by pressuri zed fl ui d. There
are two fl ui d ports, one at or near each end of
the cyl i nder. Fl ui d under pressure i s di rected to
the cl osed end of the cyl i nder to extend the ram
and appl y force. To retract the ram and reduce
the force, fl ui d i s di rected to the opposi te end of
the cyl i nder.
A four -way di r ecti onal contr ol val ve i s
normal l y used to control the doubl e-acti ng ram.
When the val ve i s posi ti oned to extend the ram,
pressuri zed fl ui d enters port A (fi g. 10-2), acts on
Figure 10-2.Double-acting ram-type actuating cylinder.
the bottom surface of the ram, and forces the ram
outward. Fl ui d above the ram l i p i s free to fl ow
out of port B, through the control val ve, and to
the return l i ne i n hydraul i c systems or to the
atmosphere i n pneumati c systems.
Normal l y, the pressure of the fl ui d i s the same
for ei ther stroke of the ram. Recal l from chapter
2 that force i s equal to pressure ti mes area
(F= PA). Noti ce the di fference of the areas upon
whi ch the pr essur e acts i n fi gur e 10-2. The
pressure acts agai nst the l arge surface area on the
bottom of the ram duri ng the extensi on stroke,
duri ng whi ch ti me the ram appl i es force. Si nce
the ram does not requi re a l arge force duri ng the
retracti on stroke, pressure acti ng on the smal l area
on the top surface of the ram l i p provi des the
necessary force to retract the ram.
Telescoping Rams
Fi gure 10-3 shows a tel escopi ng ram-type
actuati ng cyl i nder. A seri es of rams i s nested i n
the tel escopi ng assembl y. Wi th the excepti on of
the smal l est ram, each ram i s hol l ow and serves
as the cyl i nder housi ng for the next smal l er ram.
The ram assembl y i s contai ned i n the mai n
cyl i nder assembl y, whi ch al so provi des the fl ui d
ports. Al though the assembl y requi res a smal l
space wi th al l the rams retracted, the tel escopi ng
acti on of the assembl y provi des a rel ati vel y l ong
stroke when the rams are extended.
An excel l ent exampl e of the appl i cati on of thi s
type of cyl i nder i s i n the dump truck. I t i s used
to l i ft the forward end of the truck bed and dump
the l oad. Duri ng the l i fti ng operati on, the greatest
force i s requi red for the i ni ti al l i fti ng of the l oad.
Figure 10-3.Telescoping ram-type actuating cylinder.
10-2
As the l oad i s l i fted and begi ns to dump, the
requi red force becomes l ess and l ess unti l the l oad
i s compl etel y dumped. Duri ng the rai se cycl e,
pressuri zed fl ui d enters the cyl i nder through port
A (fi g. 10-3) and acts on the bottom surface of
al l three rams. Ram 1 has a l arger surface area
and, therefore, provi des the greater force for the
i ni ti al l oad, As ram 1 reaches the end of i ts stroke
and the requi red force i s decreased, ram 2 moves,
provi di ng the smal l er force needed to conti nue
rai si ng the l oad. When ram 2 compl etes i ts stroke,
a sti l l smal l er force i s requi red. Ram 3 then moves
outward to fi ni sh rai si ng and dumpi ng the l oad.
Some tel escopi ng ram-type cyl i nders are of the
si ngl e-acti ng type. Li ke the si ngl e-acti ng ram
di scussed previ ousl y, these tel escopi ng ram-type
cyl i nders are retracted by gravi ty or mechani cal
force. Some hydraul i c jacks are equi pped wi th
tel escopi ng rams. Such jacks are used to l i ft
vehi cl es wi th l ow cl earances to the requi red hei ght.
Other types of tel escopi ng cyl i nders, l i ke the
one i l l ustrated i n fi gure 10-3, are of the doubl e-
acti ng type. I n thi s type, fl ui d pressure i s used for
both the extensi on and retracti on strokes. A four-
way di recti onal control val ve i s commonl y used
to control the operati on of the doubl e-acti ng type.
Note the smal l passages i n the wal l s of rams 1 and
2. They provi de a path for fl ui d to fl ow to and
from the chambers above the l i ps of rams 2 and
3. Duri ng the extensi on stroke, return fl ui d fl ows
through these passages and out of the cyl i nder
thr ough por t B. I t then fl ows thr ough the
di recti onal control val ve to the return l i ne or
reservoi r.
To retract the rams, fl ui d under pressure i s
di rected i nto the cyl i nder through port B and acts
agai nst the top surface areas of al l three ram l i ps.
Thi s forces the rams to the retracted posi ti on. The
di spl aced fl ui d from the opposi te si de of the rams
fl ows out of the cyl i nder through port A, through
the di recti onal control val ve to the return l i ne or
reservoi r.
Dual Rams
A dual ram assembl y consi sts of a si ngl e ram
wi th a cyl i nder at ei ther end (fi g. 10-4). Fl ui d can
be di rected to ei ther cyl i nder, forci ng the ram to
move i n the opposi te di r ecti on. The r am i s
connected through mechani cal l i nkage to the uni t
to be operated. A four-way di recti onal control
val ve i s commonl y used to operate the dual ram.
When the control val ve i s posi ti oned to di rect fl ui d
under pressure to one of the cyl i nders (l ets say
the l eft one), the ram i s forced to the ri ght. Thi s
Figure 10-4.-Dual ram actuating assembly.
acti on di spl aces the fl ui d i n the opposi te cyl i nder.
The di spl aced fl ui d fl ows back thr ough the
di recti onal control val ve to the return l i ne or
r es er v oi r i n h y dr au l i c s y s tems or to th e
atmosphere i n pneumati c systems.
Dual ram actuati ng assembl i es are used i n
steeri ng systems of most shi ps. I n some systems,
one assembl y i s used to actuate the rudder i n ei ther
di recti on; whi l e i n other systems, two assembl i es
are used for the same purpose.
PISTON-TYPE CYLINDERS
An actuati ng cyl i nder i n whi ch the cross-
secti onal area of the pi ston i s l ess than one-hal f
the cross-secti onal area of the movabl e el ement
i s referred to as a pi ston-type cyl i nder. Thi s type
of cyl i nder i s normal l y used for appl i cati ons that
requi re both push and pul l functi ons. The pi ston-
type cyl i nder i s the most common type used i n
fl ui d power systems.
The essenti al parts of a pi ston-type cyl i nder
are a cyl i ndri cal barrel , a pi ston and rod, end caps,
and sui tabl e seal s. The end caps are attached to
the ends of the barrel . These end caps usual l y
contai n the fl ui d ports. The end cap on the rod
end contai ns a hol e for the pi ston rod to pass
through. Sui tabl e seal s are used between the hol e
and the pi ston rod to keep fl ui d from l eaki ng out
and to keep di rt and other contami nants from
enteri ng the barrel . The opposi te end cap of most
cyl i nders i s provi ded wi th a fi tti ng for securi ng
the actuati ng cyl i nder to some structure. Thi s end
cap i s referred to as the anchor end cap.
The pi ston rod may extend through ei ther or
both ends of the cyl i nder. The extended end of
the rod i s normal l y threaded so that some type
of mechani cal connector, such as an eyebol t or
a cl evi s, and a l ocknut can be attached. Thi s
threaded connecti on of the rod and mechani cal
connector provi des for adjustment between the
rod and the uni t to be actuated. After the correct
10-3
adjustment i s made, the l ocknut i s ti ghtened
agai nst the connector to prevent the connector
from turni ng. The other end of the connector i s
attached, ei ther di rectl y or through addi ti onal
mechani cal l i nkage, to the uni t to be actuated.
I n order to sati sfy the many requi rements of
fl ui d power systems, pi ston-type cyl i nders are
avai l abl e i n vari ous desi gns.
Single-Acting Cylinder
The si ngl e-acti ng pi ston-type cyl i nder i s si mi l ar
i n desi gn and oper ati on to the si ngl e-acti ng
ram-type cyl i nder. The si ngl e-acti ng pi ston-type
cyl i nder uses fl ui d pressure to provi de the force
i n one di recti on, and spri ng tensi on, gravi ty,
compressed ai r, or ni trogen i s used to provi de the
force i n the opposi te di recti on. Fi gure 10-5 shows
a si ngl e-acti ng, spr i ng-l oaded, pi ston-type
actuati ng cyl i nder. I n thi s cyl i nder the spri ng i s
l ocated on the rod si de of the pi ston. I n some
spri ng-l oaded cyl i nders the spri ng i s l ocated on
the bl ank si de, and the fl ui d port i s on the rod
si de of the cyl i nder.
A thr ee-way di r ecti onal contr ol val ve i s
normal l y used to control the operati on of the
si ngl e-acti ng pi ston-type cyl i nder. To extend the
pi ston r od, fl ui d under pr essur e i s di r ected
through the port i nto the cyl i nder (fi g. 10-5). Thi s
pressure acts on the surface area of the bl ank si de
of the pi ston and forces the pi ston to the ri ght.
Thi s acti on moves the rod to the ri ght, through
the end of the cyl i nder, thus movi ng the actuated
uni t i n one di recti on. Duri ng thi s acti on, the
spri ng i s compressed between the rod si de of the
pi ston and the end of the cyl i nder. The l ength of
the stroke depends upon the physi cal l i mi ts wi thi n
the cyl i nder and the requi red movement of the
actuated uni t.
To retract the pi ston rod, the di recti onal
control val ve i s moved to the opposi te worki ng
posi ti on, whi ch r el eases the pr essur e i n the
Figure 10-5.Single-acting, spring-loaded, piston-type
actuating cylinder.
cyl i nder. The spri ng tensi on forces the pi ston to
the l eft, retracti ng the pi ston rod and movi ng the
actuated uni t i n the opposi te di recti on. The fl ui d
i s free to fl ow from the cyl i nder through the port,
back through the control val ve to the return l i ne
i n hydraul i c systems or to the atmosphere i n
pneumati c systems.
The end of the cyl i nder opposi te the fl ui d port
i s vented to the atmosphere. Thi s prevents ai r
from bei ng trapped i n thi s area. Any trapped ai r
woul d compress duri ng the extensi on stroke,
creati ng excess pressure on the rod si de of the
pi ston. Thi s woul d cause sl uggi sh movement of
the pi ston and coul d eventual l y cause a compl ete
l ock, preventi ng the fl ui d pressure from movi ng
the pi ston.
The spri ng-l oaded cyl i nder i s used i n arresti ng
gear systems on some model s of carri er ai rcraft.
To rai se (retract) the arresti ng hook, fl ui d pressure
i s di rected through the arresti ng hook control
val ve to the rod si de of the cyl i nder. Thi s force
moves the pi ston, whi ch, through the rod and
mechani cal l i nkage, retracts the arresti ng hook.
The arresti ng hook extends when fl ui d pressure
i s rel eased from the rod si de of the cyl i nder,
al l owi ng the spri ng to expand.
Leakage between the cyl i nder wal l and pi ston
i s prevented by adequate seal s. The pi ston i n
fi gure 10-5 contai ns V-ri ng seal s.
Double-Acting Cylinder
Most pi ston-type actuati ng cyl i nder s ar e
doubl e-acti ng, whi ch means that fl ui d under
pressure can be appl i ed to ei ther si de of the pi ston
to appl y force and provi de movement.
One desi gn of the doubl e-acti ng cyl i nder i s
shown i n fi gure 10-6. Thi s cyl i nder contai ns one
pi ston and pi ston rod assembl y. The stroke of the
pi ston and pi ston rod assembl y i n ei ther di recti on
i s produced by fl ui d pressure. The two fl ui d ports,
one near each end of the cyl i nder, al ternate as i nl et
and outl et ports, dependi ng on the di recti on of
Figure 10-6.-Doub1e-acting piston-type actuating cylinder.
10-4
fl ow from the di recti onal control val ve. Thi s
actuator (fi g. 10-6) i s referred to as an unbal anced
actuati ng cyl i nder because there i s a di fference i n
the effecti ve worki ng areas on the two si des of
the pi ston. Therefore, thi s type of cyl i nder i s
normal l y i nstal l ed so that the bl ank si de of the
pi ston carri es the greater l oad; that i s, the cyl i nder
carri es the greater l oad duri ng the pi ston rod
extensi on stroke.
A four -way di r ecti onal contr ol val ve i s
normal l y used to control the operati on of thi s type
of cyl i nder. The val ve can be posi ti oned to di rect
fl ui d under pressure to ei ther end of the cyl i nder
and al l ow the di spl aced fl ui d to fl ow from the
opposi te end of the cyl i nder through the control
val ve to the return l i ne i n hydraul i c systems or
to the atmosphere i n pneumati c systems.
There are appl i cati ons where i t i s necessary to
move two mechani sms at the same ti me. I n thi s
case, doubl e-acti ng pi ston-type actuati ng cyl i nders
of di fferent desi gns are requi red. See fi gures 10-7
and 10-8.
Fi gure 10-7 shows a three-port, doubl e-acti ng
pi ston-type actuati ng cyl i nder . Thi s actuator
contai ns two pi stons and pi ston rod assembl i es.
Fl ui d i s di rected through port A by a four-way
di recti onal control val ve and moves the pi stons
outward, thus movi ng the mechani sms attached
to the pi stons rods. The fl ui d on the rod si de of
each pi ston i s forced out of the cyl i nder through
ports B and C, whi ch are connected by a common
l i ne to the di recti onal control val ve. The di spl aced
fl ui d then fl ows through the control val ve to the
return l i ne or to the atmosphere.
When fl ui d under pressure i s di rected i nto the
cyl i nder through ports B and C, the two pi stons
move i nwar d, al so movi ng the mechani sms
attached to them. Fl ui d between the two pi stons
i s free to fl ow from the cyl i nder through port A
and through the control val ve to the return l i ne
or to the atmosphere.
The actuati ng cyl i nder shown i n fi gure 10-8
i s a doubl e-acti ng bal anced type. The pi ston rod
extends through the pi ston and out through both
ends of the cyl i nder. One or both ends of the
Figure 10-7.Three-port, double-acting actuating cylinder.
Figure 10-8.-Balanced, double-acting piston-type actuating
cylinder.
pi ston rod may be attached to a mechani sm to
be operated. I n ei ther case, the cyl i nder provi des
equal areas on each si de of the pi ston. Therefore,
the same amount of fl ui d and force i s used to
move the pi ston a certai n di stance i n ei ther
di recti on.
Tandem Cylinders
A tandem actuati ng cyl i nder consi sts of two
or more cyl i nders arranged one behi nd the other
but desi gned as a si ngl e uni t (fi g. 10-9). Thi s type
of actuati ng cyl i nder i s used i n appl i cati ons that
requi re two or more i ndependent systems; for
exampl e, power-operated fl i ght control systems
i n naval ai rcraft.
The fl ow of fl ui d to and fr om the two
chambers of the tandem actuati ng cyl i nder i s
provi ded from two i ndependent hydraul i c systems
and i s control l ed by two sl i di ng spool di recti onal
control val ves. I n some appl i cati ons, the control
val ves and the actuati ng cyl i nder are two separate
uni ts. I n some uni ts, the pi stons (l ands) of the two
sl i di ng spool s are machi ned on one common shaft.
I n other appl i cati ons, the val ves and the actuator
ar e di r ectl y connected i n one compact uni t.
Al though the two control val ves are hydraul i cal l y
i ndependent, they are i nterconnected mechani cal l y.
I n other uni ts, the two sl i di ng spool s are connected
through mechani cal l i nkages wi th a synchroni zi ng
rod. I n ei ther case, the movement of the two
sl i di ng spool s i s synchroni zed, thus equal i zi ng the
Figure 10-9.Tandem actuating cylinder.
10-5
fl ow of fl ui d to and from the two chambers of
the actuati ng cyl i nder.
Si n ce th e two con tr ol v al v es oper ate
i ndependentl y of each other as far as hydraul i c
pressure i s concerned, fai l ure of ei ther hydraul i c
system does not render the actuator i noperati ve.
Fai l ure of one system does reduce the output force
by one-hal f; however, thi s force i s suffi ci ent to
permi t operati on of the actuator.
RACK-AND-PINION PISTON-TYPE
ROTARY ACTUATORS
The r ack-and-pi ni on-type actuator s, al so
referred to as l i mi ted rotati on cyl i nders, of the
si ngl e or mul ti pl e, bi di recti onal pi ston are used
for turni ng, posi ti oni ng, steeri ng, openi ng and
cl osi ng, swi ngi ng, or any other mechani cal
functi on i nvol vi ng restri cted rotati on. Fi gure
10-10 shows a typi cal rack-and-pi ni on doubl e-
pi ston actuator.
The actuator consi sts of a body and two
reci procati ng pi stons wi th an i ntegral rack for
rotati ng the shaft mounted i n rol l er or journal
beari ngs. The shaft and beari ngs are l ocated i n
a central posi ti on and are encl osed wi th a beari ng
cap. The pi stons, one on each si de of the rack,
are encl osed i n cyl i nders machi ned or sl eeved i nto
the body. The body i s encl osed wi th end caps and
stati c seal s to pr event exter nal l eakage of
pressuri zed fl ui d.
Onl y a few of the many appl i cati ons of
actuati ng cyl i nders were di scussed i n the precedi ng
paragraphs. Fi gure 10-11 shows addi ti onal types
of force and moti on appl i cati ons.
I n addi ti on to i ts versati l i ty, the cyl i nder-type
actuator i s pr obabl y the most tr oubl e-fr ee
component of fl ui d power systems. However, i t
i s very i mportant that the cyl i nder, mechani cal
l i nkage, and actuati ng uni t are correctl y al i gned.
Any mi sal i gnment wi l l cause excessi ve wear of the
pi ston, pi ston r od, and seal s. Al so, pr oper
adjustment between the pi ston r od and the
actuati ng uni t must be mai ntai ned.
Figure 10-10.Rack-and-pinion double-piston rotary actuator.
10-6
Figure 10-11.Applications of actuating cylinders.
10-7
MOTORS
control l ed by ei ther a four-way di recti onal control
val ve or a vari abl e-di spl acement pump.
A fl ui d power motor i s a devi ce that converts
fl ui d power energy to rotary moti on and force.
The functi on of a motor i s opposi te that of a
pump. However, the desi gn and operati on of
fl ui d power motors are very si mi l ar to pumps.
Therefore, a thorough knowl edge of the pumps
descri bed i n chapter 4 wi l l hel p you understand
the operati on of fl ui d power motors.
Motor s have many uses i n fl ui d power
systems. I n hydraul i c power dri ves, pumps and
motors are combi ned wi th sui tabl e l i nes and val ves
to for m hydr aul i c tr ansmi ssi ons. The pump,
commonl y referred to as the A-end, i s dri ven by
some outsi de source, such as an el ectri c motor.
The pump del i vers fl ui d to the motor. The motor,
referred to as the B-end, i s actuated by thi s fl ow,
and through mechani cal l i nkage conveys rotary
moti on and force to the work. Thi s type of power
dri ve i s used to operate (trai n and el evate) many
of the Navys guns and r ock et l auncher s.
Hydraul i c motors are commonl y used to operate
the wi ng fl aps, radomes, and radar equi pment i n
ai rcraft. Ai r motors are used to dri ve pneumati c
tool s. Ai r motors are al so used i n mi ssi l es to
convert the ki neti c energy of compressed gas i nto
el ectr i cal power , or to dr i ve the pump of a
hydraul i c system.
Fl ui d motors may be ei ther fi xed or vari abl e
di spl acement. Fi xed-di spl acement motors provi de
constant torque and vari abl e speed. The speed i s
vari ed by control l i ng the amount of i nput fl ow.
Vari abl e-di spl acement motors are constructed so
that the worki ng rel ati onshi p of the i nternal parts
can be var i ed to change di spl acement. The
major i ty of the motor s used i n fl ui d power
systems are the fi xed-di spl acement type.
Al though most fl ui d power motors are capabl e
of provi di ng rotary moti on i n ei ther di recti on,
some appl i cati ons requi re rotati on i n onl y one
di recti on. I n these appl i cati ons, one port of the
motor i s connnected to the system pressure l i ne and
the other port to the return l i ne or exhausted to
the atmosphere. The fl ow of fl ui d to the motor
i s control l ed by a fl ow control val ve, a two-way
di r ecti onal contr ol val ve, or by star ti ng and
stoppi ng the power suppl y. The speed of the
motor may be control l ed by varyi ng the rate of
fl ui d fl ow to i t.
I n most fl ui d power systems, the motor i s
requi red to provi de actuati on power i n ei ther
di recti on. I n these appl i cati ons the ports are
referred to as worki ng ports, al ternati ng as i nl et
and outl et ports. The fl ow to the motor i s usual l y
Fl ui d motors are usual l y cl assi fi ed accordi ng
to the type of i nternal el ement, whi ch i s di rectl y
actuated by the fl ow. The most common types of
el ements are the gear, the vane, and the pi ston,
AU three of these types are adaptabl e for hydraul i c
systems, whi l e onl y the vane type i s used i n
pneumati c systems.
GEAR-TYPE MOTORS
The spur, hel i cal , and herri ngbone desi gn
gears are used i n gear-type motors. The motors
use external -type gears, as di scussed i n chapter 4.
The operati on of a gear-type motor i s shown
i n fi gure 10-12. Both gears are dri ven gears;
however, onl y one i s connected to the output
shaft. As fl ui d under pressure enters chamber A,
i t takes the path of l east resi stance and fl ows
around the i nsi de surface of the housi ng, forci ng
the gear s to r otate as i ndi cated. The fl ow
conti nues through the outl et port to the return.
Thi s rotary moti on of the gears i s transmi tted
through the attached shaft to the work uni t.
The motor shown i n fi gure 10-12 i s operati ng
i n one di recti on; however, the gear-type motor i s
capabl e of provi di ng rotary moti on i n ei ther
di recti on. To reverse the di recti on of rotati on, the
ports may be al ternated as i nl et and outl et. When
fl ui d i s di rected through the outl et port (fi g. 10-12)
i nto chamber B, the gears rotate i n the opposi te
di recti on.
Figure 10-12.Gear-type motor.
10-8
VANE-TYPE MOTORS
A typi cal vane-type ai r motor i s shown i n
fi gur e 10-13. Thi s par ti cul ar motor pr ovi des
r otati on i n onl y one di r ecti on. The r otati ng
el ement i s a sl otted rotor whi ch i s mounted on
a dri ve shaft. Each sl ot of the rotor i s fi tted wi th
a freel y sl i di ng rectangul ar vane. The rotor and
vanes are encl osed i n the housi ng, the i nner
surface of whi ch i s offset from the dri ve shaft axi s.
When the rotor i s i n moti on, the vanes tend to
sl i de outwar d due to centr i fugal for ce. The
di stance the vanes sl i de i s l i mi ted by the shape of
the rotor housi ng.
Thi s motor oper ates on the pr i nci pl e of
di fferenti al areas. When compressed ai r i s di rected
i nto the i nl et port, i ts pressure i s exerted equal l y
i n al l di recti ons. Si nce area A (fi g. 10-13) i s greater
than area B, the rotor wi l l turn countercl ockwi se.
Each vane, i n turn, assumes the No. 1 and No.
2 posi ti ons and the rotor turns conti nuousl y. The
potenti al energy of the compressed ai r i s thus
converted i nto ki neti c energy i n the form of rotary
moti on and force. The ai r at reduced pressure i s
exhausted to the atmosphere. The shaft of the
motor i s connected to the uni t to be actuated.
Many vane-type motor s ar e capabl e of
provi di ng rotati on i n ei ther di recti on. A motor
of thi s desi gn i s shown i n fi gure 10-14. Thi s motor
operates on the same pri nci pl e as the vane motor
shown i n fi gure 10-13. The two ports may be
al ternatel y used as i nl et and outl et, thus provi di ng
rotati on i n ei ther di recti on. Note the spri ngs i n
the sl ots of the rotor. Thei r purpose i s to hol d the
vanes agai nst the housi ng duri ng the i ni ti al
Figure 10-13.Vane-type air motor.
Figure 10-14.Vane-type motor.
starti ng of the motor, si nce centri fugal force does
not exi st unti l the rotor begi ns to rotate.
PISTON-TYPE MOTORS
Pi ston-type motors are the most commonl y
used i n hydraul i c systems. They are basi cal l y the
same as hydraul i c pumps except they are used to
convert hydraul i c energy i nto mechani cal (rotary)
ener gy.
The most commonl y used hydraul i c motor i s
the fi xed-di spl acement pi ston type. Some
equi pment uses a vari abl e-di spl acement pi ston
motor where very wi de speed ranges are desi red.
Al though some pi ston-type motor s ar e
control l ed by di recti onal control val ves, they
are often used i n combi nati on wi th vari abl e-
di spl acement pumps. Thi s pump-motor combi na-
ti on i s used to provi de a transfer of power between
a dri vi ng el ement and a dri ven el ement. Some
appl i cati ons for whi ch hydraul i c transmi ssi ons
may be used are speed reducers, vari abl e speed
dri ves, constant speed or constant torque dri ves,
and tor que conver ter s. Some advantages of
hydraul i c transmi ssi on of power over mechani cal
transmi ssi on of power are as fol l ows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Qui ck, easy speed adjustment over a wi de
range whi l e the power source i s operati ng
at a constant (most effi ci ent) speed. Rapi d,
smooth accel erati on or decel erati on.
Control over maxi mum torque and power.
Cushi oni ng effect to reduce shock l oads.
Smoother reversal of moti on.
10-9
Radial-Piston Motor conti nues as l ong as fl ui d under pressure enters
the cyl i nders.
The radi al -pi ston motor operates i n reverse of
the radi al -pi ston pump. I n the radi al -pi ston pump,
as the cyl i nder bl ock rotates, the pi stons press
agai nst the rotor and are forced i n and out of the
cyl i nders, thereby recei vi ng fl ui d and pushi ng i t
out i nto the system. I n the radi al motor, fl ui d i s
forced i nto the cyl i nders and dri ves the pi stons
outward. The pi stons pushi ng agai nst the rotor
cause the cyl i nder bl ock to rotate.
The operati on of a radi al -pi ston motor i s
shown i n fi gure 10-15. Thi s motor i s shown wi th
three pi stons for si mpl i ci ty. Normal l y i t contai ns
seven or ni ne pi stons. When l i qui d i s forced i nto
the cyl i nder bore contai ni ng pi ston 1, the pi ston
moves outwar d si nce the l i qui d cannot be
compressed. Thi s causes the cyl i nder to rotate i n
a cl ockwi se di recti on. As the force acti ng on
pi ston 1 causes the cyl i nder bl ock to rotate, pi ston
2 starts to rotate and approach the posi ti on of
pi ston 3. (Note that the di stance between the
cyl i nder bl ock and the reacti on ri ng of the rotor
gets progressi vel y shorter on the top and ri ght hal f
of the rotor.)
As pi ston 2 rotates, i t i s forced i nward and,
i n turn, forces the fl ui d out of the cyl i nder. Si nce
there i s l i ttl e or no pressure on thi s si de of the
pi ntl e val ve, the pi ston i s easi l y moved i n by i ts
contact wi th the reacti on ri ng of the rotor. The
fl ui d i s easi l y forced out of the cyl i nder and back
to the reservoi r or to the i nl et si de of the pump.
As the pi ston moves past the mi dpoi nt, or past
the shortest di stance between the cyl i nder bl ock
and the rotor, i t enters the pressure si de of the
pi ntl e val ve and fl ui d i s forced i nto the cyl i nder.
Pi ston 3 then becomes the pushi ng pi ston and i n
tur n r otates the cyl i nder bl ock. Thi s acti on
Figure 10-15.Operation of a radial-piston motor.
The di recti on of rotati on of the motor (fi g.
10-15) i s changed by reversi ng the fl ow of fl ui d
to i t. Admi tti ng fl ui d under pressure on the top
si de of the pi ntl e val ve forces pi ston 3 out of the
cyl i nder bl ock. Thi s causes the cyl i nder to rotate
i n the countercl ockwi se di recti on.
Axial-Piston Motor
The vari abl e-stroke axi al -pi ston pump i s often
used as a part of vari abl e speed gear, such as
el ectr ohydr aul i c anchor wi ndl asses, cr anes,
wi nches, and the power transmi tti ng uni t i n
el ectrohydraul i c steeri ng engi nes. I n those cases,
the ti l ti ng box i s arranged so that i t maybe ti l ted
i n ei ther di recti on. Thus i t maybe used to transmi t
bi di recti onal power hydraul i cal l y to pi stons or
rams, or i t may be used to dri ve a hydraul i c
motor. I n the l atter use, the pump i s the A-end
of the vari abl e speed gear and the hydraul i c motor
i s the B-end.
The B-end of the hydr aul i c uni t of the
hydraul i c speed gear i s exactl y the same as the
A-end of the vari abl e-stroke pump menti oned
previ ousl y. However, i t general l y does not have
a var i abl e-str oke featur e. The ti l ti ng box i s
i nstal l ed at a permanentl y fi xed angl e. Thus, the
B-end becomes a fi xed-stroke axi al -pi ston motor.
Fi gure 10-16 i l l ustrates an axi al -pi ston hydraul i c
speed gear wi th the A-end and B-end as a si ngl e
uni t. I t i s used i n turrets for trai n and el evati on
dri vi ng uni ts. For el ectrohydraul i c wi nches and
cranes, the A-end and B-end are i n separate
housi ngs connected by hydraul i c pi pi ng.
Hydraul i c fl ui d i ntroduced under pressure to
a cyl i nder (B-end) tri es to push the pi ston out of
the cyl i nder. I n bei ng pushed out, the pi ston,
through i ts pi ston rod, wi l l seek the poi nt of
greatest di stance between the top of the cyl i nder
and the socket ri ng. The resul tant pressure of the
pi ston agai nst the socket ri ng wi l l cause the
cyl i nder barrel and the socket ri ng to rotate. Thi s
acti on occurs duri ng the hal f revol uti on whi l e the
pi ston i s passi ng the i ntake port of the motor,
whi ch i s connected to the pressure port of the
pump. After the pi ston of the motor has taken
al l the hydraul i c fl ui d i t can from the pump, the
pi ston passes the val ve pl ate l and and starts to
di scharge oi l through the outl et ports of the motor
10-10
Figure 10-16.Exploded view of a axial-piston hydraulic speed gear.
to the sucti on pi stons of the pump. The pump i s
constantl y putti ng pressure on one si de of the
motor and recei vi ng hydraul i c fl ui d from the other
si de. The fl ui d i s merel y ci rcul ated from pump
to motor and back agai n.
Both of the axi al -pi ston motors descri bed i n
thi s secti on may be operated i n ei ther di recti on.
The di recti on of rotati on i s control l ed by the
di recti on of fl ui d fl ow to the val ve pl ate. The
di r ecti on of fl ow may be i nstantl y r ever sed
wi thout damage to the motor.
TURBINES
Turbi nes are used i n pneumati c systems to
convert ki neti c energy of gases to mechani cal
ener gy. Tur bi nes ar e used to dr i ve el ectr i c
generators, to convert mechani cal energy i nto
el ectri cal energy, and to dri ve pumps to suppl y
fl ui d fl ow i n hydraul i c systems.
The basi c parts of a turbi ne are the rotor,
whi ch has bl ades projecti ng radi al l y from i ts
peri phery; and nozzl es, through whi ch the gas i s
expanded and di rected. The conversi on of ki neti c
energy to mechani cal energy occurs on the bl ades.
The basi c di sti ncti on between types of turbi nes
i s the manner i n whi ch the gas causes the turbi ne
rotor to move. When the rotor i s moved by a
di rect push or i mpul se from the gas i mpi ngi ng
upon the bl ades, the turbi ne i s sai d to be an
i mpul se turbi ne. When the rotor i s moved by force
of reacti on, the turbi ne i s sai d to be a reacti on
turbi ne.
Al though the di sti ncti on between i mpul se
turbi nes and reacti on turbi nes i s a useful one,
i t shoul d not be consi der ed as an absol ute
di sti ncti on i n real turbi nes. An i mpul se turbi ne
uses both the i mpul se of the gas j et and,
to a l esser extent, the reacti ve force that resul ts
when the curved bl ades cause the gas to change
di recti on. A reacti on turbi ne i s moved pri mari l y
by reacti ve force, but some moti on of the rotor
i s caused by the i mpact of the gas agai nst the
bl ades.
IMPULSE TURBINE
The i mpul se turbi ne consi sts essenti al l y of a
rotor mounted on a shaft that i s free to rotate i n
a set of beari ngs. The outer ri m of the rotor carri es
a set of curved bl ades, and the whol e assembl y
i s encl osed i n an ai rti ght case. Nozzl es di rect the
10-11
rapi dl y movi ng fl ui d agai nst the bl ades and turn
the rotor (fi g. 10-17).
REACTION TURBINE
The reacti on turbi ne, as the name i mpl i es, i s
turned by reacti ve force rather than by a di rect
push or i mpul se. I n reacti on turbi nes, there are
no nozzl es as such. I nstead, the bl ades that project
r adi al l y fr om the per i pher y of the r otor ar e
formed and mounted so that the spaces between
the bl ades have, i n cross secti on, the shape of
nozzl es. Si nce these bl ades are mounted on the
revol vi ng rotor, they are cal l ed movi ng bl ades.
Fi xed or stati onary bl ades of the same shape
as the movi ng bl ades (fi g. 10-18) are fastened to
the stator (casi ng) i n whi ch the rotor revol ves. The
fi xed bl ades gui de the gas i nto the movi ng bl ade
system and, si nce they are al so shaped and
mounted to provi de nozzl e-shaped spaces between
the bl ades, the freed bl ades al so act as nozzl es.
A reacti on turbi ne i s moved by three mai n
forces: (1) the reacti ve force produced on the
movi ng bl ades as the gas i ncreases i n vel oci ty as
i t expands through the nozzl e-shaped spaces
between the bl ades; (2) the reacti ve force produced
on the movi ng bl ades when the gas changes
di recti on; and (3) the push or i mpul se of the gas
i mpi ngi ng upon the bl ades. Thus, as previ ousl y
noted, a reacti on turbi ne i s moved pri mari l y by
reacti ve force but al so to some extent by di rect
i mpul se.
I mpul se and reacti on bl ades can be combi ned
to form an i mpul se-reacti on turbi ne. Thi s turbi ne
combi nes the rotati onal forces of the previ ousl y
descri bed turbi nes; that i s, i t deri ves i ts rotati on
from both the i mpul se of the gas stri ki ng the
turbi ne bl ades and the reacti ve force of the gas
changi ng di recti on.
Figure 10-17.Impulse turbine. Figure 10-18.Reaction turbine blading.
10-12
CHAPTER 11
PNEUMATICS
The word pneumatics i s a deri vati ve of the
Greek word pneuma, whi ch means ai r, wi nd, or
br eath. I t can be defi ned as that br anch of
engi neeri ng sci ence that pertai ns to gaseous
pr essur e and fl ow. As used i n thi s manual ,
pneumati cs i s the porti on of fl ui d power i n whi ch
compressed ai r, or other gas, i s used to transmi t
and control power to actuati ng mechani sms.
Thi s chapter di scusses the ori gi n of pneu-
mati cs. I t di scusses the characteri sti cs of gases and
compares them wi th those of l i qui ds. I t al so
expl ai ns factors whi ch affect the properti es of
gases, i denti fi es and expl ai ns the gas l aws, and
i denti fi es gases commonl y used i n pneumati cs and
thei r pressure ranges. I t al so di scusses hazards of
pneumati c gases, methods of control l i ng contami -
nati on, and safety precauti ons associ ated wi th
compressed gases.
DEVELOPMENT OF PNEUMATICS
There i s no record of mans fi rst uses of ai r
to do work. Probabl y the earl i est uses were to
separate chaff from grai n and to move shi ps. One
of the fi rst pneumati c devi ces was the bl ow gun
used by pri mi ti ve man. I n the l atter part of the
ei ghteenth century, heated ai r was used to carry
the fi rst bal l oon al oft. The heated ai r, bei ng
l i ghter than the surroundi ng ai r, caused the
bal l oon to ri se.
Every age of man has wi tnessed the devel op-
ment of devi ces whi ch used ai r to do wor k.
However, man used ai r to do work l ong before
he understood i t.
Many of the pri nci pl es of hydraul i cs appl y to
pneumati cs. For exampl e, Pascal s l aw appl i es to
gases as wel l as l i qui ds. Al so, l i ke hydraul i cs, the
devel opment of pneumati cs depended on cl osel y
fi tted parts and the devel opment of gaskets and
packi ngs. Si nce the i nventi on of the ai r com-
pressor, pneumati cs has become a very rel i abl e
way to transmi t power.
Probabl y one of the most common uses of
pneumati c power i s i n the operati on of pneumati c
tool s. However , you shoul d under stand that
pneumati cs i s al so of great i mportance i n l arge
and compl ex systems such as the control s of vi tal
propul si on and weapon systems.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GASES
Recal l from chapter 1 that gas i s one of the
three states of matter. I t has characteri sti cs si mi l ar
to those of l i qui ds i n that i t has no defi ni te shape
but conforms to the shape of i ts contai ner and
readi l y transmi ts pressure.
Gases di ffer from l i qui ds i n that they have no
defi ni te vol ume. That i s, regardl ess of the si ze or
shape of the contai ni ng vessel , a gas wi l l
compl etel y fi l l i t. Gases are hi ghl y compressi bl e,
whi l e l i qui ds are onl y sl i ghtl y so. Al so, gases are
l i ghter than equal vol umes of l i qui ds, maki ng
gases l ess dense than l i qui ds.
DENSITY
Earl y experi ments were conducted concerni ng
the behavi or of ai r and si mi l ar gases. These
experi ments were conducted by sci enti sts such as
Boyl e and Charl es (di scussed l ater i n thi s chapter).
The resul ts of thei r experi ments i ndi cated that the
gases behavi or fol l ows the l aw known as the
ideal-gas law. I t states as fol l ows: For a given
weight of any gas, the product of the absolute
pressure and the volume occupied, divided by the
absolute temperature, is constant. I n equati on
form, i t i s expressed as fol l ows:
Equati on 11-1
For 1 pound of gas,
Equati on 11-2
11-1
The speci fi c vol ume (v) i s expressed i n cubi c feet
per pound.
For any wei ght of a gas thi s equati on maybe
modi fi ed as fol l ows:
W = wei ght of the gas i n pounds,
V = vol ume of W pounds of the gas i n cubi c feet.
The vol ume of 1 pound woul d then be V/W.
I f we substi tute thi s for v i n equati on 11-3, i t then
becomes
Sol vi ng equati on 11-4 for pressure,
I n chapter 2 we defi ned densi ty as the mass
per uni t vol ume. I n equati on 11-5,
w
7
represents densi ty. (Noti ce that thi s i s the reverse
of the speci fi c vol ume.) We can now say that
pressure i s equal to the densi ty of the gas ti mes
the gas constant ti mes the absol ute temperature
of the gas. (The gas constant vari es for di fferent
gases.) From thi s equati on we can show how
densi ty vari es wi th changes i n pressure and
temperature. Decreasi ng the vol ume, wi th the
wei ght of the gas and the temperature hel d
constant, causes the pressure to i ncrease.
NOTE: Duri ng the compressi on of the gas,
the temperature wi l l actual l y i ncrease; however,
the expl anati on i s beyond the scope of thi s text.
a decrease i n vol ume wi th the wei ght hel d constant
wi l l cause densi ty to i ncrease.
TEMPERATURE
As i ndi cated previ ousl y, temperature i s a
domi nant factor affecti ng the physi cal properti es
of gases. I t i s of parti cul ar concern i n cal cul ati ng
changes i n the states of gases.
Three temperature scal es are used extensi vel y
i n gas cal cul ati ons. They are the Cel si us (C), the
Fahrenhei t (F), and the Kel vi n (K) scal es. The
Cel si us (or centi grade) scal e i s constructed by
i denti fyi ng the freezi ng and boi l i ng poi nts of
water, under standard condi ti ons, as fi xed poi nts
of 0 and 100, respecti vel y, wi th 100 equal
di vi si ons between. The Fahrenhei t scal e i denti fi es
32 as the freezi ng poi nt of water and 212 as the
boi l i ng poi nt, and has 180 equal di vi si ons
between. The Kel vi n scal e has i ts zero poi nt equal
to 273C, or 460F.
Absol ute zer o, one of the fundamental
constants of physi cs, i s commonl y used i n the
study of gases. I t i s usual l y expressed i n terms of
the Cel si us scal e. I f the heat energy of a gas
sampl e coul d be progressi vel y reduced, some
temperature shoul d be reached at whi ch the
moti on of the mol ecul es woul d cease enti rel y. I f
accuratel y determi ned, thi s temperature coul d
then be taken as a natural reference, or as a true
absol ute zero val ue.
Experi ments wi th hydrogen i ndi cated that i f
a gas were cool ed to 273.16C (273 for most
cal cul ati ons), al l mol ecul ar moti on woul d cease
and no addi ti onal heat coul d be extracted. Si nce
thi s i s the col dest temperature to whi ch an i deal
gas can be cool ed, i t i s consi dered to be absol ute
zero. Absol ute zero may be expressed as 0K,
273C, or 459.69 F (460 F for mos t
cal cul ati ons).
When you work wi th temperatures, al ways be
sure whi ch system of measurement i s bei ng used
and how to convert from one to another. The
conversi on formul as are shown i n fi gure 11-1. For
purposes of cal cul ati ons, the Ranki ne (R) scal e
i l l ustrated i n fi gure 11-1 i s commonl y used to
11-2
Figure 11-1.-Comparison of Kelvin, Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Rankine temperature.
convert Fahrenhei t to absol ute. For Fahrenhei t
readi ngs above zero, 460 i s added. Thus, 72F
equal s 460 pl us 72, or 532 absol ute (532R).
I f the Fahrenhei t readi ng i s bel ow zero, i t i s
subtracted from 460. Thus, -40F equal s 460
mi nus 40, or 420 absol ute (420R).
The Kel vi n and Cel si us scal es ar e used
i nternati onal l y i n sci enti fi c measurements; there-
fore, some techni cal manual s may use these scal es
i n di recti ons and operati ng i nstructi ons. The
Fahrenhei t scal e i s commonl y used i n the Uni ted
States; therefore, i t i s used i n most areas of thi s
manual .
PRESSURE
We defi ned pressure i n chapter 2 as force per
uni t area. Remember, l i qui ds exert pressure on
al l surfaces wi th whi ch they come i n contact.
Gases, because of thei r abi l i ty to compl etel y fi l l
contai ner s, exer t pr essur e on al l si des of a
contai ner.
I n practi ce, we maybe i nterested i n ei ther of
two pressure readi ngs. We may desi re ei ther the
gauge pressure or the absol ute pressure.
Absol ute pressure i s measured from absol ute
zer o pr essur e r ather than fr om nor mal or
atmospheri c pressure (approxi matel y 14.7 psi ).
Gauge pressure i s used on al l ordi nary gauges, and
i ndi cates pr essur e i n excess of atmospher i c
pressure. Therefore, absol ute pressure i s equal to
atmospheri c pressure pl us gauge pressure. For
exampl e, 100 psi gauge pressure (psi g) equal s 100
psi pl us 14.7 psi or 114.7 psi absol ute pressure
(psi a). Whenever gas l aws are appl i ed, absol ute
pressures
Gases
are requi red.
COMPRESSIBILITY AND
EXPANSION OF GASES
can be readi l y compressed and are
assumed to be perfectl y el asti c. Thi s combi nati on
of properti es gi ves a gas the abi l i ty to yi el d to a
11-3
force and return promptl y to i ts ori gi nal condi ti on
when the for ce i s r emoved. These ar e the
properti es of ai r that i s used i n pneumati c ti res,
tenni s bal l s and other deformabl e objects whose
shapes are mai ntai ned by compressed ai r.
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
I n an attempt to expl ai n the compressi bi l i ty
of gases, Bernoul l i proposed the hypothesi s that
i s accepted as the ki neti c theory of gases.
Accordi ng to thi s theory, the pressure exerted by
a gas on the wal l s of a cl osed contai ner i s caused
by conti nual bombar dment of the wal l s by
mol ecul es of the gas.
Consi der the contai ner shown i n fi gure 11-2
as contai ni ng a gas. At any gi ven ti me, some
mol ecul es are movi ng i n one di recti on, some are
travel i ng i n other di recti ons; some are travel i ng
fast, some sl ow, and some may even be i n a state
of r est. The aver age effect of the mol ecul es
bombardi ng each contai ner wal l corresponds to
the pressure of the gas.
As more gas i s pumped i nto the contai ner,
more mol ecul es are avai l abl e to bombard the
wal l s; thus the pressure i n the contai ner i ncreases.
The gas pressure i n a contai ner can al so be
i ncreased by i ncreasi ng the speed wi th whi ch the
mol ecul es hi t the wal l s. I f the temperature of the
gas i s rai sed, the mol ecul es move faster causi ng
an i ncrease i n pressure. Thi s can be shown by
consi deri ng the automobi l e ti re. When you take
a l ong dri ve on a hot day, the pressure i n the ti res
i ncr eases and a ti r e whi ch appear ed to be
somewhat soft i n cool morni ng temperature
may appear normal at a hi gher mi dday tempera-
tur e.
BOYLES LAW
When the automobi l e ti re i s i ni ti al l y i nfl ated,
ai r whi ch normal l y occupi es a speci fi c vol ume i s
compressed i nto a smal l er vol ume i nsi de the ti re.
Thi s i ncreases the pressure on the i nsi de of the ti re.
Charl es Boyl e, an Engl i sh sci enti st, was among
the fi rst to experi ment wi th the pressure-vol ume
rel ati onshi p of gas. Duri ng an experi ment when
he compressed a vol ume of ai r he found that the
vol ume decreased as the pressure i ncreased, and
by doubl i ng the force exerted on the ai r he coul d
decrease the vol ume of the ai r by hal f. See fi gure
11-3. Recal l from the exampl e of the automobi l e
ti re that changes i n temperature of a gas al so
change the pressure and vol ume. Therefore, the
experi ment must be performed at a constant
temperature. The rel ati onshi p between pressure
and vol ume i s known as Boyles law. I t states:
When the temperature of a gas is kept constant,
the volume of an enclosed gas varies inversely with
its pressure.
I n equati on form, thi s rel ati onshi p may be
expressed as ei ther
vl P~ = v~P~
or Equati on 11-6
VI ~,
~=P1
wher e V
1
and P
1
are the ori gi nal vol ume and
pr essur e, and V
2
and P
2
are the fi nal vol ume
and pressure (P
1
and P
2
are absol ute pressures).
Figure 11-3.-Gas compressed to half its original volume by
Figure 11-2.Molecular bombardment creating pressure.
11-4
a doubled force.
Exampl e of Boyl es l aw: 4 cubi c feet of
ni trogen are under a pressure of 100 psi (gauge).
The ni trogen i s al l owed to expand to a vol ume
of 6 cubi c feet. What i s the new gauge pressure?
Remember to convert gauge pressure to absol ute
pressure by addi ng 14.7.
Usi ng equati on 11-6, V
1
P
1
= V
2
P
2
, where V
1
i s
4 ft
3
, V
2
i s 6 ft, and P
1
i s 100 psi g:
CHARLESS LAW
Boyl es l aw assumes condi ti ons of constant
temperature. I n actual si tuati ons thi s i s rarel y the
case. Temperature changes conti nual l y and affects
the vol ume of a gi ven mass of gas.
Jacques Charl es, a French physi ci st, provi ded
much of the foundati on for the modern ki neti c
theory of gases. Through experi ments, he found
that al l gases expand and contract proporti onal l y
to the change i n the absol ute temper atur e,
provi di ng the pressure remai ns constant. The
rel ati onshi p between vol ume and temperature i s
known as Charless law. I t states: The volume of
a gas is proportional to its absolute temperature,
if constant pressure is maintained. I n equati on
form, thi s rel ati onshi p may be expressed as
Equati on 11-7
wh er e V
1
and V
2
ar e the or i gi nal and fi nal
vol umes, and T
1
and T
2
are the ori gi nal and fi nal
absol ute temperatures.
Si nce an i ncrease i n the temperature of a gas
causes i t to expand i f the pressure i s kept constant,
i t i s reasonabl e to expect that i f a gi ven sampl e
i s heated wi thi n a cl osed contai ner and i ts vol ume
remai ns constant, the pressure of the gas wi l l
i ncrease. Experi ments have proven thi s to be true.
I n equati on form, thi s becomes
P
1
T
2
= P
2
T
1
Equati on 11-8
or
Thi s equati on states that for a constant vol ume,
the absol ute pressure of a gas vari es di rectl y wi th
the absol ute temperature.
Exampl e: A cyl i nder of gas under a pressure
of 1800 psi g at 70F i s l eft out i n the sun i n the
tropi cs and heats up to a temperature of 130F.
What i s the new pressure wi thi n the cyl i nder?
(Remember that both pressure and temperature
must be conver ted to absol ute pr essur e and
absol ute temperature.)
Converti ng absol ute pressure to gauge pressure:
11-5
GENERAL GAS LAW
We have l earned that Boyl es l aw pertai ns to
si tuati ons i n whi ch the temperature remai ns
constant (fi g. 11-4), and that Char l ess l aw
pertai ns to si tuati ons i n whi ch pressure remai ns
constant (fi g. 11-4). I t i s usual l y not possi bl e to
control pressure or temperature i n tanks or bottl es
of gas subject to the weather and shi pboard
demands. Boyl es and Charl ess l aws are com-
bi ned to form the general gas law. Thi s l aw states:
The product of the initial pressure, initial volume,
and new temperature (absolute scale) of an
enclosed gas is equal to the product of the new
pressure, new volume, and initial temperature. I t
i s a mathemati cal statement whi ch al l ows many
gas probl ems to be sol ved by usi ng the pri nci pl es
of Boyl es l aw and/or Charl ess l aw. The equati on
i s expressed as
or
(P and T represent absol ute pressure and absol ute
temperature, respecti vel y.)
You can see by exami ni ng fi gure 11-4 that the
three equati ons are speci al cases of the general
equati on. Thus, i f the temper atur e r emai ns
constant, T
1
equal s T
2
and both can be el i mi nated
from the general formul a, whi ch then reduces to
the form shown i n part A. When the vol ume
remai ns constant, V
1
equal s V
2
, thereby reduci ng
Figure 11-4.The general gas law.
the general equati on to the form gi ven i n part B.
Si mi l ar l y , P
1
i s equated to P
2
for con s tan t
pressure, and the equati on then takes the form
gi ven i n part C.
The general gas l aw appl i es wi th exactness onl y
to i deal gases i n whi ch the mol ecul es ar e
assumed to be perfectl y el asti c. However, i t
descr i bes the behavi or of actual gases wi th
suffi ci ent accuracy for most practi cal purposes.
Two exampl es of the general equati on fol l ow:
1. Two cubi c feet of a gas at 75 psi g and 80F
are compressed to a vol ume of 1 cubi c foot and
then heated to a temperature of 300F. What i s
the new gauge pressure?
Usi ng equati on 11-9, P
1
V
1
T
2
= P
2
V
2
T
1
, wher e
V
1
i s 2 ft
3
, P
1
i s 75 psi g, T
1
i s 80F, V
2
i s 1 ft
3
and T
2
i s 300F:
Sol uti on:
Substi tuti ng:
Converti ng absol ute pressure to gauge pressure:
2. Four cubi c feet of a gas at 75 psi g and 80F
are compressed to 237.8 psi g and heated to a
temperature of 300F. What i s the vol ume of the
gas resul ti ng from these changes? Usi ng equati on
11-9, P
1
V
1
T
2
= P
2
V
2
T
1
, where V
1
i s 4 ft
3
, P
2
i s
11-6
75 psi g, T
1
i s 800, P
1
i s 237.8 psi g, and T
2
i s
300F:
Sol uti on:
Substi tuti ng:
PNEUMATIC GASES
I n chapter 1, you l earned that many factors
are consi dered i n determi ni ng whether to use
hydraul i cs or pneumati cs as a power source i n a
fl ui d power system. Once i t i s determi ned that
pneumati cs wi l l be used as the source of power,
some of the same factor s ar e consi der ed i n
sel ecti ng the pneumati c gas.
QUALITIES
The i deal fl ui d medi um for a pneumati c
system i s a r eadi l y avai l abl e gas that i s
nonpoi sonous (nontoxi c), chemi cal l y stabl e, free
from any aci ds that cause corrosi on of system
components, and nonfl ammabl e. I t al so wi l l not
support combusti on of other el ements.
Gases that have these desi red qual i ti es may not
have the requi red l ubri cati ng power. Therefore,
l ubri cati on of the components of some pneumati c
systems must be arranged by other means. For
exampl e, some ai r compressors are provi ded wi th
a l ubr i cati ng system, some components ar e
l ubri cated upon i nstal l ati on or, i n some cases,
l ubri cati on i s i ntroduced i nto the ai r suppl y l i ne.
Two gases meeti ng these qual i ti es and most
commonl y used i n pneumati c systems are com-
pressed ai r and ni trogen.
COMPRESSED AIR
Compressed ai r i s a mi xture of al l gases
contai ned i n the atmosphere. I n thi s manual ,
compressed ai r i s referred to as a gas when i t i s
used as a fl ui d medi um.
The unl i mi ted suppl y of ai r and the ease of
compressi on make compressed ai r the most wi del y
used fl ui d for pneumati c systems. Al though
moi sture and sol i d parti cl es must be removed
from the ai r, i t does not requi re the extensi ve
di sti l l ati on or separati on process requi red i n the
producti on of other gases.
Compr essed ai r has most of the desi r ed
pr oper ti es and char acter i sti cs of a gas for
pneumati c systems. I t i s nonpoi sonous and
nonfl ammabl e but does contai n oxygen, whi ch
supports combusti on. One of the most undesi rabl e
qual i ti es of compressed ai r as a fl ui d medi um for
pneumati c systems i s moi stur e content. The
atmosphere contai ns varyi ng amounts of moi sture
i n vapor form. Changes i n the temperature of
compr essed ai r wi l l cause condensati on of
moi sture i n the pneumati c system. Thi s condensed
moi sture can be very harmful to the system, as
i t i ncreases corrosi on, di l utes l ubri cants, and may
fr eeze i n l i nes and components dur i ng col d
weather . Moi stur e separ ator s and ai r dr i er s
(dehydrators) are i nstal l ed i n the compressed ai r
l i nes to mi ni mi ze or el i mi nate moi stur e i n
systems where moi sture woul d deteri orate system
per for mance.
The suppl y of compressed ai r at the requi red
vol ume and pr essur e i s pr ovi ded by an ai r
compressor. (For i nformati on on ai r compressors,
refer to Naval Ships Technical Manual, chapter
551.) I n most systems the compressor i s part of
the system wi th di stri buti on l i nes l eadi ng from the
compressor to the devi ces to be operated. I n these
systems a recei ver i s i nstal l ed i n-l i ne between the
compressor and the devi ce to be operated to hel p
el i mi nate pul sati ons i n the compressor di scharge
l i ne, to act as a storage tank duri ng i nterval s when
the demand for ai r exceeds the compressors
capaci ty, and to enabl e the compressor to shut
down duri ng peri ods of l i ght l oad. Other systems
recei ve thei r suppl y from cyl i nders whi ch must be
fi l l ed at a central l y l ocated ai r compressor and
then connected to the system.
Compressed ai r systems are categori zed by
thei r operati ng pressures as fol l ows: hi gh-pressure
(HP) ai r, medi um-pressure (MP) ai r, and l ow-
pressure (LP) ai r.
High-Pressure Air Systems
HP ai r systems provi de compressed ai r at a
nomi nal operati ng pressure of 3000 psi or 5000
psi and are i nstal l ed whenever pressure i n excess
11-7
of 1000 psi i s requi red. HP compressed ai r pl ants
support functi ons whi ch requi re hi gh pressures
and hi gh fl ow rates of compressed ai r by the
addi ti on of HP storage fl asks to the system. An
exampl e of such a system i s one that provi des ai r
for star ti ng di esel and gas tur bi ne engi nes.
Reducti on i n pr essur e, i f r equi r ed, i s done
by usi ng speci al l y desi gned pressure-reduci ng
stati ons.
Medium-Pressure Air
MP ai r systems provi de compressed ai r at a
nomi nal operati ng pressure of 151 psi to 1000 psi .
These pressures are provi ded ei ther by an MP ai r
compressor or by the HP ai r system suppl yi ng ai r
thr ough an ai r bank and pr essur e-r educi ng
stati ons.
Low-Pressure Air
LP ai r systems provi de compressed ai r at a
nomi nal operati ng pressure of 150 psi and bel ow.
The LP ai r system i s suppl i ed wi th LP ai r by LP
ai r compressors or by the HP ai r system suppl yi ng
ai r through an ai r bank and pressure-reduci ng
stati ons. LP ai r i s the most extensi ve and vari ed
ai r system used i n the Navy,
I n addi ti on to bei n g u s ed for v ar i ou s
pneumati c appl i cati ons, LP and HP compressed
ai r are used i n the producti on of ni trogen.
NI TROGEN
For al l pr acti cal pur poses, ni tr ogen i s
consi dered to be an i nert gas. I t i s nonfl ammabl e,
does not form expl osi ve mi xtures wi th ai r or
oxygen, and does not cause rust or decay. Due
to these qual i ti es, i ts use i s pr efer r ed over
compr essed ai r i n many pneumati c systems,
especi al l y ai r cr aft and mi ssi l e systems, and
wherever an i nert gas bl anket i s requi red.
Ni tr ogen i s obtai ned by the fr acti onal
di sti l l ati on of ai r. Oxygen/ni trogen-produci ng
pl ants expand compressed ai r unti l i ts temperature
decreases to 196C (320F), the boi l i ng poi nt
of ni trogen at atmospheri c pressure. The l i qui d
ni trogen i s then di rected to a storage tank. A
l i qui d ni trogen pump pumps the l ow-pressure
l i qui d ni tr ogen fr om the stor age tank and
di scharges i t as a hi gh-pressure (5000 psi ) l i qui d
to the vapori zer where i t i s converted to a gas at
5000 psi . Oxygen/ni trogen-produci ng pl ants are
l ocated at many naval i nstal l ati ons and on
submari ne tenders and ai rcraft carri ers.
CONTAMINATION CONTROL
As i n hydraul i c systems, fl ui d contami nati on
i s al so a l eadi ng cause of mal functi ons i n
pneumati c systems. I n addi ti on to the sol i d
parti cl es of forei gn matter whi ch fi nd a way to
enter the system, there i s al so the probl em of
moi sture. Most systems are equi pped wi th one or
more devi ces to remove thi s contami nati on. These
i ncl ude fi l ters, water separators, ai r dehydrators,
and chemi cal dr i er s, whi ch ar e di scussed i n
chapter 9 of thi s manual . I n addi ti on, most
systems contai n drai n val ves at cri ti cal l ow poi nts
i n the system. These val ves are opened peri odi cal l y
to al l ow the escapi ng gas to pur ge a l ar ge
percentage of the contami nants, both sol i ds and
moi sture, from the system. I n some systems these
val ves are opened and cl osed automati cal l y, whi l e
i n others they must be operated manual l y.
Compl ete purgi ng i s done by removi ng l i nes
from vari ous components throughout the system
and then attempti ng to pressuri ze the system,
causi ng a hi gh rate of ai rfl ow through the system.
The ai rfl ow wi l l cause the forei gn matter to be
di sl odged and bl own from the system.
NOTE: I f an excessi ve amount of forei gn
matter, parti cul arl y oi l , i s bl own from any one
system, the l i nes and components shoul d be
removed and cl eaned or repl aced.
I n addi ti on to moni tori ng the devi ces i nstal l ed
to remove contami nati on, i t i s your responsi bi l i ty
as a mai ntenance person or supervi sor to control
the contami nati on. You can do thi s by usi ng the
fol l owi ng mai ntenance practi ces:
1. Keep al l tool s and the work area i n a cl ean,
di rt-free condi ti on.
2. Cap or pl u g al l l i n es an d fi tti n gs
i mmedi atel y after di sconnecti ng them.
3. Repl ace al l packi ng and gaskets duri ng
assembl y procedures.
4. Connect al l par ts wi th car e to avoi d
stri ppi ng metal sl i vers from threaded areas. I nstal l
and torque al l fi tti ngs and l i nes accordi ng to
appl i cabl e techni cal i nstructi ons.
5. Compl ete pr eventi ve mai ntenance as
speci fi ed by MRCs.
Al so, you must take care to ensure that the
proper cyl i nders are connected to systems bei ng
suppl i ed from cyl i nders.
Cyl i nders for compressed ai r are pai nted
bl ack. Cyl i nders contai ni ng oi l -pumped ai r have
11-8
two green stri pes pai nted around the top of the
cyl i nder, whi l e cyl i nders contai ni ng water-pumped
ai r have one green stri pe. Oi l -pumped ai r i ndi cates
that the ai r or ni trogen i s compressed by an
oi l -l ubri cated compressor. Ai r or ni trogen com-
pressed by a water-l ubri cated (or nonl ubri cated)
compr essor i s r efer r ed to as water pumped.
Oi l -pumped ni trogen can be very dangerous i n
cer tai n si tuati ons. For exampl e, ni tr ogen i s
commonl y used to purge oxygen systems. Oxygen
wi l l not burn, but i t supports and accel erates
combusti on and wi l l cause oi l to burn easi l y and
wi th gr eat i ntensi ty. Ther efor e, oi l -pumped
ni trogen must never be used to purge oxygen
systems. When the smal l amount of oi l remai ni ng
i n the ni trogen comes i n contact wi th the oxygen,
an expl osi on may resul t. I n al l si tuati ons, use
onl y the gas speci fi ed by the manufacturer or
recommended by the Navy. Ni trogen cyl i nders are
pai nted gray. One bl ack stri pe i denti fi es cyl i nders
for oi l -pumped ni trogen, and two bl ack stri pes
i denti fy cyl i nders for water-pumped ni trogen. I n
addi ti on to these col or codes, the exact i denti -
fi cati on of the contents i s pri nted i n two l ocati ons
di ametri cal l y opposi te one another al ong the
l ongi tudi nal axi s of the cyl i nder. For compressed
ai r and ni trogen cyl i nders, the l etteri ng i s whi te.
POTENTIAL HAZARDS
Al l compressed gases are hazardous. Com-
pressed ai r and ni trogen are nei ther poi sonous nor
fl ammabl e, but shoul d not be handl ed carel essl y.
Some pneumati c systems operate at pressures
exceedi ng 3000 psi . Li nes and fi tti ngs have
expl oded, i njur i ng per sonnel and pr oper ty.
Li teral l y thousands of carel ess workers have
bl own dust or harmful parti cl es i nto thei r eyes by
the carel ess handl i ng of compressed ai r outl ets.
Ni trogen gas wi l l not support l i fe, and when
i t i s rel eased i n a confi ned space, i t wi l l cause
asphyxi a (the l oss of consci ousness as a resul t of
too l i ttl e oxygen and too much carbon di oxi de i n
the bl ood). Al though compressed ai r and ni trogen
seem so safe i n compari son wi th other gases, do
not l et overconfi dence l ead to personal i njury.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
To mi ni mi ze personal i njury and equi pment
damage when usi ng compressed gases, observe al l
practi cal operati ng safety precauti ons, i ncl udi ng
the fol l owi ng:
1. Do not use compressed ai r to cl ean parts
of your body or cl othi ng, or to perform general
space cl eanup i n l i eu of vacuumi ng or sweepi ng.
2. Never attempt to stop or repai r a l eak whi l e
the l eaki ng porti on i s sti l l under pressure. Al ways
i sol ate, repressuri ze and danger tag out the
porti on of the system to be repai red. For pressures
of 1000 psi or greater, doubl e val ve protecti on i s
requi red to prevent i njury i f one of the val ves
shoul d fai l .
3. Avoi d the appl i cati on of heat to the ai r
pi pi ng system or components, and avoi d stri ki ng
a sharp or heavy bl ow on any pressuri zed part of
the pi pi ng system.
4. Avoi d rapi d operati on of manual val ves.
The heat of compressi on caused by a sudden hi gh-
-pressure fl ow i nto an empty l i ne or vessel can
cause an expl osi on i f oi l i s present. Val ves shoul d
be sl owl y cracked open unti l ai rfl ow i s noted and
shoul d be kept i n thi s posi ti on unti l pressures on
both si des of the val ve have equal i zed. The rate
of pressure ri se shoul d be kept under 200 psi
per second, i f possi bl e. Val ves may then be opened
ful l y.
5. Do not di schar ge l ar ge quanti ti es of
ni tr ogen i nto cl osed compar tments unl ess
adequate venti l ati on i s provi ded.
6. Do not subject compressed gas cyl i nders
to temperatures greater than 130F.
Remember, any pressuri zed system can be
hazardous to your heal th i f i t i s not mai ntai ned
and operated careful l y and safel y.
11-9
CHAPTER 12
BASIC DIAGRAMS AND SYSTEMS
I n the precedi ng chapters, you l earned about
hydraul i c and pneumati c fl ui ds and components
of fl ui d power systems. Whi l e havi ng a knowl edge
of system components i s essenti al , i t i s di ffi cul t
to under stand the i nter r el ati onshi p of these
components by si mpl y watchi ng the system
operate. The knowl edge of system i nterrel ati on
i s r equi r ed to effecti vel y tr oubl eshoot and
mai ntai n a fl ui d power system. Di agrams pro-
vi ded i n appl i cabl e techni cal publ i cati ons or
drawi ngs are a val uabl e ai d i n understandi ng the
operati on of the system and i n di agnosi ng the
causes of mal functi ons.
Thi s chapter expl ai ns the di fferent types of
di agrams used to i l l ustrate fl ui d power ci rcui ts,
i ncl udi ng some of the symbol s that depi ct fl ui d
power components. I ncl uded i n thi s chapter
are descri pti ons and i l l ustrati ons denoti ng the
di fferences between open-center and cl osed-center
fl ui d power systems. The l ast part of the chapter
descri bes and i l l ustrates some appl i cati ons of basi c
fl ui d power systems.
DIAGRAMS
As menti oned ear l i er i n thi s chapter , to
troubl eshoot fl ui d power systems i ntel l i gentl y, a
mechani c or techni ci an must be fami l i ar wi th the
system on whi ch he or she i s wor ki ng. The
mechani c must k now the functi on of each
component i n the system and have a mental
pi ctur e of i ts l ocati on i n r el ati on to other
components. Thi s can best be done by studyi ng
the di agrams of the system.
A di agr am may be defi ned as a gr aphi c
representati on of an assembl y or system that
i ndi cates the vari ous parts and expresses the
methods or pri nci pl es of operati ons. The abi l i ty
to read di agrams i s a basi c requi rement for
under standi ng the oper ati on of fl ui d power
systems. Understandi ng the di agrams of a system
requi res havi ng a knowl edge of the symbol s used
i n the schemati c di agrams.
SYMBOLS
The Navy uses two mi l i tary standards that
l i st mechani cal symbol s that must be used i n
prepari ng drawi ngs that wi l l contai n symbol i c
representati on. These standards are as fol l ows:
1. Military Standard, Mechanical Symbols
(Other than Aeronautical, Aerospacecraft, and
Spacecraft Use), Part 1, MI L-STD-17B-1.
2. Military Standard, Mechanical Symbols for
Aeronautical, Aerospacecraft, and Spacecraft
Use, Part 2, MI L-STD-17B-2.
Some of the symbol s frequentl y used i n fl ui d
power systems have been sel ected from these
two standards and are shown i n Appendi xes I I
and I I I . Appendi x I I contai ns symbol s fr om
MI L-STD-17B-1. Appendi x I I I contai ns symbol s
fr om MI L-STD-17B-2.
Whi l e the symbol s shown i n the appendi xes
are not al l encompassi ng, they do provi de a basi s
for an i ndi vi dual wor ki ng wi th fl ui d power
systems to bui l d upon. Some rul es appl i cabl e to
gr aphi cal symbol s for fl ui d di agr ams ar e as
fol l ows:
1. Symbol s show connecti ons, fl ow paths,
and the functi on of the component represented
onl y. They do not i ndi cate condi ti ons occurri ng
duri ng transi ti on from one fl ow path to another;
nor do they i ndi cate component constructi on or
val ues, such as pressure or fl ow rate.
2. Symbol s do not i ndi cate the l ocati on of
ports, di recti on of shi fti ng of spool s, or posi ti on
of control el ements on actual components.
3. Symbol s may be r otated or r ever sed
wi thout al teri ng thei r meani ng except i n cases of
l i nes to reservoi rs and vented mani fol ds.
4. Symbol s may be drawn i n any si ze.
5. Each symbol i s drawn to show the normal
or neutral condi ti on of each component unl ess
mul ti pl e ci rcui t di agrams are furni shed showi ng
vari ous phases of ci rcui t operati on.
12-1
For more detai l ed i nformati on concerni ng the
symbol s used i n fl ui d power di agrams, consul t the
above-menti oned mi l i tary standards. Addi ti onal
i nformati on concerni ng symbol s and the readi ng
of di agrams i s contai ned i n BI ueprint Reading and
Sketching, NAVEDTRA 10077-F1.
TYPES OF DIAGRAMS
There are many types of di agrams. Those that
are most perti nent to fl ui d power systems are
di scussed i n thi s text.
Pictorial Diagrams
Pi ctor i al di agr ams (fi g. 12-1) show the
general l ocati on and actual appearance of each
component, al l i nterconnecti ng pi pi ng, and the
general pi pi ng arrangement. Thi s type of di agram
i s someti mes r efer r ed to as an i nstal l ati on
di agram. Di agrams of thi s type are i nval uabl e to
mai ntenance personnel i n i denti fyi ng and l ocati ng
components of a system.
Cutaway Diagrams
Cutaway di agrams (fi g. 12-2) show the i nternal
worki ng parts of al l fl ui d power components i n
a system. Thi s i ncl udes control s and actuati ng
mechani sms and al l i nter connecti ng pi pi ng.
Cutaway di agrams do not normal l y use symbol s.
Figure 12-1.Hydraulic system pictorial diagram.
12-2
Figure 12-2.Cutaway diagrampneumatic.
12-3
Graphic Diagrams
The pri mary purpose of a graphi c (schemati c)
di agram i s to enabl e the mai ntenance person to
tr ace the fl ow of fl ui d fr om component to
component wi thi n the system. Thi s type of
di agram uses standard symbol s to show each
component and i ncl udes al l i nter connecti ng
pi pi ng. Addi ti onal l y, the di agr am contai ns a
component l i st, pi pe si ze, data on the sequence
of operati on, and other perti nent i nformati on.
The graphi c di agram (fi g. 12-3) does not i ndi -
cate the physi cal l ocati on of the vari ous com-
ponents, but i t does show the rel ati on of each
component to the other components wi thi n the
system.
,
Figure 12-3.Graphic diagram of LST 1182 class hydraulic steering gear.
12-4
Noti ce that fi gure 12-3 does not i ndi cate the
physi cal l ocati on of the i ndi vi dual components
wi th respect to each other i n the system. For
exampl e, the 3/4-i nch, sol enoi d-operated, 4-way
val ve (10) i s not necessari l y l ocated di rectl y above
the rel i ef val ve (26). The di agram does i ndi cate,
however, that the 4-way val ve i s l ocated i n the
worki ng l i ne, between the vari abl e-di spl acement
pump and the 1-i nch rotary sel ector val ve, and
that the val ve di rects fl ui d to and from the rotary
actuator.
Combination Diagrams
A combi nati on drawi ng uses a combi nati on
of graphi c, cutaway, and pi ctori al symbol s. Thi s
drawi ng al so i ncl udes al l i nterconnecti ng pi pi ng.
FLUID POWER SYSTEMS
A fl ui d power system i n whi ch the fl ui d i n the
system remai ns pressuri zed from the pump (or
regul ator) to the di recti onal control val ve whi l e
the pump i s operati ng i s referred to as a cl osed-
center system. I n thi s type of system, any number
of subsystems may be i ncor por ated, wi th a
separ ate di r ecti onal contr ol val ve for each
subsystem. The di recti onal control val ves are
arranged i n paral l el so that system pressure acts
equal l y on al l control val ves.
Another type of system that i s someti mes used
i n hydraul i cal l y operated equi pment i s the open-
center system. An open-center system has fl ui d
fl ow but no i nternal pressure when the actuati ng
mechani sms are i dl e. The pump ci rcul ates the fl ui d
from the reservoi r, through the di recti onal control
val ves, and back to the reservoi r. (See fi g. 12-4,
vi ew A.) Li ke the cl osed-center system, the open-
center system may have any number of subsystems,
wi th a di recti onal control val ve for each subsystem.
Unl i ke the cl osed-center system, the di recti onal
control val ves of an open-center system are al ways
connected i n seri es wi th each other, an arrange-
ment i n whi ch the system pressure l i ne goes
through each di recti onal control val ve. Fl ui d i s
al ways al l owed free passage through each control
val ve and back to the reservoi r unti l one of the con-
trol val ves i s posi ti oned to operate a mechani sm.
When one of the di recti onal control val ves i s
posi ti oned to operate an actuati ng devi ce, as
shown i n vi ew B of fi gure 12-4, fl ui d i s di rected
from the pump through one of the worki ng l i nes
to the actuator. Wi th the control val ve i n thi s
posi ti on, the fl ow of fl ui d through the val ve to
the reservoi r i s bl ocked. Thus, the pressure bui l ds
up i n the system and moves the pi ston of the
Figure 12-4.Open-center hydraulic system.
actuati ng cyl i nder. The fl ui d from the other end
of the actuator r etur ns to the contr ol val ve
through the opposi te worki ng l i ne and fl ows back
to the reservoi r.
Several di fferent types of di recti onal control
val ves are used i n the open-center system. One
type i s the manual l y engaged and manual l y
di sengaged. After thi s type of val ve i s manual l y
moved to the operati ng posi ti on and the actuati ng
mechani sm reaches the end of i ts operati ng cycl e,
pump output conti nues unti l the system rel i ef
val ve setti ng i s reached. The rel i ef val ve then
unseats and al l ows the fl ui d to fl ow back to the
reservoi r. The system pressure remai ns at the
pressure setti ng of the rel i ef val ve unti l the
di recti onal control val ve i s manual l y returned to
the neutral posi ti on. Thi s acti on reopens the
open-center fl ow and al l ows the system pressure
to drop to l i ne resi stance pressure.
Another type of open-center di r ecti onal
control val ve i s manual l y engaged and pressure
di sengaged. Thi s type of val ve i s si mi l ar to the
val ve di scussed i n the pr ecedi ng par agr aph;
however, when the actuati ng mechani sm reaches
the end of i ts cycl e and the pressure conti nues to
12-5
r i se to a pr edeter mi ned pr essur e, the val ve
automati cal l y returns to the neutral posi ti on and,
consequentl y, to open-center fl ow.
One of the advantages of the open-center
system i s that the conti nuous pressuri zati on of the
system i s el i mi nated. Si nce the pr essur e i s
gradual l y bui l t up after the di recti onal control
val ve i s moved to an operati ng posi ti on, there i s
ver y l i ttl e shock fr om pr essur e sur ges. Thi s
provi des a smooth operati on of the actuati ng
mechani sms; however, the operati on i s sl ower
than the cl osed-center system i n whi ch the pressure
i s avai l abl e the moment the di recti onal control
val ve i s posi ti oned. Si nce most appl i cati ons
requi re i nstantaneous operati on, cl osed-center
systems are the most wi del y used.
HYDRAULIC POWER DRIVE SYSTEM
The hydraul i c power dri ve has been used
i n the Navy for many year s. Pr oof of i ts
effecti veness i s that i t has been used to trai n and
el evate nearl y al l cal i ber guns, from the 40-mm
gun mount to the 16-i nch turret. I n addi ti on to
gun mounts and turrets, hydraul i c power dri ves
ar e used to posi ti on r ock et l auncher s and
mi ssi l e l aunchers, and to dri ve and control such
equi pment as wi ndl asses, capstans, and wi nches.
I n i ts si mpl est form, the hydraul i c power dri ve
consi sts of the fol l owi ng:
1. The pri me mover, whi ch i s the outsi de
source of power used to dri ve the hydraul i c pump
2. A vari abl e-di spl acement hydraul i c pump
3. A hydraul i c motor
4. A means of i ntroduci ng a si gnal to the
hydraul i c pump to control i ts output
5. Mechani cal shafti ng and gear i ng that
transmi ts the output of the hydraul i c motor to the
equi pment bei ng operated
Hydr aul i c power dr i ves di ffer i n some
respects, such as si ze, method of control , and so
for th. However , the fundamental oper ati ng
pr i nci pl es ar e si mi l ar . The uni t used i n the
fol l owi ng di scussi on of fundamental operati ng
pri nci pl es i s representati ve of the hydraul i c power
dri ves used to operate the 5"/38 twi n mounts.
Fi gure 12-5 shows the basi c components of
the tr ai n power dr i ve. The el ectr i c motor i s
constructed wi th dri ve shafts at both ends. The
forward shaft dri ves the A-end pump through
reducti on gears, and the after shaft dri ves the
auxi l i ary pumps through the auxi l i ary reducti on
gears. The reducti on gears are i nstal l ed because
Figure 12-5.-Train power drivecomponents.
the pumps are desi gned to operate at a speed much
sl ower than that of the motor.
The repl eni shi ng pump i s a spur gear pump.
I ts purpose i s to repl eni sh fl ui d to the acti ve
system of the power dri ve. I t recei ves i ts suppl y
of fl ui d from the reservoi r and di scharges i t to
the B-end val ve pl ate. Thi s di scharge of fl ui d from
the pump i s hel d at a constant pressure by the
acti on of a pressure rel i ef val ve. (Because the
capaci ty of the pump exceeds r epl eni shi ng
demands, the rel i ef val ve i s conti nuousl y al l owi ng
some of the fl ui d to fl ow back to the reservoi r.)
The sump pump and osci l l ator has a twofol d
purpose. I t pumps l eakage, whi ch col l ects i n the
sump of the i ndi cator regul ator, to the expansi on
tank. Addi ti onal l y, i t transmi ts a pul sati ng effect
to the fl ui d i n the response pressure system.
Osci l l ati ons i n the hydraul i c response system hel p
el i mi nate stati c fr i cti on of val ves, al l owi ng
hydraul i c control to respond faster.
The control pressure pump suppl i es hi gh-
pressure fl ui d for the hydraul i c control system,
br ak e pi stons, l ock pi ston, and the hand-
control l ed cl utch operati ng pi ston. The control
pressure pump i s a fi xed-di spl acement, axi al -
pi ston type. An adjustabl e rel i ef val ve i s used to
l i mi t the operati ng pressure at the outl et of the
pump.
Control
For the purpose of thi s text, control consti tutes
the rel ati onshi p between the stroke control shaft
and the ti l ti ng box. The stroke control shaft i s one
of the pi ston rods of a doubl e-acti ng pi ston-type
actuati ng cyl i nder. Thi s actuati ng cyl i nder and i ts
di rect means of control are referred to as the mai n
cyl i nder assembl y (fi g. 12-6). I t i s the l i nk between
the hydraul i c fol l owup system and the power dri ve
i tsel f.
I n hand control , the ti l ti ng box i s mechani cal l y
posi ti oned by gear i ng fr om the handwheel
through the A-end control uni t. I n l ocal and
automati c control , the ti l ti ng box i s posi ti oned by
the stroke control shaft. As shown i n fi gure 12-6,
the extended end of the control shaft i s connected
to the ti l ti ng box. Movement of the shaft wi l l pi vot
the ti l ti ng box one way or the other; whi ch, i n
turn, control s the output of the A-end of the
tr ansmi ssi on. The other end of the shaft i s
attached to the mai n pi ston. A shorter shaft i s
attached to the opposi te si de of the pi ston. Thi s
shaft i s al so smal l er i n di ameter. Thus the worki ng
area of the l eft si de of the pi ston i s twi ce that of the
area of the ri ght si de, as i t appears i n fi gure 12-6.
Figure 126.Main cylinder assembly.
I ntermedi ate hi gh-pressure fl ui d (I HP) i s
transmi tted to the l eft si de of the pi ston, whi l e
hi gh-pressure hydraul i c fl ui d (HPC) i s transmi tted
to the ri ght si de. The HPC i s hel d constant at 1000
psi . Si nce the area of the pi ston upon whi ch HPC
acts i s exactl y one-hal f the area upon whi ch I HP
acts, the mai n pi ston i s mai ntai ned i n a fi xed
posi ti on when I HP i s one-hal f HPC (500 psi ).
Whenever I HP vari es from i ts normal val ue of
500 psi , the mai n pi ston wi l l move, thus movi ng
the ti l ti ng box.
Operation
Assume that a ri ght trai n order si gnal i s
recei ved. Thi s wi l l cause the pi l ot val ve to be
pul l ed upward. The fl ui d i n the upper chamber
of the ampl i fi er pi ston can now fl ow through the
l ower l and chamber of the fi ne pi l ot to exhaust.
Thi s wi l l cause the ampl i fi er pi ston to move
upward, and the fl ui d i n the ri ght-hand chamber
of the mai n control val ve can fl ow i nto the l ower
chamber of the ampl i fi er val ve.
The mai n control val ve wi l l now move to the
ri ght, I HP wi l l drop bel ow 500 psi , and the stroke
pi ston wi l l move to the l eft. Movement of the
12-7
stroke pi ston wi l l cause ti l t to be put on the ti l t
pl ate, and the A-end wi l l cause the mount to trai n
ri ght.
Fi gure 12-7 i s a si mpl i fi ed bl ock di agram
showi ng the mai n el ement of the hydraul i c power
dr i ve system under automati c contr ol for
cl ockwi se and countercl ockwi se rotati on.
There are two pri nci pal probl ems i n posi -
ti oni ng a gun to fi re. One i s to get an accurate
gun-order si gnal . Thi s probl em i s sol ved by the
di r ector -computer combi nati on. The other
probl em i s to transmi t the di rector si gnal promptl y
to the gun so that the posi ti on and movements
of the gun wi l l be synchroni zed wi th the si gnal s
from the di rector.
The pr obl em of tr ansfor mi ng gun-or der
si gnal s to mount movements i s sol ved by the
power dr i ve and i ts contr ol the i ndi cator
regul ator. The i ndi cator regul ator control s the
power dr i ve, and thi s, i n tur n, contr ol s the
movement of the gun.
The i ndi cator regul ator recei ves an i ni ti al
el ectri cal gun-order from the di rector-computer,
compares i t to the exi sti ng mount posi ti on, and
sends an error si gnal to the hydraul i c control
mechani sm i n the regul ator. The hydraul i c control
mechani sm control s the fl ow to the stroke control
shaft, whi ch posi ti ons the ti l ti ng box i n the A-end
of the transmi ssi on. I ts ti l t control s the vol ume
and di recti on of fl ui d pumped to the B-end and,
therefore, the speed and di recti on of the dri ve
shaft of the B-end. Through mechani cal l i nkage,
the B-end output shaft moves the gun i n the
di recti on determi ned by the si gnal . At the same
ti me, B-end r esponse i s tr ansmi tted to the
i ndi cator regul ator and conti nuousl y combi nes
wi th i ncomi ng gun-or der si gnal s to gi ve the
error between the two. Thi s error i s modi fi ed
hydr aul i cal l y, accor di ng to the system of
mechani cal l i nkages and val ves i n the regul ator.
When the gun i s l aggi ng behi nd the si gnal , i ts
movement i s accel erated; and when i t begi ns to
catch up, i ts movement i s sl owed down so that
i t wi l l not overrun excessi vel y.
LANDING GEAR EMERGENCY
SYSTEM
I f the l andi ng gear i n a naval ai rcraft fai l s to
extend to the down and l ocked posi ti on, the
ai rcraft has an emergency method to extend the
l andi ng gear. Thi s text wi l l cover the ni trogen
system.
The ni tr ogen stor age bottl e system i s a
one-shot system powered by ni trogen pressure
stor ed i n four compr essed ni tr ogen bottl es
(fi g. 12-8). When the l andi ng gear control handl e
i s used to actuate the emergency l andi ng gear
system, a cabl e between the control and the
manual l y operated ni trogen bottl e opens the
emergency gear down rel ease val ve on the bottl e.
Ni trogen from thi s bottl e actuates the rel ease
val ves on the other three bottl es so that they
di scharge. Ni trogen fl ows from the manual l y
operated bottl e, actuates the dump val ves, and
causes the shuttl es wi thi n the shuttl e val ves on the
Figure 12-7.Operation of the hydraulic power drive.
12-8
F
i
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e

1
2
-
8
.
1
2
-
9
aft doors cyl i nders and the shuttl e val ve on the
nose gear cyl i nder to cl ose off the normal port
and operate these cyl i nders. The nose gear cyl i nder
extends; thi s unl ocks the upl ock and extends the
nose gear. The ni trogen fl owi ng i nto the aft door
cyl i nders opens the aft doors. Fl ui d on the cl ose
si de of the door cyl i nder i s vented to return
through the actuated dump val ves. Ni trogen from
another bottl e actuates the shuttl e val ves on the
upl ock cyl i nders. Ni trogen fl ows i nto the upl ock
cyl i nder s and causes them to di sengage the
upl ocks. As soon as the upl ocks are di sengaged,
the mai n gear extends by the force of gravi ty.
Fl ui d on the up si de of the mai n gear cyl i nders
i s vented to return through the actuated dump
val ves, preventi ng a fl ui d l ock.
J ET BLAST DEFLECTORS
Jet bl ast defl ectors (JBD) onboard ai rcraft
carri ers are rai sed and l owered by hydraul i c
cyl i nder s thr ough mechani cal l i nk age. Two
hydraul i c cyl i nders are attached to each JBD panel
shaft by crank assembl i es. (See fi g. 12-9.) The
shaft i s rotated by the push and pul l operati on
of the hydraul i c cyl i nders. Shaft rotati on extends
or retracts the l i nkage to rai se or l ower the JBD
panel s. Thi s operati on i s desi gned so that i n the
event of a fai l ure of one of the hydraul i c cyl i nders,
the other one wi l l rai se or l ower the panel s.
Fi gure 12-10 i s a di agram of the hydraul i c
control system of a JBD duri ng the rai se cycl e.
Hydraul i c fl ui d from the catapul t hydraul i c suppl y
system i s suppl i ed to the JBD hydraul i c system
through an i sol ati on val ve and a fi l ter to the 4-way
control val ve assembl y. (The 4-way control val ve
assembl y consi sts of a pi l ot-operated control
val ve, a di rect- or sol enoi d-operated control val ve,
and a sequence val ve, whi ch i s not shown.)
To rai se the JBD, sol enoi d B of the 4-way
control val ve assembl y i s energi zed. The spool s
of the 4-way val ve assembl y shi ft, al l owi ng
medi um-pressure hydraul i c fl ui d to fl ow i nto port
A of the hydraul i c cyl i nder. The cyl i nders extend,
Figure 12-9.Operating gear assembly (panels raised).
12-10
F
i
g
u
r
e

1
2
-
1
0
.
I
I I I I I I I
1
2
-
1
1
F
i
g
u
r
e

1
2
-
1
1
.
1
2
-
1
2
pushi ng the crank assembl y aft and rotati ng the
shaft. The r otati on of the shaft extends the
oper ati ng gear l i nkage and r ai ses the panel
assembl i es. Fl ui d from port B of the pi ston i s
di rected through the 4-way val ve assembl y and
back to the gravi ty tank.
To l ower the JBD (fi g. 12-11), sol enoi d A of
the 4-way control val ve assembl y i s energi zed. The
spool s of the 4-way val ve assembl y shi ft, al l ow
medi um-pressure hydraul i c fl ui d to fl ow i nto port
B of the hydraul i c cyl i nder. The cyl i nders retract,
pul l i ng the crank assembl y forward and rotati ng
the shaft. The rotati on of the shaft retracts the
operati ng gear l i nkage and l owers the panel
assembl i es. Fl ui d from port A of the pi ston i s
di rected through the 4-way val ve assembl y and
back to the gravi ty tank.
To l ower the JBD i n the event of hydraul i c
control fai l ure, each JBD panel i s equi pped wi th
a manual bypass val ve, whi ch al l ows bypassi ng
the 4-way control val ve. Thi s al l ows venti ng the
hydraul i c pressure from the rai se si de of the
cyl i nder back to the gravi ty tank.
The three l i nes to port A of the hydraul i c
cyl i nders have ori fi ce assembl i es i n them. These
ori fi ce assembl i es control the fl ow of hydraul i c
fl ui d i n both the rai se and l ower operati ons.
12-13
APPENDIX I
GLOSSARY
A part of thi s gl ossary has been extracted from
the American Standard Glossary of Terms for
Fluid Power (ASA B93.2-1965) wi th permi ssi on
of the publ i sher , The Nati onal Fl ui d Power
Associ ati on.
ABSOLUTE TEMPERATUREThe tempera-
ture measured usi ng absol ute zero as a reference.
Absol ute zero i s 273.16C or 459.69F.
ACCELERATI ONTi me rate of change of
vel oci ty.
ACCUMULATORA devi ce for stor i ng
l i qui d under pressure. I t usual l y consi sts of a
chamber separated i nto a gas compartment and
a l i qui d compartment by a pi ston or di aphragm.
An accumul ator al so ser ves to smooth out
pressure surges i n a hydraul i c system.
ACTUATORA devi ce that converts fl ui d
power i nto mechani cal force and moti on.
ADDI TI VEA ch emi cal compou n d or
compounds added to a fl ui d to change i ts
properti es.
AI R, COMPRESSEDAi r at any pressure
greater than atmospheri c pressure.
AMBI ENTSurroundi ng, such as ambi ent
ai r, meani ng surroundi ng ai r.
BAROMETERAn i nstr ument that mea-
sures atmospheri c pressure.
BERNOULLI S PRI NCI PLEI f a fl ui d
fl owi ng through a tube reaches a constri cti on, or
narrowi ng of the tube, the vel oci ty of the fl ui d
fl owi ng through the constri cti on i ncreases and the
pressure decreases.
BLEEDER, AI RA bl eeder for the removal
of ai r.
BOYLES LAWThe absol ute pressure of a
fi xed mass of gas vari es i nversel y as the vol ume,
provi ded the temperature remai ns constant.
CAVI TATI ON A l oca l i z e d ga s e ou s
condi ti on wi thi n a l i qui d stream that occurs where
the pressure i s reduced to the vapor pressure.
CELSI USThe temperature scal e usi ng the
freezi ng poi nt of water as zero and the boi l i ng
poi nt as 100, wi th 100 equal di vi si ons between,
cal l ed degrees. Thi s scal e was formerl y known as
the centi grade scal e.
CENTI GRADE(See Cel si us.)
CENTRI FUGAL FORCEA for ce exer ted
on a rotati ng object i n a di recti on outward from
the center of rotati on.
CHARL ESS L AWI f th e pr es s u r e i s
constant, the vol ume of dry gas vari es di rectl y
wi th the absol ute temperature.
CHEMI CAL CHANGEA ch an ge th at
al ters the composi ti on of the mol ecul es of a
substance.
CI RCUI TAn ar r angement of i nter con-
nected component parts.
COMPRESSI BI LI TYThe change i n vol ume
of a uni t vol ume of a fl ui d when i t i s subjected
to a uni t change of pressure.
COMPRESSORA devi ce that conver ts
mechani cal force and moti on i nto pneumati c fl ui d
power .
COMPUTERA devi ce capabl e of accepti ng
i nformati on, appl yi ng prescri bed processes to the
i nformati on, and suppl yi ng the resul ts of these
processes.
AI-1
CONDENSATI ONTh e ch an ge fr om a
gaseous (or vapor) state to a l i qui d state.
CONTAMI NANTDetri mental matter i n a
fl ui d.
CONTI NUI TY EQUATI ONThe mass rate
of fl ui d fl ow i nto any fi xed space i s equal to the
mass fl ow rate out. Hence, the mass fl ow rate of
fl ui d past al l cross secti ons of a condui t i s equal .
CONTROLA devi ce used to regul ate the
functi on of a component or system.
CONTROL , CYL I NDERA con tr ol i n
whi ch a fl ui d cyl i nder i s the actuati ng devi ce.
CONTROL, ELECTRI CA control actuated
el ectri cal l y.
CON TROL , H YDRAU L I CA con t r ol
actuated by a l i qui d.
CONTROL, MANUALA control actuated
by the operator.
CONTROL , MECHANI CAL A con tr ol
actuated by l i nkages, gears, screws, cams, or other
mechani cal el ements.
CON TROL , PN E U MATI CA con t r ol
actuated by ai r or other gas pressure.
CONTROL, SERVOA control actuated by
a feedback system that compares the output wi th
the reference si gnal and makes correcti ons to
reduce the di fference.
CONTROLS, PUMPContr ol s appl i ed to
posi ti ve-di spl acement vari abl e del i very pumps to
adjust thei r vol umetri c output or di recti on of
fl ow.
CONVERGENTThat whi ch i ncl i nes and
approaches nearer together, as the i nner wal l s of
a tube that i s constri cted.
COOLERA heat exchanger, whi ch removes
heat from a fl ui d.
COOLER, AFTERCOOLERA devi ce that
cool s a gas after i t has been compressed.
COOLER, I NTERCOOLERA devi ce that
cool s a gas between the compressi ve steps of a
mul ti pl e stage compressor.
COOLER, PRECOOLERA devi ce that
cool s a gas before i t i s compressed.
CORROSI ONThe sl ow destr ucti on of
mater i al s by chemi cal agents and el ectr omechani cal
reacti ons.
CYCL EA s i n gl e compl ete oper ati on
consi sti ng of progressi ve phases starti ng and
endi ng at the neutral posi ti on.
CYLI NDERA devi ce that converts fl ui d
power i nto l i near mechani cal force and moti on.
I t usual l y consi sts of a movabl e el ement, such as
a pi ston and pi ston r od, pl unger , or r am,
operati ng wi thi n a cyl i ndri cal bore.
CYLI NDER, CUSHI ONEDA cyl i nder wi th
a pi ston-assembl y decel erati on devi ce at one of
both ends of the stroke.
CYL I N DE R, DOU BL E - ACTI N GA
cyl i nder i n whi ch fl ui d force can be appl i ed to the
movabl e el ement i n ei ther di recti on.
CYLI NDER, DOUBLE-RODA cyl i nder
wi th a si ngl e pi ston and a pi ston rod extendi ng
from each end.
CYLI NDER, DUAL-STROKEA cyl i nder
combi nati on that provi des two worki ng strokes.
CYLI NDER, PI STONA cyl i nder i n whi ch
the movabl e el ement has a greater cross-secti onal
area than the pi ston rod.
CYLI NDER, PLUNGERA cyl i nder i n
whi ch the movabl e el ement has the same cross-
secti onal area as the pi ston rod.
CYLI NDER, SI NGLE-ACTI NGA cyl i nder
i n whi ch the fl ui d force can be appl i ed to the
movabl e el ement i n onl y one di recti on.
CYLI NDER, SI NGLE-RODA cyl i nder
wi th a pi ston rod extendi ng from one end.
CYLI NDER, SPRI NG-RETURNA cyl i n-
der i n whi ch a spri ng returns the pi ston assembl y.
CYL I NDE R, TANDE MTwo or mor e
cyl i nders wi th i nterconnected pi ston assembl i es.
CYLI NDER, TELESCOPI NGA cyl i nder
wi th nested mul ti pl e tubul ar rod segments whi ch
provi de a l ong worki ng stroke i n a short retracted
envel ope.
AI-2
DENSI TYThe wei ght per uni t vol ume of a
substance.
DI AGRAM, COMBI NATI ONA dr awi ng
usi ng a combi nati on of graphi cal , cutaway, and
pi ctori al symbol s.
DI AGRAM, CUTAWAYA drawi ng show-
i ng pri nci pal i nternal parts of al l components,
control s, and actuati ng mechani sms, al l i nter-
connecti ng l i nes and functi ons of i ndi vi dual
components.
DI AGRAM, GRAPHI CALA dr awi ng or
dr awi ngs showi ng each pi ece of appar atus
i ncl udi ng al l i nterconnecti ng l i nes by approved
standard symbol s.
DI AGRAM, PI CTORI ALA drawi ng show-
i ng each component i n i ts actual shape accordi ng
to the manufacturers i nstal l ati on.
DI AGRAM, SCHEMATI C(See Di agr am,
graphi cal .)
DI APHRAGMA di vi di ng membr ane or
thi n parti ti on.
DI FFUSERA duct of varyi ng cross secti on
desi gned to convert a hi gh-speed gas fl ow i nto
l ow-speed at an i ncreased pressure.
DI SPLACEMENTThe vol ume of fl ui d that
can pass through a pump, motor, or cyl i nder i n
a si ngl e revol uti on or stroke.
DI VERGENTMovi ng away fr om each
other, as the i nner wal l of a tube that fl ares
outward.
EFFI CI ENCYThe r ati o of the output
power to the i nput power, general l y expressed as
a percentage.
ENERGYThe abi l i ty or capaci ty to do
wor k.
EQUI LI BRI UMA state of bal ance between
opposi ng forces or acti ons.
FAHRENHEI TThe temperature scal e usi ng
the freezi ng poi nt of water as 32 and the boi l i ng
poi nt as 212, wi th 180 equal di vi si ons between,
cal l ed degrees.
FEEDBACKA transfer of energy from the
output of a devi ce to i ts i nput.
FI LTERA devi ce whose pri mary functi on
i s the retenti on by a porous medi a of i nsol ubl e
contami nants from a fl ui d.
FI LTER ELEMENTThe porous devi ce that
performs the actual process of fi l trati on.
FI LTER MEDI AThe porous materi al s that
perform the actual process of fi l trati on.
FI L TE R ME DI A, SU RFACE Por ou s
materi al s that pri mari l y retai n contami nants on
the i nfl uent face.
FLASH POI NTThe temperature to whi ch
a l i qui d must be heated under speci fi ed condi ti ons
of the test method to gi ve off suffi ci ent vapor to
form a mi xture wi th ai r that can be i gni ted
momentari l y by a speci fi ed fl ame.
FLOW, LAMI NARA fl ow si tuati on i n
whi ch fl ui d moves i n paral l el l ayers (al so referred
to as streaml i ne fl ow).
FLOW, METEREDFl ow at a contr ol l ed
r ate.
FLOW, TURBULENTA fl ow si tuati on i n
whi ch the fl ui d par ti cl es move i n a r andom
manner.
FLOW RATEThe vol ume, mass, or wei ght
of a fl ui d passi ng through any conductor per uni t
of ti me.
FLOWMETERAn i nstr ument used to
measure quanti ty or the fl ow rate of a fl ui d
moti on.
FLUI DA l i qui d or a gas.
FLUI D FLOWThe stream or movement of
a fl ui d, or the rate of i ts movement.
FLUI D FRI CTI ONFr i cti on due to the
vi scosi ty of fl ui ds.
F L U I D, F I RE - RE SI STAN TA f l u i d
di ffi cul t to i gni te, whi ch shows l i ttl e tendency to
propagate fl ame.
AI-3
FLUI D, HYDRAULI CA fl ui d sui tabl e for
use i n a hydraul i c system.
FLUI D, PETROLEUMA fl ui d composed
of petrol eum oi l . I t may contai n addi ti ves.
FLUI D, PHOSPHATE ESTER BASEA
fl ui d that contai ns a phosphate ester as one of the
major components.
FLUI D, SI LI CONEA fl ui d composed of
si l i cones. I t may contai n addi ti ves.
FLUI D, WATER-GLYCOLA fl ui d whose
major consti tuents are water and one or more
gl ycol s or pol ygl ycol s.
FLUI D STABI LI TYResi stance of a fl ui d to
permanent change i n properti es.
FLUI D POWEREnergy transmi tted and
contr ol l ed thr ough the use of fl ui ds under
pressure.
FLUI D POWER SYSTEMA system that
transmi ts and control s power through use of a
pressuri zed fl ui d wi thi n an encl osed ci rcui t.
FOOT-POU NDTh e a mou n t of wor k
accompl i shed when a force of 1 pound produces
a di spl acement of 1 foot.
FORCEThe acti on of one body on another
tendi ng to change the state of moti on of the body
acted upon.
FREE FLOWFl ow that encounters negl i -
gi bl e resi stance.
FRI CTI ONThe acti on of one body or
substance rubbi ng agai nst another, such as fl ui d
fl owi ng agai nst the wal l s of pi pe; the resi stance
to moti on caused by thi s rubbi ng.
FRI CTI ON PRESSURE DROPThe decrease
i n the pressure of a fl ui d fl owi ng through a
passage attri butabl e to the fri cti on between the
fl ui d and the passage wal l s.
GASThe form of matter that has nei ther a
defi ni te shape nor a defi ni te vol ume.
GASKETA cl ass of seal s that provi des a seal
between two stati onary parts.
GAUGEAn i n s tr u men t or dev i ce for
characteri sti c.
measuri ng, i ndi cati ng, or compari ng a physi cal
GAU GE PRE SSU RE Pr es s u r e a bov e
atmospheri c pressure.
GAUGE SNUBBERA devi ce i nstal l ed i n
the l i ne to the pressure gauge used to dampen
pressure surges and thus provi de a steady readi ng
and a protecti on for the gauge.
GAUGE, BELLOWSA gauge i n whi ch the
sensi ng el ement i s a convol uted cl osed cyl i nder.
A pressure di fferenti al between the outsi de and
the i nsi de causes the cyl i nder to expand or contract
axi al l y.
GAUGE, BOURDON TUBEA pr essur e
gauge i n whi ch the sensi ng el ement i s a curved
tube that tends to strai ghten out when subjected
to i nternal fl ui d pressure.
GAUGE, DI APHRAGMA gauge i n whi ch
the sensi ng el ement i s rel ati vel y thi n and i ts i nner
porti on i s free to defl ect wi th respect to i ts
peri phery.
GAU GE , PRE SSU RE A ga u ge t h a t
i ndi cates the pressure i n the system to whi ch i t
i s connected.
GAUGE, VACUUMA pressure gauge for
pressures l ess than atmospheri c.
GRAVI TYThe force that tends to draw al l
bodi es toward the center of the earth. The wei ght
of a body i s the resul tant of gravi tati onal force
acti ng on the body.
HEADThe hei ght of a col umn or body of
fl ui d above a gi ven poi nt expressed i n l i near uni ts.
Head i s often used to i ndi cate gauge pressure.
Pressure i s equal to the hei ght ti mes the densi ty
of the fl ui d.
HEAD, FRI CTI ONThe head requi red to
overcome the fri cti on at the i nteri or surface of
a conductor and between fl ui d parti cl es i n moti on.
I t vari es wi th fl ow, si ze, type, and condi ti on of
conductors and fi tti ngs, and fl ui d characteri sti cs,
HEAD, STATI CThe hei ght of a col umn or
body of fl ui d above a gi ven poi nt.
AI-4
HEAD, VELOCI TYThe equi val ent head
through whi ch the l i qui d woul d have to fal l to
attai n a gi ven vel oci ty. Mathemati cal l y i t i s equal
to the square of the vel oci ty (i n feet) di vi ded by
64.4 feet per second square.
H E AT E XCH AN GE RA d e v i ce t h a t
transfers heat through a conducti ng wal l from one
fl ui d to another.
HYDRAULI CSEngi neeri ng sci ence pertai n-
i ng to l i qui d pressure and fl ow.
HYDROMETERAn i nstrument for deter-
mi ni ng the speci fi c gravi ti es of l i qui ds.
HYDROPNEUMATI CSPer tai ni ng to the
combi nati on of hydraul i c and pneumati c fl ui d
power .
HYDROSTATI CSEn gi n eer i n g s ci en ce
pertai ni ng to the energy of l i qui ds at rest.
I MPACT PRESSUREThe pr essur e of a
movi ng fl ui d brought to rest that i s i n excess of
the pressure the fl ui d has when i t does not fl ow;
that i s, total pressure l ess stati c pressure. I mpact
pressure i s equal to dynami c pressure i n i ncom-
pressi bl e fl ow; but i n compressi bl e fl ow, i mpact
pressure i ncl udes the pressure change owi ng to the
compressi bi l i ty effect.
I MPI NGEMENTThe stri ki ng or dashi ng
upon wi th a cl ash or shar p col l i si on, as ai r
i mpi ngi ng upon the rotor of a turbi ne or motor.
I MPULSE TURBI NEA turbi ne dri ven by
a fl ui d at hi gh vel oci ty under rel ati vel y l ow
pressure.
I NERTI AThe tendency of a body at rest to
remai n at rest, and a body i n moti on to conti nue
to move at a constant speed al ong a strai ght l i ne,
unl ess the body i s acted upon i n ei ther case by an
unbal anced force.
I NHI BI TORAny substance whi ch sl ows or
prevents chemi cal reacti ons such as corrosi on or
oxi dati on.
I NVERSE PROPORTI ONThe rel ati on that
exi sts between two quanti ti es when an i ncrease i n
one of them produces a correspondi ng decrease
i n the other.
KELVI N SCALEThe temper atur e scal e
usi ng absol ute zero as the zero poi nt and di vi si ons
that are the same si ze as centi grade degrees.
KI NETI C ENERGYThe ener gy that a
substance has whi l e i t i s i n moti on.
KI NETI C THEORYA theory of matter that
assumes that the mol ecul es of matter are i n
constant moti on.
LI NEA tube, pi pe, or hose that i s used as
a conductor of fl ui d.
LI QUI DA for m of matter that has a
defi ni te vol ume but takes the shape of i ts
contai ner.
LOADThe power that i s bei ng del i vered by
any power-produci ng devi ce. The equi pment that
uses the power from the power-produci ng devi ce.
L U BRI CATORA d e v i ce t h a t a d d s
control l ed or metered amounts of l ubri cant i nto
a fl ui d power system.
MANI FOLDA type of fl ui d conductor that
provi des mul ti pl e connecti ons ports.
MANOMETERA di ffer enti al pr essur e
gauge i n whi ch pressure i s i ndi cated by the hei ght
of a l i qui d col umn of known densi ty. Pressure i s
equal to the di fference i n verti cal hei ght between
two connected col umns mul ti pl i ed by the densi ty
of th e man ometer l i qu i d. Some for ms of
manometers are U tube, i ncl i ned tube, wel l , and
bel l types.
MATTERAny substance that occupi es
space and has wei ght.
MECHANI CAL ADVANTAGEThe r ati o
of the resi sti ng wei ght to the acti ng force. The
rati o of the di stance through whi ch the force i s
exerted di vi ded by the di stance the wei ght i s
rai sed.
METER-I NTo regul ate the amount of fl ui d
i nto a system or an actuator.
METER-OUTTo regul ate the fl ow of fl ui d
from a system or actuator.
MI CRONA mi l l i onth of a meter or about
0.00004 i nch.
AI-5
MOLECULEA smal l natur al par ti cl e of
matter composed of two or more atoms.
MOTORA devi ce that converts fl ui d power
i nto mechani cal force and moti on. I t usual l y
provi des rotary mechani cal moti on.
MOTOR, FI XED-DI SPL ACEMENTA
motor i n whi ch the di spl acement per uni t of
output moti on cannot be vari ed.
MOTOR, LI NEAR(See Cyl i nder .)
MOTOR, ROTARYA motor capabl e of
conti nuous rotary moti on.
MOTOR, ROTARY LI MI TEDA r otar y
motor havi ng l i mi ted moti on.
MOTOR, VARI ABLE-DI SPLACEMENT
A motor i n whi ch the di spl acement per uni t of
output moti on can be vari ed.
NEOPRENEA syntheti c r ubber hi ghl y
resi stant to oi l , l i ght, heat, and oxi dati on.
NEUTRALI ZATI ON NUMBERA mea-
sure of the total aci di ty or basi ci ty of an oi l ; thi s
i ncl udes organi c or i norgani c aci ds or bases or a
combi nati on of them.
OXI DATI ONThe process by whi ch oxygen
uni tes wi th some other substance, causi ng rust or
cor r osi on.
PACKI NGA cl ass of seal that i s used to
provi de a seal between two parts of a uni t whi ch
move i n rel ati on to each other.
PASCALS LAWA pressure appl i ed to a
confi ned fl ui d at rest i s transmi tted wi th equal
i ntensi ty throughout the fl ui d.
PERI PHERYThe outsi de sur face, espe-
ci al l y that of a rounded object or body.
PI PEA type of fl ui d l i ne whose di mensi ons
are desi gnated by nomi nal (approxi mate) i nsi de
di ameter and wal l thi ckness.
PNEUMATI CSEngi neer i ng sci ence per -
tai ni ng to gaseous pressure and fl ow.
PORTAn i nternal or external termi nus of
a passage i n a component.
POTENTI AL ENERGYThe energy a sub-
stance has because of i ts posi ti on, i ts condi ti on,
or i ts chemi cal composi ti on.
POUR POI NTThe l owest temperature at
whi ch a l i qui d wi l l fl ow under speci fi ed con-
di ti ons.
POWER UNI TA combi nati on of pump,
pump dri ve, reservoi r, control s, and condi ti oni ng
components whi ch may be r equi r ed for i ts
appl i cati on.
POWERThe rate of doi ng work or the rate
of expandi ng energy.
PRESSUREThe amount of force di stri b-
uted over each uni t of area, usual l y expressed i n
pounds per square i nch.
PRESSURE, ABSOL UTETh e s u m of
atmospheri c and gauge pressures.
PRESSURE, ATMOSPHERI CPr essur e
exerted by the atmosphere at any speci fi c l ocati on.
PRESSURE, BACKThe pressure encoun-
tered on the return si de of a system.
PRESSURE, DI FFERENTI ALThe di f-
ference i n pressure between any two poi nts of a
system or a component.
PRESSURE, HEADThe pressure due to the
hei ght of a col umn or body of fl ui d. I t i s usual l y
expressed i n feet.
PRESSURE, OPERATI NGThe pressure at
whi ch a system operates.
PRESSURE, PRECHARGEThe pressure
of compressed gas i n an accumul ator pri or to the
admi ssi on of a l i qui d.
PRESSURE, PROOFThe nondestr ucti ve
test pressure i n excess of the maxi mum rated
operati ng pressure.
PRESSURE, STATI CThe pr essur e i n a
fl ui d at rest.
PRESSURE SWI TCHAn el ectri cal swi tch
operated by the i ncrease or decrease of fl ui d
pressure.
AI-6
PRI ME MOVERThe source of mechani cal
power used to dri ve the pump or compressor.
PUMPA devi ce that converts mechani cal
force and moti on i nto hydraul i c fl ui d power.
PUMP, AXI AL PI STONA pump havi ng
mul ti pl e pi stons di sposed wi th thei r axes paral l el .
PUMP, CENTRI FUGAL A pu mp th at
produces fl ui d vel oci ty and converts i t to pressure
head.
PU MP, F I XE D- DI SPL ACE ME N TA
pump i n whi ch the di spl acement per cycl e cannot
be vari ed.
PUMP, RADI AL PI STONA pump havi ng
mul ti pl e pi stons di sposed radi al l y actuated by an
eccentri c el ement.
PUMP, VARI ABLE-DI SPLACEMENTA
pump i n whi ch the vol ume of fl ui d per cycl e can
be vari ed.
RANKI NE SCALEA ther mometer scal e
based on absol ute zero of the Fahrenhei t scal e,
i n wh i ch th e fr eezi n g poi n t of water i s
appr oxi matel y 492R.
RATI OThe val ue obtai ned by di vi di ng one
number by another , i ndi cati ng thei r r el ati ve
pr opor ti ons.
RECEI VERA contai ner i n whi ch gas i s
stored under pressure as a suppl y source for
pneumati c power.
RE CI PROCATI NGMov i n g ba ck a n d
forth, as a pi ston reci procati ng i n a cyl i nde.,
RESERVOI RA contai ner for stor age of
l i qui d i n a fl ui d power system.
RESPONSE TI METhe ti me l ag between a
si gnal i nput and the resul ti ng change of output.
RESTRI CTORA devi ce that reduces the
cross-secti onal fl ow area.
RESTRI CTOR, ORI FI CEA restri ctor, the
l ength of whi ch i s rel ati vel y smal l wi th respect to
i ts cross-secti onal area. The ori fi ce may be fi xed
or vari abl e. Vari abl e types are noncompensated,
pressure compensated, or pressure and tempera-
ture compensated.
RETURN LI NEA l i ne used for returni ng
fl ui d back i nto the reservoi r or atmosphere.
SEPARATORA devi ce whose pr i mar y
functi on i s to i sol ate undesi rabl e fl ui ds and or
contami nants by physi cal properti es other than
si ze.
SERVOA devi ce used to convert a smal l
movement i nto a greater movement of force.
SOLI DThe for m of matter that has a
defi ni te shape and a defi ni te vol ume.
SPECI FI C GRAVI TYThe r ati o of the
wei ght of a gi ven vol ume of a substance to the
wei ght of an equal vol ume of some standard
substance.
STEADY FL OWA fl ow i n wh i ch th e
vel oci ty, pressure, and temperature at any poi nt
i n the fl ui d do not vary wi th ti me.
STRAI NERA coarse fi l ter.
STOKEThe standar d uni t of ki nemati c
vi scosi ty i n the cgs system. I t i s expressed i n square
centi meters per second; 1 centi stoke equal s 0.01
stoke.
STUFFI NG BOXA cavi ty and cl osure wi th
manual adjustment for a seal i ng devi ce.
SUPPLY LI NEA l i ne that conveys fl ui d
from the reservoi r to the pump.
SURGEA momentary ri se of pressure i n a
ci rcui t.
SYNCHRONI ZETo mak e two or mor e
events or operati ons occur at the proper ti me wi th
respect to each other.
SYNTH E TI C MATE RI AL A comp l ex
chemi cal compound that i s arti fi ci al l y formed by
the combi ni ng of two or more si mpl er compounds
or el ements.
TANKA contai ner for the storage of fl ui d
i n a fl ui d power system.
THEORYA sci enti fi c expl anati on, tested by
observati ons and experi ments.
THERMAL EXPANSI ONThe i ncrease i n
vol ume of a substance due to temperature change.
A4-7
TORQUEA force or combi nati on of forces
that produces or tends to produce a twi sti ng or
rotary moti on.
TUBI NGA ty pe of fl u i d l i n e wh os e
di mensi ons are desi gnated by actual measured
outsi de di ameter and by actual measured wal l
thi ckness.
TURBI NEA r otar y motor actuated by
the r eacti on, i mpul se, or both, of a fl ow of
pressuri zed fl ui d.
VALVEA devi ce that control s fl ui d fl ow
di recti on, pressure, or fl ow rate.
VALVE, CHECKA di r ecti onal contr ol
val ve that permi ts fl ow of fl ui d i n onl y one
di recti on.
VALVE, COUNTERBALANCEA pressure
control val ve that mai ntai ns back pressure to
prevent a l oad from fal l i ng.
VALVE, DI RECTI ONAL CONTROLA
val ve whose pri mary functi on i s to di rect or
prevent fl ow through sel ected passages.
VALVE, FLOW CONTROLA val ve whose
pri mary functi on i s to control fl ow rate.
VALVE, HYDRAULI CA val ve for con-
trol l i ng l i qui d.
VALVE, PI LOTA val ve used to operate
another val ve or control .
VALVE, PNEUMATI CA val ve for con-
trol l i ng gas.
VAL VE , PRE SSU RE RE DU CI N GA
pressure control val ve whose pri mary functi on i s
to l i mi t outl et pressure.
VALVE, PRI ORI TYA val ve that di rects
fl ow to one operati ng ci rcui t at a fi xed rate and
di rects excess fl ow to another operati ng ci rcui t.
VALVE, RELI EFA pressure control val ve
whose pr i mar y functi on i s to l i mi t system
pressure.
VALVE, SELECTORA di recti onal control
val ve whose pri mary functi on i s to sel ecti vel y
i nterconnect two or more ports.
VAL VE, SEQUENCEA v al v e wh os e
pr i mar y functi on i s to di r ect fl ow i n a pr e-
determi ned sequence.
VALVE, SERVOA di recti onal control val ve
that modul ates fl ow or pressure as a functi on of
i ts i nput si gnal .
VALVE, SHUTOFFA val ve that operates
ful l y open or ful l y cl osed.
VALVE, UNLOADI NGA pressure control
val ve whose pri mary functi on i s to permi t a pump
or compressor to operate at mi ni mum l oad.
VEL OCI TYTh e r ate of moti on i n a
parti cul ar di recti on. The vel oci ty of fl ui ds i s
usual l y expressed i n feet per second.
VENTURI A tube havi ng a nar r owi ng
throat or constri cti on to i ncrease the vel oci ty of
fl ui d fl owi ng through i t. The fl ow through the
venturi causes a pressure drop i n the smal l est
secti on, the amount bei ng a functi on of the
vel oci ty of fl ow.
VI SCOSI TYA measur e of the i nter nal
fri cti on or resi stance of a fl ui d to fl ow.
VI SCOSI TY I NDEXA measur e of the
vi scosi ty-temperature characteri sti cs of a fl ui d as
referred to that of two arbi trary reference fl ui ds.
VI SCOSI TY, SAYBOL T U NI VE RSAL
SECONDS (SUS)The ti me i n seconds for 60
mi l l i l i ters of oi l to fl ow through a standard ori fi ce
at a gi ven temperature.
VI SCOSI TY, KI NEMATI CThe absol ute
vi scosi ty di vi ded by the densi ty of the fl ui d. I t i s
usual l y expressed i n centi stokes.
VOLUME OF FLOWThe quanti ty of fl ui d
that passes a certai n poi nt i n a uni t of ti me. The
vol ume of fl ow i s usual l y expressed i n gal l ons per
mi nute for l i qui ds and cubi c feet per mi nute for
gases.
WORKThe transference of energy from one
body or system to another . That whi ch i s
accompl i shed by a force acti ng through a di stance.
AI-8
APPENDIX II
MECHANICAL SYMBOLS OTHER THAN
AERONAUTICAL FOR FLUID
POWER DIAGRAMS
AII-1
AII-2
AII-3
AII-4
APPENDIX III
AERONAUTICAL MECHANICAL SYMBOLS
FOR FLUID POWER DIAGRAMS
AIII-1
AIII-2
INDEX
A
Accumul ators, 9-3 to 9-7
Actuators, 10-1 to 10-12
cyl i nders, 10-1 to 10-7
pi ston-type cyl i nders, 10-3 to 10-6
doubl e-acti ng cyl i nder, 10-4 to
10-5
si ngl e-acti ng cyl i nder, 10-4
tandem cyl i nders, 10-5 to 10-6
rack-and-pi ni on pi ston-type rotary
actuators, 10-6 to 10-7
ram-type cyl i nders, 10-1 to 10-3
doubl e-acti ng ram, 10-2
dual rams, 10-3
si ngl e-acti ng ram, 10-1 to 10-2
tel escopi ng rams, 10-2 to 10-3
motors, 10-8 to 10-11
gear-type motors, 10-8
pi ston-type motors, 10-9 to 10-11
axi al -pi ston motor, 10-10 to
10-11
radi al -pi ston motor, 10-10
vane-type motors, 10-9
turbi nes, 10-11 to 10-12
i mpul se turbi ne, 10-11 to 10-12
reacti on turbi ne, 10-12
Aeronauti cal mechani cal symbol s for fl ui d
power di agrams, AI I I -1 to AI I I -2
Ai r-pressuri zed reservoi rs, 9-2 to 9-3
Atmospheri c pressure, 2-2 to 2-3
Axi al pi ston pumps, 4-12 to 4-15
Axi al -pi ston motor, 10-10 to 10-11
B
Backup ri ngs, 7-12 to 7-15
Bal l val ves, 6-1 to 6-2
Basi c di agrams and systems, 12-1 to 12-13
di agrams, 12-1 to 12-5
symbol s, 12-1 to 12-2
types of di agrams, 12-2 to 12-5
combi nati on di agrams, 12-5
cutaway di agrams, 12-2 to 12-3
graphi c di agrams, 12-4 to 12-5
pi ctori al di agrams, 12-2
fl ui d power systems, 12-5 to 12-13
hydraul i c power dri ve system, 12-6 to 12-8
control , 12-7
operati on, 12-7 to 12-8
jet bl ast defl ectors, 12-10 to 12-13
l andi ng gear emergency system, 12-8
to 12-10
Bel l ows el asti c el ements, 8-3 to 8-5
Bernoul l i s pri nci pl e, 2-14
Bi metal l i c expansi on thermometer, 8-7
Bl adder-type accumul ators, 9-6
Bourdon tube gauges, 8-1 to 8-3
Boyl es l aw, 11-4 to 11-5
Brazed connectors, 5-13
C
C-shaped bourdon tube, 8-2 to 8-3
Centered i nternal gear pump, 4-6
Charl ess l aw, 11-5
Check val ve, 6-16 to 6-18
Combi nati on di agrams, 12-5
Compressed ai r, 11-7 to 11-8
Compressi bi l i ty and expansi on of gases, 11-3
to 11-7
Connectors for fl exi bl e hose, 5-17 to 5-19
Cork, 7-2
Cork and rubber, 7-2
Counterbal ance val ve, 6-14 to 6-15
Cup packi ngs, 7-16
Cutaway di agrams, 12-2 to 12-3
Cyl i nders, 10-1 to 10-7
pi ston-type cyl i nders, 10-3 to 10-6
rack-and-pi ni on pi ston-type rotary
actuators, 10-6 to 10-7
ram-type cyl i nders, 10-1 to 10-3
INDEX-1
D
Di agrams, 12-1 to 12-5
Di aphragm accumul ators, 9-7
Di rect-contact gas-to-fl ui d accumul ators, 9-6
to 9-7
Di recti onal control val ves, 6-15 to 6-25
check val ve, 6-16 to 6-18
cl assi fi cati on, 6-15 to 6-16
four-way val ves, 6-20 to 6-25
shuttl e val ve, 6-18
three-way val ves, 6-19 to 6-20
two-way val ves, 6-18 to 6-19
Di rt excl usi on seal s (wi pers and scrapers), 7-17
Di stant-readi ng thermometers, 8-7 to 8-8
Dual bel l ows i ndi cators, 8-4 to 8-5
F
Fi l trati on, 9-7 to 9-13
fi l ters, 9-8 to 9-12
pneumati c gases, 9-12 to 9-13
strai ners, 9-8
Fl ange connectors, 5-12
Fl ange packi ngs, 7-16 to 7-17
Fl ared connectors, 5-13 to 5-14
Fl arel ess-tube connectors, 5-15 to 5-17
Fl exi bl e hose, 5-8 to 5-12
Fl ow control val ves, 6-1 to 6-6
bal l val ves, 6-1 to 6-2
gate val ves, 6-3
gl obe val ves, 6-3 to 6-5
hydraul i c and pneumati c gl obe val ves, 6-5
to 6-6
needl e val ves, 6-5
Fl ui d l i nes and fi tti ngs, 5-1 to 5-21
fl exi bl e hose, 5-8 to 5-12
appl i cati on, 5-9 to 5-10
fabri cati on and testi ng, 5-10
i denti fi cati on, 5-10
i nstal l ati on, 5-11 to 5-12
PFTE, 5-9
syntheti c rubber hose, 5-8 to 5-9
cure date, 5-8 to 5-9
si zi ng, 5-8
pi pes and tubi ng, 5-1 to 5-8
preparati on of pi pes and tubi ng, 5-3
to 5-8
tube bendi ng, 5-5 to 5-7
tube cutti ng and deburri ng, 5-4
to 5-5
tube fl ari ng, 5-7 to 5-8
Fl ui d l i nes and fi tti ngsConti nued
pi pes and tubi ngConti nued
sel ecti on of pi pes and tubi ng, 5-1 to
5-3
materi al s, 5-2 to 5-3
si zi ng of pi pes and tubi ng, 5-1
to 5-2
precauti onary measures, 5-20 to 5-21
types of fi tti ngs and connectors, 5-12 to
5-20
brazed connectors, 5-13
connectors for fl exi bl e hose, 5-17 to
5-19
hose connecti on si de of hose
fi tti ng, 5-18 to 5-19
pi pi ng connecti on si de of hose
fi tti ng, 5-18
fl ange connectors, 5-12
fl ared connectors, 5-13 to 5-14
fl arel ess-tube connectors, 5-15 to
5-17
fi nal assembl y, 5-17
i nspecti on, 5-16 to 5-17
presetti ng, 5-15 to 5-16
mani fol ds, 5-19 to 5-20
qui ck-di sconnect coupl i ngs, 5-19
threaded connectors, 5-12
wel ded connectors, 5-12 to 5-13
types of l i nes, 5-1
Fl ui d power, i ntroducti on to, 1-1 to 1-4
Fl ui d power systems, 12-5 to 12-13
hydraul i c power dri ve system, 12-6 to
12-8
jet bl ast defl ectors, 12-10 to 12-13
l andi ng gear emergency system, 12-8 to
12-10
Fl ui d-pressuri zed reservoi r, 9-2
Forces i n l i qui ds, 2-1 to 2-17
l i qui ds at rest, 2-1 to 2-9
pressure and force, 2-1 to 2-3
atmospheri c pressure, 2-2 to 2-3
computi ng force, pressure, and
area, 2-1 to 2-2
transmi ssi on of forces through
l i qui ds, 2-3 to 2-9
densi ty and speci fi c gravi ty, 2-4
Pascal s l aw, 2-5 to 2-6
pressure and force i n fl ui d
power systems, 2-6 to 2-9
l i qui ds i n moti on, 2-9 to 2-15
Bernoul l i s pri nci pl e, 2-14
factors i nvol ved i n fl ow, 2-11 to 2-13
i nerti a and force, 2-11 to 2-12
ki neti c energy, 2-12 to 2-13
INDEX-2
Forces i n l i qui dsConti nued
l i qui ds i n moti onConti nued
mi ni mi zi ng fri cti on, 2-14 to 2-15
rel ati onshi p of force, pressure, and
head, 2-13
stati c and dynami c factors, 2-13 to
2-14
streaml i ne and turbul ent fl ow, 2-10
to 2-11
vol ume and vel oci ty of fl ow, 2-9 to
2-10
vol ume of fl ow and speed, 2-10
operati on of hydraul i c components, 2-15
to 2-17
hydraul i c brakes, 2-16 to 2-17
hydraul i c jack, 2-15 to 2-16
Four-way val ves, 6-20 to 6-25
Gate val ves, 6-3
Gauge snubbers,
G
8-8 to 8-9
Gear pumps, 4-2 to 4-6
Gear-type motors, 10-8
General gas l aw, 11-6 to 11-7
Gl obe val ves, 6-3 to 6-5
Gl ossary, AI -1 to AI -8
Graphi c di agrams, 12-4 to 12-5
H
Hand pumps, 4-9
Hel i cal gear pump, 4-5
Herri ngbone gear pump, 4-4
Hydraul i c and pneumati c gl obe
6-6
Hydraul i c brakes, 2-16 to 2-17
Hydraul i c fl ui ds, 3-1 to 3-11
contami nati on, 3-6 to 3-10
val ves, 6-5 to
cl assi fi cati on, 3-7 to 3-8
fl ui d contami nati on, 3-7 to 3-8
parti cul ate contami nati on, 3-7
contami nati on control , 3-9 to 3-10
ori gi n of contami nati on, 3-8 to 3-9
hydraul i c fl ui d sampl i ng, 3-10 to 3-11
properti es, 3-1 to 3-5
chemi cal stabi l i ty, 3-3 to 3-4
cl eanl i ness, 3-5
densi ty and compressi bi l i ty, 3-4
fi re poi nt, 3-4
fl ashpoi nt, 3-4
foami ng tendenci es, 3-4 to 3-5
freedom from aci di ty, 3-4
Hydr aul i c fl ui ds-Conti nued
properti esConti nued
l ubri cati ng power, 3-3
mi ni mum toxi ci ty, 3-4
vi scosi ty, 3-1 to 3-3
measurement of vi scosi ty, 3-1 to
3-3
vi scosi ty i ndex, 3-3
types of hydraul i c fl ui ds, 3-5 to 3-6
petrol eum-based fl ui ds, 3-5
syntheti c fi re-resi stant fl ui ds, 3-5 to
3-6
l i ghtwei ght syntheti c fi re-
resi stant fl ui ds, 3-6
phosphate ester fi re-resi stant
fl ui d, 3-5 to 3-6
si l i cone syntheti c fi re-resi stant
fl ui ds, 3-6
water-based fi re-resi stant fl ui ds, 3-6
Hydraul i c jack, 2-15 to 2-16
Hydraul i c power dri ve system, 12-6 to 12-8
Hydraul i cs, 1-2 to 1-3
I
I mpul se turbi ne, 10-11 to 10-12
I ntroducti on to fl ui d power, 1-1 to 1-4
advantages of fl ui d power, 1-2
hydraul i cs, 1-2 to 1-3
devel opment of hydraul i cs, 1-2 to 1-3
use of hydraul i cs, 1-3
speci al probl ems, 1-2
states of matter, 1-3 to 1-4
J
Jet bl ast defl ectors, 12-10 to 12-13
K
Ki neti c energy, 2-12 to 2-13
Ki neti c theory of gases, 11-4
L
Landi ng gear emergency system, 12-8 to 12-10
Leather, 7-2
Li ghtwei ght syntheti c fi re-resi stant fl ui ds, 3-6
Li qui ds i n moti on, 2-9 to 2-15
Lobe pump, 4-6 to 4-7
INDEX-3
M
Mani fol ds, 5-19 to 5-20
Matter, states of, 1-3 to 1-4
Measurement and pressure control devi ces, 8-1
to 8-9
gauge snubbers, 8-8 to 8-9
pressure gauges, 8-1 to 8-5
bel l ows el asti c el ements, 8-3 to 8-5
dual bel l ows i ndi cators, 8-4 to
8-5
si mpl e bel l ows el ements, 8-4
bourdon tube gauges, 8-1 to 8-3
C-shaped bourdon tube, 8-2 to
8-3
spi ral and hel i cal bourdon tubes,
8-3
pressure swi tches, 8-5 to 8-6
temperature swi tches, 8-8
temperature-measuri ng i nstruments, 8-6 to
8-8
bi metal l i c expansi on thermometer,
8-7
di stant-readi ng thermometers, 8-7 to
8-8
Mechani cal symbol s other than aeronauti cal
for fl ui d power di agrams, AI I -1 to AI I -4
Metal , 7-2 to 7-3
Motors, 10-8 to 10-11
gear-type motors, 10-8
pi ston-type motors, 10-9 to 10-11
vane-type motors, 10-9
N
Needl e val ves, 6-5
Ni trogen, 11-8
Nonpressuri zed reservoi rs, 9-1 to 9-2
O
Off-centered i nternal gear pump, 4-6
O-ri ngs, 7-6 to 7-12
P
Pascal s l aw, 2-5 to 2-6
Petrol i um-based fl ui ds, 3-5
PFTE hose, 5-9
Phosphate ester fi re-resi stant fl ui d, 3-5 to 3-6
Pi ctori al di agrams, 12-2
Pi pes and tubi ng, 5-1 to 5-8
Pi ston pumps, 4-9 to 4-15
Pi ston-type accumul ators, 9-5 to 9-6
Pi ston-type cyl i nders, 10-3 to 10-6
Pi ston-type motors, 10-9 to 10-11
Pneumati c gases, 9-12 to 9-13
Pneumati cs, 11-1 to 11-9
characteri sti cs of gases, 11-1 to 11-3
densi ty, 11-1 to 11-2
pressure, 11-3
temperature, 11-2 to 11-3
compressi bi l i ty and expansi on of gases,
11-3 to 11-7
Boyl es l aw, 11-4 to 11-5
Charl ess l aw, 11-5
general gas l aw, 11-6 to 11-7
ki neti c theory of gases, 11-4
contami nati on control , 11-8 to 11-9
devel opment of pneumati cs, 11-1
pneumati c gases, 11-7 to 11-8
compressed ai r, 11-7 to 11-8
hi gh-pressure ai r systems, 11-7
to 11-8
l ow-pressure ai r, 11-8
medi um-pressure ai r, 11-8
ni trogen, 11-8
qual i ti es, 11-7
potenti al hazards, 11-9
safety precauti ons, 11-9
Pressure control val ves, 6-6 to 6-15
counterbal ance val ve, 6-14 to 6-15
pressure regul ators, 6-9 to 6-10
pressure-reduci ng val ves, 6-12 to 6-14
rel i ef val ves, 6-6 to 6-9
sequence val ves, 6-11 to 6-12
Pressure gauges, 8-1 to 8-5
bel l ows el asti c el ements, 8-3 to 8-5
bourdon tube gauges, 8-1 to 8-3
Pressure swi tches, 8-5 to 8-6
Pressuri zed reservoi rs, 9-2 to 9-3
Proporti onal -fl ow fi l ter, 9-10
Pumps, 4-1 to 4-15
cl assi fi cati on of pumps, 4-1 to 4-2
operati on, 4-1
performance, 4-1
purpose, 4-1
reci procati ng pumps, 4-8 to 4-15
hand pumps, 4-9
pi ston pumps, 4-9 to 4-15
axi al pi ston pumps, 4-12 to 4-15
radi al pi ston pumps, 4-10 to
4-11
INDEX-4
PumpsConti nued
rotary pumps, 4-2 to 4-8
gear pumps, 4-2 to 4-6
centered i nternal gear pump, 4-6
hel i cal gear pump, 4-5
herri ngbone gear pump, 4-4
off-centered i nternal gear pump,
4-5
spur gear pump, 4-3 to 4-4
l obe pump, 4-6 to 4-7
screw pump, 4-7 to 4-8
vane pump, 4-8
Q
Quad-O-Dyn@ seal s, 7-15
Quad-Ri ngs, 7-15
Qui ck-di sconnect coupl i ngs, 5-19
R
Rack-and-pi ni on pi ston-type rotary actuators,
10-6 to 10-7
Radi al -pi ston motor, 10-10
Radi al pi ston pumps, 4-10 to 4-11
Ram-type cyl i nders, 10-1 to 10-3
Reacti on turbi ne, 10-12
Reci procati ng pumps, 4-8 to 4-15
hand pumps, 4-9
pi ston pumps, 4-9 to 4-15
Rel i ef val ves, 6-6 to 6-9
Reservoi rs, strai ners, fi l ters, and
accumul ators, 9-1 to 9-13
accumul ators, 9-3 to 9-7
bl adder-type accumul ators, 9-6
di aphragm accumul ators, 9-7
di rect-contact gas-to-fl ui d
accumul ators, 9-6 to 9-7
pi ston-type accumul ators, 9-5 to 9-6
fi l trati on, 9-7 to 9-13
fi l ters, 9-8 to 9-12
fi l ter el ements, 9-11 to 9-12
fi l ter rati ng, 9-11
ful l -fl ow fi l ter, 9-8 to 9-10
proporti onal -fl ow fi l ter, 9-10
pneumati c gases, 9-12 to 9-13
removal of moi sture, 9-12 to
9-13
removal of sol i ds, 9-12
strai ners, 9-8
Reservoi rs, strai ners, fi l ters, and
accumul atorsConti nued
reservoi rs, 9-1 to 9-3
nonpressuri zed reservoi rs, 9-1 to 9-2
pressuri zed reservoi rs, 9-2 to 9-3
ai r-pressuri zed reservoi rs, 9-2 to
9-3
fl ui d-pressuri zed reservoi r, 9-2
Rotary pumps, 4-2 to 4-8
gear pumps, 4-2 to 4-6
l obe pump, 4-6 to 4-7
screw pump, 4-7 to 4-8
vane pump, 4-8
Rubber, 7-3
S
Screw pump, 4-7 to 4-8
Seal i ng devi ces and materi al s, 7-1 to 7-18
seal materi al s, 7-1 to 7-3
cork, 7-2
cork and rubber, 7-2
l eather, 7-2
metal , 7-2 to 7-3
rubber, 7-3
types of seal s, 7-3 to 7-18
backup ri ngs, 7-12 to 7-15
i nstal l ati on, 7-12 to 7-15
packagi ng and stori ng, 7-12
cup packi ngs, 7-16
di rt excl usi on seal s (wi pers and
scrapers), 7-17
fl ange packi ngs, 7-16 to 7-17
O-ri ngs, 7-6 to 7-12
cure date, 7-8
di mensi ons, 7-8
i denti fi cati on, 7-7
repl acement, 7-9 to 7-12
shel f l i fe and expi rati on date,
7-8
si zes, 7-8
speci fi cati ons, 7-8
Quad-O-Dyn seal s, 7-15
Quad-Ri ngs, 7-15
storage of seal s, 7-17 to 7-18
T-seal s, 7-3 to 7-5
U-cups and U-packi ngs, 7-16
l eather U-packi ngs, 7-16
U-cups, 7-16
V-ri ngs, 7-5 to 7-6
Sequence val ves, 6-11 to 6-12
Shuttl e val ve, 6-18
Si l i cone syntheti c fi re-resi stant fl ui ds, 3-6
Spi ral and hel i cal bourdon tubes, 8-3
INDEX-5
Spur gear pump, 4-3 to 4-4
Syntheti c fi re-resi stant fl ui ds,
Syntheti c rubber hose, 5-8 to
T
T-seal s, 7-3 to 7-5
Temperature swi tches. 8-8
Val vesConti nued
3-5 to 3-6
di recti onal control val vesConti nued
5-9
shuttl e val ve, 6-18
three-way val ves, 6-19 to 6-20
cam-operated three-way val ves,
6-19 to 6-20
pi l ot-operated three-way val ves,
6-20
Temperature-measuri ng i nstruments, 8-6 to
two-way val ves, 6-18 to 6-19
8-8
fl ow control val ves, 6-1 to 6-6
bi metal l i c expansi on thermometer, 8-7
di stant-readi ng thermometers, 8-7 to 8-8
bal l val ves, 6-1 to 6-2
Threaded connectors, 5-12
gate val ves, 6-3
Three-way val ves, 6-19 to 6-20
gl obe val ves, 6-3 to 6-5
Tube bendi ng, 5-5 to 5-7 hydraul i c and pneumati c gl obe
Tube cutti ng and deburri ng, 5-4 to 5-5
val ves, 6-5 to 6-6
-
Tube fl ari ng, 5-7 to 5-8
Turbi nes, 10-11 to 10-12
Two-way val ves, 6-18 to 6-19
U
U-cups and U-packi ngs, 7-16
V
V-ri ngs, 7-5 to 7-6
Val ves, 6-1 to 6-25
cl assi fi cati ons, 6-1
di recti onal control val ves, 6-15 to 6-25
pressure-control l ed sequence
check val ve, 6-16 to 6-18
val ve, 6-11 to 6-12
cl assi fi cati on, 6-15 to 6-16
Vane pump, 4-8
poppet, 6-15 to 6-16 Vane-type motors, 10-9 to 10-11
rotary spool , 6-16
sl i di ng spool , 6-16
four-way val ves, 6-20 to 6-25
poppet-type four-way val ves, W
6-20 to 6-22
rotary spool val ve, 6-22
Water-based fi re-resi stant fl ui ds, 3-6
sl i di ng spool val ve, 6-22 to 6-25 Wel ded connectors, 5-12 to 5-13
needl e val ves, 6-5
pressure control val ves, 6-6 to 6-15
counterbal ance val ve, 6-14 to 6-15
pressure regul ators, 6-9 to 6-10
pressure-reduci ng val ves, 6-12 to 6-14
pi l ot-control l ed pressure-reduci ng
val ve, 6-13 to 6-14
spri ng-l oaded reducer, 6-13
rel i ef val ves, 6-6 to 6-9
sequence val ves, 6-11 to 6-12
mechani cal l y operated sequence
val ve, 6-12
INDEX-6

Training Solutions

Training Solutions

Hydraulics

Training Manual 5

Design Of Hydraulic Steel Structures

EM 1110-2-2105

CECW-ED

Manual
No. 1110-2-2105

Engineering and Design
DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STEEL
STRUCTURES



Table of Contents


Subject Paragraph Page Subject Paragraph Page
Chapter 1
Commentary on Paragraph 3-4,
Introduction
Reliability Factors for HSS . . . 3-8 3-2
Purpose 1-1 1-1 Commentary on Paragraph 3-6, Fatigue
Applicability 1-2 1-1 and Fracture Control 3-9 3-3
References 1-3 1-1
Background . . . 1-4 1-1
Chapter 4
Commentary on Paragraph 1-4,
Allowable Stress Design
Background 1-5 1-1 General . . . 4-1 4-1
Design Basis . . . 4-2 4-1
Chapter 2
Load and Stress Requirements . . . 4-3 4-1
General Considerations
HSS Types: Modifications for
Limit States 2-1 2-1 Allowable Stresses . . . 4-4 4-1
Corrosion 2-2 2-1 Serviceability Requirements 4-5 4-1
Dynamic Loading 2-3 2-1 Fatigue and Fracture Control . . . 4-6 4-1
Inspection and Maintenance 2-4 2-1 Commentary on Paragraph 4-3, Load and
Deviations from Prescribed Stress Requirements . . . 4-7 4-2
Design 2-5 2-1 Commentary on Paragraph 4-4, HSS Types:
General . . . 3-1 3-1 Bolted Connections 5-3 5-1
Design Basis . . . 3-2 3-1 Welded Connections . . . 5-4 5-1
Strength Requirements 3-3 3-1 Commentary on Paragraph 5-1,
Reliability Factors for HSS 3-4 3-1 General 5-5 5-1
Serviceability Requirements 3-5 3-1 Commentary on Paragraph 5-2,
Fatigue and Fracture Control . . . 3-6 3-2 Design Considerations 5-6 5-2
Commentary on Paragraph 3-2, Design
Basis 3-7 3-2


i

EM 1110-2-2105
Change 1
31 May 94
Subject Paragraph Page
Commentary on Paragraph 5-3, Bolted
Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7 5-2
Commentary on Paragraph 5-4, Welded
Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-8 5-2
Appendix A
References
Appendix B
Load and Resistance Factor Design
Criteria for Miter Gates
Appendix C
Tainter Gates
Appendix D
Tainter Valves
Appendix E
Bulkheads and Stoplogs
Appendix F
Vertical Lift Gates (Lock and Crest)
Appendix G
Hydroelectric and Pumping Plants
* Appendix H
Flood Closure Structures
Appendix I
Miscellaneous Hydraulic Steel Structures
ii
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
List of Figures
Figure Page
B-1. Point load impact for miter
gate girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-3
B-2. Assumptions for intercostal
end connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-5
B-3. Nomenclature and assumed load
area for intercostal design . . . . . . . . . B-6
B-4. Vertical cross section for
example miter gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-8
B-5. Example miter gate loading . . . . . . . . B-9
Figure Page
B-6. Nomenclature for skin plate
design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-11
B-7. Sample intercostal section . . . . . . . . . . . B-12
B-8. Girder hydrostatic loading and
reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-14
B-9. Sample girder cross section . . . . . . . . . . B-14
B-10. Example miter leaf torsion loads . . . . . . . B-19
iii
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
Chapter 1
Introduction
1-1. Purpose
This manual prescribes guidance for (a) designing hydrau-
lic steel structures (HSS) by load and resistance factor
design (LRFD) and (b) fracture control. Allowable stress
design (ASD) guidance is provided as an alternative
design procedure or for those structure types where LRFD
criteria have yet to be developed.
1-2. Applicability
This manual applies to HQUSACE/OCE elements, major
subordinate commands, districts, laboratories, and field
operating activities having responsibility for design of
civil works projects.
1-3. References
References are listed in Appendix A.
1-4. Background
a. Types of HSS. Typical HSS are lock gates, tainter
gates, tainter valves, bulkheads and stoplogs, vertical lift
gates, components of hydroelectric and pumping plants,
and miscellaneous structures such as lock wall accesso-
ries, local flood protection gates, and outlet works gates.
HSS may be subject to submergence, wave action,
hydraulic hammer, cavitation, impact, corrosion, and
severe climatic conditions.
b. Types of steels. Structural grade steels used for
design of HSS are as referred to in CW-05502 and Amer-
ican Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) (1986, 1989).
High-strength structural steels may be considered where
economy, simplicity of detail, or greater safety of design
may result from their use. Instability, local buckling, and
deflection of members shall be checked regardless of the
type of steel used to fabricate the structure. However,
these design limit states will generally be more critical for
structures fabricated from high-strength steel.
c. Design policy. Previously, in accordance with
EM 1110-1-2101, ASD criteria were specified for design
of all HSS. LRFD is now the preferred method of design
and should be used for those structure types for which
LRFD guidance is provided (see Appendixes B through
I). For HSS where LRFD has been developed, ASD may
be used as an alternative design method only with prior
approval of CECW-ED. Chapter 4 includes ASD criteria
which are required for those HSS where LRFD has not
yet been developed. For design of a structure, LRFD and
ASD methods shall not be combined; however, use of
LRFD and ASD methods for the design of separate struc-
tures on large construction projects is allowed.
d. Structures other than HSS. Designs for alumi-
num, timber, and masonry structures, service bridges and
highway structures, building construction, cold-formed
steel construction, railroad bridges and other railroad
structures, and open-web steel joist construction shall
conform to the respective industry standards and are not
included in this manual.
1-5. Commentary on Paragraph 1-4, Background
Historically, the ASD method has yielded safe and reli-
able structures; however, the method does not recognize
differing variability of different load effects (live load,
dead load) and resistances (i.e. bending capacity, shear
capacity, fracture, etc.). For this reason, LRFD is the
preferred method of design. In the ASD method, an
elastic analysis is performed for the structure of interest
and the computed stress is compared with an allowable
stress. The allowable stress is the yield stress, buckling
stress, etc., divided by a single factor of safety (FS). In
order to obtain structures with a more uniform reliability
and to achieve economy, a limit states design (LSD)
approach such as LRFD has been adopted by most speci-
fication writing committees. The Load and Resistance
Factor Design (LRFD) approach (an LSD approach) rec-
ognizes that the loads applied to a structure and resis-
tances of structural members are random quantities. The
LRFD method has two main advantages over the ASD
method. First, in a limit state analysis, one does not have
to assume linearity between load and force, or force and
stress. Second, multiple load factors can be used to
reflect the degree of uncertainty for different loads (dead,
live), while application of multiple resistance factors
reflects differing uncertainties in a particular resistance
(bending capacity, shear capacity, etc.). Due to these
advantages of LRFD, more uniform reliability is attained
in the design process and in many cases a more economi-
cal structure results.
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Chapter 2
General Considerations
2-1. Limit States
All possible modes of failure should be considered when
designing HSS. Possible failure modes are: general
yielding or excessive plastic deformation, buckling or
general instability, subcritical crack growth leading to loss
of cross section or unstable crack growth, and unstable
crack extension leading to failure of a member. The first
two failure modes (general yielding and buckling) are
addressed by LRFD and ASD principles while the third
failure mode (fatigue) and the fourth (brittle fracture) can
be addressed using fatigue and fracture mechanics
principles.
2-2. Corrosion
a. Introduction. Painting is the primary method of
preventing corrosion. It may be supplemented with
cathodic protection in severe environments or when other
design considerations so dictate. Design considerations
for reducing corrosion problems include:
(1) In certain cases, very severe environments may
warrant an additional thickness added to critical structural
members.
(2) In general, welded connections are more resistant
to corrosion than bolted connections.
(3) Intermittent welds are more susceptible to corro-
sion than are continous welds.
CW-09940, CW-16643, and EM 1110-2-3400 provide
guidance for preventing corrosion.
b. Requirements. The structural engineer shall con-
sider corrosion effects throughout the design process.
Items to consider when designing the HSS include:
(1) Detail the members as much as possible so there is
access for a sandblasting hose (2-ft minimum bend).
(2) Make provisions for sand to escape where member
connections form open-ended chambers.
(3) Try to avoid lap joints but where used, seal weld
the joint.
(4) Grind slag, weld splatter, or any other deposits
off the steel.
(5) Where dissimilar metals are used select the proper
material as recommended by Kumar and Odeh (1989),
avoid large cathode-to-anode area ratios, use isolators, and
paint both surfaces.
2-3. Dynamic Loading
HSS are often subjected to unpredictable dynamic loading
due to hydraulic flow. Where dynamic loading is known
to exist, but the loading function is not defined, ASD
requires an effective increase in the design factor of
safety. This increase is to account for unknown dynamic
effects. For the LRFD method such loads are accounted
for by assigning a higher load factor. The designer
should provide proper detailing and structural layout to
minimize dynamic loading and cavitation. For example,
proper arrangement of seal details minimizes vibration.
2-4. Inspection and Maintenance
HSS are often difficult to inspect and maintain due to
poor access, particularly at submerged locations. Inspec-
tions should be performed in close contact with the
inspected part; however, this is not always possible since
HSS include submerged components which require
dewatering for inspection. Where structures are difficult
to inspect and maintain, guidance is provided in para-
graph 3-4 for LRFD and paragraph 4-4 for ASD.
2-5. Deviations from Prescribed Design
Where special conditions exist, proposed modifications to
the load and resistance factors or allowable stresses speci-
fied herein shall be submitted to CECW-ED for approval
prior to completing feasibility phase work.
2-6. Commentary on Paragraph 2-2, Corrosion
a. Introduction.
(1) Paint systems specified in CW-09940 and
EM 1110-2-3400 provide a high degree of protection.
For underwater HSS requiring a higher degree of protec-
tion, cathodic protection (impressed current or galvanic
systems) may be used to supplement the paint system.
Impressed current systems for lock gates are often dam-
aged and become inoperative if not carefully maintained;
galvanic systems require less maintenance. However,
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both systems require regular maintenance. If cathodic
protection is included as part of the corrosion protection
system, it is imperative that a long-term maintenance plan
be developed, particularly for impressed current systems.
(2) General corrosion occurs uniformly over a large
metallic surface. Specifying a uniform increase in design
thickness is one means to protect a structure from this
type of corrosion damage. However, the total structural
cost is increased and the increase in member resistance to
tension, compression, and bending effects is not uniform.
The primary concern with corrosion damage in HSS is the
occurrence of concentration cell corrosion, pitting corro-
sion, or galvanic corrosion.
(3) Concentration cell corrosion occurs at small local
areas on metal surfaces which are in contact with water.
Concentration cells can result from any number of differ-
ences in the environment, but the two most common are
metal ion cells and oxygen cells. Either localized corro-
sion cell causes large tubercles of corrosion products to
grow above the surface, generating a weak area in the
steel member. Keeping the structure well painted and
clean from mud deposits prevents this type of corrosion.
(4) Pitting corrosion is a form of extremely localized
attack which results in small-diameter holes (in relation to
their depth) to appear in the metal. This may be initiated
by a material defect in the steel or a chip in the protective
coating. Pitting corrosion is highly unpredictable since
there is no means to identify where defects may occur.
Regular inspection and maintenance practices can reduce
the possibility of pitting corrosion.
(5) Galvanic corrosion is generally a result of current
generated when two dissimilar metals are in contact and
the two metals are in water.
b. Requirements.
(1) Kumar and Odeh (1989) recommend HSS be dry-
blast cleaned to a grade approaching white metal grade
for surface preparation prior to painting. Therefore,
designers should detail the structure to allow sufficient
room for the hose. Extra large drain holes located in
areas where the sand may be trapped may be appropriate.
(2) Most HSS consist of welded construction. Using
welded connections in lieu of bolted connections is advan-
tageous when considering concentration cell corrosion.
Areas on a surface in contact with an electrolyte having a
high oxygen content are cathodic relative to those areas
where less oxygen is present. Localized areas where
small volumes of stagnant solution may exist include
sharp corners, spot welds, lap joints, and fasteners. Using
butt welds instead of bolts; seal-welding lap joints; using
continuous welds; and grinding weld splatter, slag, or any
other deposits off the steel help to prevent concentration
cell corrosion.
(3) Where dissimilar metals are used (generally car-
bon steel and stainless steel), the relative areas of each
metal exposed are very important because the total
amount of current that flows in the cell is dependent on
the total area of both metals exposed. If the anode (car-
bon steel) is large with respect to the cathode (stainless
steel), the current is distributed over a large area and the
effect at each point will be slight. Conversely, if the
cathode-to-anode ratio is large, the current becomes con-
centrated and severe corrosion can occur. If the carbon
steel is painted and there is a small defect in the coating
or it becomes damaged, then the relative areas have a
large cathode-to-anode area and rapid corrosion can occur.
Therefore, it is best to paint both surfaces. If the stainless
steel coating has defects or damage, the current will not
significantly increase even if the carbon steel has metal
exposed. If the distance between the cathode and anode
is large, resistance in the circuit will be sufficient to elim-
inate the galvanic corrosion problem.
2-7. Commentary on Paragraph 2-3, Dynamic
Loading
a. Dynamic loading that may occur in HSS is unpre-
dictable in the sense that the dynamic forcing function is
unknown. Unpredictable vibrations may be caused by
imperfections in the operating machinery and guide slots,
hydraulic flow, and load fluctuation due to passing ice. If
the forcing function is known, a dynamic analysis can be
used for design. At present, it is not feasible to define the
load due to the many factors that affect such loadings and
therefore special attention must be given to structure
details. For example, supporting members of seals should
maintain adequate stiffness to limit flexing which results
in leakage and flow-induced vibration. The supporting
members and arrangement of the bottom seal on a tainter
gate can significantly affect its vibration due to flow
conditions. Some of the structure types that have experi-
enced vibration due to dynamic loading include tainter
valves, vertical lift control gates, tainter gates, and miter
gates.
b. Cavitation is also a concern where dynamic
hydraulic loading occurs. Cavitation damage is a result of
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unpredictable dynamic fluid action which causes extreme
local negative pressures resulting in pitting and erosion of
the surface. As for vibration, proper structure details and
good construction practices prevent cavitation from
occurring.
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Chapter 3
Load and Resistance Factor Design
3-1. General
This chapter is intended to give a brief synopsis of LRFD
methodology and to provide general guidance on LRFD
for HSS. Appendixes B through I provide specific guid-
ance and examples for different types of HSS. HSS
designed by the LRFD method shall conform to guidance
contained in AISC (1986), except as specified herein, and
to the engineer manuals referenced in Appendixes B
through I.
3-2. Design Basis
LRFD is a method of proportioning structures such that
no applicable limit state is exceeded when the structure is
subjected to all appropriate design load combinations. The
basic safety check in LRFD may be expressed mathemati-
cally as

i
Q
ni
R
n
(2-1)
where

i
= load factors that account for variability in
loads to which they are assigned
Q
ni
= nominal (code-specified) load effects
= reliability factor (see paragraph 3-4)
= resistance factor that reflects the uncertainty in
the resistance for the particular limit state and,
in a relative sense, the consequence of attaining
the limit state.
R
n
= nominal resistance
The expression
i
Q
ni
is the required strength and the
product R
n
is the design strength. Load factors and
load combinations for specific structure types are listed in
the appropriate appendix.
3-3. Strength Requirements
Strength limit states are related to safety and load-carrying
capacity (i.e., the limit states of plastic moment and buck-
ling). Formulas giving the load combinations for
determining the required strength for buildings are given
in American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) (1990)
and AISC (1986). Similar load combinations pertaining
to specific HSS are specified in Appendixes B through I.
Structures shall have design strengths at all sections at
least equal to the required strengths calculated for all
combinations of factored loads and forces. The required
strength of structural components shall be determined by
structural analysis using appropriate factored load combi-
nations. Each relevant limit state shall be considered.
Elastic analysis is permitted unconditionally by this
manual. Plastic analysis is permitted only with the
approval of CECW-ED, and is subject to restrictions of
paragraph A5.1 of AISC (1986).
3-4. Reliability Factors for HSS
For LRFD of HSS, resistance factors of AISC (1986) are
multiplied by a reliability factor . The reliability factor
shall be 0.9 except for the following structures where
shall be 0.85:
a. For those HSS where inspection and maintenance
are difficult because the HSS is normally submerged and
removal of the HSS causes disruption of a larger project.
Examples of this type of HSS include tainter valves and
leaves of vertical lift gates which are normally
submerged.
b. For those HSS in brackish water or seawater.
3-5. Serviceability Requirements
Serviceability is a state of acceptable performance in
which the function of an HSS, its maintainability, durabil-
ity, and operability are preserved under service or operat-
ing conditions. Serviceability should be maintained for
the expected life of the project (typically 50 years for
navigation and local flood protection projects and 100
years for other projects). The overall structure and the
individual members, connections, and connectors shall be
checked for serviceability. Limiting values of structural
behavior (maximum deflections, vibrations, etc.) to ensure
serviceability shall be chosen with due regard to the
intended function of the structure. Serviceability may
normally be checked using unfactored loads. The follow-
ing limit states shall be considered in design for
serviceability:
a. Deformation in the structural members and sup-
ports due to service loads shall not impair the operability
or performance of the HSS.
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b. Vibrations of the seals, equipment, or movable
supports shall not impair the operability of the HSS.
c. Structural components shall be designed to tolerate
corrosion or shall be protected against corrosion that may
impair serviceability or operability of the structure during
its design life. Closure provisions shall be made as
required to maintain the structure.
3-6. Fatigue and Fracture Control
a. Fatigue requirements. Fatigue design shall be in
accordance with the provisions of Appendix K in AISC
(1986) or AISC (1989) except as specified herein. The
number and frequency of load cycles is a function of the
HSS purpose and its environment. Determination of the
total number of loading cycles shall consider known load
fluctuations such as those due to operating cycles and
fluctuations of hydraulic head. For certain HSS, vibration
may result in unknown load magnitudes and number of
cycles; therefore, a quantitative fatigue analysis is not
possible. However, for HSS where vibration may produce
significant cycles of stress, the choice of details shall be
such to minimize susceptible fatigue damage (i.e., details
with high fatigue resistance should be used where
possible).
Welding processes induce significant residual stresses,
and welded members may include high tensile residual
stress in the welded region. Therefore, welded members
which include any computed stress variation, whether it is
tension or compression, shall be checked for fatigue.
Deviation from this conservative assumption requires the
approval of CECW-ED.
b. Fracture control requirements. For fracture-critical
members (FCM) and/or components, the designer shall
enforce controls on fabrication and inspection procedures
to minimize initial defects and residual stresses, designate
the appropriate temperature zone (see Table 3.1, Note 1),
and specify the related minimum Charpy V-notch (CVN)
fracture toughness. FCMs shall be defined as "members
and their associated connections subjected to tensile stres-
ses whose failure would cause the structure to be inopera-
ble." Fracture critical members shall be identified by the
designer (minimum requirements are given in Appen-
dixes B through I). Minimum allowable CVN values
shall be as given in Table 3.1. Tests to determine mater-
ial CVN values shall be performed in accordance with the
requirements of the American Association of State High-
way and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) (1978). For
construction of FCMs, fabricators, welding inspectors, and
nondestructive examination personnel shall be certified
according to AASHTO (1978). Designers are referred to
American Welding Society (AWS) (1990) and AASHTO
(1978) for guidance on developing adequate quality con-
trol and fabrication procedures that will minimize initial
defects.
3-7. Commentary on Paragraph 3-2, Design Basis
Load factors and load combinations for structural steel
design are based upon limit states of steel structures.
Description of the methodology used in developing load
factors and load combinations for buildings and other
structures may be found in ASCE (1990), Ellingwood
et al. (1982), Galambos et al. (1982), and McCormac
(1990) and the commentary of AISC (1986). For HSS,
the load and resistance factors are governed by items dis-
cussed in paragraph 3-8 (commentary of paragraph 3-4).
The magnitude of a particular load factor is primarily a
function of the characteristics (predictability and
variability) of the load to which it is assigned and the
conservatism with which the load is specified. A well
known load with little variability or a conservatively
specified load usually results in a relatively low load
factor. Dead loads and static hydraulic loads are in this
category. Transient loads are less known and, hence, they
usually have a higher load factor.
3-8. Commentary on Paragraph 3-4, Reliability
Factors for HSS
Reliability factors are applied to AISC (1986) resistance
factors for HSS design. This is to reflect a higher level
of uncertainty (compared to building design) due to more
aggressive environments in which HSS are placed. His-
torically, HSS have been designed using a higher factor of
safety than that used for building design to account for
the unpredictable nature of various items. The variables
which require additional consideration for HSS include:
facility of inspection; maintenance and repair or replace-
ment (may require dewatering or submerged work by
divers); possibility of corrosion (water may be fresh,
polluted, brackish, or saline); economic considerations
(loss of benefits due to shutdown of a larger project if
replacement becomes necessary); possibility of severe
vibrations or repeated stress reversals (hydraulic flow may
cause vibrations and operating procedures may cause
stress reversals); relative importance (HSS may be critical
in the project operation); and design life of the structure
in severe environments (50 to 100 years). For these rea-
sons, reliability factors are applied to the resistance
factors specified by AISC (1986) to effectively increase
the factor of safety.
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3-9. Commentary on Paragraph 3-6, Fatigue and
Fracture Control
Fatigue damage and brittle fractures in HSS are rare but
as structure designs, fabrication, and construction become
more complex, the probability of brittle fracture increases.
Welded construction, with its emphasis on monolithic
structural members, increases the need to add fracture
criteria to strength and buckling criteria when designing a
structure. Various HSS have failed due to fatigue and
brittle fracture. Many of the cracking problems that have
occurred in HSS originate from poor weld details or poor
fabrication. For control of fatigue and fracture, consider-
ation must be given to the following parameters:
(a) stress range, detailing, and the number and frequency
of load cycles to control fatigue and (b) geometry, tough-
ness, and stress levels to control fracture.
a. Fatigue requirements.
(1) Fatigue is the process of formation and growth of
a crack due to repeated fluctuating loads. The designer
cannot control the number and frequency of load cycles
since this is a function of the operational requirements of
the HSS. However, design options include selection of
larger members to control the stress range and choice of
details with low stress concentrations which have a high
fatigue life.
(2) Significant vibration may occur in certain HSS
due to hydraulic flow, imperfect seals, movable supports
and operating machinery, and impact of passing ice or
debris which may occur during a single operating cycle.
For these situations, the magnitude of load and the num-
ber of load cycles are unknown. Unless predictions for
load magnitude and frequency may be made using proba-
bilistic methods, a quantitative fatigue analysis is not
possible. However, the possibility of fatigue damage can
be controlled by considering the design options given in
the previous paragraph.
(3) AISC (1986, 1989) do not require any fatigue
check for members with a calculated repetitive stress
variation from zero to compression, since crack propaga-
tion will not occur in the absence of tensile stress. How-
ever, whether a stress variation is tensile or compressive,
paragraph 3-6a does require a fatigue check for welded
members. This is due to the possible presence of large
residual tensile stresses caused by welding processes. For
example, if a residual tensile stress of 25 ksi exists, a
calculated stress variation from zero to -10 ksi would
actually be a variation from 25 ksi to 15 ksi, which could
cause fatigue cracking. Tensile residual stresses for
welded members are near the yield stress in most cases.
The consideration of residual tensile stress is a conserva-
tive assumption for fatigue design. It is not currently a
uniform practice in the United States; however, it is com-
mon in Europe. The assumption is currently favored by
many welding specialists.
b. Fracture control requirements.
(1) Fracture is the sudden growth of a crack which
may cause failure of a component. Fracture behavior is
governed mainly by nominal stress level, material tough-
ness, and geometry of the existing crack or flaw. The
fracture control requirements specified herein are based on
imposing material toughness requirements and limiting
geometry of initial flaws for FCMs, the most critical
structural components. Fracture toughness criteria are
supplemented with welding and inspection requirements to
form a complete fracture control plan. The toughness is
controlled by imposing minimum CVN requirements per
Table 3-1 and the geometry of initial flaws is controlled
by imposing strict fabrication and inspection requirements.
Project specifications should require qualification of fabri-
cators and welding inspectors according to AASHTO
(1978), to assure that FCMs and their components are in
compliance with the requirements specified in
paragraph 3-6.
(2) Table 3-1 values are the same as those required
by AASHTO (1978) for steel bridges. The basic require-
ment used in the development of Table 3-1 was to ensure
elastic-plastic behavior (i.e. prevent brittle fracture) under
service loading at the minimum operating temperature.
CVN tests were carried out under service load rates to
determine the minimum CVN requirements to assure
elastic-plastic behavior for various service temperatures
(AASHTO 1978).
(3) Material toughness is affected by load rate, yield
strength, service temperature, component thickness, and
type of detail. Each of these effects was considered in
the development of Table 3-1, and all but load rate are
explicitly accounted for in Table 3-1. The following
discussion is included to provide a brief explanation of
toughness requirements for the various categories of
Table 3-1. A more complete discussion is provided in
AASHTO (1978) and Barsom and Rolfe (1987).
(a) Load rate. The effect of load rate was consid-
ered in the determination of required test temperatures. A
consistent temperature shift exists between CVN values
obtained for specimens subject to a given load rate (less
than impact load rate) and those obtained for impact
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Table 3-1
Fracture Toughness Requirements for Fracture Critical Members
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Welded or
Mechanically Grade Thickness Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3
Fastened
ys
(ksi) (in.) (ft-lb at
o
F) (ft-lb at
o
F) (ft-lb at
o
F)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Welded 36 t 1.5 25 at 70 25 at 40 25 at 10
1.5 < t 4.0 25 at 70 25 at 40 25 at -10
Welded 50 t 1.5 25 at 70 25 at 40 25 at 10
1.5 < t 2.0 25 at 70 25 at 40 25 at -10
2.0 < t 4.0 30 at 70 30 at 40 30 at -10
Welded 70 t 1.5 30 at 20 30 at 20 30 at -10
1.5 < t 2.5 30 at 20 30 at 20 30 at -30
2.5 < t 4.0 35 at 20 35 at 20 35 at -30
Welded 100 t 2.5 35 at 0 35 at 0 35 at -30
2.5 < t 4.0 45 at 0 45 at 0 Not allowed
Mechanically 36 t 1.5 25 at 70 25 at 40 25 at 10
Fastened 1.5 < t 4.0 25 at 70 25 at 40 25 at -10
Mechanically 50 t 1.5 25 at 70 25 at 40 25 at 10
Fastened 1.5 < t 4.0 25 at 70 25 at 40 25 at -10
Mechanically 70 t 1.5 30 at 20 30 at 20 30 at -10
Fastened 1.5 < t 4.0 30 at 20 30 at 20 30 at -30
Mechanically 100 t 4.0 35 at 0 35 at 0 35 at -30
Fastened
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________
NOTE:
1. Zone 1 minimum service temperature is 0
o
F and above; Zone 2 minimum service temperature is from -1
o
F to -30
o
F; and Zone 3 mini-
mum service temperature is from -31
o
to -60
o
F.
2. Charpy impact tests are required on each end of each piece tested for Zone 3.
specimens. The CVN value for a specimen tested under a
service load rate at service temperature is equivalent to
the CVN impact value for a specimen tested at a tempera-
ture which is a constant magnitude greater (temperature
shift) than the service temperature. For example (see
Table 3-1), for welded 36-ksi components of thickness
less than 1.5 in. which are subject to bridge service load
rates and minimum service temperature, ductile behavior
is assured if CVN impact values are at least 25 ft-lb for
tests conducted at 70
o
F higher than the minimum service
temperature. The temperature shift is dependent on ser-
vice load rate. The temperature shift comparing static and
impact load rates is maximum and as load rate increases,
the temperature shift decreases. Adoption of bridge crite-
ria for HSS is generally conservative since loading rates
on bridges are likely higher than those which occur on
most HSS.
(b) Yield strength. The more stringent requirements
for steels of higher yield strengths are identified by higher
CVN requirements and lower test temperatures. The
higher CVN requirements for increased yield strengths are
due to the fact that the design stress is generally higher
which will result in more elastic stored energy. In order
to attain the same degree of safety as in the lower yield
steels, the CVN requirement is also increased. The
reduced test temperatures are based primarily on the fact
that the temperature shift between toughness under service
load and impact load decreases with increasing yield
strength; thus, lower CVN impact test temperatures are
specified to reflect the decrease in temperature shift.
(c) Service temperature. The expected service tem-
perature for a structure is a critical factor in determining
toughness requirements since most steels exhibit a
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transition from ductile to brittle behavior at a certain
temperature. As temperature decreases, toughness and
ductility decrease. Therefore, for lower minimum service
temperatures, CVN specimens must be tested at lower
temperatures to ensure that the steel has adequate
toughness.
(d) Component thickness. For thick plates under
tensile loading, through-thickness stresses at a crack tip
are large due to the through-thickness constraint. This
results in a triaxial stress state which reduces the apparent
ductility of the steel by decreasing the shear stresses.
Because yielding is restricted, the constraint ahead of the
notch is increased resulting in reduced toughness. In
order to assure ductile behavior, the CVN requirements of
Table 3-1 are increased for increasing thickness.
(e) Detail. Welded details require more conserva-
tive CVN values than mechanically fastened details for
certain thicknesses and service temperatures. The heat
input due to welding can reduce toughness properties in
the heat affected zone (HAZ). The HAZ is the area of
unmelted parent material adjacent to the weld, which is
sufficiently heated by the welding that its metallurgical
properties are affected. This area may be of special
importance in thick members since these usually have
lower toughness and are subject to greater heat input
during welding. Unfortunately, stress concentrations often
overlap the HAZ of welds, thus combining the adverse
effects of high stress and low toughness.
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Chapter 4
Allowable Stress Design
4-1. General
HSS designed by the ASD method shall conform to speci-
fications contained in AISC (1989), except as specified
herein, and to the engineer manuals referenced in Appen-
dixes B through I.
4-2. Design Basis
ASD is a method of proportioning structures such that
allowable stresses are not exceeded when the structure is
subjected to specified working loads. An elastically com-
puted stress is compared to an allowable stress as repre-
sented by
f( Q
i
) F
allow
(3-1)
where
f( Q
i
) = elastically computed stress arising from the
appropriately combined nominal loads
F
allow
= allowable stress (yield stress, buckling
stress, shear, net section tension, bearing
strength, etc. divided by a factor of safety).
4-3. Load and Stress Requirements
a. Loads. Loads are divided into Group I and
Group II loadings as follows:
Group I
Dead load Buoyancy load
Live load (serviceway) Hydrostatic load
Thermal stress load Operating equipment load
Ice loads (static)
Group II
Impact (vessel, debris, ice) Water hammer
Wind loads Ice loads (transient)
Wave loads Operational basis
earthquake (OBE)
(1) Ice loads may be considered as Group I (static
load) or Group II (impact; short duration load) loads
depending on circumstances.
(2) When the loading includes Group II loads acting
alone or in combination with Group I loads, allowable
stresses may be increased 1/3 above the values otherwise
provided. However, the section thus provided shall not be
less than that required for Group I loads when designed
with the normal allowable stresses.
b. Stresses. It is considered necessary to reduce the
allowable stresses given in AISC (1989) for HSS design
(see commentary for paragraph 4-4 (paragraph 4-8)).
Allowable stresses for three main types of HSS are speci-
fied in paragraph 4-4. Examples of each HSS type are
discussed in the Commentary. If a structure has charac-
teristics of more than one type, the lesser allowable stress
is required.
4-4. HSS Types: Modifications for Allowable
Stresses.
a. Type A. HSS which are used for emergency
closures and which are subject to severe dynamic (hydrau-
lic) loading or are normally submerged where mainte-
nance is difficult, and removal of the HSS causes disrup-
tion of the project. For Type A HSS, the allowable stress
shall be 0.75 times that allowed by ASIC (1989).
b. Type B. HSS which are normally hydraulically
loaded and are not subjected to unknown dynamic load-
ing. For Type B HSS, the allowable stress shall be 0.83
times that allowed by AISC (1989).
c. Type C. HSS which are used for maintenance
and are not considered emergency closures. For Type C
HSS, the allowable stress shall be 1.1 times that allowed
by AISC (1989). These allowable stresses are the maxi-
mum allowable values and may not be further increased
due to Group II loading.
4-5. Serviceability Requirements
Guidance in paragraph 3-5 is applicable.
4-6. Fatigue and Fracture Control
Guidance in paragraph 3-6 is applicable.
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EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
4-7. Commentary on Paragraph 4-3, Load and
Stress Requirements
a. ASD guidance for HSS considers Groups I and II
loading, and Types A, B, and C stresses. The loading
groups determine which conditions must stay within the
modified AISC allowable stresses and which loading
conditions are permitted a 1/3 increase in allowable stress.
Because of the environment in which HSS are placed,
modifications to AISC allowable stresses for HSS types
are applied to increase the factor of safety above that
which is used in building design.
b. Group I loads include those loads which are rela-
tively constant for a significant time period, and Group II
loads are those which vary with time. The 1/3 increase in
allowable stress for structures subject to Group II loads
acting alone or in combination with Group I loads is to
account for the improbability of the simultaneous occur-
rence of maximum lifetime loads. Ice loads may be con-
sidered either Group I or Group II depending on the
circumstances. If ice hanging on the structure is being
considered as additional dead load or it is applying a
lateral force due to expansion from thermal effects, it is
considered a Group I load. If ice is acting dynamically
on the structure due to wind or flowing water, it is con-
sidered a Group II load.
4-8. Commentary on Paragraph 4-4, HSS Types:
Modifications for Allowable Stresses
a. In general, it is considered that HSS are subjected
to more extreme environments and are subject to less pre-
dictable loads than are buildings. Variables listed in
paragraph 3-8 (commentary of paragraph 3-4) are among
the causes of this additional uncertainty. Therefore, an
increase in the design factor of safety over that used for
building design is considered necessary for HSS design.
b. The grouping by HSS type is a means to distin-
guish characteristics of different HSS. Type A is
considered to be the most extreme case, and Type C the
least extreme case.
c. Type A includes those structures which are
subject to unpredictable dynamic loading, or those which
are normally submerged where maintenance is difficult.
Unpredictable dynamic loading may occur as a result of
hydraulic fluctuations in velocity and pressure due to
abrupt changes in structure geometry or gate position as it
is operated. Severe, unpredictable vibrations may also
occur on structures subject to significant amounts of pass-
ing ice. Type A HSS include emergency gates, regulating
gates where the structure passes through moving water
under full pressure and flow conditions (unpredictable
dynamic loading may occur), tainter and vertical lift crest
gates used for regulation and subject to unknown dynamic
hydraulic forces, and lock valves (normally submerged
and difficult to maintain).
d. Type B includes structures for which dynamic
loading is not significant and maintenance and inspection
can be performed on a regular basis. HSS that may be
classified as Type B include tainter crest gates, vertical
lift crest gates, power intake gates designed for top of
power pool, lock gates (miter gates, lift gates, and sector
gates), and floodwall closures.
e. Type C structures include temporary closure items
which are used to dewater for maintenance or inspection
of gates, gate slots, and draft tubes. Stoplogs, bulkheads,
draft tube gates, and bulkhead gates are included in this
type. Such structures are not considered emergency clo-
sures and are usually opened and closed under balanced
head conditions. The 1.1 factor applied to AISC (1989)
allowable stresses reflects a 1/3 increase of the Type B
allowable stresses. This increase is considered appropri-
ate due to the fact that such structures are used on a tem-
porary basis under essentially constant loading.
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EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
Chapter 5
Connections and Details
5-1. General
Connections consist of connecting elements (e.g., stiff-
eners, gusset plates, angles, brackets) and connectors
(bolts, welds, or for older HSS, rivets). Connection
design shall conform to the specifications contained in
AISC (1986, 1989) and AWS (1990) except as specified
herein. Critical connections should be fully detailed by
the design engineer. Connections which are considered
noncritical may be detailed by the fabricator; however, the
designer shall clearly define the requirements of the non-
critical connection. Any deviation from details originally
specified by the design engineer shall be reviewed and
approved by the design engineer. Details that will result
in safe economical fabrication methods shall be used.
Special critical connections for specific structure types are
discussed in the appropriate appendixes.
5-2. Design Considerations
Connections shall be designed to transfer the required
forces obtained from the structural analysis, and shall
maintain sufficient ductility and rotation capacity to
satisfy the particular design assumption. Connection
designs must consider stress concentrations, eccentricities,
field splices, imposed restraints (fixity), and fatigue resis-
tance. Following is a discussion of these design
considerations.
a. Stress concentrations. Avoid abrupt transitions in
thickness or width, sharp corners, notches, and other
stress raising conditions.
b. Eccentricities. Effects of eccentricity of fastener
groups and intersecting members shall be accounted for in
the design of connections (see Chapter J of AISC (1986,
1989)).
c. Splices. Shipping restrictions require large HSS to
be delivered in sections, which makes field splicing neces-
sary to form the completed structure. Splices should be
located in uncongested areas of low or moderate stress.
When splices are necessary, they should be shown on the
drawings with accompanying splice details or design
forces.
d. Restraints. Connections between intersecting
members are usually designed to be rigid (original angle
between connected members remains fixed) or simple
(pinned). If the design assumed a pinned connection, the
as-built connection should provide for members to rotate
relative to each other to accommodate simple beam end
rotation (to accomplish this, inelastic deformation is per-
mitted).
e. Fatigue. Connections shall be designed to mini-
mize the possibility of fatigue damage by using proper
detailing practices (see AISC (1984, 1986, 1989) and
AASHTO (1978)), and limiting the stress range in accor-
dance with Appendix K of AISC (1986, 1989). Corro-
sion-fatigue shall be controlled with a well designed and
maintained corrosion protection system.
5-3. Bolted Connections
Fully tensioned high-strength bolts shall be used for all
HSS structural applications. For nonstructural applica-
tions, use of A307 bolts or snug-tight high-strength bolts
is allowed, provided requirements of AISC (1986, 1989)
are followed. Bolts shall be proportioned for the sum of
the external load and tension resulting from prying action
produced by deformation of the connected parts. AISC
(1984, 1986, 1989) and Kulak, Fisher, and Struik (1987)
are useful aids to designing bolted connections.
5-4. Welded Connections
Most HSS are constructed using welded connections.
AISC (1984, 1986, 1989) and AWS (1990) are useful aids
to selecting the connection details. Welding requirements
of AISC (1986, 1989) and AWS (1990) shall be followed.
Thick plate weldments shall be designed considering heat
requirements (see Section 4 of AWS (1990)), toughness
requirements, and geometric requirements (see Section A3
of AISC (1986, 1989) for toughness and geometric
requirements). Intersecting and overlapping welds should
be avoided. Intermittent welds should be avoided for
dynamically loaded members and members subject to
corrosion. Through-thickness welds should have backing
bars removed and should be ground smooth. The
designer shall review and approve the contractors pro-
posed welding processes and shop drawings.
5-5. Commentary on Paragraph 5-1, General
Connections for HSS are usually in a more severe envi-
ronment than connections for buildings. HSS connections
may be exposed to weather, fresh or salt water, flowing
water, and, for many HSS, impacts. AISC (1986 or
1989) can be used as guidance but should be
5-1
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
supplemented with AASHTO (1989) since many HSS
members have more in common with bridges (sizes, types
of connections, and loads) than with steel building frames.
Connection details must be consistent with the assump-
tions used in the design analysis of the structure and must
be capable of transferring the required forces between
connected members. The forces may consist of any com-
bination of axial or shear loads and bending or torsional
moments. Connections may also provide stiffness to limit
relative movement between members. Most HSS use
welded or bolted connections; however, many older struc-
tures have riveted connections.
5-6. Commentary on Paragraph 5-2, Design
Considerations
a. Stress concentrations. Stress concentrations in
connections are often ignored in design with no decrease
in load-carrying capacity. This is because ductility of the
steel redistributes localized high stresses. However, this
does not mean details that cause stress concentrations can
be ignored. Attention should be given to areas of large
change in cross section such as termination of cover
plates, welds where backing bars have not been removed,
and at sharp discontinuities. These details are critical for
fatigue resistance. AWS (1990) shows geometries for
welded connections that minimize stress concentrations at
transitions between members of different thicknesses or
widths.
b. Eccentricities.
(1) Axial loads eccentric from fastener group
centroids can significantly increase local stresses or
individual fastener loads due to additional shear and bend-
ing imposed by the eccentricity. While eccentricities in
statically loaded single-angle, double-angle, and similar
members may be of minor consequence, connections for
members subject to cyclic loading should be balanced
about their gravity axes; if not, provision shall be made
for bending and shearing stresses due to the eccentricity.
(2) The designer has the option of selecting a con-
centric connection or, in some cases, an eccentric connec-
tion. A concentric connection is detailed so that the
gravity axes of all members framing into the connection
pass through a common point. This ensures that the axial
force in an intersecting member does not produce an
additional moment in the connection. However, in some
cases a concentric connection may be undesirable because
it can require poorly shaped elements such as long gusset
plates with a limited buckling capacity that is difficult to
assess.
(3) An eccentric connection may be detailed to sim-
plify the design of gusset plates. For example, a member
may be located such that its line of force passes through
the corner of the gusset plate. However, the lines of
action of the force in the intersecting members usually do
not pass through the same point. The axial force acting
eccentrically will produce a moment in the connection
which must be distributed among the connected members
based on their relative stiffness. See AISC (1984) for
illustrated examples.
5-7. Commentary on Paragraph 5-3, Bolted
Connections
In the past many HSS have used riveted connections;
however, the use of rivets has largely been replaced by
use of high strength bolts. Per AISC (1986, 1989), full
tightening is required for cyclic loads, for bolts in over-
size holes, and when it is necessary to improve water
tightness, or if corrosion of the joint is a concern. There-
fore, for all HSS structural applications, fully tensioned
high-strength bolts shall be used. Bolted connections are
much less common on HSS than on buildings or bridges.
Typically, bolted connections for HSS are limited to
machinery and appurtenances, splices, sill plates, thick
plates or jumbo sections (over 1.5 in. thick), steel mem-
bers embedded in or supported by concrete, locations
where future adjustments may be required, or elements
that may need replacing sometime during the life of the
structure.
5-8. Commentary on Paragraph 5-4, Welded
Connections
Many HSS contain thick (greater than 1.5 in. thick) plate
weldments. Critical connections on HSS often consist of
full penetration or large fillet welds to develop the full
strength of a part. Heavy welding is labor intensive and
may result in member distortion and large residual
stresses. Thick plates and jumbo rolled shapes often
exhibit low toughness away from rolled surfaces, and
lamellar discontinuities are more prevalent than in thinner
plates. Thermal effects due to welding further decrease
material toughness and produce high residual stresses
which act on these low toughness areas and lamellar
discontinuities creating high potential for cracking. The
adverse thermal effects are reduced with gradual heating
and cooling of the weldment as it is welded, and proper
selection of weld process and procedures. Residual
stresses in weldments are increased with increasing exter-
nal constraint so the designer should detail connections to
minimize constraint.
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EM 1110-2-2105
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31 May 94
Appendix A
References
A-1. Required Publications
EM 1110-1-2101
Working Stresses for Structural Design
EM 1110-2-2400
Structural Design of Spillways and Outlet Works
* EM 1110-2-2502
Retaining and Flood Walls
EM 1110-2-2602
Planning and Design of Navigation Lock Walls and
Appurtenances
EM 1110-2-2701
Vertical Lift Crest Gates
EM 1110-2-2702
Design of Spillway Tainter Gates
EM 1110-2-2703
Lock Gates and Operating Equipment
EM 1110-2-2705
Structural Design of Closure Structures for Local Flood
Protection Projects
EM 1110-2-2901
Tunnels and Shaft in Rock
EM 1110-2-2902
Conduits, Culverts, and Pipes
EM 1110-2-3001
Planning and Design of Hydroelectric Power Plants
EM 1110-2-3104
Structural Design of Pumping Stations
EM 1110-2-3400
Painting: New Construction and Maintenance
CE-1507.01
Tractor Gates-Broome Type
CE-1602
Dam Gantry Cranes
CW-05502
Miscellaneous Metal Materials, Standard Articles and
Shop Fabrication Items
CW-09940
Painting: Hydraulic Structures and Appurtenant Works
CW-16643
Cathodic Protection Systems (Impressed Current) for Lock
Miter Gates
American Association of State Highway & Transporta-
tion Officials (AASHTO) 1978
American Association of State Highway & Transportation
Officials (AASHTO). 1978. "Guide Specifications for
Fracture Critical Non-Redundant Steel Bridge Members,"
* Washington, DC 20001.
American Association of State Highway & Transporta-
tion Officials (AASHTO) 1989
American Association of State Highway & Transportation
Officials (AASHTO). 1989. "Standard Specifications for
Highway Bridges," Fourteenth Edition, Washington, DC
20001.
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) 1984
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). 1984.
"Engineering for Steel Construction," Chicago
60601-2001.
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) 1986
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). 1986.
"Load and Resistance Factor Design Manual of Steel
Construction," First Edition, Chicago 60601-2001.
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) 1989
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). 1989.
"Allowable Stress Design Manual of Steel Construction,"
Ninth Edition, Chicago 60601-2001.
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) 1990
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). 1990.
"Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Struc-
tures (ASCE 7-88)," New York 10017-2398.
American Welding Society (AWS) 1990
American Welding Society (AWS). 1990. "Structural
Welding Code - Steel, 1990," Miami, FL 33135.
Barsom and Rolfe 1987
Barsom, J., and Rolfe, S. 1987. "Fracture and Fatigue
A-1
EM 1110-2-2105
Change 1
31 May 94
Control in Structures, Applications of Fracture
Mechanics," Englewood Cliffs, NJ 07632.
Ellingwood, MacGregor, Galambos, and Cornell 1982
Ellingwood, B., MacGregor, J. G., Galambos, T. V., and
Cornell, C. A. 1982 (May). "Probability Based Load
Criteria: Load Factors and Load Combinations," ASCE
Journal of the Structural Division, Vol 108, No. ST5.
Galambos, Ellingwood, MacGregor, and Cornell 1982
Galambos, T. V., Ellingwood, B., MacGregor, J. G., and
Cornell, C. A. 1982 (May). "Probability Based Load
Criteria: Assessment of Current Design Practice," ASCE
Journal of the Structural Division, Vol 108, No. ST5.
Kulak, Fisher, and Struik 1987
Kulak, G.L., Fisher, J.W., and Struik, H.A., 1987. "Guide
to Design Criteria for Bolted and Riveted Joints," Second
Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York
Kumar and Odeh 1989
Kumar, A., and Odeh, A. A. 1989. "Mechanical Proper-
ties and Corrosion Behavior of Stainless Steels for Locks,
Dams, and Hydroelectric Plant Applications," Technical
Report REMR-EM-6. Available from National Technical
Information Service, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield,
VA 22161.
McCormac 1990
McCormac, 1990. "Structural Steel Design LRFD
Method," Harper and Row, Publishers, Inc., New York.
A-2
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
Appendix B
Load and Resistance Factor Design
Criteria for Miter Gates
B-1. Introduction
a. Purpose. This appendix provides guidance for
design of miter gates by the load and resistance factor
design (LRFD) method. Load-carrying members (includ-
ing but not limited to: skin plates, intercostals, girders,
diagonals, vertical diaphragms, and anchorage systems)
shall be designed in accordance with the criteria contained
in this appendix and Chapters 1, 2, 3, and 5. Miter gate
layout, selection of materials, and assumed member load-
ing shall follow guidance specified in EM 1110-2-2703
unless otherwise stated herein. Mechanical and electrical
items shall be designed in accordance with Chapter 4 and
guidance specified in EM 1110-2-2703.
b. References. Required references are listed in
Appendix A.
c. Background. ASCE (1990) and AISC (1986)
specify load factors and load combinations for buildings;
however, for miter gates, unique loads and load combina-
tions exist. The load factors and load combinations speci-
fied in paragraph B-2a pertain specifically to miter gates.
Development of the load factors included consideration of
the respective load variability, definition, and likeness to
those loads specified in ASCE (1990) and AISC (1986).
Some loads I, H
t
, and E (discussed in paragraph B-2b) are
difficult to predict and are highly variable, yet are
assigned a load factor of 1.0. This is not what might be
expected for such unpredictable loads. The load factor
1.0 for barge impact and temporal hydraulic loads was
chosen, in part, on the basis that these loads are specified
based on historical experience and are assigned extreme
values. It is not realistic to use load factors other than 1.0
for such arbitrarily designated loads. The 1.0 load factor
for earthquake loading was chosen to remain consistent
with what will be presented in the revision to ASCE
(1990) and the 2nd edition of AISC (1986).
B-2. Load and Resistance Factor Design
a. Strength requirements. Miter gates shall have
design strengths at all sections at least equal to the
required strengths calculated for the factored loads and
forces in the following load combinations. The most
unfavorable effect may occur when one or more of the
loads in a particular load combination is equal to zero.
(B-1a) 1.4H
s
1.0I
(B-1b) 1.4H
s
1.0H
t
(B-2a) 1.2D 1.6(C M) 1.0H
t
(B-2b)
1.2D 1.6(C M) 1.2Q
(B-3) 1.2H
s
1.0E
The nominal loads are defined as follows:
D = dead load
Q = maximum operating equipment load
E = earthquake load
I = barge impact load
H
s
= hydrostatic load
H
t
= temporal hydraulic load
C = ice load
M = mud load
b. Load considerations. Loads due to thermal
stresses need not be considered. Serviceway loads are not
included in the above combinations due to their low mag-
nitude, and they are counteracted by buoyancy of the
structure. Walkways are not HSS and should be designed
in accordance with the requirements in AISC (1986).
(1) Hydraulic loads. The temporal hydraulic load H
t
shall be equal to 1.25 ft of head as specified in paragraph
3-9 of EM 1110-2-2703. The hydrostatic load H
s
shall be
determined based on site-specific conditions for upper and
lower pool elevations. The predictability of maximum
hydrostatic load justifies using a relatively low load factor
which reflects the low level of uncertainty in the loading.
The 1.4 load factor in Equations B-1a and B-1b is rela-
tively low, yet considering the reduction in resistance due
to the resistance factor and the reliability factor , it
provides an adequate overall factor of safety.
(2) Gravity loads. Loads D, C, and M shall be
determined based on site-specific conditions. Ice loads C
are considered as gravity loads; ice acting as lateral loads
are not considered in the load combinations (see
paragraph B-2c).
B-1
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
(3) Operating loads. The load Q shall be the maxi-
mum load which can be exerted by the operating machin-
ery (obtained from the mechanical engineer that designed
the machinery). The inertial resistance of water while a
leaf is operated is the hydrodynamic load H
d
. Effects of
H
d
are included in paragraph B-2f. This load will control
fatigue design and shall be equal to 30 pounds per square
ft (psf) or 45 psf based on requirements given in
Chapter 3 of EM 1110-2-2703. H
d
never controls the
strength design when compared with H
t
or Q and is not
included in the load combinations.
(4) Barge impact load. The barge impact load I shall
be specified as a point load as shown in Figure B-1. The
load shall be applied in the downstream direction to
girders above pool level at: (a) the miter point (sym-
metric loading), and (b) anywhere in the girder span at
which a single barge may impact (unsymmetric loading).
This location is anywhere in the span at least 35 ft, or the
standard barge width, from either lock wall. Both impact
locations shall be investigated to determine the maximum
structural effect. The impact load I shall be equal to 250
kips for unsymmetric loading and 400 kips for symmetric
loading.
(5) Earthquake load. Design loads shall be deter-
mined based on an operational basis earthquake (OBE)
defined as that earthquake having a 50 percent chance of
being exceeded in 100 years. This translates to a proba-
bility of annual exceedance of 0.0069, or approximately a
145-year mean recurrence interval. The earthquake load
E shall be based on inertial hydrodynamic effects of water
moving with the structure. Inertial hydrodynamic loads
shall be determined based on Westergaards equation
(B-4)
where
p = lateral pressure at a distance y below the pool
surface

w
= unit weight of water
a
c
= maximum acceleration of the supporting lock
wall due to the OBE (expressed as a fraction of
gravitational acceleration g)
H = pool depth
y = distance below the pool surface
The lock wall shall be assumed rigid in determination of
a
c
, and the assumed direction of a
c
shall be parallel to the
lock centerline. The inertial forces resulting from the
mass due to structural weight D, ice C, and mud M are
insignificant compared to the effect of p and need not be
considered.
c. Load cases. The following load cases shall be
considered with the appropriate loading combinations:
(1) Case 1: Mitered condition. Loads include
hydrostatic loads due to upper and lower pools, and barge
impact or temporal hydraulic loads (Equations B-1a and
B-1b). Although not included in Equations B-1a and
B-1b, loads C, D, and M act when the gate is in the
mitered position. However, in the mitered position their
effects will not control the member sizes and these loads
are accounted for in load case 2 where they may control.
Lateral ice loads, as discussed in the commentary of para-
graph 4-3 (paragraph 4-7) are not considered in Equations
B-1a and B-1b. It would be appropriate to include such a
load in place of I as specified by Equation B1-a.
However, design for a lateral ice load of 5 kips per ft (as
specified by EM 1110-2-2702) with a load factor of 1.0
will not control when compared to design required by I.
(a) Above pool. Equation B1-a is applicable to the
girders located above pool (upper pool elevation for the
upper gate and lower pool for the lower gate) where barge
impact may occur. The skin plate and intercostals need
not be designed for barge impact. For design of skin
plate and intercostals located above pool, a minimum
hydrostatic head of 6 ft shall be assumed.
(b) Below pool. The upper gate shall be designed
assuming the lock is dewatered. Loads include hydro-
static loads due to upper pool only (Equation B-1b;
H
t
= 0). The lower gate shall be designed considering
normal upper and lower pool elevations including tempo-
ral hydraulic loads H
t
. H
t
is applicable only to the sub-
merged part of the gate.
(2) Case 2: Gate torsion. Loads include gravity
loads (C, M, and D), and operating equipment load Q or
temporal hydraulic load H
t
(Equations B-2a and B-2b). In
this condition there are no differential hydrostatic loads.
(a) Temporal condition. Equation B-2a shall be
applied to consider gate leaf torsion with the temporal
hydraulic load acting on the submerged part of leaf (the
temporal hydraulic load may act in either direction).
(b) Submerged obstruction. Equation B-2b shall be
applied to consider leaf torsion which may be caused by a
B-2
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
Figure B-1. Point load impact for miter gate girders
B-3
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
submerged obstruction. For this case, it is assumed that
the bottom of the leaf is held stationary by a submerged
obstruction while Q is applied causing the gate leaf to
twist.
(3) Case 3: Earthquake. Equation B-3 shall be
applied assuming that the gate is mitered, and hydrostatic
loads due to upper and lower pools are acting. The earth-
quake acceleration shall be applied in the direction paral-
lel to the lock centerline. Elastic structural analysis shall
be performed with no allowance for ductility.
d. Design for individual members. The following is a
brief description of design assumptions, appropriate LRFD
formulas, and load cases for the design of individual gate
members. These items are further discussed in the design
examples of paragraph B-4 and EM 1110-2-2703.
(1) Skin plate.
(a) Skin plates shall be sized such that the maximum
calculated stress is less than the yield limit state of
b
F
y
where is defined in paragraph 3-4 and
b
is defined in
AISC (1986). Stresses shall be determined on the basis
of small deflection thin plate theory using load cases 1
and 3 of paragraph B-2c. Small deflections are assured
by limiting deflections per paragraph B-2e (deflections are
small and significant membrane stresses do not develop).
The minimum size for the skin plate located above the
pool level shall be determined using an assumed hydro-
static head of 6 ft.
(b) The skin plate is designed assuming that each
panel acts as a rectangular fixed plate. In accordance
with paragraph 2-1c(1) of EM 1110-2-2703, the edges of
the skin plate panels are assumed to be fixed at the cen-
terline of the intercostals or diaphragms and the edge of
girder flanges. For rectangular fixed plates subject to
uniform loading, the maximum stress occurs at the cen-
terline of the long edge. The combined interaction of
transverse stress due to intercostal or girder bending (Von
Mises criteria shown in EM 1110-2-2703) need not be
considered.
(2) Intercostals.
(a) Intercostals shall be flat bars or plates sized such
that the maximum calculated moment is less than the
nominal bending strength of
b
M
n
. Intercostals may be
designed as simple or fixed end beams (EM 1110-2-2703
specifies fixed end) supported at the centerline of girder
webs. The end connections shall be fabricated to match
the design assumptions as closely as possible. In most
cases, the ends of the intercostals are welded (Figure B-2
illustrates possible details that may be used). Load cases
1 and 3 of paragraph B-2c shall be investigated to deter-
mine the maximum load effect. The assumed loading
distribution for intercostals is the trapezoidal distribution
shown in EM 1110-2-2703 and Figure B-3. The mini-
mum size for intercostals located above the pool level
shall be determined using an assumed hydrostatic head of
6 ft.
(b) An effective portion of the skin plate is assumed
to act as the intercostal flange. The effective width of
skin plate is determined assuming the skin plate to be an
unstiffened noncompact member (i.e.,
r
= 95/ F
y
). The
distance between cross sections braced against twist or
lateral displacement of the compression flange has a con-
trolling influence on the member strength. For the design
of a simple beam intercostal the compression flange is
supported continuously by the skin plate. See paragraph
2-1c(2) of EM 1110-2-2703 for additional discussion.
(3) Girders.
(a) Horizontal girders are assumed to act as singly
symmetric prismatic members subjected to axial force and
flexure about their major axis. Girders shall be designed
as beam-columns in accordance with AISC (1986). The
criteria for action about the major axis specified in para-
graphs 2-1d(6) and (7) of EM 1110-2-2703 shall be
revised as follows. For determination of column action
buckling strength about the major axis, each girder shall
have an effective length equal to the distance from the
quoin block to the miter block. The ends shall be
assumed pinned; the values of K and C
m
shall be 1.0.
Load cases 1 and 3 of paragraph B-2c shall be investi-
gated for all girders to determine the maximum load
effect. Additionally, load case 2 shall be investigated for
girders which resist diagonal loads.
(b) An effective portion of the skin plate is assumed
to act with the upstream flange. The effective width of
skin plate adjacent to each edge of the upstream girder
flange shall be based on a width-to-thickness ratio consis-
tent with design assumptions (i.e., assumption of compact
or noncompact flange). Upstream girder flanges are
braced continuously by the skin plate. Downstream
flanges are braced by vertical diaphragms which resist
lateral displacement and twist of the cross section.
(c) Webs shall be designed using requirements for
uniformly compressed stiffened elements. The use of
slenderness parameters for webs in combined flexural and
B-4
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
Figure B-2. Assumptions for intercostal end connections
B-5
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
axial compression in Table B5-1 of AISC (1986) should
Figure B-3. Nomenclature and assumed load area for intercostal design
be avoided since these criteria were developed for rolled
shape beam-columns and may not apply for deep girder
sections.
(4) Diagonals. Diagonals shall be designed as ten-
sion members considering the limit states of yielding in
the gross section or fracture in the net section. The
design assumptions shall be based on procedures pre-
sented in Chapter 3 of EM 1110-2-2703. Load case 2 of
paragraph B-2c is applicable.
(5) Vertical diaphragms. Vertical diaphragms resist-
ing diagonal loads shall be designed using the same load
case as used for the diagonals design. See paragraph
2-1c(3) of EM 1110-2-2703 for additional discussion.
(6) Anchorage systems. The anchorage systems sup-
porting miter gate leafs are discussed in paragraph 2-1g(2)
of EM 1110-2-2703. These criteria require components
of the system to be designed as individual units with the
resultant force applied to the units being a combination of
the strut force and the dead weight of the leaf, increased
10 percent for impact. These loading criteria should be
used with load case 2 of paragraph B-2c.
e. Serviceability requirements. Miter gates shall be
designed for an expected life of 50 years. Limiting val-
ues of structural behavior to ensure serviceability (e.g.,
maximum deflections, vibration considerations, details for
ease of maintenance, etc.) shall be chosen with due regard
to assure the gate functions for its design life. Normally,
serviceability can be checked using unfactored loads. As
a minimum, the following guidance shall be followed.
(1) The overall structure and the individual mem-
bers, connections, and connectors shall be checked for
serviceability. This shall be verified by testing during
erection as specified in paragraph 2-3q of
EM 1110-2-2703.
(2) Gate leaf deflection (twist) shall be limited to a
value which is less than 50 percent of the miter bearing
block width.
(3) The skin plate deflection shall be limited to 0.4
times the plate thickness.
B-6
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
(4) Vibration of the seals, equipment, or movable
supports shall not impair the operability of the gate.
(5) Structural components shall be designed to toler-
ate corrosion or be protected against corrosion that may
impair the serviceability or operability of the structure.
Plates shall be used for girder web stiffeners and
intercostals (instead of more efficient rolled sections) to
make it easier to apply the paint system.
f. Fatigue. Members and their connections subjected
to repeated variation of load shall be designed for fatigue.
The total number of loading cycles shall be determined
based on changes in load due to lock operation. The
range of stresses due to unfactored loads shall be equal to
or less than the allowable stress variation given in appen-
dix K of AISC (1986). The following conditions shall be
considered for fatigue analysis.
(1) Skin plates, intercostals, and girders. Stress vari-
ation shall be determined based on variation in hydrostatic
load H
s
assuming the gate is in the mitered position and
the hydrostatic load is due to upper and lower pools.
(2) Diagonals, vertical diaphragms, strut arm and
connection, hinge and anchorage arms. These elements
shall be evaluated based on variation of stress due to
hydrodynamic load H
d
acting as the gate operates.
g. Fracture. Requirements of paragraph 3-6 shall be
applied to fracture critical members (FCM). The designer
shall determine which members are fracture critical for
the specific miter gate in question. Typically, strut arms
and connections, anchorage arms, and diagonals are con-
sidered to be FCM. Project specifications shall address
the topics which are discussed in the commentary of
paragraph 3-6c (paragraph 3-9).
B-3. Connections and Details
Chapter 5 provides general guidance for connection
design. Connection details shall be consistent with the
design assumptions. For example, Figure B-2 illustrates
the details required for consistency in design of inter-
costals for the assumptions of simple and fixed connec-
tions. Paragraphs 1-5a(6) and 1-5a(7) of EM 1110-2-
2703 discuss the use of bolts, welds, and fabrication of
gate leafs, and paragraph 2-1j(3) includes a discussion on
diagonal connections.
B-4. Design Examples
a. General. To illustrate LRFD principles for the
design of a miter gate, example calculations are provided
in paragraph B-4b. These calculations are provided to
demonstrate LRFD principles; they do not provide a
comprehensive design for the entire gate. Examples are
limited to the design of the skin plate, an intercostal, a
horizontal girder, and the diagonals for a horizontally
framed miter gate. AISC (1986) equation numbers are
identified by "AISC" followed by the appropriate equation
number.
b. Design examples for a horizontally framed miter
gate. Examples for a horizontally framed downstream
miter gate that spans a 110-ft-wide lock chamber are
included. Each leaf is 55 ft high and is required to span
62 ft. A vertical cross section of the leaf is shown in
Figure B-4. All material is assumed to be ASTM A36
steel. The distributions of unfactored loads H
s
, H
t
, and E
are shown in Figure B-5, and the load magnitudes for
girders and panels are listed in Tables B-1 and B-2,
respectively. The kips per square foot (ksf) values for H
s
are determined by the hydrostatic head and those for E
are calculated by Westergaards equation for the corre-
sponding depths. The k/ft values for girders are deter-
mined using the ksf loads distributed over a tributary area
between panel center points. Earthquake loading E is
determined based on requirements of paragraph B-2b(5)
assuming a maximum lock wall acceleration of 0.1 g (a
c
= 0.1). Examples for the skin plate, intercostal, and
girder are for members located at the lower part of the
gate leaf where the critical loading occurs.
(1) Skin plate design example. Traditionally, the
skin plate is designed as a plate fixed at the centerline of
the intercostals and the edges of girder flanges. Nomen-
clature for skin plate design is shown in Figure B-6. The
design loading includes hydrostatic H
s
, temporal hydraulic
H
t
, and earthquake E loads. Uniform pressure loads are
assumed to act over the panel surface with a magnitude
equal to that of the pressure acting at the center of the
panel. Per paragraph B-2d(1), the minimum size (for
panels at the top of the gate) shall be determined based on
a 6-ft minimum hydrostatic head. For panels 9-12 (see
Figure B-4) horizontal girders are spaced 4 ft apart and
intercostals are spaced on 32-in. centers. With 6-in.-wide
girder flanges (conservative approximation) the plate
B-7
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
Figure B-4. Vertical cross section for example miter gate
B-8
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
Figure B-5. Example miter gate loading
B-9
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
Table B-1
Girder Loads
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Girder H
s
H
s
H
t
E E 1.4H
s
+H
t
1.2H
s
+E
No. (ksf) (k/ft) (k/ft) (ksf) (k/ft) (k/ft) (k/ft)
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
1 0.000 0.00 0.00 0.000 0.000 0.00 0.00
2 0.000 0.00 0.00 0.000 0.000 0.00 0.00
3 0.000 0.28 0.23 0.000 0.065 0.63 0.40
4 0.374 2.24 0.47 0.087 0.522 3.61 3.22
5 0.749 4.12 0.43 0.123 0.674 6.19 5.62
6 1.061 4.77 0.35 0.146 0.657 7.03 6.39
7 1.310 5.24 0.31 0.162 0.649 7.65 6.94
8 1.498 6.00 0.31 0.200 0.800 8.71 7.99
9 1.498 6.00 0.31 0.242 0.969 8.71 8.16
10 1.498 6.00 0.31 0.273 1.091 8.71 8.38
11 1.498 6.00 0.31 0.299 1.195 8.71 8.39
12 1.498 4.49 0.23 0.322 0.960 6.53 6.35
Table B-2
Skin Plate and Intercostal Loads
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Panel H
s
H
t
E 1.4H
s
+H
t
1.2H
s
+E
No. (ksf) (ksf) (ksf) (ksf) (ksf)
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
1 0.374 0.000 0.000 0.524 0.449
2 0.374 0.000 0.000 0.524 0.449
3 0.374 0.000 0.000 0.524 0.449
4 0.374 0.078 0.043 0.602 0.492
5 0.563 0.078 0.105 0.866 0.780
6 0.906 0.078 0.134 1.346 1.221
7 1.187 0.078 0.154 1.740 1.578
8 1.437 0.078 0.181 2.090 1.906
9 1.498 0.078 0.221 2.174 2.018
10 1.498 0.078 0.258 2.174 2.054
11 1.498 0.078 0.286 2.174 2.082
12 1.498 0.078 0.310 2.174 2.107
B-10
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
dimensions are a = 42 in. by b = 32 in. Equation B-1b is
Figure B-6. Nomenclature for skin plate design
the critical load combination which yields a factored
uniformly distributed load of W
u
= 2.174 ksf = 0.0151 ksi.
(a) Required thickness based yield limit state. For a
rectangular fixed plate with a uniform loading W and a
limiting stress F
lim
, the required minimum skin plate thick-
ness t
min
is calculated using Equation B-5.
(B-5)
Based on yield limit state for plate bending, F
lim
=
b
F
y
.
With W = W
u
, = 0.9, and
b
= 0.9 the required thick-
ness is
Therefore, select a 1/2-in.-thick plate.
(b) Deflection check. Per paragraph B-2e, the maxi-
mum deflection under service loading (unfactored H
s
) is
limited to 0.4t. For a rectangular plate fixed on all edges,
With W = 1.498 ksf = 0.0104 ksi and E = 29,000 ksi, the
deflection is
(c) Fatigue considerations. The skin plate will be
checked for fatigue considering cyclic bending stresses
along its welded edge. The welds which attach the skin
plate to girder flanges and intercostals are typically
located on the downstream side of the skin plate. Plate
bending stresses due to hydrostatic loading act in com-
pression on the downstream face of the skin plate.
Although the stress range due to plate bending at the
welds is always in compression, it is likely that residual
tensile stresses due to welding will exist. Therefore, the
B-11
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
stress range will vary from an initial positive value and
fatigue is a concern. The condition illustrated in
example 7 of Appendix K, AISC (1986) is assumed. It is
assumed that the water in the lock chamber will be cycled
between 100,000 and 500,000 times. For stress cate-
gory C and loading condition 2, the allowable stress range
is F
r
= 21 ksi. The fatigue stress range will be controlled
by the unfactored hydrostatic load H
s
. For this case W =
0.0104 ksi, and F
lim
of Equation B-5 is F
r
.
Therefore, a 1/2-in.-thick plate is adequate.
(2) Intercostal design example. Intercostals may be
designed assuming either fixed or pinned ends. However,
the designer must ensure that end connections are
detailed consistent with the assumption (see Figure B-2).
The assumed loading for intercostals consists of a uniform
pressure acting on the load area shown in Figure B-3
(nomenclature for this example is also included). This
example pertains to the design of miter gate intercostals
located on panels 9 through 12 (see Figure B-4) which are
spaced at 32 in. on center and span 4 ft. The ends of the
intercostals are assumed pinned and the load is applied as
an assumed trapezoidal distribution as shown in
Figure B-3. Assuming a 6-in.-wide girder flange (con-
servative assumption), F = 6 in., S = 42 in., G = 48 in.,
a = 16 in., and b = 10 in. For this case, the critical load
combination is determined by Equation B-1b; W
u
=
0.0151 ksi. The required factored moment capacity for
the example intercostal subject to the trapezoidal load
distribution is M
u
= 104.7 kip-in.
(a) Intercostal design. The effective width of skin
plate acting as the intercostal flange shall be determined
by treating the skin plate as an unstiffened noncompact
element under compression (see paragraph B-2d(2)). The
limiting width-to-thickness ratio to satisfy noncompact
requirements is
(AISC Table B5.1)
The effective width b of a 1/2-in.-thick skin plate is then
The chosen intercostal section shown in Figure B-7 is a
tee section composed of a 5-in. by 1/2-in. stem and 15.83-
in. by 1/2-in. effective skin plate flange. Per Table B5.1
of AISC (1986), the stem satisfies noncompact
requirements.
In accordance with Equations F1-15 and F1-16 of AISC
(1986), the nominal strength M
n
equals M
y
; <
r
and the
compression flange has continuous lateral support (L
b
=
0). The chosen section has an area A = 10.4 in.
2
, a
moment of inertia I
x
= 19.7 in.
4
, a minimum section mod-
ulus S
x
= 4.3 in.
3
, and a yield moment of M
y
= 154.8 kip-
in. The design strength is
which exceeds the required M
u
= 104.7 kip-in. Therefore,
a 5-in. by 1/2-in. stem is acceptable.
(b) Fatigue considerations. The fatigue stress range
Figure B-7. Sample intercostal section
will be controlled by the unfactored load due to the
hydrostatic load H
s
. For this case W = 0.0104 ksi, and M
= 72.1 kip-in. The extreme fiber of the tee stem is a
category A detail. Per Appendix K of AISC (1986), the
allowable stress range for a category A detail in load
condition 2 is F
r
= 37 ksi > F
y
= 36 ksi and fatigue will
not control. The intersection of the stem and the skin
plate is a category B detail. Per Appendix K of AISC
(1986), the allowable stress range is F
r
= 29 ksi for a
category B detail in load condition 2. The stress on the
B-12
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
extreme fiber of the skin plate due to M = 72.1 kip-in. is
-3.3 ksi. The stress range (considering the presence of
tensile residual stress per paragraph 3-6.a) is f
r
= 3.3 ksi <
F
r
= 29 ksi.
(3) Girder design example. This example applies to
the design of the required cross section at center span of
the critical horizontal girder (girders 9-11 of Figure B-4)
for the miter gate leaf. The required leaf span from the
quoin block to miter block is 62 ft (744 in.), and framing
details require that the girder depth be maintained at
55 in. Hydrostatic loading and reactions are shown in
Figure B-8. The girder is subject to reverse bending;
however, at the center span the upstream flange is in
compression. The upstream girder flange is laterally
braced continuously along its length by the skin plate.
The downstream flange of the girder is braced against
lateral displacement and twist of the cross section by
intermediate diaphragms every 128 in. Transverse web
stiffeners are placed at 64-in. intervals.
(a) Width-thickness ratios. For this example, the
member is proportioned with the following width-thick-
ness ratios to satisfy compact section requirements in
order to avoid local buckling:
For girder flanges,
Per paragraph B-2d(3), girder webs shall be propor-
tioned using requirements of uniformly compressed stiff-
ened elements. This ensures compact sections for flexural
behavior.
(b) Design loading. For this girder, the controlling
load combination is given by Equation B-1b. Based on
Equation B-1b, the factored uniformly distributed load W
u
= 8.71 kips/ft or 0.726 kips/in. This loading produces an
axial compressive resultant force of P
u
= 847 kips and a
moment at center span of M
nt
= 24,757 kip-in., such that
the direction of the moment produces compression in the
upstream girder flange. The maximum shear is V
u
= 270
kips.
(c) Chosen cross section. After several iterations, the
sample girder cross section shown in Figure B-9 was
selected. This section is composed of 13-in. by 1-in.
downstream flange, 52-1/4-in. by 7/16-in. web with 4-1/2-
in. by 1/2-in. longitudinal stiffeners located as shown, and
a 16-in. by 1-1/4-in. upstream flange. The effective width
of the skin plate adjacent to each edge of the upstream
girder flange is based on a 65/ F
y
width-to-thickness
ratio as required to satisfy compact section requirements
of AISC (1986). Based on this geometry, the girder has
the following cross-sectional properties;
I
x
= 35,097.1 in.
4
r
x
= 21.81 in.
r
y
= 4.43 in.
S
x1
= 1,727.69 in.
3
S
x2
= 1,011.86 in.
3
Z
x
= 1,407.27 in.
3
y
c
= 20.31 in.
A
g
= 73.77 in.
2
where
I
x
= moment of inertia about the x axis
r
x
and r
y
= radius of gyration about the x and y axes,
respectively
S
x1
= maximum section modulus
S
x2
= minimum section modulus
Z
x
= plastic modulus
y
c
= distance from outside face of upstream flange
to neutral axis
A
g
= gross area.
(d) Compact section check. The following calcula-
tions show that the section is compact. With two lines of
longitudinal stiffeners located as shown, the maximum
clear distance of the web is d = 17.5 in. The width-thick-
ness ratio for the web is acceptable.
The upstream flange is compact. For the upstream flange,
the thickness including the skin plate is 1.75 in.
B-13
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
Figure B-8. Girder hydrostatic loading and reactions
Figure B-9. Sample girder cross section
B-14
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
The downstream flange is compact.
(e) Web shear. The girder web will be checked for
the maximum shear V
u
= 270 kips. Per Section F2 of
AISC (1986)
(AISC F2-1)
where
(AISC F2-4)
unless a/h exceeds 3.0 or [260/(h/t
w
)]
2
, in which case
k = 5. With a = 64 in. (transverse stiffener spacing), and
h = 17.5 in. (web maximum clear depth),
(Acceptable)
(f) Combined forces. The horizontal girder is consid-
ered a singly symmetric prismatic member subjected to
axial force and flexure about its major axis. This cate-
gory of design is discussed in Chapter H of AISC (1986)
and the section is checked by the following calculations.
Column action is based on requirements of Chapter E of
AISC (1986). Per paragraph B-2d(3), K
x
= 1.0, C
m
= 1.0
and l
x
= 744 in. (strong axis; distance between quoin and
miter blocks). Per EM 1110-2-2703 K
y
= 0.65 and l
y
= 128 in. (weak axis; distance between intermediate
diaphragms).
(controls)
(AISC E2-1)
(AISC E2-4)
(AISC E2-2)
Given P
u
= 847 kips,
c
= 0.85, and = 0.9
(AISC H1-1a)
(AISC H1-2)
(AISC H1-3)
B-15
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
For compact sections, with the beam compression flange
laterally supported continuously, M
n
= M
p
.
Substitution into AISC H1-1a:
At the midspan location, the chosen section is adequate
for combined forces. The cross section consists of the
following elements:
Upstream flange 16 in. by 1-1/4 in.
Downstream flange 13 in. by 1 in.
Skin plate 1/2 in.
Web 52-1/4 in. by 7/16 in.
(2 longitudinal stiffeners 4-1/2 in. by 1/2 in.)
(g) Fatigue considerations. At the location of a trans-
verse stiffener or intermediate diaphragm, the girder is a
category C detail. Per Appendix K of AISC (1986), the
allowable stress range for a category C detail under load
condition 2 is F
r
= 21 ksi. The compression flange is
subject to larger stress variations under hydrostatic load-
ing and will be checked for fatigue due to the probable
tensile residual stress that exists as a result of welding.
For the unfactored load due to hydrostatic load H
s
, W =
6 kips/ft, P = 584 kips, and M = 17,054 kip-in. at the
midspan of the girder.
The stress on the extreme fiber of the upstream flange is
The stress range (considering tensile weld residual stress)
is f
r
= 17.8 ksi < F
r
= 21 ksi; acceptable. For locations at
the termination of a welded cover plate, a category E
detail should be assumed.
(h) Design for barge impact. For girder number 3,
the controlling load combination is Equation B-1a. The
previously chosen section will be checked for unsymme-
tric and symmetric barge impact. Due to hydrostatic
loading H
s
, the uniformly distributed load W is 0.28
kips/ft.
For unsymmetric impact, the axial force P and flexural
moment M (at the location of impact) are
and for symmetric impact (P and M are constant along the
girder length)
where x, a, and e are defined in Figure B-1.
For unsymmetric impact, I = 250 kips. With a girder
span of 62 ft, a = 58.8 ft (705.6 in.) and assuming a
barge width of 35 ft, x = 38.8 ft (465.6 in.). The eccen-
tricity between the girder work line and the neutral axis is
e = 31.2 in. The impact girder resultant forces at the
point of impact are
For the distributed loading W = 0.28 kips/ft, P = 27.3 kips
and at the location of impact, M = 632.2 kip-in. By
Equation B-1a:
With P
n
= 2,497 kips,
Therefore, in accordance with Section H1 of AISC
(1986), Equation H1-1b applies.
B-16
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
(AISC H1-1b)
Substitution of the appropriate values into Equation AISC
H1-1b shows that the section is acceptable for this case
(unsymmetric impact).
(Acceptable)
For symmetric impact, I = 400 kips.
For the distributed loading W = 0.28 kips/ft, P = 27.3 kips
and at center span of the girder, M = 798 kip-in. By
Equation B-1a:
With P
n
= 2,497 kips,
Therefore, in accordance with Section H1 of AISC (1986)
Equation H1-1a applies. Substitution of the appropriate
values into Equation AISC H1-1a shows that the section
is acceptable for this case (symmetric impact).
(Acceptable)
(i) Commentary. For this example, a compact section
was chosen. Noncompact sections are allowed and may
be more economical in some cases. Per AISC (1986),
steel sections are classified as either compact, non-
compact, or slender element sections. Compact sections
are capable of developing a fully plastic stress distribution
prior to element local buckling. Noncompact sections are
proportioned such that compression elements can develop
yield stress prior to local buckling. In slender element
sections, local buckling will occur prior to initial yielding.
Appropriate appendixes of AISC (1986) include require-
ments for the design of members controlled by local
buckling. The above example considered only the
required section at midspan, and the section should be
checked for the appropriate design loading at the girder
ends. Longitudinal web stiffeners are placed on only one
side of the web. Compared to the case of placing stiff-
eners on both sides of the web, this requires slightly
larger stiffener plates. However, placing stiffeners on
only one side of the web is more attractive due to the cost
savings in fabrication and detailing. Furthermore, the
adverse effects due to welding of additional stiffeners,
such as residual stress, reduced toughness in the heat-
affected zone, and through-thickness tension of the web,
are avoided.
(4) Diagonal design example. This example pertains
to the design of miter gate diagonal members utilizing
ASTM A36 steel. General guidance for diagonal design
is contained in EM 1110-2-2703. Diagonal design will be
controlled by Equation B-2a or B-2b. Equation B-2a
represents the case where the gate is subject to temporal
hydraulic loading. Equation B-2b represents the case
where a submerged obstruction constrains gate leaf
motion while the maximum operating force Q is applied.
For this particular example, Q is limited by a pressure
relief valve engaged during gate motion and is equal to
125 kips. Plan and elevation views for the gate leaf,
illustrating the torsional loads, are shown in Figure B-10.
The length of each diagonal is L = 831.6 in. The unfac-
tored loads, the distance from the pintle to the applied
load z, the moment arm of the applied load with respect
to the center of moments (located at the operating strut
elevation), and corresponding load torque areas Tz for this
case are estimated as shown in Table B-3. For loads Q,
H
t
, and H
d
, a positive value for Tz is for the case of gate
opening and a negative value is for the case of gate clos-
ing. To avoid confusion of nomenclature, the diagonal
elasticity constant (denoted as Q by EM 1110-2-2703) is
represented as Q in the following calculations.
Table B-3
Gate Torsion Load
_____________________________________________________
Force Moment
Load (kips) Arm (ft) z (ft) Tz (kip-ft
2
)
_____________________________________________________
D 286.1 3.53 31.0 -31,308
C + M 130.0 3.53 31.0 -14,226
Q 125.0 55.00 19.0 130,625
H
t
93.1 45.38 31.0 130,971
H
d
33.5 46.00 31.0 47,771
B-17
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
The factored loads for Equations B-2a and b are as
follows:
Since Tz(Q)
u
is greater than Tz(H
t
)
u
, Equation B-2b will
control.
(a) Design. The design strength for tension members

t
P
n
is the lower of the following:
Case a. For yielding in the gross section, = 0.9
and
t
= 0.9
(AISC D1-1)
Case b. For fracture in the net section, = 0.9
and
t
= 0.75
(AISC D1-2)
The end connections are welded to gusset plates with
a total weld length greater than two times the bar
width. Therefore, U = 1.0 and the effective area A
e
is
the same as the gross area A
g
(Section B3 of AISC
(1986)).
Case a controls and the limiting tensile stress is 29.16 ksi.
Per equations of EM 1110-2-2703, the following is
obtained:
A = 30 in.
2
, R
o
= 0.11
A
p
= 22 in.
2
(chosen area of positive diagonal)
A
n
= 19 in.
2
(chosen area of negative diagonal)
Q
p
= 229,629 kip-ft and Q
n
= 210,418 kip-ft
Q
o
= 0 (Conservative assumption)
Q = 440,047 kip-ft
Live load gate opening deflection (critical case is when
C + M = 0):
Live load gate closing deflection:
Let D
p
= 7.0 in. and D
n
= -5.5 in.
Q
p
D
p
+ Q
n
D
n
= 37,509 kip-ft
2
Tz(D)
u
(Acceptable)
The stress in the diagonals must remain between the ten-
sile limiting stress of 29.16 ksi and the minimum stress of
1.0 ksi (diagonals must always remain in tension). The
maximum tensile stresses will occur as follows:
For the positive diagonal on gate closing:
For the negative diagonal on gate opening:
The minimum tensile stresses will occur as follows:
For the positive diagonal on gate opening:
B-18
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
For the negative diagonal on gate closing:
(b) Deflection serviceability check. Per paragraph B-
2e, the maximum deflection during operation shall not
exceed 4 in. (1/2 contact block width). The controlling
load combination is Equation B-2b with unfactored loads.
The maximum deflection will occur as Q acts with C and
M (gate closing).
(c) Fatigue considerations. The welded connection at
the end of each diagonal is considered a category E detail.
From appendix K of AISC (1986), the allowable stress
range for load condition 2 is F
r
= 13 ksi. For each opera-
tion of the miter gate, the stress range is calculated con-
sidering the absolute difference in opening and closing
deflection. This deflection is based on the assumed
hydrodynamic load H
d
of 30 psf acting on the submerged
portion of the leaf during gate operation.
The maximum stress is in the negative diagonal (R
n
>
R
p
). Therefore the stress range is
6.1 ksi < 13 ksi (Acceptable)
Based on the above calculations, A
p
= 22 in. and A
n
=
19 in. are adequate and the following sizes are chosen:
Positive diagonal: Select two 7-1/2-in. by 1-1/2-in.
members; Area = 22.5 in
2
.
Negative diagonal: Select two 6-1/2-in. by 1-1/2-in
members; Area = 19.5 in
2
.
(d) Fracture control considerations. The diagonals
are fracture critical members; therefore it is necessary to
ensure that the material has adequate toughness as speci-
fied by paragraph 3-6b. Assuming a minimum service
temperature of -10
o
F (Zone 2) the material specifications
should require a CVN toughness of 25 ft-lb tested at
40
o
F for welded 36-ksi steel 1.5 in. thick.
B-19
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
Figure B-10. Example miter leaf torsion loads
B-20
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
Appendix C
Tainter Gates
C-1. Introduction
Allowable stress design (ASD) criteria shall be used until
load and resistance factor design (LRFD) criteria have
been developed.
C-2. Reference
EM 1110-2-2702
Design of Spillway Tainter Gates
C-1
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
Appendix D
Tainter Valves
D-1. Introduction
Allowable stress design (ASD) criteria shall be used until
load and resistance factor design (LRFD) criteria have
been developed.
D-1
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
Appendix E
Bulkheads and Stoplogs
E-1. Introduction
Allowable stress design (ASD) criteria shall be used until
load and resistance factor design (LRFD) criteria have
been developed.
E-1
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
Appendix F
Vertical Lift Gates (Lock and Crest)
F-1. Introduction
Allowable stress design (ASD) criteria shall be used until
load and resistance factor design (LRFD) criteria have
been developed.
F-2. References
EM 1110-2-2701
Vertical Lift Crest Gates
CE-1507.01
Tractor Gates-Broome Type
CE-1602
Dam Gantry Cranes
F-1
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
Appendix G
Hydroelectric and Pumping Plants
G-1. Introduction
Allowable stress design (ASD) criteria shall be used until
load and resistance factor design (LRFD) criteria have
been developed.
G-2. References
EM 1110-2-3001
Planning and Design of Hydroelectric Power Plants
EM 1110-2-3104
Structural Design of Pumping Stations
G-1
EM 1110-2-2105
Change 1
31 May 94
* Appendix H
Load and Resistance Factor Design Cri-
teria for Local Flood Protection Project
Closure Gates
H-1. Introduction
a. Purpose. This appendix provides structural design
guidance for gate closure openings in levees and flood-
walls for inland local flood protection projects (LFPP)
using the load and resistance factor design method. Load
carrying members (including but not limited to: skin
plates, intercostals, girders, diagonals, and vertical dia-
phragms) shall be designed in accordance with the criteria
contained in this appendix, as well as criteria in Chap-
ters 1, 2, 3, and 5 where applicable. Gate layout, selec-
tion of materials, and assumed member loading shall
follow guidance in EM 1110-2-2705 unless otherwise
stated herein. Mechanical and electrical items shall be
designed in accordance with Chapter 4 and guidance
specified in EM 1110-2-2705.
b. Background.
(1) Types of LFPP closure structures. Closure struc-
tures for openings in levee and floodwall systems of
LFPPs are usually either stoplog or gate type closures.
The guidance presented in this appendix is limited to
swing, miter, rolling, and trolley gates since these are the
most commonly used LFPP gate types. Many gate details
are shown in EM 1110-2-2705.
(2) Load combinations and load factors.
ASCE (1990) and AISC (1986) specify load factors and
load combinations for buildings; however, for LFPP clo-
sures, unique loads and load combinations exist. The load
factors and load combinations specified in paragraph H-2a
pertain specifically to LFPP closure gates. Development
of the load factors considered variability, definition, and
likeness to those loads specified in ASCE (1990) and
AISC (1986).
(3) A discussion of the need for using reliability
factor for HSS design is given in paragraph 3-8. LFPP
gates are considered hydraulic steel structures; however,
the environment they function in is not as severe as other
HSS and is more like building environments than the
typical HSS environment. Therefore, the reliability factor
for LFPP gates shall be 1.0 unless the structural engineer
is aware of extenuating circumstances that require a more
conservative design.
H-2. Load and Resistance Factor Design
a. Strength requirements. LFPP gates shall have
design strengths at all sections at least equal to the
required strengths calculated for the factored loads and
forces in the following load combinations. The most
unfavorable effect may occur when one or more of the
loads in a particular load combination are equal to zero.
1.4 Hs + 1.2 D (H-1)
1.2 D + 1.3 (Q or W) (H-2)
The nominal loads are defined as follows:
H
s
= hydrostatic load
D = dead load
Q = maximum operating load (draw bar pull or
operating equipment capacity)
W = wind load
b. Load considerations. Loads due to thermal effects
need not be considered. Earthquake loads need not be
considered for the gate members since the probability of
an earthquake occurring when the gate is closed is very
remote. However, the seismic design for the concrete
monolith supporting the open gate must include the iner-
tial effects. This appendix addresses only inland struc-
tures; therefore, other special loading conditions may be
necessary for gate closures in hurricane flood protection
projects. For example, gates could be subjected to large
wave loads during closing operations before the main
hurricane storm strikes.
(1) Hydraulic loads. Hydrostatic load H
s
shall be
determined based on water to the top of the gate on the
unprotected side and at or below the gate sill elevation on
the protected side.
*
H-1
EM 1110-2-2105
Change 1
31 May 94
* (2) Gravity loads. Dead load
1
D shall be determined
based on site-specific conditions. Ice and mud loads are
generally not considered in LFPP gate load combinations.
(3) Wind loads. Wind load W shall consist of a
wind load of 15 psf when the gate is opening or closing
(gate operating). When the gate is in the latched closed
or open positions (gate stationary), a wind load as speci-
fied in EM 1110-2-2502 shall be used.
(4) Operating loads. Load Q shall be the maximum
load that can be exerted by the operator (stalling torque of
motorized winch, capacity of manually operated winch,
etc. This value should be obtained from the mechanical
engineer that designed the machinery or other equipment).
c. Load cases. The following load cases shall be
considered with the appropriate loading combinations:
(1) Case 1: Gate stationary.
(a) Closed under hydrostatic loads. (Eq. H-1 with
D = 0 would apply.)
(b) Open or closed, no hydrostatic load. (Eq. H-2,
Q = 0 would apply.)
(2) Case 2: Gate operating.
(a) Hinge gates. This loading condition results in the
maximum torsion load. Hinge gates shall be designed for
a uniform wind load of 15 psf (refer to paragraph 9b(4)
of EM 1110-2-2705) and an equal and opposite reaction
load at the operator (usually a draw bar) connection.
(Eq. H-2 with Q = 0 would apply.)
(b) Wheel gates. The maximum load for determining
the localized stresses for designing the operator connec-
tion (usually a winch plate) shall be the limiting load for
the operator. (Eq. H-2 with W = 0 would apply.)
d. Design for individual members. The following
paragraphs include a brief description of design assump-
tions, appropriate LRFD formulas, and load cases for the
1
Miter gate design includes ice and mud in the dead
load. LFPP gates usually do not consider these loads
because of their environment. If the designer has an
unusual situation and wants to consider these loads, he
should refer to paragraph B-2b(2).
design of individual gate members. Further design guid-
ance is presented in EM 1110-2-2705.
(1) Skin plate.
(a) Skin plates shall be sized such that the maximum
calculated stress is less than the yield limit state of Fy
where is 1 as per paragraph H-1b(3), and is defined
in AISC (1986). Skin plates shall be designed for hydro-
static loading only. Stresses shall be determined on the
basis of small deflection thin plate theory using load case
1(a) of paragraph H-2c. Deflection shall be limited to 0.4
of the plate thickness to prevent the development of sig-
nificant membrane stresses. More than one thickness of
plate may be desirable for taller gates. The minimum
plate thickness shall be 1/4 in.
(b) With requirements of paragraph H-2d(1)(a)
above, design per paragraph B-2d(1)(b).
(2) Intercostals.
(a) Intercostals shall be sized so the maximum calcu-
lated moment is less than the nominal bending strength of

b
M
n
where is 1 as per paragraph H-1b(3) and
b
is
defined in AISC (1986). Intercostals shall be designed
for hydrostatic loading only. They may be flat bars or
plates, tee sections, or angle sections. Load case 1(a) or
paragraph H-2c shall be investigated to determine the
maximum load effect.
(b) With requirements of paragraph H-2d(2)(a)
above, design per the applicable requirements of para-
graph B-2d(2).
(3) Girders. Horizontal girders for LFPP miter gates
shall be designed in accordance with the principles dis-
cussed in paragraph B-2d(3).
2
Horizontal girders for
swing gates that support components of the diagonal loads
shall be designed for flexure due to hydrostatic loading
plus flexure and axial load induced by dead load in the
diagonals. Rolling and trolley gate girders shall be
designed for flexure due to hydrostatic loading only. For
all types of LFPP gates, load case 1(a) of paragraph H-2c
2
Paragraph B-2d(3) is written with emphasis on
built-up sections. LFPP gates generally use rolled
sections.
*
H-2
EM 1110-2-2105
Change 1
31 May 94
* shall be investigated to determine the maximum load
effect. The maximum design wind loading acting against
the exposed gate surface is insignificant when compared
with the hydrostatic loading.
(4) Diagonals. Diagonals shall be designed in accor-
dance with the principles discussed in paragraph B-2d(4).
They shall be designed to resist gate torsion to the dead
load as well as the torsion resulting from closing or open-
ing the gate against a 15-psf uniform wind loading. Load
case 2(a) of paragraph H-2c is applicable.
(5) Vertical diaphragms. Vertical diaphragms for
hinge gates shall be designed to resist diagonal loads as
well as flexure loads. Vertical diaphragms for wheel
gates shall be designed to resist flexure loads only, except
those diaphragms in line with wheels or trolley hangars.
They shall include axial and bending due to the forces
from the wheels or trolley hangars. Load case 1(a) is
applicable. The minimum thickness of any diaphragm
element shall be 1/4 in.
(6) Stabilizing systems. The hinges, wheels, trolleys,
latching devices, closing links, gate tie-down assemblies,
gate hooks, or other stabilizing systems for the various
types of LFPP gates are shown in the plates in EM 1110-
2-2705. Components of the system shall be designed as
individual units. The force applied to the units may be
from hydrostatic, dead, operating, or wind or a combina-
tion of these loads. Components of the gate being used to
stabilize the gate in the closed position with hydrostatic
load shall be designed using load case 1(a). For example,
the gates hooks for the L-frame rolling gate would use
this load case. Other gate components that are designed
to resist dead, operating, or wind load (depending on the
components function) shall be designed using load
case 2.
e. Serviceability requirements. Serviceability require-
ments shall be as specified in paragraph 3-5. LFPP gates
shall be designed for an expected life of 50 years. Limit-
ing values of structural behavior to ensure serviceability
(e.g., maximum deflections, details for ease of mainte-
nance, details for ease of operation, ensuring the gate is
not damaged in the latched open position, etc.) shall be
chosen so that the closure functions properly throughout
its design life.
f. Fatigue. Fatigue is not a concern for LFPP
closure structures due to the small number of stress cycles
over the life of the structure.
g. Fracture. Requirements of paragraph 3-6 shall be
applied to fracture critical members (FCM). The designer
shall determine which members are fracture critical for
the specific gate in question in accordance with para-
graph 3-6b. Typically, hinges, wheels, trolley gate
hangers, and their associated connections are considered
to be FCM.
H-3. Connections and Details
Chapter 5 provides general guidance for connection
design. Connection details shall be consistent with the
design assumptions. For example, Figure B-2 illustrates
the details required for consistency in intercostal design
for simple or fixed connections. Paragraphs 1-5a(6) and
1-5a(7) of EM 1110-2-2703 discuss the use of bolts,
welds, and fabrication of miter gate leafs, and para-
graph 2-1j(3) includes a discussion of diagonal connec-
tions. Although EM 1110-2-2703 is written for lock
gates, the guidance is generally applicable for LFPP gates.
H-4. Design Example
Specific LFPP gate design examples are not included in
this appendix. Appendices B and C demonstrate LRFD
principles for the design of miter and tainter gate ele-
ments, respectively. The calculations are provided to
demonstrate LRFD principles; they do not provide com-
prehensive design for entire gates. Examples in the two
appendices are limited to the design of skin plates, inter-
costals, and girders. Also, design of the diagonals for a
horizontally framed miter gate is shown in Appendix B.
These examples should be used for guidance when
designing similar structural members for LFPP gates.
*
H-3
EM 1110-2-2105
31 Mar 93
Appendix I
Miscellaneous Hydraulic Steel Structures
I-1. Introduction
rMiscellaneous HSS include lock wall accessories, outlet
works gates, penstocks, and sector gates. Allowable
stress design (ASD) criteria shall be used until load and
resistance factor design (LRFD) criteria have been
developed.
I-2. References
EM 1110-2-2400
Structural Design of Spilways and Outlet Works
EM 1110-2-2901
Tunnels and Shaft in Rock
EM 1110-2-2902
Conduits, Culverts, and Pipes
I-1

Training Solutions

Training Solutions

Hydraulics

Training Manual 6

Lubricants & Hydraulic Fluids

EM 1110-2-1424

CECW-ET

Manual
No. 1110-2-1424
Engineering and Design
LUBRICANTS AND HYDRAULIC FLUIDS

Table of Contents

Subject Paragraph Page
Chapter 1
Introduction
Purpose . . . 1-1 1-1
Applicability 1-2 1-1
References . . . 1-3 1-1
Distribution Statement . . . 1-4 1-1
Scope 1-5 1-2

Chapter 2
Lubrication Principles
Friction 2-1 2-1
Wear . . . 2-2 2-4
Lubrication and Lubricants 2-3 2-6
Hydrodynamic or Fluid Film Lubrication 2-4 2-6
Boundary Lubrication 2-5 2-8
Extreme Pressure (EP) Lubrication 2-6 2-9
Elastohydrodynamic (EHD) Lubrication . 2-7 2-9

Chapter 3
Lubricating Oils
Oil Refining . . . 3-1 3-1
Types of Oil 3-2 3-2
Characteristics of Lubricating Oils . . . 3-3 3-4
Oil Classifications and Grading Systems 3-4 3-7

Chapter 4
Hydraulic Fluids
Purpose of Hydraulic Fluids . . . 4-1 4-1
Physical Characteristics . . . 4-2 4-1
Quality Requirements . . . 4-3 4-2
Use of Additives 4-4 4-4
Types of Hydraulic Fluids . . . 4-5 4-4
Cleanliness Requirements . . . 4-6 4-6



i

EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
ii
Subject Paragraph Page
Chapter 5
Grease
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1 5-1
Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2 5-1
Grease Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3 5-2
Fluid Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4 5-5
Soap Thickeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5 5-5
Complex Soap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6 5-6
Additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7 5-6
Types of Greases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-8 5-6
Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-9 5-8
Grease Application Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10 5-8
Chapter 6
Nonfluid Lubrication
Solid Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1 6-1
Self-Lubricating Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2 6-6
Self-Lubricating Bearings for Olmsted Wicket Gates Prototype Tests . . . . . . . . . . 6-3 6-7
Chapter 7
Lubricant Additives
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1 7-1
Surface Additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2 7-1
Performance-Enhancing Additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3 7-3
Lubricant Protective Additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4 7-3
Precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5 7-4
Chapter 8
Environmentally Acceptable Lubricants
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1 8-1
Definition of Environmentally Acceptable (EA) Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2 8-1
Biodegradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3 8-2
Toxicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4 8-3
EA Base Fluids and Additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5 8-3
Properties of Available EA Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6 8-6
Environmentally Acceptable Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7 8-8
Changing from Conventional to EA Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-8 8-8
Survey of Corps Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-9 8-9
USACE Contacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10 8-10
Chapter 9
Gears
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1 9-1
Gear Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2 9-1
Gear Wear and Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-3 9-2
Gear Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-4 9-6
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
iii
Subject Paragraph Page
Chapter 10
Bearings
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1 10-1
Plain Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2 10-1
Rolling-Contact Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-3 10-6
Calculation of Bearing Lubrication Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4 10-12
Chapter 11
Lubrication Applications
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1 11-1
Turbines, Generators, Governors, and Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2 11-1
Main Pumps and Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3 11-5
Gears, Gear Drives, and Speed Reducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4 11-6
Couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-5 11-8
Hoists and Cranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6 11-9
Wire Rope Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7 11-10
Chain Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-8 11-14
Trashrake Systems and Traveling Water Screens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-9 11-17
Gates and Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-10 11-17
Navigation Lock Gates, Culvert Valves, and Dam Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-11 11-24
Information Sources for Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-12 11-26
Chapter 12
Operation and Maintenance Considerations
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1 12-1
Maintenance Schedules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2 12-1
Relative Cost of Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3 12-1
Lubricating Oil Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4 12-4
Hydraulic Oil Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-5 12-5
Transformer and Circuit Breaker Insulating Oil Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-6 12-6
Essential Properties of Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7 12-7
Other Properties of Used Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8 12-8
Oil Monitoring Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-9 12-9
Oil Purification and Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-10 12-14
Oil Operating Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-11 12-21
Lubricant Storage and Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-12 12-22
Safety and Health Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-13 12-28
Environmental Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-14 12-29
Chapter 13
Lubricant Specifications and Selection
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-1 13-1
Lubricant Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-2 13-1
Principles of Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-3 13-4
Specification Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-4 13-9
Lubricant Consolidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-5 13-10
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iv


Appendix A
References

Appendix B
Survey of Locks and Dams for Lubricants

Appendix C
Specification for Turbine Oil

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Chapter 1
Introduction
1-1. Purpose
This manual provides engineering personnel with design guidance to select, specify, inspect, and approve
lubricants and hydraulic fluids used for U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) equipment. It provides
the operation and maintenance staff with guidance for regular and scheduled maintenance. The manual
gives broad-based instructions reflecting established criteria and the latest proven state-of-the-art
technology and techniques to attain better and more economical lubrication.
1-2. Applicability
This manual applies to all USACE commands having civil works responsibility.
1-3. References
Required publications are listed below. Related publications are listed in Appendix A.
a. 21 CFR 178.3570. Lubricants with Incidental Food Contact
b. 29 CFR 1210.1200. Safety and Health Regulations for Workers Engaged in Hazardous Waste
c. 29 CFR 1910.1200. OSHA Communication Standard
d. 40 CFR 110. Discharge of Oil
e. 40 CFR 112. Oil Pollution Prevention
f. 40 CFR 113. Liability Limits for Small Onshore Storage Facilities
g. 48 CFR 9.2. Federal Acquisition Regulation and Qualification Requirements
h. EM 1110-2-3105. Mechanical and Electrical Design of Pumping Stations
i. EM 1110-2-3200. Wire Rope Selection
j. EM 1110-2-4205. Hydroelectric Power Plants, Mechanical Design
k. CEGS 15005. Speed Reducers for Storm Water Pumps
1-4. Distribution Statement
Approved for public release, distribution is unlimited.
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1-5. Scope
a. This manual is intended to be a practical guide to lubrication with enough technical detail to allow
personnel to recognize and easily discern differences in performance properties specified in manufacturers
product literature so that the proper lubricant for a particular application is selected.
b. The manual defines and illustrates friction, wear, and corrosion and how they damage contact
surfaces to cause premature equipment failure. It examines the mechanics of hydrodynamic, boundary,
extreme pressure, and elastohydrodynamic lubrication to protect against surface deterioration. In practice,
manufacturers laboratories can tailor-make a lubricant for any equipment operating under any conditions
by using the right combination of lubricants and additives. This manual describes basic characteristic
properties of oils, hydraulic fluids, greases, solid lubricants, environmentally acceptable lubricants, and
their additives. Separate chapters are devoted to lubricant specification and selection, and requirements of
lubricants for equipment currently in use at USACE civil works facilities. Because conscientious
adherence to lubrication schedules is the best prescription for longevity of component parts, operation and
maintenance considerations are also addressed.
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Chapter 2
Lubrication Principles
2-1. Friction
a. Definition of friction.
(1) Friction is a force that resists relative motion between two surfaces in contact. Depending on the
application, friction may be desirable or undesirable. Certain applications, such as tire traction on
pavement and braking, or when feet are firmly planted to move a heavy object, rely on the beneficial effects
of friction for their effectiveness. In other applications, such as operation of engines or equipment with
bearings and gears, friction is undesirable because it causes wear and generates heat, which frequently lead
to premature failure.
(2) For purposes of this manual, the energy expended in overcoming friction is dispersed as heat and is
considered to be wasted because useful work is not accomplished. This waste heat is a major cause of
excessive wear and premature failure of equipment. Two general cases of friction occur: sliding friction
and rolling friction.
b. Sliding friction.
(1) To visualize sliding friction, imagine a steel block lying on a steel table. Initially a force F
(action) is applied horizontally in an attempt to move the block. If the applied force F is not high enough,
the block will not move because the friction between the block and table resists movement. If the applied
force is increased, eventually it will be sufficient to overcome the frictional resistance force f and the block
will begin to move. At this precise instant, the applied force F is equal to the resisting friction force f and is
referred to as the force of friction.
(2) In mathematical terms, the relation between the normal load L (weight of the block) and the friction
force f is given by the coefficient of friction denoted by the Greek symbol . Note that in the present
context, normal has a different connotation than commonly used. When discussing friction problems,
the normal load refers to a load that is perpendicular to the contacting surfaces. For the example used here,
the normal load is equal to the weight of the block because the block is resting on a horizontal table.
However, if the block were resting on an inclined plane or ramp, the normal load would not equal the
weight of the block, but would depend on the angle of the ramp. Since the intent here is to provide a means
of visualizing friction, the example has been simplified to avoid confusing readers not familiar with statics.
c. Laws of sliding friction. The following friction laws are extracted from the Machinery Handbook,
23rd Revised Edition.
(1) Dry or unlubricated surfaces. Three laws govern the relationship between the frictional force f and
the load or weight L of the sliding object for unlubricated or dry surfaces:
(a) For low pressures (normal force per unit area) the friction force is directly proportional to the
normal load between the two surfaces. As the pressure increases, the friction does not rise proportionally;
but when the pressure become abnormally high, the friction increases at a rapid rate until seizing takes
place.
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(b) The value of f/L is defined as the coefficient of friction . The friction both in its total amount
and its coefficient is independent of the area of contact, so long as the normal force remains the same. This
is true for moderate pressures only. For high pressures, this law is modified in the same way as the first
case.
(c) At very low velocities, the friction force is independent of the velocity of rubbing. As the
velocities increase, the friction decreases.
The third law (c) implies that the force required to set a body in motion is the same as the force required to
keep it in motion, but this is not true. Once a body is in motion, the force required to maintain motion is
less than the force required to initiate motion and there is some dependency on velocity. These facts reveal
two categories of friction: static and kinetic. Static friction is the force required to initiate motion (F ).
s
Kinetic or dynamic friction is the force required to maintain motion (F ).
k
(2) Lubricated surfaces. The friction laws for well lubricated surfaces are considerably different than
those for dry surfaces, as follows:
(a) The frictional resistance is almost independent of the pressure (normal force per unit area) if the
surfaces are flooded with oil.
(b) The friction varies directly as the speed, at low pressures; but for high pressures the friction is
very great at low velocities, approaching a minimum at about 2 ft/sec linear velocity, and afterwards
increasing approximately as the square root of the speed.
(c) For well lubricated surfaces the frictional resistance depends, to a very great extent, on the
temperature, partly because of the change in viscosity of the oil and partly because, for journal bearings,
the diameter of the bearing increases with the rise in temperature more rapidly than the diameter of the
shaft, thus relieving the bearing of side pressure.
(d) If the bearing surfaces are flooded with oil, the friction is almost independent of the nature of the
material of the surfaces in contact. As the lubrication becomes less ample, the coefficient of friction
becomes more dependent upon the material of the surfaces.
(3) The coefficient of friction. The coefficient of friction depends on the type of material. Tables
showing the coefficient of friction of various materials and combinations of materials are available.
Common sources for these tables are Marks Mechanical Engineering Handbooks and Machinerys
Handbook. The tables show the coefficient of friction for clean dry surfaces and lubricated surfaces. It is
important to note that the coefficients shown in these tables can vary.
(4) Asperities. Regardless of how smooth a surface may appear, it has many small irregularities called
asperities. In cases where a surface is extremely rough, the contacting points are significant, but when the
surface is fairly smooth, the contacting points have a very modest effect. The real or true surface area
refers to the area of the points in direct contact. This area is considerably less than the apparent geometric
area.
(5) Adhesion. Adhesion occurs at the points of contact and refers to the welding effect that occurs
when two bodies are compressed against each other. This effect is more commonly referred to as cold
welding and is attributed to pressure rather than heat, which is associated with welding in the more
familiar sense. A shearing force is required to separate cold-welded surfaces.
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(6) Shear strength and pressure. As previously noted, the primary objective of lubrication is to reduce
friction and wear of sliding surfaces. This objective is achieved by introducing a material with a low shear
strength or coefficient of friction between the wearing surfaces. Although nature provides such materials in
the form of oxides and other contaminants, the reduction in friction due to their presence is insufficient for
machinery operation. For these conditions, a second relationship is used to define the coefficient of friction:
= S/P, where S is the shear strength of the material and P is pressure (or force) contributing to
compression. This relationship shows that the coefficient of friction is a function of the force required to
shear a material.
(7) Stick-slip. To the unaided eye the motion of sliding objects appears steady. In reality this motion
is jerky or intermittent because the objects slow during shear periods and accelerate following the shear.
This process is continuously repeated while the objects are sliding. During shear periods, the static friction
force F controls the speed. Once shearing is completed, the kinetic friction force F controls the speed and
s k
the object accelerates. This effect is known as stick-slip. In well lubricated machinery operated at the
proper speed, stick-slip is insignificant, but it is responsible for the squeaking or chatter sometimes heard in
machine operation. Machines that operate over long sliding surfaces, such as the ways of a lathe, are
subject to stick-slip. To prevent stick-slip, lubricants are provided with additives to make F less than F .
s k
d. Rolling friction.
(1) When a body rolls on a surface, the force resisting the motion is termed rolling friction or rolling
resistance. Experience shows that much less force is required to roll an object than to slide or drag it.
Because force is required to initiate and maintain rolling motion, there must be a definite but small amount
of friction involved. Unlike the coefficient of sliding friction, the coefficient of rolling friction varies with
conditions and has a dimension expressed in units of length.
(2) Ideally, a rolling sphere or cylinder will make contact with a flat surface at a single point or along a
line (in the case of a cylinder). In reality, the area of contact is slightly larger than a point or line due to
elastic deformation of either the rolling object or the flat surface, or both. Much of the friction is attributed
to elastic hysteresis. A perfectly elastic object will spring back immediately after relaxation of the
deformation. In reality, a small but definite amount of time is required to restore the object to original
shape. As a result, energy is not entirely returned to the object or surface but is retained and converted to
heat. The source of this energy is, in part, the rolling frictional force.
(3) A certain amount of slippage (which is the equivalent of sliding friction) occurs in rolling friction.
If the friction of an unhoused rolling object is measured, slippage effects are minimal. However, in
practical applications such as a housed ball or roller bearing, slippage occurs and contributes to rolling
friction. Neglecting slippage, rolling friction is very small compared to sliding friction.
e. Laws of rolling friction. The laws for sliding friction cannot be applied to rolling bodies in equally
quantitative terms, but the following generalities can be given:
(1) The rolling friction force F is proportional to the load L and inversely proportional to the radius of
curvature r, or F = L/r, where is the coefficient of rolling resistance, in meters (inches). As the radius
r r
increases, the frictional force decreases.
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(2) The rolling friction force F can be expressed as a fractional power of the load L times a constant k,
or F = kL where the constant k and the power n must be determined experimentally.
n
(3) The friction force F decreases as the smoothness of the rolling element improves.
2-2. Wear
Wear is defined as the progressive damage resulting in material loss due to relative contact between
adjacent working parts. Although some wear is to be expected during normal operation of equipment,
excessive friction causes premature wear, and this creates significant economic costs due to equipment
failure, cost for replacement parts, and downtime. Friction and wear also generate heat, which represents
wasted energy that is not recoverable. In other words, wear is also responsible for overall loss in system
efficiency.
a. Wear and surface damage. The wear rate of a sliding or rolling contact is defined as the volume
of material lost from the wearing surface per unit of sliding length, and is expressed in units of [length] .
2
For any specific sliding application, the wear rate depends on the normal load, the relative sliding speed, the
initial temperature, and the mechanical, thermal, and chemical properties of the materials in contact.
(1) The effects of wear are commonly detected by visual inspection of surfaces. Surface damage can
be classified as follows:
(a) Surface damage without exchange of material:
! Structural changes: aging, tempering, phase transformations, and recrystallization.
! Plastic deformation: residual deformation of the surface layer.
! Surface cracking: fractures caused by excessive contact strains or cyclic variations of thermally or
mechanically induced strains.
(b) Surface damage with loss of material (wear):
! Characterized by wear scars of various shapes and sizes.
! Can be shear fracture, extrusion, chip formation, tearing, brittle fracture, fatigue fracture, chemical
dissolution, and diffusion.
(c) Surface damage with gain of material:
! Can include pickup of loose particles and transfer of material from the opposing surface.
! Corrosion: Material degradation by chemical reactions with ambient elements or elements from the
opposing surface.

(2) Wear may also be classified as mild or severe. The distinguishing characteristics between mild and
severe wear are as follows (Williams 1994):
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(a) Mild
! Produces extremely smooth surfaces - sometimes smoother than the original.
! Debris is extremely small, typically in the range of 100 nanometers (nm) (3.28 10 ft)
-13
in diameter.
! High electrical contact resistance, but little true metallic contact.
(b) Severe
! Rough, deeply torn surfaces - much rougher than the original.
! Large metallic wear debris, typically up to 0.01 mm (3.28 10 ft) in diameter.
-5
! Low contact resistance, but true metallic junctions are formed.
b. Types of wear. Ordinarily, wear is thought of only in terms of abrasive wear occurring in
connection with sliding motion and friction. However, wear also can result from adhesion, fatigue, or
corrosion.
(1) Abrasive wear. Abrasive wear occurs when a hard surface slides against and cuts grooves from a
softer surface. This condition is frequently referred to as two-body abrasion. Particles cut from the softer
surface or dust and dirt introduced between wearing surfaces also contribute to abrasive wear. This
condition is referred to as three-body abrasion.
(2) Adhesive wear. Adhesive wear frequently occurs because of shearing at points of contact or
asperities that undergo adhesion or cold welding, as previously described. Shearing occurs through the
weakest section, which is not necessarily at the adhesion plane. In many cases, shearing occurs in the
softer material, but such a comparison is based on shear tests of relatively large pure samples. The
adhesion junctions, on the other hand, are very small spots of weakness or impurity that would be
insignificant in a large specimen but in practice may be sufficient to permit shearing through the harder
material. In some instances the wearing surfaces of materials with different hardness can contain traces of
material from the other face. Theoretically, this type of wear does not remove material but merely transfers
it between wearing surfaces. However, the transferred material is often loosely deposited and eventually
flakes away in microscopic particles; these, in turn, cause wear.
(3) Pitting wear.
(a) Pitting wear is due to surface failure of a material as a result of stresses that exceed the endurance
(fatigue) limit of the material. Metal fatigue is demonstrated by bending a piece of metal wire, such as a
paper clip, back and forth until it breaks. Whenever a metal shape is deformed repeatedly, it eventually
fails. A different type of deformation occurs when a ball bearing under a load rolls along its race. The
bearing is flattened somewhat and the edges of contact are extended outward. This repeated flexing
eventually results in microscopic flakes being removed from the bearing. Fatigue wear also occurs during
sliding motion. Gear teeth frequently fail due to pitting.
(b) While pitting is generally viewed as a mode of failure, some pitting wear is not detrimental.
During the break-in period of new machinery, friction wears down working surface irregularities. This
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2-6
condition is considered to be nonprogressive and usually improves after the break-in period. However,
parts that are continuously subjected to repeated stress will experience destructive pitting as the materials
endurance limit is reached.
(4) Corrosive wear.
(a) Corrosive wear occurs as a result of a chemical reaction on a wearing surface. The most common
form of corrosion is due to a reaction between the metal and oxygen (oxidation); however, other chemicals
may also contribute. Corrosion products, usually oxides, have shear strengths different from those of the
wearing surface metals from which they were formed. The oxides tend to flake away, resulting in the
pitting of' wearing surfaces. Ball and roller bearings depend on extremely smooth surfaces to reduce
frictional effects. Corrosive pitting is especially detrimental to these bearings.
(b) American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Standard ANSI/AGMA 1010-E95 provides
numerous illustrations of wear in gears and includes detailed discussions of the types of wear mentioned
above and more. Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) Report EPRI GS-7352 provides illustrations of
bearing failures.
(c) Normal wear is inevitable whenever there is relative motion between surfaces. However, wear can
be reduced by appropriate machinery design, precision machining, material selection, and proper
maintenance, including lubrication. The remainder of this manual is devoted to discussions on the
fundamental principles of lubrication that are necessary to reduce wear.
2-3. Lubrication and Lubricants
a. Purpose of lubrication. The primary purpose of lubrication is to reduce wear and heat between
contacting surfaces in relative motion. While wear and heat cannot be completely eliminated, they can be
reduced to negligible or acceptable levels. Because heat and wear are associated with friction, both effects
can be minimized by reducing the coefficient of friction between the contacting surfaces. Lubrication is
also used to reduce oxidation and prevent rust; to provide insulation in transformer applications; to transmit
mechanical power in hydraulic fluid power applications; and to seal against dust, dirt, and water.
b. Lubricants. Reduced wear and heat are achieved by inserting a lower-viscosity (shear strength)
material between wearing surfaces that have a relatively high coefficient of friction. In effect, the wearing
surfaces are replaced by a material with a more desirable coefficient of friction. Any material used to
reduce friction in this way is a lubricant. Lubricants are available in liquid, solid, and gaseous forms.
Industrial machinery ordinarily uses oil or grease. Solid lubricants such as molybdenum disulfide or
graphite are used when the loading at contact points is heavy. In some applications the wearing surfaces of
a material are plated with a different metal to reduce friction.
2-4. Hydrodynamic or Fluid Film Lubrication
a. General. In heavily loaded bearings such as thrust bearings and horizontal journal bearings, the
fluid's viscosity alone is not sufficient to maintain a film between the moving surfaces. In these bearings
higher fluid pressures are required to support the load until the fluid film is established. If this pressure is
supplied by an outside source, it is called hydrostatic lubrication. If the pressure is generated internally,
that is, within the bearing by dynamic action, it is referred to as hydrodynamic lubrication. In
hydrodynamic lubrication, a fluid wedge is formed by the relative surface motion of the journals or the
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thrust runners over their respective bearing surfaces. The guide bearings of a vertical hydroelectric
generator, if properly aligned, have little or no loading and will tend to operate in the center of the bearing
because of the viscosity of the oil.
b. Thrust bearings.
(1) In hydrodynamic lubrication, sometimes referred to as fluid film lubrication, the wearing surfaces
are completely separated by a film of oil. This type of lubricating action is similar to a speedboat operating
on water. When the boat is not moving, it rests on the supporting water surface. As the boat begins to
move, it meets a certain amount of resistance or opposing force due to viscosity of the water. This causes
the leading edge of the boat to lift slightly and allows a small amount of water to come between it and
supporting water surface. As the boats velocity increases, the wedge-shaped water film increases in
thickness until a constant velocity is attained. When the velocity is constant, water entering under the
leading edge equals the amount passing outward from the trailing edge. For the boat to remain above the
supporting surface there must be an upward pressure that equals the load.
(2) The same principle can be applied to a sliding surface. Fluid film lubrication reduces friction
between moving surfaces by substituting fluid friction for mechanical friction. To visualize the shearing
effect taking place in the fluid film, imagine the film is composed of many layers similar to a deck of cards.
The fluid layer in contact with the moving surface clings to that surface and both move at the same
velocity. Similarly, the fluid layer in contact with the other surface is stationary. The layers in between
move at velocities directly proportional to their distance from the moving surface. For example, at a
distance of h from Surface 1, the velocity would be V. The force F required to move Surface 1 across
Surface 2 is simply the force required to overcome the friction between the layers of fluid. This internal
friction, or resistance to flow, is defined as the viscosity of the fluid. Viscosity will be discussed in more
detail later.
(3) The principle of hydrodynamic lubrication can also be applied to a more practical example related
to thrust bearings used in the hydropower industry. Thrust bearing assembly is also known as tilting pad
bearings. These bearings are designed to allow the pads to lift and tilt properly and provide sufficient area
to lift the load of the generator. As the thrust runner moves over the thrust shoe, fluid adhering to the
runner is drawn between the runner and the shoe causing the shoe to pivot, and forming a wedge of oil. As
the speed of the runner increases, the pressure of the oil wedge increases and the runner is lifted as full fluid
film lubrication takes place. In applications where the loads are very high, some thrust bearings have high
pressure-pumps to provide the initial oil film. Once the unit reaches 100 percent speed, the pump is
switched off.
c. Journal bearings. Although not as obvious as the plate or thrust bearing examples above, the
operation of journal or sleeve bearings is also an example of hydrodynamic lubrication. When the journal
is at rest, the weight of the journal squeezes out the oil film so that the journal rests on the bearing surface.
As rotation starts, the journal has a tendency to roll up the side of the bearing. At the same time fluid
adhering to the journal is drawn into the contact area. As the journal speed increases an oil wedge is
formed. The pressure of the oil wedge increases until the journal is lifted off the bearing. The journal is
not only lifted vertically, but is also pushed to the side by the pressure of the oil wedge. The minimum fluid
film thickness at full speed will occur at a point just to the left of center and not at the bottom of the
bearing. In both the pivoting shoe thrust bearing and the horizontal journal bearing, the minimum thickness
of the fluid film increases with an increase in fluid viscosity and surface speed and decreases with an
increase in load.
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d. Film thickness. The preceding discussion is a very simplified attempt to provide a basic
description of the principles involved in hydrodynamic lubrication. For a more precise, rigorous
interpretation refer to American Society for Metals Handbook Volume 18, listed in the Appendix A.
Simplified equations have been developed to provide approximations of film thickness with a considerable
degree of precision. Regardless of how film thickness is calculated, it is a function of viscosity, velocity,
and load. As viscosity or velocity increases, the film thickness increases. When these two variables
decrease, the film thickness also decreases. Film thickness varies inversely with the load; as the load
increases, film thickness decreases. Viscosity, velocity, and operating temperature are also interrelated. If
the oil viscosity is increased the operating temperature will increase, and this in turn has a tendency to
reduce viscosity. Thus, an increase in viscosity tends to neutralize itself somewhat. Velocity increases also
cause temperature increases that subsequently result in viscosity reduction.
e. Factors influencing film formation. The following factors are essential to achieve and maintain
the fluid film required for hydrodynamic lubrication:
! The contact surfaces must meet at a slight angle to allow formation of the lubricant wedge.
! The fluid viscosity must be high enough to support the load and maintain adequate film thickness
to separate the contacting surfaces at operating speeds.
! The fluid must adhere to the contact surfaces for conveyance into the pressure area to support the
load.
! The fluid must distribute itself completely within the bearing clearance area.
! The operating speed must be sufficient to allow formation and maintenance of the fluid film.
! The contact surfaces of bearings and journals must be smooth and free of sharp surfaces that will
disrupt the fluid film.
Theoretically, hydrodynamic lubrication reduces wear to zero. In reality, the journal tends to move
vertically and horizontally due to load changes or other disturbances and some wear does occur. However,
hydrodynamic lubrication reduces sliding friction and wear to acceptable levels.
2-5. Boundary Lubrication
a. Definition of boundary lubrication. When a complete fluid film does not develop between
potentially rubbing surfaces, the film thickness may be reduced to permit momentary dry contact between
wear surface high points or asperities. This condition is characteristic of boundary lubrication. Boundary
lubrication occurs whenever any of the essential factors that influence formation of a full fluid film are
missing. The most common example of boundary lubrication includes bearings, which normally operate
with fluid film lubrication but experience boundary lubricating conditions during routine starting and
stopping of equipment. Other examples include gear tooth contacts and reciprocating equipment.
b. Oiliness.
(1) Lubricants required to operate under boundary lubrication conditions must possess an added
quality referred to as oiliness or lubricity to lower the coefficient of friction of the oil between the
rubbing surfaces. Oiliness is an oil enhancement property provided through the use of chemical additives
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2-9
known as antiwear (AW) agents. AW agents have a polarizing property that enables them to behave in a
manner similar to a magnet. Like a magnet, the opposite sides of the oil film have different polarities.
When an AW oil adheres to the metal wear surfaces, the sides of the oil film not in contact with the metal
surface have identical polarities and tend to repel each other and form a plane of slippage. Most oils
intended for use in heavier machine applications contain AW agents.
(2) Examples of equipment that rely exclusively on boundary lubrication include reciprocating
equipment such as engine and compressor pistons, and slow-moving equipment such as turbine wicket
gates. Gear teeth also rely on boundary lubrication to a great extent.

2-6. Extreme Pressure (EP) Lubrication
a. Definition. AW agents are effective only up to a maximum temperature of about 250 EC (480 EF).
Unusually heavy loading will cause the oil temperature to increase beyond the effective range of the
antiwear protection. When the load limit is exceeded, the pressure becomes too great and asperities make
contact with greater force. Instead of sliding, asperities along the wear surfaces experience shearing,
removing the lubricant and the oxide coating. Under these conditions the coefficient of friction is greatly
increased and the temperature rises to a damaging level.
b. Extreme pressure additives. Applications under extreme pressure conditions rely on additives.
Lubricants containing additives that protect against extreme pressure are called EP lubricants, and oils
containing additives to protect against extreme pressure are classified as EP oils. EP lubrication is
provided by a number of chemical compounds. The most common are compounds of boron, phosphorus,
sulfur, chlorine, or combinations of these. The compounds are activated by the higher temperature
resulting from extreme pressure, not by the pressure itself. As the temperature rises, EP molecules become
reactive and release derivatives of phosphorus, chlorine, or sulfur (depending on which compound is used)
to react with only the exposed metal surfaces to form a new compound such as iron chloride or iron sulfide.
The new compound forms a solid protective coating that fills the asperities on the exposed metal. Thus, the
protection is deposited at exactly the sites where it is needed. AW agents in the EP oil continue to provide
antiwear protection at sites where wear and temperature are not high enough to activate the EP agents.
2-7. Elastohydrodynamic (EHD) Lubrication
a. Definition of EHD lubrication. The lubrication principles applied to rolling bodies, such as ball or
roller bearings, is known as elastohydrodynamic (EHD) lubrication.
b. Rolling body lubrication. Although lubrication of rolling objects operates on a considerably
different principle than sliding objects, the principles of hydrodynamic lubrication can be applied, within
limits, to explain lubrication of rolling elements. An oil wedge, similar to that which occurs in
hydrodynamic lubrication, exists at the lower leading edge of the bearing. Adhesion of oil to the sliding
element and the supporting surface increases pressure and creates a film between the two bodies. Because
the area of contact is extremely small in a roller and ball bearing, the force per unit area, or load pressure,
is extremely high. Roller bearing load pressures may reach 34,450 kPa (5000 lb/sq in) and ball bearing
load pressures may reach 689,000 kPa (1,000,000 lb/sq in). Under these pressures, it would appear that
the oil would be entirely squeezed from between the wearing surfaces. However, viscosity increases that
occur under extremely high pressure prevent the oil from being entirely squeezed out. Consequently, a thin
film of oil is maintained.
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c. Effect of film thickness and roughness.
(1) The roughness of the wearing surfaces is an important consideration in EHD lubrication.
Roughness is defined as the arithmetic average of the distance between the high and low points of a surface,
and is sometimes called the centerline average (CLA).
(2) As film thickness increases in relation to roughness fewer asperities make contact. Engineers use
the ratio of film thickness to surface roughness to estimate the life expectancy of a bearing system. The
relation of bearing life to this ratio is very complex and not always predictable. In general, life expectancy
is extended as the ratio increases. Full film thickness is considered to exist when the value of this ratio is
between 2 and 4. When this condition prevails, fatigue failure is due entirely to subsurface stress.
However, in most industrial applications, a ratio between 1 and 2 is achieved. At these values surface
stresses occur, and asperities undergo stress and contribute to fatigue as a major source of failure in
antifriction bearings.
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Chapter 3
Lubricating Oils
3-1. Oil Refining
Most lubricating oils are currently obtained from distillation of crude petroleum. Due to the wide variety of
petroleum constituents, it is necessary to separate petroleum into portions (fractions) with roughly the same
qualities.
a. General scheme of the refining process. The refining process can be briefly described as follows:
(1) Crudes are segregated and selected depending on the types of hydrocarbons in them.
(2) The selected crudes are distilled to produce fractions. A fraction is a portion of the crude that falls
into a specified boiling point range.
(3) Each fraction is processed to remove undesirable components. The processing may include:
! Solvent refining to remove undesirable compounds.
! Solvent dewaxing to remove compounds that form crystalline materials at low temperature.
! Catalytic hydrogenation to eliminate compounds that would easily oxidize.
! Clay percolation to remove polar substances.
(4) The various fractions are blended to obtain a finished product with the specified viscosity.
Additives may be introduced to improve desired characteristics. The various types of and uses for
additives are discussed in Chapter 7.
b. Separation into fractions. Separation is accomplished by a two-stage process: crude distillation
and residuum distillation.
(1) Crude distillation. In the first stage the crude petroleum is mixed with water to dissolve any salt.
The resulting brine is separated by settling. The remaining oil is pumped through a tubular furnace where
it is partially vaporized. The components that have a low number of carbon atoms vaporize and pass into a
fractionating column or tower. As the vapors rise in the column, cooling causes condensation. By
controlling the temperature, the volatile components may be separated into fractions that fall within
particular boiling point ranges. In general, compounds with the lowest boiling points have the fewest
carbon atoms and compounds with the highest boiling points have the greatest number of carbon atoms.
This process reduces the number of compounds within each fraction and provides different qualities. The
final products derived from this first-stage distillation process are raw gasoline, kerosene, and diesel fuel.
(2) Residuum distillation. The second-stage process involves distilling the portion of the first-stage
that did not volatilize. Lubricating oils are obtained from this portion, which is referred to as the residuum.
To prevent formation of undesired products, the residuum is distilled under vacuum so it will boil at a
lower temperature. Distillation of the residuum produces oils of several boiling point ranges. The higher
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the boiling point, the higher the carbon content of the oil molecules in a given range. More importantly,
viscosity also varies with the boiling point and the number of carbon atoms in the oil molecules.
c. Impurity removal. Once the oil is separated into fractions, it must be further treated to remove
impurities, waxy resins, and asphalt. Oils that have been highly refined are usually referred to as premium
grades to distinguish them from grades of lesser quality in the producer's line of products. However, there
are no criteria to establish what constitutes premium grade.
3-2. Types of Oil
Oils are generally classified as refined and synthetic. Paraffinic and naphthenic oils are refined from crude
oil while synthetic oils are manufactured. Literature on lubrication frequently makes references to long-
chain molecules and ring structures in connection with paraffinic and naphthenic oils, respectively. These
terms refer to the arrangement of hydrogen and carbon atoms that make up the molecular structure of the
oils. Discussion of the chemical structure of oils is beyond the scope of this manual, but the distinguishing
characteristics between these oils are noted below.
a. Paraffinic oils. Paraffinic oils are distinguished by a molecular structure composed of long chains
of hydrocarbons, i.e., the hydrogen and carbon atoms are linked in a long linear series similar to a chain.
Paraffinic oils contain paraffin wax and are the most widely used base stock for lubricating oils. In
comparison with naphthenic oils, paraffinic oils have:
! Excellent stability (higher resistance to oxidation).
! Higher pour point.
! Higher viscosity index.
! Low volatility and, consequently, high flash points.
! Low specific gravities.
b. Naphthenic oils. In contrast to paraffinic oils, naphthenic oils are distinguished by a molecular
structure composed of rings of hydrocarbons, i.e., the hydrogen and carbon atoms are linked in a circular
pattern. These oils do not contain wax and behave differently than paraffinic oils. Naphthenic oils have:
! Good stability.
! Lower pour point due to absence of wax.
! Lower viscosity indexes.
! Higher volatility (lower flash point).
! Higher specific gravities.
Naphthenic oils are generally reserved for applications with narrow temperature ranges and where a low
pour point is required.
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c. Synthetic oils.
(1) Synthetic lubricants are produced from chemical synthesis rather than from the refinement of
existing petroleum or vegetable oils. These oils are generally superior to petroleum (mineral) lubricants in
most circumstances. Synthetic oils perform better than mineral oils in the following respects:
! Better oxidation stability or resistance.
! Better viscosity index.
! Much lower pour point, as low as -46 EC (-50 EF).
! Lower coefficient of friction.
(2) The advantages offered by synthetic oils are most notable at either very low or very high
temperatures. Good oxidation stability and a lower coefficient of friction permits operation at higher
temperatures. The better viscosity index and lower pour points permit operation at lower temperatures.
(3) The major disadvantage to synthetic oils is the initial cost, which is approximately three times
higher than mineral-based oils. However, the initial premium is usually recovered over the life of the
product, which is about three times longer than conventional lubricants. The higher cost makes it
inadvisable to use synthetics in oil systems experiencing leakage.
(4) Plant Engineering magazines Exclusive Guide to Synthetic Lubricants, which is revised every
three years, provides information on selecting and applying these lubricants. Factors to be considered when
selecting synthetic oils include pour and flash points; demulsibility; lubricity; rust and corrosion protection;
thermal and oxidation stability; antiwear properties; compatibility with seals, paints, and other oils; and
compliance with testing and standard requirements. Unlike Plant Engineering magazines Chart of
Interchangeable Lubricants, it is important to note that synthetic oils are as different from each other as
they are from mineral oils. Their performance and applicability to any specific situation depends on the
quality of the synthetic base-oil and additive package, and the synthetic oils listed in Plant Engineering are
not necessarily interchangeable.
d. Synthetic lubricant categories.
(1) Several major categories of synthetic lubricants are available including:
(a) Synthesized hydrocarbons. Polyalphaolefins and dialkylated benzenes are the most common types.
These lubricants provide performance characteristics closest to mineral oils and are compatible with them.
Applications include engine and turbine oils, hydraulic fluids, gear and bearing oils, and compressor oils.
(b) Organic esters. Diabasic acid and polyol esters are the most common types. The properties of
these oils are easily enhanced through additives. Applications include crankcase oils and compressor
lubricants.
(c) Phosphate esters. These oils are suited for fire-resistance applications.
(d) Polyglycols. Applications include gears, bearings, and compressors for hydrocarbon gases.
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(e) Silicones. These oils are chemically inert, nontoxic, fire-resistant, and water repellant. They also
have low pour points and volatility, good low-temperature fluidity, and good oxidation and thermal stability
at high temperatures.
(2) Table 3-1 identifies several synthetic oils and their properties.
3-3. Characteristics of Lubricating Oils
a. Viscosity. Technically, the viscosity of an oil is a measure of the oils resistance to shear.
Viscosity is more commonly known as resistance to flow. If a lubricating oil is considered as a series of
fluid layers superimposed on each other, the viscosity of the oil is a measure of the resistance to flow
between the individual layers. A high viscosity implies a high resistance to flow while a low viscosity
indicates a low resistance to flow. Viscosity varies inversely with temperature. Viscosity is also affected
by pressure; higher pressure causes the viscosity to increase, and subsequently the load-carrying capacity
of the oil also increases. This property enables use of thin oils to lubricate heavy machinery. The load-
carrying capacity also increases as operating speed of the lubricated machinery is increased. Two methods
for measuring viscosity are commonly employed: shear and time.
(1) Shear. When viscosity is determined by directly measuring shear stress and shear rate, it is
expressed in centipoise (cP) and is referred to as the absolute or dynamic viscosity. In the oil industry, it is
more common to use kinematic viscosity, which is the absolute viscosity divided by the density of the oil
being tested. Kinematic viscosity is expressed in centistokes (cSt). Viscosity in centistokes is
conventionally given at two standard temperatures: 40 EC and 100 EC (104 EF and 212 EF ).
(2) Time. Another method used to determine oil viscosity measures the time required for an oil sample
to flow through a standard orifice at a standard temperature. Viscosity is then expressed in SUS (Saybolt
Universal Seconds). SUS viscosities are also conventionally given at two standard temperatures: 37 EC
and 98 EC (100 EF and 210 EF). As previously noted, the units of viscosity can be expressed as centipoise
(cP), centistokes (cST), or Saybolt Universal Seconds (SUS), depending on the actual test method used to
measure the viscosity.
b. Viscosity index. The viscosity index, commonly designated VI, is an arbitrary numbering scale
that indicates the changes in oil viscosity with changes in temperature. Viscosity index can be classified as
follows: low VI - below 35; medium VI - 35 to 80; high VI - 80 to 110; very high VI - above 110. A high
viscosity index indicates small oil viscosity changes with temperature. A low viscosity index indicates high
viscosity changes with temperature. Therefore, a fluid that has a high viscosity index can be expected to
undergo very little change in viscosity with temperature extremes and is considered to have a stable
viscosity. A fluid with a low viscosity index can be expected to undergo a significant change in viscosity as
the temperature fluctuates. For a given temperature range, say -18 to 370EC ( 0 - 100 EF), the viscosity of
one oil may change considerably more than another. An oil with a VI of 95 to 100 would change less than
one with a VI of 80. Knowing the viscosity index of an oil is crucial when selecting a lubricant for an
application, and is especially critical in extremely hot or cold climates. Failure to use an oil with the
proper viscosity index when temperature extremes are expected may result in poor lubrication and
equipment failure. Typically, paraffinic oils are rated at 38 EC ( 100 EF) and naphthenic oils are rated at
-18 EC (0 EF). Proper selection of petroleum stocks and additives can produce oils with a very good VI.
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Table 3-1
Synthetic Oils
Fluid Property Di-ester Ester Esters Silicone Silicone Silicone (inhibited) Polyether
Typical Typical Phenyl Chlorinated
Phosphate Inhibited Methyl Methyl Phenyl Methyl Polyglycol Perfluorinate
Typical
Maximum temperature in 250 300 110 220 320 305 260 370
absence of oxygen (EC)
Maximum temperature in 210 240 110 180 250 230 200 310
presence of oxygen (EC)
Maximum temperature due to 150 180 100 200 250 280 200 300
decrease in viscosity (EC)
Minimum temperature due to -35 -65 -55 -50 -30 -65 -20 -60
increase in viscosity (EC)
Density (g/ml) 0.91 1.01 1.12 0.97 1.06 1.04 1.02 1.88
Viscosity index 145 140 0 200 175 195 160 100-300
Flash point (EC) 230 255 200 310 290 270 180
Spontaneous ignition Low Medium Very high High High Very high Medium Very high
temperature
Thermal conductivity 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.16 0.15 0.15 0.15
(W/M EC)
Thermal capacity (J/kg EC) 2,000 1,700 1,600 1,550 1,550 1,550 2,000
Bulk modulus Medium Medium Medium Very low Low Low Medium Low
Boundary lubrication Good Good Very good for steel on poor for Good Very good Poor
Fair, but poor Fair, but
steel steel on
steel
Toxicity Slight Slight Some Nontoxic Nontoxic Nontoxic Believed Low
toxicity to be low
Suitable rubbers Nitrile, Silicone Butyl, EPR Neoprene, Neoprene, Viton, fluoro- Nitrile Many
silicone viton viton silicone
Effect on plastics May act as plasticizers Powerful may leach may leach may leach out mild
solvent out out plasti- plasticizers
Slight, but Slight, but Slight, but Generally Mild
plasticizers cizers
Resistance to attack by water Good Good Fair Very good Very good Good Good Very good
Resistance to chemicals Attacked by Attacked by Attacked by Attacked by Attacked by Attacked by Attacked by Very good
alkali alkali many strong alkali strong alkali alkali oxidants
chemicals
Effect on metals to Non- ferrous in presence water to ferrous at elevated
Slightly Corrosive to Enhanced Non- Non- Corrosive in Non- Removes
corrosive some Non- corrosion corrosive corrosive presence of corrosive oxide films
ferrous metals of water metals temperatures
metals when hot
Cost (relative to mineral oil) 4 6 6 15 25 40 4 500
Note: Application data for a variety of synthetic oils are given in this table. The list is not complete, but most readily available synthetic oils are included.
The data are generalizations, and no account has been taken of the availability and property variations of different viscosity grades in each chemical type.
Reference: Neale, M.J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook
(Continued)
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Table 3-1 (Continued)
Fluid Property Diphenyl or Disiloxame Ether Fluorocarbon comparison) Remark
Chlorinated Silicate Ester Polyphenyl Mineral Oil (for
Maximum temperature in 315 300 450 300 200 For esters this temperature will be
absence of oxygen (EC) higher in the absence of metals
Maximum temperature in 145 200 320 300 150 This limit is arbitrary. It will be
absence of oxygen (EC) higher if oxygen concentration is
low and life is short
Maximum temperature due 100 240 150 140 200 With external pressurization or low
to decrease in viscosity (EC) loads this limit will be higher
Minimum temperature due -10 -60 0 -50 0 to -50 This limit depends on the power
to decrease in viscosity (EC) available to overcome the effect of
increased viscosity
Density (g/ml) 1.42 1.02 1.19 1.95 0.88
Viscosity index -200 to +25 150 -60 -25 0 to 140 A high viscosity index is desirable
Flash point (EC) 180 170 275 None 150 to 200 Above this temperature the vapor of
the fluid may be ignited by an open
flame
Spontaneous ignition Very high Medium High Very high Low Above this temperature the fluid
temperature may ignite without any flame being
present
Thermal conductivity 0.12 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.13 A high thermal conductivity and
(W/mE C) high thermal capacity are desirable
Thermal capacity (J/kgE C) 1,200 1,700 1,750 1,350 2,000 for effective cooling
Bulk modulus Medium Low Medium Low Fairly high There are four different values of
bulk modulus for each fluid but the
relative qualities are consistent
Boundary lubrication Very good Fair Fair Very good Good This refers primarily to antiwear
properties when some metal
contact is occurring
Toxicity Irritant vapor Slight Believed to Nontoxic unless Slight Specialist advice should always be
when hot be low overheated taken on toxic hazards
Suitable rubbers Viton Viton nitrile, (None for Silicone Nitrile
floro-silicone very high
tempera-
tures)
Effect on plastics Powerful Generally mild Polyimides Some soften- Generally slight
solvent satisfactory ing when hot
Resistance to attack by water Excellent Poor Very good Excellent Excellent This refers to breakdown of the fluid
itself and not the effect of water on
the system
Resistance to chemicals Very resistant Generally poor Resistant Resistant but Very resistant
attacked by
alkali and
amines
Effect on metals Some Noncorrosive Noncorrosive Noncorrosive, Noncorrosive
corrosion of but unsafe with when pure
copper alloys aluminum and
magnesium
Cost (relative to mineral oil) 10 8 100 300 1 These are rough approximations
and vary with quality and supply
position
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c. Pour point. The pour point is the lowest temperature at which an oil will flow. This property is
crucial for oils that must flow at low temperatures. A commonly used rule of thumb when selecting oils is
to ensure that the pour point is at least 10 EC (20 EF) lower than the lowest anticipated ambient
temperature.
d. Cloud point. The cloud point is the temperature at which dissolved solids in the oil, such as
paraffin wax, begin to form and separate from the oil. As the temperature drops, wax crystallizes and
becomes visible. Certain oils must be maintained at temperatures above the cloud point to prevent clogging
of filters.
e. Flash point and fire point. The flash point is the lowest temperature to which a lubricant must be
heated before its vapor, when mixed with air, will ignite but not continue to burn. The fire point is the
temperature at which lubricant combustion will be sustained. The flash and fire points are useful in
determining a lubricants volatility and fire resistance. The flash point can be used to determine the
transportation and storage temperature requirements for lubricants. Lubricant producers can also use the
flash point to detect potential product contamination. A lubricant exhibiting a flash point significantly
lower than normal will be suspected of contamination with a volatile product. Products with a flash point
less than 38 EC (100 EF) will usually require special precautions for safe handling. The fire point for a
lubricant is usually 8 to 10 percent above the flash point. The flash point and fire point should not be
confused with the auto-ignition temperature of a lubricant, which is the temperature at which a lubricant
will ignite spontaneously without an external ignition source.
f. Acid number or neutralization number. The acid or neutralization number is a measure of the
amount of potassium hydroxide required to neutralize the acid contained in a lubricant. Acids are formed
as oils oxidize with age and service. The acid number for an oil sample is indicative of the age of the oil
and can be used to determine when the oil must be changed.
3-4 Oil Classifications and Grading Systems
a. Professional societies classify oils by viscosity ranges or grades. The most common systems are
those of the SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers), the AGMA (American Gear Manufacturers
Association), the ISO (International Standards Organization), and the ASTM (American Society for
Testing and Materials). Other systems are used in special circumstances.
b. The variety of grading systems used in the lubrication industry can be confusing. A specification
giving the type of oil to be used might identify an oil in terms of its AGMA grade, for example, but an oil
producer may give the viscosity in terms of cSt or SUS. Conversion charts between the various grading
systems are readily available from lubricant suppliers. Conversion between cSt and SUS viscosities at
standard temperatures can also be obtained from ASTM D 2161.
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Chapter 4
Hydraulic Fluids
4-1. Purpose of Hydraulic Fluids
a. Power transmission. The primary purpose of any hydraulic fluid is to transmit power
mechanically throughout a hydraulic power system. To ensure stable operation of components, such as
servos, the fluid must flow easily and must be incompressible.
b. Lubrication. Hydraulic fluids must provide the lubricating characteristics and qualities necessary
to protect all hydraulic system components against friction and wear, rust, oxidation, corrosion, and
demulsibility. These protective qualities are usually provided through the use of additives.
c. Sealing. Many hydraulic system components, such as control valves, operate with tight clearances
where seals are not provided. In these applications hydraulic fluids must provide the seal between the low-
pressure and high-pressure side of valve ports. The amount of leakage will depend on the closeness or the
tolerances between adjacent surfaces and the fluid viscosity.

d. Cooling. The circulating hydraulic fluid must be capable of removing heat generated throughout
the system.
4-2. Physical Characteristics
The physical characteristics of hydraulic fluids are similar to those already discussed for lubricating oils.
Only those characteristics requiring additional discussion are addressed below.
a. Viscosity. As with lubricating oils, viscosity is the most important characteristic of a hydraulic
fluid and has a significant impact on the operation of a hydraulic system. If the viscosity is too high then
friction, pressure drop, power consumption, and heat generation increase. Furthermore, sluggish operation
of valves and servos may result. If the viscosity is too low, increased internal leakage may result under
higher operating temperatures. The oil film may be insufficient to prevent excessive wear or possible
seizure of moving parts, pump efficiency may decrease, and sluggish operation may be experienced.
b. Compressibility. Compressibility is a measure of the amount of volume reduction due to pressure.
Compressibility is sometimes expressed by the bulk modulus, which is the reciprocal of compressibility.
Petroleum fluids are relatively incompressible, but volume reductions can be approximately 0.5 percent for
pressures ranging from 6900 kPa (1000 lb/sq in) up to 27,600 kPa (4000 lb/sq in). Compressibility
increases with pressure and temperature and has significant effects on high-pressure fluid systems.
Problems directly caused by compressibility include the following: servos fail to maintain static rigidity and
experience adverse effects in system amplification or gain; loss in efficiency, which is counted as power
loss because the volume reduction due to compressibility cannot be recovered; and cavitation, which may
cause metal fracture, corrosive fatigue, and stress corrosion.
c. Stability. The stability of a hydraulic fluid is the most important property affecting service life.
The properties of a hydraulic fluid can be expected to change with time. Factors that influence the changes
include: mechanical stress and cavitation, which can break down the viscosity improvers and cause reduced
viscosity; and oxidation and hydrolysis which cause chemical changes, formation of volatile components,
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insoluble materials, and corrosive products. The types of additives used in a fluid must be selected
carefully to reduce the potential damage due to chemical breakdown at high temperatures.

4-3. Quality Requirements
The quality of a hydraulic fluid is an indication of the length of time that the fluids essential properties will
continue to perform as expected, i.e., the fluids resistance to change with time. The primary properties
affecting quality are oxidation stability, rust prevention, foam resistance, water separation, and antiwear
properties. Many of these properties are achieved through use of chemical additives. However, these
additives can enhance one property while adversely affecting another. The selection and compatibility of
additives is very important to minimize adverse chemical reactions that may destroy essential properties.
a. Oxidation stability. Oxidation, or the chemical union of oil and oxygen, is one of the primary
causes for decreasing the stability of hydraulic fluids. Once the reactions begin, a catalytic effect takes
place. The chemical reactions result in formation of acids that can increase the fluid viscosity and can
cause corrosion. Polymerization and condensation produce insoluble gum, sludge, and varnish that cause
sluggish operation, increase wear, reduce clearances, and plug lines and valves. The most significant
contributors to oxidation include temperature, pressure, contaminants, water, metal surfaces, and agitation.
(1) Temperature. The rate of chemical reactions, including oxidation, approximately doubles for
every 10 EC (18 EF) increase in temperature. The reaction may start at a local area where the temperature
is high. However, once started, the oxidation reaction has a catalytic effect that causes the rate of oxidation
to increase.
(2) Pressure. As the pressure increases, the fluid viscosity also increases, causing an increase in
friction and heat generation. As the operating temperature increases, the rate of oxidation increases.
Furthermore, as the pressure increases, the amount of entrained air and associated oxygen also increases.
This condition provides additional oxygen to accelerate the oxidation reaction.

(3) Contaminants. Contaminants that accelerate the rate of oxidation may be dirt, moisture, joint
compounds, insoluble oxidation products, or paints. A 1 percent sludge concentration in a hydraulic fluid
is sufficient to cause the fluid to oxidize in half the time it would take if no sludge were present. Therefore
the contaminated fluids useful life is reduced by 50 percent.
(4) Water and metal. Certain metals, such as copper, are known to be catalysts for oxidation
reactions, especially in the presence of water. Due to the production of acids during the initial stages of
oxidation, the viscosity and neutralization numbers increase. The neutralization number for a fluid
provides a measure of the amount of acid contained in a fluid. The most commonly accepted oxidation test
for hydraulic fluids is the ASTM Method D 943 Oxidation Test. This test measures the neutralization
number of oil as it is heated in the presence of pure oxygen, a metal catalyst, and water. Once started the
test continues until the neutralization number reaches a value of 2.0. One series of tests provides an
indication of how the neutralization number is affected by contaminants. With no water or metal
contaminants, the neutralization number reached 0.17 in 3500 hours. When the test was repeated with
copper contaminant, the neutralization number reached a value of 0.89 after 3000 hours. The test was
subsequently repeated with copper and water contamination and the neutralization number reached 11.2 in
approximately 150 hours.
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(5) Agitation. To reduce the potential for oxidation, oxidation inhibitors are added to the base
hydraulic fluid. Two types of inhibitors are generally used: chain breakers and metal deactivators. Chain
breaker inhibitors interrupt the oxidation reaction immediately after the reaction is initiated. Metal
deactivators reduce the effects of metal catalysts.
b. Rust and corrosion prevention. Rust is a chemical reaction between water and ferrous metals.
Corrosion is a chemical reaction between chemicals (usually acids) and metals. Water condensed from
entrained air in a hydraulic system causes rust if the metal surfaces are not properly protected. In some
cases water reacts with chemicals in a hydraulic fluid to produce acids that cause corrosion. The acids
attack and remove particles from metal surfaces allowing the affected surfaces to leak, and in some cases to
seize. To prevent rust, hydraulic fluids use rust inhibitors that deposit a protective film on metal surfaces.
The film is virtually impervious to water and completely prevents rust once the film is established
throughout the hydraulic system. Rust inhibitors are tested according to the ASTM D 665 Rusting Test.
This test subjects a steel rod to a mixture of oil and salt water that has been heated to 60 EC (140 EF). If
the rod shows no sign of rust after 24 hours the fluid is considered satisfactory with respect to rust-
inhibiting properties. In addition to rust inhibitors, additives must be used to prevent corrosion. These
additives must exhibit excellent hydrolytic stability in the presence of water to prevent fluid breakdown and
the acid formation that causes corrosion.
c. Air entrainment and foaming. Air enters a hydraulic system through the reservoir or through air
leaks within the hydraulic system. Air entering through the reservoir contributes to surface foaming on the
oil. Good reservoir design and use of foam inhibitors usually eliminate surface foaming.
(1) Air entrainment is a dispersion of very small air bubbles in a hydraulic fluid. Oil under low
pressure absorbs approximately 10 percent air by volume. Under high pressure, the percentage is even
greater. When the fluid is depressurized, the air produces foam as it is released from solution. Foam and
high air entrainment in a hydraulic fluid cause erratic operation of servos and contribute to pump
cavitation. Oil oxidation is another problem caused by air entrainment. As a fluid is pressurized, the
entrained air is compressed and increases in temperature. This increased air temperature can be high
enough to scorch the surrounding oil and cause oxidation.
(2) The amount of foaming in a fluid depends upon the viscosity of the fluid, the source of the crude
oil, the refinement process, and usage. Foam depressants are commonly added to hydraulic fluid to
expedite foam breakup and release of dissolved air. However, it is important to note that foam depressants
do not prevent foaming or inhibit air from dissolving in the fluid. In fact, some antifoamants, when used in
high concentrations to break up foam, actually retard the release of dissolved air from the fluid.
d. Demulsibility or water separation. Water that enters a hydraulic system can emulsify and
promote the collection of dust, grit, and dirt, and this can adversely affect the operation of valves, servos,
and pumps, increase wear and corrosion, promote fluid oxidation, deplete additives, and plug filters.
Highly refined mineral oils permit water to separate or demulsify readily. However, some additives such as
antirust treatments actually promote emulsion formation to prevent separated water from settling and
breaking through the antirust film.
e. Antiwear properties.
(1) Conventional hydraulic fluids are satisfactory for low-pressure and low-speed applications.
However, hydraulic fluids for high-pressure (over 6900 kPa or 1000.5 lb/sq in) and high-speed (over
1200 rpm) applications that use vane or gear pumps must contain antiwear additives. These applications
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4-4
do not permit the formation of full fluid film lubrication to protect contacting surfaces--a condition known
as boundary lubrication. Boundary lubrication occurs when the fluid viscosity is insufficient to prevent
surface contact. Antiwear additives provide a protective film at the contact surfaces to minimize wear. At
best, use of a hydraulic fluid without the proper antiwear additives will cause premature wear of the pumps
and cause inadequate system pressure. Eventually the pumps will be destroyed.
(2) Quality assurance of antiwear properties is determined through standard laboratory testing.
Laboratory tests to evaluate antiwear properties of a hydraulic fluid are performed in accordance with
ASTM D 2882. This test procedure is generally conducted with a variety of high-speed, high-pressure
pump models manufactured by Vickers or Denison. Throughout the tests, the pumps are operated for a
specified period. At the end of each period the pumps are disassembled and specified components are
weighed. The weight of each component is compared to its initial weight; the difference reflects the amount
of wear experienced by the pumps for the operating period. The components are also inspected for visual
signs of wear and stress.
4-4. Use of Additives
Many of the qualities and properties discussed above are achieved by the product manufacturers careful
blending of additives with base oil stocks. Because of incompatibility problems and the complex
interactions that can occur between various additives, oil producers warn users against attempting to
enhance oil properties through indiscriminate use of additives. The various types of additives and their use
are discussed in Chapter 7.
4-5. Types of Hydraulic Fluids
a. Petroleum. Petroleum-based oils are the most commonly used stock for hydraulic applications
where there is no danger of fire, no possibility of leakage that may cause contamination of other products,
no wide temperature fluctuations, and no environmental impact.
b. Fire resistant. In applications where fire hazards or environmental pollution are a concern, water-
based or aqueous fluids offer distinct advantages. The fluids consist of water-glycols and water-in-oil
fluids with emulsifiers, stabilizers, and additives. Due to their lower lubricity, piston pumps used with
these fluids should be limited to 20,670 kPa (3000 lb/sq in.) Furthermore, vane pumps should not be used
with water-based fluid unless they are specifically designed to use such fluids.
(1) Water-glycol. Water-glycol fluids contain from 35 to 60 percent water to provide the fire
resistance, plus a glycol antifreeze such as ethylene, diethylene, or propylene which is nontoxic and
biodegradable, and a thickener such as polyglycol to provide the required viscosity. These fluids also
provide all the important additives such as antiwear, foam, rust, and corrosion inhibitors. Operating
temperatures for water-glycol fluids should be maintained below 49 EC (120 EF) to prevent evaporation
and deterioration of the fluid. To prevent separation of fluid phases or adverse effects on the fluid
additives, the minimum temperature should not drop below 0 C (32 F).
0 0
(a) Viscosity, pH, and water hardness monitoring are very important in water-glycol systems. If water
is lost to evaporation, the fluid viscosity, friction, and operating temperature of the fluid will increase. The
end result is sluggish operation of the hydraulic system and increased power consumption. If fluid
viscosity is permitted to drop due to excessive water, internal leakage at actuators will increase and cause
sluggish operation. A thin fluid is also more prone to turbulent flow which will increase the potential for
erosion of system components.
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(b) Under normal use, the fluid pH can be expected to drop due to water evaporation, heat, and loss of
corrosion inhibitors. The fluid pH should be slightly alkaline (i.e., above pH8) to prevent rust. However,
because of their volatility and toxicity, handling of the amine additives that stabilize the pH is not
recommended. Therefore, these essential additives are not usually replenished. Fluids with pH levels that
drop below 8 should be removed and properly discarded.
(c) Make-up water added to the system must be distilled or soft deionized. The calcium and
magnesium present in potable water will react with lubricant additives causing them to floc or come out of
solution and compromise the fluids performance. When this condition occurs the fluid is permanently
damaged and should be replaced. To prolong the fluid and component life, water added to the system
should have a maximum hardness of 5 parts per million (ppm).
(2) Water-oil emulsions
(a) Oil-in-water. These fluids consist of very small oil droplets dispersed in a continuous water phase.
These fluids have low viscosities, excellent fire-resistance, and good cooling capability due to the large
proportion of water. Additives must be used to improve their inherently poor lubricity and to protect
against rust.
(b) Water-in-oil. The water content of water-in-oil fluids may be approximately 40 percent. These
fluids consist of very small water droplets dispersed in a continuous oil phase. The oil phase provides good
to excellent lubricity while the water content provides the desired level of fire-resistance and enhances the
fluid cooling capability. Emulsifiers are added to improve stability. Additives are included to minimize
rust and to improve lubricity as necessary. These fluids are compatible with most seals and metals
common to hydraulic fluid applications. The operating temperature of water-in-oil fluids must be kept low
to prevent evaporation and oxidation. The proportion of oil and water must be monitored to ensure that the
proper viscosity is maintained especially when adding water or concentrated solutions to the fluid to make
up for evaporation. To prevent phase separation, the fluid should be protected from repeated cycles of
freezing and thawing.
(c) Synthetic fire-resistant fluids. Three types of synthetic fire-resistant fluids are manufactured:
phosphate esters, chlorinated (halogenated) hydrocarbons, and synthetic base (a mixture of these two).
These fluids do not contain water or volatile materials, and they provide satisfactory operation at high
temperatures without loss of essential elements (in contrast to water-based fluids). The fluids are also
suitable for high-pressure applications. Synthetic fluids have a low viscosity index, anywhere from 80 to -
400, so their use should be restricted to relatively constant operating temperatures. When required to
operate at low temperatures, these fluids may require auxiliary heating. Synthetic fluids also have high
specific gravities so pump inlet conditions must be carefully selected to prevent cavitation. Phosphate
esters have flash points above 204 EC (400 EF) and auto-ignition temperatures above 483 EC (900 EF),
making these fluids less likely to ignite and sustain burning. Halogenated hydrocarbon fluids are inert,
odorless, nonflammable, noncorrosive, and have low toxicity. Seal compatibility is very important when
using synthetic fluids. Most commonly used seals such as Nitrile (Buna) and Neoprene are not compatible
with these fluids.
c. Environmentally acceptable hydraulic fluids. The requirements for biodegradable fluids are
discussed in Chapter 8.
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4-6. Cleanliness Requirements
Due to the very small clearances and critical nature of hydraulic systems, proper maintenance and
cleanliness of these systems is extremely important. Hydraulic system cleanliness codes, oil purification,
and filtration are discussed in Chapter 12.
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Chapter 5
Grease
5-1. Description
Grease is a semifluid to solid mixture of a fluid lubricant, a thickener, and additives. The fluid lubricant
that performs the actual lubrication can be petroleum (mineral) oil, synthetic oil, or vegetable oil. The
thickener gives grease its characteristic consistency and is sometimes thought of as a three-dimensional
fibrous network or sponge that holds the oil in place. Common thickeners are soaps and organic or
inorganic nonsoap thickeners. The majority of greases on the market are composed of mineral oil blended
with a soap thickener. Additives enhance performance and protect the grease and lubricated surfaces.
Grease has been described as a temperature-regulated feeding device: when the lubricant film between
wearing surfaces thins, the resulting heat softens the adjacent grease, which expands and releases oil to
restore film thickness.
5-2. Function
The function of grease is to remain in contact with and lubricate moving surfaces without leaking out
under gravity or centrifugal action, or be squeezed out under pressure. Its major practical requirement is
that it retain its properties under shear at all temperatures that it is subjected to during use. At the same
time, grease must be able to flow into the bearing through grease guns and from spot to spot in the
lubricated machinery as needed, but must not add significantly to the power required to operate the
machine, particularly at startup. (Boehringer 1992)
a. Applications suitable for grease. Grease and oil are not interchangeable. Grease is used when it
is not practical or convenient to use oil. The lubricant choice for a specific application is determined by
matching the machinery design and operating conditions with desired lubricant characteristics. Grease is
generally used for:
(1) Machinery that runs intermittently or is in storage for an extended period of time. Because grease
remains in place, a lubricating film can instantly form.
(2) Machinery that is not easily accessible for frequent lubrication. High-quality greases can lubricate
isolated or relatively inaccessible components for extended periods of time without frequent replenishing.
These greases are also used in sealed-for-life applications such as some electrical motors and gearboxes.
(3) Machinery operating under extreme conditions such as high temperatures and pressures, shock
loads, or slow speed under heavy load. Under these circumstances, grease provides thicker film cushions
that are required to protect and adequately lubricate, whereas oil films can be too thin and can rupture.
(4) Worn components. Grease maintains thicker films in clearances enlarged by wear and can extend
the life of worn parts that were previously oil lubricated. Thicker grease films also provide noise
insulation.
b. Functional properties of grease.
(1) Functions as a sealant to minimize leakage and to keep out contaminants. Because of its
consistency, grease acts as a sealant to prevent lubricant leakage and also to prevent entrance of corrosive
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contaminants and foreign materials. It also acts to keep deteriorated seals effective (whereas an oil would
simply seep away).
(2) Easier to contain than oil. Oil lubrication can require an expensive system of circulating
equipment and complex retention devices. In comparison, grease, by virtue of its rigidity, is easily confined
with simplified, less costly retention devices.
(3) Holds solid lubricants in suspension. Finely ground solid lubricants, such as molybdenum disulfide
(moly) and graphite, are mixed with grease in high temperature service (over 315 EC [599 EF]) or in
extreme high-pressure applications. Grease holds solids in suspension while solids will settle out of oils.
(4) Fluid level does not have to be controlled and monitored.
c. Notable disadvantages of grease:
(1) Poor cooling. Due to its consistency, grease cannot dissipate heat by convection like a circulating
oil.
(2) Resistance to motion. Grease has more resistance to motion at start-up than oil, so it is not
appropriate for low torque/high speed operation.
(3) More difficult to handle than oil for dispensing, draining, and refilling. Also, exact amounts of
lubricant cannot be as easily metered.
5-3. Grease Characteristics
Common ASTM tests for the grease characteristics listed below are shown in Table 5-3.
a. Apparent viscosity. At start-up, grease has a resistance to motion, implying a high viscosity.
However, as grease is sheared between wearing surfaces and moves faster, its resistance to flow reduces.
Its viscosity decreases as the rate of shear increases. By contrast, an oil at constant temperature would
have the same viscosity at start-up as it has when it is moving. To distinguish between the viscosity of oil
and grease, the viscosity of a grease is referred to as apparent viscosity. Apparent viscosity is the
viscosity of a grease that holds only for the shear rate and temperature at which the viscosity is determined.
b. Bleeding, migration, syneresis. Bleeding is a condition when the liquid lubricant separates from
the thickener. It is induced by high temperatures and also occurs during long storage periods. Migration is
a form of bleeding that occurs when oil in a grease migrates out of the thickener network under certain
circumstances. For example, when grease is pumped though a pipe in a centralized lubrication system, it
may encounter a resistance to the flow and form a plug. The oil continues to flow, migrating out of the
thickener network. As the oil separates from the grease, thickener concentration increases, and plugging
gets worse. If two different greases are in contact, the oils may migrate from one grease to the other and
change the structure of the grease. Therefore, it is unwise to mix two greases. Syneresis is a special form
of bleeding caused by shrinking or rearrangement of the structure due to physical or chemical changes in
the thickener.
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c. Consistency, penetration, and National Lubricating Grease Institute (NLGI) numbers. The most
important feature of a grease is its rigidity or consistency. A grease that is too stiff may not feed into areas
requiring lubrication, while a grease that is too fluid may leak out. Grease consistency depends on the type
and amount of thickener used and the viscosity of its base oil. A greases consistency is its resistance to
deformation by an applied force. The measure of consistency is called penetration. Penetration depends on
whether the consistency has been altered by handling or working. ASTM D 217 and D 1403 methods
measure penetration of unworked and worked greases. To measure penetration, a cone of given weight is
allowed to sink into a grease for 5 seconds at a standard temperature of 25 EC (77 EF). The depth, in
tenths of a millimeter, to which the cone sinks into the grease is the penetration. A penetration of 100
would represent a solid grease while one of 450 would be semifluid. The NLGI has established consistency
numbers or grade numbers, ranging from 000 to 6, corresponding to specified ranges of penetration
numbers. Table 5.1 lists the NLGI grease classifications along with a description of the consistency of
each classification.
Table 5.1
NLGI Grease Classification
NLGI Number 0.1 mm (3.28 10 ft) at 25 E EC (77 E EF) Consistency
ASTM Worked Penetration
-4
000 445 - 475 Semifluid
00 400 - 430 Semifluid
0 355 - 385 Very soft
1 310 - 340 Soft
2 265 - 295 Common grease
3 220 - 250 Semihard
4 175 - 205 Hard
5 130 - 160 Very hard
6 85 - 115 Solid
d. Contaminants. Greases tend to hold solid contaminants on their outer surfaces and protect
lubricated surfaces from wear. If the contamination becomes excessive or eventually works its way down
to the lubricated surfaces the reverse occurs -- the grease retains abrasive materials at the lubricated
surface and wear occurs.
e. Corrosion- and rust-resistance. This denotes the ability of grease to protect metal parts from
chemical attack. The natural resistance of a grease depends upon the thickener type. Corrosion-resistance
can be enhanced by corrosion and rust inhibitors.
f. Dropping point. Dropping point is an indicator of the heat resistance of grease. As grease
temperature rises, penetration increases until the grease liquefies and the desired consistency is lost.
Dropping point is the temperature at which a grease becomes fluid enough to drip. The dropping point
indicates the upper temperature limit at which a grease retains its structure, not the maximum temperature
at which a grease may be used. A few greases have the ability to regain their original structure after
cooling down from the dropping point.
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g. Evaporation. The mineral oil in a grease evaporates at temperatures above 177 EC (350 EF).
Excessive oil evaporation causes grease to harden due to increased thickener concentration. Therefore,
higher evaporation rates require more frequent relubrication.
h. Fretting wear and false brinelling. Fretting is friction wear of components at contact points
caused by minute oscillation. The oscillation is so minute that grease is displaced from between parts but
is not allowed to flow back in. Localized oxidation of wear particles results and wear accelerates. In
bearings, this localized wear appears as a depression in the race caused by oscillation of the ball or roller.
The depression resembles that which occurs during Brinell hardness determination, hence the term false
brinelling. An example would be fretting wear of automotive wheel bearings when a car is transported by
train. The car is secured, but the vibration of the train over the tracks causes minute oscillation resulting in
false brinelling of the bearing race.
i. Oxidation stability. This is the ability of a grease to resist a chemical union with oxygen. The
reaction of grease with oxygen produces insoluble gum, sludges, and lacquer-like deposits that cause
sluggish operation, increased wear, and reduction of clearances. Prolonged high-temperature exposure
accelerates oxidation in greases.
j. Pumpability and slumpability. Pumpability is the ability of a grease to be pumped or pushed
through a system. More practically, pumpability is the ease with which a pressurized grease can flow
through lines, nozzles, and fittings of grease-dispensing systems. Slumpability, or feedability, is its ability
to be drawn into (sucked into) a pump. Fibrous greases tend to have good feedability but poor
pumpability. Buttery-textured greases tend to have good pumpability but poor feedability.
k. Shear stability. Grease consistency may change as it is mechanically worked or sheared between
wearing surfaces. A greases ability to maintain its consistency when worked is its shear stability or
mechanical stability. A grease that softens as it is worked is called thixotropic. Greases that harden when
worked are called rheopectic.
l. High-temperature effects. High temperatures harm greases more than they harm oils. Grease, by
its nature, cannot dissipate heat by convection like a circulating oil. Consequently, without the ability to
transfer away heat, excessive temperatures result in accelerated oxidation or even carbonization where
grease hardens or forms a crust. Effective grease lubrication depends on the grease's consistency. High
temperatures induce softening and bleeding, causing grease to flow away from needed areas. The mineral
oil in grease can flash, burn, or evaporate at temperatures above 177 EC (350 EF). High temperatures,
above 73-79 EC (165-175 EF), can dehydrate certain greases such as calcium soap grease and cause
structural breakdown. The higher evaporation and dehydration rates at elevated temperatures require more
frequent grease replacement.
m. Low-temperature effects. If the temperature of a grease is lowered enough, it will become so
viscous that it can be classified as a hard grease. Pumpability suffers and machinery operation may
become impossible due to torque limitations and power requirements. The temperature at which this occurs
depends on the shape of the lubricated part and the power being supplied to it. As a guideline, the base
oils pour point is considered the low-temperature limit of a grease.
n. Texture. Texture is observed when a small sample of grease is pressed between thumb and index
finger and slowly drawn apart. Texture can be described as:
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! Brittle: the grease ruptures or crumbles when compressed.
! Buttery: the grease separates in short peaks with no visible fibers.
! Long fiber: the grease stretches or strings out into a single bundle of fibers.
! Resilient: the grease can withstand moderate compression without permanent deformation or
rupture.
! Short fiber: the grease shows short break-off with evidence of fibers.
! Stringy: the grease stretches or strings out into long, fine threads, but with no visible evidence of
fiber structure.
o. Water resistance. This is the ability of a grease to withstand the effects of water with no change in
its ability to lubricate. A soap/water lather may suspend the oil in the grease, forming an emulsion that can
wash away or, to a lesser extent, reduce lubricity by diluting and changing grease consistency and texture.
Rusting becomes a concern if water is allowed to contact iron or steel components.
5-4. Fluid Lubricants
Fluid lubricants used to formulate grease are normally petroleum or synthetic oils. For petroleum oils in
general, naphthenic oils tend to chemically mix better with soaps and additives and form stronger structures
than paraffinic oils. Synthetic oils are higher in first cost but are effective in high-temperature and low-
temperature extremes. With growing environmental concerns, vegetable oils and certain synthetic oils are
also being used in applications requiring nontoxic or biodegradable greases. Separate chapters in this
manual are devoted to lubricating oils and environmentally acceptable oils. They describe the
characteristics that each type of oil brings to grease. The base oil selected in formulating a grease should
have the same characteristics as if the equipment is to be lubricated by oil. For instance, lower-viscosity
base oils are used for grease applications at lower temperatures or high speeds and light loads, whereas
higher-viscosity base oils are used for higher temperatures or low speed and heavy load applications.
5-5. Soap Thickeners
a. Dispersed in its base fluid, a soap thickener gives grease its physical character. Soap thickeners
not only provide consistency to grease, they affect desired properties such as water and heat resistance and
pumpability. They can affect the amount of an additive, such as a rust inhibitor, required to obtain a
desired quality. The soap influences how a grease will flow, change shape, and age as it is mechanically
worked and at temperature extremes. Each soap type brings its own characteristic properties to a grease.
b. The principal ingredients in creating a soap are a fatty acid and an alkali. Fatty acids can be
derived from animal fat such as beef tallow, lard, butter, fish oil, or from vegetable fat such as olive,
castor, soybean, or peanut oils. The most common alkalies used are the hydroxides from earth metals such
as aluminum, calcium, lithium, and sodium. Soap is created when a long-carbon-chain fatty acid reacts
with the metal hydroxide. The metal is incorporated into the carbon chain and the resultant compound
develops a polarity. The polar molecules form a fibrous network that holds the oil. Thus, a somewhat
rigid gel-like material grease is developed. Soap concentration can be varied to obtain different grease
thicknesses. Furthermore, viscosity of the base oil affects thickness as well. Since soap qualities are also
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5-6
determined by the fatty acid from which the soap is prepared, not all greases made from soaps containing
the same metals are identical. The name of the soap thickener refers to the metal (calcium, lithium, etc.)
from which the soap is prepared.
5-6. Complex Soap
a. The high temperatures generated by modern equipment necessitated an increase in the heat-
resistance of normal soap-thickened greases. As a result, complex soap greases were developed. The
dropping point of a complex grease is at least 38 EC (100 EF) higher than its normal soap-thickened
counterpart, and its maximum usable temperature is around 177 EC (350 EF). Complex soap greases are
limited to this temperature because the mineral oil can flash, evaporate, or burn above that temperature.
Generally, complex greases have good all-around properties and can be used in multipurpose applications.
For extreme operating conditions, complex greases are often produced with solid lubricants and use more
highly refined or synthetic oils.
b. A complexing agent made from a salt of the named metal is the additional ingredient in forming a
complex grease. A complex soap is formed by the reaction of a fatty acid and alkali to form a soap, and
the simultaneous reaction of the alkali with a short-chain organic or inorganic acid to form a metallic salt
(the complexing agent). Basically, a complex grease is made when a complex soap is formed in the
presence of a base oil. Common organic acids are acetic or lactic, and common inorganic acids are
carbonates or chlorides.
5-7. Additives
Surface-protecting and performance-enhancing additives that can effectively improve the overall
performance of a grease are described in Chapter 7. Solid lubricants such as molybdenum disulfide and
graphite are added to grease in certain applications for high temperatures (above 315 EC or 599 EF) and
extreme high-pressure applications. Incorporating solid additives requires frequent grease changes to
prevent accumulation of solids in components (and the resultant wear). Properties of solid lubricants are
described in Chapter 6. Not mentioned in other chapters are dyes that improve grease appearance and are
used for identification purposes.

5-8. Types of Greases
The most common greases are described below.
a. Calcium grease.
(1) Calcium or lime grease, the first of the modern production greases, is prepared by reacting mineral
oil with fats, fatty acids, a small amount of water, and calcium hydroxide (also known as hydrated lime).
The water modifies the soap structure to absorb mineral oil. Because of water evaporation, calcium grease
is sensitive to elevated temperatures. It dehydrates at temperatures around 79 EC (175 EF) at which its
structure collapses, resulting in softening and, eventually, phase separation. Greases with soft
consistencies can dehydrate at lower temperatures while greases with firm consistencies can lubricate
satisfactorily to temperatures around 93 EC (200 EF). In spite of the temperature limitations, lime grease
does not emulsify in water and is excellent at resisting wash out. Also, its manufacturing cost is
relatively low. If a calcium grease is prepared from 12-hydroxystearic acid, the result is an anhydrous
(waterless) grease. Since dehydration is not a concern, anhydrous calcium grease can be used continuously
to a maximum temperature of around 110 EC (230 EF).
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(2) Calcium complex grease is prepared by adding the salt calcium acetate. The salt provides the
grease with extreme pressure characteristics without using an additive. Dropping points greater than
260 EC (500 EF) can be obtained and the maximum usable temperature increases to approximately 177 EC
(350 EF). With the exception of poor pumpability in high-pressure centralized systems, where caking and
hardening sometimes occur calcium complex greases have good all-around characteristics that make them
desirable multipurpose greases.
b. Sodium grease. Sodium grease was developed for use at higher operating temperatures than the
early hydrated calcium greases. Sodium grease can be used at temperatures up to 121 EC (250 EF), but it
is soluble in water and readily washes out. Sodium is sometimes mixed with other metal soaps, especially
calcium, to improve water resistance. Although it has better adhesive properties than calcium grease, the
use of sodium grease is declining due to its lack of versatility. It cannot compete with water-resistant, more
heat-resistant multipurpose greases. It is, however, still recommended for certain heavy-duty applications
and well-sealed electric motors.
c. Aluminum grease.
(1) Aluminum grease is normally clear and has a somewhat stringy texture, more so when produced
from high-viscosity oils. When heated above 79 EC (175 EF), this stringiness increases and produces a
rubberlike substance that pulls away from metal surfaces, reducing lubrication and increasing power
consumption. Aluminum grease has good water resistance, good adhesive properties, and inhibits rust
without additives, but it tends to be short-lived. It has excellent inherent oxidation stability but relatively
poor shear stability and pumpability.
(2) Aluminum complex grease has a maximum usable temperature of almost 100 EC (212 EF) higher
than aluminum-soap greases. It has good water-and-chemical resistance but tends to have shorter life in
high-temperature, high-speed applications.
d. Lithium grease.
(1) Smooth, buttery-textured lithium grease is by far the most popular when compared to all others.
The normal grease contains lithium 12-hydroxystearate soap. It has a dropping point around 204 EC
(400 EF) and can be used at temperatures up to about 135 EC (275 EF). It can also be used at
temperatures as low as -35 EC (-31 EF) . It has good shear stability and a relatively low coefficient of
friction, which permits higher machine operating speeds. It has good water-resistance, but not as good as
that of calcium or aluminum. Pumpability and resistance to oil separation are good to excellent. It does
not naturally inhibit rust, but additives can provide rust resistance. Anti-oxidants and extreme pressure
additives are also responsive in lithium greases.
(2) Lithium complex grease and lithium soap grease have similar properties except the complex grease
has superior thermal stability as indicated by a dropping point of 260 EC (500 EF). It is generally
considered to be the nearest thing to a true multipurpose grease.
e. Other greases. Thickeners other than soaps are available to make greases. Although most of these
are restricted to very special applications, two nonsoap greases are worthy of mention. One is organic, the
other inorganic.
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(1) Polyurea grease.
(a) Polyurea is the most important organic nonsoap thickener. It is a low-molecular-weight organic
polymer produced by reacting amines (an ammonia derivative) with isocyanates, which results in an oil-
soluble chemical thickener. Polyurea grease has outstanding resistance to oxidation because it contains no
metal soaps (which tend to invite oxidation). It effectively lubricates over a wide temperature range of
-20 to 177 EC (-4 to 350 EF) and has long life. Water-resistance is good to excellent, depending on the
grade. It works well with many elastomer seal materials. It is used with all types of bearings but has been
particularly effective in ball bearings. Its durability makes it well suited for sealed-for-life bearing
applications.
(b) Polyurea complex grease is produced when a complexing agent, most commonly calcium acetate or
calcium phosphate, is incorporated into the polymer chain. In addition to the excellent properties of normal
polyurea grease, these agents add inherent extreme pressure and wear protection properties that increase the
multipurpose capabilities of polyurea greases.
(2) Organo-clay. Organo-clay is the most commonly used inorganic thickener. Its thickener is a
modified clay, insoluble in oil in its normal form, but through complex chemical processes, converts to
platelets that attract and hold oil. Organo-clay thickener structures are amorphous and gel-like rather than
the fibrous, crystalline structures of soap thickeners. This grease has excellent heat-resistance since clay
does not melt. Maximum operating temperature is limited by the evaporation temperature of its mineral oil,
which is around 177 EC (350 EF). However, with frequent grease changes, this multipurpose grease can
operate for short periods at temperatures up to its dropping point, which is about 260 EC (500 EF). A
disadvantage is that greases made with higher-viscosity oils for high thermal stability will have poor low-
temperature performance. Organo-clay grease has excellent water-resistance but requires additives for
oxidation and rust resistance. Work stability is fair to good. Pumpability and resistance to oil separation
are good for this buttery textured grease.
5-9. Compatibility
a. Greases are considered incompatible when the physical or performance characteristics of the mixed
grease falls below original specifications. In general, greases with different chemical compositions should
not be mixed. Mixing greases of different thickeners can form a mix that is too firm to provide sufficient
lubrication or more commonly, a mix that is too soft to stay in place.
b. Combining greases of different base oils can produce a fluid component that will not provide a
continuous lubrication film. Additives can be diluted when greases with different additives are mixed.
Mixed greases may become less resistant to heat or have lower shear stability. If a new brand of grease
must be introduced, the component part should be disassembled and thoroughly cleaned to remove all of
the old grease. If this is not practical, the new grease should be injected until all traces of the prior product
are flushed out. Also, the first grease changes should be more frequent than normally scheduled.
5-10. Grease Application Guide
When selecting a grease, it is important to determine the properties required for the particular application
and match them to a specific grease. A grease application guide is shown in Table 5-2. It shows the most
common greases, their usual properties, and important uses. Some of the ratings given are subjective and
can vary significantly from supplier to supplier. Common ASTM tests for the grease characteristics
described in paragraph 5-3 are shown in Table 5-3.
E
M

1
1
1
0
-
2
-
1
4
2
4
2
8

F
e
b

9
9
5
-
9
Table 5-2
Grease Application Guide
Properties Aluminum Sodium
Calcium-
Conventional
Calcium -
Anhydrous Lithium
Aluminum
Complex
Calcium
Complex
Lithium
Complex Polyurea Organo-Clay
Dropping point (EC)
Dropping point (EF)
110
230
163-177
325-350
096-104
205-220
135-143
275-290
177-204
350-400
260+
500+
260+
500+
260+
500+
243
470
260+
500+
Maximum usable
temperature (EC)
Maximum usable
temperature (EF)
79
175
121
350
93
200
110
230
135
275
177
350
177
350
177
350
177
350
177
350
Water resistance Good to
excellent
Poor to
fair
Good to
excellent
Excellent Good Good to
excellent
Fair to
excellent
Good to
excellent
Good to
excellent
Fair to
excellent
Work stability Poor Fair Fair to
good
Good to
excellent
Good to
excellent
Good to
excellent
Fair to
good
Good to
excellent
Poor to
good
Fair to
good
Oxidation stability Excellent Poor to
good
Poor to
excellent
Fair to
excellent
Fair to
excellent
Fair to
excellent
Poor to
good
Fair to
excellent
Good to
excellent
Good
Protection against
rust
Good to
excellent
Good to
excellent
Poor to
excellent
Poor to
excellent
Poor to
excellent
Good to
excellent
Fair to
excellent
Fair to
excellent
Fair to
excellent
Poor to
excellent
Pumpability (in
centralized system)
Poor Poor to
fair
Good to
excellent
Fair to
excellent
Fair to
excellent
Fair to good Poor to
fair
Good to
excellent
Good to
excellent
Good
Oil separation Good Fair to
good
Poor to good Good Good to
excellent
Good to
excellent
Good to
excellent
Good to
excellent
Good to
excellent
Good to
excellent
Appearance Smooth and
clear
Smooth
to
fibrous
Smooth and
buttery
Smooth and
buttery
Smooth and
buttery
Smooth and
buttery
Smooth and
buttery
Smooth and
buttery
Smooth and
buttery
Smooth and
buttery
Other properties Adhesive
&
cohesive
EP grades
available
EP grades
available
EP grades
available,
reversible
EP grades
available,
reversible
EP grades
antiwear
inherent
EP grades
available
EP grades
available
Principal Uses Thread
lubricants
Rolling
contact
economy
General uses
for economy
Military
multiservice
Multi-
service
1
automotive
& industrial
Multi-
service
industrial
Multi-
service
automotive
& industrial
Multi-
service
automotive &
industrial
Multi-
service
automotive &
industrial
High temp.
(frequent
relube)
Multiservice includes rolling contact bearings, plain bearings, and others.
1
Reference: NLGI Lubricating Grease Guide, 4th ed.
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
5-10
Table 5-3
ASTM Tests for Grease Characteristics
Grease Characteristic ASTM Test Method Description
Apparent viscosity / D 1092 - Measuring Apparent Viscosity of Apparent viscosities at 16 shear rates are
pumpability Lubricating Greases determined by measuring the hydraulic pressure
on a floating piston which forces grease through
a capillary tube. Eight different capillary tubes
and a 2-speed hydraulic gear pump are used.
Consistency and shear D 217 - Cone Penetration of Lubricating Grease Depth, in tenths of a millimeter, a 150-g
stability (0.33-lb) cone penetrates the surface of worked
D 1403 - Cone Penetration of Lubricating Grease and unworked grease at 25 EC (77 EF) in 5
Using One-Quarter and One-Half Scale Cone seconds. D 1403 is used when only a small
Equipment amount of grease is available.
D 1831- Roll Stability of Lubricating Grease A 5- kg (11-lb) roller and 50 g (0.11 lb) of grease
are put into a 165-rpm revolving chamber for 2
hours at room temperature. The difference in
penetrations measured before and after rolling is
an indicator of shear stability.
Corrosion and rust D 1743 - Determining Corrosion Preventive A grease-packed bearing is spun for 1-minute at
resistance Properties of Lubricating Greases 1750 rpm. Excess grease is thrown off and a
D 4048 - Detection of Copper Corrosion from A copper strip is immersed in grease inside a
Lubricating Grease covered jar and heated in an oven or liquid bath
thin layer remains on bearing surfaces. The
bearing is exposed to water and stored for 48
hours at 52 EC (125 EF) and 100% humidity. It
is then cleaned and examined for corrosion.
for a specified time. The strip is removed,
washed, and compared and classified using the
ASTM Copper Strip Corrosion Standards.
Dropping point D 566 - Dropping Point of Lubricating Grease Grease and a thermometer are placed in a cup
D 2265 - Dropping Point of Lubricating Grease through the cup. That temperature is the
over Wide-Temperature Range dropping point. The test tube assembly is
inside a test tube and heated until a drop falls
heated in an oil bath for D 566 and inside an
aluminum block oven for D 2265.
Evaporation D 972 - Evaporation Loss of Lubricating Greases Two liters per minute of heated air is passed
and Oils over grease inside a chamber for 22 hours.
D 2595 - Evaporation Loss of Lubricating EF) for D 972 and 93 - 315 EC (200 - 599 EF)
Greases over Wide-Temperature Range for D 2595. Evaporation is calculated from
Temperature range is 100 - 150 EC (212 - 302
grease weight loss, in percent.
Heat resistance / D 3232 - Measurement of Consistency of Can also indicate flow at high temperatures.
Consistency Lubricating Greases at High Temperatures Grease in a cylindrical opening in an aluminum
block is heated at a rate of 5 EC (10 EF)/min
while a trident probe turns at 20 rpm in the
grease. A Brookfield viscometer attached to the
probe measures torque at temperature
increments. From this, apparent viscosities are
determined at different temperatures.
Leakage D 1263 - Leakage Tendencies of Automotive A seal-less, grease-packed wheel bearing
Wheel Bearing Greases encircled by a collector ring is spun for 6 hours
at 660 rpm at 105 EC (221 EF). Grease thrown
off into the ring is weighed and leakage is
determined.
(Continued)
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
5-11
Table 5-3 (Concluded)
Grease Characteristic ASTM Test Method Description
Oxidation Stability D 942 - Oxidation Stability of Lubricating Greases Indicates oxidation from storage when grease
by the Oxygen Bomb Method charged with oxygen at 758 kPa (110 psi) is
D 3336 - Performance Characteristics of There are no ASTM tests for oxidation in
Lubricating Greases in Ball-Bearings at Elevated service, but this test relates oxidation stability to
Temperatures failure rate of bearings at desired elevated
sealed in a bomb at 99 EC (210 EF). As
grease oxidizes, it absorbs oxygen. Pressure is
recorded at time intervals and degree of
oxidation is determined by the corresponding
drop in oxygen pressure.
temperatures.
Water Resistance D 1264 - Determining the Water Washout Measures grease washout of a bearing turning
Characteristics of Lubricating Greases at 600 rpm with water flowing at 5 mL/sec for 1
D 4049 - Determining the Resistance of Measures removal of grease 0.8 mm (1/32 in)
Lubricating Grease to Water Spray thick on a plate by water through a nozzle for
hour at 38 EC (100 EF) and 79 EC (175 EF).
5 minutes at 38 EC (100 EF) and 275 kPa (40
psi).
Wear Resistance D 2266 - Wear Preventive Characteristics of A rotating steel ball is pressed against three,
Lubricating Grease (Four-Ball Method) grease-coated, stationary steel balls for 60
D 2596 - Measurement of Extreme-Pressure Same steel ball setup as above, but load is
Properties of Lubricating Grease (Four-Ball incrementally increased every 10 seconds until
Method) seizure occurs. This is the weld point. Load
D 2509 - Measurement of Extreme Pressure The outer edge of a continuously grease-fed
Properties of Lubricating Grease (Timken bearing race rotates at 800 rpm and rubs
Method) against a fixed steel block for 10 minutes.
minutes. Scar diameters on the three stationary
balls are relative measures of wear. Balls are
12.7 mm (0.5 inch). Applied load is 40 kgf (392
N) rotating at 1200 rpm. Temperature is 75 EC
(167 EF).
wear index is then calculated. Maximum load is
800 kgf (7845 N) rotating at 1770 rpm.
Temperature is 27 EC (80 EF).
Successive runs are made with increasingly
higher loads and any surface scoring is
reported. Grease is applied at 25 EC (77 EF).
The Timken OK load is the highest load in which
no scoring occurs.
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
6-1
Chapter 6
Nonfluid Lubrication
6-1. Solid Lubrication
a. Definition of solid lubricant. A solid lubricant is a material used as powder or thin film to
provide protection from damage during relative movement and to reduce friction and wear. Other terms
commonly used for solid lubrication include dry lubrication, dry-film lubrication, and solid-film lubrication.
Although these terms imply that solid lubrication takes place under dry conditions, fluids are frequently
used as a medium or as a lubricant with solid additives. Perhaps the most commonly used solid lubricants
are the inorganic compounds graphite and molybdenum disulfide (MoS ) and the polymer material
2
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE).
b. Characteristics. The properties important in determining the suitability of a material for use as a
solid lubricant are discussed below.
(1) Crystal structure. Solid lubricants such as graphite and MoS possess a lamellar crystal structure
2
with an inherently low shear strength. Although the lamellar structure is very favorable for materials such
as lubricants, nonlamellar materials also provide satisfactory lubrication.
(2) Thermal stability. Thermal stability is very important since one of the most significant uses for
solid lubricants is in high temperature applications not tolerated by other lubricants. Good thermal stability
ensures that the solid lubricant will not undergo undesirable phase or structural changes at high or low
temperature extremes.
(3) Oxidation stability. The lubricant should not undergo undesirable oxidative changes when used
within the applicable temperature range.
(4) Volatility. The lubricant should have a low vapor pressure for the expected application at extreme
temperatures and in low-pressure conditions.
(5) Chemical reactivity. The lubricant should form a strong, adherent film on the base material.
(6) Mobility. The life of solid films can only be maintained if the film remains intact. Mobility of
adsorbates on the surfaces promotes self-healing and prolongs the endurance of films.
(7) Melting point. If the melting point is exceeded, the atomic bonds that maintain the molecular
structure are destroyed, rendering the lubricant ineffective.
(8) Hardness. Some materials with suitable characteristics, such as those already noted, have failed as
solid lubricants because of excessive hardness. A maximum hardness of 5 on the Mohs scale appears to
be the practical limit for solid lubricants.
(9) Electrical conductivity. Certain applications, such as sliding electric contacts, require high
electrical conductivity while other applications, such as insulators making rubbing contact, require low
conductivity.
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
6-2
c. Applications. Generally, solid lubricants are used in applications not tolerated by more
conventional lubricants. The most common conditions requiring use of solid lubricants are discussed
below. Specific Corps of Engineers and Bureau of Reclamation facilities where solid lubricant bearings
have been used are discussed in paragraph 6-3 of this chapter.
(1) Extreme temperature and pressure conditions. These are defined as high-temperature applications
up to 1926 EC ( 3500 EF), where other lubricants are prone to degradation or decomposition; extremely
low temperatures, down to -212 EC (-350 EF), where lubricants may solidify or congeal; and high-to-full-
vacuum applications, such as space, where lubricants may volatilize.
(2) As additives. Graphite, MoS , and zinc oxide are frequently added to fluids and greases. Surface
2
conversion coatings are often used to supplement other lubricants.
(3) Intermittent loading conditions. When equipment is stored or is idle for prolonged periods, solids
provide permanent, noncorrosive lubrication.
(4) Inaccessible locations. Where access for servicing is especially difficult, solid lubricants offer a
distinct advantage, provided the lubricant is satisfactory for the intended loads and speeds.
(5) High dust and lint areas. Solids are also useful in areas where fluids may tend to pick up dust and
lint with liquid lubricants; these contaminants more readily form a grinding paste, causing damage to
equipment.

(6) Contamination. Because of their solid consistency, solids may be used in applications where the
lubricant must not migrate to other locations and cause contamination of other equipment, parts, or
products.
(7) Environmental. Solid lubricants are effective in applications where the lubricated equipment is
immersed in water that may be polluted by other lubricants, such as oils and greases.
d. Advantages of solid lubricants.
(1) More effective than fluid lubricants at high loads and speeds.
(2) High resistance to deterioration in storage.
(3) Highly stable in extreme temperature, pressure, radiation, and reactive environments.
(4) Permit equipment to be lighter and simpler because lubrication distribution systems and seals are
not required.
e. Disadvantages of solid lubricants.
(1) Poor self-healing properties. A broken solid film tends to shorten the useful life of the lubricant.
(2) Poor heat dissipation. This condition is especially true with polymers due to their low thermal
conductivities.
(3) Higher coefficient of friction and wear than hydrodynamically lubricated bearings.
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
6-3
(4) Color associated with solids may be undesirable.
f. Types of solid lubricants.
(1) Lamellar solids. The most common materials are graphite and molybdenum disulfide.
(a) Graphite. Graphite has a low friction coefficient and very high thermal stability (2000 EC
[3632 EF] and above). However, practical application is limited to a range of 500 to 600 EC (932 to
1112 EF) due to oxidation. Furthermore, because graphite relies on adsorbed moisture or vapors to achieve
low friction, use may be further limited. At temperatures as low as 100 EC (212 EF), the amount of water
vapor adsorbed may be significantly reduced to the point that low friction cannot be maintained. In some
instances sufficient vapors may be extracted from contaminants in the surrounding environment or may be
deliberately introduced to maintain low friction. When necessary, additives composed of inorganic
compounds may be added to enable use at temperatures to 550 EC ( 1022 EF). Another concern is that
graphite promotes electrolysis. Graphite has a very noble potential of + 0.25V, which can lead to severe
galvanic corrosion of copper alloys and stainless steels in saline waters.
(b) Molybdenum disulfide (MoS ). Like graphite, MoS has a low friction coefficient, but, unlike
2 2
graphite, it does not rely on adsorbed vapors or moisture. In fact, adsorbed vapors may actually result in a
slight, but insignificant, increase in friction. MoS also has greater load-carrying capacity and its
2
manufacturing quality is better controlled. Thermal stability in nonoxidizing environments is acceptable to
1100 EC (2012 EF), but in air it may be reduced to a range of 350 to 400 EC (662 to 752 EF).
(2) Soft metal films. Many soft metals such as lead, gold, silver, copper, and zinc, possess low shear
strengths and can be used as lubricants by depositing them as thin films on hard substrates. Deposition
methods include electroplating, evaporating, sputtering, and ion plating. These films are most useful for
high temperature applications up to 1000 EC (1832 EF) and roller bearing applications where sliding is
minimal.
(3) Surface treatments. Surface treatments commonly used as alternatives to surface film depositions
include thermal diffusion, ion implantation, and chemical conversion coatings.
(a) Thermal diffusion. This is a process that introduces foreign atoms into a surface for various
purposes such as increasing wear-resistance by increasing surface hardness; producing low shear strength
to inhibit scuffing or seizure; and in combination with these to enhance corrosion-resistance.
(b) Ion implantation. This is a recently developed method that bombards a surface with ions to
increase hardness, which improves wear- and fatigue-resistance.
(c) Chemical conversion coatings. Frequently, solid lubricants will not adhere to the protected metal
surface. A conversion coating is a porous nonlubricating film applied to the base metal to enable adherence
of the solid lubricant. The conversion coating by itself is not a suitable lubricant.
(4) Polymers. Polymers are used as thin films, as self-lubricating materials, and as binders for
lamellar solids. Films are produced by a process combining spraying and sintering. Alternatively, a
coating can be produced by bonding the polymer with a resin. Sputtering can also be used to produce
films. The most common polymer used for solid lubrication is PTFE The main advantages of PTFE are
low friction coefficient, wide application range of -200 to 250 EC (-328 to 418 EF), and lack of chemical
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
6-4
reactivity. Disadvantages include lower load-carrying capacity and endurance limits than other
alternatives. Low thermal conductivity limits use to low speed sliding applications where MoS is not
2
satisfactory. Common applications include antistick coatings and self-lubricating composites.
g. Methods of applying solids. There are several methods for applying solid lubricants.
(1) Powdered solids. The oldest and simplest methods of applying solid lubricants are noted below.
(a) Burnishing. Burnishing is a rubbing process used to apply a thin film of dry powdered solid
lubricant such as graphite, MoS , etc., to a metal surface. This process produces a highly polished surface
2
that is effective where lubrication requirements and wear-life are not stringent, where clearance
requirements must be maintained, and where wear debris from the lubricant must be minimized. Surface
roughness of the metal substrate and particle size of the powder are critical to ensure good application.
(b) Hand rubbing. Hand rubbing is a procedure for loosely applying a thin coating of solid lubricant.
(c) Dusting. Powder is applied without any attempt to evenly spread the lubricant. This method
results in a loose and uneven application that is generally unsatisfactory.
(d) Tumbling. Parts to be lubricated are tumbled in a powdered lubricant. Although adhesion is not
very good, the method is satisfactory for noncritical parts such as small threaded fasteners and rivets.
(e) Dispersions. Dispersions are mixtures of solid lubricant in grease or fluid lubricants. The most
common solids used are graphite, MoS , PTFE, and Teflon. The grease or fluid provides normal
2
lubrication while the solid lubricant increases lubricity and provides extreme pressure protection. Addition
of MoS to lubricating oils can increase load-carrying capacity, reduce wear, and increase life in roller
2
bearings, and has also been found to reduce wear and friction in automotive applications. However,
caution must be exercised when using these solids with greases and lubricating fluids. Grease and oil may
prevent good adhesion of the solid to the protected surface. Detergent additives in some oils can also
inhibit the wear-reducing ability of MoS and graphite, and some antiwear additives may actually increase
2
wear. Solid lubricants can also affect the oxidation stability of oils and greases. Consequently, the
concentration of oxidation inhibitors required must be carefully examined and controlled. Aerosol sprays
are frequently used to apply solid lubricant in a volatile carrier or in an air-drying organic resin. However,
this method should be limited to short-term uses or to light- or moderate-duty applications where thick films
are not necessary. Specifications for solid lubricant dispersions are not included in this manual. Readers
interested in specifications for solid dispersions are referred to Appendix A. Before using dispersions,
users should become familiar with their applications and should obtain information in addition to that
provided in this manual. The information should be based on real-world experiences with similar or
comparable applications.
(2) Bonded coatings. Bonded coatings provide greater film thickness and increased wear life and are
the most reliable and durable method for applying solid lubricants. Under carefully controlled conditions,
coatings consisting of a solid lubricant and binding resin agent are applied to the material to be protected
by spraying, dipping, or brushing. Air-cured coatings are generally limited to operating temperatures
below 260 EC ( 500 EF) while heat-cured coatings are generally used to 370 EC (698 EF). The most
commonly used lubricants are graphite, MoS , and PTFE. Binders include organic resins, ceramics, and
2
metal salts. Organic resins are usually stable below 300EC (572 EF). Inorganic binders such as metal
salts or ceramics permit bonded films to be used in temperatures above 650 EC (1202 EF). The choice of
binder is also influenced by mechanical properties, environmental compatibility, and facility of processing.
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
6-5
Air-cured coatings applied by aerosol are used for moderate-duty applications; however, thermosetting
resin binders requiring heat-cure generally provide longer wear-life. The most common method of applying
bonded coatings is from dispersions in a volatile solvent by spraying, brushing, or dipping. Spraying
provides the most consistent cover, but dipping is frequently used because it is less expensive. Surface
preparation is very important to remove contaminants and to provide good surface topography for lubricant
adhesion. Other pretreatments used as alternatives or in conjunction with roughness include phosphating
for steels and analogous chemical conversion treatments for other metals. Specifications for solid film
bonded coating are not included in this manual. Readers interested in specifications for solid film bonded
coatings are referred to the references in Appendix A.
(3) Self-lubricating composites. The primary applications for self-lubricating composites include dry
bearings, gears, seals, sliding electrical contacts, and retainers in roller bearings. Composites may be
polymer, metal-solid, carbon and graphite, and ceramic and cermets.
(a) Polymer. The low thermal conductivity of polymers inhibits heat dissipation, which causes
premature failure due to melting. This condition is exacerbated if the counterface material has the same or
similar thermal conductivity. Two polymers in sliding contact will normally operate at significantly
reduced speeds than a polymer against a metal surface. The wear rate of polymer composites is highly
dependent upon the surface roughness of the metal counterfaces. In the initial operating stages, wear is
significant but can be reduced by providing smooth counterfaces. As the run-in period is completed, the
wear rate is reduced due to polymer film transfer or by polishing action between the sliding surfaces.
Environmental factors also influence wear rate. Increased relative humidity inhibits transfer film formation
in polymer composites such as PTFE, which rely on transfer film formation on counterfaces. The
presence of hydrocarbon lubricants may also produce similar effects. Composites such as nylons and
acetals, which do not rely on transfer film formation, experience reduced wear in the presence of small
amounts of hydrocarbon lubricants.
(b) Metal-solid. Composites containing lamellar solids rely on film transfer to achieve low friction.
The significant amount of solids required to improve film transfer produces a weak composite with reduced
wear life. Addition of nonlamellar solids to these composites can increase strength and reduce wear.
Various manufacturing techniques are used in the production of metal-solid composites. These include
powder metallurgy, infiltration of porous metals, plasma spraying, and electrochemical codeposition.
Another fabrication technique requires drilling holes in machine parts and packing the holes with solid
lubricants. One of the most common applications for these composites is self-lubricating roller bearing
retainers used in vacuum or high temperatures up to 400EC (752 EF). Another application is in fail-safe
operations, where the bearing must continue to operate for a limited time following failure of the normal
lubrication system.
(c) Carbon and graphites. The primary limitations of bulk carbon are low tensile strength and lack of
ductility. However, their high thermal and oxidation stabilities at temperatures of 500 to 600 EC (932 to
1112 EF) (higher with additives) enable use at high temperatures and high sliding speeds. For graphitic
carbons in dry conditions, the wear rate increases with temperature. This condition is exacerbated when
adsorbed moisture inhibits transfer film formation. Furthermore, dusting may also cause failure at high
temperatures and sliding speeds. However, additives are available to inhibit dusting.
(d) Ceramics and cermets. Ceramics and cermets can be used in applications where low wear rate is
more critical than low friction. These composites can be used at temperatures up to 1000 EC (1832 EF).
Cermets have a distinct advantage over ceramics in terms of toughness and ductility. However, the metal
content tends to reduce the maximum temperature limit. Solid lubricant use with bulk ceramics is limited
to insertion in machined holes or recesses.
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
6-6
6-2. Self-Lubricating Bearings
a. Self-lubricating bearing research. The Corps of Engineers Hydroelectric Design Center (HDC)
has developed a standardized test specification for evaluating self-lubricating bearings for wicket gate
applications in hydroelectric turbines. Although the test criteria, procedures, and equipment were
established based on the requirements from hydropower applications, there is potential for other
applications such as bushings for miter and tainter gates. The tests are used as benchmarks to measure and
compare the performance of competing products. During the tests, bearings are subjected to accelerated
wear under the worst operating conditions possible. Testing is divided into three sections: initial set and
creep, accelerated wear, and edge loading.
(1) Initial set and creep. In this test the bushings and sleeves are subjected to static loads to 229.6 bar
(3300 lb/in ). The shaft is rotated at periodic intervals, and the shaft displacement wear relative to the test
2
block is continuously monitored.
(2) Accelerated wear test. In this test a radial load of 227.6 bar (3300 lb/in ) is superimposed by a
2
dynamic load of 68.9 bar (1000 lb/in ) at 2 Hz. The shaft is rotated according to established criteria, and
2
temperatures, static load, dynamic load to rotate (friction), stroke displacement, and wear are recorded.
(3) Edge load test. This test is similar to the accelerated wear test except that the sleeve is machined to
simulate shaft misalignment.
b. Application of self-lubricated bearings. Table 6-1 identifies Corps facilities using self-lubricating
bearings and their specific applications.
Table 6-1
Corps of Engineers and Bureau of Reclamation Facilities Using Self-lubricating Bearings
Corps Facilities
Location Facility Application
Portland, OR Little Goose Wicket gate, linkage bushing, operating rings
Portland, OR Lower Monumental Wicket gate, linkage bushing, operating rings
Portland, OR Bonneville Lock Swing bridge pivot bearing
Portland, OR Bonneville Lock Mooring rollers
Portland, OR Bonneville Lock Miter gate bushings
St. Paul, MN Lock No. 10, MS River Gate chain bushings
Louisville, KY Cannelton Lock Lock gate drive bushings
Little Rock, AK Dardanelles Dam Wicket gate, linkage bushing, operating rings
Nashville, TN Kentucky Lock Project Mooring rollers
Walla Walla, WA McNary Lock and Dam Fish screen sphericals
Rock Island, IL Rock Island Dam Wicket gate, linkage bushing, operating rings
Bureau of Reclamation Facilities
Grand Coulee, WA Grand Coulee Linkage bearing evaluation, sole plate keys
Denver, CO NA Bearing evaluation
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
6-7
6-3. Self-Lubricating Bearings for Olmsted Wicket Gates Prototype Tests
a. Introduction. Applicable to this manual is a discussion of the self-lubricating bearings used in the
Olmsted Locks and Dams prototype hydraulically operated wicket gates, including lessons learned from the
testing of the bearings and monitoring of the hydraulic fluid used in operating the wickets. The discussion
is assembled from a report entitled Olmsted Prototype Hydraulically Operated Navigable Pass Wicket
Dam, Final Report August 1997, prepared by the Corps of Engineers Louisville District. The report
details project development, design, construction, testing, material evaluation, and lessons learned.
b. General.
(1) The Olmsted project has undergone numerous conceptual changes throughout its development.
One approved design included 220 remotely operated, hydraulically actuated wicket gates. Each wicket
was to be 2.74 m (9 ft, 2 in.) wide and 7.77 m (25 ft, 6 in.) long with a design lift of 6.7 m (22 ft). A full-
scale model (prototype) was constructed with five wickets to test the design, materials, and components
developed by Louisville District. New and unique materials and components were developed and tested,
such as self-lubricating bearings and biodegradable hydraulic fluid.
(2) Self-lubricating bearings by five different manufacturers were tested and evaluated. The
manufacturers are Merriman, Thordon, Lubron, Kamatics, and Rowend. Each wicket was installed with a
complete set of bearings from one manufacturer. The size of the bearings and corresponding pins were
determined based on load data collected on a 1:25 model of the wicket at the U.S. Army Engineer
Waterways Experiment Station Vicksburg, MS. The contact area/diameter and length of bearings were
designed to have a maximum distributed load of 552.7 bar (8000 psi). No seals were installed on any of
the bearings. The manufacturers were given the option to use whatever lubrication they chose for the
conditions specified. The conditions were that the bearings were to be in the Ohio River operating at slow
speeds under a minimum of 6.7 m (22 ft) of head. The bearings were installed dry and each was operated
approximately 50 times during the shake-down test before the site was flooded. Each set of bearings,
except Wicket #1, received 400 cycles of operation. The 400 cycles corresponded to the number of
operations the wickets would have been subjected to over a 25-year service life at the Olmsted facility.
Because of a wicket malfunction, Wicket #1 received only 255 cycles, but was exposed to the same
conditions throughout the test. The bearings were subjected to extended periods in which the wickets were
left in a fixed position and the river current was allowed to flow past. Each hinge bearing on each of the
wickets was subjected to the same loads and experienced the same conditions.
c. Test summary.
(1) Wicket #1, Lubron. The manufacturer of the bearings installed on Wicket #1 was Lubron Bearing
Systems, Huntington Beach, CA. Lubron used a bearing manufactured with a manganese bronze housing
with an inner lubricating coating of PTFE, trade name AQ100 . The material is a combination of PTFE,
fluorocarbons and epoxy resin, hardeners, and metallic and fibrous fillers.
! Hinge sleeve bushings and pins. Evaluation of the hinge sleeve bushings after operation indicated
no wear of the lubricated surface. The lubricating material inside the bushing was in good
condition. The hinge pins were in good condition with no sign of wear.
! Prop spherical bearing. The spherical bearing in the prop was designed with a stainless steel ball
mounted in a manganese bronze race. The race was coated with the AQ100 lubricant material.
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
6-8
After testing, the ball and housing were in good condition with no indication of wear. The
lubricant material was well coated on the ball and not worn off the race.
(2) Wicket #2, Kamatics. The manufacturer of the bearings installed on Wicket #2 was Kamatics
Corporation (Kaman), Bloomfield, CT. Kamatics used a bearing manufactured with a fiberglass/epoxy
housing incorporating an inner lubricating liner (Karon V) of PTFE. Each of the bearings Kamatics
provided were designed for swell caused by the inherent absorption of water into the fiberglass bushing
housing.
! Hinge sleeve bushings and pins. Evaluation of the hinge sleeve bushings after operation indicated
that the lubricating liner (Karon V) material was ground and flaked off both the left and right
side sleeve bushings. Kamatics sent a letter to the Corps explaining that the company believed
contamination entering the bushing through unnecessarily large clearances was the reason the
bushings failed. The hinge pins were in good condition with no sign of wear.
! Prop spherical bearing. The spherical bearing on the prop was designed with a stainless steel ball
mounted in a stainless steel race. Observation of the prop after testing revealed the bearing applied
side loads on the cover plate caused bolts to shear off. Wear marks were evident on the stainless
steel ball where contact had been made between the ball and the stainless steel race. The Karon
V lubricating liner material was removed along the contact area of the race. Wear marks were
evident on the race where the ball and race had been rubbing steel-on-steel. Kamatics sent a letter
to the Corps explaining that improper location of the split of the outer race resulted in nonuniform
contact between ball and liner which caused chipping of the liner. The Kamatics letter stated that
with a properly located split line for the outer race, the Karon V lined spherical bearing would
function without difficulty.
! Direct-connect cylinder to gate connection pin. Wicket #2 was a direct-connected cylinder.
Therefore, the connection between the piston rod and the gate used two sleeve bushings.
Evaluation of the bushings after operation indicated the lubricating liner (Karon V) material was
worn away from the nonload side of the bushing. Material from the Kamatics lubricant used in the
bushing was present on the stainless steel pin. No scoring was present on the pin.
! Cylinder trunnion bushings. Evaluation of the bushings after operation indicated the lubricating
liner (Karon V) material was in good condition, with minor wear on the load-bearing surface of
the bushing. Lubricant material from the Kamatics bushings was deposited on the stainless steel
pins and from the thrust surface of the bushing on the side of the trunnion. The area where contact
was made between the cylinder trunnion pins and the bushings could be seen, but the pins were not
damaged.
(3) Wicket #3, Merriman. The manufacturer of the bearings installed on Wicket #3 was Merriman,
Hingham, MA. Merrimans product, Lubrite, used a bushing machined from manganese bronze. A
series of 6.35 10 m (1/4-in.) holes were drilled in a designated pattern in the housings and filled with
-3
Merriman G12 lubricant. The inner lubricating liner used in the housings was G12 lubricant. G12 is an
epoxy-based graphite-free lubricant.
! Hinge sleeve bushings and pins. Evaluation of the bushings after operation indicated the final inner
surface coating layer of Gl2 was removed and the G12 plugs were exposed. On the inside of the
left bushing, a couple of the plugs had begun to wear or wash out. Approximately 250 microns
(10 mils) of material was removed from the plugs and the manganese bronze had begun to show
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6-9
wear in a 13-cm (2-in. ) area of the bushing. The pins were in good condition with no sign of
2 2
wear. There was little to no lubricant material present on the pins.
! Prop spherical bearing. The spherical ball of the bearing was machined from manganese bronze.
Lubrite lubricant G12 was added to the ball by means of a series of machined rings and holes
and by inserting the lubricant into the voids. A 175-micron (7-mil) layer of G12 lubricant was
applied over the face of the ball for break-in purposes. The surface of the ball was rough with pits
where the G12 lubricant had worn or washed out. Observation of the ball indicated galvanic
corrosive action between the lubricant material and stainless steel could have caused the pitting of
the material. The noncontact surface of the ball still had signs of the initial break-in surface coat of
G12 lubricant on it. The race was in good condition.
! Cylinder trunnion bushing. Evaluation of the bushings after operation indicated the 200-micron (8-
mil) thick inner break-in surface layer of G12 was removed on the bottom, along the load area of
the bushings. The stainless steel trunnion pins had G12 lubricant deposited on the pins. The load
areas where the bushing contacted the pins showed no signs of wear. The pins were in good
condition with no signs of wear.
(4) Wicket #4, Thordon. The manufacturer of the bearings installed on Wicket #4 was Thordon
Bearings, Inc., of Burlington, Ontario, Canada. Thordon used a bushing machined from bronze. The inner
lubricating liner used in the bushing was Thordon SXL TRAXL. SXL is a polyurethane-based material
with multiple proprietary additives that the manufacturer will not disclose.
! Hinge sleeve bushings and pins. Evaluation of the bushings after operation indicated that the final
inner surface coating was in good condition, with minor deposits of black debris impregnated into
the material. The stainless steel hinge pins were in good condition with no signs of wear.
! Cylinder trunnion bushing. Evaluation of the bushings after operation indicated that the loads
caused the lubricating material to compress approximately 125 to 250 microns (5 to10 mils).
The manufacturer of the bushings provided the Corps of Engineers an overview of their interpretation of
the cause of dark areas observed in the bushing. They stated the discoloration most probably was iron
oxide from mild steel that was trapped between the bottom of the shaft and the bearing, subsequently
pressed into the bearing surface. The stainless steel trunnion pins showed no signs of wear and were in
good condition.
(5) Wicket #5, Rowend. The manufacturer of the bearings installed on Wicket #5 was Rowend,
Liberty Center, OH. Rowend used a bushing machined from manganese bronze. A series of 6.3-mm
(1/4-in.) holes were drilled in the bushing and filled with R-8 lubricant in a designated pattern around the
bushing. The inner lubricating material used was R-8, a proprietary material.
! Hinge sleeve bushings and pins. Evaluation of the bushings after operation indicated that galvanic
corrosion occurred between the manganese bronze bushing and the stainless steel pin. The
noncontact surface of the left hinge bushings had pits. The thrust surface of the left hinge bearing
also had pitting and the R-8 lubricant was beginning to wash out of the plug area. The right
hinge bushing side thrust surface experienced the majority of the side loading and was grooved and
worn from the rotation. The R-8 lubricant washed out of the plug area as much as 0.79 mm
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6-10
(1/32 in.) on the thrust surface. Pitting was not present on the load side of the right hinge bushing.
There were no indications of galvanic action found on the stainless steel hinge pins.
! Direct-connect cylinder to gate connection pin. Wicket #5 was a direct-connected cylinder;
therefore, the connection between the piston rod and the gate used two sleeve bushings. Evaluation
of the bushings after operation indicated the lubricating material fully coated the bushing surface
as required. There were minor traces of galvanic corrosion in the manganese bronze material.
Overall, the bushings were in good condition. Lubricant material used in the bushing was on the
pin. No scoring was present on the pin.
! Cylinder trunnion bushings. Evaluation of the bushings indicated that foreign material had gotten
into the bushing and damaged the manganese housing. Some grooves were in the base metal. The
R-8 material was distributed around the bushing, as is normal.
d. Lessons learned. Lessons learned in this study were.
(1) Bearing materials. Of the five self-lubricating bearing materials tested, each performed differently.
Four of the manufacturers made the housings of the bearings from manganese bronze into which a specific
lubricant was applied. The fifth manufacturer, Kamatics, used a fiberglass housing onto which a lubricant
was applied. Rowend used lubricant plugs with no break-in surface, and pitting occurred in the
manganese bronze. It is believed that galvanic action between the material and the stainless steel pin
caused the pitting. Merriman and Lubron used a break-in layer of lubricant which seemed to protect the
bronze from the galvanic action. Thordon used a material that was laminated to the bronze and absorbed
fine debris into the material. Kamatics used a PTFE-based lubricant that delaminated and flaked off the
housing of the bearings. Based on the testing conducted, the Lousville District rated the products in the
following order: Lubron and Thordon (equal) > Merriman > Rowend > Kamatics. The reason for the low
rating of the Kamatics bearing was the observed damage.
(2) Biodegradable hydraulic fluid. The fluid performed well once the proper size filters were
determined. Originally a 10-micron- (3.28 10 ft) filter was installed in the return line from the cylinders
-5
and on the supply line. In October and November, when the site was not in use, the cylinders were exposed
to cold weather. The cold fluid would not pass through the 10-micron filter fast enough, activating an
alarm in the control system. To correct the problem, the 10-micron filter in the return line was replaced
with a 20-micron (6.56 10 ft) filter, and the heater inside the reservoir was turned on. These actions
-5
solved the problem.
(3) Hydraulic fluid filters. It is important to position the filters on the reservoir in a location where
they are easily accessible for routine maintenance.
(4) Cleaning of hydraulic system. Initial cleaning of the system was performed by the mechanical
contractor. After operating the hydraulic system for a period of time, metal shavings were discovered in the
return filter. It was determined that the shavings came from the manifolds. It was believed that the shock
to the piping system from engaging of the alignment cylinder solenoids dislodged the shavings from the
manifold. Each manifold was removed and recleaned, and the problem no longer occurred.
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Chapter 7
Lubricant Additives
7-1. General
Oil quality is established by the refining processes and additives are most effective if the oil is well refined.
Although the overall performance of an oil can be improved by introducing additives, a poor quality oil
cannot be converted into a premium quality oil by introducing additives. Furthermore, there are limits to
the amount of additives that can be introduced to improve performance. Beyond these limits, the benefits
are minimal or may provide no gains in performance. They also may increase the cost of lubricants and, in
some cases, may even be harmful. An additive may function in any of the following three ways:
! Protecting lubricated surfaces. Extreme pressure (EP) additives and rust inhibitors are included in
this category. These additives coat the lubricated surfaces and prevent wear or rust.
! Improving performance. Viscosity index improvers and antifoaming agents are examples. They
make the oil perform in a desired manner for specific applications.
! Protecting the lubricant itself. Antioxidants reduce the tendency of oil to oxidize and form sludge
and acids.
The most common additives are listed in Table 7-1, and they are discussed individually in the following
paragraphs.
7-2. Surface Additives
The primary purpose of surface additives is to protect lubricated surfaces. Extreme pressure additives, rust
and corrosion inhibitors, tackiness agents, antiwear additives, and oiliness additives are included in this
category. These additives coat the lubricated surfaces to prevent wear or rust.
a. Rust inhibitors. Rust inhibitors are added to most industrial lubricants to minimize rusting of
metal parts, especially during shipment, storage, and equipment shutdown. Although oil and water do not
mix very well, water will emulsify--especially if the oil contains polar compounds that may develop as the
oil ages. In some instances the water will remain either suspended by agitation or will rest beneath the oil
on machine surfaces when agitation is absent. Rust inhibitors form a surface film that prevents water from
making contact with metal parts. This is accomplished by making the oil adhere better or by emulsifying
the water if it is in a low concentration.
b. Corrosion inhibitors. Corrosion inhibitors suppress oxidation and prevent formation of acids.
These inhibitors form a protective film on metal surfaces and are used primarily in internal combustion
engines to protect alloy bearings and other metals from corrosion.
c. Extreme pressure (EP) agents. Extreme pressure agents react with the metal surfaces to form
compounds that have a lower shear strength than the metal. The reaction is initiated by increased
temperature caused by pressure between asperities on wearing surfaces. The reaction creates a protective
coating at the specific points where protection is required. This coating reduces friction, wear, scoring,
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Table 7-1
Types of Additives
Main Type Function and Subtypes
Acid neutralizers Neutralize contaminating strong acids formed, e.g., by combustion of high sulfur fuels
or by decomposition of active EP additives.
Antifoam Reduce surface foam.
Antioxidants Reduce oxidation. Various types are: oxidation inhibitors, retarders; anticatalyst metal
deactivators, metal passivators.
Antirust Reduce rusting of ferrous surfaces swept by oil.
Antiwear agents Reduce wear and prevent scuffing of rubbing surfaces under steady load operating
conditions
Corrosion inhibitors Type (a) reduces corrosion of lead; type (b) reduces corrosion of cuprous metals.
Detergents Reduce or prevent deposits formed at high temperatures, e.g., in internal combustion
engines.
Dispersant Prevent deposition of sludge by dispersing a finely divided suspension of the insoluble
material formed at low temperature.
Emulsifiers Form emulsions; either water-in-oil or oil-in-water, according to type.
Extreme pressure Prevent scuffing of rubbing surfaces under severe operating conditions, e.g., heavy
shock load, by formation of a mainly inorganic surface film.
Oiliness enhancers Reduce friction under boundary lubrication conditions; increase load-carrying capacity
where limited by temperature rise by formation of mainly organic surface films.
Pour- point depressants Reduce pour point of paraffinic oils.
Tackiness agents Reduce loss of oil by gravity, e.g., from vertical sliding surfaces, or by centrifugal
force.
Viscosity index improvers Reduce the decrease in viscosity due to increase of temperature
Reference: Neale, M. J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England.
.
seizure, and galling of wear surfaces. Extreme pressure additives are used in heavy loading or shock
loading applications such as turbines, gears, and ball and roller bearings.
d. Tackiness agents. In some cases, oils must adhere to surfaces extremely well. Adding polymers
composed of long-chain molecules or aluminum soaps of long-chain fatty acids increases the tackiness or
adhesiveness of oils.
e. Antiwear (AW) agents. Additives that cause an oil to resist wear by coating the metal surfaces are
called antiwear agents. Molecules of the antiwear compound are polar and attach (adsorb) themselves to
metal surfaces or react mildly with the metal. When boundary lubrication conditions (direct contact
between metal asperities) occur, such as in starting and stopping of machinery, these molecules resist
removal more than ordinary oil molecules. This reduces friction and wear. However, they are effective
only up to about 250 EC (480 EF ).
f. Detergents and dispersant. Detergents and dispersant are used primarily in internal combustion
engines to keep metal surfaces clean by preventing deposition of oxidation products.
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g. Compounded oil. A small amount of animal fat or vegetable oil added to a mineral oil will reduce
the coefficient of friction without affecting the viscosity. The ability of an oil to provide a lower coefficient
of friction at a given viscosity is often called oiliness or lubricity. When fatty oil is added to obtain this
quality of oiliness, the lubricant is called a compounded oil. Fatty oil adheres to metal more strongly than
mineral oil and provides a protective film. Compounded oils are generally used in worm gears.
7-3. Performance-Enhancing Additives
These additives improve the performance of lubricants. Viscosity index improvers, antifoaming agents,
emulsifiers, demulsifiers, and pour-point depressants are examples.
a. Pour-point depressants. An oil's pour point is the temperature at which the oil ceases to flow
under the influence of gravity. In cold weather, oil with a high pour point makes machinery startup
difficult or impossible. The stiffness of cold oil is due to paraffin waxes that tend to form crystal
structures. Pour-point depressants reduce the size and cohesiveness of the crystal structures, resulting in
reduced pour point and increased flow at reduced temperatures.
b. Viscosity index (VI) improvers. The viscosity index is an indicator of the change in viscosity as
the temperature is changed. The higher the VI, the less the viscosity of an oil changes for a given
temperature change. Viscosity index improvers are used to limit the rate of change of viscosity with
temperature. These improvers have little effect on oil viscosity at low temperatures. However, when
heated, the improvers enable the oil viscosity to increase within the limited range permitted by the type and
concentration of the additive. This quality is most apparent in the application of multigrade motor oils.
c. Emulsifiers. In most industrial applications it is undesirable to have emulsified water in the oil.
However, soluble oils require emulsifiers to promote rapid mixing of oil and water and to form stable
emulsions. Soluble oils are used as lubricants and coolants for cutting, grinding, and drilling applications
in machine shops.
d. Demulsifiers. Demulsifiers promote separation of oil and water in lubricants exposed to water.
7-4. Lubricant Protective Additives
Lubricant protective additives are employed to protect the lubricant instead of the equipment. Oxidation
inhibitors and foam inhibitors are examples.
a. Oxidation inhibitors. Over time, hydrocarbon molecules will react to incorporate oxygen atoms
into their structure This reaction produces acids, sludge, and varnish that foul or damage metal parts. At
low temperatures and under minimal exposure to oxygen, this process is very slow. At temperatures above
82 EC (180 EF) the oxidation rate is doubled for every -7.78 to -6.67 EC (18 to 20 EF) rise in temperature.
Oxidation of hydrocarbons is a very complex chemical process and depends on the nature of the oil.
Oxidation inhibitors reduce the quantity of oxygen reacting with oil by forming inactive soluble compounds
and by passivating metal-bearing surfaces to retard the oxidation rate. As previously noted, oxidation
inhibitors are consumed as the oil ages. Oil condition should be monitored periodically to ensure that
essential additives are maintained at safe levels. Oxidation inhibitors are used in most industrial lubricant
applications where oil is continuously circulated or contained in a housing.
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b. Foam inhibitors. In many applications, air or other gases may become entrained in oil. Unless
these gases are released, a foam is produced. Foaming can result in insufficient oil delivery to bearings,
causing premature failure. Foam may also interfere with proper operation of equipment such as lubricating
pumps and may result in false oil level readings. Under some circumstances foam may overflow from oil
reservoirs. Foam inhibitors such as silicone polymers or polyacrylates are added to reduce foaming.
7-5. Precautions
a. Additives alone do not establish oil quality with respect to oxidation resistance, emulsification,
pour point, and viscosity index. Lubricant producers do not usually state which compounds are used to
enhance the lubricant quality, but only specify the generic function such as antiwear, EP agents, or
oxidation inhibitors. Furthermore, producers do not always use the same additive to accomplish the same
goal. Consequently, any two brands selected for the same application may not be chemically identical.
Users must be aware of these differences and that they may be significant when mixing different products.
(1) Additive depletion. Certain precautions must be observed with regard to lubricant additives. Some
additives are consumed during use. As these additives are consumed, lubricant performance for the
specific application is reduced and equipment failure may result under continued use. Oil monitoring
programs should be implemented to periodically test oils and verify that the essential additives have not
been depleted to unacceptable levels.
(2) Product incompatibility. Another important consideration is incompatibility of lubricants. Some
oils, such as those used in turbine, hydraulic, motor, and gear applications are naturally acidic. Other oils,
such as motor oils and transmission fluids, are alkaline. Acidic and alkaline lubricants are incompatible.
b. When servicing an oil lubricating system, the existing and new oils must be compatible. Oils for
similar applications but produced by different manufacturers may be incompatible due to the additives
used. When incompatible fluids are mixed, the additives may be consumed due to chemical reaction with
one another. The resulting oil mixture may be deficient of essential additives and therefore unsuitable for
the intended application. When fresh supplies of the oil in use are not available, the lubricant manufacturer
should be consulted for recommendation of a compatible oil. Whenever oil is added to a system, the oil
and equipment should be checked frequently to ensure that there are no adverse reactions between the new
and existing oil. Specific checks should include bearing temperatures and signs of foaming, rust, or
corrosion.
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Chapter 8
Environmentally Acceptable Lubricants
8-1. General
Mineral-oil-based lubricating oils, greases, and hydraulic fluids are found in widespread use throughout
Corps of Engineers facilities. However, these products are usually toxic and not readily biodegradable.
Because of these characteristics, if these materials escape to the environment, the impacts tend to be
cumulative and consequently harmful to plant, fish, and wildlife. Due to these potential hazards, the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and other government regulators have imposed increasingly
stringent regulations on the use, containment, and disposal of these materials. For instance, the EPA
requires that no visible oil sheen be evident downstream from facilities located in or close to waterways.
Another regulation requires that point discharges into waterways should not exceed 10 parts per million
(ppm) of mineral-based oils. Corps facilities such as hydropower plants, flood-control pumping plants, and
lock-and-dam sites either are or have the potential to become polluters due to the use of mineral-oil-based
materials in these facilities. Grease, hydraulic fluids, and oil leaking from equipment may be carried into
the waterway. Because of the difficulty in completely eliminating spills and discharges of these mineral-oil-
based materials, and to alleviate concerns about their impact on the environment, a new class of
environmentally acceptable (EA) materials is becoming available and starting to find increasing use in
sensitive locations. EA lubricants, as contrasted to mineral-oil-based equivalents, are nontoxic and
decompose into water and carbon dioxide (CO ). EA fluids are frequently made from renewable resources,
2
which reduces dependency on mineral oils.
8-2. Definition of Environmentally Acceptable (EA) Lubricants
a. The lubrication industry uses a variety of terms to address environmental lubricants. A few of
these terms, all preceded by the term environmentally, are: acceptable, aware, benign, friendly,
harmless, safe, sensitive, and suitable. Two other commonly used terms are green fluids and
food grade lubricants. The term green fluid is mostly used for lubricants manufactured from vegetable
oil. Food grade lubricants are rated by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and generally are used
in the food industry where incidental food contact may occur. Food grade lubricants may or may not
qualify as EA lubricants. Indeed, most food grade lubricants are made of U.S.P. White Mineral Oil which
is not toxic but does not meet the biodegradability criteria commonly required of EA lubricants.
Environmentally acceptable is the most commonly used term and is used by some ASTM committees to
address environmental lubricants. This manual uses the term EA.
b. At the present time there are no standards for EA lubricants or hydraulic fluids. Manufacturers
and end users agree that for a lubricant to be classified as an EA type it should be biodegradable and
nontoxic. This means that if a small quantity of EA fluid is inadvertently spilled into the environment, such
as a waterway, it should readily break down and not cause harm to fish, plants, or wildlife.
c. U.S. standards-writing organizations are currently working to develop nationally recognized tests
and procedures for demonstrating compliance with various environmental criteria such as biodegradability
and toxicity. The ASTM Committee on Petroleum Products and Lubricants has formed a subcommittee,
referred to as the Subcommittee on Environmental Standards for Lubricants, which is tasked with
developing test methods for determining aerobic aquatic biodegradation and aquatic toxicity of lubricants.
The methodology developed by this subcommittee, ASTM D 5864, for determining the aerobic aquatic
biodegradation of the lubricants, was accepted for standard use by the ASTM in December 1995. The
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subcommittee is also developing a test method for determining the aquatic toxicity of lubricants. With
approval of these standards, it is expected that these methods will be used by industry for evaluating and
specifying EA fluids.
d. However, lacking formally approved U.S. test procedures, suppliers of EA lubricants frequently
use established European standards to demonstrate their products' compliance with U.S. criteria. In this
manual, references are made to these European standards.
e. The base fluids discussed herein may be used for preparation of hydraulic fluids, lubrication fluids,
or greases. Environmental tests referred to in this manual are applicable to all three types of products.
8-3. Biodegradation
a. Definition.
(1) Biodegradation is defined as the chemical breakdown or transformation of a substance caused by
organisms or their enzymes.
(2) Primary biodegradation is defined as a modification of a substance by microorganisms that causes
a change in some measurable property of the substance.
(3) Ultimate biodegradation is the degradation achieved when a substance is totally utilized by
microorganisms resulting in the production of carbon dioxide, methane, water, mineral salts, and new
microbial cellular constituents.
b. Tests.
(1) ASTM test method D 5864 determines lubricant biodegradation. This test determines the rate and
extent of aerobic aquatic biodegradation of lubricants when exposed to an inoculum under laboratory
conditions. The inoculum may be the activated sewage-sludge from a domestic sewage-treatment plant, or
it may be derived from soil or natural surface waters, or any combination of the three sources. The degree
of biodegradability is measured by calculating the rate of conversion of the lubricant to CO . A lubricant,
2
hydraulic fluid, or grease is classified as readily biodegradable when 60 percent or more of the test material
carbon is converted to CO in 28 days, as determined using this test method.
2
(2) The most established test methods used by the lubricant industry for evaluating the
biodegradability of their products are Method CEC-L-33-A-94 developed by the Coordinating European
Council (CEC); Method OECD 301B, the Modified Sturm Test, developed by the Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD); and Method EPA 560/6-82-003, number CG-2000, the
Shake Flask Test, adapted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). These tests also
determine the rate and extent of aerobic aquatic biodegradation under laboratory conditions. The Modified
Sturm Test and Shake Flask Test also calculate the rate of conversion of the lubricant to CO . The CEC
2
test measures the disappearance of the lubricant by analyzing test material at various incubation times
through infrared spectroscopy. Laboratory tests have shown that the degradation rates may vary widely
among the various test methods indicated above.
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8-4. Toxicity
Toxicity of a substance is generally evaluated by conducting an acute toxicity test. While awaiting
acceptance of the ASTM test method for determining the aquatic toxicity of lubricants, the most common
test methods used by the lubricant industry for evaluating the acute toxicity of their products are EPA
560/6-82-002, Sections EG-9 and ES-6; and OECD 203. These tests determine the concentration of a
substance that produces a toxic effect on a specified percentage of test organisms in 96 hours. The acute
toxicity test is normally conducted using rainbow trout. Toxicity is expressed as concentration in parts per
million (ppm) of the test material that results in a 50 percent mortality rate after 96 hours (LC50). A
substance is generally considered acceptable if aquatic toxicity (LC50) exceeds 1000 ppm. That is, a
lubricant or a hydraulic fluid is generally considered acceptable if a concentration of greater than 1000 ppm
of the material in an aqueous solution is needed to achieve a 50 percent mortality rate in the test organism.
8-5. EA Base Fluids and Additives
Base fluids are mixed with additives to form the final products. These additives are necessary because they
provide the resulting end product with physical and chemical characteristics such as oxidation stability,
foaming, etc., required for successful application. However, most additives currently used for mineral-
based oil are toxic and nonbiodegradable. Therefore, they cannot be used with EA fluids. Furthermore,
since the physical and chemical properties of EA fluids are quite different than those of mineral oil, EA
fluids will require entirely different additives. Several additive manufacturers are working with the
lubricant industry to produce environmentally suitable additives for improving the properties of EA base
fluids. Additives that are more than 80 percent biodegradable (CEC-L33-T82) are available. Sulfurized
fatty materials (animal fat or vegetable oils) are used to formulate extreme pressure/antiwear additives, and
succinic acid derivatives are used to produce ashless (no metal) additives for corrosion protection.
Suppliers are using a variety of base fluids to formulate EA hydraulic fluids, lubricating oils, and greases.
The base fluid may be the same for all three products. For example a biodegradable and nontoxic ester
may be used as the base fluid for production of hydraulic fluid, lubricating oil, and grease. The most
popular base fluids are vegetable oils, synthetic esters, and polyglycols.
a. Vegetable oils.
(1) Vegetable oil production reaches the billions of gallons in the United States. However, due to
technical complexity and economic reasons, few are usable for formulating EA fluids. The usable
vegetable oils offer excellent lubricating properties, and they are nontoxic and highly biodegradable,
relatively inexpensive compared to synthetic fluids, and are made from natural renewable resources.
(2) Rapeseed oil (RO), or canola oil, appears to be the base for the most popular of the biodegradable
hydraulic fluids. The first RO-based hydraulic fluids were commercially available in 1985. Laboratory
tests have identified limits to the use of this oil, but extensive practical experience has yielded relatively few
problems. The quality of RO has improved over time, and it has become increasingly popular, but it has
problems at both high and low temperatures and tends to age rapidly. Its cost, about double that of mineral
oil, still makes it more affordable than many alternative EA fluids.
(3) The benefits of RO include its plentiful supply, excellent lubricity, and high viscosity index and
flash point. RO is highly biodegradable. One popular RO achieves its maximum biodegradation after only
9 days. RO possesses good extreme pressure and antiwear properties, and readily passes the Vickers
35VQ25 vane pump wear tests. It offers good corrosion protection for hydraulic systems and does not
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attack seal materials, varnish, or paint. Mixing with mineral oil is acceptable and has no influence on oil
performance. RO is not water soluble and is lighter than water. Escaped oil can be skimmed off the
surface of water. Molecular weight is high, indicating low volatility and low evaporation loss.
(4) Concerns about RO include poor low-temperature fluidity and rapid oxidation at high
temperatures. Vegetable oil lubricants, including rapeseed, castor, and sunflower oils, tend to age quickly.
At high temperatures, they become dense and change composition; at low temperatures, they thicken and
gel. Some RO products are not recommended for use in ambient temperatures above 32EC (90 EF) or
below -6EC (21EF), but other products gel only after extended periods below -18EC (0EF) and will perform
well up to 82EC (180EF). The major problem with RO is its high content of linoleic and linolenic fatty
acids. These acids are characterized by two and three double bonds, respectively. A greater number of
these bonds in the product results in a material more sensitive to and prone to rapid oxidation. These
problems can be only partially controlled by antioxidants. Refining the base oil to reduce these acids
results in increased stability. Testing indicates that vegetable oils with higher oleic content have increased
oxidative stability. Genetic engineering has produced rapeseed and sunflower oils with high oleic content
for applications requiring better oxidation stability.
(5) Conversion to vegetable-oil-based fluids should present few problems, as all are mixable with
mineral oil. However, contamination with mineral oil should be kept to a minimum so that biodegradability
will not be affected. Special filter elements are not required. Filters should be checked after 50 hours of
operation, as vegetable oils tend to remove mineral-oil deposits from the system and carry these to the
filters. Filter-clogging indicators should be carefully monitored, as filter-element service life may be
reduced in comparison to mineral-oil operation.
b. Synthetic esters (SE).
(1) Synthetic esters have been in use longer than any other synthetic-based fluid. They were originally
used as aircraft jet engine lubricants in the 1950s and still are used as the base fluid for almost all aircraft
jet engine lubricants. For EA base lubricants, the most commonly used synthetic esters are polyol esters;
the most commonly used polyol esters are trimethylolpropane and pentaerithritol.
(2) Synthetic esters are made from modified animal fat and vegetable oil reacted with alcohol. While
there are similarities between RO and SEs, there are important differences. Esters are more thermally
stable and have much higher oxidative stability.
(3) SE fluids can be regarded as one of the best biodegradable hydraulic fluids. Synthetic esters with
suitable additives can also be nontoxic. They perform well as lubricants. They have excellent lubrication
properties: high viscosity index and low friction characteristics. Their liquidity at low and high
temperatures is excellent, as is their aging stability. Although they mix well with mineral oils, this
characteristic negatively influences their biodegradability. SE fluids offer good corrosion protection and
lubricity and usually can be used under the same operating conditions as mineral oils. They are applicable
for extreme temperature-range operations and appear to be the best biodegradable fluids for heavy-duty or
severe applications. Synthetic esters do have higher first cost and are incompatible with some paints,
finishes, and some seal materials. However, it may be possible to extend oil-change intervals and partially
offset the higher cost.
(4) Since SE fluids are miscible with mineral oil, conversion may be accomplished by flushing the
system to reduce the residual mineral-oil content to a minimum. Special filter elements are not required.
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Filters should be checked after 50 hours of operation, as vegetable oil tends to remove mineral-oil deposits
from the system and carry them to the filters.
c. Polyglycols (PG).
(1) The use of polyglycols is declining due to their aquatic toxicity when mixed with lubricating
additives and their incompatibility with mineral oils and seal materials.
(2) Polyglycol hydraulic fluids have been available for several decades and are widely used,
particularly in the food-processing industry. They also have been used since the mid-1980s in construction
machinery (primarily excavators) and a variety of stationary installations. They were the first
biodegradable oils on the market.
(3) PG fluids have the greatest stability with a range from -45 to 250 EC (-49 to 482 EF). Polyglycols
excel where fire hazard is a concern. Oil-change intervals are similar to those for a mineral oil: 2000 hours
or once a year.
(4) PG oils are not compatible with mineral oils and may not be compatible with common coatings,
linings, seals, and gasket materials. They must be stored in containers free of linings. Some PG oils do not
biodegrade well. The rate and degree of biodegradation are controlled by the ratio of propylene to ethylene
oxides, with polyethylene glycols being the more biodegradable. The rate and extent of biodegradability
diminish with increasing molecular weight.
(5) When a hydraulic system is converted from mineral oil to PG, it is essential that the oil supplier's
recommendations are followed. Normally, total system evacuation and one or two flushing procedures are
required to avoid any mixing with previously used mineral oil. Mineral oil is less dense than PG fluids, so
any residual mineral oil will float to the top and must be skimmed off. According to the manufacturer's
recommendations, the final residual quantity of mineral oil may not exceed 1 percent of the total fluid
volume. Mineral oil must not be used to replace lost PG fluid, and other contamination of PG with mineral
oil must be avoided. Compatibility with varnish, seal, and filter materials also must be considered. Paper
filters may need to be replaced with glass-fiber or metal-mesh filters, and these should be checked after the
first 50 hours of operation. The filters will retain any residual mineral oil and may become clogged.
Because of their excellent wetting properties, PG fluids tend to remove deposits left from operation with
mineral oil, and these deposits are carried to the filter. Polyglycols are soluble in water, so water must be
excluded from the system.
d. Water.
(1) With the prospect of increasingly stringent environmental restrictions on the use of mineral-oil-
based hydraulic fluids, water may become a practical alternative. Pure water has poor lubricity and cannot
function as a lubricant in the traditional sense, but water has been used as hydraulic fluid in specialty
applications where leakage contamination and fire hazard are major concerns. New designs and use of
highly wear-resistant materials have opened up possibilities for new water hydraulic applications. Reasons
to use water include the following:
(a) Water costs a fraction of mineral oils and other EA fluids.
(b) Water disposal has little or no impact on the environment.
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(c) Water is nonflammable and can be used where high temperatures and oils could create fire
hazards.
(d) Water has better thermal conductivity than oil and can transfer heat better allowing smaller heat
exchanger to be used.
(e) Waters incompressibility makes it ideal for accurate actuator positioning, whereas oil may be
sluggish and imprecise.
(2) Water does have several performance drawbacks, however. Conventional hydraulic oil system
components will not work with water, and modifying oil system components for water has had poor results.
Component manufacturers are now designing parts specifically for water and are having good results. The
following list describes performance drawbacks of water and solutions for overcoming them:
(a) Water has low viscosity, so leakage is a concern. Components with tighter clearances are being
manufactured to compensate for this.
(b) Water has low viscosity and low film strength, which means lower lubricity and higher wear.
Also, water corrodes metal parts. Stainless steel and high-strength plastic and ceramic bearings and
component parts designed for high wear resistance are being developed.
(c) Water has higher vapor pressure than mineral oil which makes it more prone to cause cavitation.
Pumps are being manufactured with smoother and larger flow areas and throttling valves are being
redesigned with innovative flow geometries to mitigate the cavitation potential.
(d) Water freezes. Nontoxic antifreezes have been developed to lower waters pour point.
(3) The rate and extent to which water hydraulics are adopted depends on the motivation for further
technical development and EA additive development by lubricant producers. The driving factor would be
legislation regarding toxic and nonbiodegradable hydraulic fluids.
8-6. Properties of Available EA Products
The ecotoxicological properties, physical properties, and relative costs of the most widely used EA fluids,
as compared with conventional mineral-based oils, are shown in Table 8-1. The cost figures do not include
the expenses for changing over to the EA oils, which may be substantial. PG may require total evacuation
of the system plus one or two flushes. Disposal costs for EA oils may be greater than for mineral oils
because recyclers will not accept them. As previously noted, laboratory tests have shown that the
degradation rates may vary widely among the various biodegradation test methods. Table 8-1 indicates
that the vegetable oil and synthetic-ester-based fluids, if formulated properly, are readily biodegradable.
The toxicity tests show that the base stocks of most EA lubricants are nontoxic. The wide range of toxicity
in Table 8-1 is caused by additives in the formulated products. The following discussion summarizes
important properties of EA fluids.
a. Oxidation stability. One of the most important properties of lubricating oils and hydraulic fluids is
their oxidation stability. Oils with low values of oxidation stability will oxidize rapidly in the presence of
water at elevated temperatures. When oil oxidizes it will undergo a complex chemical reaction that will
produce acid and sludge. Sludge may settle in critical areas of the equipment and interfere with the
lubrication and cooling functions of the fluid. The oxidized oil will also corrode the equipment.
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Table 8-1
Comparison of Ecotoxicological and Physical Properties of Lubricants
Properties Mineral Oil Polyglycol Vegetable Oil Synthetic Ester
Conventional
% Biodegradability 42 - 49 6 - 38 72 - 80 55 - 84
EPA 560/6-82-003
Toxicity , LC50, Trout, EPA 560/6-82- 389 - >5000 80 - >5000 633 - >5000 >5000
1
002
Oxidation Stability , TOST, hours, 1000 - 2000 <500 <75 <500
1
ASTM D 943
Lubricity Good Good Good Good
2
ASTM D 2266
Viscosity Index 90 - 100 100 - 200 100 - 250 120 - 200
2
ASTM D 2270
Foaming , ASTM D 892 Pass Pass Pass Pass
2
Pour Point EC (EF) -54 to -15 -40 to 20 -20 to 10 -60 to 20
2
ASTM D 97 (-65 to 5) (-40 to 68) (-4 to 50) (-76 to 68)
Compatibility with Mineral Oil - Not miscible Good Good
2
Relative Cost 1 2 - 4 2 - 3 5 - 20
2
Cheng et al., 1994
1
Rhee 1996
2
Oxidation stability is normally measured by test method ASTM D 943. This test, which is commonly
known as Turbine Oil Stability Test (TOST), is used to evaluate the oxidation stability of oils in the
presence of oxygen, water, and iron-copper catalyst at an elevated temperature. As Table 8-1 shows the
TOST life of mineral oil is more than 1000 hours. Synthetic esters and polyglycols are hydrolytically less
stable than mineral oils at elevated temperatures, resulting in lower TOST lives. It has been shown that
formulated synthetic esters with proper additives will produce high TOST values. Vegetable oils, on the
other hand, have a TOST life of less than 75 hours. To improve the TOST life of vegetable oil products,
more research must be done on formulating a proper mixture of base oil with a suitable additive package.
Until acceptable commercial formulations are demonstrated, vegetable oils should be confined to
applications involving very dry conditions and low temperatures.
b. Lubricity. Lubricity is the degree to which an oil or grease lubricates moving parts and minimizes
wear. Lubricity is usually measured by test method ASTM D 2266, commonly known as the Four-Ball
Method. Laboratory tests have shown that EA lubricants normally produce good wear properties.
c. Pour point. Pour point defines the temperature at which an oil solidifies. When oil solidifies, its
performance is greatly compromised. Pour point is normally evaluated by test method ASTM D 97. The
low-temperature fluidity of vegetable-based fluids is poor compared to other fluids listed in Table 8-1.
However, the pour point of vegetable-based hydraulic fluids and lubricants may be acceptable for many
applications.
d. Viscosity index. Viscosity index (VI) is a measure of the variation in the kinematic viscosity of oils
as the temperature changes. The higher the viscosity index, the less the effect of temperature on its
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kinematic viscosity. VI is measured by test method ASTM D 2270. As Table 8-1 shows, the VI of most
EA fluids meets or exceeds the VI of petroleum-based fluids.
e. Foaming. The tendency of oils to foam can be a serious problem in lubricating and hydraulic
systems. The lubrication and hydraulic properties of oils are greatly impeded by excessive foaming.
Foaming characteristics of oils are usually determined by test method ASTM D 892. Laboratory tests have
shown that most formulated EA fluids do not have foaming problems.
f. Paint compatibility. Some common paints used in fluid systems are incompatible with many EA
fluids. When it is anticipated that EA fluids may be used in a fluid system, the use of epoxy resin paints
should be used to eliminate potential compatibility problems.
g. Elastomeric seal compatibility. Polyurethane seals should not be used with EA fluids. Instead,
the use of Viton and Buna N (low to medium nitrile) is recommended. EA fluids are compatible with steel
and copper alloys and provide excellent rust protection. The fluid manufacturer must be consulted for
specific compatibility data for each material encountered in the application.
h. Degradability. Since EA fluids are biodegradable they will break down in the presence of water
and bacteria. Moisture traps in breather intakes and other equipment modifications which will keep
moisture out of the system should be considered. EA fluids should be periodically monitored to insure that
biodegradation is not occurring.
8-7. Environmentally Acceptable Guidelines
At present there are no industry or guide specifications for EA fluids and greases. However, several
manufacturers have developed biodegradable and nontoxic fluids for limited applications. In addition,
several hydroelectric facilities operated by the Bureau of Reclamation and the Corps of Engineers are
testing these products and are obtaining good results. Until specific standards and specifications are
developed, it is recommended that the following guidance be used for qualifying the fluids to be
environmentally acceptable:
a. They must be nontoxic. That is, using test method EPA 560/6-82-002, concentrations greater than
1000 ppm of the test material are necessary to kill 50 percent of the test organisms in 96 hours
(LC50>1000).
b. They must be readily biodegradable. That is, using the ASTM test method D 5864, 60 percent or
more of the test material carbon must be converted to CO in 28 days.
2
8-8. Changing from Conventional to EA Lubricants
Plant owners and operators considering a change to biodegradable lubricants and hydraulic fluids should,
above all, be aware that these products are not identical to conventional mineral oil products. Furthermore,
the EA fluids are not necessarily equal to one another. It is important to make a thorough assessment of the
requirements of the specific application to determine whether a substitution can be made, and whether any
compromises in quality or performance will be compatible with the needs of the user. Switching to EA -
products may require special considerations, measures, or adaptations to the system. Depending on the
application and the product chosen, these could include the following:
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a. Some commercially available synthetic ester and vegetable-oil-based lubricants meet the
requirements of nontoxicity and biodegradability. However, the compatibility of these fluids with existing
materials encountered in the application, such as paints, filters, and seals, must be considered. The fluid
manufacturer must be consulted for specific compatibility data for each material of construction. The
manufacturer of the existing equipment must be consulted, especially when the equipment is still under
warranty.
b. Extreme care must be taken when selecting an EA oil or grease for an application. Product
availability may be impacted due to the dynamic nature of developing standards and environmental
requirements. EA lubricating oils should not be used in hydroelectric turbine applications, such as bearing
oil, runner hub oil, or governor oil, until extensive tests are performed. It is recommended that the Corps of
Engineers Hydroelectric Design Center be consulted prior to the initial purchase of any EA fluids and
greases for hydropower applications (see paragraph 8-10).
c. Accelerated fluid degradation at high temperature, change of performance characteristics at low
temperature, and possible new filtration requirements should be investigated carefully. The oxidation rate
of vegetable-based EA lubricants increases markedly above 82 EC (179.6 EF), and lengthy exposure at the
low temperature can cause some products to gel.
d. On a hydraulic power system, when changing over to EA lubricants, the system should be
thoroughly drained of the mineral oil and, if possible, flushed. Flushing is mandatory if diesel engine oil
was the previous hydraulic fluid. This will avoid compromising the biodegradability and low toxicity of the
EA fluids. Disposal of the used fluids should be in accordance with applicable environmental regulations
and procedures.
e. More frequent filter changes may be necesary.
f. Moisture scavengers may be necessary on breather intakes to keep water content in the lubricant
low.
g. Temperature controls for both upper and lower extremes may need to be added to the system.
h. Redesign of hydraulic systems to include larger reservoirs may be necessary to deal with foaming
problems.
i. The use of stainless steel components to protect against corrosion may be necessary.
j. The number of manufacturers who produce EA hydraulic fluids, lubricating oils, and greases
continues to expand. Names of the manufacturers include some well known companies that have marketed
lubricants for many years as well as a large number of smaller companies that appear to specialize in EA
products. Some of these companies also market specialty EA products such as gear oils, wire rope
lubricants, air tool lubricants and cutting and tapping fluids. EA turbine oils exist; however, to date, none
of the oil suppliers has recommended these products for hydroelectric power plants.
8-9. Survey of Corps Users
a. A survey of all Army Corps of Engineers districts was conducted to determine how extensively
alternative lubricants are being used, and with what results. A follow-up with manufacturers of some of
the products revealed that many installations that reported using environmentally acceptable products
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actually were using food-grade lubricants made from synthetic oils or mineral oils. Neither of these base
materials is readily biodegradable.
b. The use of environmentally friendly lubricants at Corps of Engineers installations still is far from
widespread. Six Corps districts reported using biodegradable oils in one or more applications. The longest
use to date has been about 5 years.
c. Several installations reported using rapeseed-based oils as hydraulic fluids. The products are being
used in Nashville District in hydraulic power units operating at 53.06 l/min (14 gpm) and 172.4 bar (2500
psi), in lock gate operating machinery in Huntington District and in pressure-activated pitch controls in a
pumping plant in Little Rock District. The Wilmington District has converted almost all of the hydraulics
in waterfront and floating plant applications to rapeseed oil products, and the Alaska District reports using
rapeseed oils in excavators, cranes, and dredges.
d. Nashville District also reported using rapeseed-based lubricants in gate and valve machinery, while
Rock Island District uses them to lubricate gate lift chains. Other districts reported having specified EA -
oils for specific applications, but have not yet put the new equipment in operation.
e. Operators of installations using the EA products generally are satisfied with their performance and
are considering expanding their use. Some operators who installed heaters or coolers to accommodate
fluids with limited temperature ranges report increased equipment life because the moderate temperatures
reduce stress on the pumps. Although the same environmental regulations apply to reporting and cleanup
of all spills, an environmental agency's response to a spill sometimes does take the environmentally
acceptable nature of the fluid into account. One user observed that a spill in quiet water gelled on the
surface like chicken fat, making cleanup easy. Finally, most operators report that installation of
rapeseed-based oil in a mineral-oil system is as easy as any other complete oil change.
f. Overall, the most positive reports on EA fluids were applications in closed hydraulic systems. In
systems open to the environment, degradation and temperature sensitivity cause problems. Exposure to
water also can spur biodegradation of the lubricant while in service, a problem of particular significance in
hydropower applications. The only two failures of the fluids reported in the Corps of Engineers survey
were cases of contamination that caused the fluids to biodegrade while in use.
8-10. USACE Contacts
a. Additional information on hydropower applications can be obtained from the Hydroelectric Design
Center, CENPP-HDC, at P.O. Box 2870, Portland, OR 97208.
b. Information on the survey, other EA applications, and associated new lubricants and technologies
can be obtained from the U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, CECER-FL-M, P.
0. Box 9005, Champaign, IL 61826-9005.
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Chapter 9
Gears
9-1. General
a. Energy is transmitted from a power source to a terminal point, through gears that change speeds,
directions, and torque. Gear lubricants are formulated and applied to prevent premature component failure,
assure reliable operation, reduce operating cost, and increase service life. The important objectives
accomplished by these lubricants include: reduction of friction and wear, corrosion prevention, reduction of
operating noise, improvement in heat transfer, and removal of foreign or wear particles from the critical
contact areas of the gear tooth surfaces.
b. Gears vary greatly in their design and in their lubrication requirements. Proper lubrication is
important to prevent premature wear of gear tooth surfaces. When selecting a lubricant for any gear
application the following issues must be considered: type and materials of gear; operating conditions,
including rolling or sliding speed, type of steady load, and temperature; method of lubricant application;
environment; and type of service. Enclosed gears -- those encased in an oil-tight housing -- usually require
an oil with various additives, depending on the operating conditions. Rust, oxidation, and foam inhibitors
are common. Extreme pressure (EP) additives are also used when loads are severe.
c. Worm gears are special because the action between the worm and the mating bull gear is sliding
rather than the rolling action common in most gears. The sliding action allows fluid film lubrication to take
place. Another significant difference is that worm gears are usually made of dissimilar materials, which
reduces the chance of galling and reduces friction. EP additives usually are not required for worm gears
and may actually be detrimental to a bronze worm gear. Lubrication can be improved by oiliness additives.
d. In open gear applications, the lubricant must resist being thrown off by centrifugal force or being
scraped off by the action of the gear teeth. A highly adhesive lubricant is required for most open gear
applications. Most open gear lubricants are heavy oils, asphalt-based compounds, or soft greases.
Depending on the service conditions, oxidation inhibitors or EP additives may be added. Caution must be
exercised when using adhesive lubricants because they may attract and retain dust and dirt, which can act
as abrasives. To minimize damage, gears should be periodically cleaned.
9-2. Gear Types
a. Spur gears. Spur gears are the most common type used. Tooth contact is primarily rolling, with
sliding occurring during engagement and disengagement. Some noise is normal, but it may become
objectionable at high speeds.
b. Rack and pinion. Rack and pinion gears are essentially a variation of spur gears and have similar
lubrication requirements.
c. Helical. Helical gears operate with less noise and vibration than spur gears. At any time, the load
on helical gears is distributed over several teeth, resulting in reduced wear. Due to their angular cut, teeth
meshing results in thrust loads along the gear shaft. This action requires thrust bearings to absorb the
thrust load and maintain gear alignment.
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d. Herringbone. Herringbone gears are essentially two side-by-side opposite-hand helical gears.
This design eliminates thrust loads, but alignment is very critical to ensure correct teeth engagement.
e. Bevel. Bevel gears are used to transmit motion between shafts with intersecting center lines. The
intersecting angle is normally 90 deg but may be as high as 180 deg. When the mating gears are equal in
size and the shafts are positioned at 90 degrees to each other, they are referred to as miter gears. The teeth
of bevel gears can also be cut in a curved manner to produce spiral bevel gears, which produce smoother
and quieter operation than straight cut bevels.
f. Worm. Operation of worm gears is analogous to a screw. The relative motion between these
gears is sliding rather than rolling. The uniform distribution of tooth pressures on these gears enables use
of metals with inherently low coefficients of friction such as bronze wheel gears with hardened steel worm
gears. These gears rely on full fluid film lubrication and require heavy oil compounded to enhance lubricity
and film strength to prevent metal contact.
g. Hypoid. Hypoid gears are similar to spiral bevel gears except that the shaft center lines do not
intersect. Hypoid gears combine the rolling action and high tooth pressure of spiral bevels with the sliding
action of worm gears. This combination and the all-steel construction of the drive and driven gear result in
a gear set with special lubrication requirements, including oiliness and antiweld additives to withstand the
high tooth pressures and high rubbing speeds.
h. Annular. Annular gears have the same tooth design as spur and helical gears, but unlike these
gears, the annular gear has an internal configuration. The tooth action and lubrication requirements for
annular gears are similar to spur and helical gears.
9-3. Gear Wear and Failure
The most critical function provided by lubricants is to minimize friction and wear to extend equipment
service life. Gear failures can be traced to mechanical problems or lubricant failure. Lubricant-related
failures are usually traced to contamination, oil film collapse, additive depletion, and use of improper
lubricant for the application. The most common failures are due to particle contamination of the lubricant
Dust particles are highly abrasive and can penetrate through the oil film, causing plowing wear or ridging
on metal surfaces. Water contamination can cause rust on working surfaces and eventually destroy metal
integrity. To prevent premature failure, gear selection requires careful consideration of the following: gear
tooth geometry, tooth action, tooth pressures, construction materials and surface characteristics, lubricant
characteristics, and operating environment. The first four items are related to design and application, and
further discussion is beyond the scope of this manual. These items may be mentioned where necessary, but
discussions are limited to those aspects directly related to and affected by lubrication, including wear,
scuffing, and contact fatigue. Refer to ANSI/AGMA Standard 1010-E95, and ASM Handbook Volume
18, for photographs illustrating the wear modes described in the following discussion.
a. Normal wear. Normal wear occurs in new gears during the initial running-in period. The rolling
and sliding action of the mating teeth create mild wear that appears as a smooth and polished surface.
b. Fatigue.
(1) Pitting. Pitting occurs when fatigue cracks are initiated on the tooth surface or just below the
surface. Usually pits are the result of surface cracks caused by metal-to-metal contact of asperities or
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defects due to low lubricant film thickness. High-speed gears with smooth surfaces and good film thickness
may experience pitting due to subsurface cracks. These cracks may start at inclusions in the gear
materials, which act as stress concentrators, and propagate below and parallel to the tooth surface. Pits are
formed when these cracks break through the tooth surface and cause material separation. When several
pits join, a larger pit (or spall) is formed. Another suspected cause of pitting is hydrogen embrittlement of
metal due to water contamination of the lubricant. Pitting can also be caused by foreign particle
contamination of lubricant. These particles create surface stress concentration points that reduce lubricant
film thickness and promote pitting. The following guidelines should be observed to minimize the onset of
pitting in gear units:
! Reduce contact stresses through load reduction or by optimizing gear geometry.
! Steel should be properly heat-treated to high hardness. Carburizing is preferable.
! Gear teeth should have smooth surfaces produced by grinding or honing.
! Use proper quantities of cool, clean, and dry lubricant with the required viscosity.
(2) Micropitting. Micropitting occurs on surface-hardened gears and is characterized by extremely
small pits approximately 10 m (400 -inches) deep. Micropitted metal has a frosted or a gra y
appearance. This condition generally appears on rough surfaces and is exacerbated by use of low-viscosity
lubricants. Slow-speed gears are also prone to micropitting due to thin lubricant films. Micropitting may
be sporadic and may stop when good lubrication conditions are restored following run-in. Maintaining
adequate lubricant film thickness is the most important factor influencing the formation of micropitting.
Higher-speed operation and smooth gear tooth surfaces also hinder formation of micropitting. The
following guidelines should be observed to reduce the onset of micropitting in gear units:
! Use gears with smooth tooth surfaces produced by careful grinding or honing.
! Use the correct amount of cool, clean, and dry lubricant with the highest viscosity permissible for
the application
! Use high speeds, if possible.
! Use carburized steel with proper carbon content in the surface layers.
c. Wear.
(1) Adhesion.
(a) New gears contain surface imperfections or roughness that are inherent to the manufacturing
process. During the initial run-in period, these imperfections are reduced through wear. Smoothing of the
gear surfaces is to be expected . Mild wear will occur even when adequate lubrication is provided, but this
wear is limited to the oxide layer of the gear teeth. Mild wear is beneficial because it increases the contact
areas and equalizes the load pressures on gear tooth surfaces. Furthermore, the smooth gear surfaces
increase the film thickness and improve lubrication.
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(b) The amount of wear that is acceptable depends on the expected life, noise, and vibration of the gear
units. Excessive wear is characterized by loss of tooth profile, which results in high loading, and loss of
tooth thickness, which may cause bending fatigue.
(c) Wear cannot be completely eliminated. Speed, lubricant viscosity, and temperature impose
practical limits on gear operating conditions. Gears that are highly loaded, operate at slow speeds, i.e., less
than 30 m/min (100 ft/min), and rely on boundary lubrication are particularly subject to excessive wear.
Slow-speed adhesive wear is highly dependent upon lubricant viscosity. Higher lubricant viscosities
provide significant wear reduction, but viscosities must be carefully selected to prevent overheating.
(d) The following guidelines should be observed to minimize the onset of adhesive wear in gear units:
! Gear teeth should have smooth surfaces.
! If possible, the run-in period for new gear units should be restricted to one-half load for the first
hours of operation.
! Use the highest speeds possible. High-load, slow-speed gears are boundary lubricated and are
especially prone to excessive wear. For these applications, nitrided gears should be specified.
! Avoid using lubricants with sulfur-phosphorus additives for very slow-speed gears (less than 3
m/min, or 10 ft/min).
! Use the required quantity of cool, clean, and dry lubricant at the highest viscosity permissible.
(2) Abrasion. Abrasive wear is caused by particle contaminants in the lubricant. Particles may
originate internally due to poor quality control during the manufacturing process. Particles also may be
introduced from the outside during servicing or through inadequate filters, breathers, or seals. Internally
generated particles are particularly destructive because they may become work-hardened during
compression between the gear teeth. The following guidelines should be observed to prevent abrasive wear
in gear units:
! Remove internal contamination from new gearboxes. Drain and flush the lubricant before initial
start-up and again after 50 hours of operation. Refill with the manufacturers recommended
lubricant. Install new filters or breathers.
! Use surface-hardened gear teeth, smooth tooth surfaces, and high-viscosity lubricants.
! Maintain oil-tight seals and use filtered breather vents, preferably located in clean, nonpressurized
areas.
! Use good housekeeping procedures.
! Use fine filtration for circulating-oil systems. Filtration to 3 m (120 -in.) has proven effective in
prolonging gear life.
! Unless otherwise recommended by the gear manufacturer, change the lubricant in oil-bath systems
at least every 2500 hours or every 6 months.
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! When warranted by the nature of the application, conduct laboratory analysis of lubricants.
Analysis may include spectrographic, ferrographic, acid number, viscosity, and water content.
(3) Polishing. Polishing wear is characterized by a mirror-like finish of the gear teeth. Polishing is
caused by antiscuff additives that are too chemically reactive. An excessive reaction rate, coupled with
continuous removal of surface films by very fine abrasive particles in the lubricant, may result in excessive
polishing wear. The following guidelines should be observed to prevent polishing wear in gearsets:
! Use less chemically active antiscuff additives such as borate.
! Remove abrasives from the lubricant by using fine filtration or by frequent oil changes.

d. Scuffing.
(1) General. The terms scuffing and scoring are frequently interchanged. The following definitions
are provided to assist in correctly ascertaining the type of damage observed. The ASM Handbook Vol 18
defines scuffing as localized damage caused by the occurrence of solid-phase welding between sliding
surfaces. It defines scoring as the formation of severe scratches in the direction of sliding. The handbook
also stipulates that scoring may be caused by local solid-phase welding or abrasion, but suggests that minor
scoring be considered as scratching. Gear scuffing is characterized by material transfer between sliding
tooth surfaces. Generally this condition occurs when inadequate lubrication film thickness permits metal-
to-metal contact between gear teeth. Without lubrication, direct metal contact removes the protective oxide
layer on the gear metal, and the excessive heat generated by friction welds the surfaces at the contact
points. As the gears separate, metal is torn and transferred between the teeth. Scuffing is most likely to
occur in new gear sets during the running-in period because the gear teeth have not sufficient operating time
to develop smooth surfaces.
(2) Critical scuffing temperature.
(a) Research has shown that for a given mineral oil without antiscuffing or extreme pressure additives,
there is a critical scuffing temperature that is constant regardless of operating conditions. Evidence
indicates that beyond the critical temperature, scuffing will occur. Therefore, the critical temperature
concept provides a useful method for predicting the onset of scuffing. The critical scuffing temperature is a
function of the gear bulk temperature and the flash temperature and is expressed as:
T = T + T (9-1)
c b f
where the bulk temperature T is the equilibrium temperature of the gears before meshing and the flash
b
temperature T is the instantaneous temperature rise caused by the local frictional heat at the gear teeth
f
meshing point. The critical scuffing temperature for mineral oils without antiscuffing or extreme pressure
additives increases directly with viscosity and varies from 150 to 300 EC (300 to 570 EF). However, this
increased scuffing resistance appears to be directly attributed to differences in chemical composition and
only indirectly to the beneficial effects of increased film thickness associated with higher viscosity.
Examination of the critical temperature equation indicates that scuffing can be controlled by lowering either
of the two contributing factors. The bulk temperature can be controlled by selecting gear geometry and
design for the intended application. The flash temperature can be controlled indirectly by gear tooth
smoothness and through lubricant viscosity. Smooth gear tooth surfaces produce less friction and heat
while increased viscosity provides greater film thickness, which also reduces frictional heat and results in a
EM 1110-2-1424
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9-6
lower flash temperature. Furthermore, judicious application of lubricant can cool the gears by removing
heat.
(b) For synthetics and lubricants containing antiscuff additives, the critical temperature depends on the
operating conditions and must be determined experimentally for each case. Antiscuff additives commonly
used are iron sulfide and iron phosphate. These additives react chemically with the protected metal gear
surface to form very strong solid films that prevent metal contact under extreme pressure and temperature
conditions. As previously noted in the discussions of oil additives, the beneficial effects of extreme
pressure additives are enhanced as the temperature increases.
(c) The following guidelines should be observed to prevent scuffing in gear units:
! Specify smooth tooth surfaces produced by careful grinding or honing.
! Protect gear teeth during the running-in period by coating them with iron-manganese phosphate or
plating them with copper or silver. During the first ten hours of run-in, new gears should be
operated at one-half load.
! Use high-viscosity lubricants with antiscuff additives such as sulfur, phosphorus, or borate.
! Make sure the gear teeth are cooled by supplying adequate amount of cool lubricant. For
circulating-oil systems, use a heat exchanger to cool the lubricant.
! Optimize the gear tooth geometry. Use small teeth, addendum modification, and profile
modification.
! Use accurate gear teeth, rigid gear mountings, and good helix alignment.
! Use nitrided steels for maximum scuffing resistance. Do not use stainless steel or aluminum for
gears if there is a risk of scuffing.
9-4. Gear Lubrication
a. Lubricant characteristics. Gear lubricant must possess the following characteristics:
(1) General. The following characteristics are applicable to all gear lubricants. The lubrication
requirements for specific gears follow this general discussion:
(a) Viscosity. Good viscosity is essential to ensure cushioning and quiet operation. An oil viscosity
that is too high will result in excess friction and degradation of oil properties associated with high oil
operating temperature. In cold climates gear lubricants should flow easily at low temperature. Gear oils
should have a minimum pour point of 5 C (9 F) lower than the lowest expected temperature. The pour
0 0
point for mineral gear oil is typically -7 C (20 F). When lower pour points are required, synthetic gear
0 0
oils with pour points of -40 C (-40 F) may be necessary. The following equation from the ASM
0 0
Handbook provides a method for verifying the required viscosity for a specific gear based on the operating
velocity:
<
40
'
7000
V
0.5
V ' 0.262nd
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28 Feb 99
9-7
(9-2)
where
v = lubricant kinematic viscosity at 40EC (105EF) (cSt)
40
V = pitch line velocity (ft/min) given by :
(9-3)
where n is the pinion speed in rev/min and d is the pitch diameter (inches).
(b) Film strength. Good film strength helps prevent metal contact and scoring between the gear teeth.
(c) Lubricity (oiliness). Lubricity is necessary to reduce friction.
(d) Adhesion. Helps prevent loss of lubrication due to throw-off associated with gravity or centrifugal
force especially at high speeds.

(e) Gear speed. The now superseded Industrial Gear Lubrication Standards, AGMA 250.04, used
center distance as the primary criterion for gear lubricant selection. The new version of this standard,
designated AGMA 9005-D94 Industrial Gear Lubrication, has adopted pitch line velocity as the primary
selection criterion. As noted above, gear speed is a factor in the selection of proper oil viscosity. The pitch
line velocity determines the contact time between gear teeth. High velocities are generally associated with
light loads and very short contact times. For these applications, low-viscosity oils are usually adequate. In
contrast, low speeds are associated with high loads and long contact times. These conditions require
higher-viscosity oils. EP additives may be required if the loads are very high.
(f) Temperature. Ambient and operating temperatures also determine the selection of gear lubricants.
Normal gear oil operating temperature ranges from 50 to 55 C (90 to 100 F) above ambient. Oils
0 0
operating at high temperature require good viscosity and high resistance to oxidation and foaming. Caution
should be exercised whenever abnormally high temperatures are experienced. High operating temperatures
are indicative of oils that are too viscous for the application, excess oil in the housing, or an overloaded
condition. All of these conditions should be investigated to determine the cause and correct the condition.
Oil for gears operating at low ambient temperatures must be able to flow easily and provide adequate
viscosity. Therefore these gear oils must possess high viscosity indices and low pour points.
(2) Open gears. In addition to the general requirements, lubrication for open gears must meet the
following requirements:
(a) Drip resistance. Prevents loss of lubricant, especially at high temperatures which reduce viscosity.
(b) Brittle resistance. Lubricant must be capable of resisting embrittlement, especially at very low
temperatures.
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9-8
(3) Enclosed gears. In addition to the general requirements, lubrication for enclosed gears must meet
the following requirements:
(a) Chemical stability and oxidation resistance. Prevents thickening and formation of varnish or
sludge. This requirement is especially significant in high-speed gears because the oil is subjected to high
operating oil and air temperatures.
(b) Extreme pressure protection. Provides additional galling and welding protection for heavily
loaded gears when the lubricant film thickness fails. Extreme pressure lubricants are available for mild and
severe (hypoid) lubricant applications.
b. Types of gear lubricants
(1) Oil. Refer to AGMA 9005-D94 for the specifications for the following lubricants.
(a) Rust and oxidation oils. These petroleum-based oils are frequently referred to as RO gear oils.
RO oils are the most common gear lubricants and have been formulated to include chemical additives that
enhance their performance qualities. RO lubricating oils have easy application properties for gear and
bearings, good lubrication qualities, and adequate cooling qualities and they are economical to use.
Disadvantages include restriction to enclosed gear applications to prevent contamination.
(b) Compounded gear lubricants. These oils are a blend of petroleum-based oils with 3 to 10 percent
fatty or synthetic fatty oils. They are particularly useful in worm gear drives. Except as noted in the
AGMA applicable specifications, compounded oils should comply with the same specifications as RO oils.
(c) Extreme pressure lubricants. These gear lubricants, commonly referred to as EP lubricants, are
petroleum-based and specially formulated to include chemical additives such as sulfur-phosphorus or other
similar materials capable of producing a film that provides extreme pressure and antiscuffing protection.
(d) Synthetic oils. Synthetic oils have the advantage of stable application over wide temperature
range, good oxidation stability at high temperatures, high viscosity indices, and low volatility. Because
gear oils must be changed periodically, the main disadvantage of synthetics is high cost, which can only be
justified for applications at high temperature extremes where other lubricants fail. Another disadvantage of
synthetics is possible incompatibility with seals and other lubricants. The equipment manufacturer should
be consulted before using synthetic oils to ensure that exposed materials will not be damaged or warranties
voided. Gear units should be flushed of all mineral oils before the filling with the final synthetic oil.
(e) Residual compounds. These are higher-viscosity straight mineral or EP lubricants that are mixed
with a diluent to facilitate application. Viscosities range from 400 to 2000 mm /s at 100 EC (mm sq/sec
2
cST at 100 EC) without diluent. Once applied, the diluent evaporates and leaves a heavy residual lubricant
coating on the treated surface.
(2) Special compounds and greases. These lubricants include special greases formulated for
boundary lubricating conditions such as low-speed, low-load applications where high film strength is
required. These lubricants usually contain a base oil, a thickener, and a solid lubricant such as
molybdenum disulfide (MoS ) or graphite. The gear manufacturer should be consulted before using
2
grease. The primary disadvantage of using grease is that it accumulates foreign particles such as metal,
dirt, and other loose materials that can cause significant damage if adequate maintenance is not provided.
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9-9
Grease also has a tendency to be squeezed out of the gear tooth meshing zone, and it does not provide
satisfactory cooling.
(3) Open-gear lubricants. Open-gear lubricants are generally reserved for slow-speed low-load
boundary lubricating conditions. Due to the open configuration, the lubricants must be viscous and
adhesive to resist being thrown off the gear teeth surfaces. The disadvantages of these lubricants are
similar to those noted above for grease.
(4) Solid lubricants. The solid lubricants most commonly used in gear trains are molybdenum
disulfide, graphite, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), and tungsten disulfide (WoS ). Because they are
2
expensive to apply, use of these lubricants is reserved for special applications such as high and low
temperature extremes where other lubricants fail to perform adequately.
c. Applications.
(1) Spur, helical, bevel, and hypoid gears. Spur, helical, and bevel gears have similar load and speed
characteristics, and similar requirements for antiscuffing and viscosity.
(a) Spur and helical gears. Spur and helical gears usually require mineral oils with RO inhibitors.
Low-viscosity RO oils, such as turbine oils, are commonly used in high-speed, low-load gear units. For
high-speed, low-load gear applications, mineral oils without antiscuff/extreme pressure agents can be used
successfully provided the oil viscosity is capable of maintaining the required film thickness. However, low-
speed gears are usually heavily loaded so antiscuff/extreme pressure agents are necessary to ensure
adequate protection.
(b) Hypoid gears. Hypoid gears combine the rolling action and high tooth pressure of spiral bevel
gears with the sliding action of worm gears. These severe operating conditions result in high load, high
sliding speeds, and high friction. Therefore, hypoid gears are very susceptible to scuffing. Mineral oils
for this application must have high lubricity and high concentrations of antiscuffing/extreme pressure
additives.
(2) Worm gears. Worm gears operate under high sliding velocity and moderate loads. The sliding
action produces friction that produces higher operating temperatures than those that occur in other gear
sets. Normal operating temperature for worm gears may rise to 93 C (200 F) and is not a cause for
o o
concern. Lubricants for worm gears must resist the thinning due to high temperatures and the wiping
effect of sliding action, and they must provide adequate cooling. Mineral oils compounded with lubricity
additives are recommended. Extreme pressure additives are usually not required for worm gears. However,
when EP protection is required, the additive should be selected with caution to prevent damaging the bronze
worm wheel.
(3) Gear combinations. Many applications use different gears in the same gear housing. For these
applications the lubricant must be suitable for the gears with the most demanding requirements. Generally,
the other gears will operate satisfactorily with such high-performance lubricants.
(4) Gear shaft bearings. Gear shaft bearings are frequently lubricated by gear oil. In most instances
this condition is acceptable. Bearings in high-speed, low-load applications may operate satisfactorily with
the gear oil. However, low-speed, heavily loaded gears usually require a heavy oil. For these conditions a
low-viscosity EP oil may provide adequate lubrication for the gears and bearings. The low-viscosity oil
EM 1110-2-1424
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9-10
will adequately lubricate the bearings while the EP additive will protect the gear teeth from the effects of
using a low-viscosity oil.
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10-1
Chapter 10
Bearings
10-1. General
Bearings can be divided into two subgroups: plain bearings and rolling-contact bearings. Both have their
place in the world of machines. Each type has some obvious advantages and disadvantages, but there are
subtle properties as well that are often ignored. Each type of bearing can be found in a multiplicity of
places, and each can be lubricated with either oil or grease. Some bearings are lubricated by water, and
some are lubricated by air (as in the case of a dentist's drill).
10-2. Plain Bearings
Plain bearings consist of two surfaces, one moving in relation to the other. Plain bearings can be the
journal type, where both wear surfaces are cylindrical; thrust type, where there are two planar surfaces, one
rotating upon the other; and various types of sliding bearings where one surface slides in relation to the
other. All depend upon a lubricating film to reduce friction. Unless an oil pump is provided to generate the
oil film, these bearings rely on shaft motion to generate a hydrodynamic oil wedge.
a. Advantages of plain bearings.
(1) They have a very low coefficient of friction if properly designed and lubricated.
(2) They have very high load-carrying capabilities.
(3) Their resistance to shock and vibration is greater than rolling-contact bearings.
(4) The hydrodynamic oil film produced by plain bearings damps vibration, so less noise is
transmitted.
(5) They are less sensitive to lubricant contamination than rolling-contact bearings.
b. Types of plain bearings.
(1) Journal (sleeve bearings). These are cylindrical with oil-distributing grooves. The inner surface
can be babbitt-lined, bronze-lined, or lined with other materials generally softer than the rotating journal.
On horizontal shafts on motors and pumps, oil rings carry oil from the oil reservoir up to the bearing. In
the case of very slow-moving shafts, the bearings may be called bushings.
(2) Segmented journal. These are similar to the journal except that the stationary bearing consists of
segments or bearing shoes. Each shoe is individually adjustable. This type of bearing is commonly found
in vertical hydrogenerators and large vertical pumping units. This bearing is usually partially immersed in
an oil tub.
(3) Thrust bearings. These bearings support axial loading and consist of a shaft collar supported by
the thrust bearing, many times in segments called thrust shoes. The thrust shoes are sometimes allowed to
pivot to accommodate the formation of the supporting oil wedges. There are many different configurations
d
n
' n
D% d
2
EM 1110-2-1424
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10-2
of the thrust bearing aimed at equalizing loading and oil wedges. The bearing is immersed in a tub of oil.
On large hydrogenerators and pumps an oil pump is sometimes used to provide an oil film at start-up.
(4) Self-lubricated bearings. These are journal (sleeve) bearings in which the bearing surface contains
a lubricant, usually solid, that is liberated or activated by friction in the bearing. This type of bearing is
gaining popularity as a wicket gate bearing or wicket gate linkage bushing.
c. Plain bearing lubrication selection.
(1) The most common lubricants for plain bearings are mineral and synthetic oils, and greases.
Mineral oils are generally used except in extreme hot and cold temperature applications where synthetics
provide superior performance. Oil is used for faster rotational speeds where the hydrodynamic oil wedge
can be formed and maintained. It also is used in high-temperature conditions where grease may melt or
degrade. Grease is used for slower rotational speeds or oscillating movements where the hydrodynamic oil
wedge cannot form. It is also used in cases of extreme loading where the bearing operates in boundary
conditions. Table 10-1 shows some of the important considerations regarding lubricant selection.
Table 10-1
Choice of Lubricant
Lubricant Operating Range Remarks
Mineral oils All conditions of load and speed Wide range of viscosities available. Potential
corrosion problems with certain additive oils (e.g.,
extreme pressure) (see Table 7.1).
Synthetic oils All conditions if suitable viscosity available Good high- and low-temperature properties. Costly.
Greases Use restricted to operating speeds below 1 Good where sealing against dirt and moisture is
to 2 m/s (3.28 to 6.56 fps) necessary and where motion is intermittent.
Process fluids Depends on properties of fluid May be necessary to avoid contamination of food
products, chemicals, etc. Special attention to design
and selection of bearing materials.
Reference: Neale, M. J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England.
(2) The lubricating properties of greases are significantly affected by the base oil and type of
thickeners used. Table 10-2 provides general guidelines for selecting the type of grease for bearing
lubrications. In Table 10-2, speed factor (also referred to as speed index) is determined by multiplying the
pitch diameter of the bearing by the bearing speed as follows;
(10-1)
where D is the bearing diameter (mm), d is the bore diameter (mm), and n is the rev/min. Speed factors
above 200,000 are usually indicative of fluid film lubrication applications. The load column provides
indications of the degree of loading on a bearing and is defined as the ratio of rated bearing load to the
actual bearing load.
u ' Bdn, m)sec
P
m
'
W
ld
, kN/m
2
EM 1110-2-1424
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10-3
Table 10-2
Bearing Lubrication Considering Speed Factor
Load, Rated Applied Temperature, CE E ( F) Base Oil Thickener Additives
o
Speed Factor Less than 100,000
<10 -56.6-17.7 (-70-0) Mineral oil, synthetic, Lithium Graphite or MoS , rust
ester oxidation
2
<10 -17.7-176.6 (0-350) Mineral oil Lithium, calcium, Graphite or MoS , rust
barium, aluminum oxidation
sodium
2
<10 176.6+ (350+) Synthetic, ester Sodium, clay, calcium, Graphite or MoS , rust,
lithium, polyurea oxidation
2
Speed Factor 100,000 to 500,000
<10 -17.7-176.6 (0-350) Mineral oil, synthetic, Lithium, calcium, Graphite or Mos , rust,
PAG, ester aluminum, barium, oxidation
polyurea
2
<10 (high) -17.7-176.6 (0-350) Mineral oil, synthetic, Lithium, calcium, EP, rust, oxidation
>30 (low) PAG, ester aluminum, barium,
polyurea
>30 17-7-176.6 (0-350) Mineral oil, synthetic, Lithium, clay, polyurea, Antiwear, rust, oxidation
PAG, ester aluminum, barium,
calcium
Speed Factor Greater than 500,000
>30 -17.7-93.3 (0-200) Mineral oil, synthetic, Lithium, calcium, Rust, oxidation
ester barium
(3) Viscosity is the most critical lubricant property for insuring adequate lubrication of plain bearings.
If the viscosity is too high, the bearings will tend to overheat. If the viscosity is too low the load-carrying
capacity will be reduced. Figure 10-1 is a guide to selection of viscosity for a given operating speed. For
plain journal bearings the surface speed u is given by:
(10-1)
and the mean pressure p is given by
m
(10-2)
where
n = shaft speed, rev/s
l = bearing width, m
p
m
'
0.4W
lD
, kN)m
2
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10-4
Figure 10-1. Lubricant viscosity for plain bearings
(Reference: Neale, M. J., Lubrication: A Tribology
Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford
England)
d = shaft diameter, m
W = thrust load, kN
For thrust bearings, the surface speed u is given by Equation 10-1. The mean pressure is given by
(10-3)
where p , and l are as previously defined, W = thrust load, kN, and D = mean pad diameter, m. Equa-
m
tions 10-1 through 10-3 are intended to provide a means for understanding Figures 10-1 and 10-2. Refer to
Machinerys Handbook, 24th edition, for a detailed discussion and analysis of bearing loads and
lubrication.) Figure 10-2 shows the relationship between temperature and viscosity for mineral oils.
(4) Table 10-3 identifies some of the methods used to supply lubricants to bearings. The lubricant
should be supplied at a rate that will limit the temperature rise of the bearing to 20EC (68 EF).
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10-5
Figure 10-2. Typical viscosity/temperature
characteristics of mineral oils (Reference: Neale, M. J.,
Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-
Heinemann Ltd, Oxford, England)
Table 10-3
Methods of Liquid Lubricant Supply
Method of Supply Main Characteristics Examples
Hand oiling Nonautomatic, irregular. Low initial cost. High Low-speed, cheap journal bearings
maintenance cost.
Drip and wick feed Nonautomatic, adjustable. Moderately efficient. Cheap Journals in some machine tools, axles
Ring and collar feed Automatic, reliable. Efficient, fairly cheap. Mainly Journals in pumps, blowers, large electric motors
horizontal bearings
Bath and splash Automatic, reliable, efficient. Oiltight housing required. Thrust bearings, bath only. Engines, process
lubrication High initial cost. machinery, general
Pressure feed Automatic. Positive and adjustable. Reliable and High-speed and heavily loaded journal and thrust
efficient. High initial cost. bearings in machine tools, engines, and
compressors
Notes:
Pressure oil feed: This is usually necessary when the heat dissipation of the bearing housing and its surroundings are not sufficient to
restrict its temperature rise to 20 EC (68 EF) or less.
Journal bearings: Oil must be introduced by means of oil grooves in the bearing housing.
Thrust bearings: These must be lubricated by oil bath or by pressure feed from the center of the bearing.
Cleanliness: Cleanliness of the oil supply is essential for satisfactory performance and long life.
(Reference: Neale, M. J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Oxford, England)
EM 1110-2-1424
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10-6
(5) Generally, oil additives such as those noted in Table 7-1 are not required in plain bearing applica-
tions. Some additives and contaminants may cause corrosion, so caution should be exercised when using
bearing lubricants containing additives or when contaminants may be present. Table 10-4 identifies some
of the most common bearing materials used, and their resistance to corrosion when subjected to the
additives noted.
Table 10-4
Resistance to Corrosion of Bearing Metals
Maximum Additive or Contaminant
Operating
Temperature,
E EC (FE E)
Extreme-Pressure Weak Organic Strong Mineral Synthetic
Additive Antioxidant Acids Acids Oil
Lead-base white 130 (266) Good Good Moderate/poor Fair Good
metal
Tin-base white 130 (266) Good Good Excellent Very good Good
metal
Copper-lead 170 (338) Good Good Poor Fair Good
(without overlay)
Lead-bronze 180 (356) Good with good Good Poor Moderate Good
(without overlay) quality bronze
Aluminum-tin alloy 170 (338) Good Good Good Fair Good
Silver 180 (356) Sulfur-containing Good Good - except for Moderate Good
additives must not sulfur
be used
Phosphor-bronze 220 (428) Depends on quality Good Fair Fair Good
of bronze.
Sulfurized additives
can intensify
corrosion.
Copper-lead or 170 (338) Good Good Good Moderate Good
lead-bronze with
suitable overlay
Note:
Corrosion of bearing metals is a complex subject. The above offers a general guide. Special care is required with extreme-pressure
lubricants; if in doubt refer to bearing or lubricants supplier.
(Reference: Neale, M. J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Oxford, England)
.
10-3. Rolling-Contact Bearings
In rolling-contact bearings, the lubricant film is replaced by several small rolling elements between an inner
and outer ring. In most cases the rolling elements are separated from each other by cages. Basic varieties
of rolling-contact bearings include ball, roller, and thrust.
a. Advantages of rolling-contact bearings.
(1) At low speeds, ball and roller bearings produce much less friction than plain bearings.
(2) Certain types of rolling-contact bearings can support both radial and thrust loading simultaneously.
EM 1110-2-1424
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10-7
(3) Rolling bearings can operate with small amounts of lubricant.
(4) Rolling-contact bearings are relatively insensitive to lubricant viscosity.
(5) Rolling-contact bearings have low wear rates and require little maintenance.
b. Types of rolling-contact bearings.
(1) Ball bearing. This bearing has spherical rolling elements in a variety of configurations. It is able
to carry both radial and moderate axial loads. A special type, called maximum-type ball bearings, can take
an extra 30 percent radial load but cannot support axial loads.
(2) Roller bearing. The roller bearing has cylindrical rolling elements and can take much higher radial
loads than ball bearings but can carry no axial loads.
(3) Tapered roller bearing. This type has truncated-cone shaped rolling elements and is used for very
high radial and thrust loads.
(4) Double-row spherical. The bearing has a double row of keg-shaped elements. The inner surface
of the outer race describes part of a sphere. This bearing can handle thrust in both directions and very high
radial loads.
(5) Ball thrust. This type has ball elements between grooved top and bottom races.
(6) Straight roller thrust. This bearing has short segments of cylindrical rollers between upper and
lower races. The rollers are short to minimize skidding.
(7) Spherical thrust. This type is also called a tapered roller thrust bearing. The lower race describes
part of a sphere. The rolling elements are barrel-shaped and the outside has a larger diameter than the
inside.
(8) Needle bearing. These bearings have rollers whose lengths are at least four times their diameter.
They are used where space is a factor and are available with or without an inner race.
c. Rolling-contact conditions. The loads carried by the rolling elements actually cause elastic
deformation of the element and race as rotation occurs. The compressive contact between curved bodies
results in maximum stresses (called Hertzian contact stresses) occurring inside the metal under the surfaces
involved. The repeated stress cycling causes fatigue in the most highly stressed metal. As a result, normal
wear of rolling contact bearings appears as flaking of the surfaces. Lubrication carries away the excessive
heat generated by the repeated stress cycles. While lubrication is necessary, too much lubrication--
especially with grease lubrication--results in churning action and heating due to fluid friction.
d. Rolling bearing lubricant selection. In most cases, the lubricant type--oil or grease--is dictated by
the bearing or equipment manufacturer. In practice, there can be significant overlap in applying these two
types of lubricant to the same bearing. Often the operating environment dictates the choice of lubricant.
For example, a roller bearing on an output shaft of a gearbox will probably be oil-lubricated because it is
contained in an oil environment. However, the same bearing with the same rotational speed and loading
would be grease-lubricated in a pillow block arrangement.
(1) Selection of lubricant. Table 10-5 provides general guidance for choosing the proper lubricant.
EM 1110-2-1424
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10-8
Table 10-5
General Guide for Choosing Between Grease and Oil Lubrication
Factor Affecting the Choice Use Grease Use Oil
Temperature Up to 120 EC (248 EF) - with special greases or short Up to bulk oil temperature of 90 EC or
relubrication intervals up to 200/220 EC (392/428 EF) bearing temperature of 200 EC (428 EF) -
These temperatures may be exceeded
with special oils.
Speed factor* Up to dn factors of 300,000/350,000 (depending on Up to dn factors of 450,000/500,000
design) (depending on type of bearing)
Load Low to moderate All loads up to maximum
Bearing design Not for asymmetrical spherical roller thrust bearings All types
Housing design Relatively simple More complex seals and feeding devices
necessary
Long periods without attention Yes, depending on operating conditions, especially No
temperature
Central oil supply for other No - cannot transfer heat efficiently or operate Yes
machine elements hydraulic systems
Lowest torque When properly packed can be lower than oil on which For lowest torques use a circulating
the grease is based system with scavenge pumps or oil mist
Dirty conditions Yes - proper design prevents entry of contaminants Yes, if circulating system with filtration
* dn factor (bearing bore (mm) x speed (rev/min)).
Note: For large bearings (0.65-mm bore) and nd (d is the arithmetic mean of outer diameter and bore (mm)).
m m
(Reference: Neale, M. J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Oxford, England)
(2) Grease.
(a) Grease is used for slower rotational speeds, lower temperatures, and low to medium loads. Grease
is used in situations where maintenance is more difficult or irregularly scheduled. It can be used in dirty
environments if seals are provided. Tables 10-6 and 10-7 provide guidance on method of application and
environmental considerations when using grease.
Table 10-6
Effect of Method of Application on Choice of a Suitable Grade of Grease
System NLGI Grade No.
Air pressure 0 to 2 depending on type
Pressure-guns or mechanical lubricators Up to 3
Compression cups Up to 5
Centralized lubrication 2 or below
(a) Systems with separate metering values Normally 1 or 2
(b) Spring return systems 1
(c) Systems with multidelivery pumps 3
Reference: Neale, M. J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Oxford, England.
E
M

1
1
1
0
-
2
-
1
4
2
4
2
8

F
e
b

9
9
1
0
-
9
Table 10-7
Effect of Environmental Conditions on Choice of a Suitable Type of Grease
Type of Grease
NLGI
Grade
No.
Speed
Maximum
(percentage
recommended
maximum for
grease) Environment
Typical Service Temperature
Base Oil Viscosity
(approximate values) Comments
Maximum Minimum
EEC EEF EEC EEF
Lithium
Lithium
2
3
100
75
100
75
Wet or dry
Wet or dry
100
135
100
135
210
275
210
275
-25
-25
-13
-13
Up to 140 cSt at 37.7 EC
(100 EF)
Multipurpose, not advised at max. speed or max.
temperatures for bearings above 65-mm (2.5-in.) bore
or on vertical shafts
Lithium EP
Lithium EP
1
2
75
100
75
Wet or dry
Wet or dry
90
70
90
195
160
195
-15
-15
5
5
14.5 cSt at 98.8 EC
(210 EF)
Recommended for roll-neck bearings and heavily-
loaded taper-roller bearings
Calcium
(conventional)
1, 2,
and 3
50 Wet or dry 60 140 -10 14 140 cSt at 37.7 EC
(100 EF)
Calcium EP 1 and 2 50 Wet or dry 60 140 -5 25 14.5 cSt at 98.8 EC
(210 EF)
Sodium
(conventional)
3 75/100 Dry 80 175 -30 -22 30 cSt at 37.7 EC
(100 EF)
Sometimes contains 20% calcium
Clay 50 Wet or dry 200 390 10 50 550 cSt at 37.7 EC
(100 EF)
Clay 100 Wet or dry 135 275 -30 -22 Up to 140 cSt at 37.7 EC
(100 EF)
Clay 100 Wet or dry 120 248 -55 -67 12 cSt at 37.7 EC
(100 EF)
Based on synthetic esters
Silicone/
lithium
75 Wet or dry 200 390 -40 -40 150 cSt at 25 EC (77 EF) Not advised for conditions where sliding occurs at
high speed or load
Reference: Neale, M. J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Oxford, England
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
10-10
Figure 10-3. Approximate maximum speeds for grease-
lubricated bearings ((Reference: Neale, M. J., Lubrication:
A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd,
Oxford, England)
Figure 10-4. Variation of operating life of Grade 3
lithium hydroxystearate grease with speed and
temperature (Reference: Neale, M. J., Lubrication: A
Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd,
Oxford, England)
(b) Figure 10-3 shows approximate maximum bearing speeds for grease-lubricated bearings based on
the bore diameter and series of grease. Figure 10-4 provides guidance on grease life expectancy for
various operating speeds (given in percent) as a function of temperature. Correction factors for use with
Figure 10-3 are shown in Table 10-8.
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10-11
Table 10-8
Correction Factors for Figure 10-3
Bearing Type Bearing
Multiply Bearing Speed from Figure 10-1 by This
Factor to Get the Maximum Speed for Each Type of
B
a
l
l

b
e
a
r
i
n
g
s

a
n
d

c
y
l
i
n
d
r
i
c
a
l

r
o
l
l
e
r

b
e
a
r
i
n
g
s
Cage centered on inner race As Figure 10-1
Pressed cages centered on rolling elements 1.5-1.75
Machined cages centered on rolling elements 1.75-2.0
Machined cages centered on outer race 1.25-2.0
Taper- and spherical-roller bearings 0.5
Bearings mounted in adjacent pairs 0.75
Bearings on vertical shafts 0.75
Bearings with rotating outer races and fixed inner races 0.5
Reference: Neale, M. J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Oxford, England
(3) Oil.
(a) Oil is used for higher rotational speeds and higher operating temperatures. It is used in maximum
loading situations and for bearing configurations where a high amount of heat generated in the bearing can
be carried away by the oil. It is used in dirty conditions when the oil is circulated and filtered. For
moderate speeds, the following viscosities are recommended:
C Ball and cylindrical-roller bearings 12 cSt
C Spherical-roller bearings 20 cSt
C Spherical-roller thrust bearings 32 cSt
(b) In general, oils will be the medium to high viscosity index type with rust and oxidation inhibitors.
Extreme pressure (EP) oils are required for taper-roller or spherical-roller bearings when operating under
heavy loads or shock conditions. Occasionally EP oils may be required by other equipment or system
components.
(c) Figure 10-5 provides a means for selecting bearing oil lubricant viscosity based on the bearing
operating temperature, bore diameter, and speed. The following example shows how to use this figure.
Assume a bearing bore diameter of 60 mm (2.3 in.), speed of 5000 rev/min and an operating temperature of
65 EC. To select the viscosity, locate the bore diameter then move vertically to the required speed. At this
intersection move left to intersect the operating temperature. Since the required viscosity falls between an
S8 and S14 oil, select the oil with the higher viscosity (S14). The correct oil selection has a viscosity of
14 cSt at 50 EC. Table 10-9 provides guidance on applying oil to roller bearings.
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10-12
Figure 10-5. Roller bearing oil selection (Reference: Neale, M. J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook.
Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Oxford, England)
10-4 Calculation of Bearing Lubrication Interval
The following procedure for calculating lubrication intervals is extracted from Neale, Lubrication: A
Tribology Handbook (see Appendix A for complete reference). The required interval is calculated using
the data from Figures 10-3 and 10-4. The following example illustrates the procedure:
1. Given:
Bearing type: Medium series with 60-mm bore diameter
Cage: Pressed cage centered on balls
Speed: 950 rev/min
Temperature: 120 EC (bearing temperature)
Position: Vertical shaft
Grease: Lithium grade 3
Duty: Continuous
2. Determine the lubrication interval.
3. Procedure:
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28 Feb 99
10-13
Table 10-9
Application of Oil to Roller Bearings
System Conditions Oil Levels/Oil Flow Rates Comments
Bath/splash Generally used where speeds are low Bearings on horizontal and vertical
A limit in dn value of 100,000 is element
sometimes quoted, but higher values
can be accommodated if churning is
not a problem.
shafts, immerse half lowest rolling
Multirow bearings on vertical shafts,
fully immerse bottom row of elements
Oil flingers, drip- Normally as for bath/splash Flow rate dictated by particular Allows use of lower oil
feed lubricators, application; ensure flow is sufficient to level if temperature rise
etc. allow operation of bearing below is too high with
desired or recommended maximum bath/splash
temperature - generally between 70 EC
and 90 EC (158 EF and 194 EF)
Pressure circulating No real limit to dn value As a guide, use: *0.6 cm /min cm of The oil flow rate has
Use oil mist where speeds are very
high
3 2
projected area of bearing (o.d. x width) generally to be decided
by consideration of the
operating temperature
Oil mist No real limit to dn value As a guide use: * 0.1 to 0.3 x bearing In some cases oil-mist
Almost invariably used for small-bore
bearings above 50,000 rev/min, but
also used at lower speeds
bore (cm/2.54) x no. of rows - lubrication may be
cm /hour combined with an oil
3
Larger amounts are required for pre- a reserve supply which is
loaded units, up to 0.6 x bearing bore particularly valuable
(cm/2.54) x no. of rows - cm /hour when high-speed
3
bath, the latter acting as
bearings start to run
* It must be emphasized that values obtained will be approximate and that the manufacturers advice should be sought on the
performance of equipment of a particular type.
Reference: Neale, M. J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Oxford, England.
a. From Figure 10-3, determine the speed for a 60-mm bore medium series bearing (3100 rev/min).
b. Maximum speed correction factor for cage centered bearing from Table 10.8. (1.5).
c. Maximum speed = 1.5 x 3100 = 4650 rev/min.
d. Obtain correction factor for vertical shaft mounting from Table 10.8 (0.75).
e. Corrected speed = 0.75 x 4650 rev/min = 3,488 rev/min (this is the maximum speed rating,
i.e., 100 %).
f. Percent of actual speed to maximum speed = 100 x [950/ 3488] = 27 %.
g. Refer to Figure 10-4. Using 120 EC and the 25 % line, obtain the estimated operating life =
1300 hours.
EM 1110-2-1424
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Change 1

11-1
Chapter 11
Lubrication Applications


11-1. Introduction

This chapter discusses lubrication as it applies to specific equipment generally encountered at dams,
hydroelectric power plants, pumping plants, and related water conveyance facilities. Lubrication of
equipment related to navigation structures is also discussed. Complete coverage of all the auxiliary
equipment to be encountered at these various facilities would be too extensive to include in this manual.
Furthermore, a significant amount of information related to proper lubrication of this equipment is readily
available. Therefore, auxiliary equipment, such as small pumps, air compressors, tools, etc., are not
specifically discussed. The following discussions emphasize major equipment such as turbines, pumps,
governors, gates, hoists, and gear drives. Much of this equipment is custom designed and constructed
according to specifications, at significantly greater cost than off-the-shelf commercial equipment.
Appendix B has results of a survey of locks and dams for lubricants and hydraulic fluids used to lubricate
and operate lock gates, culvert valves, and navigation dams. Appendix C contains a procurement
specification for turbine oil.

11-2. Turbines, Generators, Governors, and Transformers

a. Thrust and journal bearings.

(1) Hydro turbines, whether Francis, Pelton, or Kaplan designs, vertical or horizontal shaft, generally
have a minimum of two journal bearings and one thrust bearing. These bearings consist of some form of
babbitt surface bonded to a steel backing. The rotating element of the bearing is usually polished steel,
either an integral part of the turbine shaft or else attached mechanically to the shaft. The thrust bearing is
usually the most highly loaded bearing in the machine. The thrust bearing resists hydraulic thrust
developed by the axial component of the force of the water on the turbine wheel. In the case of vertical
shafts, the thrust bearing also supports the weight of the rotating parts of the hydro generator. The shaft
bearings in the case of horizontal shaft machines support the weight of the rotating parts; in the case of
Pelton wheels, they also support the component of the hydraulic thrust that is perpendicular to the shaft.
In the case of both horizontal and vertical shaft hydro generators, the shaft bearings support and stabilize
the shaft and resist the forces of imbalance.

(2) In general, the manufacturer of the hydro generator supplies, as part of the operation and
maintenance data, a list of acceptable lubricating oils for the particular unit. Specifically this
recommendation should include a chart of viscosities acceptable for various operating conditions. The oil
recommendation will also include whether antiwear (AW) additives are necessary. The manufacturer has
selected oils that will assure long life and successful operation of the equipment. The type of oil selected
is usually of the general type called turbine oil. Even though this designation refers more to steam and
gas turbines than hydro turbines, many of the operating requirements are similar. This makes turbine oil
the most common type of commercially available lubricating oil used in hydro turbines.

(3) Most hydro turbines are connected to a plant oil system that has a centrally located oil filtration
and moisture removal system. The governor system often uses oil from the same system, so in addition to
lubricating the bearings, the oil must function satisfactorily in the governor. The following discussion
identifies the requirements for selecting turbine lubricating oils. For additional information on lubrication
and oil requirements for hydroelectric applications, refer to Corps of Engineers Engineer Manual
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
11-2
EM 1110-2-4205, Hydroelectric Power Plants, Mechanical Design. Also refer to Chapter 13 for
sampling, testing, and analysis of turbine oils.
b. Oil requirements.
Specific oil requirements are as follows.
(1) Viscosity.
(a) The viscosity is perhaps oils most important quality as it is directly related to film strength. The
manufacturer's operation and maintenance instructions usually contain suggested viscosities for specific
operating conditions. These suggestions should be followed. In absence of such suggestions, or if the
operating conditions have changed materially, or if there is compelling evidence of excessive wear that
could be linked to breakdown of the oil film between stationary and moving parts, it may become necessary
to revisit the viscosity selection process. Engineers at the oil company supplying the oil should be
consulted about this decision. To recommend the proper oil, they will require information on dimensions of
all the bearings, including area of the thrust bearing, rotational speed of the shaft, load supported by the
bearings, and normal operating temperatures.
(b) Note: when substituting or ordering lubricating oils, it is very important to use the correct units
for the viscosity. For example, many of the hydro generators in use today were built several years ago,
when the most common unit of viscosity was the Saybolt Universal Seconds (SUS). Thus, a generic
turbine oil called out in the O&M manual might be "Turbine Oil #44" (SUS). When the oil supplier is
called for replacement oil, the closest oil number available would be "Turbine Oil #46" (cSt) if viscosity
units are not mentioned. However, when the differing viscosity units are taken into account, the correct
equivalent in terms of modern viscosity units would be "Turbine Oil #32" (cSt). This is probably the most
common viscosity in use in hydro turbine bearings.
(2) Rust and corrosion inhibitors. The next requirement, which determines the corrosion protection
provided by the oil additive package, is often denoted by the letter R in the lubricants trade name. One
function of the oil must be rust protection for steel bearing surfaces because hydro turbine oils are naturally
susceptible to water contamination. There is also a risk of the additive packages in the oil reacting with the
metal in the bearings. Applicable standards that must be passed by the oil are:
! ASTM D 665 B, Rust Test using synthetic salt water (must be noted Pass).
! ASTM D 130, Copper Strip Corrosion Test, 3 hours at 100 EC (212 EF), Results 1B.
(3) Oxidation inhibitors. It is common for the lubricating oil in a hydraulic power unit to be kept in
service for 20 years or more. One of the ways that the oil degrades is oxidation, which causes gums and
varnishes to form. These contaminants may accumulate in narrow passages or oil system valves and
damage the machine. Even though the operating temperatures are moderate, the oil is exposed to the air
continuously and the extreme length of time the oil is kept in service makes it necessary to have a high-
performance antioxidation package, often denoted by a letter O in the trade name. The oil must pass
ASTM D 943, Turbine Oil Oxidation Test, and should be over 3500 hours to a 2.0 neutralization number.
(4) Antifoam additives. The oil in the bearing tubs splashes and entrains air. It is extremely difficult
to lubricate with small bubbles of air in the oil, so it is important that the lubricating oil release entrained
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
11-3
air quickly. Additives that increase the air release rate are called antifoam additives. The oil must meet
ASTM D 892 , Foam Test, Sequence II.
(5) Water release or (demulsibility). The oil in hydro turbines often becomes contaminated with water.
It is important that the oil and water not remain in emulsion as this affects the oil's film strength and causes
increased oxidation and corrosion rates. The oil must pass ASTM D 1401, Emulsion Test, at 54 EC
(130 EF).
c. Lubricant maintenance. As there is usually a large amount of oil in the bearing oil system, it is
more pertinent to discuss maintenance rather than change intervals. Usually, the facility has a testing
laboratory run periodic tests on the oil. It is common for the oil company to offer this service, and this is
worth consideration as the company is more familiar with factors affecting the oil's performance --
especially in the additive package. Regular sampling and testing can indicate the timing and effectiveness
of filtration, can help pinpoint problem areas, and can indicate when the oil will need to be changed. The
lubricant has four different areas of possible degradation: viscosity breakdown, particulate contamination,
additive breakdown, and water contamination.
(1) Viscosity breakdown. The oil's ability to maintain separation between the surfaces in the bearing
depends on its film strength, which is related closely to viscosity. A loss in viscosity is usually due to
shearing stresses in the bearing that reduce the length of the oil molecules. An increase in viscosity usually
indicates that the oil temperature is high enough that the lighter molecules are being boiled off. While this
may not negatively affect the film strength, the increased viscosity can increase the bearing operating
temperature.
(2) Particulate contamination. Unless the bearing surfaces are actually touching, the major cause of
wear is through contamination by particles. The sources of particle contamination may be either internal or
external. Internal sources may be loose particles created during run-in or oxide particles created by water
in the oil. An increase in iron or other metallic oxide particles also may indicate additive breakdown.
Particles may also be present in new equipment due to inadequate flushing after system run-in. External
contamination may be due to dust and dirt introduced through vents, or poor filters. Contaminants may
also be introduced through unclean oil-handling practices, used make-up oil, or contaminated new oil. For
this reason, new oil should be tested before it is added to the system.
(3) Additive breakdown. As additives perform their intended functions they are used up. This
depletion of additives may increase wear by allowing corrosion to create particles of different oxides that
can damage bearings. Over-filtration may actually remove components of the additive system. As stated
above, maintaining the additive package is the best reason to use a lubricant maintenance program offered
by the manufacturer of the oil.
(4) Water contamination. This is the one form of degradation that can sometimes be observed
visually, usually by the oil taking on a whitish, cloudy, or milky cast. This is in some ways a disadvantage.
By the time enough water is mixed in the oil to be visible, the oil's film strength has been severely
decreased. Thus testing for water should be performed with the other tests even if the oil does not appear
to be contaminated with water.
d. Wicket gates.
(1) Wicket gates have two or three journal bearings and one thrust bearing or collar per gate. The
journal bearings resist the hydrostatic and hydrodynamic loads involved in regulating the flow of water into
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
11-4
the turbine. They also resist bending in the shaft that results from the thrust of the actuating linkage. The
thrust bearing or collar positions the wicket gate vertically between the upper and lower surfaces of the
speed ring in the distributor. The thrust collar has to support the weight of the wicket gates but under some
conditions must resist an upward thrust as well. Wicket gate bearings are subject to high loads and the
shafts do not make complete revolutions, but instead move over an arc, with usually about 90 degrees of
motion from completely closed to completely open. This quarter-turn usually takes 5 seconds or more. An
improperly adjusted governor may hunt, moving the gates back and forth continually in an arc as small as 1
degree. Even when shaft seals are provided, the grease can come into contact with water. In the worst
cases, water can wash the lubricant out of the bearings.

(2) Traditionally, wicket gate bearings have been lubricated with a lithium-based, EP NLGI-2 grease.
Auto-lubrication can be used to provide fresh grease every day. Generally the bearings in the wicket gate
linkages are lubricated with the same grease and by the same system. Environmental concerns have led to
attempts to use environmentally acceptable greases. There are no standards for environmental
acceptability, but two areas generally acknowledged to be important are biodegradability and toxicity.
These areas are discussed in Chapter 8. It is important to note that greases meeting food grade standards
do not necessarily meet any of the standards for biodegradability or toxicity.
(3) A way to reduce or eliminate the release of greases to the environment is to use self-lubricating
bearings or bushings. There are many suppliers of such bushings, but there are no industry-wide standards
to determine quality or longevity of these products. Use of these products should be considered on a case-
by-case basis. Refer to Chapter 6, paragraph 6-3, for a description of Corps of Engineers and Bureau of
Reclamation experience using greaseless bearings for this and similar applications.
e. Governors. A governor consists of a high-pressure pump, an accumulator tank, an unpressurized
reservoir, control valves, hydraulic lines, filters, and actuators called servomotors. Servomotors develop
the force that is used by the wicket gates to regulate the flow of water through the turbine, and thus the
amount of power generation it generates. Governors generally utilize the same oil as is used in the hydro
generator guide and thrust bearing system. Governors that operate at over 68.9 bar (1000 psi) may require
an antiwear additive to the oil, but these are not common. Turbine oils operate successfully in the governor
system because the requirements for the oils are very similar. For example, antifoam characteristics
prevent compressible foam from being introduced into the high-pressure lines. Also RO characteristics are
needed because the high-pressure pumps and the pilot valve assembly have very small clearances. Rust or
other oxidation products could be transported into those clearances and cause the pump to wear or the
pilot valve to stick or be sluggish, resulting in a degradation or loss of governor function. Auxiliary filters
are sometimes used to keep the governor oil supply free of particulates.
f. Transformers and oil circuit breakers. Mineral-based insulating oil for electrical equipment
functions as an insulating and cooling medium. This oil usually is produced from naphthenic base stocks
and does not contain additives, except for an oxidation inhibitor. New electrical insulating oil, either
provided in new equipment or purchased as replacement oil, must meet the following standards:
(1) ASTM D 3847, Standard Specification for Mineral Insulating Oil Used in Electrical Apparatus -
Type II Mineral Oil. This is the general specification for mineral insulating oil and contains references to
more than 20 other ASTM standards that are used to determine the functional property requirements. The
appendices to the standard explain the significance of the physical, electrical, and chemical properties for
which the various tests are performed. One of the objectives of the standard is to specify insulating oils
that are compatible and miscible with existing oils presently in service.
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11-5
(2) ASTM D 4059, Analysis of Polychlorinated Biphenyls in Insulating Liquid by Gas
Chromatography Method. No detectable PCB content is permitted.
11-3. Main Pumps and Motors
Main pumps and motors come in various shapes and sizes, but can be divided into categories. The first
dividing criterion is the orientation of the shaft. Pumps are available in vertical-shaft and horizontal-shaft
configurations. The second criterion is the size of the unit. Large units are similar in layout and
component size to hydro generators. Some parts are embedded, and the pump appears to be built into the
pumping plant. Small units have a wide range of size, but generally have an identifiable pump and motor
and often are mounted on skids or plates. For additional information on pumps and lubrication refer to
Corps of Engineers Engineer Manual EM 1110-2-3105.
a. Large units.
(1) Large units with vertical shafts typically use journal bearings and a sliding contact thrust bearing.
These units sometimes are dual-purpose, being used both as pumping units and turbine generators. There
may be a plant oil system that has oil storage and filtering capabilities. RO turbine oil with viscosity
32 (cSt) is a common lubricant.
(2) Large units with horizontal shafts utilize journal bearings Each bearing has its own oil reservoir.
Oil rings that rotate with the shaft pick up oil from the reservoir, and it runs or drips down into holes in the
top of the bearing. Very large units may have an oil pump to provide an oil film before start-up. RO
turbine oil with viscosity 32 (cSt) is a common lubricant.
b. Small units.
(1) Smaller vertical-shaft machines may have a variety of pumps attached to the motor, such as
propeller, vertical turbine, or mixed flow. These pumps normally have a grease-lubricated suction bushing,
and the rest of the bearings in the pump itself are sleeve-type -- either lubricated by the fluid being pumped
(product-lubricated) or else by oil dripped into a tube enclosing the shaft bearings (oil-lubricated). There
are also vertical-pumps with bronze bearings or bushings that are grease-lubricated by individual grease
lines connected to grease points at floor level.
(2) Motors for the smaller vertical units generally utilize rolling-contact bearings. The upper bearing
is a combination of radial and thrust bearing -- many times a single-row spherical bearing. Because of the
large heat loads associated with these bearing types and conditions, they are usually oil-lubricated. The
lower bearing is either a ball or roller bearing and is lubricated by grease. This bearing provides radial
support and is configured in the motor to float vertically so it is not affected by axial thrust.
(3) Smaller horizontal units often have rolling-contact bearings in both pump and motor, and can be
lubricated by either grease or oil. Oil-lubricated bearings will have an individual oil reservoir for each
bearing that is fed by an oil-level cup that maintains the level of the oil. Grease-lubricated bearings can
have grease cups that provide a reservoir with a threaded top that allows new grease to be injected into the
bearing by turning the top a prescribed amount at set intervals of time. In some cases, grease nipples are
provided. These receive a prescribed number of strokes from a manual grease gun at specified time
intervals.
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11-6
c. Maintenance. For all of the bearing types that use oil, the most common type of oil found is RO
turbine oil. For the greased bearings, a lithium-based grease designated NLGI 2 is the most common.
Maintenance problems with these machines center around oil changes and grease changes.
(1) Oil changes sometimes do little good if the oil is cold and particulate matter has been allowed to
settle out. This problem is resolved by changing the oil after the pump has been running at normal
operating temperature. Running the pump helps mix particles into the oil before it is drained. Another
method that may work is to drain the oil, then flush the oil reservoir with warmed oil, discard the oil, then
fill the bearing. This can help to dislodge foreign matter that has settled to the bottom.
(2) Another problem is condensation caused by thermal cycling of the motor as it starts and stops. A
desiccant air breather on the bearing equalizing air intake will prevent extra moisture from being taken into
the reservoir. Proper flushing of the oil reservoir can help carry out water that has collected in the low
spots.
(3) Having adequate grease in rolling element bearings is important, but too much grease can cause
overheating and bearing failure. Maintenance procedures must be followed to avoid over greasing.
(4) Bearing housings need to be disassembled and all the old grease cleaned out and replaced at
intervals.
11-4. Gears, Gear Drives, and Speed Reducers
a. General. Lubrication requirements for gear sets are prescribed by the equipment manufacturers,
based on the operating characteristics and ambient conditions under which the equipment will operate.
Often the nameplate data on the equipment will indicate the type of lubricant required. If no lubricant is
specified on the nameplate, recommendations should be obtained from the equipment manufacturer. If the
manufacturer is unknown or no longer in business, a lubricant supplier should be consulted for
recommendations.
b. Gear drives. In general, gear lubricants are formulated to comply with ANSI/AGA 9005-D94,
Industrial Gear Lubrication Standard. Gear lubricants complying with AGA are also suitable for drive
unit bearings in contact with the gear lubricant.
(1) The AGA standard is intended for use by gear designers and equipment manufacturers because it
requires knowing the pitch line velocity of the gear set to select a lubricant. Because this information is
rarely known, except by the gear manufacturer, the standard provides little assistance for equipment
operators trying to select a gear lubricant. The superseded standards, AGA 250.01 and 250.02, require
that the operators know the centerline distance for the gear sets. The centerline distance can be calculated
or approximated by measuring the distance between the centerline of the driver and driven gear. Although
updated standards have been in use for several years, many gear unit manufacturers and lubricant
producers continue to publish selection criteria based on the old standard. Therefore, equipment operators
may want to save the old standard for reference until manufacturers and producers update all their
publications. When the pitch line velocity is unknown or cannot be obtained in a timely manner, an
educated guess may be necessary. A lubricant can be selected by referring to the old standard and
subsequently verified for compliance with the latest standard.
(2) Reference to manufacturers data indicates that an AGA 3 or 4 grade lubricant will cover most
winter applications, and an AGA 5 or 6 will cover most summer applications. EP oil should be used for
EM 1110-2-1424
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11-7
heavily loaded low-speed equipment. Unlike the old standard, the new AGA standards no longer
recommend EP oils for worm gear drives. Instead, a compounded oil such as AGA 7 Comp or 8 Comp
should be used.
(3) Note that AGA provides recommended gear lubricants for continuous and intermittent operation.
Inspection of some gear sets in radial gate applications at Bureau of Reclamation facilities found wear that
may be attributable to use of improper oil due to runoff that left the tooth surfaces dry. The intermittent
lubricant recommendations are especially important for these applications where water flow regulation
requires that the gates remain in a fixed position for prolonged periods. Gear lubricants formulated for
continuous operation are too thin and may run off during the standing periods, resulting in inadequate
lubrication and possible gear tooth damage when the gate moves to a new position.
(4) Gear oils should be selected for the highest viscosity consistent with the operating conditions.
When very low ambient temperatures are encountered, the oil viscosity should not be lowered. A reduced
oil viscosity may be too low when the gears reach their normal operating temperature. If possible, oil
heaters should be used to warm the oil in cold environments. The heater should be carefully sized to
prevent hot spots that may scorch the oil. Another alternative is to switch to a synthetic oil that is
compatible with the gear materials.
(5) Environmental concerns will have a growing impact on the development and use of lubricants.
Although some lubricants are identified as food grade and have been FDA-approved and are subject to
ASTM standard testing procedures, there is no worldwide standard definition or specification for
environmental lubricants intended to replace standard lubricants. U.S. regulations are becoming more
restrictive with regard to the contents, use, and disposal of lubricants. Four are of particular interest at the
Federal level.
! Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA), which
imposes liability for cleaning up contamination caused by hazardous substances.
! Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), which regulates hazardous waste and solid
waste.
! Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) - Extended and amended CERCLA to
include toxicological profiles of hazardous substances.
! Toxic Substance Control Act (TSCA), which governs the manufacturing, importing, distribution,
and processing of all toxic chemicals. All such chemicals must be inspected and approved by the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) before entering the market.
(6) As environmental regulations become more restrictive, finding environmentally acceptable
lubricants that comply with gear drive manufacturers specifications is becoming increasingly difficult.
Product users should exercise caution when evaluating and accepting alternative lubricants to ensure that
the product selected complies with the gear manufacturers requirements.
(7) Lubrication of gear drives, such as limitorques used to operate gates and valves, are grease-
lubricated and are covered under the lubricating requirements for gates and valves.
(8) Corps of Engineers facilities should ensure that gear lubricants conforming to the Corps Guide
Specification CEGS 15005 are purchased and used for storm water pump gear reducer applications.
n '
200
d
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11-8
11-5. Couplings
Couplings requiring lubrication are usually spring, chain, gear, or fluid drive type. Table 11-1 provides
lubricant recommendations for couplings. Additional recommendations are provided below.
Table 11-1
Recommendations for the Lubrication of Gear, Spring-Type, Chain Couplings
Lubricant Type Period Remarks Pn d /2 (m/sec ) Dn (ft/sec )
Limiting Criteria
Lubricant Dissipation Pitch-line Range in
Change Acceleration Practical Units
Centrifugal Effects
Heat
2 2 2 2
No. 1 Grease 0.15 x 10 25 max - 2 years Soft grease preferred to ensure
(mineral oil base) 0.5 x 10 25-80 - 12 months penetration of lubricant to gear
3
3
teeth
No. 3 Grease 1.5 x 10 80-250 - 9 months Limitation is loss of oil causing
(mineral oil base) 5.0 x 10 250-850 - 6 months hardening of grease; No. 3 grease
3
e
12.5 x 10 850-2000 - 3 months is more mechanically stable than
3
No. 1
Semifluid 45.0 x 10 3000-5000 230 x 10 max 2 years Sealing of lubricant in coupling is
polyglycol grease main problem
or mineral oil
3 3
d = pcd, m; D = pcd, ft; = rads/sec; n = rev/sec; P = hp transmitted
Reference: Neale, M. J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Oxford, England
a. General lubrication. Lubrication should follow the manufacturers recommendations. When no
suitable recommendations are available, NLGI No 1 to 3 grease may be used for grid couplings. Gear and
chain couplings may be lubricated with NLGI No. 0 to 3 grease.
b. Grease-lubricated couplings.
(1) Normal applications. This condition is descriptive of applications where the centrifugal force does
not exceed 200 g (0.44 lb), motor speed does not exceed 3600 rpm, hub misalignment does not exceed
three-fourths of 1 degree, and peak torque is less than 2.5 times the continuous torque. For these
conditions, an NLGI No. 2 grease with a high-viscosity base oil (higher than 198 cSt at 40 EC (104 EF)
should be used.
(2) Low-speed applications. This application includes operating conditions where the centrifugal force
does not exceed 10 g (0.2 lb). If the pitch diameter d is known, the coupling speed n can be estimated
from the following equation (Mancuso and South 1994):
Misalignment and torque are as described for normal conditions in (1) above. For these conditions an
NGLI No. 0 or No. 1 grease with a high-viscosity base oil (higher than 198 cSt at 40 EC (104 EF)) should
be used.
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11-9
(3) High-speed applications. This condition is characterized by centrifugal forces exceeding 200 g
(0.44 lb), misalignment less than 0.5 degrees, with uniform torque. The lubricant must have good
resistance to centrifugal separation. Consult a manufacturer for recommendations.
(4) High-torque, high-misalignment applications. This condition is characterized by centrifugal forces
less than 200 g (0.44 lb), misalignment greater than 0.75 degrees, and shock loads exceeding 2.5 times the
continuous torque. Many of these applications also include high temperatures (100 EC (212 EF), which
limits the number of effective greases with adequate performance capability. In addition to the require-
ments for normal operation, the grease must have antifriction and antiwear additives (polydisulfide),
extreme pressure additives, a Timken load greater than 20.4 kg (40 lb), and a minimum dropping point of
150 EC (302 EF).
c. Oil-lubricated couplings. Most oil-filled couplings are the gear type. Use a high-viscosity grade
oil not less than 150 SUS at 36.1 EC (100 EF). For high-speed applications, a viscosity of 2100 to
3600 SUS at 36.1 EC (100 EF) should be used.
11-6. Hoist and Cranes
a. General. Various types of hoisting equipment are used in hydroelectric power plants and pumping
plants, including gantry cranes, overhead traveling cranes, jib cranes, monorail hoists, and radial gate
hoists. The primary components requiring lubrication are gear sets, bearings, wire ropes, and chains. The
lubrication requirements for gear sets should comply with the same AGA requirements for gears discussed
above. Lubrication of wire ropes and chains used in hoists and cranes is discussed later in this chapter.
b. Hydraulic brakes. Hydraulic brakes are commonly found on cranes and hoists. Both drum and
disk brakes are used in these applications. Components closely resemble automotive parts and similar
brake fluids are used. Brake fluid is glycol-based and is not a petroleum product. Hydraulic brake fluid
has several general requirements:
! It must have a high boiling temperature.
! It must have a very low freezing temperature.
! It must not be compressible in service.
! It must not cause deterioration of components of the brake system.
! It must provide lubrication to the sliding parts of the brake system.
(1) Hydraulic brake fluids are acceptable for use if they meet or exceed the following requirements:
(a) Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard (FMVSS) No. 116 (DOT 3). This includes a dry boiling
temperature of 205 EC (401 EF). This is commonly known as DOT 3 brake fluid. Some industrial braking
systems require Wagner 21B fluid, which is a DOT 3 fluid with a 232 EC (450 EF) dry boiling temperature
and containing additional lubrication and antioxidation additives.
(b) Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) Specification J1703 - Motor Vehicle Brake Fluid. This
standard assures all the necessary qualities of the brake fluid and also assures that fluids from different
manufacturers are compatible.
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11-10
(2) SAE Recommended Practice J1707, Service Maintenance of SAE J1703, Brake Fluids in Motor
Vehicle Brake Systems. This guidance provides basic recommendations for general maintenance pro-
cedures that will result in a properly functioning brake system. The largest problem with glycol brake
fluids is that they absorb moisture from the atmosphere. If left in service long enough, the brake fluid will
become contaminated with water, and this can cause brake failure. Water can collect in the lowest part of
the system and cause corrosion, which damages seals or causes leak paths around them. DOT 3 brake
fluid that is saturated with water will have its boiling temperature reduced to 140 EC (284 EF). If water
has separated out, the brake fluid will have a boiling temperature of 100 EC (212 EF). Under heavy brak-
ing, the temperature of the brake fluid can become so high that the brake fluid will boil or the separated
water will flash into steam and make the brake fluid very compressible. This will result in loss of braking
capacity, from spongy brakes to a complete loss of braking function. Brake fluid should be completely
replaced every 3 years unless the manufacturer's recommended interval is shorter. Also if brake fluid deter-
ioration is noticeable due to a high-humidity working environment it should also be replaced more fre-
quently. Because brake fluid so readily absorbs moisture from the air, only new dry fluid from unopened
containers should be used as a replacement. This means that brake fluid left over from filling or refilling
operations should be discarded. For this reason it is recommended that the user purchase brake fluid in
containers small enough that the fluid can be poured directly from the original container into the brake
system fill point. Under no circumstances should brake fluid be purchased in containers larger than 3.7
liters (1 gallon).
11-7. Wire Rope Lubrication
a. Lubricant-related wear and failure. Wear in wire ropes may be internal or external. The primary
wear mode is internal and is attributed to friction between individual strands during flexing and bending
around drums and sheaves. This condition is aggravated by failure of the lubricant to penetrate the rope.
Additional information on wire rope selection, design, and lubrication can be found in Corps of Engineer
Engineer Manual EM 1110-2-3200, Wire Rope Selection.
(1) Corrosion. Corrosion damage is more serious than abrasive damage and is usually caused by lack
of lubrication. Corrosion often occurs internally where it is also more difficult to detect. Corrosion of wire
ropes occurs when the unprotected rope is exposed to weather, to corrosive environments such as
submergence in water (especially salt water), or to chemicals. Corrosion results in decreased tensile
strength, decreased shock or impact-load resistance, and loss of flexibility. Unprotected wire ropes that are
used infrequently have a greater potential for rust damage due to moisture penetration. Rust may prevent
relative sliding between wires, creating increased stresses when the rope is subsequently placed in service.
(2) Abrasion. A common misconception among facility operators is that stainless steel ropes do not
require lubrication. This misconception is probably due to corrosive operating conditions. This
misconception is easily corrected by considering a wire rope as a machine with many moving parts. The
typical wire rope consists of many wires and strands wrapped around a core. A typical 6 x 47 independent
wire rope core (IWRC ) rope, is composed of 343 individual wires that move relative to each other as the
rope is placed under load or wrapped around a drum. During service these wires are subject to torsion,
bending, tension, and compression stresses. Like all machine parts, ropes also wear as a result of abrasion
and friction at points of moving contact. Therefore proper lubrication is essential to reduce friction and
wear between the individual wires and to ensure maximum performance.
b. Lubrication. During operation, tension in the rope and pressure resulting from wrapping around
drums forces the internal lubricant to the rope surface where it can be wiped or washed off. Tests
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11-11
conducted on dry and lubricated rope operating under similar conditions provide ample evidence of the
beneficial effects of lubrication. The fatigue life of a wire rope can be extended significantly (200 to 300
percent) through the application of the correct lubricant for the operating conditions. However, under
certain operating conditions lubrication may be detrimental. Unless recommended by the rope
manufacturer, wire rope operating in extremely dirty or dusty environment should not be lubricated.
Abrasives may combine with the lubricant to form a grinding compound that will cause accelerated wear.
In applications where ropes undergo frequent and significant flexing and winding around a drum, the rope
should be lubricated regardless of whether the wire rope is constructed from stainless steel. However,
Corps of Engineers experience has shown that wire ropes used in fairly static applications, where flexing
and winding are minimal, should not be lubricated. Tests have shown that lubricated ropes may actually
experience more severe corrosion than unlubricated ropes because the lubricant tends to tap and seal
moisture in the voids between the wires.
c. Lubricant qualities.
(1) To be effective, a wire rope lubricant should:
(a) Have a viscosity suitable to penetrate to the rope core for thorough lubrication of individual wires
and strands.
(b) Lubricate the external surfaces to reduce friction between the rope and sheaves or drum.
(c) Form a seal to prevent loss of internal lubricant and moisture penetration.
(d) Protect the rope against external corrosion.
(e) Be free from acids and alkalis.
(f) Have enough adhesive strength to resist washout.
(g) Have high film strength.
(h) Not be soluble in the medium surrounding it under actual operating conditions.
(i) Not interfere with the visual inspection of the rope for broken wires or other damage.
(2) New wire rope is usually lubricated by the manufacturer. Periodic lubrication is required to
protect against corrosion and abrasion and to ensure long service life. Wire rope lubricants may require
special formulations for the intended operating conditions (for example, submerged, wet, dusty, or gritty
environments). The rope manufacturers recommendations should always be obtained to ensure proper
protection and penetration. When the manufacturers preferred lubricant cannot be obtained, an adhesive-
type lubricant similar to that used for open gearing may be acceptable.
(3) Two types of lubricants are generally used: oils and adhesives. Often mineral oil, such as an SAE
10 or 30 motor oil, is used to lubricate wire rope. The advantage of a light oil is that it can be applied cold
with good penetration. However, the light oil may not contain adequate corrosion inhibitors for rope
applications. Also, it tends to work out of the rope just as easily as it works in, necessitating frequent
applications.
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11-12
(4) Heavy, adhesive lubricants or dressings provide longer lasting protection. To ensure good penetra-
tion, these lubricants usually require thinning before applying. Thinning can be accomplished by heating
the lubricant to a temperature of 71.1 to 93.3 EC (160 to 200 EF), or by diluting with a solvent. A properly
applied heavy lubricant will provide both internal lubrication and a durable external coating to prevent cor-
rosion and penetration of dust and abrasives.
(5) In addition to the qualities noted above, good adhesive lubricants or rope dressings:
(a) Must not cake, gum, or ball up when contaminated with dust and dirt.
(b) Must not thin and drip at the highest operating temperature.
(c) Must not become brittle or chip at the lowest operating temperature.
(d) Should have inherently high viscosity without adding thickeners or fillers.
(6) When damp conditions prevail, or when severe flexing under heavy loads is encountered, a two-
stage lubricant application may be the most effective. Application of a lighter adhesive followed by a very
heavy adhesive lubricant to seal in the oil provides the best protection. In certain ropes subjected to highly
corrosive environments such as acids, alkalis, or salt water, providing a heavy impervious exterior
lubricant coating to guard against corrosion may be more important than ensuring adequate penetration.
(7) Wire rope lubricants can be applied by brush, spray, drip, or -- preferably -- by passing the rope
through a heated reservoir filled with the lubricant. Before application the rope must be cleaned of any
accumulated dirt, dust, or rust to ensure good penetration. The lubricant should be applied to the entire
circumference of the rope and the rope slowly wound on and off the drum several times to work the
lubricant into the rope. If the lubricant is being applied by hand it may be helpful to apply the lubricant as
it passes over a sheave where the rope's strands are spread by bending and the lubricant can penetrate more
easily.
d. Rope applications and lubricant requirements. There are five general rope application categories
based on operating conditions: industrial or outdoor, friction, low abrasive wear and corrosion, heavy wear,
and standing. These conditions are summarized in Table 11-2. Each of these conditions has its own
lubrication requirements.
(1) Industrial or outdoor applications. This category includes mobile, tower, and container cranes.
Internal and external corrosion are possible, but external corrosion is the more serious and deserves
primary consideration. Desirable lubricant qualities include good penetration into the wires and core,
moisture displacement, corrosion protection, resistance to washout and emulsification, and freedom from
buildup due to repeated applications. The best lubricants for these applications are solvent-based that leave
a thick, semidry film after evaporation of the solvent. A tenacious semidry film will minimize adhesion of
abrasive particles that cause wear. Thin-film lubricants such as MoS and graphite are not recommended
2
because they tend to dry, causing surface film breakdown and subsequent exposure of the wires.
(2) Friction applications. This category includes elevators, friction hoists, and capstan winches.
Fatigue and corrosion are the primary considerations. Desirable lubricant qualities include corrosion
protection, internal lubrication, moisture displacement, lubricant buildup prevention, and minimizing loss
of friction grip. Note that unlike other lubrication applications, where efforts are made to reduce friction,
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11-13
Table 11-2
Lubrication of Wire Ropes in Service
Operating Conditions
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Ropes Ropes working
working in over sheaves
industrial or Ropes where (1) and As (3) but for
marine subject to (2) are not friction drive Standing ropes not
environments heavy wear critical applications subject to bending
Predominant cause Corrosion Abrasion Fatigue Fatigue - corrosion Corrosion
of rope deterioration
Typical applications Cranes and Mine haulage, Cranes and Lift suspension, Pendant ropes for cranes
derricks excavator grabs, jib compensating and and excavators. Guys
working on draglines, suspension governor ropes, for masts and chimneys
ships, on scrapers, and ropes, piling, mine hoist ropes on
docksides, or in slushers percussion, and friction winders
polluted drilling
atmospheres
Dressing Good Good antiwear Good penetration Non-slip property. Good corrosion
requirements penetration to properties. to rope interior. Good penetration to protection. Resistance to
rope interior. Good Good lubrication rope interior. Ability wash off. Resistance
Ability to adhesion to properties. to displace to surface cracking.
displace rope. Resistance to moisture. Internal
moisture. Resistance to fling off. and external
Internal and removal by corrosion protection
external mechanical
corrosion forces
protection.
Resistance to
wash off.
Resistance to
emulsification
Type of lubricant Usually a Usually a very Usually a good Usually a solvent- Usually a relatively thick,
formulation viscous oil or general purpose dispersed bituminous compound
containing soft grease lubricating oil of temporary corrosion with solvent added to
solvent leaving containing about SAE 30 preventative leaving assist application
a thick MoS or viscosity a thin, semihard
(0.1 mm) soft graphite. film
grease film Tackiness
2
additives can
be of
advantage
Application technique Manual or Manual or Mechanical Normally by hand Normally by hand
mechanical mechanical
Frequency of Monthly Weekly 10/20 cycles per Monthly Six monthly/2 years
application* day
* The periods indicated are for the general case. The frequency of operation, the environmental conditions, and the economics of
service dressing will more correctly dictate the period required.
Reference: Neale, M. J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Oxford, England
in this instance a desirable quality includes increasing the coefficient of friction. A solvent-based dressing
that deposits a thin slip-resistant semidry film offers the best protection.
(3) Low abrasive wear and corrosion applications. This category includes electric overhead cranes,
wire rope hoists, indoor cranes, and small excavators. Internal wear leading to fatigue is the primary
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11-14
consideration. Maximum internal and external lubrication are essential. Mineral-oil-base lubricants such
as SAE 30 are commonly accepted as the best alternative, but these oils provide minimal corrosion
protection and tend to run off. The best alternative is to use a lubricant specifically designed for wire rope
applications. These lubricants contain corrosion inhibitors and tackiness agents. Thin-film dry lubricants
such as MoS and graphite are also commonly used, but claims of increased fatigue life attributed to these
2
lubricants have been questioned by at least one wire rope manufacturer.
(4) Heavy wear applications. This category includes ropes used in excavators, winches, haulage
applications, and offshore mooring systems and dredgers. Protection against abrasion is the primary
consideration. Desirable lubricant qualities include good adhesion, crack and flake resistance, antiwear
properties, resistance to moisture, emulsification, and ultraviolet degradation, and corrosion-resistance --
especially in offshore applications. The best lubricants are those with thixotropic (resistance to softening
or flow under shear) characteristics to ensure good lubricity under shearing action. These lubricants offer
good penetration, and they resist cracking and ultraviolet degradation. Viscous oils or soft grease
containing MoS or graphite are commonly used. Tackiness additives are also beneficial.
2
(5) Standing rope applications. This category includes guy and pendant ropes for onshore use, and
towing cables, cranes, derricks, and trawl warps for offshore applications. Corrosion due to prolonged
contact in a corrosive environment is the primary consideration. Desirable lubricant qualities include high
corrosion protection, long-term stability over time and temperature, good adhesion, and resistance to wash-
off, emulsification, and mechanical removal. The best lubricants are thixotropic oils similar to those
required for heavy-wear applications, except that a higher degree corrosion-resistance additive should be
provided.
11-8. Chain Lubrication
Drive chains combine the flexibility of a belt drive with the positive action of a gear drive. Various designs
are available. The simplest consist of links that are rough cast, forged, or stamped. These chains are
seldom enclosed and therefore exposed to various environmental conditions. They are generally limited to
low-speed applications and are seldom lubricated. Roller chains have several moving parts and, except for
the self-lubricating type, require periodic lubrication. Lubricants should be applied between the roller and
links to ensure good penetration into the pins and inner bushing surfaces.
a. Lubricant-related wear and failure.
(1) Like wire ropes, chains experience both internal and external wear. Internal wear generally occurs
on the pins and adjacent bearing surface of the roller bushing, and at the link surfaces. Wear is attributed
to friction between metal contacting surfaces. Use of improper lubricant, inadequate lubricant penetration
into the pin and bushing clearances, poor lubricant retention, and inadequate or infrequent lubrication are
the primary causes of premature wear. Poor chain designs, such as those that provide no grease fittings or
other lubricating schemes, also contribute to premature wear.
(2) Corrosion damage is a serious problem and often occurs internally where it is difficult to detect
after the chain is assembled and placed in service. Corrosion occurs when the unprotected chain is exposed
to weather or corrosive environments such as prolonged submergence in water. Corrosion results in
decreased tensile strength, decreased shock or impact-load resistance, and loss of flexibility.
b. Lubricant characteristics. The most important considerations in chain lubrication are boundary
lubrication and corrosion. Chain life can be extended through the proper selection and application of
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11-15
lubricant for the operating conditions. An effective chain lubricant should possess the following
characteristics:
(1) Have a viscosity that will enable it to penetrate into the link pins and bearings.
(2) Lubricate the external surfaces to reduce friction between the sliding link surfaces and chain
sprockets.
(3) Form a seal to prevent moisture penetration.
(4) Protect the chain against corrosion.
(5) Be free of acids and alkalis.
(6) Resist washout.
(7) Have high film strength.
(8) Not be soluble in the medium surrounding it under actual operating conditions.
(9) Displace water.
(10) Not cake, gum, or ball up when contaminated with dust and dirt.
(11) Not thin and drip at the highest operating temperature.
(12) Not become brittle, peel, or chip at the lowest operating temperature.
c. Lubrication problems.
(1) Most chains, such as those used on conveyors, transporters, and hoists, are accessible and easily
lubricated while in service. Lubrication of these chains is generally accomplished through oil baths,
brushing, or spray applications.
(2) Lubrication of tainter (radial) gate chains poses an especially difficult challenge. Chain design,
construction, application, and installation often render them inaccessible. The operating constraints
imposed on these gates include water flow regulation, changing water surface elevations, poor accessibility,
and infrequent and minimal movement. These gates may remain in fixed positions for prolonged periods.
The submerged portions of chains have a significantly greater potential for rust damage due to exposure to
corrosive water, lubricant washout, and moisture penetration into the link pins and bearings. Infrequent
movement and inaccessibility adversely affect the frequency of lubrication.
d. Lubricants.
(1) Typical chain lubricants include light general purpose mineral oils, turbine oils, gear oils,
penetrating fluids, and adhesives. Light oils may be adequate for continuous chains exposed to oil baths.
Synthetic sprays employing solid lubricants such as graphite, MoS , and PTFE are also common. When
2
the potential for environmental contamination or pollution is a major concern, food-grade lubricant may be
required to prevent contamination of water supplies. When manufacturers data are not available,
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recommended lubricants are shown below. For heavily loaded chains, the extreme pressure (EP) grades
should be used.
! Low speed--0 to 3 m/s (0 to 10 ft/s) :
below 38 EC (100EF) ISO 100 (AGMA 3).
above 38 EC (100 EF) ISO 150 (AGMA 4)
! Medium speed--3 to 9 m/s (10 to 30 ft/s):
below 38 EC (100 EF) ISO 150 (AGMA 4)
above 38 EC (100 EF) ISO 220 (AGMA 5)
(2) Chain lubricants may require special formulation or incorporation of multiple lubricants to cope
with severe operating conditions including submerged, wet, dusty, and gritty environments. When possible,
the chain manufacturer should be consulted for lubricant recommendations. If the recommended lubricant
is not available, a lubricant manufacturer can recommend a substitute lubricant for the application
provided the operating conditions are accurately described. When necessary, an adhesive-type lubricant
similar to that used for open gearing may be acceptable.
(3) Heavy roller chains such as those used in radial gate applications require heavier lubricants to
ensure adequate protection over prolonged periods of submergence without benefit of periodic lubrication.
Chain lubricants used in this application must be especially resistant against washout.
(4) New or rebuilt gate chains are usually lubricated during assembly, but periodic lubrication is
required to protect against corrosion and abrasion and to ensure long service life. A properly applied
lubricant will provide both internal lubrication and a durable external coating to prevent corrosion and
penetration of dust and abrasives.
(5) The following example is provided to stress the complex nature of certain lubricant applications,
such as heavily loaded roller chains. In a 1996 radial gate rehabilitation at Folsom Dam, a three-stage
lubricant application was used during assembly of the new lift chains. The procedure was recommended by
Lubrication Engineers, Inc., based on their experience with similar applications. The Folsom chains were
not fitted with grease fittings , so once reassembled, the pins and bushings could not be lubricated. An
initial coat of open gear lubricant was applied to the pins and bushings. This coating provided primary
protection for the internal parts of the chain which would be inaccessible after the chain was placed in
service. After assembly, the entire chain received a coat of wire rope lubricant. This is a penetrating fluid
that will lubricate assembled areas of the chain that the final coat will not penetrate. The final coat
consisted of open gear lubricant similar to initial coating except that the product contained a solvent for
easier application -- especially at low temperatures. After evaporation of the solvent, the remaining
lubricant has characteristics similar to the initial coating. The top coat must be reapplied as necessary to
ensure lubrication and corrosion-protection between the sliding links.
(6) Although the multistage lubricant application described above was conducted on new chain, it
may also be possible to extend the service life of existing chains by using this procedure. However, since
this work is labor-intensive and requires placing the affected gate out of service, the economics and
logistics must be considered.
e. Lubricant application. The need for lubrication will be evident by discoloration appearing as
reddish-brown deposits. Often bluish metal discoloration can be detected. Chains can be lubricated by
various methods including brush, oil can, spray, slinger, dip, pump, or oil mist. The method of application
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11-17
depends on operating conditions such as load, speed, and size and whether the components are exposed or
enclosed. Lubricant should be applied to the lower strand of the chain immediately before engaging the
gear or sprocket. Centrifugal action will force the lubricant to the outer areas.
11-9. Trashrake Systems and Traveling Water Screens
a. Gear drives. The most common drive units are standard speed-reducers using helical gears,
although worm gears are also used. Lubrication requirements for these gear drives are similar to those
discussed in the gear lubrication section above.
b. Couplings. All types may be used. The lubrication requirements are similar to those discussed
above.
c. Chains. Roller chains are the most common type used. The lubrication should be selected
according to the requirements outlined in the section on chain lubrication above.
d. Hydraulic operated trashrakes. These trashrakes use a hydraulically operated boom. Bureau of
Reclamation projects specify a food-grade polymer oil complying with Code of Federal Regulations 21
CFR 178.3570 and USDA H1 authorization for food-grade quality. The oil must also comply with ASTM
D 2882 for hydraulic pump wear analysis.
e. Bearings. Trashrake conveyor belts or systems are commonly provided with rolling contact
bearings, either in the ends of the rollers or in pillow block bearings. These bearings are normally manually
lubricated with NLGI 2 lithium-based grease.
11-10. Gates and Valves
Various gates and valves and essential lubricated components for each are listed and discussed below. The
lubricated components discussed below also apply to unlisted gates and valves that incorporate these same
components. Hydraulic fluids for operating systems are also discussed. The discussion of gate trunnions
provides more detail as it encompasses lessons learned from the investigation of a 1995 tainter gate
failure at Folsom Dam. Recommended frequencies of lubrication are noted, but frequency should be based
on historical data. Each component has its own effect on lubricants, and each facility should pattern its
frequency of lubrication around its own particular needs. For example, lock culvert valves such as tainter
gates are lubricated more frequently than tainter gates on spillways of water storage dams because culvert
valves are operated much more often. The manufacturers schedule should be followed until operating
experience indicates otherwise. Gates and valves, and their lubricated components (shown in italics), are:
! Tainter (radial) gates and reverse tainter gates. Trunnions.
! Other lubricated hinged gates. Same lubricant as trunnions.
! Bonneted gates, including outlet, ring-follower, and jet-flow gates. Seats, threaded gate stems,
gears for electrically and manually operated lifts.
! Unbonneted slide gates. Threaded gate stems, gears for electrically and manually operated lifts.
! Roller-mounted gates, including stoney. Roller trains and roller assemblies.
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! Ring-seal and paradox gates. Roller trains and roller assemblies.
! Wheel-mounted, vertical-lift gates. Wheel bearings.
! Roller gates. See chains.
! Butterfly, sphere, plug valves. Trunnions. Gears for electrically and manually operated lifts.
! Fixed cone valves. Threaded drive screws, gears for electrically and manually operated lifts.
a. Trunnions. Grease for trunnions should be selected for high-load, low-speed applications
(boundary lubrication). Other considerations include frequency of operation, trunnion friction, temperature
range, condition of bearing surfaces (rust, scuffing, etc.), whether the trunnions are exposed to sunlight or
submerged, and contaminants such as moisture and debris. During the warranty period, specific greases
are recommended by equipment manufacturers and should be used. If another grease is desired, the testing
of a number of greases by a qualified lubricant expert to the exacting conditions of the application will
determine the optimal grease. However, testing can be expensive and is not necessary unless highly
unusual conditions exist. Suitable greases can be identified by finding out what works at other facilities
that use the same equipment under similar conditions. . Commonly used greases and lubrication
frequencies for trunnions on gates and culvert valves at navigational dams and locks are noted in the survey
in Appendix B. Also, lubricant suppliers are readily available to recommend a grease, but they should be
advised of all conditions for the particular application.
(1) Recommended greases and desirable properties from field experience.
A spillway tainter gate failure at Folsom Dam in 1995 led to an investigation and testing of greases for
trunnions. Table 11-3 lists desirable grease properties for the Folsom Dam trunnion bearings. Details of
the investigation may be found in the report Folsom Dam Spillway Gate 3 Failure Investigation Trunnion
Fixture Test, prepared by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Mid-Pacific Regional Office, July 1997. The
properties compiled for the trunnions at Folsom Dam are applicable to trunnions in general. Table 11-3
shows the purpose of the grease property, base oils for grease, grease gelling (thickening) agents, additives,
and ASTM grease test and properties. Further explanation of desirable trunnion grease properties are as
follows:
(a) Lubricity. Low breakaway (static) and running (kinetic) friction and no stick-slip are necessary for
smooth gate and valve operation. The grease should possess good lubricity for low start-up and running
torque.
(b) Rust prevention. Rust on a trunnion pin thickens with time. This thickening takes up bearing
clearance, soaks up the oil from grease, prevents film formation, causes high friction, and abrades bronze
bushing material. Since rust takes up about 8 times the volume of the iron from which it is formed, it is
very important for trunnion pin grease to inhibit rust.
(c) Low corrosion of leaded bronze. Grease degradation products such as organic acids and
chemically active sulfur and chlorine compounds used in gear oils can corrode leaded bronze bushings.
Some light tarnishing is acceptable, but excessive corrosion is indicated by stains, black streaks, pits, and
formation of green copper sulfate from sulfuric acid.
E
M

1
1
1
0
-
2
-
1
4
2
4
2
8

F
e
b

9
9
1
1
-
1
9
Table 11-3
Desirable Grease Properties for the Folsom Dam Trunnion Bearings. (Reference: Lubricating Grease Guide, NLGI 4 Ed., 1996)
th
Purpose of Grease
Property (a)
Examples of Composition
Additives ASTM Test
Base Oil Gelling Agent Type % Chemical Number Desired Result Maximum
Lubricity, that is, low static
and kinetic friction for bronze
on steel
Mineral or
synthetic
including polyol
ester, jojoba oil,
vegetable oils
Lithium or calcium
soaps, or polyurea
Lubricity (reduction
of friction)
2.5 Fatty materials,
oleic acid, oleyl
amine, jojoba oil
D 99-95
Pin-on-
disk
apparatus
applicable
Coefficient of static friction,
fs, (breakaway), 0.08, (b)
Coefficient of kinetic friction
at 5.1 mm/min (0.2-inch/
min, fk, 0.10)
fs,0.10, (b) fk,
0.12
Prevent rusting of steel Mineral, or
synthetic
Calcium, lithium or
aluminum complex
soaps, or calcium sul-
fonates, or polyurea
Rust inhibitors,
calcium sulfonate
0.2 to
3
Metal sulfonates,
amines
D 1743-94 Pass- no rusting of steel
after 48 hours in aerated
water
Pass
Low corrosion of leaded
bronze (Cu 83, Sn 8, Pb 8%)
Mineral, or
synthetic
Lithium or calcium
sulfonate and soaps,
or polyurea
Corrosion inhibitors,
metal deactivators
0.2 to
3
Metal sulfonates
phosphites
D 4048
(copper
strip)
1 to 1B 4C
Prevent scuffing of steel vs
bronze
Mineral or
synthetic
Lithium or calcium
soaps, or polyurea
Antiscuff (EP) 1 to 2 Sulfur and phos-
phorous com-
pounds, sulfurized
fats, ZDDP
D 99-95,
bronze pin
vs steel
disk
No scuffing, that is, transfer
of bronze to steel. EP film
formation
No scuffing
Resists wash-out by water Mineral or
synthetic
Polyurea or calcium
hydroxystearate
- - - D 1264-93 0 wash-out 1.9%
Does not harden in pipes Mineral or
synthetic
Lithium or calcium
soaps or polyurea
- - - No change in consistency
with aging
No change
Easy to pump and distribute
through tubing and grooves in
bronze bushing
Mineral or
synthetic, ISO
100 to 150
Polyurea, lithium or
calcium soaps
- - - a. D 217 a. NLGI 1 or 1.5, cone
penetration 340 to 275,
b. Pumps through 7.62 m to
0.0762 m (25' to 1/4")
copper tubing
NLGI 2
Adherence to metal, and
retention in areas of real
contact of trunnion
Mineral or
synthetic
Lithium or calcium
soaps or polyurea
Tackiness agent Polymers, iso-
butylene or
polyethelene
none Slightly tacky between
metals
Slightly tacky
Long life, oxidation stable Mineral or
synthetic
Polyurea Oxidation inhibitors Amines, phenols,
sulfur compounds
D 942-90 Pass, also no acid forma-
tion, odor, or discoloration.
Pass
Low bleeding, oil does not
separate from grease
excessively
Mineral or
synthetic
Lithium or calcium
soaps or polyurea
High-viscosity base
oil
- - D 1742-94
and
Federal
Test
Limited bleeding of oil,
less than 0.1%
1.6% in 24 hr,
3% in 48 hr.
(a) Applied to low carbon (SAE1045) steel pin 812.7 mm (32") diam., rotating in trunnion bronze bushing, at 5.1 mm/min (0.2 in/min) and
816,461 kg (1.8 million pounds) load.
dam site environment - temperature range -11 EC to 51.6 EC (30 to 125 EF), wet, long periods of no sliding under load.
(b) Only known bench test with Pin (bronze pad)-on-Disk (1045 steel) tribometer, at Herguth Laboratories, P.O. Box B, Vallejo, CA 94590 Douglas Godfrey, WEAR ANALYSIS
run at 50 N (11-2 lb of force) load, 5.1 mm (0.2 inch) per minute sliding velocity, and room temperature. San Rafael, California
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(d) Scuff prevention. Scuffing causes serious damage to surfaces in the form of metal transfer,
melting, and tearing. Antiscuffing additives are activated by the heat of friction and form a surface film. If
used in a trunnion grease, sulfur concentrations must be low to prevent chemical corrosion of sliding
surfaces.
(e) Wash-out resistance. Especially when trunnions are submerged, the grease should be resistant to
water wash-out.
(f) Pumpability. Grease should be nonhardening and flow into the load-bearing clearances of the
trunnion. A grease should easily pump and flow through piping and tubing. The grease should retain its
NLGI grade over long periods during any temperature fluctuations.
(g) Adherence to metal. Tackiness agents provide this characteristic
(h) Oxidation resistance. Grease oxidation will occur over long periods at dam environment
temperatures. Symptoms of oxidation are discoloration, hardening, and bronze corrosion. An effective
oxidation inhibitor will increase grease longevity.
(I) Low oil separation. Oil separation or bleeding from the gelling agent should be minimized
during inactivity and storage. Excessive bleeding hardens the remaining grease because of the decreased
oil-to-thickener ratio. However, some separation -- especially under pressure -- is desired so the oil and its
additives can flow into the molecular-scale clearances between pin and bushing for boundary lubrication.
(j) Solid lubricants. The Folsom Dam tainter gate failure investigation recommended that
molybdenum disulfide (MoSO ) and polytetrafluoroethylene (PFTE) not be used in greases for tainter
2
trunnions at Folsom. The lowest friction coefficients were achieved with greases that did not have these
solid additives. Furthermore, addition of MoSO to greases is shown to reduce their ability to prevent
2
corrosion. Although not a factor in the Folsom Dam tainter gate failure, graphite is not recommended as an
additive for lubricating trunnions because it has been found to promote corrosion.
(2) Load. Tainter gate trunnions operate under high loads and extremely low speeds. The load on the
trunnion is the water-level pressure plus a portion of the gate weight. Typical design loading on tainter
trunnions is 137.9 to 206.8 bar (2000 to 3000 psi) for leaded tin bronze bearing surfaces and 275.8 to
344.7 bar (4000 to 5000 psi) for aluminum bronze.
(3) Speed. Relatively speaking, a trunnion pin rotates at extremely low speeds. The tainter trunnion
pins at Folsom Dam rotate at 0.002 rpm. Trunnions in reverse tainter gates at locks have faster rotational
speeds than those in dam gates.
(4) Friction. Trunnion friction increases during operation as the bearing rotates. Friction increase is
caused by lubricant thinning at the loaded bearing surfaces. Trunnion friction is especially critical at high
water levels and low gate openings, but lessens as the gate is opened and the reservoir level drops. Typical
design coefficient of friction for grease-lubricated trunnion bearings is 0.3. There was no trunnion
coefficient of friction calculated into the design of the failed Folsom gate, but the friction coefficient rose to
0.3 over a long period of time, perhaps the entire life of the gate, due to rust on the trunnion pin. When
new equipment is purchased or existing bushings are replaced, self-lubricated bushings are recommended.
The trunnion bushings for the failed gate at Folsom Dam were replaced with self-lubricated bushings.
Modern gates such as the clamshell gate are specified exclusively with self-lubricated trunnion bushings.
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Typical design coefficient for self-lubricated trunnion bushings is 0.15, which translates into less structural
support (to keep gate arms from buckling under friction) than for grease-lubricated bearings.
(5) Lubrication regime. Two grease lubrication regimes are applicable to trunnions operating under
high-load, low-speed conditions. They are hydrostatic lubrication and boundary lubrication.
(a) Hydrostatic lubrication. Hydrostatic lubrication may be used when bearing surface velocities are
extremely slow or zero. Under hydrostatic lubrication, a pressurized grease physically separates the
bearing surfaces to produce a thick film. Trunnion friction can be reduced by about 40 percent if a grease
film can be maintained during operation by an automatic greasing system.
(b) Boundary lubrication. Boundary lubrication occurs when bearing surfaces are separated by a
lubricant film of molecular thickness and there is momentary dry contact between asperities (microscopic
peaks). Friction is caused by contact of bushing and pin surface asperities. Since viscosity depends on
film thickness, when boundary lubrication occurs, friction is not affected by of the grease viscosity and can
only be reduced through additives.
(6) Grease selection based on boundary lubrication. Grease should be selected based on its perform-
ance specifically for boundary lubrication, whether for manual lubrication or automatic greasing system.
Manual hydrostatic lubrication on stationary equipment under load reduces trunnion friction for the next
operation, but as the pin rotates, the lubricant film thins until pure boundary lubrication results. With rust
on the trunnion pins, the preferred method of trunnion lubrication is hydrostatic lubrication during gate
operation using an automatic greasing system. However, automatic systems are subject to occasional
breakdown which could produce catastrophic results.
(7) Frequency of lubrication.
(a) Frequency of lubrication depends on many factors, such as frequency of operation, trunnion
friction, temperature, condition of bearing surfaces (rust, pitting, etc.), whether the equipment is
submerged, replacement of grease lost to leakage or oxidation, and the need to flush out moisture or other
contaminants. An example of two different lubrication frequencies based on factors and gate conditions are
as follows:
! The Folsom Dam spillway tainter gate investigation suggests that, in general, if the allowable gate
trunnion friction in the design is at least 0.5 and the bearing is well protected from its given
environment, the Bureau of Reclamation standard of lubricating tainter gates twice a year is
adequate.
! The same Folsom investigation found there was no allowable trunnion friction in its gate design.
The trunnion pins were rusted, scuffed, and had inadequate protection from rain and spray. Based
on these factors, it was concluded that a reasonable lubrication schedule would be to grease once a
month when the lake level is below the gates; grease once a week when the lake level is above the
gate sill; and employ automatic greasing while the gate is in motion. Frequent applications can
remove moisture from trunnion surfaces and decelerate rust progress.
(b) Frequencies for lubricating gate and culvert valve trunnions at locks and dams are shown in the
survey in Appendix B. These vary from weekly to twice a year, indicating that there is no set frequency of
lubrication. Aside from recommendations for new equipment, lubrication frequencies become
individualized based on the factors and conditions noted above and operating experience.
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(8) General suggestions for tainter gates. Some of the recommendations made for Folsom Dam, such
as the automatic greasing system and the lubricant type, are made partly due to existing rust of the trunnion
pins and bushings. Other tainter gates may have different conditions such as local climate, frequency of
gate operation, the designed allowable trunnion friction, and the lubrication system. The following
procedures are suggested to determine the requirements for tainter gate trunnions at other locations:
(a) If exposed to water, air, and abrasive dust and debris, install weather protection seals on the edges
of the trunnions to protect the bearing. Seals will protect against rusting of the pin while protecting the
grease from oxidation and contamination.
(b) Determine the allowable trunnion friction. An allowable friction coefficient below 0.3 would be
considered low.
(c) Carefully review the design of the trunnion assembly and lubrication system.
(d) Review the frequency of gate operations.
(e) Inspect the trunnions using some of the techniques listed below to determine the presence of
rust and to estimate the existing trunnion friction. (These techniques have been established as a result of the
investigation. Their effectiveness or feasibility has not been extensively determined and may depend on
local conditions.) If corrosion is suspected, determine trunnion friction. Friction coefficients above design
value may require a change of lubricants and/or lubrication frequency. Techniques are:
! Send used grease that is pumped out of the trunnions to a laboratory to test for contaminants such
as rust.
! Measure the gate's hoist motor current as an indication of possible increased trunnion friction.
! Attach strain gages to the gate arms to measure induced stresses caused by trunnion friction.
! Attach a laser and target to the gate structure to measure deflections caused by trunnion friction.
! Fabricate probes that can access the trunnion pin through the lubrication ports to determine the
presence of rust.
(f) Review the type of lubricant in use. Consider the lubricant specification recommended for the
Folsom Dam trunnions (reference Table 11-3).
(g) Rotate trunnion pins 180 degrees. Loading is typically on one side of the pin, and the pin will
corrode first on the side with the thinnest lubricant film.
(h) If pins are rusted, use new steel pin, because previously rusted steel is susceptible to rapid rusting.
b. Seats for bonneted gates. With design loading on the bronze sliding surfaces of these gates at
206.8 to 275.8 bar (3000 to 4000 psi), seats are typically lubricated with a multipurpose lithium, lithium
complex, or lithium 12 hydroxystearate-thickened grease with EP additives. The grease must be suitable
for the temperature range intended. Desired grease properties are good water wash-out resistance, copper
alloy corrosion protection, and low start-up/running torque. Recommended greasing frequency is every 6
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11-23
months, however, but chattering or jerking during operation is a sign of inadequate lubrication and
indicates the need for more frequent lubrication. Greases recommended by gate manufacturers are usually
NLGI grade 2. However, it has been noted that cold seasonal temperatures may dictate a lower NLGI
grade for better flow through piping to the seats.
c. Threaded gate stems. The same multipurpose EP greases recommended by gate manufacturers for
seats are recommended for stems. The grease must be suitable for the temperature range intended. Good
water resistance and low start-up/running torque are also desired grease properties for stems. Cold
seasonal temperatures may necessitate a lower NLGI grade if the grease accumulates excessively at the lift
nut during operation due to low temperature. Keeping threaded stems clean and greased is critical. When
excess dried grease or other foreign material is carried into the threads of the lift nut, extremely hard
operation will result. If the foreign material is not cleaned from interior threads, seizure can result.
Moreover, if the foreign material is abrasive and the stem is coated with this grit, frequent use of the gate
will wear the threads in the thrust nut creating a potentially dangerous situation. An excessively worn
thrust nut may not support the weight of the gate and may cause it to fall. Use of pipe covers will protect
stems above the deck. Plastic stem covers will allow visual inspection. Recommended cleaning and
greasing frequency is at least every 6 months or 100 cycles, whichever occurs first, and more often if the
grease becomes dirty.
d. Threaded drive screws. The lubricant should have good water-separating characteristics and must
be suitable for the temperature range intended. It should have extreme pressure characteristics and low
start-up/running torque for quick start-up and smooth operation. The same multipurpose EP greases used
for threaded gate stems can be used on drive screws.
e. Roller trains and roller assemblies for roller-mounted gates. When chains are part of roller
assemblies, they should be lubricated according to the requirements discussed below for chains. Grease for
roller trains should contain an EP additive and generally be NLGI grade 2. It should be formulated for rust
and corrosion protection and be resistant to water wash-out. It should be suitable for the temperature range
intended and for the shock loading of wave action. Frequency of lubrication depends on factors such as
frequency of operation and accessibility, but roller trains should be lubricated a minimum of twice a year.
When possible, the equipment manufacturer should be consulted for lubricant and frequency
recommendations.
f. Wheel bearings. Grease should be suitable for boundary lubrication of a high-load, low-speed
journal bearing and contain EP additives. It should be noncorrosive to steel and resistant to water wash-out
conditions. It must be suitable for the temperature range intended. The grease should conform to the
recommendations of the bearing manufacturer. Bearings should be lubricated at least once a year. When
this is not possible they should be lubricated whenever accessible.
g. Grease-lubricated gears for electrically and manually operated lifts.
(1) Grease for the main gearboxes of operating lifts should contain an EP additive and be suitable for
the temperature range intended. It should be water- and heat-resistant, and be slightly fluid (approximating
NLGI grade 1 or 0). It should not be corrosive to steel gears, ball, or roller bearings, and should not create
more than 8 percent swell in gaskets. Its dropping point should be above 158 EC (316 E F) for temperature
ranges of -29 EC (-20 EF) to 66 EC (150 EF). It should not contain any grit, abrasive, or fillers.
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(2) Frequency of lubrication varies among manufacturers. One lift manufacturer recommends
pressure greasing through fittings after 100 cycles or every 6 months, whichever comes first. The frequency
of inspections and/or lubrication should be based on historical data. The manufacturers schedule should
be followed unless operating experience indicates otherwise. Grease should be inspected at least every 18
months. It should contain no dirt, water, or other foreign matter. Should dirt, water, or foreign matter be
found, the units should be flushed with a noncorrosive commercial degreaser/cleaner that does not affect
seal materials such as Buna N or Viton. All bearings, bearing balls, gears, and other close-tolerance parts
that rotate with respect to each other should be recoated by hand with fresh grease. The operator should
then be repacked with fresh grease. Different lubricants should not be added unless they are based on the
same soap (calcium, lithium, etc.) as the existing lubricant and approval has been given by the lubricant
manufacturer. (Oil-lubricated gears are discussed in paragraph 9.4 ).
h. Hydraulic fluids for operating systems. Commonly used hydraulic fluids for gates at locks and
dams and culvert valves at locks are tabulated in Appendix B. An oil with a high viscosity index should be
selected to minimize the change in pipe friction between winter and summer months. The oil selected must
have a viscosity range suitable for the system components and their expected operating temperature and
pressure ranges. Generally, the maximum viscosity range is between 4000 Saybolt Universal Seconds
(SUS) at start-up and 70 SUS at maximum operating temperature. However, this range will vary between
manufacturers and types of equipment. Hydraulic systems containing large quantities of fluid should
include rust and oxidation inhibitors. Consideration should also be given to biodegradable fluids composed
of vegetable-base oils with synthetic additives. These fluids should be used with caution to ensure that they
are compatible with the components used in the hydraulic system. A more detailed discussion of hydraulic
fluids properties can be found in Chapter 4 of this manual.
11-11. Navigation Lock Gates, Culvert Valves, and Dam Gates
a. General requirements.
(1) Corps of Engineers navigation facilities use many types of lock gates, including miter, sector,
vertical lift, and submergible tainter. The machinery required to operate these gates consists of speed
reducers, gear couplings, bearings, open gearing, wire ropes, and chains. Most of this equipment is heavily
loaded and operates at low speeds. Consequently, hydrodynamic lubrication cannot be established and
boundary lubricating conditions predominate.
(2) The general lubricating requirements for this equipment have already been discussed. The
following discussion is limited to the lubricating requirements specific to the lock gate noted. Refer to
paragraph 11-10 (gates and valves) for lubrication requirements for culvert valves and dam gate
components. Refer to the survey (Appendix B) discussed in the next paragraph for commonly used
lubricants and hydraulic fluids.
b. Survey of locks and dams for lubricants. About 45 Corps of Engineers locks and dams around the
country were surveyed for lubricants and hydraulic fluids used for lock gates, culvert valves, and
navigation dams. Twenty-three survey responses showed lubricant products from more than 25 different
lubricant companies. Each product appears suitable for the particular application. Information on
frequency of lubrication and method of application was also included in the responses. Respondents
expressed interests in environmentally acceptable lubricants, but use has been limited. Responses also
covered lubricants for equipment not specifically queried for on the survey. These responses and comments
on environmentally acceptable lubricants are included with the survey results in Appendix B.
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c. Speed reducers. Speed reducers are usually worm, helical. or herringbone-type gear trains in
accordance with the applicable American Gear Manufacturers Association (AGMA) standards. Integral
bearings are usually antifriction type. Gear oil must be suitable for the expected ambient temperatures.
Where ambient temperature ranges will exceed the oil producers recommendations, a thermostatically
controlled heater should be provided in the reducer case. The surface area of the heater should be as large
as possible to prevent charring of the oil. The density of heating elements should not exceed 21.44 hp/m
2
(10 watts per square inch). If possible, insulate the reducer case to minimize heat loss. If heaters are
impractical, synthetic gear oils should be considered. A number of locks are using synthetic oils in
gearboxes. One reason given is that in cold weather, heaters have scorched petroleum oils, requiring
additional maintenance. Synthetic oils eliminate the need for heaters. A synthetic gear lubricant with a
-40 EC (-40 EF) pour point is recommended if acceptable to the reducer manufacturer. Lubricant selection
should be based on published manufacturer's data for the required application and operating conditions.
Gear oils used at locks and dams are listed in the survey in Appendix B.
d. Couplings. Flexible couplings are usually the gear type. The lubrication requirements for these
couplings were discussed above.
e. Bearings.
(1) Antifriction bearings should be selected in accordance with manufacturers published catalog
ratings. Life expectancy should be based on 10,000 hours B-10 life with loads assumed equal to 75
percent of maximum.
(2) Bronze sleeve bearings should have allowable unit bearing pressures not exceeding the following:
! Sheave bushings, slow speed, 3500 psi.
! Main pinion shaft bearings and other slow-moving shafts, hardened steel on bronze, 1000 psi.
! Bearings moving at ordinary speeds, steel or bronze, 750 psi.

f. Open gearing. Open gears are usually the spur teeth involute form, complying with AGMA
201.02 ANSI Standard System, Tooth Proportions For Coarse-Pitch Involute Spur Gears (Information
Sheet A). Lubricants used at Corps of Engineers locks and dams are noted in the survey in Appendix B.
g. Hydraulic fluid. A petroleum oil with a high viscosity index should be selected to minimize the
change in pipe friction between winter and summer months. The oil selected must have a viscosity range
suitable for the system components and their expected operating temperature range. Generally, the
maximum viscosity range is between 4000 SUS at start-up and 70 SUS at maximum operating
temperature. However, this range will vary among manufacturers and types of equipment. Hydraulic
systems containing large quantities of fluid should include rust and oxidation inhibitors. Consideration
should also be given to biodegradable fluids composed of vegetable-base oils with synthetic additives.
These fluids should be used with caution to ensure that they are compatible with the components used in the
hydraulic system. Refer to Chapter 8 for a more detailed discussion of desirable properties and the survey
in Appendix B for hydraulic fluids commonly used at locks and dams.
h. Miter gates. There are various types of operating linkages for miter gates. Generally these gates
are operated through electric motors, enclosed speed reducers, a bull gear, sector arm, and spring strut.
Alternatively, the gates may be hydraulically operated. Miter gate gudgeon pins and pintles are grease-
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lubricated with automatic and manual greasing systems. Spring struts are lubricated with graphite-based
grease or lubricated with the same grease used on the pintles, depending on type of strut. Refer to the
survey in Appendix B for commonly used lubricants and frequency of application.
i. Sector gates. The operating machinery for sector gates is similar to that used in miter gate and
may consist of a hydraulic motor, or an electric motor, a herringbone gear speed reducer, and a specially
designed angle drive gear unit. In some applications a system consisting of a steel wire rope and drum
arrangement replaces the rack and pinion assembly, and is used to pull the gates in and out of their
recesses. Sector gates gudgeon pins and pintles are lubricated with the same grease used on miter gate
gudgeon pins and pintles.
j. Vertical-lift gates. The hoisting equipment for vertical-lift gates consists of a gear-driven rope
drum. The actual gear drive depends on the gate use. Emergency gates use two-stage open-spur gearing, a
herringbone or helical gear speed reducer, and an electric motor. The downstream gate is wheel-mounted.
These wheels may be provided with self-lubricating spherical bushings. Tide gate drums are operated by a
pinion gear driven by a triple-reduction enclosed gear unit. Vertical gates are also equipped with a
hydraulically operated emergency lowering mechanism. The hydraulic fluid is used to absorb heat so a
heat exchanger is required to ensure that the oil temperature does not exceed 49 EC (120 EF). Wire ropes
are usually 6 x 37, preformed, lang lay, independent wire rope core, 18-8 chrome-nickel corrosion-resistant
steel.
k. Submergible tainter gates. Submergible tainter gates are operated by two synchronized hoist units
consisting of rope drum, open gear set, speed reducer, and hoist motor. Due to continuous submergence,
stainless steel wire ropes are commonly used. Refer to paragraph 11-10 (gates and valves) for trunnion
lubrication requirements.
11-12. Information Sources for Lubricants
There are many valuable information resources on the subject of lubrication.
a. Operations and maintenance manuals. The primary information sources are the manufacturers
installation, operation, and maintenance manuals. The information contained in these manuals applies
specifically to the equipment requiring servicing.
b. Industry standards. Industry standards organizations such as ANSI, ASTM, AGMA, and IEEE
publish standard specifications for lubricants and lubricating standards for various types of equipment.
c. Journals. Engineering and trade publications and journals such as Lubrication, Lubrication
Engineering, and Wear specialize in the area of lubrication or tribology. Articles featured in these
publications are generally technical in nature and describe the results of current research. Occasionally
research results are translated into practical information that can be readily applied.
d. General trade publications. Magazines such as Power, Power Engineering, Hydraulics and
Pneumatics, Machine Design, Pump and Systems, and Plant Engineering Magazine frequently contain
practical articles pertaining to lubrication of bearings, gears, and other plant equipment. Of particular
interest is Plant Engineerings Chart of Interchangeable Industrial Lubricants and Chart of Synthetic
Lubricants. Each of these charts is updated every 3 years. These charts cross-reference lubricants by
application and company producing the product. Chart users should note that Plant Engineering Magazine
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product names are provided by the manufacturers, and that publishing of the data does not reflect the
quality of the lubricant, imply the performance expected under particular operating conditions, or serve as
an endorsement. As an example of the information contained in the interchangeable lubricant chart, the
1995 chart identifies available products from 105 lubricant companies in nine categories. Fluid products in
each category are listed within viscosity ranges. Greases are NLGI 2 only. Included is a chart entitled
Viscosity/Grade Comparison Chart that tabulates viscosity equivalents for ISO viscosity grade,
kinematic viscosity (CSt), Saybolt viscosity (SUS), gear lubricant (AGMA) specification, EP gear
lubricant, and worm gear lubricant (Comp). Lubricant categories include:
! General-purpose lubricants
! Antiwear hydraulic oil
! Spindle oil
! Way oil
! Extreme pressure gear oil
! Worm gear oil
! Cling-type gear shield (open gears)
! General-purpose extreme pressure lithium-based grease
! Molybdenum disulfide extreme pressure grease.
The 1997 chart for synthetic lubricants identifies available products from 69 lubricant companies in eight
categories. Fluid products in each category are listed within viscosity ranges. Greases are NLGI 2 only.
Included is a table entitled Performance Characteristic of Various Synthetic Lubricants that shows the
relative performance characteristics of seven types of synthetic lubricants and a paraffinic mineral oil.
Lubricant categories are:
! Gear and bearing circulation oil
! Extreme pressure gear oil
! High pressure (antiwear) hydraulic oil
! Fire-resistant hydraulic fluid
! Compressor lubricant
! Multipurpose extreme pressure grease (without molybdenum)
! Multipurpose molybdenum disulfide extreme pressure grease
! Multipurpose high temperature grease (without molybdenum).
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Plant Engineering Magazine notes that the synthetic lubricant products presented in each category are not
necessarily interchangeable or compatible. Interchangeability and compatibility depend on a variety of
interrelated factors, and each application requires an individual analysis.
e. Hydropower industry publications. Hydro Review and Water Power and Dam Construction are
widely known publications throughout the hydropower industry. Hydro Review tends to be more research-
oriented and, therefore, more technical. Water Power and Dam Construction includes technical and
practical information. Occasionally, lubrication-related articles are published.
f. Lubricant producers. Lubricant producers are probably the most valuable source for information
and should be consulted for specific application situations, surveys, or questions.
g. Internet. The Internet offers access to a large amount of information, including lubrication theory,
product data, and application information. The Internet also provides a means for communicating and
sharing information with personnel at other facilities. Problems, causes , and solutions are frequently
described in great detail. Since the credentials of individuals publishing information through the Internet
are more difficult to ascertain, caution should be used when evaluating information obtained through the
Internet. The amount of information located depends on the users ability to apply the most pertinent
keywords on any of the search engines. Hyperlinks are usually available and lead to other information
sources. Users should note that broad search categories, such as lubrication, will provide the greatest
returns but will undoubtedly include much extraneous data. Alternatively, searching on a phrase such as
lubrication of hydroturbine guide bearings may be too restrictive. Generally, inserting too many words in
the search field narrows the scope of the search and may produce little or no useful information. The
search field must be adjusted until the desired information is obtained or the search is abandoned for
another reference source.
h. Libraries. In a manner similar to Internet searches, librarians can also help locate information
within their collections or outside their collections by conducting book and literature searches. Unlike the
Internet, literature searches rely on large databases that require password entry not available to the general
public. Therefore, these searches are usually conducted by a reference librarian. The search process is a
very simple method used for locating books an a specific subject, or specific articles that have been
included in technical publications. Usually, searches begin with the current year to find the most recent
articles published. The search is expanded to previous years as necessary until useful articles or
information are located. All that is required is the subject keyword and the time period to be searched. For
example: locate all articles on guide bearing lubrication written over the past 2 years. If this does not
return the desired information, two options are available: extend the time period further into the past or
change the search title to journal bearing lubrication and try new search. Again, the amount of
information located depends on using the proper search keywords. Searches can be expanded or contracted
until the desired information is obtained.
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Chapter 12
Operation and Maintenance Considerations
12-1. Introduction
This chapter discusses the maintenance aspects of lubrication. Detailed discussions cover maintenance
scheduling; relative cost of lubricants; essential oil properties that must be retained to ensure adequate
lubrication of equipment; degradation of lubricating oils, hydraulic fluids, and insulating transformer oils;
particulate, water, and biological contamination; monitoring programs, including trend monitoring and oil
testing; storage and handling; and environmental impacts.
12-2. Maintenance Schedules
a. Modern maintenance schedules are computer-generated, and are frequently referred to as computer
maintenance management systems (CMMS). These systems are essential in organizing, planning, and
executing required maintenance activities for complex hydropower, pumping, and navigation facilities. A
complete discussion of CMMS is beyond the scope of this manual. Some Corps of Engineers and Bureau
of Reclamation facilities recognize the value of CMMS and are currently using these systems to document
operation and maintenance activities. The following discussion summarizes some key concepts of CMMS.
b. The primary goals of a CMMS include scheduling resources optimizing resource availability and
reducing the cost of production, labor, materials, and tools. These goals are accomplished by tracking
equipment, parts, repairs, and maintenance schedules.
c. The most effective CMMS are integrated with a predictive maintenance program (PdM). This
type of program should not be confused with preventive maintenance (PM), which schedules maintenance
and/or replacement of parts and equipment based on manufacturers suggestions. A PM program relies on
established service intervals without regard to the actual operating conditions of the equipment. This type
of program is very expensive and often results in excess downtime and premature replacement of
equipment.
d. While a PM program relies on elapsed time, a PdM program relies on condition monitoring of
machines to help determine when maintenance or replacement is necessary. Condition monitoring involves
the continuous monitoring and recording of vital characteristics that are known to be indicative of the
machines condition. The most commonly measured characteristic is vibration, but other useful tests
include lubricant analysis, thermography, and ultrasonic measurements. The desired tests are conducted on
a periodic basis. Each new measurement is compared with previous data to determine if a trend is
developing. This type of analysis is commonly referred to as trend analysis or trending, and is used to help
predict failure of a particular machine component and to schedule maintenance and order parts. Trending
data can be collected for a wide range of equipment, including pumps, turbines, motors, generators,
gearboxes, fans, compressors, etc. The obvious advantage of condition monitoring is that failure can often
be predicted, repairs planned, and downtime and costs reduced.
12-3. Relative Cost of Lubricants
Cost is one of the factors to be considered when selecting lubricants. This is especially true when making
substitutions such as using synthetics in place of mineral oils. Tables 12-1 and 12-2 provide basic
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Table 12-1
Relative Cost of Vegetable and Synthetic Oils
Lubricant Relative Cost to Mineral Oil
1,2
Vegetable Oils
1
2 - 3
Synthetic Fluids
2
Polybutenes 2
Polyalphaolefins 3
Dialkylbenzene 5
Polyalkyline glycols 3 - 5
Polyol esters 3 - 5
Diesters 2 - 6
Phosphate esters 4 - 7
Cycloaliphatics 9 - 15
Silicone fluids 12 - 24
Silicate esters 33 - 45
Halogenated hydrocarbons 100 - 450
Polyphenyl ethers 625 - 700
Rhee, 1996 (Vegetable oils).
1
Straiton, 1998 (Synthetic fluids).
2
Table 12-2
Relative Cost of Greases
Grease Type Base Oil Relative Cost to Lithium Grease
1
Aluminum Mineral 2.5 - 3
Calcium Mineral 0.8
Lithium Mineral 1
Sodium Mineral 0.9
Aluminum complex Mineral 2.5 - 4
Calcium complex Mineral 0.9 - 1.2
Lithium complex Mineral 2
Sodium complex Mineral 3.5
Lithium Ester 5 - 6
Lithium complex Ester 10
Lithium complex Silicone 20
Bentonites (organo clay) Mineral 2 - 6
Polyurea Mineral 3
Polyurea Silicone 35 - 40
Polyurea Fluorosilicone 100
Mancuso and South 1994.
1
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information on the relative cost of various lubricants. Reference to these tables and charts reveals that
synthetic lubricants are considerably more expensive than mineral lubricants. Therefore, justification for
their use must be based on operating requirements for which suitable mineral lubricants are not available.
12.4. Lubricating Oil Degradation
A lubricating oil may become unsuitable for its intended purpose as a result of one or several processes.
Most of these processes have been discussed in previous chapters, so the following discussions are brief
summaries.
a. Oxidation. Oxidation occurs by chemical reaction of the oil with oxygen. The first step in the
oxidation reaction is the formation of hydroperoxides. Subsequently, a chain reaction is started and other
compounds such as acid, resins, varnishes, sludge, and carbonaceous deposits are formed.
b. Water and air contamination. Water may be dissolved or emulsified in oil. Water affects
viscosity, promotes oil degradation and equipment corrosion, and interferes with lubrication. Air in oil
systems may cause foaming, slow and erratic system response, and pump cavitation.
(1) Results of water contamination in fluid systems
! Fluid breakdown, such as additive precipitation and oil oxidation
! Reduced lubricating film thickness
! Accelerated metal surface fatigue
! Corrosion
! Jamming of components due to ice crystals formed at low temperatures
! Loss of dielectric strength in insulating oils.
(a) Effects of water on bearing life. Studies have shown that the fatigue life of a bearing can be
extended dramatically by reducing the amount of water contained in a petroleum based lubricant. See
Table 12-3.
(b) Effect of water and metal particles. Oil oxidation is increased in a hydraulic or lubricating oil in
the presence of water and particulate contamination. Small metal particles act as catalysts to rapidly
increase the neutralization number of acid level. See Table 12-4.
Table 12-3
Effect of Water on Bearing Fatigue Life
Lubricant Water Concentration Relative Life Factor
SAE 20 25 ppm 4.98
SAE 20 100 ppm 1.92
SAE 20 400 ppm 1.00
Reference: Effect of Water in Lubricating Oil on Bearing Life, 31st annual ASLE meeting, 1975.
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Table 12-4
Effect of Water and Metal Particles on Oil Oxidation
Run Catalyst Water Hours Total Acid* Number Change
1 None No 3500+ 0
2 None Yes 3500+ +0.73
3 Iron No 3500+ +0.48
4 Iron Yes 400 +7.93
5 Copper No 3000 +0.72
6 Copper Yes 100 +11.03
*Total acid number increases that exceed 0.5 indicate significant fluid deterioration.
Reference: Weinshelbaum, M., Proceedings, National Conference on Fluid Power, VXXXIII:269.
(2) Sources of Water Contamination
! Heat exchanger leaks
! Seal leaks
! Condensation of humid air
! Inadequate reservoir covers
! Temperature drops changing dissolved water to free water.
(3) Forms of water in oil
! Free water (emulsified or droplets)
! Dissolved water (below saturation level).
(4) Typical oil saturation levels
! Hydraulic--200 to 400 ppm (0.02 to 0.04%)
! Lubricating--200 to 750 ppm (0.02 to 0.075%)
! Transformer--30 to 50 ppm (0.003 to 0.005%).
(5) Results of Dissolved Air and Other Gases in Oils
! Foaming
! Slow system response with erratic operation
! A reduction in system stiffness
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! Higher fluid temperatures
! Pump damage due to cavitation
! Inability to develop full system pressure
! Acceleration of oil oxidation
c. Loss of additives. Two of the most important additives in turbine lubricating oil are the rust- and
oxidation-inhibiting agents. Without these additives, oxidation of oil and the rate of rusting will increase.
d. Accumulation of contaminants. Lubricating oil can become unsuitable for further service by
accumulation of foreign materials in the oil. The source of contaminants may be from within the system or
from outside. Internal sources of contamination are rust, wear, and sealing products. Outside
contaminants are dirt, weld spatter, metal fragments, etc., which can enter the system through ineffective
seals, dirty oil fill pipes, or dirty make-up oil.
e. Biological deterioration. Lubricating oils are susceptible to biological deterioration if the proper
growing conditions are present. Table 12-5 identifies the type of infections and associated
characteristics. Hydraulic oils are also susceptible to this type of deterioration. These are discussed in
paragraph 12-5. Procedures for preventing and coping with biological contamination include cleaning and
sterilizing, addition of biocides, frequent draining of moisture from the system, avoidance of dead-legs in
pipes.
Table 12-5
Characteristics of Principal Infecting Organisms (Generalized Scheme)
Organism pH Relationship Products of Growth Type of Growth
Aerobic bacteria (use Prefer neutral to alkaline pH. Completely oxidized products Separate rods, forming slime when
oxygen) (CO and H O) and some agglomerated. Size usually below 5
2 2
acids. Occasionally generate Fm in length (1.64 10 ft)
ammonia.
-5
Anaerobic bacteria (grow Prefer neutral to alkaline pH Incompletely oxidized and As above. Often adhere to steel
in absence of oxygen) reduced products including surfaces, particularly swarf
CH , H , and H S.
4 2 2
Yeasts Prefer acid pH. Oxidized and incompletely Usually separate cells, 5-10 Fm
oxidized products. pH falls. (1.64 10 ft to 3.28 10 ft),
-5 -5
often follow bacterial infections or
occur when bacteria have been
inhibited. Sometimes filamentous.
Fungi (molds) Prefer acid pH, but some Incompletely oxidized product Filaments of cells forming visible
flourish at alkaline pH in organic acids accumulate. mats of growth. Spores may
synthetic metal working resemble yeasts. Both yeasts and
fluids. molds grow more slowly than
bacteria.
12.5 Hydraulic Oil Degradation
a. Water contamination.
(1) Due to the hygroscopic nature of hydraulic fluid, water contamination is a common occurrence.
Water may be introduced by exposure to humid environments, condensation in the reservoir, and when
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adding fluid from drums that may have been improperly sealed and exposed to rain. Leaking heat
exchangers, seals, and fittings are other potential sources of water contamination.
(2) The water saturation level is different for each type of hydraulic fluid. Below the saturation level
water will completely dissolve in the oil. Oil-based hydraulic fluids have a saturation level between 100
and 1000 ppm (0.01% to 0.1%). This saturation level will be higher at the higher operating temperatures
normally experienced in hydraulic systems.
b. Effects of water contamination. Hydraulic system operation may be affected when water
contamination reaches 1 to 2%.
(1) Reduced viscosity. If the water is emulsified, the fluid viscosity may be reduced and result in poor
system response, increased wear of rubbing surfaces, and pump cavitation.
(2) Ice formation. If free water is present and exposed to freezing temperatures, ice crystals may form.
Ice may plug orifices and clearance spaces, causing slow or erratic operation.
(3) Chemical reactions.
(a) Galvanic corrosion. Water may act as an electrolyte between dissimilar metals to promote
galvanic corrosion. This condition first occurs and is most visible as rust formations on the inside top
surface of the fluid reservoir.
(b) Additive depletion. Water may react with oxidation additives to produce acids and precipitates
that increase wear and cause system fouling. Antiwear additives such as zinc dithiophosphate (ZDTP) are
commonly used for boundary lubrication applications in high-pressure pumps, gears, and bearings.
However, chemical reaction with water can destroy this additive when the system operating temperature
rises above 60 EC (140 EF). The end result is premature component failure due to metal fatigue.
(c) Agglomeration. Water can act as an adhesive to bind small contaminant particles into clumps that
plug the system and cause slow or erratic operation. If the condition is serious, the system may fail
completely.
(d) Microbiological contamination. Growth of microbes such as bacteria, algae, yeast, and fungi can
occur in hydraulic systems contaminated with water. The severity of microbial contamination is increased
by the presence of air. Microbes vary in size from 0.2 to 2.0 m for single cells and up to 200 mM for
multicell organisms. Under favorable conditions, bacteria reproduce exponentially. Their numbers may
double in as little as 20 minutes. Unless they are detected early, bacteria may grow into an interwoven
mass that will clog the system. A large quantity of bacteria also can produce significant waste products
and acids capable of attacking most metals and causing component failure.
12-6. Transformer and Circuit Breaker Insulating Oil Degradation
a. The consequences of oil degradation in a transformer can be even more serious than with other
equipment. Combustible gases may form as the transformer develops faults. Some gases are present in a
dissolved state while others are found in the free space of the transformer. The type and concentration of
gases and the ratio in which they are present are commonly used to assess the serviceable condition of
transformers. Under the right conditions these gases may explode, causing significant damage and injury to
personnel. The testing of transformer oils and assessment of transformer serviceable conditions has
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become a specialty. The Bureau of Reclamation has published a manual that provides detailed procedures
and criteria for testing insulating oils. The reader should refer to Reclamation Facilities Instructions,
Standards, and Techniques (FIST) publication Volume 3-5, Maintenance of Liquid Insulation Mineral
Oils and Askarels for detailed information on transformer and circuit breaker oil maintenance and testing.
For information on monitoring, testing, and assessment of transformer serviceability, refer to IEEE
Standard C57.104-1991, IEEE Guide for the Interpretation of Gases.
b. Transformer and circuit-breaker insulating oils suffer degradation similar to that of lubricating oil
and hydraulic fluid including as oxidation, sludge formation, additive depletion, and moisture contamina-
tion. Sludge can significantly affect the flow of heat from the oil to the coolant and from the core and coils
to the cooling coil. If these conditions are prolonged, the excessive temperature and heat can damage the
transformer insulation and eventually cause short circuits and breakdown of the transformer. Moisture can
be present in three forms: dissolved, emulsified, or free state. Emulsified water is especially harmful since
it has significant influence in reducing the dielectric strength of the oil. Another form of contamination is
the presence of dissolved nitrogen, which can cause problems due to corona discharge. Circuit breakers
may have all the above problems plus the formation of carbon particles, which can cause short circuits.
12.7. Essential Properties of Oil
Several important properties of used oil must be retained to ensure continued service, as discussed below.
a. Viscosity. New turbine oils are sold under the International Standards Organization (ISO)
Viscosity Grade System. Oil manufacturers normally produce lubricating oil with viscosity of ISO-VG-22,
VG-32, VG-46, VG-68, VG-100, VG-150, VG-220, VG-320, and VG-460. The numbers 22 through 460
indicate the average oil viscosity in centistoke units at 40EC (104 EF) with a range of 10 percent. Most
hydroelectric power plants use ISO-VG -68 or ISO-VG-100 oils.
b. Oxidation stability. One of the most important properties of new turbine oil is its oxidation
stability. New turbine oils are highly stable in the presence of air or oxygen. In service, oxidation is
gradually accelerated by the presence of a metal catalyst in the system (such as iron and copper) and by the
depletion of antioxidant additives. Additives control oxidation by attacking the hydroperoxides (the first
product of the oxidation step) and breaking the chain reaction that follows. When oxidation stability
decreases, the oil will undergo a complex reaction that will eventually produce insoluble sludge. This
sludge may settle in critical areas of the equipment and interfere with lubrication and cooling functions of
oil. Most rust inhibitors used in turbine oils are acidic and contribute to the acid number of the new oil.
An increase in acid number above the value for new oil indicates the presence of acidic oxidation products
or, less likely, contamination with acidic substances. An accurate determination of the total acid number
(TAN) is very important. However, this test does not strictly measure oxidation stability reserve, which is
better determined by the Rotating Bomb Oxidation Test (RBOT), ASTM Test Method D 2272.
c. Freedom from sludge. Sludge is the byproduct of oil oxidation. Due to the nature of the highly
refined lubricant base stocks used in the manufacture of turbine oils, these oils are very poor solvents for
sludge. This is the main reason why the oxidation stability reserve of the oil must be carefully monitored.
Only a relatively small degree of oxidation can be permitted; otherwise, there is considerable risk of sludge
deposition in bearing housings, seals, and pistons. Filtration and centrifugation can remove sludge from oil
as it is formed, but if oil deterioration is allowed to proceed too far, sludge will deposit in parts of the
equipment, and system flushing and an oil change may be required.
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d. Freedom from abrasive contaminants. The most deleterious solid contaminants found in turbine
oil systems are those left behind when the system is constructed and installed or when it is opened for
maintenance and repair. Solid contaminants may also enter the system when units are outdoors, through
improperly installed vents, and when units are opened for maintenance. Other means of contamination are
from the wearing of metals originating within the system, rust and corrosion products, and dirty make-up
oil. The presence of abrasive solids in the oil cannot be tolerated since they will cause serious damage to
the system. These particles must be prevented from entering the system by flushing the system properly
and using clean oil and tight seals. Once abrasive solids have been detected, they must be removed by
filtration or centrifugation, or both.
e. Corrosion protection. The corrosion protection provided by the lubricant is of significant
importance for turbine systems. New turbine oil contains a rust-inhibitor additive and must meet ASTM
Test Method D 665. The additive may be depleted by normal usage, removal with water in the oil,
absorption on wear particles and debris, or chemical reaction with contaminants.
f. Water separability. Water can enter the turbine lubricating oil system through cooler leaks, by
condensation, and, to a lesser degree, through seal leaks. Water in the oil can be in either the dissolved or
insoluble form. The insoluble water may be in the form of small droplets dispersed in the oil (emulsion) or
in a separate phase (free state) settled at the bottom of the container. Water can react with metals to
catalyze and promote oil oxidation. It may deplete rust inhibitors and may also cause rusting and
corrosion. In addition to these chemical effects on the oil, additives, and equipment, water also affects the
lubrication properties of the oil. Oil containing large amounts of water does not have the same viscosity
and lubricating effect of clean oil. Therefore, turbine lubricating oil should not contain a significant
amount of free or dispersed water. Normally, if the oil is in good condition, water will settle to the bottom
of the storage tank, where it should be drained off as a routine operating procedure. Water may also be
removed by purification systems. If turbine oil develops poor water separability properties (poor
demulsibility), significant amounts of water will stay in the system and create problems. The water
separability characteristics of an oil are adequately measured using the ASTM Test Method D 1401
procedure. Insoluble water can be removed by filtration and centrifugation.
12-8. Other Properties of Used Oils
Other properties of lubricating oil that are important, but for which direct measurement of their quantitative
values is less significant, are described below.
a. Color. New turbine oils are normally light in color. Oil will gradually darken in service. This is
accepted. However, a significant color change occurring in a short time indicates that something has
changed. For example, if oil suddenly becomes hazy, it is probably being contaminated with water. A
rapid darkening or clouding may indicate that oil is contaminated or excessively degraded.
b. Foaming characteristics. Foaming characteristics are measured by ASTM Test Method D 892.
This test will show the tendency of oil to foam and the stability of the foam after it is generated. Foaming
can result in poor system performance and can cause serious mechanical damage. Most lubricants contain
antifoam additive to break up the foam.
c. Water content. Turbine oil should be clear and bright. Most turbine oil will remain clear up to
75 ppm water at room temperature. A quick and easy qualitative analysis of insoluble water in oil is the
hot plate test. A small amount of oil is placed on a hot plate. If oil smokes, there is no insoluble water. If
it spatters, the oil contains free or suspended water.
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d. Inhibitor content. The stability of turbine lubricating oil is based on the combination of high-
quality base stock with highly effective additives. Therefore, it is very important to monitor the oxidation
of the turbine oil. ASTM Test Method D 2272 (RBOT) is very useful for approximating the oxidation
inhibitor content of the turbine oil. The remaining useful life of the oil can be estimated from this test.
e. Wear and contaminant metals. Quantitative spectrographic analysis of used oil samples may be
used to detect trace metals (and silica) and identify metal-containing contaminants. System metals such as
iron and copper can be accurately identified if the sample is representative and the metals are solubilized or
are very finely divided. A high-silica level generally indicates dirt contamination.
12-9. Oil Monitoring Program
Periodic oil testing can measure the effects of oxidation, and detect the types and amount of various
contaminants in the oil. Periodic testing can provide early detection of problems within a lubricating
system; determine whether the oil is still serviceable; and provide information to prepare a filtering or
purification schedule. By monitoring the condition of the oil, premature equipment failure due to oil
deterioration can be prevented. Various standard tests are available depending on the type of oil and
service. Table 12-6 briefly identifies and compares the various analysis methods available, and their
benefits and limitations. Table 12-7 shows that each category of oil analysis is well suited to provide
important information, but no single test can provide complete information about the causes of lubricant
deterioration. The appropriate tests must be conducted to obtain the information desired. Field tests can
Table 12-6
Fluid Analysis Methods
Method Units Benefits Limitations
Optical particle count Number/ml Accurate size and quantity Sample preparation time
distribution
Automatic particle count Number/ml Fast, repeatable Sensitive to particle
concentration and
nonparticulate contaminants,
e.g., water, air, gels
Patch test and fluid Visual comparison/ Rapid analysis of fluid Provides approximate
contamination comparator cleanliness code cleanliness levels in field; contamination levels
helps to identify type of
contaminant
Ferrography Scaled number of large/small Basic information which will Cannot detect nonferrous
particles indicate the need for more particles, e.g., brass, copper,
sophisticated testing upon silica etc.
abnormal results
Spectrometry ppm Identifies and quantifies Cannot size contaminants;
contaminant material limited sensitivity above 5 m
(1.64 10 ft).
-5
Gravimetric mg/l Indicates total amount of Cannot distinguish particle
contaminant size; when comparing
samples, sensitivity is limited
to extremely large differences
in particulate level
Reference: Contamination Control and Filtration Fundamentals, Pall Corporation, Glen Cove, NY.
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Table 12-7
Categories of Oil Analysis
What is being analyzed Fluid Properties Contamination Wear Debris
Possible tests properties of used oil) contaminants) particles)
(Physical and chemical (Fluid and machine destructive (Presence and identification of
(aging process)
Particle counting NB PB MB
Moisture analysis NB PB NB
Viscosity analysis PB MB NB
Wear debris density NB NB PB
Analytical ferrography NB MB PB
TAN/TBN PB MB MB
FTIR PB MB NB
Patch test NB PB MB
Flash point test MB PB NB
Elemental Analysis PB MB PB
Note: PB - Primary Benefit, MB - Minor Benefit, NB - No Benefit
Reference: Reprinted by permission of Noria Corporation, Tulsa, OK
be performed to expedite assessment of an oil's condition. However, field testing is not as complete or as
accurate as laboratory analysis. Generally, laboratory tests should be performed to confirm field test
results. Project personnel should establish a monitoring program for their lubricating oils. This program
should include sampling and testing of significant oil properties at appropriate intervals, logging,
interpretation of test data, and action steps. In this section and in the discussion of sampling technique,
recommendations on properties to be tested, testing intervals, ASTM test methods, and action steps to
correct the problems are discussed.
a. Sampling and testing schedule.
(1) Sample collection. The sample should be drawn into clean oil bottles or oil-compatible containers
while the equipment is operating at normal temperature or immediately after shutdown. To minimize
sample contamination, bottle suppliers can provide bottles in three levels of cleanliness: clean (fewer than
100 particles greater than 10 m/ml (fewer than 100 particles in 1 ml (0.00026 gal) greater than 10 m
(3.28 10 ft)), superclean (fewer than 10), and ultraclean (fewer than 1). The sample should be labeled
-6
immediately with the date it was taken, the source, and the type and brand name of the lubricant.
(a) Lubricating oil. The oil sample must be representative of oil in the system. The preferred
sampling location is in the return lines upstream of filters. If a static oil sample must be drawn, a drop-
tube static sampling setup should be used to prevent contamination with sludge from the bottom of the
sump. If oil must be drawn from a tap on the oil sump, wipe the tap and let sufficient oil flow to clear
stagnant oil from the tap before taking the actual test sample.
(b) Hydraulic oil. The preferred sampling location is in the return line immediately upstream from the
return-line filter. This location will sample particles circulating in the system. An alternative location is the
supply line directly downstream from the pump. Extracting samples from the reservoir is not recommended
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except when no other choice is available. When necessary, reservoir samples should be taken midway
between the surface and bottom of the reservoir. To ensure the most accurate results and to develop
meaningful trends, all samples should be taken from the same location, in the same manner, and under the
same conditions. Do not compare samples drawn from an operating machine with samples from a
stationary machine.
(c) Transformer and circuit breaker insulating oil. Sampling procedures for transformer and circuit
breaker insulating oils are covered in Reclamation FIST manual entitled Maintenance of Liquid Insulation
Mineral Oils and Askarels.
(2) Field testing. Many oil properties can be field-tested economically and with relatively simple
procedures and equipment. Suspicious test results should be verified by more comprehensive laboratory
analysis. The following procedures are intended for oils other than those used in transformers and circuit
breakers.
(a) Visual test. A visual inspection of an oil sample is the simplest type of field test. Table 12-8
outlines the procedures for conducting a visual test of oil samples. The sample to be inspected should be
stored at room temperature away from direct sunlight for at least 24 hours before the inspection. The
sample should be checked for sediment, and separated water. Oils also may have unusual color cloudiness
or unusual odors. For comparison, it is a good idea to keep a sample of new unused oil of the same type
and manufacturer stored in a sealed container in a cool dark place. The used sample can then be compared
with the new sample with respect to color, odor, and general appearance.
(b) Water contamination. Hazy or cloudy oil may indicate water contamination. The crackle test is
a simplified procedure that can be used to verify the presence of water in oil, but the test does not provide
quantitative results. The crackle test can be conducted by making a small cup from aluminum foil, adding
a few drops of the oil, and heating rapidly over a small flame. The test can also be conducted by using a
hot plate, as previously noted, or by immersing a hot soldering iron in a sample of the oil. An audible
crackling sound will be heard if water is present. Eye protection should be worn during the test to prevent
injury if oil splatters during the heating. If water contamination is evident, the oil should be purified and a
sample of the purified oil should be sent to a laboratory for analysis. If sediment is present, the oil should
be purified, and samples of both the unpurified oil and the purified oil should be submitted for analysis.
The sediment of the unpurified oil can be analyzed to determine its source.
(c) Microbial contamination. Initial microbial contamination of hydraulic fluids may also be detected
by a foul odor due to waste and decomposition products of the microbes. Fluid viscosity may appear
thicker due to the microbes. Fluid color may range from a light brown to a slimy green appearance.
(d) Neutralization number. An oil's neutralization number can also be determined in the field. With
the exception of some motor oils, which may be alkaline, most lubricating oils are essentially neutral. An
acidic oil is probably the result of oxidation due to extended service or abnormal operating conditions. The
neutralization number of new oil is usually less that 0.08. The maximum allowable number depends on the
type of oil and service, and this number should be obtained from the oil manufacturer. The maximum
value is usually less than 0.5. Of greatest concern in this test is the rate of increase, not necessarily the
neutralization number itself. A sudden increase in the neutralization number may indicate that an
operational problem exists or that the oil has reached the end of its useful life. In either case, action is
required to prevent further deterioration and equipment damage. If tests show a large increase in the
neutralization number, or if the neutralization number exceeds the maximum value allowable, the oil man-
ufacturer should be consulted to determine if the oil can be economically reclaimed.
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Table 12-8
Visual Examination of Used Lubricating Oil
Appearance of Sample Action To Be Taken
When Taken System without filter or System with filter or
After 1 hour Reason centrifuge centrifuge
(1) (1)
Clear --- --- None None
Opaque Clear Foaming Cause of foaming to be Cause of foaming to be
(2)
sought sought
(3) (3)
Clear oil with separated Unstable emulsion Runoff water (and sludge) Check centrifuge
water layer from drain
(4)
(5)
(6)
No change Stable emulsion Submit sample for analysis Check centrifuge: if
(7) (6)
centrifuge fails to clear
change oil
Dirty Solids separated Contamination Submit sample for analysis Check filter or centrifuge
(8) (7)
Black (acrid No change Oil oxidized Submit sample for analysis Submit sample for analysis
smell)
(7) (7)
1. Take sample of circulating oil in clean glass bottle (50-100 ml).
2. If dirty or opaque, stand for 1 hour, preferably at 60E C (an office radiator provides a convenient source of heat).
Notes:
(1) The term filter is restricted to units able to remove particles less than 50 m; coarse strainers, which are frequently fitted in oil
pump suctions to protect the pump, do not remove all particles liable to damage bearings, etc.
(2) Both foams (mixtures of air and oil) and emulsions (mixtures of water and oil) render the oil opaque.
(3) Foaming is usually mechanical in origin, being caused by excessive churning, impingement of high-pressure return oil on the
reservoir surface, etc. Foam can be stabilized by the presence of minor amounts of certain contaminants, e.g., solvents,
corrosion preventives, grease. If no mechanical reason can be found for excessive foam generation, it is necessary to
change oil.
(4) Steps should be taken to remove the water as soon as possible. Not only is water liable to cause lubrication failure, but it will
also cause rusting; the presence of finely divided rust tends to stabilize emulsions.
(5) Failure of water to separate from oil in service may be the result of inadequate lubricant capacity or the oil pump suction being
too close to the lowest part of the reservoir. More commonly, it results from re-entrainment of separated water from the
bottom of the sump when, by neglect, it has been allowed to build up in the system.
(6) The usual reason for a centrifuge failing to remove water is that the temperature is too low. The oil should be heated to 80 EC
(176 EF) before centrifuging.
(7) It is not always possible to decide visually whether the oil is satisfactory or not. In doubtful cases, it is necessary to have
laboratory analysis.
(8) In a dark oil, solids can be seen by inverting the bottle and examining the bottom.
Reference: Neale, M. J., Lubrication - A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England.
(e) Particle counting. Portable particle counters are available for in-house testing. The advantage is
that measurement results can be obtained quickly, as opposed to the 1- to 2-week waiting period typical for
laboratory testing. The quick results also allow timely preventive measures to reduce the potential for
severe damage. Two types of portable particle counters are generally available: laser and differential
pressure. Laser counters transmit a light beam through the fluid to a photodetector on the opposite side.
The light intensity measured varies with the number of particles in the fluid. As the number of particles
increases, the light scattering increases and the light intensity measured at the detector is reduced. The
intensity of the measured light is an indication of the number of particles in the fluid sample. Laser
counters are accurate and can measure a particle to 2 m (6.56 10 ft). Laser counters have several
-6
disadvantages, including sensitivity to other conditions that may restrict light passage through the fluid:
aeration, haziness (typically caused by water), fluid opacity, and emulsions. The differential particle
counter measures differential pressure across standard 5- and 15-m (1.64 10 and 4.96 10 ft)
-5 -5
screens, which correlate with ISO particle counting standards. As fluid passes through the screens, large
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
12-13
particles are filtered, causing the differential pressure across the screens to increase. This type of counter
is not affected by the disadvantages that affect laser counters.
(3) Laboratory testing and analysis. When field testing is inadequate or indicates that additional
testing is required, oil samples should be submitted for laboratory analysis. Laboratory analysis should in-
clude viscosity, neutralization number, water contamination, and the identification of wear metal and other
contaminants. Properties to be tested, along with the ASTM test method to be used, are listed in Table 12-
9. If possible, the oil's manufacturer should perform tests periodically. Since the composition and additive
content of oils is usually considered proprietary information, only the manufacturer can accurately
determine the extent of additive depletion. When analysis is conducted by independent laboratories, the oil
manufacturer should be contacted anytime the test results suggest questionable serviceability of an oil.
When problems arise or abnormal situations develop, other properties may be tested or the testing
frequency of the recommended properties should be increased. For example, if oil color suddenly becomes
hazy or dark, the oil should be tested immediately for water or other contamination. The tests included in
Table 12-9 are used to determine contamination and degradation of the oil. Viscosity, appearance, water
content, and cleanliness are related to contamination. Total acid number (TAN), color, and Rotating Bomb
Oxidation Test (RBOT) are related to degradation. The RBOT and TAN tests are excellent for following
the degradation of turbine oil. If RBOT results for the new oil are known, these can be compared with the
values for the used oil to determine the oxidation stability reserve of the used oil. Changes in the RBOT
and TAN of the oils are the best indication of the remaining useful life of the lubricating oil.
Table 12-9
Key Tests for Oil Quality Control Monitoring
Property Test ASTM Test Method
Total acid number (TAN) D 664, D 974
Color D 1500
Appearance Visual
Viscosity D 445
Rotating Bomb D 2272
Oxidation Test (RBOT)
Water content D 95, D 1744
Rust test D 665A
Cleanliness Particle Counter,
F 311 and F 312
(4) Test frequencies
(a) New oil. Oil should be tested prior to filling the unit and retested 3 months later. Sampling should
continue at this interval until a trend is established. The sampling interval can then be extended as dictated
by the test results.
(b) Installation of new components. When new components are installed the above oil testing
frequency should be followed.
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(c) Normal operation. Equipment maintenance records should suggest oil sampling frequencies.
Additional testing should be conducted on a periodic basis, and at increased frequencies as dictated by the
oil analysis results. In the absence of recommended sampling frequencies, 500 hours is commonly
suggested for journal and roller bearing lubricant applications. Oil samples should be drawn from
governors and all guide and thrust bearings annually and submitted for laboratory analysis. In addition to
the annual tests, samples should be visually inspected at frequent intervals. Test oil annually or more often
if conditions warrant. If oil appears clean and no operational problems have been noted, testing may be
postponed to the next unit overhaul. When a unit is overhauled, test the oil before draining into a storage
tank. If oil is degraded, discard it to prevent storage tank contamination.
(d) Logging and interpretation of test data. It is important to keep accurate records of test results.
Properties that change as the oil degrades, such as viscosity, oxidation, TAN, and RBOT, should be
graphed to provide a visual indication of relative changes or trends. This procedure highlights any unusual
trends and allows for a more accurate estimate of the remaining service life of lubricating oil. Oil
properties can be affected by routine addition of make-up oil and by the type of oil added. Whenever a
reservoir is topped, the data baseline must be reset to prevent erroneous interpretation of trend results.
(e) Recommended corrective action. The primary purpose of an oil monitoring program is to ensure
long, trouble-free operation of the turbine and generators, main pumps and motors, or other equipment. To
achieve this purpose, the monitoring program must include prompt and appropriate action steps. The
corrective action must be based on correct interpretation of the test data, as outlined in Tables 12-10 and
12-11. It is very important to follow the monitoring schedule that has been established. Interpretation is
more meaningful if the data have been collected over an extended period of time.
12-10. Oil Purification and Filtration
a. Cleanliness.
(1) Oil must be free of contaminants to perform properly. Most hydraulic systems use an in-line filter
to continually filter the oil while the system is operating to maintain the required cleanliness rating in
accordance with ISO standards (Table 12-12). ISO 4406 is an internationally recognized standard that
expresses the level of particulate contamination of a hydraulic fluid. The standard is also used to specify
the required cleanliness level for hydraulic components and systems. ISO 4406 is a hydraulic cleanliness
rating system that is based on a number of contamination particles larger than 2 microns, 5 microns, and 15
microns in a 1-milliliter fluid sample. Once the number and size of the particles are determined, the points
are plotted on a standardized chart of ISO range numbers to convert the particle counts into an ISO 4406
rating. The ISO 4406 rating provides three range numbers that are separated by a slash, such as 16/14/12.
In this rating example, the first number 16 corresponds to the number of particles greater than 2 microns in
size; the second number 14 corresponds to the number of particles greater than 5 microns in size; and the
third number 12 corresponds to the number of particles greater than 15 microns in size. All three values
for applicable range numbers can be determined through the use of the ISO 4406 standardized chart based
on the actual number of particles counted within the 1-milliliter (ml) sample for each size category (>2, >5,
>15 microns). For example, if a 1-ml sample contained 6000 2-mm particles, 140 5-mm particles, and 28
15-mm particles, the fluid would have a cleanliness rating of 20/14/12. The number of 2-mm particles
(6000) falls in the range greater than 5000 but less than 10,000, which results in an ISO 4406 range
number of 20. The number of 5-m particles (140) falls in the range greater than 80 but less than 160,
which results in an ISO 4406 range number of 14. The number of 15-mm particles (28) falls in the range
greater than 20 but less than 40, which results in an ISO 4406 range number of 12.
EM 1110-2-1424
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12-15
Table 12-10
Interpretation of Test Data and Recommended Action
Test Warning Limit Interpretation Action Steps
Total acid 0.1-0.5 mg KCH/g This represents above-normal deteri- Investigate cause. Increase frequency
No. (TAN) oration. Possible causes are anti- of testing; compare with RBOT data.
increase, over oxidant depletion or oil contamination. Consult with oil supplier for possible
new oil reinhibition.
Exceeds 0.5 mg Oil at or approaching end of service Look for signs of increased sediment on
KOH/g life: oil may be contaminated. filters and centrifuge. Check RBOT. If
RBOT less than 25 percent of original,
review status with oil supplier and
consider oil change. Increase test
frequency if left in system.
RBOT2 Less than half Above-normal degradation. Investigate cause. Increase frequency
value of original of testing.
oil
Less than 25 per- Together with high TAN, indicates oil Resample and retest. If same, change
cent of original at or approaching end of service life. oil and consider discarding the oil.
Water content Exceeds 0.2 percent Oil contaminated: potential water leak Investigate and remedy cause. Clean
system by centrifugation. If still
unsatisfactory, consider oil change or
consult oil supplier
Cleanliness Exceeds 0.01 Source of particulates may be make- Locate and eliminate source of particu-
percent volume, up oil, dust, or ash entering system. lates. Clean system oil by filtration or
particulates or wear condition in system. centrifugation, or both.
Rust test, Failure, light Possibilities: (a) the system is wet or Investigate cause and make necessary
Procedure A rusting dirty, or both, (b) the system is not maintenance and operating changes.
maintained properly (for example, Check rust test. Consult oil supplier
water drainage neglected, centrifuge regarding reinhibition if test result
not operating, or (c) additive depleted. unchanged.
Appearance Hazy Oil contains water or solids, or both. Investigate cause and remedy. Filter or
centrifuge oil, or both.
Color Unusual and This is indicative of contamination or Determine cause and rectify.
rapid darkening excessive degradation.
Viscosity 20 percent from Possibilities: oil is contaminated, or Determine cause. If viscosity is low,
original oil oil is severely degraded. determine flash point. Consult oil sup-
viscosity plier. Change oil, if necessary.
Flash point Drop 30E F Probably contamination. Determine cause. Check other quality
(-1E C) or more parameters. Consider oil change.
compared to new oil
Foam test Exceeds follow- Possibly contamination or antifoam Rectify cause. Check with oil supplier
ASTM D 892, ing limits: ten- depletion. In new turbines, residual regarding reinhibition. (Note: plant
Sequence 1 dency - 450, rust preventatives absorbed by oil problems are often mechanical in origin.)
stability - 10 may cause problem.
Typical TAN value for new oil is 0.1 to 0.3 mg KOH/g.
1
Typical RBOT value for new oil is 250 min.
2
Reference: Reprinted by permission of Noria Corporation, Tulsa, OK.
(2) Table 12-13 shows the desirable cleanliness levels for different types of systems and typical
applications rated by the system sensitivity, from noncritical systems through super-critical systems.
Table 12-14 shows the desired ISO cleanliness code for specific components in hydraulic and lubricating
systems.
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12-16
Table 12-11
Oil Analysis Data Interpretation and Problem Indication
Problem Area Analytical Indications Inspection/Sensory Indications
(a) (b)
Air entrainment Increased viscosity, TAN , water, and/or FTIR for Oil clouding/foaming, increase in oil gage
(c) (b)
oxidation temperature.
Silicon defoamant levels too high/low Spongy/slow hydraulics, cavitation of pump/bearing,
Blotter test: cokelike carbon on patch noisy operation.
Abrasive wear Increased silicon, aluminum, particle count, and/or Scratch marking or/polishing of frictional surfaces
conditions ferrous particles Cutting wear on blotter/patch/filter media
Water contamination Filter/breather/seal failure
Ferrogram has cutting wear, silica particles
Corrosive wear Increased TAN , particle count, spectrographic iron Fretting, pitting, and etching on contact surfaces
conditions & bearing metals, water Transient electric currents, high-engine blowby
(c)
Decrease in TBN Rust on patch or filter media
(d)
Ferrogram shows submicron debris at ferrogram tail,
rust particles, metal oxides
Failed filter Increasing silicon/aluminum, particle count, ferrous Valve silt lock, noisy bearings
particles, and/or elemental iron Unchanging or high delta P of filter
Ferrograms show green-looking particles, cutting Frequent bearing failures, high levels of bottom
wear, filter fibers sediment
Overheating Increasing ferrous particles, particle count, flash Bearing distress/failure
point, viscosity, or oil specific gravity Hot spots and high bearing metal temperature
Ferrograms show friction polymers, oxides, Evidence of coking/sludge
bluing/tempering of particles, sliding wear particles, Burn/rancid odor, high oil gage temperature
bearing particles, e.g., babbitt metal
Misalignment, Ferrograms densely loaded with black-iron oxides, Engine lugging/stalling, black exhaust
imbalance, dark metal oxides, severe cutting and sliding wear, Raised oil, bearing metal, or jacket-water
overloading tempered particles, large, chunky particles, or temperature
bearing metals Dark, foul-smelling oil, bearing distress/failure, hard
Increase in viscosity, TAN , particle count, and/or turning of shaft
(c)
ferrous particles Abnormal vibration, noise
Depletion of Zn and P Blotter test: coke, metal chips
Metal chips on filter, highly loaded chip detectors
Impending failure of Exponential increase in particle count and number of Shaft wobble, vibration, acoustic changes, blue
bearing, gear, pump, wear particle concentration exhaust smoke, hot spots, hard turning shaft,
etc. Increase in iron or bearing metals and/or high-bearing metal temperatures
Ferrogram shows rate increase in spheres, dark Patch/blotter shows coking
metal oxides, particle bluing, spalling/chunks, severe
sliding/galling particles, cutting wear
Wrong lubricant Change in viscosity, VI, flash point, additive Change in oil gage or bearing temperature
elements, FTIR specta, TAN /TBN Bearing distress or noise
(b) (c) (d)
Change in wear patterns Hard turning of shaft
Antioxidant depletion Decreasing TAN , RBOT oxidation life, and Zn/P Oil darkening
(c)
content Pungent odor
Increasing viscosity, TAN , particle count Hot running
(c)
FTIR: decreasing antioxidant, increasing oxidation,
sulphation, and/or nitration
(a) Not all of the identified indications would be expected for each problem area; (b) Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy;
(c) Total Acid Number; (d) Total Base Number; (e) Vapor-Induced Scintillation Analysis; (f) Karl Fischer.
Reference: Reprinted by permission of Noria Corporation, Tulsa, OK.
(Continued)
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Table 12-11 (Concluded)
Problem Area Analytical Indications Inspection/Sensory Indications
(a) (b)
Dispersancy failure FTIR , low TBN Filter inspection: sludge on media, filter in bypass
(b) (d)
Increasing particle count, pentane insolubles Black exhaust smoke
Defined inner spot on blotter test Deposits on rings and valves
Base oil deterioration Increasing viscosity, TAN , particle count, and/or Poor oil/water separability
(c)
ferrous particles Air entrainment/foaming
Decreasing TBN Pungent odor, sludge/varnish formation
(d)
Change in VI and lower dielectric strength Blotter spot yellow/brown, oil darkening
Water contamination Increasing viscosity, TAN , Ca, Ma, and/or Na Oil clouding/opacity, water puddling/separating,
(c)
Rapid additive depletion/failure sludging, foaming
Crackle test, VISA , KF , FTIR Evidence of fretting wear/corrosion
(e) (f) (b)
Reduced dielectric strength Filter: paper is wavy, high-pressure drop, short life;
Blotter test: sharp or star burst periphery on inner ferrogram shows rust
spot Valve sticking, orifice silting, bearing
distress/failure, noisy pump/bearings
Coolant Increasing viscosity, copper, particle count, wear Bearings dark charcoal color, distressed
contamination metal, Na, B, and/or K Dispersancy failure, sludging, varnishing
FTIR , glycol Blotter test: sticky, black center
(b)
Crackle test, VISA , KF Filter plugs prematurely, oil has mayonnaise
(e) (f)
consistency, white exhaust smoke
Fuel dilution Low oil viscosity, flash point Rising oil levels and oil gage temperatures
Additive and wear metal dilution (elemental analysis) Blotter test: halo around center spot
FTIR /gas chromatography for fuel Blue exhaust smoke (collapsed rings), plugged air
(b
Rising particle count and wear metals filter, defective injectors
Oil has diesel odor, overfueling conditions
(3) However, for most lubricating systems filter or purify oil periodically as dictated by the results of
the oil testing program. Water is the most common contaminant found in hydroelectric plants, and its
presence in oil may promote oxidation, corrosion, sludge formation, foaming, additive depletion, and
generally reduce a lubricant's effectiveness. Solid contaminants such as dirt, dust, or wear particles also
may be present. These solid particles may increase wear, and promote sludge formation, foaming, and
restrict oil flow within the system. The following are some of the most common methods used to remove
contaminants from oil.
b. Gravity purification. Gravity purification is the separation or settling of contaminants that are
heavier than the oil. Gravity separation occurs while oil is in storage but is usually not considered an
adequate means of purification for most applications. Other purification methods should also be used in
addition to gravity separation.
c. Centrifugal purification. Centrifugal purification is gravity separation accelerated by the centrif-
ugal forces developed by rotating the oil at high speed. Centrifugal purification is an effective means of
removing water and most solid contaminants from the oil. The rate of purification depends on the viscosity
of the oil in a container and the size of the contaminants.
d. Mechanical filtration. Mechanical filtration removes contaminants by forcing the oil through a
filter medium with holes smaller than the contaminants. Mechanical filters with fine filtration media can
remove particles as small as 1 micron, but filtration under 5 microns is not recommended because
EM 1110-2-1424
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12-18
Table 12-12
ISO 4406 Range Numbers
Number of Particles per Milliliter
Greater Than Less Than ISO 4406 Range Number
80,000 160,000 24
40,000 80,000 23
20,000 40,000 22
10,000 20,000 21
5,000 10,000 20
2,500 5,000 19
1,300 2,500 18
640 1,300 17
320 640 16
160 320 15
80 160 14
40 80 13
20 40 12
10 20 11
5 10 10
2.5 5 9
1.3 2.5 8
0.64 1.3 7
0.32 0.64 6
0.16 0.32 5
0.08 0.16 4
0.04 0.08 3
0.02 0.04 2
0.01 0.02 1
Reference: Contamination Control and Filtration Fundamentals, Pall Corporation, Glen Cove, NY.
many of the oil additives will be removed. A typical mechanical filter for turbine oil would use a 6- to
10-micron filter. The filter media will require periodic replacement as the contaminants collect on the
medium's surface. Filters have absolute, beta, and nominal ratings as follows:
(1) Absolute rating. Absolute rating means that no particles greater than a certain size will pass
through the filter and is based on the maximum pore size of the filtering medium.
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12-19
Table 12-13
Desirable Fluid System Cleanliness Levels
ISO Contaminations System
Code Sensitivity Types of Systems and Typical Applications
15/13/9 Supercritical Silt-sensitive control system with very high reliability. Laboratory apparatus,
aerospace systems.
17/15/11 Critical High-performance servo and high-pressure long-life systems, e.g., aircraft,
machine tools, industrial robots.
19/16/13 Very important High-quality reliable systems, e.g., turbo machinery (steam, gas, hydro), lube and
electro-hydraulic controls, general machine requirements.
20/18/14 Important General machinery and mobile hydraulic systems. Medium pressure, medium
capacity. Acceptable in-service oil quality for steam turbines without lift pumps.
21/19/15 Average Low oil pressure heavy-duty industrial system and construction equipment or
applications where long life is not critical, e.g., winches, mobile heavy equipment
transmissions.
23/21/17 Noncritical Low-pressure systems with large clearances, e.g., ships elevators.
Reference: Contamination Control and Filtration Fundamentals, Pall Corporation, Glen Cove, NY.
(2) Beta rating. The beta rating or beta ratio is a filter-rating expressed as the ratio of the number of
upstream particles to the number of downstream particles of a particular size or larger. It expresses the
separating effectiveness of a filter. The beta ratio counts the results from the multipass beta test for
filters, ANSI/(NFPA) T3.10.8.8, and ISO 4572, Hydraulic Fluid Power - Filters - Multi-Pass Method for
Evaluating Filtration Performance.
(3) Nominal rating. Nominal rating is not an industry standard but an arbitrary value assigned by the
filter manufacturer and means that a filter stops most particles of a certain micron size. Due to its
imprecision, filter selection by nominal rating could lead to system contamination and component failure.
e. Coalescence purification. A coalescing filter system uses special cartridges to combine small,
dispersed water droplets into larger drops. The larger water drops are retained within a separator screen
and fall to the bottom of the filter while the dry oil passes through the screen. A coalescing filter will also
remove solid contaminants by mechanical filtration.
f. Vacuum dehydration. A vacuum dehydration system removes water from oil through the ap-
plication of heat and vacuum. The contaminated oil is exposed to a vacuum and is heated to temperatures
of approximately 38 EC to 60 EC (100 EF to 140 EF). The water is removed as a vapor. Care must be
exercised to ensure that desirable low-vapor-pressure components and additives are not removed by the
heat or vacuum.
g. Adsorption purification. Adsorption or surface-attraction purification uses an active-type
medium such as fullers earth to remove oil oxidation products by their attraction or adherence to the large
internal surfaces of the media. Because adsorption purification will also remove most of an oils additives,
this method should not be used for turbine oil purification.
h. Filter system. A system consisting of a vacuum purifier to remove the water, a centrifuge to
remove large solid particles, and a 10-micron filter to remove the finer solid particles is the most desirable
EM 1110-2-1424
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12-20
Table 12-14
System Cleanliness Level Guidelines
Hydraulic System
Servo Valve A B C D E
Proportional Valve A B C D E
VariableVolume Pump A B C D E
Cartridge Valve A B C D E
Fixed Piston Pump A B C D E
Vane Pump A B C D E
Pressure/Flow Control A B C D E
Valve
Solenoid Valve A B C D E
Gear Pump A B C D E
Lubrication System
Ball Bearings A B C D E
Roller Bearings A B C D E
Journal Bearings A B C D E
Gear Box (Industrial) A B C D E
Gear Box (Mobile) A B C D E
Diesel Engine A B C D
Cleanliness Level 12/10/7 13/11/9 14/12/10 15/13/11 16/14/12 17/15/12 17/16/13 18/16/14 19/17/14
(PCC)
Hydraulic system pressure (kPa) range- C > 172,500, D 10,350 to 17,250, E < 10,350
Lubrication system: Pressure ranges do not apply. Start at midrange C and adjust per following guidelines:
To determine system cleanliness level:
1. Starting at the top of the system component list. Find the first item used in hydraulic or lubrication system.
2. Locate box to the right of selected component, which corresponds to the operating pressure range.
3. Recommended cleanliness level is given at the bottom of each column that the box falls into.
4. Shift one column to the left if any of the following factors apply:
a. System is critical to maintaining production schedules.
b. High cycle/severe duty application.
c. Water-containing hydraulic fluid is used.
d. System is expected to be in service more than seven years.
e. System failure can create a safety concern
5. Shift two columns to the left if two or more factors apply.
6. For lubrication systems, shift one column to the right if operating viscosity is greater than 500 SUS.
7. For flushing, shift one to two columns to the left.
Reference: Contamination Control and Filtration Fundamentals, Pall Corporation, Glen Cove, NY
system. The vacuum purifier should be specified as being suitable for the lubricating oil. The ability of a
filter system to remove water is especially important to prevent microbial contamination in lubricants and
hydraulic fluids. However, this type of system alone may not be sufficient. Introduction of biocides may
be necessary to minimize the chemical reaction byproducts and contamination due to microbes.
i. Location and purpose of filters. Table 12-15 provides information on the location and purpose of
filters. Table 12-16 lists various types of filters and the range of particle sizes filtered by each.
EM 1110-2-1424
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12-21
Table 12-15
Location and Purpose of Filter in Circuit
Location Degree of Filtration Type Purpose
Oil reservoir vent Coarse Wire wool Removal of airborne contaminant
Paper
Oil bath
Oil reservoir filler Coarse Gauze Prevention of ingress of coarse solids
Suction side of pump Medium Paper Protection of pump
Gauze
Delivery side of pump Fine Sintered metal Protection of bearings/system
Felt
Paper
Return line to reservoir Medium Gauze Prevention of ingress of wear products
Paper to reservoir
Separate from system Very fine Centrifuge Bulk cleaning of whole volume of
lubricant
Reference: Neale, M.J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England.
Table 12-16
Range of Particle Sizes That Can be Removed by Various Filtration Methods
Filtration Method Examples Micrometers (m)
Range of Minimum Particle Size Trapped
Solid fabrications Scalloped washers, wire-wound tubes 5-200
Rigid porous media Ceramics and stoneware 1-100
Sintered metal 3-100
Metal sheets Perforated 100-1000
Woven wire 5-200
Porous plastics Plastic pads, sheets, etc. 3-100
Membranes 0.005-5
Woven fabrics Cloths of natural and synthetic fibers 10-200
Cartridges Yarn-wound spools, graded fibers 2-100
Nonwoven sheets Felts, lap, etc. 10-200
Paper - cellulose 5-200
- glass 2-100
Sheets and mats 0.5-5
Forces Gravity settling, cyclones, centrifuges Sub-micrometer
Reference: Neale, M.J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England.
12-11. Oil Operating Temperature
The recommended oil operating temperature range for a particular application is usually specified by the
equipment manufacturer. Exceeding the recommended range may reduce the oil's viscosity, resulting in
inadequate lubrication. Subjecting oil to high temperatures also increases the oxidation rate. As previously
noted, for every 18 EF (10 EC) above 150 EF (66 EC), an oil's oxidation rate doubles and the oils life is
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
12-22
Figure 12-1. Temperature limits for mineral oils (Reference: Neale, M.J., Lubrication: A Tribology
Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England)
essentially cut in half. Longevity is especially critical for turbines in hydroelectric generating units where
the oil life expectancy is several years. Ideally the oil should operate between 50 EC and 60 EC (120 EF
and 140 EF). Consistent operation above this range may indicate a problem such as misalignment or tight
bearings. Adverse conditions of this nature should be verified and corrected. Furthermore, when operating
at higher temperatures, the oil's neutralization (acid) number should be checked more frequently than
dictated by normal operating temperatures. An increase in the neutralization number indicates that the
oxidation inhibitors have been consumed and the oil is beginning to oxidize. The lubricant manufacturer
should be contacted for recommendations on the continued use of the oil when the operating temperatures
for a specific lubricant are unknown. Figures 12-1 through 12-3 show relationships between hours of
operation and temperature for mineral and synthetic oils and greases. Figure 12-4 shows base oil
temperatures for mineral and synthetic lubricants. Figure 12-5 shows usable temperature range for
greases. Table 12-17 shows pour point temperatures for mineral and synthetic lubricants. Table 12-18
shows practical high-temperature limits for solid lubricants.
12-12. Lubricant Storage and Handling
Lubricants are frequently purchased in large quantities and must be safely stored. The amount of material
stored should be minimized to reduce the potential for contamination, deterioration, and health and
explosion hazards associated with lubricant storage. Table 12-19 identifies the causes of lubricant
deterioration and prevention during storage. Although lubricant storage receives due attention, equipment
that has received a lubricant coating and stored is frequently forgotten. Stored equipment should be
inspected on a periodic basis to ensure that damage is not occurring. Table 12-20 lists recommended
frequency of inspection for stored equipment. Table 12-21 provides inspection and relubrication
recommendations for equipment in storage.
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Figure 12-2. Temperature limits for some synthetic oils (Reference: Neale, M.J., Lubrication: A Tribology
Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England)
Figure 12-3. Temperature limits for greases (Reference: Neale, M.J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook.
Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England)
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12-4. Base oil temperature limits (Reference: Booser, R.E., Reprinted with
permission from CRC Handbook of Lubrication (Theory and Practice of Tribology);
Volume II Theory and Design, Copyright CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida)
Figure 12-5. Usable temperature range for
greases (Reference: Neale, M.J., Lubrication: A
Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann
Ltd., Oxford, England)
Table 12-17
Lubricant Pour Point Temperatures
Type of Lubricant Pour Point, E E C (E EF)
Mineral oil -57 (min.) (-70.6)
Diester -60 (-76.0)
Phosphate ester -57 (-70.6)
Silicate ester -65 (-85.0)
Di-siloxane -70 (-94.0)
Silicone -70 (-94.0)
Polyphenyl-ether -70 (-94.0)
Perfluorinated polyether -75 to -90 (-103 to -130)
Reference: Neale, M.J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England
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Table 12-18
Temperature Limitations of Solid Lubricants
Example Limit, E E C* (E EF) Common Usages
Practical Temperature
1. Boundary lubricants and Metal soap (e.g., stearate) 150 (302) Metal cutting, drawing, and
extreme pressure additives Chloride (as Fe Cl ) 300 (572) shaping; Highly-loaded gears
(surface active) Sulphide (as FeS) 750 (1382)
3
Phthalocyanine (with Cu and Fe) 550 (1022) Antiseizure
2. Lamellar solids and/or low Graphite 600 (1112) General, metal working,
shear strength solids Molybdenum disulphide 350 (662) antiseizure, and antiscuffing
Tungsten disulphide 500 (932)
Lead monoxide 650 (1202)
Calcium fluoride 1000 (1832)
Vermiculite 900 (1652) Antiseizure
PTFE 250 (482) Low friction as bonded film or
reinforced composite
* The limit refers to use in air or other oxidizing atmospheres.
Bonded with silica to retard oxidation.
Reference: Neale, M.J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England.
a. Oil. Oil is stored in active oil reservoirs, where it is drawn as needed, and in oil drums for
replenishing used stock. Each mode has its own storage requirements.
(1) Filtered and unfiltered oil tanks. Most hydroelectric power plants use bulk oil storage systems
consisting of filtered (clean) and unfiltered (dirty) oil tanks to store the oil for the thrust bearings, guide
bearings, and governors. Occasionally the filtered oil tank can become contaminated by water condensa-
tion, dust, or dirt. To prevent contamination of the bearing or governor oil reservoirs, the filtered oil should
be filtered again during transfer to the bearing or governor reservoir. If this is not possible, the oil from the
filtered tank should be transferred to the unfiltered oil tank to remove any settled contaminants. The
filtered oil storage tank should be periodically drained and thoroughly cleaned. If the area where the
storage tanks are located is dusty, a filter should be installed in the vent line. If water contamination is
persistent or excessive, a water absorbent filter, such as silica gel, may be required.
(2) Oil drums. If possible, oil drums should be stored indoors. Store away from sparks, flames, and
extreme heat. The storage location must ensure that the proper temperature, ventilation, and fire protection
requirements are maintained. Tight oil drums breathe in response to temperature fluctuations, so standing
water on the lid may be drawn into the drum as it inhales. Proper storage is especially important when
storing hydraulic fluids due to their hygroscopic nature. To prevent water contamination, place a convex
lid over drums stored outdoors. Alternatively, the drums should be set on their side with the bungs parallel
to the ground. The bungs on the drums should be tightly closed except when oil is being drawn out. If a
tap or pump is installed on the drum, the outlet should be wiped clean after drawing oil to prevent dust
from collecting.
b. Grease. Grease should be stored in a tightly sealed container to prevent dust, moisture, or other
contamination. Excessive heat may cause the grease to bleed and oxidize. Store grease in clean areas
where it will not be exposed to potential contaminants, and away from excessive heat sources such as
furnaces or heaters. The characteristics of some greases may change with time. A grease may bleed,
change consistency, or pick up contaminants during storage. To reduce the risk of contamination, the
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Table 12-19
Causes of Lubricant Deterioration and Their Prevention
Cause Components Affected Effect Prevention
ATMOSPHERIC Forms gums, resins, and acidic products Use lubricant containing
Oxygen Lubricants with viscosity increase. antioxidation additive. Keep in
sealed containers.
Engines and components When moisture is present, causes corrosion, Coat with lubricant or
particularly to ferrous components. temporary protective. Wrap in
airtight packages using vapor
phase inhibitors. In sealed
units, include desiccants.
Cables and wires Corrosion in the presence of water. Coat with lubricant or
temporary protective.
Seals Promotes slow cracking of natural rubber Use of a different polymer. Do
and some similar materials. Negligible not store in a hot place.
normally at ambient temperatures.
Pollutants
(e.g., sulphur dioxide, Engines and components Rapid corrosion of most metals. Store in sealed containers.
hydrogen sulphide) Cables and wires Coat metals with temporary
Dust and Dirt
Brakes and clutches protective or lubricant. Filter
air supply to remove
pollutants.
Lubricants Increased rate of wear between bearing Keep covered or in containers.
surfaces.
Engines and components Increased rate of wear between bearing
Cables and wires surfaces. Promotes corrosion in the Keep covered or in containers
Brakes and clutches presence of moisture
TEMPERATURE
Heat Lubricants Increases rate of deterioration as under
Cold
Seals Increases deterioration rate as above.
Oxygen. Will increase oil separation from Keep store temperature no
greases. higher than 20E C (68 EF)
Lubricants In water-containing materials (e.g., cutting Keep temperature above
oils and certain fire-resisting hydraulic oils) freezing point
water could separate out.
HUMIDITY Seals Could become brittle.
Engines and components Promotes corrosion. More severe when Coat metal parts with lubricant
Cables and wires ferrous and nonferrous metals present. See or temporary protective.
Oxygen.
Brakes and clutches
Belts and ropes Promotes fungus/bacterial growth. Store in dry location.
Seals
LIGHT Lubricants Promotes formation of gums, resins, and Store in metal or opaque
acidity. containers.
FUNGI/BACTERIA Lubricants Growth occurs at water/oil interface. Keep water out of containers.
In certain cases, biocides and
fungicides can be added.
Brakes and clutches Surface covered and attacked by mold Store in dry location. Treat
Belts and ropes growth. with biocide and fungicide.
Seals
VIBRATION Engines and components Ball bearings, and to a lesser extent roller Do not store where there is
bearings, suffer false brinelling. vibration. Resilient mountings
can reduce effects of
vibration.
Reference: Neale, M.J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England.
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Table 12-20
Frequency of Inspection
Component How Stored Inspect
Lubricants Bulk tanks Each year, and when refilled.
Sealed containers Check annually for damage to containers. Limited tests
for serviceability of contents after
3 years.
Engines and components General storage Annually. Hand-turn engines where possible.
Packaged or sealed containers Two to four years.
Cables and wires
Brakes and clutches General storage Visual inspection annually.
Belts and seals
Ropes General storage Turn annually and test to destruction
Rot proofed Every 4 years
Untreated Every 2 years
Synthetic fiber Every 4 years
Reference: Neale, M.J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England.
Table 12-21
Relubrication and Reprotection
Component How Stored Inspection and Treatment
In general:
Engines and components Coated with lubricant or temporary Recoat annually. Lubricate when brought
protective into use.
Packaged or sealed containers Replace VPI, desiccants, or lubricant
every 2 to 4 years.
Special items:
Grease-packed ball and roller bearing After prolonged or adverse storage, or if Before use, clean out old grease with
Oil-impregnated porous metal bearings After prolonged or adverse storage Before use soak in warm oil of the same
Small mechanisms in their own cases, Coated with lubricant Relubricate every 4 years.
e.g., watches, servos
Small mechanisms and components, e.g., These will require specialized cleaning
gas bearings, watch components and lubrication before being brought into
Cables and wires Replace every 2 to 3 years.
oil bleeding has occurred solvent,* remove surplus solvent, and
replace with new grease.
type as originally impregnated.
use.
* For example, paraffin, trichlorethylene.
Note: Traces of chlorinated solvents such as trichlorethylene, particularly in the presence of moisture, can cause corrosion of most
metals. Therefore, after cleaning with chlorinated solvents all traces should be removed, ideally by blowing with warm dry air.
Reference: Neale, M.J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England
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amount of grease in storage should not exceed a one-year supply. Before purchasing grease supplies, the
manufacturer or distributor should be consulted for information about the maximum shelf life and other
storage requirements for the specific grease.
12-13. Safety and Health Hazards
Safety considerations related to lubricants include knowledge of handling and the potential hazards. With
this information, the necessary precautions can be addressed to minimize the risk to personnel and
equipment.
a. Material safety data sheets. When handled properly, most lubricants are safe, but when handled
improperly, some hazards may exist. Occupational Safety and Health Administrtion (OSHA) Communi-
cation Standard 29 CFR 1910.1200 requires that lubricant distributors provide a Material Safety Data
Sheet (MSDS) at the time lubricants are purchased. The MSDS provides essential information on the
potential hazards associated with a specific lubricant and should be readily accessible to all personnel
responsible for handling lubricants. The lubricant's MSDS should provide information on any hazardous
ingredients, physical and chemical characteristics, fire and explosion data, health hazards, and precautions
for safe use.
b. Fire, explosion, and health hazards
(1) Oils. Although lubricating oils are not highly flammable, there are many documented cases of fires
and explosions. The risk of an explosion depends on the spontaneous ignition conditions for the oil vapors
(see Figures 12-6 and 12-7). These conditions can be produced when oils are contained in enclosures such
as crankcases, reciprocating compressors, and large gear boxes.
(2) Hydraulic fluids. Hydraulic systems are susceptible to explosion hazards. A leaking hose under
high pressure can atomize hydraulic fluid, which can ignite if it contacts a hot surface. Use of fire-resistant
hydraulic fluids significantly reduces the risk of an explosion. Use of water-based hydraulic fluids can
prevent ignition by forming a steam blanket at the hot spot or ignition source. Synthetic fluids are less
flammable than mineral oils. Under normal circumstances, synthetic fluid will not support combustion
once the ignition source has been removed. Table 12-22 summarizes the properties of water-based and
synthetic hydraulic fluids and notes special precautions that must be taken when they are used.
(3) Health hazards. Lubricants also present health hazards when in contact with skin. Health hazards
associated with lubricants include :
! Toxicity--Some additives contained in mineral oils may be toxic.
! Dermatitis--May be caused by prolonged contact with neat or soluble cutting oil.
! Acne--Mainly caused by neat cutting and grinding oils.
! Cancer--May be caused by some mineral oil constituents.
Material Safety Data Sheets for products should be reviewed carefully by personnel to ensure that the
proper handling procedures are used.
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Figure 12-6. Spontaneous ignition limits for mineral oil
vapor air mixtures at atmospheric pressure (Reference:
Neale, M. J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook.
Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England)
Figure 12-7. Spontaneous ignition limits for 12% mineral
oil vapor as a function of pressure (Reference: Neale, M.
J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-
Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England)
12-14. Environmental Regulations
a. Development of environmental regulations.
(1) Legislation passed by Congress is termed an Act of Congress. The responsibility for developing
rules or regulations to implement the requirements of the Acts is given to various agencies of the Federal
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Table 12-22
Fire-Resistant Hydraulic Fluids
Water-containing Fluids Synthetic Fluids
Soluble-oil Water-in-oil Water-glycol Chlorinated
Emulsions Emulsions Blends (45% Hydrocarbon
(2% Oil) (40% Water) Water) Phosphate Blends
Esters
Phosphate-ester
Maximum system
temperature, E EC (E EF) 65 (149) 65 (149) 65 (149) 100 (212) 100 (212)
Restrictions on materials
used in normal oil systems:
(I) Internal paints
(ii) Rubber seals
(iii) Materials of
construction
None
None None Normally no Special seals Special seals
None None Avoid magnesium, Avoid aluminum Avoid aluminum
None Special paints
required required required
problem required required
zinc, and cadmium rubbing contacts rubbing contacts
plating
Special paints Special paints
Lubrication:
(I) Rolling bearings - apply
factor to load for design
calculations
(ii) Gear
Not suitable
Not recom- Limit pressure Limit pressure to Satisfactory Satisfactory
mended to 3.5 MN/m 3.5 MN/m (500
2.0
2
(500 lbf/in ) lbf/in )
2
2.5
2
2
1.2 1.2
Maintenance --- Water content Water content Should be kept dry Should be kept dry
must be must be
maintained* maintained
Cost relative to mineral oil --- 1.5-2 4-5 5-7 7-9
* Some separation of water droplets may occur on standing. The emulsion can, however, be readily restored by agitation. Care must
be taken to avoid contamination by water-glycol or phosphate-ester fluids as these will cause permanent breakdown of the emulsion.
Reference: Neale, M.J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England.
Government such as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The proposed regulations developed by
these agencies are published daily in the Federal Register. After publication, the public is permitted to
review and comment on the proposed regulations. All comments are evaluated after the specified review
time (30 days, 60 days, etc.) has passed. The comments may or may not result in changes to the proposed
regulations, which are published in the Federal Register as the final rules.
(2) The final rules from the Federal Register are compiled annually in the Code of Federal Regulations
(CFR). The CFR is divided into 50 titles, numbered 1 through 50, which represent broad areas subject to
Federal regulation. Title 40, Protection of the Environment contains regulations for the protection of the
environment. References to the CFR are made throughout this subchapter. Copies of the CFR are not
appended to this manual but can be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402.
(3) The general format for identifying a specific regulation in the CFR involves the use of a
combination of numbers and letters. For example, 40 CFR 112.20, "Facility Response Plans, indicates
that the regulation is found in Title 40 of the CFR. It is further identified as Part 112. A part covers a
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specific regulatory area, and can range in length from a few sentences to hundreds of pages. The number
20 that follows the decimal point indicates a given section where the specific information is found. A
section also may range in length from a few sentences to many pages. Although not shown in this example,
the section number may be followed by a series of letters and numbers in parentheses to further identify
individual paragraphs.
(4) The regulations discussed in this subchapter are current at the time (1997) of writing. However,
new regulations are being proposed and promulgated continuously. In addition, state or local regulations
may be more restrictive than the Federal regulations, and must be reviewed carefully.
b. Water quality regulations. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has developed water
pollution regulations under legal authority of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, also known as the
Clean Water Act. These regulations are found in 40 CFR Subchapter D, Water Programs, and
encompass Parts 100 through 149. Prominent parts of the regulation addressing oil pollution of the water
are 40 CFR 110 Discharge of Oil; 40 CFR 112 Oil Pollution Prevention; and 40 CFR 113, Liability
Limits for Small Onshore Storage Facilities.
(1) Reportable oil discharge. 40 CFR 110 requires the person in charge of a facility that discharges
harmful oil to report the spill to the National Response Center (800-424-8802). The criteria for
harmful oil discharges are:
(a) Discharges that violate applicable water quality standards.
(b) Discharges that cause a film or sheen upon or discoloration of the surface of the water or adjoining
shorelines. Sheen means an iridescent appearance on the surface of the water.
(c) Discharges that cause a sludge or emulsion to be deposited beneath the surface of the water or
adjoining shorelines.
(2) Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasures (SPCC) Plan. 40 CFR 112 requires regulated
facilities that which have discharged or could reasonably discharge harmful oil into navigable U.S. waters
or adjoining shorelines to prepare and implement a Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasures Plan.
The regulation applies to nontransportation related facilities provided:
! The facilitys total above-ground oil storage capacity is greater than 5000 liters (1320 gallons), or
the above-ground storage capacity of a single container is in excess of 2500 liters (660 gallons), or
the total underground storage capacity of the facility is greater than 160,000 liters
(42,000 gallons).
! Facilities which, due to their location, could reasonably expect spilled oil to reach U.S. waters.
(a) General requirements. 40 CFR 112.7 provides guidelines for preparing and implementing an
SPCC plan. The SPCC plan is to follow the sequence outlined in the section and includes a discussion of
the facilitys conformance with the appropriate guidelines. Basic principles to embody in an SPCC plan
are:
! Practices devoted to the prevention of oil spills such as plans to minimize operational errors and
equipment failures that are the major causes of spills. Operational errors can be minimized by
training personnel in proper operating procedures, and increasing operator awareness of the
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imperative nature of spill prevention. Equipment failures can be minimized through proper
construction, preventive maintenance, and frequent inspections.
! Plans to contain or divert spills or use equipment to prevent discharged oil from reaching navigable
waters. When it is impracticable to implement spill containment measures, the facility must
develop and incorporate a spill contingency plan into the SPCC plan.
! Plans to remove and dispose of spilled oil.
(b) Specific requirements
! Time limits. Prepare the SPCC within 6 months from startup. Implement the plan within
12 months from startup, including carrying out spill prevention and containment measures.
Extensions may be authorized due to nonavailability of qualified personnel or delay in construction
or equipment delivery beyond the control of the owner or operator. (40 CFR 112.3)
! Certification. A registered professional engineer must certify the SPCC and amendments. (40 CFR
112.3)
! Plan availability. Maintain a complete copy of the SPCC at an attended facility or at the nearest
field office if the facility is not attended at least 8 hours per day. (40 CFR 112.3)
! Training. Conduct employee training on applicable pollution control laws, rules and regulations,
proper equipment operation and maintenance to prevent oil discharge, and conduct spill prevention
briefings to assure adequate understanding of the contents of the SPCC plan. (40 CFR 112.7)
! Plan review. Review the SPCC at least once every three years. (40 CFR 112.5)
! Amendments. Certified amendments to the SPCC are required when:
! The EPA Regional Administrator requires amendment after a facility has discharged more than
3785 liters (1000 gallons) of oil into navigable waters in a single spill event or discharged oil
in harmful quantities into navigable waters in two spill events within any 12-month period. (40
CFR 112.4)
! There is a change in design, construction, operation, or maintenance that affects the potential
for an oil spill. (40 CFR 112.5)
! The required 3-year review indicates more effective field proven prevention and control
technology will significantly reduce the likelihood of a spill. (40 CFR 112.5)
(3) Facility response plans. 40 CFR 112.20 requires facility response plans to be prepared and
implemented if a facility, because of its location, could reasonably be expected to cause substantial harm to
the environment by discharging oil into or on navigable waters or adjoining shorelines. This regulation
applies to facilities that transfer oil over water to or from vessels and have a total oil storage capacity
greater than 160,000 liters (42,000 gallons), or the facilitys total oil storage capacity is at least
3.78 million liters (1 million gallons) with conditions. Most Corps of Engineers civil works facilities do not
fall under these categories.
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(4) Liability limits. 40 CFR 113 establishes size classifications and associated liability limits for small
onshore oil storage facilities with fixed capacity of 160,000 liters (1000 barrels, or 42,000 gallons) or less
that discharge oil into U.S. waters and removal of the discharge is performed by the U.S. Government.
Unless the oil discharge was a result of willful negligence or willful misconduct, the table in 40 CFR 113.4
limits liability as follows:
(a) Above-ground storage.
Size Class Capacity (barrels) Limit (dollars)
I Up to 10 4,000
II 11 to 170 60,000
III 171 to 500 150,000
IV 501 to 1,000 200,000
(b) Underground storage.
Size Class Capacity (barrels) Limit (dollars)
I Up to 10 5,200
II 11 to 170 78,000
III 171 to 500 195,000
IV 501 to 1,000 260,000
c. Soil quality regulations. Regulations regarding oil contamination of soil vary from state to state.
State and local laws and regulations should be reviewed for guidelines on preventing and handling soil
contamination from oil spills.
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Chapter 13
Lubricant Specifications and Selection
13-1. Introduction
Proper selection of a lubricant depends on understanding the lubricating regime (i.e., film, mixed,
boundary), established conventions of classifications, and an ability to interpret and apply the producers
product data specifications to the equipment. Without this background, it is impossible to make an
informed selection or substitution.
13-2. Lubricant Classification
Professional societies and organizations have established classifications for oil and grease. The most
widely encountered systems are those of the following organizations:
! SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers)
! API (American Petroleum Institute)
! AGMA (American Gear Manufacturers Association),
! ISO (International Standards Organization)
! NLGI (National Lubricating Grease Institute).
a. Oil classification. Oil is normally classified by viscosity grade, additives, use, or by the producer's
brand name. Some oils are classified as nonspecialized industrial oils.
(1) Classification by viscosity grade. Classification according to viscosity is the most prevalent
method of describing oils, and the most common classification systems are those of the SAE, AGMA, and
ISO. Each organization uses a different kinematic viscosity range numbering system.
(2) Classification by additives.
(a) Oil may be further classified according to the additives included in the oil to enhance its
performance properties as follows:
! Inhibited or RO (rust and oxidation inhibited)
! AW (antiwear)
! EP (extreme pressure)
! Compounded
! Residual.
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The first three classes are discussed throughout this manual and require no further explanation; they
contain the indicated additives. Compounded oil contains from 3 to 10 percent fatty or synthetic fatty oils.
It is also called steam cylinder oil. The added fat reduces the coefficient of friction in situations where an
extreme amount of sliding friction occurs. A very common application is in worm gear systems. Com-
pounded oil may be composed of either a normal mineral oil or a residual oil, depending on the desired
viscosity.
(b) Residual compounds are heavy-grade straight mineral oils or EP oils. These compounds are
normally mixed with a diluent to increase ease of application. After application, the diluent evaporates,
leaving a heavy adhesive lubricant coating. Residuals are often used for open-gear applications where
tackiness is required to increase adhesion. This type of heavy oil should not be confused with grease.
Residual oil with lower viscosity is also used in many closed-gear systems. Compounded oil may contain
residual oil if the desired viscosity is high.
(3) Classification according to use. This system of classification arises because refining additives and
type of petroleum (paraffinic or naphthenic) may be varied to provide desirable qualities for a given
application. Some of the more common uses are:
! Compressor oils (air, refrigerant).
! Engine oils (automotive, aircraft, marine, commercial).
! Quench oils (used in metal working).
! Cutting oils (coolants for metal cutting).
! Turbine oils.
! Gear oils.
! Insulating oils (transformers and circuit breakers).
! Way oils.
! Wire rope lubricants.
! Chain lubricants.
! Hydraulic oils.
(4) Nonspecialized industrial oil. This classification includes oils that are not formulated for a specific
application and are frequently referred to as general purpose oil in the manufacturers product literature.
These oils are generally divided into two categories: general purpose and EP gear oils.
(a) General purpose oils. General purpose oils contain R&O additives, AW agents, antifoamants, and
demulsifiers. They may be used in mechanical applications where a specialized oil is not required. Their
ISO viscosity ranges from about 32 to around 460. These oils are often referred to as R&O oils or
hydraulic oils although they may contain other additives and are not intended exclusively for hydraulic use.
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Some of these oils are more highly refined and provide longer life and better performance than others.
These are usually referred to as turbine oils or premium grades. Although used in turbines, the name
turbine oil does not mean their use is restricted to turbines, but refers to the quality of the oil.
(b) EP gear oils. These oils generally have a higher viscosity range, from about ISO grade 68 to
around 1500, and may be regarded as general purpose oils with EP additives. Although commonly used in
gear systems, these oils can be used in any application where their viscosity range and additives are
required. Gear oils should not be confused with SAE gear oils that are specially formulated for automotive
applications; automotive oils are not discussed in this manual.
(5) Producer brand names. Oil producers often identify their products by names that may or may not
be connected with standard classifications. For example, a name such as Jo-Lube 1525, a product of Jonell
Oil, tells nothing of its class. However, Conoco's Dectol R&O Oil 32 indicates that it is an R&O oil with
an ISO viscosity of 32. Regardless of how much information may be implied by the brand name, it is
insufficient to select a lubricant. A user must refer to the producers information brochures to determine
the intended use, additives, and specifications.
(6) Oil producers product data and specifications
(a) Product data. Oil producers publish product information in brochures, pamphlets, handbooks, or
on the product container or packaging. Although the amount of information varies, it generally includes the
intended use, the additives (AW, EP, R&O, etc.), oil type (i.e., paraffinic, naphthenic, synthetic,
compounded, etc.), and the specifications. Some producers may identify the product by its usage
classification such as those noted above, or they may simply note the machinery class where the product
can be used. Often, both methods of identification are used. Intended use designations can be misleading.
For example, fact sheets for three different oils by the same producer indicate that the oils can be used for
electric motors and general purpose applications. However, all three are not suitable for every application
of this equipment. One oil contains no oxidation inhibitors and is intended for use where the oil is
frequently replaced. The second is an R&O oil with the usual antifoaming and demulsifying agents. AW
agents are also included. The third is a turbine oil similar to the second except that the refining method and
additive package provide greater protection. One turbine viscosity grade, ISO 32, is treated to resist the
effects of hydrogen used as a coolant in generators. Failure to notice these differences when evaluating the
data can lead to incorrect application of these lubricants. Producers do not usually list additives. Instead,
they indicate characteristics such as good antiwear qualities, good water resistance, or good oxidation
resistance. These qualities are not inherent in oil or contained in sufficient quantities to provide the degree
of protection necessary. Therefore, the user is safe in assuming that the appropriate agent has been added
to obtain the given quality. Product literature also gives the oil type (i.e., paraffinic, naphthenic, residual
compounded, or synthetic).
(b) Producer specifications. Producer specifications amount to a certification that the product meets
or exceeds listed physical characteristics in terms of specific test values. The magnitude of chemical
impurities may also be given. Producers vary somewhat in the amount of information in their
specifications. However, kinematic viscosity (centistokes) at 40 and 100 EC (104 and 212 EF ), SUS
(saybolt viscosity) at 37 and 98 EC (100 and 210 EF ), API gravity, pour point, and flash point are
generally listed. Other physical and chemical measurements may also be given if they are considered to
influence the intended use.
b. Grease classifications.
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(1) Characteristics. Grease is classified by penetration number and by type of soap or other thickener.
Penetration classifications have been established by NLGI and are given in Chapter 5. ASTM D 217 and
D 1403 are the standards for performing penetration tests. A penetration number indicates how easily a
grease can be fed to lubricated surfaces (i.e., pumpability) or how well it remains in place. Although no
method exists to classify soap thickeners, the producer indicates which soap is in the product. The type of
soap thickener indicates probable water resistance and maximum operating temperature and gives some
indication of pumpability. Although these are important factors, they are not the only ones of interest.
These simple classifications should be regarded as starting requirements to identify a group of appropriate
grease types. The final selection must be made on the basis of other information provided in the producer's
specifications. Viscosity of the oil included in a grease must also be considered.
(2) Producers product data for grease. Producers also provide information and specifications for
grease in brochures, pamphlets, handbooks, or on the product container or packaging. Grease
specifications normally include soap thickener, penetration, included oil viscosity, and dropping point. The
producer may also include ASTM test information on wear, loading, lubrication life, water washout,
corrosion, oil separation, and leakage. Grease additives are not usually stated except for solid additives
such as molybdenum disulfide or graphite, or that an EP additive is included. If EP or solid additives are
used, the producer will often state this emphatically and the product name may indicate the additive.
13-3. Principles of Selection
a. Manufacturer recommendations.
(1) The prime considerations are film thickness and wear. Although film thickness can be calculated,
the wear properties associated with different lubricants are more difficult to assess. Lubricants are
normally tested by subjecting them to various types of physical stress. However, these tests do not
completely indicate how a lubricant will perform in service. Experience has probably played a larger role
than any other single criterion. Through a combination of testing and experience, machine manufacturers
have learned which classes of lubricants will perform well in their products.
(2) Professional societies have established specifications and classifications for lubricants to be used in
a given mechanical application. For example, AGMA has established standard specifications for enclosed
and open-gear systems. These specifications have been developed from the experience of the associations
membership for a wide range of applications. Thus, any manufacturer has access to the collective
knowledge of many contributors.
(3) It should be noted that the equipment manufacturer's recommendation should not necessarily be
considered the best selection. Individual manufacturers may have different opinions based on their
experience and equipment design. The concept of best lubricant is ambiguous because it is based on
opinion. Despite this ambiguity, the manufacturer is probably in the best position to recommend a
lubricant. This recommendation should be followed unless the lubricant fails to perform satisfactorily.
When poor performance is evident, the manufacturer should be consulted for additional recommendations.
This is especially critical if the equipment is still under warranty.
(4) Although some manufacturers may recommend a specific brand name, they can usually provide a
list of alternative lubricants that also meet the operating requirements for their equipment. One of the
recommended lubricants should be used to avoid compromising the equipment warranty if it is still in
effect. Physical qualities (such as viscosity or penetration number), chemical qualities (such as paraffinic
or naphthenic oils), and applicable test standards are usually specified.
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b. Lubricant producer recommendations.
(1) When manufacturers recommend lubricants for their products in terms of specifications or required
qualities rather than particular brand names, the user must identify brands that meet the requirements.
Following the suggestions given in this chapter may help the user identify appropriate products. When a
user is uncertain, lubricant producers should be consulted to obtain advice on products that comply with
the required specifications.
(2) Many lubricant producers employ product engineers to assist users in selecting lubricants and to
answer technical questions. Given a manufacturer's product description, operating characteristics, unusual
operating requirements, and lubricant specification, product engineers can identify lubricants that meet the
manufacturer's specifications. Viscosity should be the equipment manufacturers recommended grade. If a
recommendation seems unreasonable, the user should ask for verification or consult a different lubricant
producer for a recommendation. These products will probably vary in quality and cost. The application
should dictate lubricant selection. This will help prevent the unnecessary purchase of high-priced premium
quality lubricants when they are not required.
c. User selection.
(1) The user should ensure that applicable criteria are met regardless of who makes the lubricant
selection. Selection should be in the class recommended by the machinery manufacturer (R&O, EP, AW,
etc.) and be in the same base stock category (paraffinic, naphthenic, or synthetic). Furthermore, physical
and chemical properties should be equal to or exceed those specified by the manufacturer. Generally, the
user should follow the manufacturer's specification. Additional factors to be considered are shown in
Tables 13-1, 13-2, and 13-3. Each of these tables uses different criteria that can be beneficial when the
user is selecting lubricants.
(2) If the manufacturers specifications are not available, determine what lubricant is currently in use.
If it is performing satisfactorily, continue to use the same brand. If the brand is not available, select a
brand with specifications equal to or exceeding the brand previously used. If the lubricant is performing
poorly, obtain the recommendation of a product engineer. If the application is critical, get several
recommendations.
(3) Generally, the user will make a selection in either of two possible situations:
! Substitute a new brand for one previously in use.
! Select a brand that meets an equipment manufacturer's specifications. This will be accomplished
by comparing producer's specifications with those of the manufacturer.
Product selection starts by using a substitution list maintained by most lubricant producers. A substitution
list usually shows the products of major producers and the equivalent or competing product by other
producers. Substitution lists are useful but they have limitations. They may not be subdivided by classes
of lubricants. Furthermore, it is difficult to do more than compare a lubricant of one producer with one
given by the publishing producer. For example, consider three producers called A, B, and C. Producer As
substitution list may compare Bs products with As, or Cs with As. However, B and C cannot be
compared unless A has a product equivalent to both B and C. A user would need substitution lists from
many producers to be able to effectively select more than one option. Many producers claim they do not
have a substitution list, or are reluctant to provide one. As noted in Chapter 11, the chart of
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Table 13-1
Factors Affecting Lubricant Selection
Element Type Size Material Temperature Conditions Velocity Remarks
Operating Operating
Bearings Plain, needle Shaft rev/min
roller, ball diameter
Chain drives Links; number PCD of all Chain speed
and pitch wheels and ft/min
distance
between
centers
Cocks and Plug, ball, etc. Fluid being Depends on
valves controlled properties of the
fluid
Compressors BHP, Gas Max gas rev/min
manufacturers temperature pressure
name
Couplings Universal or rev/min
constant
velocity
Cylinders Bore, stroke Cylinder, Combustion and Combustion Crank speed,
piston, rings exhaust gas and exhaust rev/min
temperature gas pressure
Gears Spur, worm, BHP, Radiated heat rev/min Method of
helical, distance and heat lubricant
hyperbolic between generated application
centers
Glands and Stuffing box Fluid being Depends on
seals sealed design
Hydraulic BHP Pump Hydraulic fluid Lubricant type
systems type (gear, materials O adjusting to loss
piston vane) rings and rate
cups, etc.
Linkages Environmental Relative link
heat conditions speeds, ft/s,
angular vel.,
rad/s
Ropes Steel hawser Diameter Frequency of
use and
pollution, etc.
Slideways and Surface
guides relative
speed, ft/min
Reference: Neale, M.J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England.
Interchangeable Industrial Lubricants and Guide to Synthetic Lubricants published by Plant
Engineering Magazine (PEM) can be helpful. The PEM charts correlate products of many producers. The
chart of synthetic lubricants correlates products by category (class).
(4) A substitution list or chart is valuable because it correlates the array of brand names used by
producers. Furthermore, it eliminates producers who do not have the desired product in their line. A
substitution list should be regarded as a starting point to quickly identify potential selections. The lists
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Table 13-2
Types of Additive Oil Required for Various Types of Machinery
Type of Machinery Usual Base Oil Type Usual Additives Special Requirements
Food processing Medicinal white oil None Safety in case of ingestion
Oil hydraulic Paraffinic down to about Antioxidant Minimum viscosity change with
-20 EC (-4 EF), naphthenic Antirust temperature; minimum wear of
below Antiwear steel/steel
Pour point
depressant
VI improver
Antifoam
Steam and gas turbines Paraffinic or naphthenic Antioxidant Ready separation from water,
distillates Antirust good oxidation stability
Steam engine cylinders Unrefined or refined residual or None or fatty oil Maintenance of oil film on hot
high-viscosity distillates surfaces; resistance to washing
away by wet steam
Air compressor cylinders Paraffinic or naphthenic Antioxidant Low deposit formation tendency
distillates Antirust
Gears (steel/steel) Paraffinic or naphthenic Antiwear, EP Protections against abrasion
Antioxidant and scuffing
Antifoam
Pour point
depressant
Gears (steel/bronze) Paraffinic Oiliness Reduce friction, temperature
Antioxidant rise, wear, and oxidation
Machine tool slideways Paraffinic or naphthenic Oiliness; tackiness Maintains smooth sliding at very
low speeds. Keeps film on
vertical surfaces
Hermetically sealed refrigerators Naphthenic None Good thermal stability,
miscibility with refrigerant, low
flow point
Diesel engines Paraffinic or naphthenic Detergent Vary with type of engine thus
Dispersant affecting additive combination
Antioxidant
Acid-neutralizer
Antifoam
Antiwear
Corrosion inhibitor
Reference: Neale, M.J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England.
do not suggest or imply that lubricants listed as being equivalent are identical. The lists do indicate that the
two lubricants are in the name class, have the name viscosity, and are intended for the same general use.
The chart of interchangeable industrial lubricants lists the following categories:
! General purpose lubricants
! Antiwear hydraulic oil
! Spindle oil
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Table 13-3
Importance of Lubricant Properties in Relation to Bearing Type
Type of Component
Lubricant Property Bearing Bearing Gears etc. Pivots Latches, etc.
Plain Journal Rolling Closed Ropes, Chains, Instrument Slides,
Open Gears, Clock and Hinges,
1. Boundary lubricating properties 1 2 3 2 2 1
2. Cooling 2 2 3 - - -
3. Friction or torque 1 2 2 - 2 1
4. Ability to remain in bearing 1 2 - 1 3 1
5. Ability to seal out contaminants - 2 - 1 - 1
6. Temperature range 1 2 2 1 - 1
7. Protection against corrosion 1 2 - 2 - 1
8. Volatility 1 1 - 2 2 1
Note: The relative importance of each lubricant property in a particular class of component is indicated on a scale from 3 = highly
important to - = quite unimportant.
Reference: Neale, M.J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England.
! Way oil
! Extreme pressure gear oil
! Worm gear oil
! Cling-type gear shield (open gears)
! General purpose extreme pressure lithium based grease
! Molybdenum disulfide extreme pressure grease.
(5) Spindle and way oils are not widely used. One of the last three classes on the list is a special
preparation for open gears and the other two are classes of grease. General purpose oils, antiwear
hydraulic oils, and EP gear oils are best described by comparison with the nonspecialized industrial oils
discussed earlier. Nonspecialized oils contain a category called general purpose oils. This term is also
used in the PEM list but it differs from the previously described general purpose oil category in that the
additives may not be the same. In some cases, brand names indicate that EP additives have been included.
In other cases, AW is indicated but not R&O. This raises the possibility that R&O additives are not
present. AW hydraulic oil is a general purpose oil, but its antiwear properties are sufficient to pass the
Vickers vane test for hydraulic applications when this is required.
(6) The EP gear oils should correspond to those described under nonspecialized industrial oils except
that EP additives are included and viscosities may be as high as ISO 2200. The EP classification of gear
oil should not be confused with the SAE gear oil classification which is for use in automotive gear systems.
SAE gear oils are formulated differently and are not discussed in this manual.
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(7) While grease preparation varies greatly among producers, only two types are given in the PEM list:
No. 2 lithium EP and molybdenum disulfide EP No. 2. These are the two most widely used industrial
greases. The name molybdenum disulfide designates lubricant type, and does not reflect the type of soap,
but the soap will usually be lithium. While both types are intended to provide extra protection against
wear, one contains EP additives and the other contains molybdenum disulfide.
(8) Lithium greases are the most widely used, but calcium, aluminum, polyurea, and sodium-calcium
are also used. Furthermore, greases ranging from NLGI 00 to No. 3 are used. Consequently, in many
cases, the PEM tables will not be useful for selecting greases.
(9) The cling-type gear shield lubricants are residual oils to which a tackiness agent has been added.
They are extremely adhesive and so viscous that solvents are added to permit application. After
application, the solvent evaporates leaving the adhesive viscous material. Some products contain no
solvent and must be heated to reduce viscosity for application.
(10) Compounded oils are not included in the list as a separate class. When this type of oil is required,
producers must be contacted directly.
(11) Ultimately, information brochures provided by the producers must be examined to verify the
following:
(a) Viscosity. The product viscosity meets the manufacturers recommendation or is the same as a
previously used lubricant that performed well. When a grease is considered, the viscosity of the included
oil should be the same as the previous lubricant.
(b) Intended use. The products intended use, as given by the producer, corresponds to the
application in which the lubricant will be used.
(c) Class of lubricant. The class of lubricant is the same as that recommended by the equipment
manufacturer or the same as a previously used lubricant that performed well. If the manufacturer
recommended an R&O, AW, or EP oil, or a No. 2 lithium grease, that is what should be used.
(d) Specification. The product specifications are equal to or better than those recommended by the
equipment manufacturer or those of a previously used lubricant that performed well.
(e) Additives. The product additives perform the required function even though they may not be
chemically identical in several possible alternative lubricants.
.
13-4. Specification Types
Current government policy encourages use and adoption of nongovernment specifications and standards
instead of developing new or updating existing federal and military specifications. Types of specifications,
in order of usage preference are: (1) Nongovernment specifications; (2) Commercial Item Descriptions; and
(3) Federal and military specifications.
a. Nongovernment. Federal and military specifications are being replaced by specifications and
industry standards developed by trade associations such as SAE, AGMA, and API and professional
private-sector organizations and technical societies such as ISO, ANSI (American National Standards
Institute), and ASTM. Nongovernment specifications and standards (NGS) should not be confused with
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lubricant producer standards. NGS promote competition and usually provide a broad base of suppliers,
whereas producer-specific standards tend to limit competition to a single supplier.
b. Commercial item description. A Commercial Item Description (CID) is an indexed, simplified
product description that describes by salient function or performance characteristics, available and
acceptable commercial products that meet the governments needs. These items include references to
ASTM, ANSI, and other industry standards. CIDs are issued by the General Services Administration
(GSA) and are listed in the GSA Index of Federal Specifications, Standards and Commercial Item
Descriptions.
c. Federal and military. New Federal specifications are developed and existing specifications are
updated to establish requirements for commercial products only if specific design, performance, interface,
or other essential characteristics are not described adequately by nongovernment standards or Commercial
Item Descriptions. Federal Specifications are issued by the General Services Administration and are listed
in the GSA Index of Federal Specifications, Standards and Commercial Item Descriptions. New military
specifications are developed and existing specifications are updated to establish requirements for
military-unique products or commercial products that must be substantively modified to include
military-unique requirements. If a nongovernment standard exists that contains the basic technical
requirements for a product or process, it is referenced in the military specification, and the military
specification contains only those additional requirements needed by the Department of Defense. Military
specifications are issued by the Department of Defense and are listed in the Department of Defense Index
of Specifications.
d. Proprietary. Proprietary specifications refer to specifications owned by an oil producer or used
for acquisition of a product from a lone source.
(1) Oil producer. Some proprietary specifications contain confidential trade secrets, and are
developed and exclusively controlled by a lubricant producer. Producer specifications published in
company brochures, pamphlets, and handbooks contain nonproprietary information and are described in
subparagraph 132-a(6) Oil Producers Product Data and Specifications.
(2) Acquisition. Sometimes a proprietary specification is used as an acquisition method to specify a
product that is available from only one source. It identifies a product by manufacturers brand name,
product number, type, or other unique designation. A specification can be considered proprietary even if
brand name is not stated but the product is available from only one source. Specifying by product name is
suitable and advantageous when a specific product has proven successful or its use is specified by an
equipment manufacturer as an equipment warranty condition. Disadvantages to specifying a product by
brand name are that it eliminates competition and the purchaser may pay a premium price.
13-5. Lubricant Consolidation
a. General. Older machines tend to operate at slow speeds and light loads. These machines also
tend to have large clearances and few lubricating points. Lubrication of such older machines is not as
critical, comparatively speaking, as for modern machines that operate at higher speeds, under heavier loads,
and with closer mechanical tolerances. A common maintenance practice is to have inventories of several
types of lubricant to service both older and newer versions of similar equipment (e.g., speed reducers).
This problem is further aggravated by the different types of unrelated equipment operating at a complex
facility (e.g., turbines, speed reducers, ropes and chains, etc.), each requiring lubrication. Consolidation of
lubricants is usually undertaken to reduce inventories, storage requirements, safety and health hazards, and
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cost. Consolidation, done properly, is a rational approach to handling the lubrication requirements at a
facility while reducing the total number of lubricants in the inventory.
b. Manufacturers recommendations. Manufacturers may recommend lubricants by brand name or
by specifying the lubricant characteristics required for a machine. Depending on the machine, lubricant
specifications may be restrictive, or they may be general, allowing considerable latitude. Usually the
manufacturers warranty will be honored only if the purchaser uses the lubricants recommended by the
manufacturer. Voiding the terms of a warranty is not advisable, so the specified lubricants should be used
until the warranty has expired. After warranty expiration the machine and its lubrication requirements may
be included in the consolidation list for the facility.
c. Consolidation considerations. Consolidation of lubricants requires careful analysis and matching
of equipment requirements and lubricant properties. Factors that influence selection of lubricants include
operating conditions, viscosity, viscosity index, pour point, extreme pressure properties, oxidation
inhibitors, rust inhibitors, detergent-dispersant additives, etc. With a grease, consideration must also
include composition of the soap base, consistency, dropping point, pumpability. There are several
precautions that must be followed when consolidating lubricants.
(1) Characteristics. Consideration should be given to the most severe requirements of any of the
original and consolidated lubricants. To prevent equipment damage, the selected lubricant must also have
these same characteristics. This is true for greases.
(2) Special requirements. Applications with very specific lubricant requirements should not be
consolidated.
(3) Compatibility. Remember that some lubricant additives may not be compatible with certain metals
or seals.
d. Consolidation procedure. Consolidation may be accomplished through the services of a lubricant
producer or may be attempted by facility personnel who have knowledge of the equipment operating
characteristics and lubricating requirements, and an ability to read lubricant producers product data.
(1) Lubricant supplier. The preferred method for consolidating lubricants is to retain the services of a
qualified lubrication engineer. All major oil companies have engineers available to help users with
lubrication problems. There are also numerous independent lubricant suppliers with the necessary
personnel and background to provide assistance. Ultimately, the knowledge, experience, integrity, and
reputation of the lubricant supplier are the best assurance that the products recommended will meet the
lubrication requirements for the equipment. The supplier must be given a list of equipment, along with any
information about the operating characteristics, ambient conditions, and lubrication requirements. The
engineer can use this information to consolidate lubricating requirements where possible, and to isolate
equipment with highly specific requirements that cannot be consolidated. The primary disadvantage with
this approach is that the lubricant supplier will, in all probability, recommend only those products within
the companys product line. If this is a major concern, the services of an independent lubricating engineer
or tribologist, not affiliated with any supplier, may be retained.
(2) Consolidation by in-house personnel.
(a) In-house personnel should begin the consolidation process by preparing a spreadsheet identifying
equipment, lubricating requirements, lubricant characteristics, and brand names. The equipment should be
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Figure 13-1. Lubricant consolidation chart (Reference: Neale, M. J., Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook.
Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, England
sorted by type of lubricant (oil, hydraulic fluid, synthetics, biodegradable, grease) required. Under each
type, the properties of each lubricant should be grouped such as oil viscosity, detergent-dispersant
requirements, EP requirements, rust and oxidation inhibitors, NLGI grade of grease, viscosity of oil
component in the grease, pumpability, etc. See Figure 13-1 for an example of a spreadsheet showing the
essential features.
(b) At this stage, viscosity grouping can be made. For instance, if three similar oils have viscosities of
110, 150, and 190 SUS at 100 EF, the 150 may be used as a final selection. If one of the original oils was
rust and oxidation inhibited, the final product should also have this property. A second group of oils with
viscosities of 280, 330, and 350 SUS at 100 EF could be reduced to one oil having a viscosity in the
neighborhood of 315 SUS at 100 EF. As shown in Figure 13-1, the goal is to identify the viscosity
requirements and range for various equipment and see if a single lubricant can span the range. If the range
can be covered, then consolidation is possible. However, recall that paragraph 13-3 included a warning
that the lubricant viscosity for a machine must comply with the manufacturers requirements. Obviously,
an exact match of viscosity for all equipment cannot be accomplished with the same lubricant when
consolidation is the goal. Lubricants with vastly different viscosity requirements must not be consolidated.
(3) Use higher quality lubricants. Another alternative for consolidation is to use higher grade
lubricants that are capable of meeting the requirements of various machinery. Although the cost of high-
grade lubricants is greater, this may still be offset by the benefits of consolidation (e.g., reduction in the
number of different lubricants needed, reduction in inventory-management requirements, possible price
discounts for purchasing certain lubricants in greater quantity, etc.).
(4) Use multipurpose lubricants. Multipurpose lubricants and other general purpose oils can be
applied to a wide range of equipment and help reduce the number of lubricants required. Although some
lubricants are not listed as multipurpose they may be used in this capacity. For example, assume two
lubricants by the same producer: one is listed as an R&O turbine oil and the other as a gear oil.
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Examination of product literature shows that the R&O turbine oil can also be used in bearings, gear sets,
compressors, hydraulic systems, machine tools, electric motors, and roller chains while the gear oil can also
be used in circulating system, chain drives, plain and antifriction bearings, and slides. These oils may be
suitable for use in a consolidating effort. Producers often have similar application overlaps in their product
lines.
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Appendix A
References
A-1. Industry Standards
American National Standards Institute:
American Gear Manufacturers Association, 1994, ANSI/AGMA Standard 9005-D94, Industrial Gear
Lubrication, Alexandria, VA.
American Gear Manufacturers Association, 1995, ANSI/AGMA Standard 1010-E95, Appearance of
Gear Teeth - Technology of Wear and Failure, Alexandria, VA.
National Fluid Power Association, 1990 (R1994), ANSI/NFPA Standard T3.10.8.8, ISO 4572,
Hydraulic Fluid Power - Filters - Multi-Pass Method for Evaluating Filtration Performance,
Milwaukee, WI.
American Gear Manufacturers Association. 1974. AGMA Standard 201.02, ANSI Standard System
Tooth Proportions for Coarse - Pitch Involute Spur Gears, Alexandria, VA.
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. 1991. IEEE Standard C57.104-1991, IEEE
Guide for the Interpretation of Gases.
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Standards:
D 95, Test Methods for Water in Petroleum Products and Bitumenous Materials by Distillations.
D 97, Standard Test Methods for Pour Point of Petroleum Oils.
D 130, Method for Detection of Copper Corrosion from Petroleum Products by the Copper Strip
Tarnish Test.
D 217, Standard Test Methods for Cone Penetration of Lubricating Grease.
D 445, Test Methods for Kinematic Viscosity of Transparent and Opaque Liquids (and the Calculation
of Dynamic Viscosity).
D 566, Standard Test Method for Dropping Point of Lubricating Grease.
D 664, Test Method for Neutralization Number by Potentiometer Titration.
D 665, Test Method for Rust-Preventing Characteristics of Inhibited Mineral Oil in the Presence of
Water.
D 892, Standard Test Method for Foaming Characteristics of Lubricating Oils.
D 942, Standard Test Method for Oxidation Stability of Lubricating Greases by the Oxygen Bomb
Method.
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D 943, Standard Test Method for Oxidation Characteristics of Inhibited Mineral Oils.
D 972, Standard Test Method for Evaporation Loss of Lubricating Greases and Oils.
D 974, Test Method for Neutralization Number by Color-Indicator Titration.
D 1092, Standard Test Method for Measuring Apparent Viscosity of Lubricating Greases.
D 1263, Standard Test Method for Leakage Tendencies of Automotive Wheel Bearing Greases.
D 1264, Standard Test Method for Determining the Water Washout Characteristics of Lubricating
Greases.
D 1401, Test Method for Water Solubility of Petroleum Oils and Synthetic Fluids.
D 1403, Standard Test Method for Cone Penetration of Lubricating Grease Using One-Quarter and
One-Half Scale Cone Equipment.
D 1500, Test Method for ASTM Color of Petroleum Products (ASTM Color Scale).
D 1742, Standard Test Method for Oil Separation from Lubricating Grease During Storage.
D 1743, Standard Test Method for Determining Corrosion Preventive Properties of Lubricating
Greases.
D 1744, Test Method for Water in Liquid Petroleum Products by Karl Fischer Reagent.
D 1831, Standard Test Method for Roll Stability of Lubricating Grease.
D 2161, Method for Conversion of Kinematic Viscosity to Saybolt Universal Viscosity or to Saybolt
Furol Viscosity.
D 2265, Standard Test Method for Dropping Point of Lubricating Grease Over Wide-Temperature
Range.
D 2266, Standard Test Method for Wear Preventive Characteristics of Lubricating Grease (Four-
Ball Method).
D 2270, Standard Test Method for Calculating Viscosity Index From Kinematic Viscosity at 40 and
100 EC.
D 2272, Rotating Bomb Oxidation Test (RBOT).
D 2509, Standard Test Method for Measurement of Extreme Pressure Properties of Lubricating
Grease (Timken Method).
D 2595, Standard Test Method for Evaporation Loss of Lubricating Greases Over Wide-Temperature
Range.
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D 2596, Standard Test Method for Measurement of Extreme-Pressure Properties of Lubricating
Grease (Four-Ball Method).
D 2882, Method for Indicating the Wear Characteristics of Petroleum and Non-Petroleum Hydraulic
Fluids in a Constant Vane Pump.
D 3232, Standard Test Method for Measurement of Consistency of Lubricating Greases at High
Temperatures.
D 3336, Standard Test Method for Performance Characteristics of Lubricating Greases in Ball
Bearings at Elevated Temperatures.
D 3847, Standard Specification for Mineral Insulating Oil Used in Electrical Apparatus - Type II
Mineral Oil - Practice for Rubber-Directions for Achieving Abnormal Test Temperatures.
D 4048, Standard Test Method for Detection of Copper Corrosion from Lubricating Grease.
D 4049, Standard Test Method for Determining the Resistance of Lubricating Grease to Water
Spray.
D 4059, Test Method for Analysis of Polychlorinated Biphenyls in Insulating Liquid by Gas
Chromatography Method.
D 4170, Standard Test Method for Fretting Wear Protection by Lubricating Greases.
D 5864, Standard Test Method for Determining Aerobic Aquatic Biodegradation of Lubricants or
Their Components.
D 02.12A, Proposed Standard Practice for Aquatic Toxicity Testing of Lubricants.
F 311, Practice for Processing Aerospace Liquid Samples for Particulate Contamination Analysis
Using Membrane Filters.
F 312, Method for Microbial Sizing and Counting Particles from Aerospace Fluids on Membrane
Filters.
A-2. Other Standards
Coordinating European Council (CEC). 1994. CEC-L-33-A-94, Biodegradability of Two Stroke
Outboard Engine Oil in Water, Coordinating European Council.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1982. EPA 560/6-82-002, Sections EG-9, ES-6, Guidelines
and Support Documents for Environmental Effects Testing, Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, DC.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1982. EPA 560/6-82-003, number CG-2000, Aerobic Aquatic
Biodegradation, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
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Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), OECD 203, 1993, Guideline for
Testing of Chemicals, Fish Acute Toxicity Test, Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development, Paris, France.
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), OECD 301B, 1993, Guideline for
Testing of Chemicals, Ready Biodegradability: Modified Sturm Test, Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development, Paris, France.
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE). 1985. SAE Recommended Practice J 1707, Service
Maintenance of SAE J 1703, Brake Fluid in Motor Vehicle Brake Systems, Warrendale, PA.
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE). 1991. Specification J 1703, Motor Vehicle Brake Fluid,
Warrendale, PA.
U.S. Department of Transportation. Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard (FMVSS) No. 16 (DOT3),
Motor Vehicle Brake Fluid, Washington, DC.
A-3. Government Reports
Beitelman 1996
Beitelman, A. D. May 1996. Environmentally Friendly Lubricants, The REMR Bulletin, Vol. 13, No. 2,
Department of the Army, Washington, DC.
Beitelman and Clifton 1989
Beitelman, A. D., and Clifton, W. B. 1989. Lubricants for Hydraulic Structures, Technical Report
REMR-EM-5, Department of the Army, Washington, DC.
Campbell 1972
Campbell, M. E. 1972. Solid Lubricants: A Survey, First Edition, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, DC.
Cline 1990
Cline, R. 1990. Lubrication of Powerplant Equipment, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Colorado.
General Services Administration
General Services Administration. Index of Federal Specifications, Standards, and Commercial Item
Descriptions, Washington, DC.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Louisville District, August 1997
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Louisville District. August 1997. Olmsted Prototype Hydraulically
Operated Navigable Pass Wicket Dam, Final Report, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Louisville District,
KY.
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation 1980
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. 1980. Facilities, Instructions, Standards, and Techniques (FIST), Vol 3-5,
Maintenance of Liquid Insulation Mineral Oils and Askarels, Washington, DC.
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
A-5
U.S. Department of Defense
U.S. Department of Defense. DoD Index of Specifications, Washington, DC.
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Mid-Pacific Regional Office 1997
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Mid-Pacific Regional Office. July 1997. Folsom Dam Spillway Gate 3
Failure Investigation Trunnion Fixture Test, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Mid-Pacific Regional Office,
Sacramento, CA.
A-4. Department of Defense Policies and Procedures
DOD 4120.3-M
Defense Standardization Program, Policies and Procedures
A-5. Text Publications
Oberg 1988
Oberg, E. 1988. Machinerys Handbook, 23rd Revised Edition, Industrial Press, New York.
Oberg 1992
Oberg, E. 1992. Machinerys Handbook, 24th Revised Edition, Industrial Press, New York.
American Society for Metals 1993
American Society for Metals. 1993. ASM Handbook Volume 18, Friction, Lubrication, and Wear
Technology, First Edition, ASM International.
Avallone and Baumeister 1996
Avallone, E. A., and Baumeister III, T. 1996. Marks Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers,
Tenth Edition, McGraw Hill, New York, NY.
Boehringer 1992
Boehringer, R. H. 1992. Grease, in ASM Handbook, Volume 18, Friction, Lubrication, and Wear
Technology, ASM International, U.S.A., p123.
Booser 1983
Booser, E. R. 1983. CRC Handbook of Lubrication (Theory and Practice of Tribology), Volume I,
Application and Maintenance, CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, FL.
Booser 1984
Booser, E. R. 1984. CRC Handbook of Lubrication (Theory and Practice of Tribology), Volume II,
Theory and Design, CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, FL.
Booser 1994
Booser, E. R. 1994. CRC Handbook of Lubrication (Theory and Practice of Tribology), Volume III,
Monitoring, Materials, Synthetic Lubricants, and Application, CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, FL.
Braithwaite 1964
Braithwaite, E. R., 1964, Solid Lubricants and Surfaces, First Edition, Macmillan Company, New York,
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EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
A-6
Bridon American 1997
Bridon American. 1997. Technical Bulletin, Rope Lubrication and Preservation in Service, Bridon
American, Wilkes-Barre, PA.
Conoco 1981
Conoco. 1981. Lubrication Manual, Conoco Inc.
Electric Power Research 1993
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI). 1993. Report EPRI GS-7352, Palo Alto, CA.
Exxon 1998
Exxon. 1998. Exxon Lubricants Maintenance Conference, New Orleans, LA.
Fitch 1997
Fitch, J. C. 1997. Strategic Elements of a Successful Oil Analysis Program, Noria Corporation, Tulsa,
OK.
Gulliver and Arndt 1991
Gulliver, J. S., and Arndt, R. E. A. 1991. Hydropower Engineering Handbook, First Edition, McGraw-
Hill, Inc., New York, NY.
International Standards Organization 1987
International Standards Organization. 1987. Hydraulic Fluid PowerFluidsMethod for Coding Level
of Contamination by Solid Particles, Geneva, Switzerland.
Lubrizol 1997
Lubrizol. 1997. Grease Ready Reference, Lubrizol Corporation, OH.
Mancuso and South 1994
Mancuso, J. R., and South, D. W. 1994. Mechanical Power Transmission Components, First Edition,
Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, NY.
National Lubricating Grease Institute 1996
National Lubricating Grease Institute. 1996. Lubricating Grease Guide, Fourth Edition, National
Lubricating Grease Institute, MO.
Neale 1993
Neale, M. J. 1993. Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook, First Edition, Society of Automotive Engineers,
Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Oxford, England.
Noria Corporation 1998
Noria Corporation. 1998. Oil Analysis: The Complete Course for Professionals, Tulsa, OK.
Pall Industrial Hydraulics Company 1997
Pall Industrial Hydraulics Company. 1997. Contamination Control and Filtration Fundamentals, Pall
Corporation, Glen Cove, NY.
Parker Hannifin 1997
Parker Hannifin. 1997. Industrial Hydraulic Technology, Second Edition, Parker Hannifin Corporation,
Cleveland, OH.
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
A-7
Sperry Vickers 1970
Sperry Vickers. 1970. Industrial Hydraulics Manual, Sperry Corporation, Troy, MI.
Williams 1994
Williams, J. A. 1994. Engineering Tribology, First Edition, Oxford University Press, New York, NY.
A-6. Periodicals, Journals, and Conference Papers
Abou-Haidar 1995
Abou-Haidar, A. N. May 1995. Avoiding Troubles in Large Gear Boxes, Plant Engineering.
American Society of Lubrication Engineers 1975
American Society of Lubrication Engineers (ASLE). 1975. Effect of Water in Lubricating Oil on
Bearing Life, 31st Annual ASLE Meeting. (Changed to: Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers
(1987).) Park Ridge, IL.
Barbacki 1998
Barbacki, S. January 1998. Lube-free Chains Reduce Maintenance, Plant Engineering.
Barrett 1996
Barrett, C. D. May/June 1996. The Current Status of Heavy-Duty Open Gear Drive Lubrication, IEEE
Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol. 32, No. 3, p 678.
Barrett and Bjel 1994
Barrett, C., and Bjel, I. August 1994. Use of High Viscosity Base Oil Gels for Heavy Duty Open Gear
Drive Lubrication, NLGI Spokesman, Vol. 58, No. 5, p 13.
Beitelman 1998
Beitelman, A. D. April 1998. Time for a Change? Assessing Environmentally Acceptable Lubricants,
Hydro Review.
Cella 1997
Cella, A. F. April 1997. Oil, Filters, and the Environment, Plant Engineering.
Cheng, Wessol, Baudouin, BenKinney, and Novick 1994
Cheng, V. M., Wessol, A. A., Baudouin, P. M., BenKinney, T., and Novick, N. J. April 1994.
Biodegradable and Nontoxic Hydraulic Oils, 42nd Annual Society Automotive Engineers (SAE)
Earthmoving Industry Conference, Paper 910964.
Eichenberger 1991
Eichenberger, H. F. April 1991. Biodegradable Hydraulic Lubricant - An Overview of Current
Developments in Central Europe, Proceedings, 42nd Earthmoving Industry Conference, Peoria, IL, 9-10
April 1991, Society of Automotive Engineers Technical Paper Series 910962. (Work was done using the
European CEC-L-33-T-82 test procedure.)
Errichello 1995
Errichello, R., and Muller, J. May/June 1991. Ten Myths About Gear Lubrication, Gear Technology,
Vol. 12, No. 3, p 18.
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
A-8
Firestone 1997
Firestone, C. M. May 1997. Exclusive Guide to Synthetic Lubricants, Plant Engineering.
Fisher 1991
Fisher, J. May 1991. Water Hydraulics Getting Hot Again, Hydraulics and Pneumatics.
Fogel 1996
Fogel, G. August 1996. Minilab Approach to Inhouse Oil Analysis, Plant Engineering.
Fukunaga 1990
Fukunaga, K. September 1990. Grease for Gear Lubrication, Lubrication Engineering, Vol. 46, No. 9,
p 557.
Jentgen 1971
Jentgen, R. June 1971. Solid Lubricants: How They Work and Where to Use Them, IEEE Transactions
on Parts, Hybrids, and, Packaging, Vol. PHP-7, No. 2.
Kiovsky, Murr, and Voeltz 1994
Kiovsky, T. E., Murr, T., and Voeltz, M. November 1994. Biodegradable Hydraulic Fluids and Related
Lubricants, International Truck and Bus Meeting and Exposition, Paper 942287.
Korane 1996
Korane, K. J. February 1996. Keeping a Watchful Eye on Hydraulic Contamination, Machine Design.
Lauer 1996
Lauer, D. A. July 1996. Alternative Lubrication Methods for Large Open Gear Drives, Lubrication
Engineering Vol. 52, No. 7, p 515.
Mediate 1997
Mediate, J. September 1997. Using Wireless Communications to Automate Plant Maintenance, Plant
Engineering.
Newingham 1987
Newingham, T. D. July 1987. Hydraulic Fluid - the Often Overlooked Component, Hydraulic and
Pneumatics.
OConnor 1966
OConnor, J. J. August 1966. Lubricants, Power, Vol. 110, No. 8.
Rhee 1996
Rhee, In-Sik. August 1996. Evaluation of Environmentally Acceptable Hydraulic Fluids, NLGI Spokes-
man, Vol 60, No. 5.
Scheels 1994
Scheels, R. H. February 1994. The New Challenges for Hydraulic Fluids, Hydraulics and Pneumatics.
Scheffels 1996
Scheffels, G. December 1996. Developments in Water Hydraulics, Hydraulics and Pneumatics.
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
A-9
Skoog 1991
Skoog, P. N. November 1991. The Care and Maintenance of Water Glycol Hydraulic Fluids, Hydraulics
and Pneumatics.
Stevens 1995
Stevens, C. August 1995. Lubricant Selection Vital to Maintenance Solutions, Plant Engineering.
Straiton 1998
Straiton, J. 1998. Synthetic Fluids, Exxon Lubricants Maintenance Conferences.
Stricker 1996
Stricker, S. December 1996. Advances Make Tap Water Hydraulics More Practical, Hydraulics and
Pneumatics.
Texaco 1996
Texaco. 1996. Hydraulics, Lubrication, Vol. 82, No.1.
Thibault 1993
Thibault, L. May 1993. Taking Care of Enclosed Gear Drives, Chemical Engineering, Vol. 100 , No. 5,
p 145.
Thibault and Kolonco 1993
Thibault, L., and Kolonco, J. July 1993. Gear Drive Life, Performance Affected by Appropriate
Selection of Lubricant, Pulp and Paper, Vol 67, No. 77, p 91.
Tribble 1995
Tribble, J. February 1995. Spillway Gate Roller Chains, Hydro Review, Vol. XIV , No.1, p 90.
Watkins 1997
Watkins, J. P. July 1997. Going Beyond CMMS: Blending Preventive and Product Predictive
Techniques to Optimize Maintenance Operations, Plant Engineering.
Weimshelbaum 1968
Weimshelbaum, M. 1968. Proceedings, National Conference on Fluid Power, VXXXIII: 269.
Wessol and Whitacre 1993
Wessol, A. A., and Whitacre, B. January 1993. Operating Hydraulics on Green Fluids, Machine
Design.
Wills 1980
Wills, G. 1980. Lubrication Fundamentals, Marcel Dekker, New York, pp 75-87.
Zingaro 1994
Zingaro, A. April 1994. Walking the Fluid Cleanliness Tightrope, Part I, Hydraulics and Pneumatics.
Zingaro 1994
Zingaro, A. December 1994. Walking the Fluid Cleanliness Tightrope, Part II, Hydraulics and
Pneumatics.
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
B-1
Appendix B
Survey of Locks and Dams for Lubricants
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
B-2
Lock Gates - Miter
Lock and Temp Range for Sector Lubrication, for Pintles, Lubrication, for Strut Lubrication,
State E EC (E EF) Gears Method Gudgeon Pin Method Arms Method Comments
Lubrication Freq of Lubrication Freq of Lubrication Freq of
Aberdeen, Exxon EP0 Monthly Exxon EP0 Monthly
MS winter Air gun winter Air gun
Exxon EP1 Exxon EP1
summer summer
Cheatham, Chevron Open Weekly Keystone Monthly
TN Gear Lube SP Spray Velox 3 Air gun
Dashields, -36.6 to 3.5 Dubois Chem Monthly Lubriplate Monthly
PA (-25 to 95) MP2 Brush 630 AA Gun
Hiram M. 12.2 to 37.7 Certified Lube Weekly Water Certified and
Chittenden, (10 to 100) Trac Plus and Spray Dynaco work
WA Dynaco Tacky great
Lube Open
Gear Grease
John T. Keystone Moly As neces. Amoco Super Weekly Dixon 271 6 months
Meyers, OH 29 2 to 4 mo Permalube Elec gun Graphite
Calk. gun grease grease
Lock and -28.8 to 37.7 Lubriplate 1242 Weekly Lubriplate 2 weeks Lubriplate 2 weeks White, easy to
Dam (-20 to 100) Brush 1242 Gun 1242 clean up with
No. 12, IA putty knife and
towel.
Almaplex 1275
falls off when
cold, didnt
hold film.
Lock No. 8, -40 to 48.8 Lubricating Eng. 2-weeks Mobil EAL Weekly No problems
WI (-40 to 120) Pyroshield 5100 Spray or 102 Gun with biode-
Paddle gradable EAL.
Lock and -45.5 to 37.7 Lubrication Eng. 2 weeks Mobil Mobilux Monthly Mobil
Dam No. 7, (-50 to 100) Pyroshield 5182 Calk. gun EP 2 Gun Mobilux
MN and 5100 Spray EP 2
Lock and -28.8 to 40.5 Amoco Weekly Amoco 2 weeks
Dam No. 18, (-20 to 105) Amovis 8-X Brush Ryotec EP Gun
IL
Lockport, -28.8 to 48.8 Hydrotex 6 months Mobil Mobilith Monthly Mobil Mobilith- Good
IL (-20 to 120) Copper Coat Manual SHC 220 Gun Mobilith Gun in cold
Gear Grease SHC 220 temperature.
Marmet, -28.8 to 43.3 Chesterton Kendall L- Monthly
WV (-20 to 110) 715 Spraflex 427, Shell Gun
Alvania 2
McAlpine, -40 to 43.3 Chevron Open Weekly Keystone Weekly Dixon 271 Gun Chevron works
KY (-40 to 110) Gear Lubricant Spray Velox 3 Elec gun graphite very well.
SP grease Keystone
stains clothes
permanently.
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
Lock Gates - Miter
Lock and Temp Range for Sector Lubrication, for Pintles, Lubrication, for Strut Lubrication,
State E EC (E EF) Gears Method Gudgeon Pin Method Arms Method Comments
Lubrication Freq of Lubrication Freq of Lubrication Freq of
B-3
McNary, Below -17.7 Keystone 2 to 4 weeks, Husk-ITT Each gate Husk-ITT 6 months Enclosed
OR to 37.7 (0 to Moly 29 Manual caulk LVI-50 NT operation, LVI-50 NT Manual gun gears-Texaco
100+) above gun Grease every 4 hours, Grease Cepheus 150
water auto Farval change
10 years. LVI-
50 Biode-
gradable food
grade
Newburgh, 26.1 to 37.7 Keystone Monthly Valvoline Weekly Dixon 271
IN (-15 to 100) Moly 29 Caulk gun 612 EP Pwr gun
Old Hickory, -6.6 to 35 (20 Chevron Open Monthly Keystone Monthly May be hard to
TN to 95) Gear Lubricant Spray, Velox 3 Gun purchase
SP and Key- paddles Velox 3 in
stone Moly 29 future.
Port Allen, -28.8 to 40.5 B & R Open As needed Certified Lab. Weekly Certified Weekly B&R stays on,
LA (20 to 105) Gear Weekly Premalube Gun Lab. Gun few drips.
Spray Red Premalube Certified is
Red very tacky,
works well in
wet/high
pressure
environment.
Robert C. Chesterton Monthly Unocal 76 Monthly Dixon 270 3 months Chesterton-
Byrd, WV Sprayflex Gold Spray Redtac 2 Gun graphite Gun Good
grease adhesion in
wet conditions
Smithland, Keystone Moly Monthly British Weekly Dixon
IL 29 Paddles Petroleum Gun graphite
Ener-grease grease
LS-EP2
Starved -34.4 to 43.3 Bowman Dist. 6 months Chevron Pintles-daily, Chevron Enclosed
Rock, IL (-30 to 110) Barnes Grp. Spray Ultra-Duty Gudgeon Mo. Ultra-Duty gears
Part No. 19464 Grease EP Gun Grease EP
Open Gear & NLGI 2 NLGI 2
Fifth Wheel
Winfield, Kendall
WV L-427
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
B-4
Lock Gates - Sector
Lock and State E EC (E EF) Gudgeon Pin Lubrication Comments
Temp
Range Lubrication for Pintles, Freq of
Bayou Boeuf, LA Certified Premalube Weekly Gun
Lock Gates - Vertical Lift and Submergible Vertical Lift
Lock E EC (E EF) Wire Rope Lubrication Gears Lubrication Gears Comments Lubrication
Temp Lubrication Lubrication Lubrication Lubrication for
Range for Hoist Freq of for Open Freq of for Enclosed Other Equipment or Freq of
Lockport, -28.8 to 48.8 Stainless None Mobil SHC Told not to lube wire
IL (-20 to 120) steel 630 ropes
Lower -28.8 to 40.5 Chemsearch 3 months Tribol Molub- 3 months Texaco
Monu- (-20 to 105) High Core Manual Alloy 412-1 Manual Meropa 150
mental, Open Gear
WA
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
B-5
Culvert Valves - Reverse Tainter and Tainter
Lock and Range for Lubrication, Wire Rope, tion, for Open tion, Enclosed
State E EC (E EF) Trunnion Method Chains Method Gears Method Gears Other
Temp Lubrica-tion Freq of for Hoist Lubrica- cation Lubrica- tion for
Lubrication Freq of Lubri- Freq of Lubrica-
Aberdeen, Exxon EP0 Monthly
MS winter Gun
Exxon EP1
summer
Cheatham, Keystone Monthly Chevron Monthly Chevron Monthly
TN Velox 3 Air gun Open Gear Spray Open Spray
Lube SP Gear
Lube SP
John T. Amoco Monthly
Meyers, OH Super Elec gun
Permalube
grease
Lock No. 8, -40 to 48.8 Mobil EAL Weekly Rope - Yearly Mobil SHC Seals -
WI (-40 to 120) 102 Gun Lubriplate Spray 630 Mobil EP1,
L0135-063 EAL 101,
mo, gun
Lock and -45.5 to 37.7 Shaeffers Monthly Mobil SHC Cam limit
Dam No. 7, (-50 to 100) 271 Gun 630 switch -
MN Synthetic H- Mobilgear
1 629
Lock and -28.8 to 37.7 Lubriplate 2 Weeks Stainless None Lubriplate Lubricating
Dam No. 12, (-20 to 100) 1242 Gun steel 1242 Brush Eng.
IA Almasol
607 SAE
90, yearly
Lock and -28.8 to 40.5 Amoco 2 weeks Rope- 6 months Amoco 2 weeks Mobil SHC
Dam No. 18, (-20 to 105) Ryotek EP Gun Drumund Spray Ryotek Gun 630
IL Core EP
Lower -1.6 to 32.2 Mountain Oil Weekly Texaco
Monumental, (35 to 90) DY-80 Gun Meropa
WA 150, 3
months
McAlpine, -40 to 43.3 Keystone Weekly
KY (-40 to 110) Velox 3 Elec gun
McNary, OR Below 47.7 Husk-ITT Daily
to 37.7 (0 to LVI-50 Manual Farval
100+)
Newburgh, 26.1 to 37.7 Valvoline Monthly Keystone Rollers,
IN (-15 to 100) 612 EP Pwr gun Moly 29 Wheels-
Valvoline
612 EP
Old Hickory, -6.6 to 35 Keystone Monthly
TN (35 to 65) Velox 3 Gun
Port Allen, -28.8 to 40.5 Certified Weekly
LA (20 to 105) Prem-I-Lube Gun
Red
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
Culvert Valves - Reverse Tainter and Tainter
Lock and Range for Lubrication, Wire Rope, tion, for Open tion, Enclosed
State E EC (E EF) Trunnion Method Chains Method Gears Method Gears Other
Temp Lubrica-tion Freq of for Hoist Lubrica- cation Lubrica- tion for
Lubrication Freq of Lubri- Freq of Lubrica-
B-6
Robert C. Unocal 76 Monthly Stainless None Cylinder rod
Byrd, WV Redtac 2 Gun rope guide
Chesterton
Sprayflex
Gold
Culvert Valves - Stoney
Lock and Range Roller Freq of for Hoist Wire Lubrica- Lubrication for Lubrica- for Enclosed
State E EC (E EF) Trains Lubrication Rope, Chains tion Open Gears tion Gears Other
Temp tion for Lubrication Freq of Freq of Lubrication
Lubrica-
Hiram M. 12.2 to 37.7 Certified Lube 3 times per TexacoTexclad
Chittenden, (10 to 100) Trac Plus week 23/week,
WA Dynaco Tacky Spray paddle
Lube
Marmet, -28.8 to 43.3 Kendall Mobil SHC 634
WV (-20 to 110) L-427
Culvert Valves - Butterfly and Slide
Lock and Temp Range Lubrication, for Wheels, tion, for Open tion, Enclosed
State E EC (E EF) Type Trunnion Method Rollers Method Gears Method Gears
Freq of Lubrication Lubrica- Lubrication Lubrica- tion for
Freq of Freq of Lubrica-
Dashields, -31.6 to 35 Butterfly Lubriplate 630 AA Monthly
PA (-25 to 95) Gun
Lockport, -28.8 to 48.8 Slide Mobil Mobilith Monthly
IL (-20 to 120) SHC 220 Gun
Starved Rock, -34.4 to 43.3 Slide Chevron Ultra-
IL (-30 to 110) Duty Grease
EP NLGI 2
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
B-7
Dam Gates - Roller
Lock and Range for Hoist Lubrica- for Open Lubrica- Lubrication for Other Equipment Lubrica-
Dam E EC (E EF) Chain tion Gears tion Enclosed Gears or Comments tion
Temp Lubrication Freq of Lubrication Freq of Lubrication for Freq of
Lock and -45.5 to 37.7 Mobil EAL 224H 6 months Lubrication 6 months Mobil Mobilube
Dam No. 7, (-50 to 100) Hydraulic Oil Spray Eng. Spray HD 80w90,
MN Pyroshield Brush annually
5182 and 5100
and Mobiltac
375 NC
Lock and 28.8 to 37.7 Lubricating Eng. 6 months Lubriplate 6 months Lubricating Eng.
Dam (-20 to 100) Quinplex Plate Spray 1242 Gun Almasol 607
No. 12, IA Oil #10 SAE 90
Lock No. 8, -40 to 48.8 Mobil EAL 102 2 / year Mobil EAL 2 / year Shaeffers SYN Pillow blk bearings 2 / year
WI (-40 to 120) Gun 102 Brush 75-90 EAL 102
Marmet, -28.8 to 43.3 Chesterton 715 3 months Chesterton 3 months Gear Oil Wire rope 3 months
WV (-20 to 110) Spray Gold Spray 85-140 Chesterton 715
Robert C. Chesterton Chesterton 6 months Mobil SHC 634
Byrd, WV Sprayflex Gold Spray Sprayflex Gold Spray ISO VG 460
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
B-8
Dam Gates -Tainter
Lock and Range tion for tion, for Hoist Wire tion, for Open tion, Lubrication for
Dam E EC (E EF) Trunnions Method Rope, Chains Method Gears Method Enclosed Gears
Temp Lubrica- Lubrica- Lubrication Lubrica- Lubrication Lubrica-
Freq of Freq of Freq of
John T. Amoco 4 mo. or Keystone As need Helical - Gulf 100
Meyers, OH Super after Moly 29 6 to 12
Permalube submer. mo calk. Worm - Mobil -
grease gun SHC 634
Lock and -28.8 to 37.7 Lubriplate 6 months Chains - 6 months Lubriplate 6 months Lubricating Eng.
Dam (-20 to 100) 1242 Gun Lubricating Eng. Spray 1242 Gun Almasol 607
No. 12, IA Quinplex Plate SAE 90
Oil #10
Lock and -45.5 to 37.7 Mobil 6 months Mobil EAL 224H 6 months Lubrication 6 months Mobil Mobilube HD
Dam No. 7 (-50 to 100) Mobilux EP Hydraulic Oil Eng. 80w90, annually
2 Pyroshield
5182 and 5100
and Mobiltac
375 NC
Lock -40 to 48.8 Mobil EAL 6 months Chains - Mobil Yearly Mobil EAL 102 2 / year Shaeffers SYN
No. 8, WI (-40 to 120) 102 Gun EAL 102 Gun Brush 75-90, as needed
Lock and -28.8 to 40.5 Amoco 2 weeks Rope - 6 months Amoco Amovis Weekly Mobil SHC630
Dam (-20 to 105) Ryotek EP Gun Drummond Spray 8-X Brush
No. 18, IL Core
McAlpine, -40 to 43.3 Keystone 6 months Keystone Yearly Mobil SHC 634
KY (-40 to 110) Velox 3 Gun Moly 29 Calk. gun
(Excel staying
power)
Newburgh, -26 to 37.7 Valvoline 4 months Stainless rope Inspect Keystone 3 mo. Amoco Gear
IN (-15 to 100) 612 EP Pwr gun monthly Moly 29 more if Lube SAE 90
used freq
Starved -34.4 to 43.3 Chevron 6 months Bowman Dist. 6 months Mobil SHC 630
Rock, IL (-30 to 110) Ultra-Duty Gun Barnes Grp. Spray
Grease EP Part No. 19464
NLGI 2 Open
Gear&Fifth
Whl
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
B-9
Dam Gates - Vertical Lift
Lock E EC (E EF) Wire Rope Method Gears Method Enclosed Gears or Comments Method
Temp Lubrication Lubrica- Lubrication Lubrica- Lubrication for Lubrica-
Range for Hoist tion, for Open tion, Lubrication for Other Equipment tion,
Freq of Freq of Freq of
Aberdeen, Lubriplate 3 months Lubriplate 3 months Seals - Royal Oil 3 months
MS Gearshield Spray Gearshield Spray Grease NLGI 1 Gun
Extra Spray Extra Spray
Lower 28.8 to 40.5 Chemsearch 3 months Tribol Molub- 3 months Texaco Meropa Wheels - Mountain
Monumental, (-20 to 105) High Core Manual Alloy 412-1 Manual 150 Oil DY-80
WA Open Gear
McNary, Chevron Rust Yearly Keystone Yearly Mobil Mobilgear Wheels - Texaco Grease
OR Preventive Paint Moly 29 Caulk gun 632 Change Novatex 1 pump
EPS 254105 brush 8 years
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
B-10
Hydraulic Fluids
Lock bar (psi) or Testing Pump Type of Change Lock Gates Culvert Valves Dam Gates
Hydraulic Fluids For Operation Frequency
Press of Change Filter, Freq
Aberdeen, Shell Telus 22 Shell Telus 22
MS
Bayou Shell Tellus No. 46 17.2 to 34.6 Nachi- Fairey Arlon
Boeuf, Superior Ind. Turb. (250 to 500) Fujikoshi 200 series,
LA 1651 (Biodegradable) semi yearly or as
swashplate indicator
style - PVS requires
Cheatham, Shell Tellus Shell Tellus 24.1 (350) Vickers vane Vickers 100FF
TN No. 32 No. 32 45V50A1A2 1F 11, yearly
00880
Dashields, Army Hydraulic Army Hydraulic 27.6 (400) Racine var Magnatech,
PA Oil - 2075 Oil - 2075 vane 3 mo.
John T. Amoco Industrial Amoco Industrial 67.6 (980) Test Delaval IMO Cuno GPS
Meyers, No. 32 No. 32 annually worm gear (culvert)Cuno
OH PV2 (rest)-Turn
daily
Lockport, Amoco #68 Amoco #100 Lock 55.2-82.7 Analysis - 2-stage Schroeder line
IL Synthetic (800-1200) 6 months rotary #TF-1-2A10-S
Culvert vane Element A10
552-96.5 pump
(800-1400)
Lower Texaco Regal Texaco Regal Texaco Regal 48.3 (700) lock Yearly
Monumental, R&O 32 R&O 32 R&O 32 and dam. 51.7
WA (750) valves
Marmet, Mobil DTE 24 Comment: Have 103.4 (1500) Var displ 3 micron,
WV several hydraulic piston 3 mo
fluids for diff
equip. Seeking
to consolidate.
McAlpine, Mobil DTE 13M Mobil DTE 13M Bukhead crane 62.1-68.9 Screw Cuno 12569,
KY hydraulics- (900-1000) drain sed
Chevron ISO 32 for Mobil monthly/
McNary, Texaco Regal 32 Head gates - Culvert- Culvert filter
OR Chevron Grade 17.2 (250) change 6
E Mil-H-5606E Dam-199.9 months
(2900) Dam filter
change monthly
Newburgh, Amoco AW 32 Amoco AW 32 75.8 (1100) Screw const Cuno PV-2 auto
IN deliv clean
Old Hickory, Shell Telus 32 Shell Telus 32 10.3-41.4 Test 6 Vickers Fairey Arlon
TN (150-600) months model V460 370-L-210A,
2 mo. or as
needed
Port Allen, Lubriplate HO 1 Lubriplate HO 1 10.3-87.2 Test 6 Var disp Wix 51071 and
LA (150 to 1250) months gear 51092, yearly
Robert C. Unocal 76 Unax Unocal 76 Unax 120.7 (1750) Test yearly Vickers Vickers,
Byrd, WV AW 32 AW 32 6 months
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
Hydraulic Fluids
Lock bar (psi) or Testing Pump Type of Change Lock Gates Culvert Valves Dam Gates
Hydraulic Fluids For Operation Frequency
Press of Change Filter, Freq
B-11
Smithland, Bulkhead Crane
IL Jeffery Unit cone
drive Gulf Har-
mony 115 HD 680
Starved Chevron Clarity 6 months Vickers Schroeder A10,
Rock, IL Hydraulic Oil 2-stage vane 6 months
AW ISO 46
Winfield, WV Mobil DTE 11M Mobil DTE 11M Mobil DTE 11M 144.8 (2100)
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
B-12
Environmentally Acceptable Lubricants
Lock/Location Lubricant Comments
Bayou Boeuf, Superior Ind. Yes. Biodegradable hydraulic oil seemed to do a good job in our old equipment and will be used in new
LA Turbine 1651 equipment when warranty is out. Food grade grease will not hold up under EP or exposed to weather
as well as petroleum or synthetic.
Bayou Boeuf, Biodegradable hydraulic oil seemed to do a good job and will be used as soon as new equip. warranty
LA runs out. Food grade will not hold up under water or exposed to weather as well as petroleum or
synthetic.
Dashields, PA Dubois Chem - Satisfactory
MPG-2
Greenup, WV Yes. When the equipment was pulled out of the water, a black fungus looking substance coated it.
Hiram M. Mobil EAL Yes. So far so good. Used in floating plant equipment, cranes etc.
Chittenden, Hydraulic Fluid
WA
John T. Yes. Good comparison with petroleum or synthetic lubricants.
Meyers, OH
Lock No. 8, Mobil EAL 101 Working out fine. No problems yet. EAL 102 not avail in grease gun tubes.
WI and 102
Lock and Dam Yes. Not as good as petroleum or synthetic but adequate. Recently have tried Mobil EAL 224H on
No. 7 chains.
Lock and Dam Cenpeco Special Yes. Used for 3 years on dam roller and tainter gate chains to prevent river contamination. No
No. 12, IA Chain Penetrant problems but too early to tell if they are doing as well as the old petroleum oil used for many years.
Lock and Dam No. Tried food grade and found it to be a poor lubricant.
No. 18
Lockport, IL No. Actively seeking EALs for wire rope. Other locks have tried biodegradable hydraulic oil and had
poor results.
Lower Have been unable to find environmentally acceptable lubricants that will work in our environment. Used
Monumental, food acceptable grease that works well but will not work in grease gun or automatic Farval units.
WA
Marmet, WV Yes. Experienced bacterial growth.
McNary, OR Yes. Husk-ITT LVI-50 on lock gates and culvert valves. We have been phasing in LVI-50 since 1987
and have not seen any evidence of inadequate lubrication since changing to it. Also use Husk-ITT
15A14 Lube Oil on pump oil lube bearings.
Old Hickory, Have tested food grade lubricants on open gears, miter block (gates), and wire ropes. Grease does
TN not hold up in environment. When time to replace seal bearings, will replace greaseable bearings with
nongreaseable Thordon bearings.
Port Allen, LA No. Informed by sales people that food grade or environmentally acceptable are not as good as
petroleum or synthetic for our application.
Wheeler Aux. Mobil EAL 100H Satisfactory on culvert valve and miter gate machinery after 5 years of service.
Lock
Big Cliff Dam Mobil EAL 101 Satisfactory on turbine wicket gate bushings after 1 year.
Huxtable Mobil EAL 102-EP Satisfactory in right angle gear box.
Pumping Plant
Wheeler Aux. Mobil EAL 224H Satisfactory in miter gate hydraulic system.
Lock
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
Environmentally Acceptable Lubricants
Lock/Location Lubricant Comments
B-13
Petti Bone Mobil EAL 224H Satisfactory in hydraulic systems after 5 years. Spills congeal on surface of water making cleanup
Floating Snag easier.
Vessel
Carri Tuck Mobil EAL 224H Satisfactory. Using 3-year replacement cycle but may not be necessary.
Multipurpose
Vessel
Jordan Lake Mobil EAL 224H Satisfactory after 6 years of service in hydraulic system. Can see spill on concrete because of extreme
Intake Tower black biological growth. Change-over was easy .
Wilmington Mobil EAL 224H Four years service on crane. Installed heater and cooler to address temperature extremes.
District Repair
Facility
Olmsted Mobil EAL 224H Hydraulic fluid thickened in cold weather.
Prototype
Wicket Dam
Crane Barges Mobil EAL 224H In service in cranes for 4 years. Immersion heaters used at low temperatures.
Fry & Merritt
Ballard Locks Mobil Envirosyn H Satisfactory. Change-over was easy.
Huxtable Mobil EAL 224H Satisfactory.
Pumping Plant
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
B-14
Lubrication for Additional Equipment 1
Lock Mooring Bits Gear Box Bearings Cable Compressor Bubbler Crane Cables
Floating Tow Haulage Tow Haulage Tow Haulage
Cheatham, TN Keystone Valvoline
Velox 3 Hydro-Lube
SAE 80w90
Dashields, PA Lubriplate Mobil DTE Certified Lube-Trac Certified
630 AA Ex Heavy + CCx 77
John T. Meyers, Chemsearch
OH High Core
Lock No. 8, WI Shaeffers SYN Mobil EAL 102 Rotary-Roots LuBest Titan
75-90 Dresser ISO 999
VG 220
Lock and Dam Lubricating Lubriplate 1242
No. 12, IA Eng. Almasol
607 SAE 90
Lower Mountain
Monumental, Oil DY 80
WA
Marmet, WV Kendall L-427,
Shell Alvania 2
McAlpine, KY Mobil SHC 460 Fluid Film
WRO Rust &
corrossion
McNary, OR Husk-ITT LVI-50
NT Grease,
monthly w/gun
Old Hickory, Keystone Velox 3,
TN monthly w/gun
Robert C. Byrd, Unocal 76 Redtac
WV 2, 6 months
w/gun
Smithland, IL British Petroleum Chemsearch
Energrease LS-
EP2, 6 mo. w/gun
Starved Rock, Ingersoll-Rand
IL SSR
H-IF Food
Grade Coolant,
2000 hours
EM 1110-2-1424
28 Feb 99
B-15
Lubrication for Additional Equipment 2
Lock Detroit, Onan Buildings Boxes Rope Boxes Universal Gates
Generator-Deisel- Chains in Derrick Gear Derrick Wire Hoist Gear Roots Wicket
Encoder Stiff-leg Stiff-leg Stoplog Blower - Turbine
John T. Amoco
Meyers, OH 300-30 wt
Lock and Mobilith SHC 220
Dam No. 7 and Mobil SHC 630
every 2000 hours
or yearly
Lockport, UZ Engineered
IL Products Chain
& Cable Lubri-
Tec # 190118
spray, mo.
McNary, Husk-ITT
OR LVI-50,
2 days,
auto Farval
Port Allen, Shell 85W90 Certified CCx97 Shell 85w90
Lock gear grease, clear, gear
no mess, rope
absorbs
Starved Rock, Chevron 400
IL Multigrade SAE
15W-40,
6 months
EM 1110-2-1424
26 Oct 07
Change 2

C-1

Appendix C
SPECIFICATION FOR TURBINE OIL


GUIDANCE ON THE USE OF THIS SPECIFICATION

This appendix contains Guidance on the Use of This Specification, Specification for Turbine Oils,
and Guidance for Specifying Off-Line Filtration Systems.

The specification below is for zinc and chlorine-free petroleum-based turbine oils for use at
hydroelectric power plants in generator and turbine bearings, Kaplan turbine hubs, and governor
systems. For additional guidance, reference Chapter 11 Engineer Manual EM 1110-2-1424,
Lubricants and Hydraulic Fluids for Civil Works Project

Compatibility between new oil and in-service oils must be evaluated and determined by lab testing.
Only oils found to be compatible shall be mixed with in-service oil or used as replacement oil.
The compatibility testing is necessary because the new oils currently readily available on the
market may have been formulated with different additives, which may not be fully compatible with
additives of the in-service oils.

This specification shall be used for the procurement of all turbine oils, whether purchased for
initial installation, filling rehabbed hydroelectric units, or for use as additional turbine oil at
operating projects.

The method of shipment, type of containers, delivery dates, delivery point, delivery point of
contact, and other required information should be included in appropriate sections of the contract
specifications.

The turbine oil shall meet or exceed the chemical and physical requirements specified in TABLE 1.
Additional characteristics or changes in listed values should not be included in the specifications
without prior consultation with the technical proponent of the specification. The Corps
Districts/Projects may perform Quality Assurance (QA) tests on samples taken at the delivery
point. The QA tests should include, as a minimum, the viscosity, acid number, elemental
spectroscopy, and oxidation stability. Samples shall be taken from each bulk shipment and from
not less than 10 percent of the drums taken at random from drum shipments. Such samples shall
be not less than 4 L (1 gal), which may be stored in more than one sample container, and a portion
of each sample shall be saved for later confirmation tests in the event that the results from the first
tests indicate that the oil does not meet the specification requirements.

When soliciting for new contracts or orders using this specification for purchase of turbine oil that
will be mixed with the in-service oil or as a replacement oil, the government should require all
offerors to provide a 1-gallon sample of the proposed oil, which must meet the requirements of this
specification in order to be eligible for award. The solicitation must include this language. The
Government may test this oil for compatibility with the in-service oil by sending a portion (1 qt) of
new oil in an unmarked container, and a sample of in-service oil to a lab. Prior to awarding the
Contract, the compatibility of new oil must be verified by the ASTM D 7155-06 test, Standard
Practice for Evaluating Compatibility of Mixtures of Turbine Lubricating Oils. The remaining
EM 1110-2-1424
26 Oct 07
Change 2

quantity of new oil should be retained by the Government for possible further testing.
Compatibility testing should be performed at no charge to the bidders.

The personnel from Corps Districts/Project offices can contact Hydroelectric Design Center for
assistance and/or request additional information/clarification related to the information contained
in the entire document (POC: John Micetic, 503.808.4216 or john.s.micetic@usace.army.mil).





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26 Oct 07
Change 2

SPECIFICATION FOR TURBINE OIL

TURBINE OIL

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. GENERAL
2. REFERENCES
3. SUBMITTALS
4. TURBINE OIL CHARACTERISTICS AND REQUIREMENTS
5. COMPATIBILITY
6. PRE-DELIVERY TESTING
7. DELIVERY
8. INSPECTION AND ACCEPTANCE.

1. GENERAL

This specification covers zinc and chlorine-free rust and oxidation inhibited (R&O) mineral oils for
use in hydraulic turbine and generator bearings, Kaplan turbine hubs, hydraulic-turbine governors,
and other applications, where high-grade turbine oil having anti-corrosion, anti-oxidation, and
anti-foaming properties is required.

2. REFERENCES

The publications listed below form a part of this specification to the extent referenced. The
publications are referred to in the text by basic designation only.

AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS (ASTM)

ASTM D 92 (2002b) Flash and Fire Points by Cleveland Open
Cup

ASTM D 97 (2004) Pour Point of Petroleum Oils

ASTM D 130 (2004) Corrosiveness to Copper from Petroleum
Products by Copper Strip Test

ASTM D 445 (2004e1) Kinematic Viscosity of Transparent and
Opaque Liquids (and the Calibration of Dynamic
Viscosity)

ASTM D 664 (2004e1) Acid Number of Petroleum Products by
Potentiometric Titration

ASTM D 665 (2003) Rust-Preventing Characteristics of Inhibited
Mineral Oil in the Presence of Water
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EM 1110-2-1424
26 Oct 07
Change 2

ASTM D 892 (2003) Foaming Characteristics of Lubricating Oils

ASTM D 943 (2004a) Oxidation Characteristics of Inhibited
Mineral Oils

ASTM D 1401 (2002) Water Separability of Petroleum Oils and
Synthetic Fluids

ASTM D 2270 (2004) Calculating Viscosity Index from Kinematic
Viscosity at 40 and 100 Degrees C

ASTM D 2272 (2002) Oxidation Stability of Steam Turbine Oils by
Rotating Pressure Vessel Oxidation Test

ASTM D 3427 (2003) Air Release Properties of Petroleum Oils

ASTM D 4057 (2000) Manual Sampling of Petroleum and
Petroleum ProductsASTM D 4177 (2000)
Automatic Sampling of Petroleum and Petroleum
Products)

ASTM D 6304 (2004ae1) Water in Petroleum Products, Lubricating
Oils, and Additives by Coulometric Karl Fisher
Titration

ASTM D 7155 (2006) Standard Practice for Evaluating
Compatibility of Mixtures of Turbine Lubricating
Oils

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR STANDARDIZATION (ISO)

ISO 4406 (1999) Coding the Level of Contamination by Solid
Particles

ISO 11171 (1999) Calibration Of Automatic Particle Counters
for Liquids

3. SUBMITTALS

Government approval is required for submittals with a "G" designation; submittals not having a
G designation are for information only. When used, a designation following the G designation
identifies the office that will review the submittal for the Government. The following shall be
submitted:



C-4
EM 1110-2-1424
26 Oct 07
Change 2
3.1 DATA

Data of Chemical and Physical Characteristics of Turbine Oil, G [, _____]

The Contractor shall furnish [_____] copies of certified test data, which show that the oil meets or
exceeds characteristics values specified in TABLE 1. The certified test data shall be submitted for
approval 30 days before the oil delivery.

3.2 SAMPLES

A gallon of proposed turbine oil, G [, _____]

The prospective bidder shall send one gallon of oil to the Government along with the bid. This oil
shall be closely representative to the oil being offered in the bid. The Government plans to send a
quart of this oil in an unmarked container to an independent laboratory for compatibility testing
with the in-service oil. The compatibility testing will be performed at no charge to the prospective
bidder. If the submitted oil sample is found to be incompatible with the in-service oil, this oil will
not be further considered in the Contract awarding process.

4. TURBINE OIL CHARACTERISTICS AND REQUIREMENTS

4.1 GENERAL PROPERTIES

The turbine oil shall be a blend of virgin petroleum-based stocks plus additives, free of zinc and
chlorine, resulting in high-grade turbine oil having anti-rust, anti-oxidation and anti-foaming
properties suitable for use in hydraulic turbines, generator bearings, Kaplan turbine hubs and
related applications. Chemical and physical characteristics of oil shall meet or exceed the
requirements listed in TABLE 1. Oil characteristics shall be determined by tests conducted in
accordance with the tests methods as noted in the table.

4.2 CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

The turbine oil shall conform to the requirements established in TABLE 1 when tested according
to the standards indicated there.

4.3 DEGRADATION

The physical and chemical properties of the oil shall not be degraded (changed from the specified
values by filtration through two-micron mechanical type filters, by centrifugal purification, or by
vacuum type purifier, all of which have been designed for turbine oil.

4.4 HOMOGENEITY

Additive agents shall remain uniformly distributed throughout the oil at all temperatures above the
pour point and up to 120 C (250 F). When the oil is cooled below the pour point, it shall regain
homogeneity while standing at temperatures of 5 C (10 F) above the pour point, and retain clear
and bright appearance.
C-5

EM 1110-2-1424
26 Oct 07
Change 2


5. COMPATIBILITY

Before the oil is being purchased for addition to existing (in-service) oil or as replacement oil, the
Government will send samples of new and in-service oil to an independent commercial laboratory
for evaluation of compatibility between the two oils. Compatibility evaluation shall be performed
in accordance with ASTM D 7155 test, Standard Practice for Evaluating Compatibility of Mixtures
of Turbine Lubricating Oils. Potential suppliers shall contact the Contracting Officer to obtain a
representative sample of the in-service oil necessary if they wish to conduct the test.

The compatibility test requirements in this paragraph, Paragraphs 3.2 and Paragraph 6 are not
applicable for new construction.

TABLE 1

CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS REQUIREMENTS AND TEST
METHODS FOR RUST AND OXIDATION (R&O) INHIBITED ISO 68 & 100 TURBINE OILS

Chemical and Physical Characteristics
Requirements
ISO 68 Oil ISO 100 Oil
Test Method
Viscosity at 40 C, centistokes (cSt) 65-70 95-102 ASTM D 445
Viscosity Index, minimum 98 95 ASTM D 2270
Flash Point, minimum, C (F) 204 (400) 210 (410) ASTM D 92
Pour Point, maximum, C (F) -9 (16) -9 (16) ASTM D 97
Acid Number (AN) mg KOH/g, maximum 0.15 0.15 ASTM D 664
Oxidation Stability by Rotating Pressure
Vessel Oxidation Test (RPVOT), minutes,
minimum
500 500 ASTM D 2272
Oxidation Characteristics, mg KOH/g, max 0.5* 0.5* ASTM D 943
Rust Preventive Characteristics, Procedures
A and B
Pass Pass ASTM D 665
Water Content, parts per million (ppm), max 250 250 ASTM D 6304
Water Separability of Petroleum Oil 40-40-0 (30) 40-40-0 (60) ASTM D 1401
Corrosion from Oil by Copper Strip Tarnish
Test
Classification 1 Classification 1 ASTM D 130
C-6
EM 1110-2-1424
26 Oct 07
Change 2
Foaming characteristics

After 5 minutes blowing period:
Sequence 1, foam volume in ml, maximum
Sequence 2, foam volume in ml, maximum
Sequence 3, foam volume in ml, maximum

After 10 minutes settling period:
Sequence 1, foam volume in ml, maximum
Sequence 2, foam volume in ml, maximum
Sequence 3, foam volume in ml, maximum



100
50
100


10
0
10



100
50
100


10
0
10

ASTM D 892
(Option A
excluded)
Air Release Properties, minutes, maximum 30 60 ASTM D 3427
Cleanliness, ISO Code Particle Count,
particle sizes of greater than 4, 6, and 14 m
(c)
17/15/12 (c) 17/15/12 (c)
ISO 4406-99
(ISO 11171 Cal.)
Appearance Clear & Bright Clear & Bright
Visual
Observation
* At the conclusion of the 1,000 hours test, measured AN should be 0.5 or less. In addition, at
that point, the oil and water phases shall be examined for evidence of sludge and catalyst metal
corrosion. Permitted maximum level of total sludge in the oil after 1000 hours is 50 mg/kg.

6. PRE-DELIVERY TESTING

The Contractor shall test the oil or a sample blend for all chemical and physical characteristics set
forth in TABLE 1, and provide the certified test results as well as one gallon sample of the oil to
the Government at least thirty days prior to delivery.

The Contractor may conduct compatibility testing of the oil or sample blend. The Government will
provide a sample of in-service oils for such purposes on request.

The Government will conduct compatibility testing of the sample, and notify the contractor of the
results prior to purchasing of the oil.

7. DELIVERY

The Contractor shall deliver the oil according to the delivery requirements specified elsewhere in
this contract.

8. INSPECTION AND ACCEPTANCE.

At the point of oil delivery, the Government will obtain samples in a manner specified in ASTM
D 4057 or ASTM D 4177, and may perform such tests as are deemed necessary to determine
whether the oil meets the specifications values listed in TABLE 1. The delivered oil will remain in
a storage tank (if applicable) and will not be used until the test results are received from the
laboratory. Should the oil fail any test, the Contractor shall be responsible for disposing of the
delivered oil and replacing the oil at its own expense.

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EM 1110-2-1424
26 Oct 07
Change 2

GUIDANCE FOR SPECIFYING OFF-LINE FILTRATION SYSTEMS

In FY07, the R&D titled Conditioning of Turbine Oils at Corps Hydropower Facilities was
conducted, and completed in Sep 2007. This R&D effort included collating data from a field test
of mechanical-type and electrostatic-type filtration systems. The field test was performed at Chief
Joseph powerhouse in Bridgeport, WA, where three commercially available mechanical-type
filtration systems from different manufacturers were plumbed to three different governor oil
sumps. The characteristics of these mechanical systems met a generic specification requirements
set by the Corps prior to the test. In addition, an electrostatic-type filtration system, equipped with
a cellulose-type moisture scrubber was plumbed to a fourth governor sump.

Monthly testing results of filtered oil were performed and tracked over a three month period.
Collated results showed that both types of filtration systems were effective and efficient in
removing varnish and other contaminants from turbine oil. Based on this R&D, it was concluded
that the following parameters should be used as a generic guideline by the Corps personnel in the
process of specifying off-line filtration systems.

o Flow rate of maximum 8.0 GPM

o Filtration system shall not have bypass valve installed

o A thermostatically controlled heater to be attached to the filter, capable of maintaining oil
temperature of 40 C (105 F).

o A low-watt-density type oil heater element; not to exceed 12 watt/square inch. The heater
designed to automatically turn off if the system shuts down for any reason.

o The pump (screw-type or gear-type) with a pump relief valve to be mounted to the bottom
of the filter housing, allowing oil to flow through the cellulose media in an outside-in
pattern.

o The system to include a maximum indicating pressure gauge (LENZ or equal), typically
set between 32 and 35 psi, and installed on top of the filter housing to alert the operator of
the maximum differential pressure reached, and need to change the filter insert. When
energized, it must illuminate a red light signal on the control panel.

o The filter system to be equipped with oil valves positioned before and after the filter to
enable sampling of unfiltered and filtered oil.

o An automatic low pressure air regulator (vent) to be installed on top of the filter housing,
designed to aid separation and discharge of air from the oil.

o The cellulose fiber filter element to be rated at maximum 3-micron absolute and 0.8-micron
nominal, at minimum of Beta 3 75.

Notes:
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EM 1110-2-1424
26 Oct 07
Change 2
C-9


1. The size of the filtration system and its dirt holding capacity varies depending on the
quantity of oil in a particular governor sump.

2. The same characteristic for the flow and the heaters apply for electrostatic filter systems. In
addition, these systems need to be equipped with a cellulose-type moisture scrubber,
because the efficiency of this technology significantly decreases if moisture is present in
oil.

3. Heaters are not needed for systems intended to off-line filter oil in the bulk oil storage
tanks.

Training Solutions

Training Solutions

Hydraulics

Training Manual 7

Repairer Hydraulic Systems

TABLEOFCONTENTS
Section Page
SubcourseOverview............................................................................................................i
AdministrativeInstructions.............................................................................................iii
GradingandCertificationInstructions............................................................................iv
Lesson1:HydraulicPumps...........................................................................................11
PartA:PositiveDisplacementPumps.....................................................................12
PartB:GearPump...................................................................................................15
PartC:VanePump.................................................................................................111
PartD:PistonPump...............................................................................................112
PracticeExercise.......................................................................................................119
AnswerKeyandFeedback.......................................................................................122
Lesson2: HydraulicValves............................................................................................21
PartA:PressureControlValves...............................................................................22
PartB:DirectionalControlValves...........................................................................25
PartCControlValveRepair.....................................................................................28
PracticeExercise.......................................................................................................215
AnswerKeyandFeedback.......................................................................................218
Examination....................................................................................................................E1
AppendixA:ListofCommonAcronyms.......................................................................A1
AppendixB:RecommendedReadingList....................................................................B1
AppendixC:MetricConversionChart.........................................................................C1
iii EN 5260
AppendixD:PublicationExtracts...............................................................................D1
StudentInquirySheets
EN 5260 iv
LESSON1
HYDRAULICPUMPS
CriticalTasks:0512351180
0512352186
OVERVIEW
LESSONDESCRIPTION:
Thislessonwillintroduceyoutopositivedisplacementpumpsusedonengineer
constructionequipment.Includedarethestepsrequiredtodisassemblepumps,repair
orreplacecomponents,andreassemblepumps.
TERMINALLEARNINGOBJECTIVE:
ACTION: Youwilllearnthetypesofpositivedisplacementpumpscommonly
usedonengineerconstructionequipmentandtheprocedures
requiredtodisassemble,repair,andreassemblethem.
CONDITION: Youwillbegiventhematerialcontainedinthislesson.Youwill
workatyourownpaceandinyourownselectedenvironmentwith
nosupervision.
STANDARD: Youwillcorrectlyanswerthepracticeexercisequestionsatthe
endofthelesson.
REFERENCES: ThematerialcontainedinthislessonwasderivedfromSTP
562B1SM,STP562B24SMTG,TM52350262201,TM
52350262202,TM5241023734,TM5380526220,and
TM5380526234.
INTRODUCTION
Hydraulicsisthescienceofusingforceandmotiontomoveconfinedliquid.Ina
hydraulicdevice,atransferofenergytakesplacewhenliquidissubjecttopressure.
Thefollowingfourbasicprinciplesgovernhydraulics:
1-1 EN 5260
Liquidshavenoshapeoftheirown;theyconformtotheshapeoftheir
container.
Liquidsareincompressible.
Liquidstransmitappliedpressureinalldirections.
Liquidsprovideincreasedforce.
Thefollowingkeyfactswillhelpyougainanunderstandingofhydraulics:
Hydraulicpowerisgeneratedfrommechanicalpower.
Hydraulicenergyisachievedbyconvertinghydraulicpowertomechanical
energy.
Hydraulicenergyconsistsofpotential(pressureenergy),kinetic(energyof
movingliquids),andheat(energyofresistancetofluidflow[friction]).
Hydraulicenergyisneithercreatednordestroyed,onlyconvertedto
anotherform.
Energyinahydraulicsystemisconsideredeitherwork(gain)orheat(loss).
Heatiscreatedandenergyislostwhenamovingliquidisrestricted.
PARTA:POSITIVEDISPLACEMENTPUMPS
11. General.Pumpsareusedtoliftortransportliquid.Theymayraisetheliquid
levelorforcetheliquidthroughahydraulicsystem.
a. Pumpsinahydraulicsystemareusedtoconvertmechanicalenergyto
hydraulicenergy.Mechanicalpowercreatesapartialvacuumatthepump'sinletport
sothatatmosphericpressureinthereservoircanforceliquidthroughtheinletlineand
intothepump.Mechanicalpowerthendeliversthisliquidtotheoutletport,forcing
theliquidintothehydraulicsystem.
b. Positivedisplacementpumpsarethemostcommonhydraulicpumpson
engineerconstructionequipment.Thesepumpshavearotarymotionthatcarries
liquidfromtheinletporttotheoutletport.Theyproduceapulsatingflowofliquid.
Becausethesepumpshaveapositiveinternalsealtopreventleakage,theiroutputis
relativelyunaffectedbysystemvariations.Forexample,ifanoutletportisblocked,
pressureinthepumpwillincreaseuntiltheequipmentstallsorthepump'smotorfails.
Positivedisplacementpumpsareclassifiedaccordingtotheelementthattransmitsthe
liquidgear,vane,orpiston.
EN 5260 1-2
12. GearPump.Thegearpump(Figure11)consistsofadrivinggearandadriven
gearenclosedinafittedhousing.Thegearsrotateinoppositedirections,andthegear
teethmeshinthehousingbetweentheinletandoutletports.Astheteethofthetwo
gearsseparate,apartialvacuumisformed,whichdrawsliquidthroughtheinletport
intochamberA.LiquidinchamberAisthentrappedbetweentheteethofthetwo
gearsandthehousingandiscarriedthroughtwopathstochamberB.Astheteeth
meshagain,liquidisforcedthroughtheoutletport.
Figure11.Gearpump
13. VanePump.Inavanepump,aslottedrotorsplinedtothedriveshaftrotates
betweenfittedsideplatesinsideanellipticalorcircleshapedring(Figure12,page
14).Polished,hardenedvanesslideinandoutoftherotorslotsandfollowthering's
contourbycentrifugalforce.Chambersformedbetweensucceedingvanescarryoil
fromtheinletporttotheoutletport.Apartialvacuumiscreatedattheinletasthe
spacebetweenthevanesincreases,forcingoilthroughtheoutletastheareainthe
pumpingchamberdecreases.Becausethenormalwearpointsonavanepumparethe
tipsandtheringsurface,thesepartsarespeciallyhardenedandground.
1-3 EN 5260
To inlet port
Chamber A
Driven gear
Housing
Chamber B
Outlet port
Driving gear
Figure12.Vanepump
a.Thevanepumpistheonlypumpdesignedwithautomaticwearcompensation.
Aswearoccurs,thevanesslideoutoftherotorslotsandcontinuetofollowthering's
contour.Thus,efficiencyremainshighthroughoutthelifeofthepump.
b.Vanepumpscanbeassembledtorotateeitherleftorright.Corresponding
arrowsstampedonthepump'sbodyandcartridgeindicaterotationdirection.Rotation
isalsoindicatedinthemodelnumber.Pumpsassembledforlefthandrotation
(counterclockwisewhenviewedfromthedriveshaftend)havetheletters"LH"addedto
themodelnumber.Pumpsassembledforrighthandrotationhavenomarkings.
14. PistonPump.Onaninlinepistonpump,thedriveshaftandthecylinderblock
areonthesamecenterline(Figure13).Reciprocationofthepistonsoccurswhenthe
pistonsrunagainstaswashplateasthecylinderblockrotates.Thedriveshaftturns
thecylinderblock,whichcarriesthepistonsaroundtheshaft.Thepistonshoesslide
againsttheswashplateandareheldagainstitbytheshoeretainerplate.Theangleof
theswashplatecausesthecylinderstoreciprocateintheirbores.Whenapistonbegins
toretract,theopeningontheendoftheboreslidesovertheinletslotinthevalveplate
andoilisdrawnintotheborethroughlessthanonehalfarevolutionofthecylinder
block.Asolidareaiscreatedinthevalveplate,andthepistonretracts.Asthepiston
beginstoextendtheopening,thecylinderbarrelmovesovertheinletportandoilis
forcedthroughtheoutletport.
a. Themajorcomponentsofapistonpumpconsistofahousing,a
bearingsupporteddriveshaft,arotatinggroup,ashaftseal,andavalveplate.The
valveplatecontainstheinletandoutletportsandfunctionsasthebackcover.The
rotatinggroupincludesacylinderblock,whichissplinedtothedriveshaft;asplined
sphericalwasher;acylinderblockspring;ninepistonswithshoes;aswashplate;anda
shoeretainerplate.Whenthisgroupisassembled,thecylinderblockspringforcesthe
cylinderblockagainstthevalveplateandthesphericalwasheragainsttheshoe
EN 5260 1-4
Outlet
port
Elliptical
ring
Slotted
rotor
Drive
shaft
Inlet
port
Vanes
retainerplate.Theninepistonshoesareheldpositivelyagainsttheswashplate,
ensuringthatthepistonsreciprocateasthecylinderturns.Infixeddisplacement
pumps,theswashplateisstationary.
1-5 EN 5260
Figure13.Pistonpump
Figure13.Pistonpump
b. Displacement(outflow)fromthepistonpumpdependsonthenumberofpistons,
theirbore,andtheirstroke.Theswashplate'sangledeterminesthestroke;therefore,
thestrokecanbechangedbyalteringtheangle(Figure14).
Figure14.Pistonpumpdisplacement
PARTB:GEARPUMP
15. General.TheJ.I.CaseModelMW24Cscooploaderhasatwosection
pumponesectionprovideshydraulicpowerforthesteeringsystem;theothersection
EN 5260 1-6
Piston
Piston
shoe
Spherical
washer
Drive shaft
Swash plate
Shoe-retainer plate
Housing
Cylinder-block spring
To inlet port
To outlet port
Valve plate
Cylinder block
Maximum
displacement
Partial
displacement
Zero
displacement
0

providespowerfortheloadersystem.Thismodelhasageartype,fixeddisplacement
pumplocatedontherearof,anditisdrivenbythetransmission.Hydrauliclinescarry
fluidfromthereservoirtothepumpandfromthepumptothecontrol,demand,and
reliefvalves.
16.RemovalandRepairoftheGearPump.Whenthegearpumpbreaksdownor
doesnotoperateproperly,themaintenancesupervisorinstructstheconstruction
equipmentrepairerintheproceduresnecessarytodeterminetheextentofdamageand
possiblerepairs.Thefirststepinthisprocessistodrainthereservoir.Thepumpis
thenremovedfromthetransmissionandcompletelydisassembledbeforecleaningor
repairsbegin.Theremovalanddisassemblyprocessrequiresseveralsteps;eachstep
mustbeperformedintheorderlisted.
a. RefertoFigure15andusethefollowingstepstodrainthereservoironthegear
pump:
Removethefillerplug(1)onthehydraulicreservoirslowlytorelieveair
pressure.
Removethedrainplug(2),anddrainthefluidfromthereservoirintoa
container.
Turnthefrontendloaderfullytotheleftorright,andengagethelocking
bar.
1-7 EN 5260
Figure15.HydraulicreservoirofaJ.I.CaseModelMW24Cscooploader
EN 5260 1-8
1
4
5
6 2
3
b.RefertoFigure16andusethefollowingstepstoremovethegearpump:
Removethehoseassembliesfromthegearpump,anddrainthehydraulic
fluidintoacontainer.
Supportthehydraulicpump(3),andremovethetwocapscrews(1)and
lockwasher(2).
Removethepump(3)andbracket(4)fromthetransmissioncarefully.
Placeaprotectivecoveroverthesplineddriveshaftonthepumpandthe
mountingpadtopreventforeignmaterialfromenteringthetransmission.
Figure16.Hydraulicgearpump
c. RefertoFigure17,page18,andusethefollowingstepstodisassemblethe
gearpump:
Scribealinelengthwisealongthepumptoaidinalignmentduring
reassembly.
Removetherollerbearings(6,18,and30)withabearingpuller.Replace
themasnecessary.
Removetheseals(7,10,11,19,25,and31)anddiscard.
Removetheseal(32)fromtheshaftendcover(34).
Discardthepreformedpackingandtheseal(32).
1-9 EN 5260
4
2
3
1
EN 5260 1-10
Figure17.Gearpump,explodedview
d. Cleanallmetalpartsusingcleaningsolvent(specificationPD680)andallow
partstoairdry.Donotuseclothstodryparts.
17. InspectionoftheGearPump.RefertoFigure17,andcompletethefollowing
stepstoinspectthegearpump:
1-11 EN 5260
15
27
1
2
3
8
7
6
5
4
5
5
13
3
14
15
19
17
11
9
10
20
18 17
16
12
17
31
1
30
30
29
30
29
29
0
28
30
26
30
25
0
25
30
24
30
23
0
22
30
21
32
1
17
30
17
17
30
16
30
18
19
30
32
0
34
33
1. Nuts (4) 10. Seal 19. Seals (2) 28. Thrust plate
2. Washers (4) 11. Seal 20. Dowel pin 29. Pocket seals
(6)
3. Port end cover 12. Dowel pin 21. Connecting shaft 30. Roller
bearings (2)
4. Thrust plate 13. Driving gear 22. Driving gear 31. Seal
5. Pocket seals (6) 14. Driven gear 23. Driven gear 32. Seal
6. Roller bearings (2) 15. Bearing carrier 24. Gear housing 33. Plug
7. Seal 16. Thrust plates (2) 25. Seals (2) 34. Shaft end cover
8. Dowel pin 17. Pocket seals (12) 26. Dowel pin
a.Inspectthegearsurfacesandtheedgesofthegearteethforburrs,scoring,or
wear.Removeburrswithafinestone.Replacethegearsiftheyarewornorbadly
scored.
NOTE: Gearsmustbereplacedinsets.
b. Inspectthedrivinggear(22),andreplaceitifitisroughordamagednearthe
sealorifwearatthebearingsurfaceshascausedtheshaftdiametertodifferfromthe
designateddiameterbymorethan0.001inch.
c. Inspecttherollerbearings(6,18,and30)forfreerollers,pitting,orwear.
Replacethebearingsasneeded.
d. Inspectthegearhousings(9and24)forwearanddamage,andreplacethemas
needed.Inspectthematingsurfacesofthegearhousings(9and24),bearingcarrier
(15),portendcover(3),andshaftendcover(34)forburrsanddamage.Removeburrs
withafinefileorstone.Replacetheentirepartifthesurfaceisbadlydamaged.
e. Inspectthethrustplates(4,16,and28)forwearandscoring.Replacethe
platesasneeded.
18. ReassemblyoftheGearPump.RefertoFigure17,andcompletethe
followingstepstoreassemblethegearpump:
a. Coatthepreformedpacking,thepocketseals(5,17,and29),andtheseals(7,
10,11,19,25,31,and32)withanoilsolublegreasebeforeinstallingthem.
b. Presstheseal(32)intotheshaftendcover(34)withthelipfacingtheinsideof
thebore.
c. Usesoftjawstoplacetheshaftendcover(34)inavise.Installthepreformed
packingandrollerbearings(30)intheshaftendcover(34).
d. Greasethesixpocketseals(17)andinstalltheminthetwomiddleslotsofthe
thrustplates(16).Installthethrustplate(4)onthedriveshaftwiththepocketseal
facingtheshaftendcover(34).Tapthethrustplate(4)inplace.Leaveaclearanceof
0.03125inchbetweenthethrustplate(4)andtheshaftendcover(34).
e.Installthesixouterpocketseals(5)inthethrustplate(4).Pushthepocket
seals(5)intotheslotsuntiltheendsmakecontactwiththerollerbearings(18).Tap
thethrustplate(4)solidlyintopositionontheportendcover(3).Usearazorbladeor
asharpknifetotrimtheexposedendsonthepocketseals(5)sothattheyareflush
withthesidesofthethrustplate(4).
EN 5260 1-12
f. Usesoftjawstoplacethegearhousing(24)inavise.Installthethrustplate
(16)asdescribedinparagraph18d.
g. Placetheportendcover(3)inavise.Installtheseal(7),therollerbearings
(6),andthethrustplate(4).
h. Placethebearingcarrier(15)inavise.Installtheseals(19),theroller
bearings(18),andthethrustplates(16).
i. Placetheassembledshaftendcover(34)inavise.Coatthethrustplate(28)
withengineoil.Installthedrivinggear(22)andthedrivengear(23)intheshaftend
cover(34).
j. Installtheseals(25)inthegroovesonthegearhousing(24).Installthe
housingoverthegearsontheshaftendcover(34).Tapthegearhousing(24)witha
leatherhammertoseatitonthecover.Lubricatethegearswithengineoiltoprovide
initiallubrication.
k. Installtheconnectingshaft(21)intheboreofthepumpshaftanddrivinggear
(22).Installthebearingcarrier(15)onthegearhousing(24),andalignthescribe
marks.Tapthebearingcarrier(15)inplace.
l. Installthedrivinggear(13)ontheconnectingshaft(21)andinstallthedriven
gear(14)intheboreofthebearingcarrier(15).Insertseals(10and11)inthegrooves
onthegearhousing(9).Placethegearhousing(9)overthegearsandtapthehousing
inplace.Lubricategearswithengineoil.
m.Placetheportendcover(3)onthegearhousing(9)andtapinplace.Thread
fourstudsthroughtheportendcover(3)andintotheshaftendcover(34)untilthe
stud'sendsextendabovetheportendcover(3).Insertthefourwashers(2)andnuts
(1).Tightenthenuts(1)toasnugfit.
n.Rotatetheconnectingshaft(21)andthedrivinggear(22)witha6inch
wrench.Checktheeaseofoperation.Iftheconnectingshaft(21)rotatesfreely,tighten
thenuts(1)toatorqueof200footpounds.Rotatetheconnectingshaft(21),andcheck
theeaseofoperationasecondtime.Thepumpshouldrotatefreelywithnoevidenceof
binding.
o.Coatthesplinesoftheconnectingshaft(21)andthedrivinggear(22)with
grease.
19.InstallationoftheGearPump.Completethefollowingstepstoinstallthe
assembledgearpump:
1-13 EN 5260
a. RefertoFigure17,page18.Removetheprotectivecoverfromthesplined
connectingshaft(21)ofthegearpump,andcoattheshaftwithgrease.Installthe
pumponthemountingpad.
b. RefertoFigure16,page17.Installthegearpumpandsecureitwithtwo
screws(1)andlockwashers(2).Connectthehydrauliclinestothepump.
c. RefertoFigure15,page16,andcontinuewiththefollowingstepstoinstall
theassembledgearpump:
Replacethedrainplug(2)andstrainerassembly(6)inthereservoir.
Replacethecover(4)andthegasket(5)onthereservoir,andsecurethe
coverwithscrews(3).
Refillthereservoirwithhydraulicfluid,andreplacethefillerplug(1).
Starttheengine,andcheckthepumpandlinesforleaks.Operatethe
hydrauliccontrolsandcheckpumpoperation.
PARTC:VANEPUMP
110. General.Adoublesection,insert,hydraulicvanepumpisusedonCaterpillar
D7Gtractors.Thepumpisboltedontheengine'srearpowertakeoffhousingandis
drivenbytherearpowertakeoffidlergear.
a.Avanepumpconsistsofasmallandalargesection,bothofwhichsharea
commoninlet.Thelargesectionprovideshydraulicpowerforthebladeliftandscraper
circuits.Thebladeliftcircuitiscontrolledbyavalvelocatedinthehydraulictank.
Thescrapercircuitiscontrolledbyavalvelocatedintheequipmentoperator's
compartment.Thesmallsectionpowersthebladetiltcircuitandiscontrolledbya
valvemountedinthehydraulictank.
b.Thevanepumprequiresacontinuousflowofcleanoiltolubricatetheclosely
fittedparts.Ifinletoilisnotavailable,thepumpmayseizeorsustaindamagewhen
theengineisstarted.Insufficientoilsupplymayresultfromcloggedorleakinginlet
linesoralowoillevel.Thepumpmayneedtoberemovedforcleaningorrepair.
111.RemovaloftheVanePump.Toremovethevanepumpfromitsmounting,
completethefollowingsteps:
a.Closetheshutoffvalvelocatedonornearthereservoir.
b.Disconnectthesuction(intake)andpressure(outlet)hoses.
EN 5260 1-14
c.Removethevanepumpfromitsmountingbracketorhousing.
112.DisassemblingtheVanePump.RefertoAppendixD,pagesD7throughD
10,todisassemblethevanepump.
113. Cleaning,InspectingandRepairingtheVanePump.Afterthevanepump
isdisassembled,thoroughlycleananddryallparts(refertoAppendixD,pagesD3
throughD6andD10).Carefullyinspectandrepaircleanedpartsaccordingtothe
followingprocedures:
a.DiscardtheintakeandexhaustplatesealsandOrings.Washallmetalparts
inmineraloilsolvent,anddrythemwithfiltered,compressedair.Placethepartsona
cleansurfaceforinspection.
b.Inspectthesurfacesofthepumphousing,rotorring,androtorforscoringand
wear.Removelightscoringmarksbylappingwithanextrafineemeryclothorlapping
compound.Replaceallheavilyscoredorbadlywornparts.
c.Checktheintakeandexhaustendplatesforscoringandwear.Replacebadly
wornorheavilyscoredendplates.
d. Inspectthevanesforburrs,wear,orplayintherotorslots.Iftoomuchplayis
noted,replacetherotorandvanes.Refertotherepairandreplacementstandards
listedintheappropriateTMtodetermineifreplacementisnecessary.
e.Checktheslipringandslipringwasherforscoringandwear.Replaceheavily
scoredorbadlywornparts.
f. Checkthebearingsforwearandfit.Tocheckforpittedorcrackedballsor
race,applypressureandslowlyrotatethebearing.Replacethebearingifitiswornor
scored.Placethedriveshaftintothepilotbearingandcheckforexcessiveplay.
Replacethepilotbearingifnecessary.Refertotherepairandreplacementstandards
listedintheappropriateTMtodeterminewhenreplacementisnecessary.
g.Inspecttheoilsealmatingsurfaceofthedriveshaftforscoringandwear.If
marksonthedriveshaftcannotberemovedwithlightpolishing,replacethedrive
shaft.
h.CoatOringswithasmallamountofpetroleumjellytoholdtheminplace
duringreassembly.
114.LubricatingandAssemblingtheVanePump.Lubricateallpartswithclean
oil.RefertoAppendixD,pagesD10throughD14toassemblethevanepump.
1-15 EN 5260
115. TestingtheVanePump.RefertoAppendixD,pagesD14throughD18,totest
thevanepump.
PARTD:PISTONPUMP
116. General.ThepistonpumpisusedontheACE.Thecompensatinghydraulic
pumpisatenpiston,variabledisplacement,constantpressure,radialpump.
WARNING
TheACE'shydraulicsystemisunderhighpressure.Relievepressurebefore
disconnectinganyhydrauliccomponents.Afterpressureisrelieved,waitat
least4minutesbeforedisconnectinganyhoseorfitting.Failuretocomply
mayresultinsevereinjury.
EN 5260 1-16
117 RemovingthePistonPump.Completethefollowingstepstoremovethe
pistonpumpfromitsmounting:
a. RefertoFigure112anddisconnectthepistonpumpusingthefollowingsteps:
Disconnectthehoses(1,2,and3)fromelbows(4,5,and6).
Loosenthescrew(8)ontheclamp(9),andremovetheclampfromthe
pump(7).

a. Disconnecthoses(1,2,and3)fromelbows(4,5,and6)atpump(7).
b. Loosenscrew(8)ofclamp(9),andremoveclamp(9)frompump(9).
Figure112.Disconnectingthepistonpump
b. RefertoFigure113,page114,toremovethepistonpump.Removethetwo
selflockingscrews(10),washers(11),pump(7),andgasket(12)fromthetransfercase
(13).Discardthescrews(10)andthegasket(12).
1-17 EN 5260
9
1
8
6
3
4
7
5
2
Figure113.Removingthepistonpump
118. Disassemblingthepistonpump.Completethefollowingstepstodisassemble
thepistonpump:
a. RefertoFigure114,anddisassemblethepistonpumpusingthefollowing
steps:
Figure114.Pumpdisassembly,PartI
Figure114.Disassemblingthepistonpump,partI
EN 5260 1-18
7
10
11
12
13
5
6
15
7
14
4
17
16
19
18
Removetheelbows(4and6)andtheseals(14and15)fromthepump
(7).Discardthepacking.
Removetheelbow(5),thereducer(16),theseal(17),theelbow(18),and
theseal(19)fromthepump(7).Discardtheseals(17and19).
b. RefertoFigure115,anddisassemblethepistonpumpusingthefollowing
steps:
Removethefourcapscrews(1),compensator(2),gasket(3),andseal(4)
fromthecover(5).Discardthegasket(3)andtheseal(4).
Figure115.Disassemblingthepistonpump,partII
Removethefourscrews(6),cover(5),andgasket(7)fromthehousing(8).
Discardthegasket.
WARNING
Removetherotatinggroupasanassembly.Failuretocomplymayresultin
damagetoequipment.
c. RefertoFigure116,page116,anddisassemblethepistonpumpusingthe
followingsteps:
1-19 EN 5260
1
2
6
4
5
7
8
3
Tipthehousing(8)forwardandremovetherotatinggroup(9)fromthe
shaft(10).
EN 5260 1-20
Figure116.Disassemblingthepistonpump,partIII
Removetheswashplate(11)andthetwoscrews(13)fromtheyoke(12).
Applypressuretotheyoke(12)anduseawooddoweltodriveoutthetwo
pintles(14).
Removetheyoke(12),seat(15),andtwosprings(16)fromtheshaft(10)
andhousing(8).
Removethepacking(17)fromthepintles(14).Discardtheseal(17).
119. ReassemblingthePistonPump.Completethefollowingstepstoreassemble
thepistonpump:
NOTE:Lightlycoatallpartswithlubricatingoilbeforeassembly.Apply
lubricatingoiltopackingbeforeinstallation.
a. RefertoFigure116,andreassemblethepistonpumpusingthefollowing
steps:
Installtheseal(17)onthepintles(14).
Installthetwosprings(16),seat(15),andyoke(12)onthehousing(8).
Pressdownontheyoke(12)andalignthescrewholeswiththeholesinthe
pintle(14)seat.Installtwopintlesonthehousing(8)andtheyoke(12).
NOTE:Thepintlegroovesmustaligninthecenteroftheyoke'sscrewholes.
1-21 EN 5260
9
11
17
3
12
15 16
14
10
8
13
Installthetwoscrews(13)ontheyoke(12).Tightenthescrews(13)to75
to80footpounds.
Installtheswashplate(11)ontheyoke(12),chamferedsidefirst.Coatthe
faceoftheswashplate(11)withlubricatingoil.
Laythehousing(8)onitssideandcarefullyslidetherotatinggroup(9)on
theshaft(10),aligningthesplines.Coatthefaceoftherotatinggroup(9)
withlubricatingoil.
NOTE:Thecoverwillnotfitflushuntilthescrewsaretightened.
b. RefertoFigure115,page115,andreassemblethepistonpumpusingthe
followingsteps:
Installthegasket(7)andcover(5)onthehousingwiththefourscrews(6).
Tightenthescrews(6)to25to35footpounds.
Installthepacking(4),gasket(3),andcompensator(2)onthecover(5)with
fourscrews(1).Tightenthescrews(1)to60to70footpounds.
120.InstallingthePistonPump.Completethefollowingstepstoinstallthepiston
pump:
NOTE:Newpumpsaredeliveredwitha0.25by0.25inchkeyinstalledonthe
shaft.Discardthiskeyandusea0.25by0.225inchkey.
a. RefertoFigure112,page113.Installtheclamp(8)onthepump(7).
b. RefertoFigure113,page114,andinstallthepistonpumpusingthe
followingsteps:

Cleanthemountingsurfacesofthepump(7)andtransfercase(13).
NOTE:Applylubricatingoiltothescrewthreadsandpackingbefore
installation.
Installthegasket(12)andthepump(7)onthetransfercase(13)withthe
washer(11)andselflockingscrews(10).
c. RefertoFigure114,page114.Installthepacking(14),elbow(4),packing
(15),elbow(6),packing(17),reducer(16),packing(19),elbow(18),andelbow(5)on
EN 5260 1-22
pump(7).Thepositionoftheelbow(6)shouldpointslightlydownwardtopreventthe
hosefrominterferingwiththeejector.
1-23 EN 5260
d. RefertoFigure112,page113,andinstallthepistonpumpusingthe
followingsteps:
WARNING
Ensurethatthepumpisprimedwithlubricatingoil.Failuretocomplymay
resultindamagetoequipment.
ConnectSPNSNPUMP7hose(3)totheelbow(6).
Turntheelbow(4)toanuprightposition.Fillthepump(7)with
lubricatingoilthroughtheuprightelbow(4)untiloiloverflowsfromthe
elbow(5).
Turntheelbow(5)toadownwardposition.
ConnectSPNSNPUMP9hose(2)totheelbow(5)andconnectSPNSN
DRAIN7Vhose(1)totheelbow(4).
EN 5260 1-24
LESSON1
PRACTICEEXERCISE
Thefollowingitemswilltestyourgraspofthematerialcoveredinthislesson.Thereis
onlyonecorrectanswerforeachitem.Whenyouhavecompletedtheexercise,check
youranswerwiththeanswerkeythatfollows.Ifyouansweranyitemincorrectly,
studyagainthatpartwhichcontainstheportioninvolved.
1. Hydraulicenergyisachievedbyconvertinghydraulicpowerto_____________
energy.
A. Electrical
B. Mechanical
C. Solar
D. Kinetic
2. Positivedisplacementpumpsareclassifiedaccordingtotheelementthattransmits
theliquid.Whatarethethreeclassifications?
A. Plunger,vane,androtary
B. Centrifugal,rotary,andsuction
C. Gear,vane,androtary
D. Gear,vane,andpiston
3. Followingdisassemblyofagearpump,youshould___________________oldseals
andpreformedpacking?
A. Reuse
B. Discard
C. Turnin
D. Store
4. Scribealinelengthwisealongthegearpumptoaidinalignmentduring
__________.
A. Replacement
B. Removal
C. Reassembly
D. Disassembly
5. Followinggearpumpdisassembly,use_________________tocleanallmetalparts.
1-25 EN 5260
A. Kerosene
B. Solvent
C. Gasoline
D. Dieselfuel
6. Allpreformedpacking,pocketseals,andsealsonagearpumpshouldbecoated
with__________________beforeinstallation.
A. Motoroil
B. Hydraulicfluid
C. Oilsolublegrease
D. Gearoil
7. Whatshouldbeusedtoremoveburrsfromthebearingcarrierofagearpump?
A. Grinder
B. Roughfile
C. Finefile
D. Steelwool
EN 5260 1-26
THISPAGEISINTENTIONALLYLEFTBLANK.
1-27 EN 5260
LESSON1
PRACTICEEXERCISE
ANSWERKEYANDFEEDBACK
Item CorrectAnswerandFeedback
1. B.Mechanical
Hydraulicenergyisachievedbyconverting...(page12,Introduction)
D.Gear,vane,andpiston
Positivedisplacementpumpsareclassified...(page12,para11b)
B.Discard
Removetheseals...(page17,para16c)
4. C.Reassembly
Scribealinelengthwisealongthepump...(page17,para16c)
5. B.Solvent
Cleanallmetalpartsusing...(page18,para16d)
6. C.Oilsolublegrease
Coatallpreformedpacking...(page19,para18a)
7. C.Finefile
Removeburrswitha...(page19,para17d)
EN 5260 1-28
LESSON2
HYDRAULICVALVES
CriticalTask:0512352188
OVERVIEW
LESSONDESCRIPTION:
Inthislesson,youwilllearnthestepsrequiredtotest,adjust,andrepairhydraulic
valvesonengineerconstructionequipment.
TERMINALLEARNINGOBJECTIVE:
ACTION: Youwilllearntorepairhydraulicvalvesonengineerconstruction
equipment.
CONDITION: Youwillbegiventhematerialcontainedinthislesson.Youwill
workatyourownpaceandinyourownselectedenvironmentwith
nosupervision.
STANDARD: Youwillcorrectlyanswerpracticeexercisequestionsattheendof
thelesson.
REFERENCES: ThematerialcontainedinthislessonwasderivedfromFM5499
STP562B24SMTG,TM5380526220,andTM5380526234.

INTRODUCTION
Hydraulicsystemsusevalvestomovehydraulicfluidoroilfromonepointtoanother.
Toensuretheefficientoperationofequipment,theconstructionequipmentrepairer
mustbeknowledgeableincontrolandrepairprocedures.Inahydraulicsystem,valves
controltheactuators.Anactuatorisacylinderthatconvertshydraulicenergyto
mechanicalenergy.Forexample,thetiltcylinderonaCaterpillarD7orD8dozerisan
actuatorthatcontrolsthebladedirection.
2-1 EN 5260
a.Valvesareoftenreferredtoasthe"control"ofthehydraulicsystem,
particularlywhenseveralarebuiltintoasingleassembly.Valvesassertcontrolinthe
hydraulicsystemto
Regulatepressureandcreatespecialpressureconditions.
Regulatetheflowrateanddirectionoffluidtopartsofthehydraulic
system.
b.Valvesareratedbytheirsize,pressurecapabilities,andpressuredropversus
flowcapabilities.Mostarenamedfortheirfunction,butsomearenamedfortheir
construction.Forexample,apressurereliefvalveisnamedforitsfunction,anda
poppetvalveisnamedforitsconstruction.
c. Valveconstructionrangesfromasimpleballandseatarrangementtoa
multielement,spooltypevalvewithjetpipepilotstageandelectricalcontrol.General
constructionclassificationbeginswithsimplevalvesandbuildstocomplexdesigns.
PARTA:PRESSURECONTROLVALVES
21. General.
a. Pressurecontrolvalvesarethemostcommonvalvesonengineerconstruction
equipmentwithhydraulicsystems.Theyareusedto
Regulatepressure.
Createspecificpressureconditions.
Controltheorderinwhichactuatorsoperate.
b. Pressurecontrolvalvesoperateinhydraulicbalance.Hydraulicbalanceoccurs
whenpressureononesideorendofaball,poppet,orspoolisopposedbyaspringon
theoppositeend.Duringoperation,thepositionofthevalvecausesthehydraulic
pressuretobalancewiththeforceofthespring.Becausespringforcedifferswith
compressiondistance,theamountofpressurecandiffer.Thepressurecontrolvalve
hasinfinitepositioning.Itcancontrolconditionsfromalargetoasmallvolumeoffluid
flow,oritcancompletelyrestrictfluidmovement.
EN 5260 2-2
22.Classification.
a. Pressurecontrolvalvesareclassifiedasnormallyclosedornormallyopen.The
mostcommontype,thenormallyclosed,blockstheflowoffluidfromtheinletportto
theoutletportuntilpressurebuildshighenoughtocauseunbalancedoperation.Flow
inanormallyopenvalvemovesfreelyuntilthevalveoperatesinbalance.Theflowis
thenpartlyrestrictedorcompletelycutoff.
b. Pressureoverrideoccurswhenanormallyclosedvalveoperatesinbalance.
Becausepressureincreasesastheheightofthecompressionspringisreduced,the
pressurewhenthevalvecracksorbeginstopassflowthroughtheoutletportisless
thanwhenitpassesalargevolume(fullflow).Thedifferencebetweenfullflow
pressureandcrackingpressureiscalledoverride.
23.PressureReliefValve.
a. Thereliefvalveisthemostcommonpressurecontrolvalve.Reliefvalveshave
twofunctions.Theyprovideoverloadprotectionforcircuitcomponents,andtheylimit
theforce(torque)exertedbyalinearactuatororrotarymotor.Thefunctionofthe
reliefvalvemaychange,dependingonthesystem'sneeds.Thesevalvesareclassified
assimpleorcompound,dependingontheirdesign.
b. Theinternaldesignofallpressurereliefvalvesissimilar.Thevalveshavetwo
sectionsabodyandacover.Thebodycontainsapiston,whichisretainedonitsseat
byoneormoresprings.Thecover,alsocalledthepilotvalvesection,containsthe
adjustingscrew.Theadjustingscrewcontrolsfluidmovementtothepump'sbodyand
controlsthepressure(expressedinpoundspersquareinch[psi])withinrangeofthe
valve'sratedcapacity.
24. SimplePressureReliefValve.
a. Asimplepressurereliefvalvehasonlyonespring.Thevalveisinstalledso
thatoneportconnectstothepressureline(inlet)andtheotherconnectstothe
reservoir(outlet).Theballonthesimplepressurereliefvalveisheldonitsseatbythe
thrustofthespring.Theamountofthrustexertedcanbemodifiedbyturningthe
adjustingscrew.Whenpressureattheinletisinsufficienttoovercomethespringforce,
theballremainsonitsseatandthevalveisclosedasshowninFigure21,page24.
Thepositionoftheballpreventstheflowoffluidthroughthevalve.Whenthepressure
attheinletexceedstheadjustedspring'sforce,theballmovesoffitsseatandthevalve
opens,allowinghydraulicfluidoroilfromthepressurelinetoflowthroughthevalveto
thereservoir.Thisflowpreventsapressureincreaseinthepressureline.When
pressuredecreasesbelowtheadjustedspring'sforce,theballisreseatedandthevalve
closes.
2-3 EN 5260
Figure21.Simplepressurereliefvalve
b. Thespringforceinasimplepressurereliefvalvecausesgreaterfullflow
pressurethancrackingpressure.Whenoperatingatfullflowcapacity,thehigh
pressurecausesthevalvetooperateinanoverridemode.Insomecases,theoverride
pressureisalmostashighorhigherthanthevalve'sratedcapacity.
25.CompoundPressureReliefValve.
a. Acompoundpressurereliefvalvehasapoppetandaspringtoadjustfluidflow
(Figure22).TheclosedviewinFigure22showsthatpassage1isusedtomaintain
thehydraulicbalanceinthepistonwhenthevalve'sinletpressureislessthanthe
pressuresetting.Thevalvesettingisdeterminedbythethrustoftheadjustingspring
againstthepoppet.Whenthepressureatthevalveinletreachesthevalvesetting,the
pressureinpassage2risestoovercomethethrustofspring1.Whentheflowthrough
passagelcreatessufficientpressuredroptoovercomethethrustofspring2,thepiston
risesoffitsseatasshownintheopenview.Thisallowshydraulicfluidoroiltopass
throughthedrainageporttothereservoirandpreventsanyfurtherincreasein
pressure.
EN 5260 2-4
Adjusting
screw
Spring
Seat
From pressure line
To reservoir
Ball
Figure22.Compoundpressurereliefvalve
b.Pressurereliefvalvesthatprovideemergencyoverloadprotectionmustbe
periodicallycleanedeveniftheyarenotoperatedoften.Tocleanthevalve,reducethe
pressureadjustmentandoperatethevalveunderreducedpressureforafewminutesto
cleanouttheaccumulatedsludgedeposits.Adjustthepressuretotheprescribed
setting.
PARTB:DIRECTIONALCONTROLVALVES
26. ComplexDirectionalControlValves.Complexdirectionalcontrolvalvesare
usedonengineerconstructionequipment,includingtheJ.I.CaseScoopLoaderModel
MW24C.Allcomplexdirectionalcontrolvalvescontrolthedirectionoffluidflow,but
theyvaryconsiderablyinphysicalcharacteristicsandoperation.Thevalvingelement
intheseunitsisclassifiedunderoneofthefollowingtypes:
Poppetthepistonorballmovesonandoffaseat.
Rotarythespoolrotatesarounditsaxis.
Slidingspoolthespoolslidesaxiallywithinabore.
2-5 EN 5260

Closed view Open view

Inlet
Adjusting
screw
Drainage port
Passage 2
Piston
Poppet
Spring 1
Spring 2
Passage 1
Outlet
27.ValveClassification.
a. Directionalcontrolvalvesmaybeclassifiedaccordingtothemethodusedto
actuatethevalvingelement.Apoppetvalveisusuallyhydraulicallyoperated.A
rotaryspoolvalvemaybeoperatedmanually(leverorpistonaction),mechanically(cam
ortripaction),orelectrically(solenoidaction).Theslidingspoolvalvemaybeoperated
manually,mechanically,electrically,hydraulically,orincombination.
b.Directionalcontrolvalvesmayalsobeclassifiedaccordingtothenumberof
positionsinthevalvingelementorbythetotalnumberofflowpathsprovidedinthe
extremeposition.Forexample,athreeposition,fourwayvalvehastwoextreme
positionsandacenter(neutral)position.Eachoftheextremepositionshastwoflow
paths.
28.PoppetValve.TheoperationofasimplepoppetvalveisshowninFigure23.
Thevalvehasamovablepoppetthatclosesagainstavalveseat.Pressurefromthe
inletholdsthevalvetightlyclosed.Aslightforceappliedtothepoppetstemopensthe
valve.ThepoppetstemusuallyhasanOringsealtopreventleakage.Onsomevalves,
poppetsareheldintheseatedpositionbysprings.
Figure23.Simplepoppetvalve
29.SlidingSpoolValve.
a.Aslidingspoolvalveisalsoknownasapistontypevalvebecauseithasa
pistonwithtwoinnerareasofequalsize.Pressurefromtheinletportactsequallyon
bothinnerareasregardlessofthepositionofthespool.Theportsaresealedbya
machinefitbetweenthespoolandvalvebodyorsleeve.
EN 5260 2-6
Outlet
Valve seat
Poppet
Inlet
Closed view Open view
b.Thespoolinaslidingspoolvalveisclassifiedbasedontheflowconditions
createdwhenitisintheneutral(normal)position.Forexample,aclosedcenterspool
blocksallvalveportswhenitisintheneutralposition.Anopencenterspoolopensall
valveportswhenitisintheneutralposition.Closedcenterandopencentervalvesare
twoofmanydesignsusedforslidingspool,directionalcontrolvalves.
c.TheslidingspoolvalveisshowninFigure24.Duringoperation,thevalve
elementslidesbackandforthtoblockoruncoverportsinthehousing.
Figure24.Slidingspoolvalve
2-7 EN 5260
Outlet port blocked by piston
Spool shifted
to left
Closed to flow
Closed view
Open view
Spool shifted
to right
Open to flow
Port open
210.TwoWayValves.Twowayvalvesareusedtocontrolthedirectionoffluidflow
inahydrauliccircuit.Thesevalvesareusuallytheslidingspooltype.Asthespool
movesbackandforth,itallowsorpreventstheflowoffluidthroughthevalve.
211.FourWayValves.Fourwayvalvesalsocontrolthedirectionoffluidflowina
hydrauliccircuit.Thefluidmovementcontrolsthedirectionofaworkcylinderorthe
rotationofafluidmotor.
a. Fourwayvalvesareusuallytheslidingspooltype.Theyhavearectangular
castbody,aslidingspool,andacontrolleverforpositioningthespool.Thespoolis
precisionfittedtoaborethroughthelongitudinalaxisofthevalve'sbody.Thelandsof
thespooldividetheboreintoaseriesofseparatechambers.Portsinthevalve'sbody
leadintothesechambers.Thepositionofthespooldetermineswhichportsareopento
eachotherandwhicharesealed.Portsthataresealedinonepositionmaybe
interconnectedinanotherposition.
b. Fourway,directionalcontrolvalveshavefourportsapressure,areturn
(exhaust),andtwoworking.Thepressureportconnectstothepressureline(inlet),the
returnportconnectstothereservoir(outlet),andthetwoworkingportsconnecttothe
actuatingunit.
PARTC:CONTROLVALVEREPAIR
212.General.ThecontrolvalveonaJ.I.CaseScoopLoaderModelMW24Cenables
theoperatortodirecttheflowofhydraulicfluidtothecylindersthatoperatetheloader.
Itservesacombinationofpurposesandfunctionsasapressurerelief,directional
control,andoverloadcheckvalve.Thevalvehasthreeoperatingspoolsasshownin
Figure25.
EN 5260 2-8
Figure25.Controlvalve
a.Theupperspool(1)controlstheliftcircuit,thecenterspool(2)controlsthetilt
circuit,andthelowerspool(3)controlstheclamcircuit.
b.Whenthespoolsareintheneutralposition,oilflowfromthepumpisdirected
throughthevalvetotheoutletportandreturnedtothereservoir.Whenthespoolis
movedbythecontrollinkage,thebypassisclosedandoilflowsthroughthespoolload
checkvalvetothedesiredcylinderport.Atthesametime,aportattheoppositeendof
thecylinderisopenedtoallowoiltoflowtothecontrolvalve'soutletport.
213.DisassemblingtheControlValve.RefertoFigure26,andcompletethe
followingstepstodisassemblethecontrolvalve:
2-9 EN 5260
1
2
3
Figure26.Controlvalve
EN 5260 2-10
10
10
9
10
8
10
6
10
4
10
19
10
17
10
16
06
10
15
0
10
14
10
13
10
12
10
11
10
18
10
7
10
23
10
24
10
22
10
10
21
10
20
10
10
31
8
10
32
10
29
10
27
10
28
10
26
10
25
10
2
1
10
3
2
10
1
10
30
10
33
10
5
1. Seal assembly 10. O-ring 19. Washer 28. O-ring
2. Wiper 11. Coil 20. Spring seat 29. Spool
3. O-ring 12. Spacer 21. Spring 30. O-
ring
4. Screws (4) 13. Screw 22. Spring 31. Spool eye
5. Contact wires 14. Washer 23. Spring seat 32. O-ring
6. Connector 15. Coil 24. Washer 33. Sleeve
7. Setscrew 16. Washer 25. Retainer
8. Retaining ring 17. Stud 26. O-ring
9. Cap 18. Detent housing 27. Retainer
NOTE:Beforebeginningthedisassemblyprocess,cleanthevalve'sexterior
andportswithcleaningcompoundsolventanddrythemthoroughly.
a. Placethecontrolvalveassemblyonacleanworkbench.
b. Useanopenendwrenchtoloosenandremovethesealassembly(1).
c. Useascrewdrivertoremovethewiper(2)fromthesealassembly(1).Discard
thewiper(2).
d. RemovetheOring(3)fromthesealassembly(1).DiscardtheOring(3).
WARNING
Donotovertightentheviseasitwillcausedamagetothecontrolvalve
body.
e. Placethecontrolvalveassemblyinasoftjawedvise.
f. Loosenthedetenthousing(18).
g. Installarodorsmallprybarinthespooleye(31).
h. Loosenandremovethefourscrews(4).
i. Pulltheconnector(6)upfromthecap(9)justenoughtogainaccesstothewires
solderedtothecontacts.Tagandunsolderthewiresfromtheconnector(6)contacts.
Removetheconnector(6).
j. Removethesetscrew(7).
k. Useascrewdrivertoremovetheretainingring(8).Removethecap(9).
l. RemoveanddiscardtheOring(10)fromthecap(9).
NOTE:Onsomeunits,tapemaybeusedtoholdthecoils(11and15)and
spacer(12)together,preventingtheirremoval.Ifremovalisnotpossible,
disregardparagraph213(m)andgotoparagraph213(n).
m.Removethecoil(11)andthespacer(12)fromthedetenthousing(18).
WARNING
Holdthecoil(11)againstthespring(21)tensionwhenlooseningthescrew.
Failuretodosocouldresultinseriousinjuryfromflyingparts.
2-11 EN 5260
n.Loosenthescrew(13)withthecoil(11)againstthespring(21)tension.
Iftapeisaroundthecoils(11and15),andthespacer(12)andthescrew
(13)havenotbeenloosenedfromthestud(17),removethecoils(11and
15),thespacer(12),thescrew(13),thewashers(14and16),thestud(17),
thewasher(19),thespring(22),andthewasher(24)asanassemblyandgo
toparagraph213(q).
Iftapeisaroundthecoils(11and15),thespacer(12),thescrew(13),and
thewashers(14and16)asanassembly,gotoparagraph213(o).
Iftapeisnotused,loosenandremovethescrew(13),thewasher(14),and
thestud(17)asanassembly.Ifthescrew(13)isloosenedfromthestud
(17),removeonlythescrew(13)andthewasher(14)andgotoparagraph2
13(s).
o. Removeanddiscardthetapesecuringthecoils(11and15)andthespacer
(12).
p. Tagandunsolderthecoil(11and15)wires.
q. Separatethecoils(11and15)andthespacer(12).Ifthescrew(13)wasnot
loosenedfromthestud(17),andthewasher(24)andthespring(22)wereremovedwith
thestud(17),workthewasher(24)fromthestud(17)andremovethespring(22)and
thewasher(19).Removethescrew(13)andthewasher(14)fromthestud(17).
r. Removethecoils(11and15)andthespacer(12).Ifthescrew(13)wasloosened
fromthestud(17),thespringseat(20),thesprings(21and22)andthewasher(24);
andifscrew(13)wasloosenedfromstud(17),andspringseat(23),gotoparagraph2
13(w).
s. Removethecoil(15),thewasher(16),andthedetenthousing(18).
t. Removethewasher(19)andthespringseat(20)fromthespring(21).
u. Removethetwosprings(21and22),thespringseat(20),andthewasher(24).
v. Unscrewandremovethestud(17)fromthespool(29)ifitisnotalready
removed.
w. Removetheretainer(27)andtheOrings(26and28)fromthespool(29)bore.
DiscardtheOrings(26and28).
EN 5260 2-12
x. Removetheretainer(27)andtheOring(28)fromthespool(29)bore.Discard
theOring(28).
NOTE:Cleanallmetalpartsincleaningcompoundsolventandletthemair
dry.Donotusecompressedair.
214. InspectingandRepairingtheControlValve.RefertoFigure26,page29,
andcompletethefollowingstepstoinspectandrepairthecontrolvalve:
a.Inspectthecontrolvalvebodyforcracks,breaks,orotherdamage.Inspectthe
spoolboreforgrooves,deepscratches,orothervisiblewear.Ifdamageisdiscovered,
replacetheentirecontrolvalvebody.
b.Inspectthespool(29)forgrooves,deepscratches,orothervisiblewear.Replace
thespoolifnecessary.
c.Thefreelengthofthespring(22)shouldbe2.63inches.Useaspringgaugeand
checkthattheforcerequiredtocompressthespring(22)to1.375inchesis13.5to16.5
pounds.Theforcerequiredtocompressthespring(22)to0.938inchshouldbe18to22
pounds.Replacethespring(22)ifthefreelengthortheforcerequiredtocompressitis
notasspecified.
d.Thefreelengthofthespring(21)shouldbe4.25inches.Useaspringgaugeand
checkthattheforcerequiredtocompressthespring(21)to2.25inchesis27to33
pounds.Theforcerequiredtocompressthespring(21)to1.375inchesshouldbe38to
48pounds.Replacethespring(21)ifthefreelengthortheforcerequiredtocompress
itisnotasspecified.
e.Connectamultimeteracrossthecoil(11)wires.Themultimetershouldindicate
a45to65ohmsresistance.Connectamultimeteracrossonewireofthecoil(11)and
itsmetalhousing.Themultimetershouldindicateinfinity(opencircuit).Repeatthe
multimetertestonthesecondcoilwireanditsmetalhousing.Again,thereading
shouldindicateinfinity.Replacethecoilifthemultimeterreadingisnotasspecified.
Repeatparagraph214(e)onthesecondcoil(15).
f.Inspecttheremainingpartsforcracks,breaks,deformation,distortion,and
damagedorstrippedthreads.
215. ReassemblingtheControlValve.RefertoFigure26,page29,andcomplete
thefollowingstepstoreassemblethecontrolvalve:
NOTE:Coatallvalvepartsandbodyboreswithengineoilbeforebeginning
thereassemblyprocess.
2-13 EN 5260
a.Placearodthroughoneholeinthespool(29).Placethespool(29)inasoft
jawedvise.
b. Installthesleeve(33)onthespool(29),sleeveshoulderup.
c. Placeasmallamountofretainingcompoundonthethreadsofthespool(29).
d.InstallanewOring(32)onthespooleye(31).Installthespooleyeinthespool
(29)andtightento19to21footpounds.InstallanewOring(30)inthespoolboreof
thecontrolvalvebody.
e.Lubricatethespool(29)anditsborewithcleanlubricatingoil.Installthespool
(24)initsbore.
f.Installarodoraprybarinthespooleye(31).
g.Placethecontrolvalveassemblyinasoftjawedvise.
h.InstallanewOring(28)intheboreonthecontrolvalvebody.Installthe
retainer(27)inthebore.
i.PlaceanewOring(26)onthespool(29)andinstalltheretainer(25).
j. Placethewasher(24)andthespringseat(23)onthespool(29).Makesurethat
thewasher(24)isinthespringseat(23)hole.
k. Installthetwosprings(21and22)andthespringseat(20).Installthewasher
(19)inthespringseat(20).
l. Installthedetenthousinginthecontrolvalvebody.Tightenthedetenthousing
to30to32footpounds.
m.Installthewasher(16).
n. Installthecoil(15)andfastentheleadendstogetherwithtape.
o. Applyasmallamountofretainingcompoundtothestud'sinternalthreadsifthe
screw(13)andstud(17)wereseparated.Installthewasher(14),screwonthestud,
andtightento10to12footpounds.
p. Applyasmallamountofretainingcompoundtothestud(17)threads.Install
thestud(17)inthedetenthousing(18).
EN 5260 2-14
q. Pushdownandturnthescrew(13)toinstallthestud(17)inthespool(29).
Tightento19to21footpounds.
r. Installthespacer(12)inthedetenthousing(18).
s. Installthecoil(11).
t. InstallanewOring(10)onthecap(9).
u. Feedtheleadsfromthecoils(11and15)throughthecap(9)hole.Installthecap
inthedetenthousing(18),aligningthesetscrew(7)holewiththeholeinthedetent
housing.
v. Installtheretainingring(8)andthesetscrew(7).Tightenthesetscrew(7).
w. Solderthecoil(11and15)leadstotheconnector(6)usingarosincoresolder.
Solderoneleadfromeachcoil(11and15)tocontactB(5)inconnector(6).Solderthe
secondleadfromthecoil(15)tocontactA(5)inconnector(6).Solderthesecondlead
fromthecoil(11)tocontactC(5)inconnector(6).
x. Positiontheconnector(6)onthecap(9).Installandtightenthefourscrews(4).
y. Removetherodortheprybarfromthespooleye(31).
z. InstallanewOring(3)inthesealassembly(1).
aa.Placethesealassembly(1)inahydraulicpress,threadedenddown.Place
thewiper(2)onthesealassembly.Usea13/4inchdiameterrodtopressthewiper(2)
intothesealassembly(1)untilthewiperisflushwiththetopofthepump.
bb.Installandtightenthesealassembly(1).
cc. Installthecontrolvalveassembly.
216.TestingandAdjustingtheControlValve.Testthecontrolvalveassemblyby
observingitduringoperation.Withtheoilattherecommendedoperatingtemperature
andtheenginerunningatafastidle,checkthetimerequiredtoraisetheemptybucket
onthescooploaderfromthegroundtoitshighestraisedposition.Thisshouldtake
approximately6seconds.Ifittakesmorethan6secondsforthebuckettoraise,ensure
thatthe
ReservoirisfilledtotheproperoillevelasstatedintheappropriateTM.
OilisthetypespecifiedintheappropriateTM.
2-15 EN 5260
Suctionlineisunrestrictedandthestrainerisclean.
Scooploaderisoperatingatthecorrectfastidlespeed,asstatedinthe
appropriateTM.
Powersteeringpumpandthedemandvalveareoperatingproperly.
NOTE:Repeatthistestwithaloadedbucket.Iftheliftingtimeisgood
(6seconds)withanemptybucketbutslowwithaloadedbucket,checkthe
cylinderpacking,mainpressurereliefvalve,andhydraulicpump.
EN 5260 2-16
LESSON2
PRACTICEEXERCISE
Thefollowingitemswilltestyourgraspofthematerialcoveredinthislesson.Thereis
onlyonecorrectanswerforeachitem.Whenyouhavecompletedtheexercise,check
youranswerwiththeanswerkeythatfollows.Ifyouansweranyitemincorrectly,
studyagainthatpartwhichcontainstheportioninvolved.
1. Valvesareratedbytheir__________________,pressurecapabilities,andpressure
dropversusflowcapabilities.
A. Function
B. Construction
C. Capacity
D. Size
2. ________________________occurswhenpressureononesideorendofaball,
poppet,orspoolisopposedbyaspringontheoppositeend.
A. Leveloperation
B. Restrictedoperation
C. Hydraulicbalance
D. Definiteflow
3. Whatisthemostcommontypeofpressurecontrolvalve?
A. Relief
B. Check
C. Plunger
D. Gate
4. Thedifferencebetweenfullflowpressureandcrackingpressureiscalled
________.
A. Override
B. Spoolvalve
C. Pressuredrop
D. Pilotstage
5. Whichvalvemaybeoperatedmanually,mechanically,electrically,hydraulically,
orincombination?
A. Poppet
2-17 EN 5260
B. Rotaryspool
C. Closedcenter
D. Slidingspool
6. Theslidingspoolvalveisalsoknownasthe__________typevalvebecauseithas
a_____________withtwoinnerareasofequalsize.
A. Plunger
B. Piston
C. Sleeve
D. Poppet
7. HowmanyspoolsareinthehydrauliccontrolvalveonaJ.I.CaseModelMW24C
scooploader?
A. Two
B. Three
C. Four
D. Five
8. Whentestingthecontrolvalve,howmanysecondsshouldittakeascooploaderto
liftanemptybucket?
A. 4
B. 6
C. 8
D. 10
EN 5260 2-18
THISPAGEISINTENTIONALLYLEFTBLANK.
2-19 EN 5260
LESSON2
PRACTICEEXERCISE
ANSWERKEYANDFEEDBACK
Item CorrectAnswerandFeedback
1. D.Size
Valvesareratedby...(page22,Introduction)
2. C.Hydraulicbalance
Hydraulicbalanceoccurswhen...(page22,para21b)
3. A.Relief
Thereliefvalveisthemostcommon...(page23,para23a)
4. A.Override
Thedifferencebetweenfullflowpressure...(page23,para22b)
5. D.Slidingspool
Theslidingspoolvalve...(page26,para27a)
6. B.Piston
Theslidingspoolvalveis...(page26,para29a)
7. B.Three
Thevalvehasthree...(page28,para212)
8. B.6
Thisshouldtakeapproximately...(page214,para216)
EN 5260 2-20
APPENDIXA
LISTOFCOMMONACRONYMS
C degreesCelsius
F degreesFahrenheit
ACCP ArmyCorrespondenceCourseProgram
ACE armoredcombatearthmover
AIPD ArmyInstituteforProfessionalDevelopment
AMEDD ArmyMedicalDepartment
APO ArmyPostOffice
ATTN attention
AUTOVON automaticvoicenetwork
AV automaticvoicenetwork
AWR answerweightreference
coml commercial
cont'd continued
DED dieselenginedriven
DETC DistanceEducationandTrainingCouncil
dia diameter
DINFOS DefenseInformationSchool
DOD DepartmentofDefense
A-1 EN 5260
DSN DefenseSwitchedNetwork
EM engineeringmanual
FM fieldmanual
ft foot(feet)
GPM gallon(s)perminute
HSTRU HydraulicSystemTestandRepair
ICE InterserviceCorrespondenceExchange
in inch(es)
IPD InstituteforProfessionalDevelopment
JFK JohnF.Kennedy
lb pound(s)
lbft pound(s)perfoot
lbin pound(s)perinch
LO lubricationorder
MI middleinitial
mil military
MOS militaryoccupationalspecialty
NSN nationalstocknumber
para paragraph
psi pound(s)persquareinch
RCOAC ReservedComponentOfficer'sAdvancedCourse
reg regulation
EN 5260 A-2
RYE retirementyearending
SGT sergeant
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APPENDIXB
RECOMMENDEDREADINGLIST
Thefollowingpublicationsprovideadditionalinformationaboutthematerialinthis
subcourse.Youdonotneedthismaterialtocompletethissubcourse.
FM5499.Hydraulics.1August1997.
STP562B1SM.Soldier'sManual,MOS62B,ConstructionEquipmentRepairerSkill
Level1.25September1990.
STP562B24SMTG.Soldier'sManualandTrainer'sGuide:MOS62B,Construction
EquipmentRepairer(SkillLevel2/3/4).15October1990.
TM52350262201.UnitMaintenanceManualVol1of2forArmoredCombat
Earthmover(ACE),M9(NSN2350008087100)(ThisItemisIncludedon
EM0035).3January1997.
TM52350262202.UnitMaintenanceManual,Vol2of2forArmoredCombat
Earthmover(ACE),M9(NSN2350008087100)(ThisItemisIncludedon
EM0035).3January1997.
TM5241023720.UnitMaintenanceManualforTractor,FullTracked,LowSpeed:
DED,MediumDrawbarPull,SSNM061,TractorWithRipper,(NSN241001223
0350)TractorWithWinch,(2410012237261)TractorWithRipperandWinterized
Cab,(2410012532118)TractorWithWinchandWinterizedCab,(241001253
2117)(ThisItemisIncludedonEM0119).30March1993.
TM5241023734.DirectSupportandGeneralSupportMaintenanceManualfor
Tractor,FullTracked,LowSpeed:DED,MediumDrawbarPull,SSNM061
TractorWithRipper,(NSN2410012230350)TractorWithWinch,(241001223
7621)TractorWithRipperandWinterizedCab,(2410012532118)TractorWith
WinchandWinterizedCab,(2410012532117)(ThisItemisIncludedonEM0119).
30March1993.
TM5380526220.OrganizationalMaintenance,Loader,ScoopType,DED,4x4,
ArticulatedFrameSteer,21/2CubicYard(J.I.CaseModelMW24C)(NSN3805
011504814)(ThisItemisIncludedonEM0115).1September1987.
TM5380526234.DirectSupportandGeneralSupportMaintenanceManualFor
Loader,ScoopType,DED,4x4,ArticulatedFrameSteer,21/2CubicYard(J.I.
CaseModelMW24C)(NSN3805011504814)(ThisItemisIncludedonEM0115).
1September1987.
B-1 EN 5260
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EN 5260 B-2
APPENDIXC
METRICCONVERSIONCHART
ThisappendixcomplieswithcurrentArmydirectiveswhichstatethatthemetric
systemwillbeincorporatedintoallnewpublications.TableC1isaconversionchart.
TableC1.Metricconversionchart
US Units Multiplied By Equals Metric Units
Length
Inches 2.54 Centimeters
Inches 0.0254 Meters
Inches 25.4001 Millimeters
Area
Square inches 6.4516 Square centimeters
Volume
Cubic yards 0.7646 Cubic meters
Gallons 3.7854 Liters
Weight
Ounces 28.349 Grams
Pounds 453.59 Grams
Pounds 0.45359 Kilograms
Metric Units Multiplied By Equals US Units
Length
Centimeters 0.3937 Inches
Meters 39.37 Inches
Millimeters 0.03937 Inches
Area
Square centimeters 0.155 Square inches
Volume
Cubic meters 1.3079 Cubic yards
Liters 0.2642 Gallons
Weight
Grams 0.03527 Ounces
Kilograms 2.2046 Pounds
C-1 EN 5260
THISPAGEISINTENTIONALLYLEFTBLANK.
EN 5700 C-2
APPENDIXDPUBLICATIONEXTRACTS
TM5241023734,30March1993.
Usetheabovepublicationextractstotakethissubcourse.Atthetimewewrotethis
subcourse,thiswasthecurrentpublication.Inyourownworksituation,alwaysrefer
tothelatestofficialpublications.
D-1 EN 5260
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EN 5260 D-2
D-3 EN 5260
EN 5260 D-4
D-5 EN 5260
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D-9 EN 5260
EN 5260 D-10
D-11 EN 5260
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D-13 EN 5260
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D-17 EN 5260
EN 5260 D-18
D-19 EN 5260

Training Solutions

Training Solutions

Hydraulics

Training Manual 8

Strength Design For Reinforced-Concrete Hydraulic Structures

EM 1110-2-2104

CECW-ED



Engineer Manual
No. 1110-2-2104



Engineering and Design
STRENGTH DESIGN FOR
REINFORCED CONCRETE HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

Table of Contents


Subject Paragraph Page

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Purpose 1-1
1-1
Applicability 1-2 1-1
References 1-3 1-1
Background 1-4 1-2
General Requirements 1-5 1-3
Scope 1-6 1-3
Computer Programs
1-7 1-3
Rescission 1-8 1-3

CHAPTER 2. DETAILS OF REINFORCEMENT

General 2-1 2-1
Quality
2-2 2-1
Anchorage, Bar Development, and Splices 2-3
2-1
Hooks and Bends 2-4 2-1
Bar Spacing 2-5 2-1
Concrete Protection for Reinforcement 2-6
2-2
Splicing 2-7 2-2
Temperature and Shrinkage Reinforcement 2-8 2-3

CHAPTER 3.
STRENGTH AND SERVICEABILITY REQUIREMENTS

General 3-1 3-1
Stability Analysis
3-2 3-1
Required Strength 3-3
3-2
Design Strength of Reinforcement 3-4 3-6
Maximum Tension Reinforcement 3-5 3-6
Control of Deflections and Cracking 3-6 3-6
Minimum Thickness of Walls 3-7 3-7






OS Software


i
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1-1. Purpose
This manual provides guidance for designing reinforced-concrete hydraulic
structures by the strength-design method.
1-2. Applicability
This manual applies to all HQUSACE/OCE elements, major subordinate commands,
districts, laboratories, and field operating activities having civil works
responsibilities.
1-3. References
a. EM 1110-1-2101, Working Stresses for Structural Design.
b. EM 1110-2-2902, Conduits, Culverts, and Pipes.
c. CW-03210, Civil Works Construction Guide Specification for Steel
Bars, Welded Wire Fabric, and Accessories for Concrete Reinforcement.
d. American Concrete Institute, "Building Code Requirements and
Commentary for Reinforced Concrete," ACI 318, Box 19150, Redford Station,
Detroit, MI 48219.
e. American Concrete Institute, "Environmental Engineering Concrete
Structures," ACI 350R, Box 19150, Redford Station, Detroit, MI 48219.
f. American Society for Testing and Materials, "Standard Specification
for Deformed and Plain Billet-Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement," ASTM
A 615-89, 1916 Race St., Philadelphia, PA 19103.
g. American Welding Society, "Structural Welding Code-Reinforcing
Steel," AWS D1.4-790, 550 NW Le Jeune Rd., P.O. Box 351040, Miami, FL 33135.
h. Liu, Tony C. 1980 (Jul). "Strength Design of Reinforced Concrete
Hydraulic Structures, Report 1: Preliminary Strength Design Criteria,"
Technical Report SL-80-4, US Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station,
3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS 39180.
i. Liu, Tony C., and Gleason, Scott. 1981 (Sep). "Strength Design of
Reinforced Concrete Hydraulic Structures, Report 2: Design Aids for Use in
the Design and Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Hydraulic Structural Members
Subjected to Combined Flexural and Axial Loads," Technical Report SL-80-4,
US Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, 3909 Halls Ferry Road,
Vicksburg, MS 39180.
1-1
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
j. Liu, Tony C. 1981 (Sep). "Strength Design of Reinforced Concrete
Hydraulic Structures, Report 3: T-Wall Design," Technical Report SL-80-4,
US Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, 3909 Halls Ferry Road,
Vicksburg, MS 39180.
1-4. Background
a. A reinforced concrete hydraulic structure is one that will be
subjected to one or more of the following: submergence, wave action, spray,
chemically contaminated atmosphere, and severe climatic conditions. Typical
hydraulic structures are stilling-basin slabs and walls, concrete-lined
channels, portions of powerhouses, spillway piers, spray walls and training
walls, floodwalls, intake and outlet structures below maximum high water and
wave action, lock walls, guide and guard walls, and retaining walls subject to
contact with water.
b. In general, existing reinforced-concrete hydraulic structures
designed by the Corps, using the working stress method of EM 1110-1-2101, have
held up extremely well. The Corps began using strength design methods in 1981
(Liu 1980, 1981 and Liu and Gleason 1981) to stay in step with industry,
universities, and other engineering organizations. ETL 1110-2-265, "Strength
Design Criteria for Reinforced Concrete Hydraulic Structures," dated
15 September 1981, was the first document providing guidance issued by the
Corps concerning the use of strength design methods for hydraulic structures.
The labor-intensive requirements of this ETL regarding the application of
multiple load factors, as well as the fact that some load-factor combination
conditions resulted in a less conservative design than if working stress
methods were used, resulted in the development of ETL 1110-2-312, "Strength
Design Criteria for Reinforced Concrete Hydraulic Structures," dated 10 March
1988.
c. The revised load factors in ETL 1110-2-312 were intended to ensure
that the resulting design was as conservative as if working stress methods
were used. Also, the single load factor concept was introduced. The guidance
in this ETL differed from ACI 318 Building Code Requirements and Commentary
for Reinforced Concrete primarily in the load factors, the concrete stress-
strain relationship, and the yield strength of Grade 60 reinforcement.
ETL 1110-2-312 guidance was intended to result in designs equivalent to those
resulting when working stress methods were used.
d. Earlier Corps strength design methods deviated from ACI guidance
because ACI 318 includes no provisions for the serviceability needs of
hydraulic structures. Strength and stability are required, but serviceability
in terms of deflections, cracking, and durability demand equal consideration.
The importance of the Corps hydraulic structures has caused the Corps to move
cautiously, but deliberately, toward exclusive use of strength design methods.
e. This manual modifies and expands the guidance in ETL 1110-2-312 with
an approach similar to that of ACI 350R-89. The concrete stress-strain
relationship and the yield strength of Grade 60 reinforcement given in ACI 318
are adopted. Also, the load factors bear a closer resemblance to ACI 318 and
1-2
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
are modified by a hydraulic factor, H
f
, to account for the serviceability
needs of hydraulic structures.
f. As in ETL 1110-2-312, this manual allows the use of a single load
factor for both dead and live loads. In addition, the single load factor
method is required when the loads on the structural component include
reactions from a soil-structure stability analysis.
1-5. General Requirements
Reinforced-concrete hydraulic structures should be designed with the strength
design method in accordance with the current ACI 318, except as hereinafter
specified. The notations used are the same as those used in the ACI 318 Code
and Commentary, except those defined herein.
1-6. Scope
a. This manual is written in sufficient detail to not only provide the
designer with design procedures, but to also provide examples of their
application. Also, derivations of the combined flexural and axial load
equations are given to increase the designers confidence and understanding.
b. General detailing requirements are presented in Chapter 2.
Chapter 3 presents strength and serviceability requirements, including load
factors and limits on flexural reinforcement. Design equations for members
subjected to flexural and/or axial loads (including biaxial bending) are given
in Chapter 4. Chapter 5 presents guidance for design for shear, including
provisions for curved members and special straight members. The appendices
include notation, equation derivations, and examples. The examples
demonstrate: load-factor application, design of members subjected to combined
flexural and axial loads, design for shear, development of an interaction
diagram, and design of members subjected to biaxial bending.
1-7. Computer Programs
Copies of computer programs, with documentation, for the analysis and design
of reinforced-concrete hydraulic structures are available and may be obtained
from the Engineering Computer Programs Library, US Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station, 3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, Mississippi 39180-6199.
For design to account for combined flexural and axial loads, any procedure
that is consistent with ACI 318 guidance is acceptable, as long as the load
factor and reinforcement percentage guidance given in this manual is followed.
1-8. Recission
Corps library computer program CSTR (X0066), based on ETL 1110-2-312, is
replaced by computer program CASTR (X0067). Program CASTR is based on this
new engineer manual.
1-3
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Apr 92
CHAPTER 2
DETAILS OF REINFORCEMENT
2-1. General
This chapter presents guidance for furnishing and placing steel reinforcement
in various concrete members of hydraulic structures.
2-2. Quality
The type and grade of reinforcing steel should be limited to ASTM A 615
(Billet Steel), Grade 60. Grade 40 reinforcement should be avoided since its
availability is limited and designs based on Grade 40 reinforcement, utilizing
the procedures contained herein, would be overly conservative. Reinforcement
of other grades and types permitted by ACI 318 may be permitted for special
applications subject to the approval of higher authority.
2-3. Anchorage, Bar Development, and Splices
The anchorage, bar development, and splice requirements should conform to
ACI 318 and to the requirements presented below. Since the development length
is dependent on a number of factors such as concrete strength and bar
position, function, size, type, spacing, and cover, the designer must indicate
the length of embedment required for bar development on the contract drawings.
For similar reasons, the drawings should show the splice lengths and special
requirements such as staggering of splices, etc. The construction
specifications should be carefully edited to assure that they agree with
reinforcement details shown on the drawings.
2-4. Hooks and Bends
Hooks and bends should be in accordance with ACI 318.
2-5. Bar Spacing
a. Minimum. The clear distance between parallel bars should not be
less than 1-1/2 times the nominal diameter of the bars nor less than
1-1/2 times the maximum size of coarse aggregate. No. 14 and No. 18 bars
should not be spaced closer than 6 and 8 inches, respectively, center to
center. When parallel reinforcement is placed in two or more layers, the
clear distance between layers should not be less than 6 inches. In horizontal
layers, the bars in the upper layers should be placed directly over the bars
in the lower layers. In vertical layers, a similar orientation should be
used. In construction of massive reinforced concrete structures, bars in a
layer should be spaced 12 inches center-to-center wherever possible to
facilitate construction.
b. Maximum. The maximum center-to-center spacing of both primary and
secondary reinforcement should not exceed 18 inches.
2-1
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Apr 92
2-6. Concrete Protection for Reinforcement
The minimum cover for reinforcement should conform to the dimensions shown
below for the various concrete sections. The dimensions indicate the clear
distance from the edge of the reinforcement to the surface of the concrete.
MINIMUM CLEAR COVER OF
CONCRETE SECTION REINFORCEMENT, INCHES
Unformed surfaces in contact with foundation 4
Formed or screeded surfaces subject to cavitation or
abrasion erosion, such as baffle blocks and stilling
basin slabs 6
Formed and screeded surfaces such as stilling basin
walls, chute spillway slabs, and channel lining
slabs on grade:
Equal to or greater than 24 inches in thickness 4
Greater than 12 inches and less than 24 inches
in thickness 3
Equal to or less than 12 inches in thickness
will be in accordance with ACI Code 318.
NOTE. In no case shall the cover be less than:
1.5 times the nominal maximum size of aggregate,
or
2.5 times the maximum diameter of reinforcement.
2-7. Splicing
a. General. Bars shall be spliced only as required and splices shall
be indicated on contract drawings. Splices at points of maximum tensile
stress should be avoided. Where such splices must be made they should be
staggered. Splices may be made by lapping of bars or butt splicing.
b. Lapped Splices. Bars larger than No. 11 shall not be lap-spliced.
Tension splices should be staggered longitudinally so that no more than half
of the bars are lap-spliced at any section within the required lap length. If
staggering of splices is impractical, applicable provisions of ACI 318 should
be followed.
c. Butt Splices
(1) General. Bars larger than No. 11 shall be butt-spliced. Bars
No. 11 or smaller should not be butt-spliced unless clearly justified by
design details or economics. Due to the high costs associated with butt
splicing of bars larger than No. 11, especially No. 18 bars, careful
2-2
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Apr 92
consideration should be given to alternative designs utilizing smaller bars.
Butt splices should be made by either the thermit welding process or an
approved mechanical butt-splicing method in accordance with the provisions
contained in the following paragraphs. Normally, arc-welded splices should
not be permitted due to the inherent uncertainties associated with welding
reinforcement. However, if arc welding is necessary, it should be done in
accordance with AWS D1.4, Structural Welding Code-Reinforcing Steel. Butt
splices should develop in tension at least 125 percent of the specified yield
strength, f
y
, of the bar. Tension splices should be staggered longitudinally
at least 5 feet for bars larger than No. 11 and a distance equal to the
required lap length for No. 11 bars or smaller so that no more than half of
the bars are spliced at any section. Tension splices of bars smaller than
No. 14 should be staggered longitudinally a distance equal to the required lap
length. Bars Nos. 14 and 18 shall be staggered longitudinally, a minimum of
5 feet so that no more than half of the bars are spliced at any one section.
(2) Thermit Welding. Thermit welding should be restricted to bars
conforming to ASTM A 615 (billet steel) with a sulfur content not exceeding
0.05 percent based on ladle analysis. The thermit welding process should be
in accordance with the provisions of Guide Specification CW-03210.
(3) Mechanical Butt Splicing. Mechanical butt splicing shall be made
by an approved exothermic, threaded coupling, swaged sleeve, or other positive
connecting type in accordance with the provisions of Guide Specification
CW-03210. The designer should be aware of the potential for slippage in
mechanical splices and insist that the testing provisions contained in this
guide specification be included in the contract documents and utilized in the
construction work.
2-8. Temperature and Shrinkage Reinforcement
a. In the design of structural members for temperature and shrinkage
stresses, the area of reinforcement should be 0.0028 times the gross cross-
sectional area, half in each face, with a maximum area equivalent to
No. 9 bars at 12 inches in each face. Generally, temperature and shrinkage
reinforcement for thin sections will be no less than No. 4 bars at 12 inches
in each face.
b. Experience and/or analyses may indicate the need for an amount of
reinforcement greater than indicated in paragraph 2-8a if the reinforcement is
to be used for distribution of stresses as well as for temperature and
shrinkage.
c. In general, additional reinforcement for temperature and shrinkage
will not be needed in the direction and plane of the primary tensile
reinforcement when restraint is accounted for in the analyses. However, the
primary reinforcement should not be less than that required for shrinkage and
temperature as determined above.
2-3
EM 1110-2-2104
Change 1
20 Aug 03
3-3. Required Strength

a. General. Reinforced concrete hydraulic structures and hydraulic structural members
shall be designed to have a required strength, , to resist dead and live loads in accordance
with the following provisions. The hydraulic factor is to be applied in the determination of
required nominal strength for all combinations of axial load, moments and shear (diagonal
tension). In particular, the shear reinforcement should be designed for the excess shear, the
difference between the hydraulic factored ultimate shear force, , and the shear strength
provided by the concrete, , where
h
U
the
uh
V
c
V is the concrete resistance factor for shear design.
Therefore, the design shear for the reinforcement, , is given by
s
V

c uh
s
V V
V
3 . 1

(3.1)


b. Single Load Factor Method. In the single load factor method, both the dead and live
loads are multiplied by the same load factor.

( ) L D U + = 7 . 1 (3.2)

where

U =factored loads for a nonhydraulic structure
D =internal forces and moments from dead loads
L =internal forces and moments from live loads


( ) [ ] L D H U
f h
+ = 7 . 1
(3.3)

where

=factored loads for a hydraulic structure
h
U
=hydraulic factor.
f
H

For hydraulic structures the basic load factor, 1.7, is multiplied by a hydraulic factor, ,
f
H
where , except for members in direct tension. For members in direct tension, =1.65.
Other values may be used subject to consultation with and approval from CECW-ED.
3 . 1 =
f
H
f
H

An exception to the above occurs when resistance to the effects of unusual or extreme loads such
as wind, earthquake or other forces of short duration and low probability of occurrence are
included in the design. For those cases, one of the following loading combinations should be
used:
3-2
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
CHAPTER 4
FLEXURAL AND AXIAL LOADS
4-1. Design Assumptions and General Requirements
a. The assumed maximum usable strain
c
at the extreme concrete
compression fiber should be equal to 0.003 in accordance with ACI 318.
b. Balanced conditions for hydraulic structures exist at a cross
section when the tension reinforcement
b
reaches the strain corresponding to
its specified yield strength f
y
just as the concrete in compression reaches
its design strain
c
.
c. Concrete stress of 0.85f
c
should be assumed uniformly distributed
over an equivalent compression zone bounded by edges of the cross section and
a straight line located parallel to the neutral axis at a distance a =
1
c
from the fiber of maximum compressive strain.
d. Factor
1
should be taken as specified in ACI 318.
e. The eccentricity ratio e /d should be defined as
(4-11)*
e
d
M
u
/P
u
d h/2
d
where e = eccentricity of axial load measured from the centroid of the
tension reinforcement
4-2. Flexural and Compressive Capacity - Tension Reinforcement Only
a. The design axial load strength P
n
at the centroid of compression
members should not be taken greater than the following:
(4-12)
P
n(max)
0.8 0.85f

c
(A
g
bd) f
y
bd
b. The strength of a cross section is controlled by compression if the
load has an eccentricity ratio e /d no greater than that given by Equation 4-3
and by tension if e /d exceeds this value.
______________________________________________________________________________
* P
u
is considered positive for compression and negative for tension.
4-1
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
(4-13)
e

b
d
2k
b
k
2
b
2k
b
f
y
0.425f

c
where
(4-14) k
b

1
E
s

c
E
s

c
f
y
c. Sections controlled by tension should be designed so
(4-15)
P
n
0.85f

c
k
u
f
y
bd
and
(4-16)
M
n
0.85f

c
k
u
f
y

1
1
]
e
d
1
h
2d
bd
2
where k
u
should be determined from the following equation:
(4-17)
k
u
e
d
1
2

,
f
y
0.425f

c
e
d
e
d
1
d. Sections controlled by compression should be designed so
(4-18)
P
n
0.85f

c
k
u
f
s
bd
and
(4-19)
M
n
0.85f

c
k
u
f
s

1
1
]
e
d
1
h
2d
bd
2
4-2
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
where
(4-20)
f
s
E
s

c

1
k
u
k
u
f
y
and k
u
should be determined from the following equation by direct or iterative
method:
(4-21)
k
3
u
2
e
d
1 k
2
u

,
E
s

c
e
0.425f

c
d
k
u

1
E
s

c
e
0.425f

c
d
0
e. The balanced load and moment can be computed using either
Equations 4-5 and 4-6 or Equations 4-8 and 4-9 with k
u
= k
b
and
e

b
e
d
=
d
. The values of e

b
/d and k
b
are given by Equations 4-3 and 4-4,
respectively.
4-3. Flexural and Compressive Capacity - Tension and Compression
Reinforcement
a. The design axial load strength P
n
of compression members should not
be taken greater than the following:
(4-22)
P
n(max)
0.8 0.85f

c
A
g
bd
f
y
bd
b. The strength of a cross section is controlled by compression if the
load has an eccentricity ratio e /d no greater than that given by
Equation 4-13 and by tension if e /d exceeds this value.
(4-23)
e

b
d
2k
b
k
2
b
f

s
1
d
d
0.425f

c
2k
b
f
y
0.425f

c
f

s
0.425f

c
The value k
b
is given in Equation 4-4 and f
s
is given in Equation 4-16 with
k
u
= k
b
.
c. Sections controlled by tension should be designed so
4-3
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
(4-24)
P
n
0.85f

c
k
u
f

s
f
y
bd
and
(4-25)
M
n
0.85f

c
k
u
f

s
f
y

1
1
]
e
d
1
h
2d
bd
2
where
(4-26)
f

s
k
u

1
d
d

1
k
u
E
s

y
f
y
and k
u
should be determined from the following equation by direct or iterative
methods:
(4-27)
k
3
u

1
1
]
2
e
d
1
1
k
2
u

'

f
y
0.425f

1
1
]

e
d
d
d
1
e
d

;
)
2
1
e
d
1 k
u
f
y

1
0.425f

1
1
]
d
d
e
d
d
d
1
e
d
0
d. Sections controlled by compression should be designed so
(4-28)
P
n
0.85f

c
k
u
f

s
f
s
bd
4-4
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
and
(4-29)
M
n
0.85f

c
k
u
f

s
f
s

1
1
]
e
d
1
h
2d
bd
2
where
(4-30)
f
s
E
s

c

1
k
u
k
u
f
y
and
(4-31)
f

s
E
s

1
1
]
k
u

1
d
d
k
u
f
y
and k
u
should be determined from the following equation by direct or iterative
methods:
(4-32)
k
3
u
2
e
d
1 k
2
u
E
s

c
0.425f

e
d
1
1
]
1
d
d
k
u

1
E
s

c
0.425f

d
d
e
d
d
d
1
1
1
]

e
d
0
Design for flexure utilizing compression reinforcement is discouraged.
However, if compression reinforcement is used in members controlled by
compression, lateral reinforcement shall be provided in accordance with the
ACI Building Code.
e. The balanced load and moment should be computed using
e

b
Equations 4-14, 4-15, 4-16, and 4-17 with k
u
= k
b
and
e
d
=
d
. The
values of e

b
/d and k
b
are given by Equations 4-13 and 4-4, respectively.
4-4. Flexural and Tensile Capacity
a. The design axial strength P
n
of tensile members should not be taken
greater than the following:
4-5
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
(4-33) P
n(max)
0.8 f
y
bd
b. Tensile reinforcement should be provided in both faces of the member
if the load has an eccentricity ratio e /d in the following range:
1
h
2d

e
d
0
The section should be designed so
(4-24)
P
n
f
y
f

s
bd
and
(4-25)
M
n
f
y
f

1
1
]
1
h
2d
e
d
bd
2
with
(4-26)
f

s
f
y
k
u
d
d
k
u
1
f
y
and k
u
should be determined from the following equation:
(4-27) k
u

d
d
1
d
d
e
d

e
d

e
d
1
d
d
e
d
c. Sections subjected to a tensile load with an eccentricity ratio
e /d < 0 should be designed using Equations 4-5 and 4-6. The value of k
u
is
(4-28)
k
u
e
d
1
e
d
1
2

,
f
y
0.425f

c
e
d
4-6
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
d. Sections subject to a tensile load with an eccentricity ratio
e /d < 0 should be designed using Equations 4-14, 4-15, 4-16, and 4-17 if
A
s
> 0 and c > d .
4-5. Biaxial Bending and Axial Load
a. Provisions of paragraph 4-5 shall apply to reinforced concrete
members subjected to biaxial bending.
b. For a given nominal axial load P
n
= P
u
/, the following
nondimensional equation shall be satisfied:
(4-29) (M
nx
/M
ox
)
K
(M
ny
/M
oy
)
K
1.0
where
M
nx
, M
ny
= nominal biaxial bending moments with respect to the x and y
axes, respectively
M
ox
, M
oy
= uniaxial nominal bending strength at P
n
about the x and y
axes, respectively
K = 1.5 for rectangular members
= 1.75 for square or circular members
= 1.0 for any member subjected to axial tension
c. M
ox
and M
oy
shall be determined in accordance with paragraphs 4-1
through 4-3.
4-7
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Apr 92
CHAPTER 5
SHEAR
5-1. Shear Strength
The shear strength V
c
provided by concrete shall be computed in accordance
with ACI 318 except in the cases described in paragraphs 5-2 and 5-3.
5-2. Shear Strength for Special Straight Members
The provisions of this paragraph shall apply only to straight members of box
culvert sections or similar structures that satisfy the requirements of 5-2.a
and 5-2.b. The stiffening effects of wide supports and haunches shall be
included in determining moments, shears, and member properties. The ultimate
shear strength of the member is considered to be the load capacity that causes
formation of the first inclined crack.
a. Members that are subjected to uniformly (or approximately uniformly)
distributed loads that result in internal shear, flexure, and axial
compression (but not axial tension).
b. Members having all of the following properties and construction
details.
(1) Rectangular cross-sectional shapes.
(2)
n
/d between 1.25 and 9, where
n
is the clear span.
(3) f
c
not more than 6,000 psi.
(4) Rigid, continuous joints or corner connections.
(5) Straight, full-length reinforcement. Flexural reinforcement shall
not be terminated even though it is no longer a theoretical requirement.
(6) Extension of the exterior face reinforcement around corners such
that a vertical lap splice occurs in a region of compression stress.
(7) Extension of the interior face reinforcement into and through the
supports.
c. The shear strength provided the concrete shall be computed as
(5-1)
V
c

1
1
1
1
]

,
11.5
n
d
f

c
1
N
u
/A
g
5 f

c
bd
5-1
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Apr 92
at a distance of 0.15
n
from the face of the support.
d. The shear strength provided by the concrete shall not be taken
greater than
(5-2)
V
c
2

1
1
]
12

,
n
d
f

c
bd
__
and shall not exceed 10 f
c
bd.
5-3. Shear Strength for Curved Members
At points of maximum shear, for uniformly loaded curved cast-in-place members
with R/d > 2.25 where R is the radius curvature to the centerline of the
member:
(5-3)
V
c

1
1
1
1
]
4 f

c
1
N
u
/A
g
4 f

c
bd
__
The shear strength shall not exceed 10 f
c
bd.
5-4. Empirical Approach
Shear strength based on the results of detailed laboratory or field tests
conducted in consultation with and approved by CECW-ED shall be considered a
valid extension of the provisions in paragraphs 5-2 and 5-3.
5-2
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
APPENDIX A
NOTATION
a
d
Depth of stress block at limiting value of balanced condition
(Appendix D)
d
d
Minimum effective depth that a singly reinforced member may have and
maintain steel ratio requirements (Appendix D)
e Eccentricity of axial load measured from the centroid of the tension
reinforcement
e
b
Eccentricity of nominal axial load strength, at balanced strain
conditions, measured from the centroid of the tension reinforcement
H
f
Hydraulic structural factor equal to 1.3
k
b
Ratio of stress block depth (a) to the effective depth (d) at
balanced strain conditions
k
u
Ratio of stress block depth (a) to the effective depth (d)
K Exponent, equal to 1.0 for any member subject to axial tension, 1.5
for rectangular members and 1.75 for square or circular members, used
in nondimensional biaxial bending expression
n
Clear span between supports
M
DS
Bending moment capacity at limiting value of balanced condition
(Appendix D)
M
nx
, M
ny
Nominal biaxial bending moments with respect to the x and y axes,
respectively
M
ox
, M
oy
Uniaxial nominal bending strength at P
n
about the x and y axes,
respectively
R Radius of curvature to centerline of curved member
A-1
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
APPENDIX B
DERIVATION OF EQUATIONS FOR FLEXURAL AND AXIAL LOADS
B-1. General
Derivations of the design equations given in paragraphs 4-2 through 4-4 are
presented below. The design equations provide a general procedure that may be
used to design members for combined flexural and axial load.
B-2. Axial Compression and Flexure
a. Balanced Condition
From Figure B-1, the balanced condition, Equations 4-3 and 4-4 can be derived
as follows:
From equilibrium,
(B-1)
P
u

0.85 f

c
b k
u
d A
s
f
s
let
(B-2)
j
u
d
a
2
d
k
u
d
2
from moment equilibrium,
(B-3)
P
u
e

0.85 f

c
b k
u
d j
u
d
Rewrite Equation B-3 as:
(B-4)
P
u
e

0.85 f

c
b k
u
d

,
d
k
u
d
2
0.85 f

c
bd
2

,
k
u
k
2
u
2
0.425 f

c
2k
u
k
2
u
bd
2
B-1
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
From the strain diagram at balanced condition (Figure B-1):
c
b
d

c

y
(B-5)

,
k
b
d

1
d

c

y
f
y
since
y
=
__
E
s
(B-6, Eq. 4-4) k
b

1
E
s

c
E
s

c
f
y
(B-7) since e

b
P
b
e

P
b
e
b

is obtained by substituting Equations B-4 and B-1 into Equation B-7 with
k
u
= k
b
, f
s
= f
y
and P
u
= P
b
.
(B-8) e

b
0.425f

c
2k
b
k
2
b
bd
2
0.85f

c
k
b
bd f
y
bd
Therefore
(B-9, Eq. 4-3)
e

b
d
2k
b
k
2
b
2k
b
f
y

0.425f

c
B-2
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
b. Sections Controlled by Tension (Figure B-1).
(B-10, Eq. 4-5)
P
n
is obtained from Equation B 1 with f
s
f
y
as:
P
n
0.85 f

c
b k
u
d A
s
f
y
P
n
0.85 f

c
k
u
f
y
bd
The design moment M
n
is expressed as:
(B-11)
M
n
P
n
e
M
n
P
n

1
1
]
e
d
1
h
2d
d
Therefore,
(B-12, Eq. 4-6)
M
n
0.85 f

c
k
u
f
y

1
1
]
e
d
1
h
2d
bd
2
Substituting Equation B-1 with f
s
= f
y
into Equation B-4 gives
(B-13)
0.85 f

c
k
u
bd f
y
bd e 0.425f

c
2k
u
k
2
u
bd
2
which reduces to
(B-14) k
2
u
2
e
d
1 k
u
f
y
e
0.425f

c
d
0
Solving by the quadratic equation:
(B-15, Eq. 4-7)
k
u
e
d
1
2

,
f
y
0.425f

c
e
d
e
d
1
B-3
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
c. Sections Controlled by Compression (Figure B-1)
P
n
is obtained from Equation B-1
(B-16, Eq. 4-8)
P
n
0.85 f

c
k
u
f
s
bd
and M
n
is obtained by multiplying Equation B-16 by e.
(B-17)
M
n
0.85 f

c
k
u
f
s

1
1
]
e
d
1
h
2d
bd
2
The steel stress, f
s
, is expressed as f
s
= E
s

s
.
From Figure B-1.
c
d

c

s
or

,
k
u
d

1
d

c

s
Therefore,
(B-18, Eq. 4-10)
f
s
E
s

c

1
k
u
k
u
Substituting Equations B-1 and B-18 into B-4 gives
(B-19)
0.85 f

c
k
u
bde

1
1
1
]
E
s

c

1
k
u
k
u
bde
0.425 f

c
2k
u
k
2
u
bd
2
B-4
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
which can be arranged as
(B-20, Eq. 4-11)
k
3
u
2
e

d
1 k
2
u

,
E
s

c
e

0.425f

c
d
k
u

1
E
s

c
e

0.425f

c
d
0
B-3. Flexural and Compressive Capacity-Tension and Compression Reinforcement
(Figure B-2)
a. Balanced Condition
Using Figure B-2, the balanced condition, Equation 4-13 can be derived as
follows:
From equilibrium,
(B-21)
P
u

0.85 f

c
k
u
bd f

bd f
s
bd
In a manner similar to the derivation of Equation B-4, moment equilibrium
results in
(B-22)
P
u
e

0.425 f

c
2k
u
k
2
u
bd
2
f

bd(d d

)
As in Equation B-6,
(B-23) k
b

1
E
s

c
E
s

c
f
y
(B-24)
since e

b
P
b
e
P
s
and using Equations B-21 and B-22:
(B-25) e

b
0.425 f

c
(2k
b
k
2
b
)bd
2
f

bd(d d

)
0.85 f

c
k
b
bd f

s
bd f
s
bd
B-5
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
which can be rewritten as
e

b
2k
b
k
2
b
d
f

0.425f

c
(d d

)
2k
b
f
s

0.425f

c
f
y

0.425f

c
or
(B-26, Eq. 4-13)
e

b
d
2k
b
k
2
b
f

s
1
d
d
0.425f

c
2k
b
f
y

0.425f

c
f

s

0.425f

c
b. Sections Controlled by Tension (Figure B-2)
P
n
is obtained as Equation B-21 with f
s
= f
y
.
(B-27, Eq. 4-14)
P
n
0.85 f

c
k
u
f

s
f
y
bd
Using Equations B-11 and B-27,
(B-28, Eq. 4-15)
M
n
0.85 f

c
k
u
f

s
f
y

1
1
]
e
d
1
h
2d
bd
2
From Figure B-2

s
c d

y
d c
; f

s
E
s

s
; c
k
u
d

1
B-6
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
Therefore,
f

s
E
s

,
k
u
d

1
d

y
d
k
u
d

1
or
(B-29, Eq. 4-16)
f

s
k
u

1
d
d

1
k
u
E
s

y
Substituting Equation B-21 with f
s
= f
y
into Equation B-22 gives,
(B-30)
0.85 f

c
k
u
bd f

s
bd f
y
bd e
0.425 f

c
2k
u
k
2
u
bd
2
f

s
bd(d d )
Using Equation B-29, Equation B-30 can be written as:
(B-31, Eq. 4-17)
k
3
u

1
1
]
2
e
d
1
1
k
2
u

'

f
y
0.425f

1
1
]

e
d
d
d
1
e
d

;
)
2
1
e
d
1 k
u
f
y

1
0.425f

1
1
]

d
d
e
d
d
d
1
e
d
0
c. Sections Controlled by Compression (Figures B-2)
P
n
is obtained from equilibrium
(B-32, Eq. 4-18)
P
n
0.85 f

c
k
u
f

s
f
s
bd
B-7
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
Using Equations B-11 and B-32,
(B-33, Eq. 4-19)
M
n
0.85 f

c
k
u
f

s
f
s

1
1
]
e
d
1
h
2d
bd
2
From Figure B-2

s
d c

c
c
; f
s
E
s

s
; c
k
u
d

1
which can be written as
(B-34, Eq. 4-20)
f
s
E
s

c

1
k
u
k
u
Also,

s
c d

c
c
which can be rewritten as
(B-35, Eq. 4-21)
f

s
E
s

1
1
]
k
u

1
d
d
k
u
From Equations B-21 and B-22
(B-36)
0.85f

c
k
u
bd f

s
bd f
s
bd e
0.425 f
c
2k
u
k
2
u
bd
2
f

s
bd(d d )
B-8
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
Substituting Equations B-34 and B-35 with k
b
= k
u
into Equation B-36 gives
(B-37, Eq. 4-22)
k
3
u
2
e
d
1 k
2
u
E
s

c
0.425f

1
1
]
( )
e
d
1
d
d
k
u

1
E
s

c
0.425f

1
1
]

d
d
e
d
d
d
1
e
d
0
B-4. Flexural and Tensile Capacity
a. Pure Tension (Figure B-3)
From equilibrium (double reinforcement)
(B-38)
P
n
A
s
A

s
f
y
For design, the axial load strength of tension members is limited to
80 percent of the design axial load strength at zero eccentricity.
Therefore,
(B-39, Eq. 4-23) P
n(max)
0.8( )f
y
bd
b. For the case where 1 - h e 0, the applied tensile resultant
2d d
P
u lies between the two layers of steel.

From equilibrium
P
n
A
s
f
y
A

s
f

s
or
(B-40, Eq. 4-24)
P
n
f
y

s
bd
and
M
n
P
n

1
1
]
1
h
2d
e

d
d
B-9
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
or
(B-41, Eq. 4-25)
M
n
f
y
f

1
1
]
1
h
2d
e
d
bd
2
From Figure B-3,

s
a d

y
a d
which can be rewritten as
(B-42, Eq. 4-26)
f

s
f
y
k
u
d
d
k
u
1
From Figure B-3 equilibrium requires:
(B-43)
A
s
f
s
e A

s
f

s
(d d e )
Substituting Equation B-42 and f
s
= f
y
into Equation B-43 results in
(B-44, Eq. 4-27) k
u

d
d
1
d
d
e
d

e
d

e
d
1
d
d
e
d
c. The case where (e/d) < 0 is similar to the combined flexural and
compression case. Therefore, k
u
is derived in a manner similar to the
derivation of Equation B-15 and is given as
(B-45, Eq. 4-28)
k
u
e
d
1
e
d
1
2

,
f
y
0.425f

c
e
d
B-10
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
Figure B-1. Axial compression and flexure, single reinforcement
B-11
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
Figure B-2. Axial compression and flexure, double reinforcement
B-12
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
Figure B-3. Axial tension and flexure, double reinforcement
B-13
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
APPENDIX C
INVESTIGATION EXAMPLES
C-1. General
For the designers convenience and reference, the following examples are
provided to illustrate how to determine the flexural capacity of existing
concrete sections in accordance with this Engineer Manual and ACI 318.
C-2. Analysis of a Singly Reinforced Beam
Given: f

c
= 3 ksi
1
= 0.85
f
y
= 60 ksi E
s
= 29,000 ksi
A
s
= 1.58 in.
2
Solution:
1. Check steel ratio

act
A
s
bd
1.58
12(20.5)
0.006423
C-1
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92

b
0.85
1
f

c
f
y

,
87,000
87,000 f
y
0.85 (0.85)
3
60
87,000
87,000 60,000
0.02138
in accordance with Paragraph 3-5 check:
0.25
b
0.00534
0.375
b
0.00802

act
0.00642
0.25
b
<
act
< 0.375
b

act
is greater than the recommended limit, but less than the maximum permitted
upper limit not requiring special study or investigation. Therefore, no
special consideration for serviceability, constructibility, and economy is
required. This reinforced section is satisfactory.
2. Assume the steel yields and compute the internal forces:
T A
s
f
y
1.58 (60) 94.8 kips
C 0.85 f

c
ba
C 0.85 (3)(12)a 30.6a
3. From equilibrium set T = C and solve for a:
94.8 30.6a a 3.10 in.
Then, a
1
c c
3.10
0.85
3.65 in.
4. Check
s
to demonstrate steel yields prior to crushing of the
concrete:
C-2
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92

s
20.5 c
0.003
c

s
16.85
0.003
3.65
0.0138

y
f
y
E
s
60
29,000
0.00207

s
>
y
Ok, steel yields
5. Compute the flexural capacity:
M
n
A
s
f
y
(d a/2)
0.90 (94.8) 20.5
3.10
2
1616.8 in. k
134.7 ft k
C-3. Analysis of an Existing Beam - Reinforcement in Both Faces
C-3
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
Given: f

c
= 3,000 psi
c
= 0.003
f
y
= 60,000 psi
1
= 0.85
A
s
= 8.00 in.
2
E
s
= 29,000,000 psi
A
s

= 4.00 in.
2
Solution:
1. First analyze considering steel in tension face only

A
s
bd
8
(60)(12)
0.011

bal
0.85

1
f

c
f
y
87,000
87,000 f
y
0.0214

0.011
0.0214

bal
0.51
b
Note: exceeds maximum permitted upper limit not requiring special study
or investigation 0.375
b
. See Chapter 3.
T A
s
f
y
T 8(60) 480 kips
then C
c
0.85f

c
ba 30.6a
T C
c
a 15.7 in. and c 18.45 in.
By similar triangles, demonstrate that steel yields

c
18.45

s(2)
54 c

s(2)
0.0057 >
y
0.0021
ok; both layers of steel yield.
Moment capacity = 480 kips (d - a/2)
= 480 kips (52.15 in.)
M = 25,032 in.-k
C-4
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
2. Next analyze considering steel in compression face

4
12(60)
0.0056
0.0054
0.85

1
f

c
f
y
d

,
87,000
87,000 f
y
0.016
- 0.0116 compression steel does not yield, must do general
analysis using : compatability
Locate neutral axis
T 480 kips
C
c
0.85f
c
ba 30.6a
C
s
A

s
(f

s
0.85f

c
) 4(f

s
2.55)
By similar triangles

s
c 6
0.003
c
Substitute c
a
0.85
1.176a
Then

s
0.003
0.0153
a
Since f

s
E

s
f

s
87
443.7
a
ksi
C-5
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
Then
C
s
4 87 2.55
443.7
a
kips
T C
c
C
s
480 kips
Substitute for C
c
and C
s
and solve for a
30.6a 337.8
1774.8
a
480
a
2
4.65a 58 0
Then a 10.3 in.
and c 12.1 in.
Check

s
>
y
By similar triangles
0.003
12.1

s
d 12.1

s
0.0119 > 0.0021
C
c
30.6a 315 kips
C
s
4(41.37) 165 kips
C
c
C
s
480 kips T
Resultant of C
c
and C
s
315
10.3
2
(165)(6)
480
5.4 in.
Internal Moment Arm 60 5.4 54.6 in.
M 480(54.6) 26,208 in. k
Comparison
Tension Steel Compression
Only Steel
a 15.7 in. 10.3 in.
c 18.45 in. 12.1 in.
Arm 52.15 in. 54.6 in.
M 25,032 in.-k 26,208 in.-k 4.7 percent increase
C-6
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
APPENDIX D
DESIGN EXAMPLES
D-1. Design Procedure
For convenience, a summary of the steps used in the design of the examples in
this appendix is provided below. This procedure may be used to design
flexural members subjected to pure flexure or flexure combined with axial
load. The axial load may be tension or compression.
Step 1 - Compute the required nominal strength M
n
, P
n
where M
u
and P
u
are
determined in accordance with paragraph 4-1.
M
n
M
u

P
n
P
u

Note: Step 2 below provides a convenient and quick check to ensure that
members are sized properly to meet steel ratio limits. The expressions in
Step 2a are adequate for flexure and small axial load. For members with
significant axial loads the somewhat more lengthy procedures of Step 2b should
be used.
Step 2a - Compute d
d
from Table D-1. The term d
d
is the minimum
effective depth a member may have and meet the limiting requirements on steel
ratio. If d d
d
the member is of adequate depth to meet steel ratio
requirements and A
s
is determined using Step 3.
Step 2b - When significant axial load is present, the expressions for d
d
become cumbersome and it becomes easier to check the member size by
determining M
DS
. M
DS
is the maximum bending moment a member may carry and
remain within the specified steel ratio limits.
(D-1)
M
DS
0.85f

c
a
d
b d a
d
/2 d h/2 P
n
where
(D-2) a
d
K
d
d
and K
d
is found from Table D-1.
Step 3 - Singly Reinforced - When d d
d
(or M
n
M
DS
) the following
equations are used to compute A
s
.
D-1
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
(D-3)
K
u
1 1
M
n
P
n
d h/2
0.425f

c
bd
2
(D-4)
A
s
0.85f

c
K
u
bd P
n
f
y
Table D-1
Minimum Effective Depth
f

c
(psi)
f
y
(psi)

b
K
d
d
d
(in.)
3000 60 0.25 0.125765
3.3274M
n
b
4000 60 0.25 0.125765
2.4956M
n
b
5000 60 0.25 0.118367
2.1129M
n
b
* See Section 3-5. Maximum Tension Reinforcement
** M
n
units are inch-kips.
D-2
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
where
K
d

c
f
y
E
s
d
d
M
n
0.85f

c
k
d
b

,
1
k
d
2
D-2. Singly Reinforced Example
The following example demonstrates the use of the design procedure outlined in
paragraph D-1 for a Singly Reinforced Beam with the recommended steel ratio of
0.25
b
. The required area of steel is computed to carry the moment at the
base of a retaining wall stem.
Given: M = 41.65 k-ft
(where M = moment from unfactored
dead and live loads)
f
c
= 3.0 ksi
f
y
= 60 ksi
d = 20 in.
First compute the required strength, M
u
.
M
u
1.7 H
f
D L
M
u
(1.7)(1.3)(41.65) 92.047 k ft
Step 1. M
n
= M
u
/ = 92.047/0.90 = 102.274 k-ft
D-3
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
(Table D-1)
Step 2. d
d
3.3274M
n
b
18.45 in.
d > d
d
therefore member size is adequate
(D-3)
Step 3. K
u
1 1
M
n
P
n
d h/2
0.425f

c
bd
2
K
u
1 1
(102.274)(12)
(0.425)(3.0)(12)(20)
2
0.10587
(D-4)
A
s
0.85f

c
K
u
bd
f
y
(0.85)(3.0)(0.10587)(12)(20)
60
A
s
1.08 sq in.
D-3. Combined Flexure Plus Axial Load Example
The following example demonstrates the use of the design procedure outlined in
paragraph D-1 for a beam subjected to flexure plus small axial compressive
load. The amount of tensile steel required to carry the moment and axial load
at the base of a retaining wall stem is found.
Given: M = 41.65 k-ft
P = 5 kips (weight of stem)
where M and P are the moment and
axial load from an unfactored
analysis.
f
c

= 3.0 ksi
f
y
= 60 ksi
d = 20 in.
h = 24 in.
D-4
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
First compute the required strength, M
u
, P
u
M
u
1.7 H
f
(D L)
M
u
(1.7)(1.3)(41.65) 92.047 k ft
P
u
1.7 H
f
(D L)
P
u
(1.7)(1.3)(5.0) 11.05 kips
Since axial load is present a value must be found for .
For small axial load =

0.9 - [(0.20 P
u
)/(0.10f
c

A
g
)]
=

0.88
Step 1. M
n
= M
u
/ = 92.047/0.88 = 104.60 k-ft
P
n
= P
u
/ = 11.05/0.88 = 12.56 kips
Step 2. a
d
= K
d
d (D-2)
a
d
= (0.12577)(20) = 2.515
M
DS
= 0.85f
c

a
d
b(d - a
d
/2.0) - (d - h/2.0)P
n
(D-1)
M
DS
= (0.85)(3.0)(2.515)(12)(20 - 1.258) -
(20 - 12)(12.56)
M
DS
= 1341.9 k-in. or 111.82 k-ft
M
DS
> M
n
therefore member size is adequate
D-5
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30 Jun 92
Step 3. K
u
1 1
M
n
P
n
(d h/2)
0.425f

c
bd
2
K
u
1 1
(12)104.6 12.56(20 12)
(0.425)(3.0)(12)(20)
2
K
u
0.11768
(D-4)
A
s
0.85f

c
K
u
bd P
n
f
y
A
s
(0.85)(3.0)(0.11768)(12)(20) 12.56
60
A
s
0.99 sq in.
D-4. Derivation of Design Equations
The following paragraphs provide derivations of the design equations presented
in paragraph D-1.
(1) Derivation of Design Equations for Singly Reinforced Members. The
figure below shows the conditions of stress on a singly reinforced member
subjected to a moment M
n
and load P
n
. Equations for design may be developed
by satisfying conditions of equilibrium on the section.
By requiring the M about the tensile steel to equal zero
(D-5)
M
n
0.85f

c
ab(d a/2) P
n
(d h/2)
D-6
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
By requiring the H to equal zero
(D-6)
A
s
f
y
0.85f

c
ab P
n
Expanding Equation D-5 yields
M
n
0.85f

c
abd 0.425f

c
a
2
b P
n
(d h/2)
Let a = K
u
d then
M
n
0.85f

c
K
u
bd
2
0.425f

c
K
2
u
d
2
b P
n
(d h/2)
The above equation may be solved for K
u
using the solution for a quadratic
equation
(D-3)
K
u
1 1
M
n
P
n
(d h/2)
0.425f

c
bd
2
Substituting K
u
d for a in Equation D-6 then yields
A
s
0.85f

c
K
u
bd P
n
f
y
(2) Derivation of Design Equations for Doubly Reinforced Members. The
figure below shows the conditions of stress and strain on a doubly reinforced
member subjected to a moment M
n
and load P
n
. Equations for design are
developed in a manner identical to that shown previously for singly reinforced
beams.
D-7
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
Requiring H to equal zero yields
(D-7)
A
s
0.85f

c
K
d
bd P
n
A

s
f

s
f
y
By setting a
d
=
1
c and using the similar triangles from the strain diagram
above,
s
and f
s
may be found:
f

s
a
d

1
d

c
E
s
a
d
An expression for the moment carried by the concrete (M
DS
) may be found by
summing moments about the tensile steel of the concrete contribution.
(D-1)
M
DS
0.85f

c
a
d
b d a
d
/2 d h/2 P
n
Finally, an expression for A
s

may be found by requiring the compression steel

to carry any moment above that which the concrete can carry (M
n
- M
DS
).
(D-8)
A

s
M
n
M
DS
f

s
d d

(3) Derivation of Expression of d

d
. The expression for d
d
is found by
substituting a
d
= k
d
d
d
in the equation shown above for M
DS
and solving the
resulting quadratic expression for d
d
.
(D-9) d
d
M
DS
0.85f

c
K
d
b 1 K
d
/2
D-5. Shear Strength Example for Special Straight Members
Paragraph 5.2 describes the conditions for which a special shear strength
criterion shall apply for straight members. The following example
demonstrates the application of Equation 5-1. Figure D-1 shows a rectangular
conduit with factored loads, 1.7 H
f
(dead load + live Load). The following
parameters are given or computed for the roof slab of the conduit.
D-8
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
f
c

= 4,000 psi
n
= 10.0 ft = 120 in.
d = 2.0 ft = 24 in.
b = 1.0 ft (unit width) = 12 in.
N
u
= 6.33(5) = 31.7 kips
A
g
= 2.33 sq ft = 336 sq in.
(D-10,
Eq. 5-1)
V
c

1
1
1
1
1
1
]
11.5
120 in.
24 in.
4,000 1

,
31,700 lb
336 sq in.
5 4,000
(12 in.)(24 in.)
V
c
134,906 lb 134.9 kips
Check limit V
c
10 f

c
bd 10 4,000 (12 in.)(24 in.) 182,147 lb
Compare shear strength with applied shear.
V
c
0.85(134.9 kips) 114.7 kips
V
u
at 0.15(
n
) from face of the support is
V
u
w

,
n
2
0.15
n
15.0 kips/ft

1
1
]
10 ft
2
(0.15)(10 ft)
52.5 kips < V
c
; shear strength adequate
D-6. Shear Strength Example for Curved Members
Paragraph 5-3 describes the conditions for which Equation 5-3 shall apply.
The following example applies Equation 5-3 to the circular conduit presented
in Figure D-2. Factored loads are shown, and the following values are given
or computed:
D-9
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
f
c

= 4,000 psi
b = 12 in.
d = 43.5 in.
A
g
= 576 sq in.
N
u
= 162.5 kips
V
u
= 81.3 kips at a section 45 degrees from the crown
V
c
4 4,000

1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

,
162,500 lb
576 sq in.
4 4,000
(12 in.)(43.5 in.)
V
c
192,058 lb 192.1 kips
Check limit V
c
10 f

c
bd 10 4,000 (12 in.)(43.5 in.) 330,142 lb
Compare shear strength with applied shear
V
c
= 0.85(192.1 kips) = 163.3 kips
V
u
< V
c
; shear strength adequate
D-10
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
Figure D-1. Rectangular conduit
Figure D-2. Circular conduit
D-11
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
APPENDIX E
INTERACTION DIAGRAM
E-1. Introduction
A complete discussion on the construction of interaction diagrams is beyond
the scope of this manual; however, in order to demonstrate how the equations
presented in Chapter 4 may be used to construct a diagram a few basic points
will be computed. Note that the effects of , the strength reduction factor,
have not been considered. Using the example cross section shown below compute
the points defined by 1, 2, 3 notations shown in Figure E-1.
Given: f
c
= 3.0 ksi
f
y
= 60 ksi
A
s
= 2.0 sq in.
d = 22 in.
Figure E-1. Interaction diagram
h = 24 in.
b = 12 in.
E-1
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
E-2. Determination of Point 1, Pure Flexure
(D-5)
M
n
0.85 f

c
ab(d a/2)
a
A
s
f
y
0.85 f

c
b
(2.0)(60.0)
(0.85)(3.0)(12)
3.922 in.
M
n
(0.85)(3.0)(3.922)(12)(22 1.961)
M
n
2404.7 k in.
M
n
200.4 k ft
E-3. Determination of Point 2, Maximum Axial Capacity
E-2
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
(4-2)
P
n(max)
0.80 P
o
P
n(max)
0.80 0.85 f

c
A
g
bd f
y
bd
P
n(max)
0.80 (0.85)(3.0)(288 2.0) (60.0)(2.0)
P
n(max)
0.80(849.3) 679.44 kips
E-4. Determination of Point 3, Balanced Point
(4-4)
(1) Find k
b

1
E
s

c
E
s

c
f
y
k
b
(0.85)(29,000)(0.003)
(29,000)(0.003) 60
0.5031
(4-3)
(2) Find
e

b
d
2k
u
k
2
u
2k
u
pf
y
0.425f

c
e

b
d
(2)(0.5031) (0.5031)
2
(2)(0.5031)
(0.00758)(60)
(0.425)(3.0)
1.15951
E-3
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
(3) Find P
b
0.85 f

c
k
b
f
y
bd
P
b
[(0.85)(3.0)(0.5031) (0.00758)(60.0)](12)(22.0)
P
b
218.62 kips
(4-6)
(4) Find M
b
0.85f

c
k
b
f
y

1
1
]
e
d
1
h
2d
bd
2
M
b
[(0.85)(3.0)(0.5031) (0.00758)(60)]
[1.15951 (1 24.0/44.0)](12)(22.0)
2
M
b
3390.65 k in.
M
b
282.55 k ft
E-4
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
Figure E-2. Interaction diagram solution
E-5
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
APPENDIX F
AXIAL LOAD WITH BIAXIAL BENDING - EXAMPLE
F-1. In accordance with paragraph 4-5, design an 18- by 18-inch reinforced
concrete column for the following conditions:
f
c
= 3,000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi
P
u
= 100 kips, P
n
= P
u
/0.7 = 142.9 kips
M
ux
= 94 ft-kips, M
nx
= M
ux
/0.7 = 134.3 ft-kips
M
uy
= 30 ft-kips, M
ny
= M
uy
/0.7 = 42.8 ft-kips
Let concrete cover plus one-half a bar diameter equal 2.5 in.
F-2. Using uniaxial design procedures (Appendix E), select reinforcement for
P
n
and bending about the x-axis since M
nx
> M
ny
. The resulting cross-section is
given below.
F-3. Figures F-1 and F-2 present the nominal strength interaction diagrams
about x and y axes. It is seen from Figure F-2 that the member is adequate
for uniaxial bending about the y-axis with P
n
= 142.9 kips and M
ny
= 42.8 ft-
kips. From Figures F-1 and F-2 at P
n
= 142.9 kips:
M
ox
= 146.1 ft-kips
M
oy
= 145.9 ft-kips
F-1
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
For a square column, must satisfy:
(M
nx
/M
ox
)
1.75
+ (M
ny
/M
oy
)
1.75
1.0
(134.3/146.1)
1.75
+ (42.8/145.9)
1.75
= 0.98 < 1.0
If a value greater than 1.0 is obtained, increase reinforcement and/or
increase member dimensions.
Figure F-1. Nominal strength about the X-axis
F-2
EM 1110-2-2104
30 Jun 92
Figure F-2. Nominal strength about the Y-axis
F-3

Training Solutions