KHOA IN T - VIN THNG B MN IN T

O LNG IN T

Bin soan: D Quang Bnh

A NNG 2000

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CHNG 1: PHP O V K THUT O IN T

o lng in t l phng php xc nh tr s ca mt thng s no mt cu kin in t hay h thng in t. Thit b dng xc nh gi tr c gi l "thit b o", chng hn, ng h o nhiu chc nng [multimeter] dng o tr s ca in tr, in p, v dng in trong mch in. Kt qu o tu thuc vo hn ch ca thit b o. Cc hn ch s lm cho gi tr o c (hay gi tr biu kin) hi khc nh vi gi tr ng (tc l gi tr tnh ton theo thit k). Do vy, quy nh hiu sut ca cc thit b o, cn phi c cc nh ngha v chnh xc [accuracy], r [precision], phn gii [resolution], nhy [sensitivity] v sai s [error] . 1.1 CHNH XC [accuracy]. chnh xc s ch mc gn ng m gi tr o c s t so vi gi tr ng ca i lng cn o. V d, khi mt tr s no c c trn ng h o in p [voltmeter] trong khong t 96V n 104V ca gi tr ng l 100V, th ta c th ni rng gi tr o c gn bng vi gi tr ng trong khong 4%. Vy chnh xc ca thit b o s l 4%. Trong thc t, gi tr 4% ca v d trn l ' khng chnh xc php o' ng hn l chnh xc, nhng dng biu din trn ca chnh xc tr thnh chun thng dng, v cng c cc nh sn xut thit b o dng quy nh kh nng chnh xc ca thit b o lng. Trong cc thit b o in t s, chnh xc bng 1 s m cng thm chnh xc ca khi pht xung nhp hay ca b gc thi gian. a) chnh xc ca lch y thang. Thng thng, thit b o in t tng t thng c chnh xc cho di dng phn trm ca lch ton thang o [fsd - full scale deflection]. Nu o in p bng ng h o in p [voltmeter], t thang o 100V (fsd), vi chnh xc l 4%, ch th s o in p l 25V, s o s c chnh xc trong khong 25V 4% ca fsd, hay (25 - 4)V n (25 + 4)V, tc l trong khong 21V n 29V. y l chnh xc 16% ca 25V. iu ny c gi l sai s gii hn. V d trn cho thy rng, iu quan trng trong khi o l nn thc hin cc php o gn vi gi tr ton thang o nu c th c, bng cch thay i chuyn mch thang o. Nu kt qu o cn phi tnh ton theo nhiu thnh phn, th sai s gii hn ca mi thnh phn s c cng vi nhau xc nh sai s thc t trong kt qu o. V d, vi in tr R c sai s 10% v dng in I c sai s 5%, th cng sut I2R s c sai s bng 5 + 5 + 10 = 20%. Trong cc ng h s, chnh xc c quy nh l sai s gi tr o c 1 ch s. V d, nu mt ng h c kh nng o theo 3 ch s hoc 3 ch s, th sai s s l 1/103 = 0,001 = (0,1% + 1 ch s). b) chnh xc ng v thi gian p ng. Mt s thit b o, nht l trong cng nghip dng o cc i lng bin thin theo thi gian. Hot ng ca thit b o cc iu kin nh vy c gi l iu kin lm vic ng. Do vy, chnh xc ng l gn ng m gi tr o c s bng gi tr ng m n s dao ng theo thi gian, khi khng tnh sai s tnh. Khi thit b o dng o i lng thay i, mt thut ng khc gi l p ng thi gian c dng ch khong thi gian m thit b o p ng cc thay i ca i lng o. tr hon p ng ca thit b o c gi l tr [lag]. 1.2 R [precision]. r ca thit b o l php o mc ging nhau trong phm vi mt nhm cc s liu o. V d, nu 5 php o thc hin bng mt voltmeter l 97V, 95V, 96V, 94V, 93V, th gi tr trung bnh tnh c l 95V. Thit b o c r trong khong 2V, m chnh xc l 100V - 93V = 7V hay 7%. r c tnh bng gi tr cn trung bnh bnh phng ca cc lch. v d trn,
BIN SON DQB, B/M TVT-HKT CHNG I: PHP O V K THUT O IN T

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cc lch l: + 2, 0, + 1, - 1, - 2. Nn gi tr lch hiu dng l:

4 + 0 +1+1+ 4 =2 5

Do mc trung bnh sai lch l 2. Nh vy, r s phn nh tnh khng i (hay kh nng lp li - repeatability) ca mt s kt qu o, trong khi chnh xc cho bit lch ca gi tr o c so vi gi tr ng. r ph thuc vo chnh xc. chnh xc cao hn s c r tt hn. Nhng ngc li s khng ng. chnh xc khng ph thuc vo r. r c th rt cao nhng chnh xc c th khng nht thit l cao. Khi chnh xc gn lin vi lch thc t ca ng h o (hoc s hin th thc t ng h s), th r gn lin vi sai s s c ca gi tr o. Sai s nh vy c th tng ln do th sai cc ng h o tng t hoc khng n nh cc b ch th s. 1.3 PHN GII [resolution]. phn gii l s thay i nh nht cc gi tr o c (khng phi l gi tr 0) m mt thit b o c th p ng cho mt s o xc nh. phn gii thng l gi tr vch chia nh nht trn thang o lch. Nu mt ammeter c 100 vch chia, th i vi thang o t 0 n 1mA, phn gii s l 1mA/100 = 10A. cc ng h o s, phn gii l 1 ch s. phn gii cn phi c cng thm vi sai s do s o nm trong khong gia hai vch chia ln cn khng th c mt cch chnh xc. phn gii cng c phn nh theo sai s ca r ngoi cc yu t khc nh th sai. 1.4 NHY [sensitivity]. nhy l t s ca thay i nh nht p ng ra ca thit b o theo thay i nh nht i lng u vo. V d, nu lch y thang ca mt ammeter A cho bng 50A, v bng 100A ammeter B, th ammeter A nhy hn so vi ammeter B. nhy c th hin cho voltmeter di dng ohm / volt. Mt ng h o c lch y thang (fsd) l 50A s c in tr l 20 000 mc ni tip cho fsd mc 1V, trong khi mt ng h c fsd l 100A s c in tr l 10 000 cho fsd mc 1V. Vy voltmeter 20 000/V c nhy cao hn so vi voltmeter 10 000/V. a) Ngng nhy. Ngng nhy l mc tn hiu nh nht c th c pht hin di dng c nhiu v tp m. Cc tn hiu rt nh c th ln trong tp m, do vy khng th tng nhy ca mt h thng o v cng. Thng thng s dng php o i vi ngng nhy l bin ca tn hiu vo m t s tn hiu trn nhiu bng n v hoc 0dB. b) Yu cu rng bng tn. rng bng tn chn lc c dng ci thin mc ngng. Khi tn s nhiu cao hn ph tn ca tn hiu cn o, th phi s dng mch lc thng thp tn hiu truyn qua vi mc nhiu khng ng k. Nu nhiu c tn s thp hn ph tn ca tn hiu o, th s dng b lc thng cao. T hp b lc thng thp v b lc thng cao s suy ra rng bng tn chn nhiu. Nu nhiu chim rng trong phm vi ph tn ca tn hiu cn o, th b lc chn c th nn nhiu cng vi mt phn nh tn hiu o. 1.5 CC LOI SAI S [errors]. Mi thit b o c th cho chnh xc cao, nhng c th c cc sai s do cc hn ch ca thit b o, do cc nh hng ca mi trng, v cc sai s do ngi o khi thu nhn cc s liu o. Cc loi sai s c ba dng: Sai s th, sai s h thng, sai s ngu nhin. a) Sai s th. Cc sai s th c th quy cho gii hn ca cc thit b o hoc l cc sai s do ngi o. Gii hn ca thit b o. V d nh nh hng qu ti gy ra bi mt voltmeter c nhy km. Voltmeter nh vy s r dng ng k t mch cn o v v vy s t lm gim mc in p chnh xc. nh hng do qu ti s c gii thch chi tit mc 1.7. Sai s do c. L cc sai lch do quan st khi c gi tr o. Cc nhm ln nh vy c
BIN SON DQB, B/M TVT-HKT CHNG I: PHP O V K THUT O IN T

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th do th sai, hay do nh gi sai khi kim nm gia hai vch chia. Cc thit b o s khng c cc sai s do c. b) Sai s h thng. Sai lch c cng dng, khng thay i c gi l sai s h thng. Cc sai s h thng c hai loi: Sai s do thit b o v sai s do mi trng o. Sai s ca thit b o. Cc sai s do thit b o l do ma st cc b phn chuyn ng ca h thng o hay do ng sut ca l xo gn trong c cu o l khng ng u. V d, kim ch th c th khng dng mc 0 khi khng c dng chy qua ng h. Cc sai s khc l do chun sai, hoc do dao ng ca ngun cung cp, do ni t khng ng, v ngoi ra cn do s gi ho ca linh kin. Sai s do mi trng o l sai s do cc iu kin bn ngoi nh hng n thit b o trong khi thc hin php o. S bin thin v nhit , m, p sut, t trng, c th gy ra cc thay i v dn in, r, cch in, in cm v in dung. Bin thin v t tnh c th do thay i m men quay (tc lch). Cc thit b o tt s cho cc php o chnh xc khi vic che chn cc dng c n mc ti a, s dng cc mn chn t trng, v. v. . . Cc nh hng ca mi trng o cng c th gy ra dch chuyn nh kt qu, do thay i nh v dng in. c) Sai s ngu nhin. Cc sai s ngu nhin do cc nguyn nhn cha bit, xut hin mi khi tt c cc sai s th v sai s h thng c tnh n. Khi mt voltmeter, c hiu chun chnh xc v thc hin php o in p cc iu kin mi trng l tng, m ngi o thy rng cc s o c thay i nh trong khong thi gian o. bin thin ny khng th hiu chnh c bng cch nh chun, hay hiu chnh thit b o, m ch bng phng php suy lun cc sai s ngu nhin bng cch tng s lng cc php o, v sau xc nh gi tr gn ng nht ca i lng cn o. 1.6 GII HN CA THIT B O Mt thit b o c th c cc gii hn v thang o, cng sut (hay kh nng ti dng), tn s, tr khng v nhy (nh hng qu ti). Cc vn c gii thch nh sau. - Gii hn v thang o. Mi thit b o c khong o ln nht v mt thng s cn o. Khong o s c chia thnh cc thang o nh thch hp. V d, mt voltmeter c th o cao nht l 300V chia thnh 5 thang o ph: 3V, 10V, 30V, 100V v 300V. Chuyn mch thang o s thit lp ti cc v tr chnh xc tu thuc vo gi tr o yu cu. Gi s php o in p l 9V th chng ta s s dng thang o 10V. Cc thang o cn phi c cho tt c cc thng s cn o. Cn phi chn thang o ng cho mi thng s o thch hp. Nu o in p trn thang o dng in, th ng h o s h hng. - m rng thang o. L thut ng c s dng ch s chnh lch gia gi tr ln nht v gi tr nh nht ca mt thang o. i vi gi tr o ca ng h mc nh nht l 10mA v 100mA mc cao nht, th m rng ca thang o l 100mA - 10mA = 90mA. Mt ng h o in p c mc 0V gia, vi + 10V mt bn v - 10V pha khc, s c m rng thang o l 20V. - Gii hn v cng sut. Mi thit b o u c kh nng x l cng sut ln nht, nn cng sut ca tn hiu vo khng c vt qu gii hn cng sut o. Cng sut vt qu c th lm hng ng h o hay mch khuych i bn trong ng h o. - Gii hn v tn s. Phn ln c cu ng ng h o tng t c vai tr nh mt in cm mc ni tip v do vy s suy gim di tn s cao. Trong cc thit b o s dng cc mch chnh lu v cc mch khuych i, cc in dung ca tip gip c cho l mt hn ch i vi tn hiu o di tn s cao. C cu o in ng c th ch c s dng o tn hiu c tn s ln n 1000Hz (do in cm ni tip), cc c cu o t in (c b chnh lu) c th s dng o tn hiu
BIN SON DQB, B/M TVT-HKT CHNG I: PHP O V K THUT O IN T

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c tn s ln n 10 000Hz, millivoltmeter xoay chiu c th o cc tn hiu c tn s ln n mt vi MHz. Cc hn ch tn s khc c th gy ra do cc in dung song song. My hin sng c th s dng o cc tn hiu c tn s di megahertz, nhng gi thnh s tng khi cn rng bng tn cao hn. My hin sng khng s dng cun dy v h thng ch th kim, do vy nh hng bt li phn ln cc c cu o s c hn ch v loi b. - Gii hn v tr khng. Cc thit b o c dng o cc tn hiu ac, c tr khng ra ph thuc vo mch ra ca transistor c s dng. Mt my pht tn hiu tn s cao c th c tr khng l 75 hay 50 ph hp vi tr khng vo ca h thng cn o. Cc thit b o in p nh voltmeter v my hin sng c tr khng vo cao. Mt voltmeter tt va phi c th c tr khng vo khong 20000 / V, trong khi mt my hin sng v ng h o s hay ng h o in t c th c tr khng vi megohm. Thit b o in p c tr khng cao hn s cho chnh xc ca php o cao hn, hay c nh hng qu ti t hn. Tr khng ca cc c cu o cun dy ng tu thuc vo nhy ca ng h, cn tr khng ca my hin sng kiu ng tia ph thuc vo tr khng vo ca b khuych i dc s dng trong my hin sng. 1.7 NH HNG DO QU TI nh hng do qu ti c ngha l s suy gim v tr s ca thng s mch cn o khi mc thit b o vo mch. Thit b o s tiu th cng sut t mch cn o v s lm ti ca mch cn o. in tr ca ng h o dng s lm gim dng in trong mch cn o. Tng t, mt voltmeter khi mc song song vi mch c in tr cao, thc hin vai tr nh mt in tr song song [shunt], nn s lm gim in tr ca mch. iu ny to ra mc in p thp trn ti c c trn ng h o. Do , ng h s ch th mc in p thp hn so vi in p thc, ngha l cn phi ly mc in p cao hn c lch ng. Nh vy, nh hng do qu ti s hn ch nhy v do cng c gi l gii hn nhy. nh hng qu ti s c biu hin ng h o in p [voltmeter] nh sau.

Cho in tr ti l RL v ni tr ca ng h l RM. Cng vi mt in tr mc ni tip vi ti RL l RS (hnh 1.1). in p thc t trn RL l VL khi khng mc ng h o vo mch, v VM l in p trn ti khi c ng h o c tnh theo phng trnh (1.1) v (1.2) tng ng.
E RL RS + RL E ( RL //RM ) VM = RS + ( RL //RM ) VL =

(1.1) (1.2)

nh hng qu ti tnh theo phn trm c th tnh bng (VL - VM) x 100 / VL, nh v d 1.1 v 1.2. V d 1.1: Vi hai ng h o in p, mt ng h c nhy l 20 000/V, v ng h cn li c nhy l 1000/V, o in p trn RL trong mch hnh 1.2, trn thang o 10V ca ng h. Tnh sai s do qu ti cho c hai ng h.
BIN SON DQB, B/M TVT-HKT CHNG I: PHP O V K THUT O IN T

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100 200 200 = k 300 3 10 100 100 in p thc t khi cha c ng h = = = 9,1V 110 11 200 10 3 = 200 = 8,7V , Vy, sai s theo phn trm l 4,4% in p o c = 200 23 10 + 3

Trng hp th nht:

RL //RM =

Trng hp th 2: in p thc t l 9,1V (nh tnh trn)

RL //RM = 100 10 100 = k 110 11

100 11 = 100 = 4,8V , Vy, sai s theo phn trm l 47,3% in p o c = 100 21 10 + 11 10

V d 1.1, l i vi ngun in p hng. V d 1.2, cho thy nh hng khi ngun cung cp cho ti l c cung cp t mt ngun dng hng. V d 1.2: Mt ngun dng in khng i s cung cp dng in l 1,5mA cho ti in tr l 100k. Tnh in p ng v in p gn ng trn ti khi s dng ng h o c in tr l 1000 / V o in p trn thang o 100V. Tnh sai s do qu ti theo phn trm. in p ng = 1,5mA x 100k = 150V in tr ca ng h o = 100V x 1000/V = 100k in tr tng ng = 100k // 100k = 50k in p trn in tr 50k = 1,5mA x 50k = 75V Vy in p o c = 75V Sai s % do qu ti = (150V - 75V) x 100 / 150V = 50% 1.8 CAN NHIU PHP O. So vi tp nhiu bn trong c to ra bi cc gn sng ca ngun cung cp, hay bng s di chuyn ln mt cch ngu nhin v c s lng v vn tc ca cc in t trong cc cu kin ch ng v th ng (gi l nhiu Johnson hay nhiu trng, nhiu vch), hoc do cc qu trnh qu gy ra bi s gim t ngt thng lng qua mt in cm, cc thit b o c th b can nhiu t bn ngoi c gii thch nh sau. 1. Can nhiu tn s thp. Khi cc dy dn in ngun cung cp chnh ac chy song song gn vi cc u dy tn hiu o, th nhiu mnh ac (tn s 50Hz) s can nhiu vo u tn hiu o do hiu ng in dung gia cc dy dn. 2. Can nhiu tn s cao. Cc tn hiu tn s cao c to ra bt c khi no c s pht ra tia la in vng xung quanh thit b o. Tia la in c th to ra khi chuyn mch ngun cung cp, do cc h thng nh la, do cc ng c in mt chiu, do cc my hn, do s phng in ho quang (tc s ion ho khng kh gn cc mch in p cao),
BIN SON DQB, B/M TVT-HKT CHNG I: PHP O V K THUT O IN T

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v do h quang in trong cc n hunh quang. Tia chp l cc ngun tn s cao trong t nhin. Pht thanh qung b t cc i thu pht v tuyn v cc i pht thanh di ng cng sut cao, c lp t gn cc thit b o cng to ra cc tn hiu tn s cao. Cc tn hiu cao tn u c th can nhiu vo thit b o, cc tn hiu cao tn c th c chnh lu bng cc cu kin bn dn c trong cc thit b o, v nh vy s tc ng n cc kt qu o do in p khng mong mun th hin di cc dng khc nhau trong php o, lm cho kt qu o sai hon ton. Mt s php o dc tin hnh cc im o trong mch c c in p dc v in p ca cc tn hiu tn s cao. Cc php o in p dc s khng chnh xc nu khng lc b in p cao tn trc khi tn hiu o c chnh lu trong thit b o. Cc cch phng nga v khc phc cc php o loi b can nhiu cao tn. 1. Trc tin l bao bc c hiu qu thit b o khng b can nhiu ngoi trc tip vo thit b o. 2. Thit b o phi c ni t. 3. Cn phi lc cc tn hiu khng mong mun ti mch vo, dy o v dy ngun cung cp cc tn hiu cao tn s c lc b trc khi chnh lu, phi c mch chn bng tn tn hiu o loi b nhiu v can nhiu tn s cao. Mch ni vi b my cn phi m bo. Mi hn b nt hay thiu kt ni, s to ra mt in tr gia u vo v t i vi cc tn hiu tn s cao, nn in p cao tn s xm nhp ti u vo nh minh ho hnh 1.3. T in trong hnh 1.3, dng lc b cc tn hiu cao tn, c vai tr nh mt ngn mch i vi tn s cao. Nu t h mch, hay im G khng kt ni vi t (do p lc no hay mi hn b nt), th tn hiu tn s cao s c ti im A s c a n u vo ca mch khuych i bng transistor, nn s c khuych i v chnh lu (phn phi tuyn ca c tuyn) v s c ti u ra di dng in p dc. Cc i pht thanh qung b a phng thnh thong nghe c trong ng nghe in thoi do can nhiu . 4. Khi thc hin php o dc ti im c c in p dc cng nh in p cao tn, in p cao tn c th gy ra mc dng in ln chy qua u que o bi v u que o gn nh c ngn mch vi b my i vi tn hiu cao tn thng qua nh hng in dung, c th lm nng u que o (thc t ny xy ra khi o cc in p dc trong my pht). Mc ni tip cun cm RF vi u que o loi b tnh trng trn. 5. S dng mch khuych i thut ton ch vi sai s lm gim cc tn hiu nhiu ng knh rt c bn, c th loi b nhiu ng knh ln n mc 100dB. (Nu mc d c cc d phng nhiu cao tn trn, h hng h thng c th t tng ny n tng khc, th nguyn nhn c th l v bo v, ni t, mch lc v cun cm cao tn, cn phi kim tra k cc vn ). 1.9 V BO V. V bo v l lp chn bng vt liu dn in c lp phn c tn hiu nhiu. Hiu qu ca lp bo v tu thuc vo: (i) kiu lp bo v, (ii) cc c tnh ca vt liu lm lp bo v v (iii) h ca lp bo v. Trng nhiu c th l in trng hoc t trng. Cc lp bo v bng t tnh s dng vt liu st t nh st. Cc lp bo v tnh in s dng vt liu dn in khng nhim t nh nhm. Cc vt liu dn in c c tnh in mi km nn s hp th cc nhiu do in trng tnh. Ngoi vic hp th, nhiu cng s gim do s phn x ca in trng khi lp bo v. hp th nhiu t l vi dy ca vt liu. S phn x s xy ra khi
BIN SON DQB, B/M TVT-HKT CHNG I: PHP O V K THUT O IN T

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c gin on tr khng c trng gia lp bo v v mi trng xung quanh lp bo v. 1.10 NI T C ng dn tr li mc t trn bng mch in, thng l ng mch rng v c in tr rt thp. Dy tn hiu cn phi c t gn vi ng ni t gim nh hng in cm. ng mc t trn mch bng mch s c ni vi ng t hiu dng. Mc t, nh mch hnh 1.4, l khng ng, bi v in p c bc l trn chiu di Zp do phn t II s c ni tr li phn t I. nh hng s xu nu phn t I c nhy cao, hoc nu phn t II l thit b cng sut ln.

Cc cch ni t nh mch hnh 1.5a, v 1.5b, l thch hp, nht l i vi tn hiu c tn s trn 10MHz, nu ch chn trnh vic hnh thnh cc vng t.

1.11 SO SNH THIT B O TNG T V THIT B O S. Cc thit b o tng t s dng lch ca kim ch th do tng tc gia dng in v t trng, hoc gia hai t trng. a s cc b phn c cu ng u c ma st, nn c nhiu hn ch (nh gii hn tn s cao, nhy, sai s do qu ti) v cc sai s. Trong cc ng h o s, khng lin quan n s lm lch, s ch th c c b hin th (hin th bng tinh th lng hay bng LED), nn cc ng h o s khng c cc sai s nh ca cc ng h o tng t. Cc u im ca thit b o s so vi cc loi ng h o tng t nh sau. a) u im ca ng h o s so vi ng h o tng t. 1. chnh xc cao (thng dng l 0,0005% hay 5ppm) 2. r cao (khi s lng o c th hin bng ch s, nn s khng thay i gi tr ca n) (in hnh l 1ppm). 3. phn gii tt hn (tnh trng khng r rng ch b gii hn nhiu nht l mt ch s). 4. Khng c sai s do th sai. 5. Khng c sai s do c. Khng c sai s trong vic chuyn i s liu o. 6. Tr khng vo rt cao (in hnh l 10M v in dung vo thp l 40pF) v v vy sai s do qu ti khng ng k. 7. Tr khng vo hu nh khng thay i trn tt c cc thang o. 8. S nh chun t cc ngun mu bn trong ng h l hon ton n nh. 9. Khng c sai s do dng sng tn hiu. 10. Hin th cc tnh t ng, c kh nng t ng chnh 0 v t ng chuyn thang o. Cc thang o thay i theo cc nc thp phn thay v thang o 10 , nn c s lng thang o t hn, kh nng m rng thang o ln hn.
BIN SON DQB, B/M TVT-HKT CHNG I: PHP O V K THUT O IN T

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11. C kh nng x l s o bng my tnh. Cc s liu o c th c lu tr v truy sut bt k lc no. 12. C kh nng x l cc tn hiu o di tn s rng hn. 13. Thao tc o n gin, ch cn n nt n thit lp li t ng chnh xc thit b o cho cc s liu o mi. 14. C kh nng kt hp nhiu thit b o vo mt thit b bng k thut s. C th lp trnh php o d dng. 15. Thit b o gn v kt cu chc chn hn. b) Cc nhc im ca ng h o s. 1. Cn phi c ngun cung cp do s dng cc vi mch (IC). 2. Cc i lng thay i chm, nh khi np t khng th quan st c. Cc ng h tng t c th quan st cc bin thin nh khi o th t in phn. 3. Khi o th diode khng th thc hin nh cch thng thng, nn c b sung mch chuyn dng dnh ring cho mc ch o th diode mt s ng h o s (tc chc nng o mc st p trn tip gip pn). 4. Gi thnh cao, nhng gi thnh s gim xung theo s pht trin ca cng ngh ch to cc IC mi. Vn cn nhiu tranh lun gia cc li th ca thit b o tng t so vi cc hin th s. Tuy nhin, cc u im ca thit b o s c phn c ch trng hn cc loi thit b o tng t, nn thit b o s ngy cng tr nn thng dng hn, nht l khi gi thnh ca thit b o s gim xung. Trong cc h thng o rt phc tp, c cu o tng t ch th kim c th th hin bng hnh v trn my tnh ngoi hin th s. 1.12 CHN KHONG O T NG V O T NG Khong o t ng s nh v du chm thp phn mt cch t ng nhn c phn gii ti u. Nu s ch th di 200, thit b o s 3 - ch s s t ng c chuyn mch n thang o c nhy cao hn, cn nu gi tr hin th cao hn 1999, th thang o c nhy t hn tip theo s c chn. B m v b gii m s thay i v tr du chm thp phn khi yu cu khong o t ng. Mt ng h o t ng hon ton ch cn tn hiu cn o c ti hai u vo ca ng h o v iu chnh o thng s no, cn sau ton b cc tin trnh o (chnh 0, ch th cc tnh, thang o, hin th) s c tin hnh t ng. i vi cc thit b o tinh vi, khuynh hng l kt hp nhiu thit b o vo mt thit b. V d, b gim st thng tin c cc thit b o nh sau: 1. 3. 5. 7. 9. My to tn hiu RF ng h o cng sut RF ng h o cng sut AF ng h o h s mo dng My phn tch ph 2. 4. 6. 8. 10. My to tn hiu AF Voltmeter s ng h o nhy B m tn s My hin sng nh s

Bt k thit b o no trong s cc thit b o trn c th hnh thnh hot ng theo lp trnh. Ch lm vic c chn, thit b o s c chn, loi php o yu cu c lp trnh theo lnh, nn tn hiu ra s c hin th hay c in, ton b c iu khin bng bn phm. Php o theo chng trnh trn my tnh cng gi l o t ng. 1.13 O TRONG MCH (ICT) Vic o th trong mch c th o th IC mc nh hay trung bnh m khng cn tho IC ra khi mch. im mu cht ca ICT l giao din BON. Cc u kp l cc u que o b giao tip s c bt gn c ti, ni chc chn n im cn o th. Chng trnh o th t ng s cung cp d liu vo o th linh kin. V d, o th mt IC, b o th trong mch s truy xut bng trng thi cho IC t RAM ca thit
BIN SON DQB, B/M TVT-HKT CHNG I: PHP O V K THUT O IN T

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b o th t ng (ATE), v s so snh vi d liu ra ca IC cn o th vi bng trng thi chnh xc. 1.14 K THUT O IN T Php o cn phi c thc hin mt cch cn thn v s th hin cc s liu o phi ph hp sau khi c tnh ton n cc gii hn v nhy, chnh xc v kh nng ca thit b o. i khi s o c th ng nhng nu th hin kt qu sai, ngi ta c th hiu mch ang tt l c sai hng v ngc li. Hn na, vic s dng thit b o sai c th to ra cc nguy him cho s an ton ca ngi o v thit b o. Cc k thut o sau y cn phi tun theo khi o th hay thc hin cc php o trong vic chn on h hng, sa cha v bo dng cc thit b in t. 1. Ni thit b n ngun in li, tt hn ht l thng qua u ni ba chn, v thc hin bt ngun cho h thng theo trnh t sau: Cc im quan trng c chuyn mch ON u tin, tip theo l ng [ON] ngun cung cp, sau ng [ON] thit b o, v cui cng ng ngun cung cp cho mch cn o th. Khi tt (chuyn mch sang OFF), th trnh t l ngc li, th trnh t phi c thc hin ngc li: trc tin tt ngun cung cp cho mch cn o, tip theo l tt thit b o, sau tt ngun cung cp v cui cng l ngt in li. iu ny s bo v thit b o v thit b cn o khi cc xung qu . Khng hn hay tho mi hn linh kin khi ngun cung cp ang bt. 2. Bt k lc no cng phi tt thit b o cn nu thit b o c chuyn mch sang ng [on] ngay sau th cn phi c khong thi gian ng k cho php cc t trong thit x. 3. Cc thit b o th cn phi c ni t mt cch hiu qu gim thiu cc bin thin ca nhiu. 4. Chn thang o ph hp theo tham s cn o, tu theo gi tr o yu cu. Nu khng bit gi tr o yu cu, th hy chn thang o cao nht v sau o gim dn thang o cho ph hp, trnh cho thit b o b qu ti v b h hng. Thang o c chn cui cng s cho kt qu o gn vi lch ln nht c th c i vi php o in p v dng in, v gn mc trung bnh i vi php o in tr, c chnh xc ti u i vi h thng o. 5. Khi gi tr o bng 0, th ng h o cn phi ch th bng 0, nu khng th cn phi c chnh 0 ph hp. 6. Khng s dng cc u que o nhn c kch thc ln v chng c th gy ngn mch. Cc u que o cn phi nhn nht nu c th c. 7. iu quan trng ca vic ni cc im o th: cc hng ch to thit b thng quy nh cc im o th ti cc v tr thun tin trn bng mch in. in tr, mc in p dc, mc in p tn hiu v cc dng sng ca tn hiu s c quy nh cho mi im o th. (im o th thng l cc lp ng trn bng mch in). Cc im o th s c m tt nht trnh nguy him qu ti cho mch cn o. Cc im o th c thit k bi cc nh chuyn mn c kinh nghim, khi cn kho st thit b, khng c b qua cc im o th nh vy trong qu trnh sa cha. 8. Thng thng cc u que o mang du dng v m i vi cc php o in p v dng in trong mch. Ngun pin bn trong ng h o s c cc tnh ngc li, tc l u que o m ca ngun pin trong ng h o s c ni u que c nh du dng (que o mu en) v ngc li, nh th hin hnh 1.6. Thc t ny cn phi nh khi o th cc diode, cc t in phn, cc transistor v cc vi mch. 9. Nu cc im o th l khng cho trc, hoc nu cc php o l c thc hin ti cc im khc nhau, th cn phi ch cc im nh sau: a) Khi o cc in p dc, php o cn phi c thc hin ngay ti cc linh kin thc t, v i vi vi mch o trc tip trn cc chn.
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b) S dng u kp o th IC thc hin cc php o trn cc chn ca IC. c) Khi cn o tn hiu trn mch in trong bng mch, nn kp u o trn chn ca cu kin in t c ni vi ng mch in. d) Khi thc hin cc php o trn bng mch, cn phi m bo rng cc IC khng b in tch tnh do thit b o. e) Khi kim tra h mch, hy tho mt u ca cu kin in t ri thc hin php o. Nu cu kin khng c tho mt u, th cc cu kin khc mc song song vi cu kin nghi ng s ch th khng ng tin cy. C th kim tra cu kin nghi ng bng cu o. Khi tho mi hn ra khi bng mch in l kh khn th c th ct ng mch in lin quan, do d dng hn li vt ct hn so vi vic tho mi hn cu kin o ri hn li, nhng khi hn li vt ct, cn phng mi hn b nt khng xy ra. f) Vic tho v hn IC l mt qu trnh kh phc tp cn phi ht sc cn thn. Cn phi tho mi hn cho IC o th ch khi xc minh chc chn cc php o trn bng mch cho thy IC thc s hng. 10. Cn phi tun theo cc lu v an ton m bo an ton cho ngi o, thit b o. 11. Cn phi tun theo cc ch dn t hng dn s dng thit b o th, cng nh trnh t o th. 12. Cn phi nghin cu k cch vn hnh thit b o thc hin php o v cn phi tun theo tt c cc im lu c cp. TM TT NI DUNG CHNG 1. Cc thit b o dng xc nh gi tr thng s ca mt thit b hay h thng in t. Cc thut ng chnh xc, r, phn gii v nhy dng quy nh mt thit b o. C th c cc kiu sai s khc nhau km theo trong cc kt qu o l cc sai s th, cc sai s h thng v cc sai s ngu nhin. Thit b o c th c gii hn v thang o, nhy, tn s, tr khng, nh hng do qu ti v gi ho. Thit b o c th b can nhiu t bn ngoi do khng ni t thit b o, hay do khng lc tn hiu tn s cao. cc ng h o kiu tng t, do trng lng, s cn bng v ma st ca c cu o kiu lch nn c hn ch v tn s, hn ch v nhy v cc sai s khc. i vi cc thit b o kiu s, do khng s dng c cu o kiu lch, nn s c chnh xc cao, r cao, phn gii tt hn, khng c sai s do c, khng c sai s do dng sng v nh hng do qu ti khng ng k. Ngoi ra cn c cc u im khc v thang o v x l tnh ton kt qu o t ng ng h o s. o cc thng s mt cch chnh xc, cn phi tun theo cc lu nh trnh t ng m ng, hiu chnh 0, ni t thit b o, chn thang o v cc tnh ng, v cc lu v an ton in thng thng.

BIN SON DQB, B/M TVT-HKT

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CHNG 2: THIT B O V QUAN ST DNG TN HIU

Thit b o v quan st dng tn hiu hay my hin sng, gi tt l CRO [Cathode Ray Oscilloscope], l thit b o in t rt a nng, dng o th trong cc h thng in t. My hin sng s hin th cc dng sng ca tn hiu trn mn hnh, nn c th o bin cng nh tn s ca tn hiu. V c bn, my hin sng dng o in p, nhng cng c th o dng in, nu dng in c bin i thnh in p khi cho dng in chy qua mt in tr c nh. Tng t, my hin sng c th o in tr nu dng in t mt ngun dng hng c chy qua in tr cn o nh i vi DMM (chng 3). My hin sng hai vt c th dng so snh hai dng sng khc nhau, cn my hin sng hai chm tia c th dng so snh cc thay i v pha lin quan hai dng sng. My hin sng c th c s dng hiu qu quan st dng sng thc t trn mn hnh v nh lng dng sng. My hin sng c th dng hin th i lng bt k nu c th bin i c thnh in p. Do my hin sng l thit b o a dng nn cng c s dng trong cc lnh vc o v quan st kh tng, sinh hc, y t v cng nghip. 2.1 NGUYN L HOT NG CA MY HIN SNG TNG T My hin sng bao gm ng tia cathode (CRT), v cc mch lm lch hin th dng sng. Nguyn l hot ng ca ng tia cathode v cc mch lm lch c gii thch nh sau: a) ng tia cathode. B phn chnh ca my hin sng l ng tia cathode, l mt n pht x in t do nhit cao bao gm mt sng in t, cc bn lm lch v mn hnh hunh quang. Tt c c bc trong v bng thu tinh, rt chn khng nh hnh 2.1.

Sng in t gm cathode c lm bng Vonfram s c t nng pht x cc in t. S di chuyn ca cc in t c iu khin bi li iu khin c in p m hn so vi cathode. Cc in t di chuyn qua cc in trng to ra bi cc li hi t v li gia tc, to thnh tia hi t sc nt. Chm tia in t nng lng cao s p vo mn hnh hunh quang, nn s lm cho cc phn t phosphor lo sng. phn loe ca ng thu tinh, c ph lp than ch c hai bn lp v thu tinh. Lp than ch bn trong s ngn cc in t khi pht x th cp, cn lp than ph bn ngoi lm nhim v bo v, trnh s bc x nhiu tn hiu qut. Mt lp nhm mng cng c t gn st mn hnh chn cc ion dch chuyn khi s va chm mn hunh quang v cng dng phn x nh sng tr li pha mn hnh nhm ci thin pht sng ca tia sng. ng tia cn phi c in p vi kV (gi l i cao p hay in th EHT) t vo lp ph than ch
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bn trong. Cc li khc s ly cc mc in p dc thch hp t in p cao thng qua mch phn p. S lm lch tia theo chiu ngang c c bng cch s dng tn hiu rng ca. S lm lch tia theo chiu dc nh tn hiu cn quan st. Cc mch iu khin lch tia my hin sng (ngoi ng tia), s dng cc transistor nn yu cu cc mc in p dc thp hot ng. b) Lm lch chm tia. Nguyn l hot ng ca b gc thi gian (lm lch ngang). Chm tia s c lm lch theo chiu ngang bng cch p t mt in p rng ca (nh hnh 2.2a), ln cp bn lch (gi l cp bn lch ngang) theo kiu lm lch tnh in. Khi khng c in p tn hiu ln hai bn lch (im A' ca tn hiu rng ca hnh v), im sng do tia to ra ti im bt u A trn mn hnh. Khi mc in p ca bn lch bn phi tng dn so vi bn lch bn tri, th im sng s di chuyn v bn phi nn ln lt qua n cc im B, C, D v E trn mn hnh, tng ng vi mc in p rng ca B', C', D' v E'. Sau in p rng ca s tr v li mc 0 nn im sng s tr li im A ban u.

S lm lch dc. Cp bn lch th hai gi l cp bn lm lch dc. Tn hiu vo cn o s c t vo cp bn lch dc sau khi c khuych i. Do nh hng ca mc in p lch dc m chm tia in t s b lch theo chiu dc trong khong P v Q, nh hnh 2.2b. Nh vy, chm tia s chu hai s lm lch ngang v dc ng thi, nn nh hng hp thnh l ti to li tn hiu c bin thay i theo thi gian, nh th hin hnh 2.2c. Khi s lm lch theo chiu ngang iu khin im sng t A n B, th lm lch dc s ko im sng n P, nn sau khong thi gian AB, im sng khng phi ti B m l ti P. Tng t, sau khong thi gian AC im sng l ti C; sau khong thi gian AD, im sng l ti Q, v sau khong thi gian AE, im pht sng l ti E, v. v. . . . Do vy, cc phn t pht quang APCQE s ln lt pht sng v hin th dng sng vo. li khc trn mt my hin sng s cho php o khong thi gian trn trc ngang (X), v bin trn trc dc (Y). Xo tia qut ngc hay tia quay v.
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Tn hiu rng ca gim rt nhanh t gi tr ln nht v 0, gi l tia quay v, hay tia qut ngc. Tn hiu qut ngc s khng c nhn thy trn mn hnh, nu khng th dng sng c hin th s tr nn mo dng ln. Do trong sut khong thi gian qut ngc, ng tia s c gi trng thi ngng pht sng, gi l xo tia, bng cch cung cp mc in p m cho li iu khin so vi cathode. c) ng b. ng b c s dng th hin qu trnh lm cho dng sng n nh. Dng sng s n nh nu tn hiu qut bt u ti gi tr 0 ca tn hiu vo. Gi s thi gian qut th hin 5 chu k ca tn hiu vo, tip theo sau khi qut ngc, vt sng s phi bt u vi im u l chu k th 6 ca tn hiu vo. iu ny c th thc hin hoc bng s kch khi b to dao ng qut mt trng thi bn lin tc vi mt xung t tn hiu vo, hoc bng mt tn hiu ngoi bt k, hay nu tn hiu qut tun hon th bng cch iu chnh mch qut da trn vic tinh chnh nh thi. Tinh chnh bin thin thi gian, c th thc hin bng cch cung cp mt phn nh tn hiu vo cho mch dao ng to tn hiu qut tun hon. S lng chu k dng sng c hin th trn mn hnh s tu thuc vo khong thi gian cn thit im sng di chuyn t im bt u (im tn cng bn tri ca mn hnh) n im tn cng bn phi, v chu k (hay tn s) ca tn hiu vo. Nu khong thi gian ca tn hiu rng ca bng mt na chu k (T/2) ca dng sng vo, th mt na chu k dng sng vo s c hin th. Nu thi gian qut ca tn hiu rng cc bng mt chu k ca tn hiu vo th ton b chu k s c hin th. Nu thi gian qut ca tn hiu rng ca bng 2 chu k tn hiu vo th hai chu k s c hin th, v. v. . . Do vy, khi bit khong thi gian to vt theo chiu ngang v s lng chu k c hin th trn mn hnh, th c th xc nh chu k hay tn s ca tn hiu vo. Khong thi gian to vt ngang s c ch th trn chc nng iu khin thi gian / vch chia [Time/Div], tnh theo n v ms/div hay s/div. d) nhy ca s lm lch. Bin ca dng sng vo s c xc nh bng cch m s vch chia theo chiu dc trn mn hnh t nh n nh ca dng sng. Suy ra mt na s vch chia s l bin nh ca dng sng cn o. Gi tr ca mi vch chia theo chiu dc s c ch trn chuyn mch iu khin h s khuych i dc theo mV/div hay V/div. Chuyn mch iu khin dc c gi l nhy ca s lm lch. nhy lch tu thuc vo cc in tr phn p v h s khuych i in p ca mch khuych i dc. V d 2.1: Vi tn hiu vo dc l 100mV (nh - nh) t vo u vo. Mch phn p s lm gim tn hiu vo mc mt phn 10 ti u vo ca mch khuych i dc c h s khuych i l 40dB. Tnh mc in p thc t theo vch chia trn mn hnh v v tr nhy dc nu tn hiu o chim 5 vch chia trn mn hnh. Tn hiu ti u vo ca mch khuych i dc = 100 x 1/10 = 10mV H s khuych i 40dB c ngha l s khuych i in p ln 100 ln. Do vy, tn hiu ti u ra ca mch khuych i dc = 10mV x 100 = 1000mV. Mc tn hiu ny chim 5 vch chia, nn mc in p thc t trn mt vch chia l 200mV, nhng thang nhy s c t mc 20mV / div, c gi tr ch th ng l 100mV (nh - nh). e) My hin sng vt n. S khi ca my hin sng vt n (theo kiu qut kch khi) nh hnh 2.3. Tn hiu vo thng qua mch suy gim (nh trong voltmeter in t) theo cc thang o khc nhau i vi php o bin . Tn hiu sau s c khuych i bi mch khuych i dc (khuych i - Y ), v s c cung cp n cp bn lch dc lm lch theo chiu dc. Mch dao ng qut s to ra tn hiu rng ca v c khuych i cung cp n cp bn lch ngang. Khong thi gian ca tn hiu qut c iu khin bi
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mch iu khin gc thi gian nn gi tr ca khong thi gian theo vch chia s c ch trn chuyn mch iu khin nh thi trn mt my hin sng. i vi mt s ng dng o (chng hn nh cc mu hnh Lissajous hay cc php o iu ch), cn phi t theo v tr qut ngoi v do vy chuyn mch S2 s cung cp tn hiu qut trong hay qut ngoi n mch khuych i tn hiu qut theo yu cu.

gi n nh dng sng hin th, cn phi c cc thi im khi u qut ti cng mt v tr ca chu k tn hiu vo, tc l m bo s ng b, tn hiu vt ngang c to ra bi xung kch khi ly t mch khuych i dc (khuych i - Y) s kch khi mch dao ng qut bng b a hi n n. Khi cn kch khi ngoi, hay kch khi bng tn hiu in ac 50Hz (gn bn trong my hin sng) cng c th s dng bng chuyn mch S1. Dy tr dng b tr gy ra do s khi ng mch qut sau khi kch khi. V vy, dy tr s lm cho tn hiu o v tn hiu qut n cc cp bn lch trong ng tia mt cch ng thi. f) Qut lp li. My hin sng s dng mch a hi chy t do nn khng cn tn hiu kch khi. Mch qut s nhn c tn hiu lp li theo mi chu k ca mch dao ng a hi. dng sng n nh, cn phi c s ng b gia tn s qut v tn s ca tn hiu cn o. iu ny c th thc hin bng cch thay i tn s qut nh vic iu khin nh thi. S khc nhau gia qut lp li v qut kch khi. Tn s v pha ca tn hiu qut lp li cn phi c ng b vi tn hiu vo to ra dng sng hin th n nh. Nu tn s sai lch, th s hin th dng sng s khng n nh. Qut kch khi s hin th vt theo chu k thi gian quy nh v v vy s n nh m khng lin quan n tn s tn hiu vo. g) My hin sng qut tr. Do xung kch khi, s khi u qut s b tr, nn s khng th quan st vt sng trn mn hnh trong mt khong thi gian no . Tn hiu bn lch dc l lin tc, nn mt phn ca tn hiu cn o s b mt. Do vy, cng cn phi lm tr tn hiu. V tn hiu khng c t trc tip vo cp bn lch dc m phi truyn qua mch dy tr, to ra khong thi gian cn thit cho mch qut khi u ti cp bn lch ngang trc khi tn hiu cn o n cp bn lch dc. Nu tr tn hiu l 200ns, v sng qut b tr khong 80ns, th tn hiu cn quan st s c hin th theo tn hiu qut ng khi bt u qut, nh th hin hnh v 2.4.
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h) My hin sng vt kp. my hin sng vt kp hay hai vt, mt mch qut n s c hin th ti hai v tr dc khc nhau trn mn hnh theo tng chu k rng ca lun phin. S khi my hin sng hai vt nh hnh 2.5.

Chuyn mch in t S3 s chn tn hiu vo dc (Y1), c a n mch khuych i dc (Y) trong mt khong thi gian no , cn tn hiu Y2 s c cung cp n mch khuych i dc trong khong thi gian tip theo. Chuyn mch S1 s cho php kch khi hoc bng tn hiu Y1 hoc bng tn hiu Y2, hay bng tn hiu ngoi, hay kch khi bng tn hiu mng in 50Hz. Cu trc mch nh i vi my hin sng vt n. Chuyn mch t ng c tc nhanh c hai tn hiu c th quan st mt cch r rng trn mn hnh (do lu sng ca cht hunh quang v lu sng vng mc mt). my hin sng hai vt, ch c mt mch qut, nn i vi mt chu k tn hiu qut s iu khin s lm lch dc ca mt dng sng vo, v i vi chu k qut tip theo ca cng mt mch qut, tn hiu qut s iu khin s lm lch dc ca tn hiu vo th hai. Vy hai dng sng ca hai tn hiu vo ring s c hin th, nhng khng c hin th ng thi. Do khng th so snh lch pha gia hai dng sng. so snh quan h v pha, cn phi c hai dng sng c hin th ng thi ti cng thi im, tc l c th thc hin bng my hin sng hai chm tia. i) My hin sng hai tia. my hin sng tia kp hay hai tia c hai sng in t, hai cp bn lch dc v hai cp bn lch ngang. Hai cp bn lch ngang c t song song v c iu khin bi cng mt mt qut ngang (mch gc thi gian), tc l cng mt tn hiu qut s xut hin ng thi ti hai cp bn lch ngang. S khi ca my hin sng hai tia nh hnh 2.6, trong c mt mch dao ng qut c trong hnh v, nhng cc my hin sng t tin c hai mch to sng qut.
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k) Dy que o ca my hin sng. Dy que o l cc u ni my hin sng n thit b hay mch in t cn o th. Ngoi chc nng dy que o n gin bng cp ng trc thng thng, cn phi c cc dy que o dng ring cho my hin sng m bo tn hiu o trung thc nht. Dy que o DC 10:1. Mch khuych i dc (Y) c tr khng vo khong 1M mc song song vi mt t khong 50pF. Cp ng trc c th c in dung k sinh khong 50pF. iu ny s gy ra qu ti rt ln i vi mch in t cn o c tr khng cao. Gii php hn ch s qu ti l mc mt in tr 9M ni tip nh hnh 2.7. Mch cn o s xem in tr vo ca my hin sng l 10M thay cho 1M, nhng tn hiu ti cc u vo ca my hin sng bng mt phn mi tn hiu t vo. suy gim c th c b bng mch khuych i dc.

Dy que o 10:1 tn s cao. Vn v dung khng thp ca t 100pF i vi tn hiu o di tn s cao c gii quyt bng cch s dng mt t in nh c tr s C = 1/10 so vi t in song song nh mch hnh 2.8. Trimmer (t xoay) 10pF mc ni tip vi in dung 100pF c in dung thc t vo khong 9pF l tng i thp nn s khng gy qu ti cho mch ca h thng c tn s cao, nhng s lm gim mc tn hiu ac vo khong mt phn mi. Cc nh hng ca que o s c kim tra bng cch cung cp xung vung vo que o quan st dng xung vung trn my hin sng, s cho tn hiu tn s thp (phn bng phng) cng nh tn hiu tn s cao (cc cnh).

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CHNG II: OSCILLOSCOPES

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Dy que o tch cc u o tch cc gm mt mch FET lp li cc ngun theo kiu mch lp li emitter BJT, c in tr vo cao v in tr ra thp nn s loi b s qu ti cho mch cn o khi ni que o ca my hin sng vo mch. u o cng cho mc in dung rt nh, do vy s ci thin p ng tn s cao (khi cn o cc xung tng nhanh). Ngoi ra, u o tch cc c suy gim thp hn nhiu so vi u o 10:1. Do u o tch cc s dng hiu qu o cc tn hiu nh. Tuy nhin, u o tch cc c gi thnh cao nn t c s dng. u o 10:1 c s dng ph bin hn. Dy que o kiu tch sng u o s dng mch tch sng bng diode tch tn hiu iu ch ra khi tn hiu cao tn (RF) c iu ch, v cng s chnh lu tn hiu sng mang cao tn (RF) thnh mt chiu (dc). Bin nh ca sng mang s c hin th theo dng sng c chng chp trn tn hiu dc. Nh vy, u o s lm vic nh mch pht hin tn hiu cc my thu thanh v my thu thng tin, trong tn hiu c th trong di vi megahertz. Khi dng u o kiu tch sng bin i cc tn hiu tn s cao thnh di m tn, nn c th s dng my hin sng c rng bng tn thp. Dy que o cm ng dng. u o cm ng dng gm mt vng li t c th kp c dy dn o c dng in nh mch hnh 2.9.

Dy dn c dng in chy qua cn o ng vai tr nh mt cun dy s cp ca tn hiu xoay chiu. Cun dy qun trn li t lm cun th cp. Khi c dng dc chy qua, dng in t trong cu kin hiu ng Hall gim xung, tc l lm tng mc chnh lch in th s c khuych i cung cp n my hin sng. 2.2 MY HIN SNG S - NH. My hin sng s c chc nng nh - DSO [Digital Storage Oscilloscope], l thit b o c gi thnh cao v phc tp, nht l my hin sng c chc nng x l tn hiu, cho kh nng tnh ton cc gi tr trung bnh, hiu dng [r.m.s], bin i Fourier v phn tch ph. Kiu my hin sng s dng vi x l khng cn thit trong cc dch v sa cha, m thng dng hn l kiu my hin sng khng c vi x l, xc nh cc h hng v cc xung chp chn. My hin sng nh - s s dng ng tia cathode thng thng (khng phi kiu ng tia c chc nng nh). Cc mu dng sng s c lu tr trong b nh, v c th hin th trn mn hnh ca my hin sng thng thng. S khi ca my hin sng nh - s kiu khng x l tn hiu cho hnh 2.10. Tn hiu cn o t vo my hin sng s c ly mu theo tng khong thi gian u n. Mi mc mu s c chuyn n b bin i tng t sang s (ADC) to ra cc tn hiu logic nh phn tng ng vi mc bin ca tn hiu c ly mu. Tn hiu nh phn s c lu tr trong b nh nn c th s dng khi cn thit. Khi cn quan st, tn hiu nh phn s c a n b bin i s - tng t, bin i tn hiu nh phn thnh dng tn hiu tng t ban u cung cp cho ng tia cathode. Cc tn hiu
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iu khin v nh thi s kch hot b nh bt c lc no khi yu cu ghi v c d liu. Ngoi ra, mch iu khin v nh thi s cung cp tn hiu nh phn cho b gc thi gian bin i thnh tn hiu gc thi gian tng t a n cp bn lm lch ngang (H), to ra vt sng trn mn hnh.

2.3 NG DNG O BNG MY HIN SNG a) S dng my hin sng pht hin sai hng My hin sng l thit b o c nhy rt cao, chnh xc v khng gy qu ti cho h thng cn o, do khng c c cu o kiu quay. My hin sng s hin th dng sng thc t ca tn hiu vo, nn c th bit mch c khuych i v mo dng hay khng mt cch d dng. My hin sng c th dng o mc in p dc, kho st cc tn hiu xung, cc tn hiu rng ca, tam gic, sng sin v cc tn hiu c dng phc tp khc. My hin sng c th o tn s ca cc b dao ng v cc b to xung nhp. My hin sng vt kp c th kim tra hai tn hiu vo (trong trng hp cc mch op - amp v cc cng), cng nh kim tra tn hiu u vo v u ra trong mch in t. Do vy, my hin sng c s dng ph bin trong vic o th, sa cha cc mch khuych i, cc mch dao ng, cc my pht, my thu v trong cc h thng mch s. b) Cc chc nng iu khin trn mt my hin sng. Cc chc nng iu khin trn mt my hin sng thng thng gm: iu khin cng tia [Intensity control] dng iu chnh sng ca vt. iu khin hi t [Focus control] dng iu khin sc nt ca vt sng. Astigmatism iu khin nh thi. iu chnh khong thi gian / vch chia ca mch dao ng qut (gc thi gian). iu khin h s khuych i dc (Y) dng iu chnh bin ca dng sng hin th theo chiu dc, trong khong t 5mV/div n 20V/div. iu khin h s khuych i ngang (H) dng iu chnh di ca vt theo chiu ngang. iu khin qut dng chn mch qut trong hay qut ngoi. iu khin kch khi [Trigger control] dng chn xung kch khi t b khuych i dc (Y), hoc t tn hiu in li hay tn hiu ngoi (i vi cc loi my hin sng hin nay c thm chc nng iu khin ng b). iu khin mc kch khi, dng iu chnh mc ca xung kch khi. iu khin v tr ngang, dng iu chnh v tr ca dng sng hin th theo chiu ngang. iu khin v tr dc dng iu chnh v tr ca dng sng hin th theo chiu dc.
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nh chun trong s cung cp tn hiu tn s 1kHz, bin khng i (thng l 2Vpp), kim tra vic nh chun que o. c) S dng my hin sng. 1. Khi cha bt chuyn mch ngun cung cp, t cc nm chc nng iu khin hi t [focus], cng chm tia [intensity] v iu khin h s khuych i [V/div] v tr thp nht (tn cng bn tri), v cc chc nng iu khin v tr dc v ngang v tr gn im gia. 2. Tip theo l bt chuyn mch ngun cung cp chnh ca my hin sng. 3. Sau khong thi gian khi ng ca my hin sng cho cathode cn phi c t nng hon ton, to ra cng chm tia yu cu. 4. iu chnh chc nng iu khin cng chm tia c vt sng r rng xut hin trn mn hnh. iu chnh chc nng iu khin v tr dc v ngang nu cn. (i khi h s khuych i ngang c th biu hin thnh vt sng nu im sng bt u ngoi khung mn hnh). Khi im sng c th nhn thy, di chuyn im sng vo trung tm v iu chnh hi t, nho lm cho im sng gn. Chc nng iu khin cng tia cn phi c iu chnh im sng khng qu chi, hoc khng qu m. 5. t ch qut theo v tr qut trong [Int.], v iu chnh h s khuych i ngang m rng im sng thnh ng sng y ngang trn mn hnh. 6. Kim tra s di chuyn theo chiu dc ca ng sng ngang. Mch khuych i dc nh chun c sn trong thit b o. 7. t u que o vo h thng cn o. Chuyn mch ngun ca h thng cn o bt [ON]. 8. iu chnh chc nng iu khin h s khuych i dc c cao ca dng sng yu cu trn mn hnh. 9. iu chnh dao ng qut (gc thi gian) c s chu k cn thit trn mn hnh. i vi my hin sng c kch khi, chu k cn phi n nh. 10. Kho st dng sng, o bin v kim tra c tnh ca tn hiu. 11. c cc mu hnh Lissajous, a tn hiu ngoi c cung cp t my to sng n u vo qut ngoi, dng cho php o tn s v pha. d) Cc php o vi my hin sng. o in p ca tn hiu vo Gi tr nh - nh ca in p c o bng cch m s vch chia theo chiu dc gia hai nh. Chng hn, nu bin nh - nh ca dng sng chim 4 vch chia trn thang nhy 500mV/div, th tr s nh - nh l 500mV/div x 4div = 2V, vy bin nh l 1V. o khong thi gian ca chu k Chu k ca tn hiu o c bng cch tnh s chu k trn b gc thi gian. Gi tr gc thi gian c trong mt chu k s l chu k ca tn hiu. V d, trn thang o 50s/div, c 2 chu k tn hiu chim 4 vch chia, th s vch chia chim bi mt chu k l 2 vch chia, nn chu k tn hiu l 100s. Tnh nghch o ca chu k s cho tn s ca tn hiu, trong v d s tnh c l 1/100s = 10kHz. o tn s theo mu hnh Lissajous o tn s tn hiu theo mu hnh Lissajous thc hin bng cch a tn hiu c tn s cn o vo u vo dc, v ni tn hiu c tn s bit vo u vo qut ngoi, s thu c cc mu hnh khc nhau trn mn hnh tu thuc vo t s ca hai tn s v lch pha ca hai tn hiu. Cc mu hnh Lissajous nh hnh 2.11. Khi hai tn s bng nhau, lch pha bng 0o s to ra mt ng thng nghing 45o so vi ng ngang; vi lch pha 180o, ng thng s to mt gc bng 135o so vi ng ngang. Khi lch pha l 90o, s to ra mt ng trn. i vi cc lch pha bt k khc s to ra cc hnh ellipse. Khi hai tn s tn hiu khng bng nhau, th t s ca tn s cha bit (fv) i vi tn s
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bit (c tn s trn my to sng) (fh) s c xc nh bng t s ca s lng cc vng theo ng ngang i vi s lng cc vng theo ng dc. o ch s iu ch ca tn hiu AM Khi tn hiu iu ch c p t lm tn hiu qut ngoi, v tn hiu c iu ch lm tn hiu dc (Y) nh th hin hnh 2.12a. Mu hnh s c hin th nh hnh 2.12b. Ch s iu ch s c tnh bng (p q)/(p + q).

o mo ca xung Xung vo v xung ra c th c hin th trn my hin sng hai vt. vng hoc vt qu ca phn nm ngang, v tng hay gim ca cc cnh xung c th quan st trn mn hnh. Thi gian tng (ng vi mc thay i t 10% n 90% bin xung) v khong thi gian gim (ng vi mc thay i t 90% n 10% bin xung) c th o c trn mu xung. rng ca xung s c o trong khong t t mc 50% ca cnh tng n mc 50% ca cnh gim. e) Cc im lu khi s dng my hin sng. 1. Ni v my hin sng vi t. 2. Cng chm tia in t cn phi gi mc thp c th quan st thun li. im sng khng c lu ti mt v tr trn mn hnh. Trong trng hp cn phi gi do mt l do no , th hy mc cng thp. 3. Nn bt u php o vi mc nhy nh nht mch khuych i dc v tng dn cho n khi t c mc thit lp thch hp. 4. nh chun lch dc trc khi thc hin cc php o. C sn ngun in p trong my hin sng cho vic nh chun. 5. S dng que o ph hp khi thc hin php o trn cc tn hiu tn s cao, hay khi tn hiu vo qu ln. 6. Khi tho my hin sng sa cha, hy cn thn c in p rt cao khong vi kilovolt. Ngay c trong trng thi ngt chuyn mch ngun in li, cc t lc c in p cao c th gy nguy him cho ngi s dng, do vy t cn phi c x khi tin hnh cng vic trn my hin sng trng thi ct ngun.
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7. Phi cn thn khi s dng ng tia, h hng ngu nhin bt k s dn n hng mn hnh. 8. Mn hnh pht quang c th pht x tia - x nh, khi cn thay th nn mua CRT tiu chun t nh sn xut c uy tn.

BIN SON DQB, B/M TVT-HKT

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CHNG 3: THIT B O IN T A NNG V CHUYN DNG

Thit b o in t c gii thiu trong chng ny l thit b c bn, rt cn thit trong vic ch to, sa cha, o th cc cu kin, mch in t v h thng in t. S rt bt li nu khng c cc thit b o o th mch, o gi tr ca cc thng s. Cc mc sau m t nguyn l c bn v ng dng ca mt s thit b o thng dng. Cc thit b o th BJT v thit b v c tuyn BJT s c gii thch mc 4.2, thit b o th IC tuyn tnh v IC s s c m t chng 4.3 v 4.4 tng ng. Cc ch tiu k thut ca mt s thit b o gii thiu phn ph lc I. 3.1 NG H O KIU T - IN a) Nguyn l hot ng ca c cu o kiu t - in ng h o tng t thng dng trong o lng in in t trc y, s dng c cu cun dy di chuyn trong t trng ca nam chm vnh cu (PMMC), cn gi l c cu DArsonval, tc l c cu o kiu t - in. V c bn, ng h o kiu t - in l ng h o dng mt chiu (dc), to nn bi cc thnh phn khc nhau nh hnh 3.1, vi ba b phn chnh l: (i) b phn to ra lc lm lch, (ii) b phn iu khin, v (iii) b phn lm nht.

B phn to lc lm lch trong cc ng h t - in l tng tc gia t trng v dng in nh trong ng c in mt chiu. Khi cun dy mang dng c t trong t trng, s to ra m men xon bng B x A x N x I (Newton-mt), trong B l mt t thng tnh theo Wb/m2, A l tit din ca cun dy tnh theo m2, N l s vng dy trong cun dy, v I l dng in tnh theo ampere. M men s lm cho cun dy xoay. Dng in cao hn, s cho m men quay ln hn. Kim c gn trn cun dy, s di chuyn trn thang o. Cun dy qun trn mt khung nhm nh v c lp trn trc thng, khung dy c th xoay t do trong t trng u do m men quay. T trng u v mnh s c to ra bi nam chm hnh mng nga lm bng vt liu t tnh. B phn iu khin bao gm l xo c gn vo cun dy ng, cn li lc lm lch, nn s bng k x q, trong k l h s l xo (ty thuc vo cc kch thc v mm do ca l xo), cn q l gc lm lch tnh theo . Khi lc iu khin bng vi m men xon, kim ch th s dng ti gi tr cn o. Khi dng in dng chy trong cun dy, lc xon bng 0, l xo s bt u phc hi li v s a kim ch th v v tr mc dng bng 0. B phn lm nht gm cc b to dng xoy khng kh, c vai tr n nh kim ch th ti v tr ch th. b) ng h o dng in bng c cu t - in ng h o kiu t - in v c bn l ng h o dng mt chiu (dc), c ch to cho lch ton thang ti cc gi tr dng thp, 1mA hoc thp hn (50A). Tuy nhin, c cu o c th dng o cc mc dng cao bng cch s dng cc in tr c tr s
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thp mc song song vi cun dy ng gi l cc in tr shunt. Gi s ta mun o dng 100mA bng ng h o c lch ton thang l 1mA, th in tr shunt phi c tr s sao cho mc dng 99mA chy qua shunt v ch 1mA chy qua cun dy ng, nh th hin mch hnh 3.2. Tr s in tr ca shunt c th tnh t phng trnh (3.1).
IM =

I T RSh I R hay RSh = M M RM + RSh IT I M

(3.1)

Trong , IT l dng ton b, IM l dng c php chy qua c cu o, RM l in tr ca c cu o, v RSh l gi tr in tr ca shunt. V d 3.1, cho cch tnh in tr shunt. V d 3.1: in tr ca c cu o l 1000 v dng c th chy qua c cu o ln nht l 1mA. Gi tr ca RSh l bao nhiu cho php ng h o ch th 100mA ? Nu s dng cng c cu o o dng 1A, th shunt ca ng h cn phi c l bao nhiu ?
RSh = I M RM 1 1000 1000 = = 10,1 = IT IM 100 1 99

C cu o c th nh chun ch th mc dng 100mA thay cho 1mA khi mc shunt 10,1 vo mch o. Tng t, o mc dng 1A, cn phi c shunt vo khong 1 bng cch tnh nh sau:
RSh = I M RM 1 1000 1000 = = = 1 I T I M 1000 1 999

ng h o c th c cc thang o dng khc bng chuyn mch n cc in tr shunt khc nhau nh hnh 3.3. V tr trng bn tri ca chuyn mch l thang o nh nht (t 0 n 1mA) khi khng mc shunt vo php o. Cc v tr chuyn mch 2, 3, v 4 s t in tr R1, R2, v R3 mc song song vi c cu o cho cc thang cao hn tng ng. Theo phng php trn, c cu o vn gi nguyn khng c shunt v tr thang o thp nht. Phng php o dng khc l phng php shunt vn nng hay shunt Aryton.

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Shunt vn nng [shunt Aryton] Shunt vn nng gm hng lot in tr c mc song song vi c cu o thng qua cc v tr ca chuyn mch thang o, nh hnh 3.4. v tr S-1 ca chuyn mch, shunt ca ng h l R1 + R2 + R3. v tr S-2, shunt R2 + R3 v R1 s tr thnh mc ni tip vi c cu o. v tr S-3, R3 s song song cn R1 + R2 tr nn mc ni tip vi c cu o. Vy shunt Aryton s hot ng theo hai cch. Th nht, dng r mch dng; th hai s lm gim nhy ca c cu o bng in tr mc ni tip vi c cu o. c) ng h o in p bng c cu o t - in ng h o dng bng c cu o t - in cng c th s dng lm ng h o p [Voltmeter] bng cch mc ni tip mt in tr ln cng vi in tr ca c cu o. Gi tr ca in tr ni tip c gi tr ln m bo ch mc dng chp nhn c chy qua c cu o. Nu mc dng ca c cu o l IM v in p cn o l Vme Volt, gi tr ca in tr ton b R (bng in tr mc ni tip + in tr ca c cu o) s c tnh bng phng trnh (3.2).
Vme = IM R

(3.2)

V d 3.2: C cu o t - in dng o 100V trn mt mch in, nu mc dng chy qua c cu o l 1mA, xc nh tr s in tr mc ni tip. in tr ca c cu o l 1000.

Vme 100V = IM = = 1mA , vy R = 100k, nn in tr ni tip = 100k - 1k = 99k. R R

Khi nhiu in tr mc ni tip, c th chn bng mt chuyn mch c kt ni thit b o tr thnh mt voltmeter nhiu thang o, nh hnh 3.5. d) ng h o in tr bng c cu o t - in

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S dng ngun pin trong (pin kh), c cu o t - in c th dng lm ng h o in tr [ohmmeter] o cc in tr cha bit tr s nh mch hnh 3.6. Dng chy qua c cu o s chy qua in tr cn o (RX). Gi tr ca dng in l lch ca kim ch th ca c cu o s ty thuc vo tr s ca in tr cha bit. Thang o ca ohmmeter c th nh chun v khc theo ohm (). Nu in tr qu ln, ngun pin c th khng cung cp do dng s qu nh, nn cn phi c ngun d phng bng pin ln hn (E2 > E1) thc hin thng qua chuyn mch. Bin tr R phi c hiu chnh m bo rng khi in tr cha bit bng 0 (tc l hai u que o c ngn mch vi nhau), c cu o phi ch th mc in tr bng 0 ( lch ton b). Thang in tr s th hin in tr bng 0 ti lch y thang do in tr bng 0 ngha l mc dng ln nht chy qua c cu o. in tr v cng ngha l khng c dng in, v l tn cng bn tri ca thang o (vch mc dng bng 0) phi c nh du bng trn thang o in tr. Cc thang o in tr khc nh thang 100, thang 10k, thang 10M s c c bng cch s dng cc in tr khc nhau nh chuyn mch nhiu thang o nh hnh 3.7. o thang o in tr thp nht, in tr shunt phi l in tr thp nht. i vi cc thang cao hn, phi tng tr s ca cc in tr shunt. Theo hnh 3.7, R1 nh hn so vi R2, v R2 nh hn so vi R3, v. v. . . RZ l bin tr chnh 0. Nu c cu o c lch y thang l 1mA, RZ cn phi c iu chnh mch c dng 1mA khi ngn mch hai u que o vi nhau (tc l khi RX = 0).

e) Voltmet xoay chiu bng c cu o t - in C cu o t - in v c bn l ng h o dc. Nu a tn hiu xoay chiu (ac) n ng h th kim ch th s dao ng xung quanh im 0 do qun tnh. Nn o in p ac phi s dng mch chnh lu bng diode. Diode s chnh lu in p ac, bin i in p ac thnh xung p mch dc. ng h o s ch th gi tr trung bnh nh in p dc. i vi b chnh lu bn k, mc in p dc trung bnh s bng vi Vm/ (trong Vm l mc in p nh ca xung p mch), cn i vi b chnh lu ton k, mc in p dc trung bnh l 2Vm/. Mc d kim ch th ca ng h o s lch ty theo tr s trung bnh, nhng thang o s c nh chun ch th gi tr hiu dng (rms) ca tn hiu ac. (vic nh chun theo cc mc tn hiu vo sng sin v do s ch th s khng ng gi tr hiu dng i vi cc dng sng khc). Thng s dng mch chnh lu cu cho gi tr trung bnh cao hn, gn thp hn, v khng cn bin p im gia t tin, nh mch hnh 3.8. Cc in tr R1, R2, v R3 c vai tr nh mch phn p. Cc diode ca mch chnh lu
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cu s chnh lu in p ac thnh dc. Mc in p dc trung bnh c to ra bng 90% ca tr s hiu dng (i vi b chnh lu bn k mc in p dc trung bnh bng 45% ca gi tr hiu dng). mch chnh lu cu s dng cc diode silicon, st p trn hai diode l 1,4V. Mc in p thc s c t ngang qua c cu o v in tr nhn (RS). Chng hn, nu R1, R2 v R3 mch hnh 3.8, l 9M; 0,9M; v 0,1M tng ng, in p a n mch chnh lu s l 10Vrms, nu in p t vo (nh c ghi ti cc v tr u cc ca chuyn mch) l 10V,; 100V; hay 1000V ngang qua mch phn p AB, th tr s trung bnh dc ca in p chnh lu s l 2x10Vx1,4/ bng 9V. Sau khi tr st p 1,4V trn cc diode, in p dc thc ngang qua mch c cu o s l 7,6V nn cn phi c in tr 7,6k k c in tr ca c cu o (i vi c cu o 1mA). Vy nhy ca voltmeter ac khi dng mch cu l ch bng 76% ca nhy ca c cu o dc. (i vi mch chnh lu bn k, nhy s gim xung hn na n mc 38%)

f) ng h o dng xoay chiu Chc nng o dng ac ch c mt s ng h o. Dng in cn o chy qua mt in tr c nh v o st p trn in tr bng voltmeter ac. in p ac s t l vi dng khi in tr c tr s khng i. o dng ac, thng s dng mch bin i dng thnh p bng IC op - amp. Trong mt s ng h o gi thnh cao s dng cc b nhit ngu. St p dc ngang qua tip gip ca nhit ngu s t l vi hiu ng nhit ty thuc vo cng hiu dng ca dng in. Do vy, s o c gi tr rms ca dng in bt k dng sng ca tn hiu. g) ng h o a nng Khi c cu o t - in hp thnh cc mch thng ammeter nhiu thang o, voltmeter nhiu thang o, v ohmmeter nhiu thang o, ton b trong mt thit b o, th thit b o c gi l ng h o a nng. ng h o a nng cng c gi l ng h o AVO (Ampere Volt Ohm). Khi s dng ng h o a nng thc hin cc php o cn phi tun theo cc lu sau: 1. Chn chuyn mch thng s o ng. Nu mun o in p, ng bao gi ng h o thang o dng in. 2. Chn ng thang o ca mt thng s o. Nu mun o gi tr c cho l 80V, khng ng h thang o 0 10V, m ng h o thang o 0 100V. 3. Nu khng bit gi tr cn o, th hy ng h o thang o cao nht theo thng s o, v sau gim dn thang o theo cc nc gim dn cho n khi xc nh c thang o thch hp. 4. Thang o c chn cn phi c s ch th gn vi lch y thang (fsd) mc c th c i vi php o in p v dng in, v gn mt na thang o i vi php o in tr, bi v ng h o s cho sai s php o nh nht. 5. Nu kim ch th ca ng h o khng ti v tr 0 ngay khi khng c tn hiu vo, th phi hiu chnh bng b phn c kh ( cng ca l xo cn bng gn trn
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khung dy), c iu chnh 0 chnh xc. 6. Khi o in tr, iu chnh bin tr chnh 0 c lch y thang (fsd) khi ngn mch hai u que o vi nhau. h) S dng ng h o a nng d tm h hng. ng h o a nng thng c s dng o in tr, in p v dng in dc. D nhin, i khi ng h o a nng cng c th o in p ac. Phn ln cc mch h hng c th xc nh c bng php o in p dc. Chng hn, trong mch hnh 3.9, nu in tr R h mch, th in p VC ti C s bng 0. Nu cu kin (transistor) h mch, in p ti C s bng in p ngun cung cp. Nu cu kin b ngn mch, th in p ti C s bng 0. Khi o in p s th hin mt gi tr in tr h mch no , in tr c th c kim tra bng chc nng o in tr ca ng h o a nng bng cch ngt kt ni mt u in tr ra khi mch.

Chc nng o in tr c th xc nh t in b r hay b ngn mch, hoc cun dy c b h mch hay khng. Cu kin bn dn c th o th bng cch o in tr cc trng thi phn cc ngc hay phn cc thun ca tip gip bn dn. S thng mch khi thc hin d mch c th kim tra bng ng h o in tr thang o thp nht ca ohmmeter. ng h o a nng l dng c o thng thng, dng trong cc dch v o th, sa cha do cch s dng n gin, cu trc chc chn, tng i chnh xc v khng yu cu ngun cung cp ngoi, cng nh khng nh hng bi t trng k sinh. 3.2 VOLTMETER S (DVM) Voltmeter s s dng nguyn l ca mch s o in p tng t. Voltmeter s c tt c cc u im ca mch in t s khi so vi mch in t tng t. a) Nguyn l Sau khi mch suy gim cho vic chn thang o; tn hiu vo s c chuyn i thnh tn hiu s bi b bin i tng t - s (ADC). Khi ADC c th s dng k thut tch phn n sn hay hai sn dc. dng c bn nht, ADC s so snh tn hiu vo vi in p mu (cc phng php nhn in p mu c th khc nhau). Ch cn in p vo ln hn so vi in p mu, th tn hiu ra ca b so snh s cho mc logic 1, s gi cho cng AND m v cc xung nhp s truyn qua cng AND. B m s m cc xung nhp . Ngay khi in p vo tr nn bng vi in p mu, th tn hiu ra ca b so snh s bng 0. Cng AND s ng v dng vic m. Mc ra ca b m s c cht v cc LED hay tinh th lng s hin th gi tr o. Hnh 3.10, l mch nguyn l c bn cng vi chuyn mch thang o. Chuyn mch thang o hnh 3.10, s chn tn hiu ra t mch phn p. Cc tr s ca cc in tr phn p c th l 9M, 0,9M v 0,1M chn ra 1V ti u vo ca ADC cho cc u vo 1, 10 v 100V ca tn hiu cn o. Nu tn hiu cn o l 100V, th tn hiu vo a n b so snh s l (100/10) x (1/10) s l 1V do mch phn p. Nu tn hiu cn o l 10V, th tn hiu vo a n b so snh s vn l 1V. Nh vy, b so snh s ly Vin trong khong t 0 n 1V bt k in p thc t cn o. Mc in p vo (t 0 n 1V) s c bin i thnh tn hiu s m s c m v hin th.

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b) ng h o s a nng (DMM). V c bn, DMM l mt voltmeter s. Tt c cc thng s khc in p, nh in tr, dng in, in p ac u c bin i thnh in p dc nh chuyn mch chn chc nng o nh hnh 3.11. Sau php o in p dc s cho gi tr ca thng s cn o.

o in tr, th in tr phi c chuyn i thnh in p dc bng mc dng chy qua in tr cn o t mt ngun dng hng. Nu mc dng hng l 1mA, th suy ra mc in p dc c to ra trn in tr cha bit s t l trc tip theo mV. Nu in tr chn l 1k, th mc in p c to ra s l 1V. i vi php o dng in, dng in s c bin i thnh in p dc bng cch cho dng in chy qua mt in tr khng i, chn l 1. Do vy mc in p dc st trn in tr s bng mc dng in (in p = dng in x 1). i vi php o in p ac, in p ac trc ht phi c chnh lu v sau s c xem nh in p dc c th o c. Vic nh chun DMM s c kim tra bng php o in tr 0 bng cch ngn mch hai u que o, khi t chc nng ca ng h o v tr chuyn mch o in tr, hoc c th o in p khi bit mc in p dc trn thang o in p. c) ngha ca ch s bn phn v ba phn t. B ch th 3 - ch s DVM cho thang o t 0 n 1V s ch cc gi tr t 0 n 999mV. Bc mc tng nh nht l 1mV. Vic b sung thm mt ch s (0 n 9 thnh nhm 4 bit) v thc cht s lm tng gi thnh, nn bin php tit kim nht l c th s dng ch mt bit (0 hoc 1). Bit b sung s cho php DVM ch th cc tr s ln n 1999 thay cho 999, tc m rng thang o ln gp i. Khi ch s th 4 c th ch c gi tr 0 hoc 1, th thang o c gi l ch s bn phn (1/2), nn gi l ng h o 3 ch s. ng h o c 4 ch s s ch th gi tr o ln n 19999mV.
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Tng t, bng cch b sung hai bit 11, th ch s tn cng bn tri c th to ra l 3. ng h o 3 - ch s s cho php c 999 tip theo l 1999 hoc 2999 hoc 3999 (bng cch s dng 01, 10, v 11 tng ng), tc l tng thang o ln nht vo khong 4 ln. Vic b sung thang o nh vy c gi l ng h o 3 - ch s. ng h o 4 ch s s cho s ch th ln n 39999. Vi vic b sung - ch s hoc - ch s s lm cho chnh xc tng ln nh c minh ho v d 6.3. V d 3.3: Cc s ch th 12,375V v 32,375V s c hin th nh th no cc ng h o (a) c 3 - ch s, (b) c 3 - ch s, (c) c 4 - ch s, v (d) c 4 - ch s ? (a) ng h o c 3 - ch s s ch th trn thang o 99,9V, do kt qu o l 12,375V v 32,375V s c c l 12,37V v 32,3V tng ng. (b) ng h o 3 - ch s s ch th s 12,375V l 12,37V trn thang o 19,99V v s o 32,375V l 32,3V trn thang o 099,9V. (c) ng h o 4 - ch s s ch th s 12,375V l 12,375V trn thang o 19,999V, nhng i vi s c 32,375V, th ng h o 4 - ch s s ch th l 32,37V trn thang o 99,99V. (d) ng h o 4 - ch s s ch th s 12,375V l 12,375V trn thang o 19,999V, v i vi s o 32,375V s ch th l 32,375V trn thang o 39,999V. 3.3 VOLTMETER IN T Voltmeter in t s dng mch khuych i mt chiu, h s khuych i ca mch khuych i s cho php s dng thit b o o cc in p di millivolt v microvolt. Trc y, cc voltmeter in t c gi l VTVM (vacuum tube voltmeter). Hin ny thut ng VTVM vn c s dng mc d n chn khng c thay th bng cc transistor. Tn gi mi ca thit b o l voltmeter in t (EVM) hay voltmeter bng transistor (TVM). Voltmeter in t c th lp theo cc kiu mch khuych i khc nhau, chng hn nh mch khuych i bng transistor n hay mch khuych i cn bng, hoc bng op amp. Mc ch c bn ca vic s dng mch khuych i dc l c h s khuych i v in tr vo cao (tc l c th o c cc tn hiu yu), v cch ly ng h o vi mch vo ca thit b o (tc l c th s dng ng h chc chn hn v nhy km hn). Voltmeter in t in hnh nh mch hnh 3.12. EVM s dng mch khuych i bng FET lm tng u. Cu kin bng FET c tr khng vo rt cao, nn s khng gy ra qu ti cho mch cn o, cho chnh xc cao.

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Mch phn p c mc lm chuyn mch thang o, cho php iu khin cc thang o in p khc nhau. Cc in tr mch hnh 3.12, s bin i mc vo l 1V, 10V, 100V v 1000V thnh 1V ti cng ca FET. Cc transistor Q1 v Q2 to thnh mch cu. Cu s c cn bng sao cho mt ch th ca ng h s ch th s o bng 0 khi tn hiu vo bng 0. Khi s dng mch khuych i thut ton, ngun in p hng, khong 1V, s cung cp tn hiu a n u vo khng o thng qua mt bin tr c nh chun. Mc vo dc s c gim xung n 0 i vi 1V nh cc mch suy gim thang o, s cung cp tn hiu n u vo o. ng h o mc u ra quan st mc 0. in th k ca in p mu s c hiu chnh c mc 0 trn ng h. Sau in p vo l cn bng vi in p chun c chia thang, ch th trn mt s ca in th k. Mc d, phng php cn bng mc 0 c chnh xc cao hn, nhng cc thit b o gi thp, in p vo dc phi c chuyn i thnh millivolt, khong 10mV, h s khuych i ca op - amp c iu chnh n mc 100 v sau mc ng h o vo u ra nh chun, cho php ch th trc tip mc in p vo. Mch khuych i dc hay b tri dng ra (do nhit ca tip gip), do mt s thit b o s dng mch ngt qung ngt in p dc thnh cc xung, c th s dng mch khuych i ac nh mch hnh 3.13. Sau khi khuych i cc xung s c bin i thnh mt chiu v c o bng cch s dng mch vi sai.

a) Cc u im ca EVM 1. Tr khng vo ca EVM rt cao, nn nh hng do qu ti khng ng k trn mch cn o th. Do vy, chnh xc ca php o cao. 2. C th o in p ngay cc mc microvolt nh s khuych i tn hiu o. kiu c cu o t - in, o mc in p di 100mV rt kh khn. 3. in dung vo ca voltmeter in t l rt nh, vo khong vi picofarad. Do c th o c cc mc in p tn hiu tn s cao sau khi chnh lu. 4. ng h c nhy thp, 1000/V, v v vy r tin, th, c th s dng cho cc php o. 5. Ngun cung cp cho mch khuych i khng ly t mch cn o, m ly t VCC. 6. kiu mch cu cn bng (nh th hin hnh 3.12), nh hng ca cc thay i cc thng s ca FET v BJT l thp nht. 7. dch mc 0 trong qu trnh hot ng khng xy ra. b) Nhc im ca EVM 1. Nhc im chnh l cn phi c khi ngun cung cp cho mch khuych i, nn EVM c gi thnh cao v kch thc ln. 2. Mch khuych i dc b tri mc tn hiu ra. c) ng h o in t a nng ng h o in t a nng (EMM) v c bn l voltmeter mt chiu, nhng s lm vic nh nhiu ng h o nh chuyn mch chc nng kt ni cc thit b o bin i cc thng s o khc thnh in p dc, nh gii thch DMM.

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3.4 NG H O H S MO DNG TN HIU a) Nguyn l ng h o h s mo dng dng o mo hi tng c trong tn hiu ra. Tn s c bn s c trit nh mch lc thng cao, m tn s ct ca mch lc hi cao hn so vi tn s c bn. Tn hiu tn s c bn s thot xung t v cc tn s cao hn so vi tn s c bn (hi bc 2, hi bc 3, v. v. . .) s a n voltmeter to ra mc in p do ton b cc hi c trong tn hiu. ng h o mo c th l kiu nhit ngu hoc voltmeter in t. S khi ca ng h o mo in hnh cho hnh 3.14.

b) Thc hin php o mo Tn hiu vo s c cung cp t my to sng a n b khuych i cn o th mo. Tn hiu ra ca b khuych i l tn hiu vo ca thit b o. Khi chuyn mch S t ti v tr B, s thu c ton b tn hiu ng h o u ra. Tn hiu ton b hoc s c iu chnh n mc lch y thang (fsd), hoc mc c nh no c ghi du trn mt ch th ca ng h nh mch suy gim. Tip theo, chuyn mch t ti v tr A, nn b lc thng cao s loi b tn hiu tn s c bn cho n khi nhn c mc bin gim mt ch th ca ng h. Mc ch th l mc tng tr i tn s c bn, tc l lng cc sng hi. ng h o s c nh chun theo phn trm ca mo dng m c th c trc tip trn vch chia thp nht. c) S dng ng h o mo trong vic d tm h hng C th o c mo xut hin trong thit b cn o th. Nguyn nhn gy mo dng c th c xc nh bng ngn mch ln lt cc tng ca thit b, nh hnh 3.15.

Chng hn, nu tng III c lm ngn mch theo hnh v, v mo vn cn, tng no trong s cc tng III, hay IV, hoc V l tng gy mo dng. Nu mo dng c loi b, th tng I hoc tng II c th b hng. Ton b cc tng c th c o th theo phng php ny nhn din tng hng. Khi xc nh c tng hng theo phng php trn, ta c th o th thm bit nguyn nhn gy mo dng v sa cha h hng. 3.5 B M TN S B m tn l mt thit b o s c th dng o tn s, khong thi gian gia hai tn hiu, chu k xung, t s ca hai tn s v c th m s xung. a) Nguyn l hot ng. kiu o c bn nht l tn hiu cn o c t vo cng AND, cng ch m trong khong thi gian c nh bng mt xung m cng. Xung ra ca cng AND s c a n b m 10 v cht s liu sau a n khi hin th nh th hin theo s khi hnh 3.16.
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Mch x l tn hiu gm mt khi khuych i v khi trigger Schmitt. Tn hiu dng sng sin vo c khuych i v chuyn i thnh cc xung vung c a n mt u vo ca cng AND, u vo cn li ly xung nh thi t mch to xung nhp (khi gc thi gian). b) Cc php o bng b m tn. Php o tn s: Cng AND s duy tr vic m cng theo chu k ca xung nh thi, nn s cho cc xung tn hiu cn o tn s ti u ra ca cng AND trong khong thi gian m cng. B m s m cc xung v s m s c lu tr vo b nh cng nh c hin th. Xung nh thi kch khi b m ti thi im xut hin cnh trc v dng b m ti thi im xut hin cnh sau ca xung nh flip flop. Tng t, xung nh thi cng s iu khin b nh. Nu khong thi gian ca xung nh thi l 1 giy, b m m cng trong khong thi gian l 1 giy, b m cho s chu k tn hiu truyn qua cng trong mt giy, tc l o

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trc tip tn s ca tn hiu. i vi cc tn s cao, s dng mch chia 10 to ra cc xung nh thi t 1s n 1ms tu theo cc v tr t ca chuyn mch nhiu v tr. Nu c 1000 xung ca tn hiu cn o truyn qua cng AND trong khong thi gian 1ms, th tn s ca tn hiu l 1000MHz. Cc b m khng th m cc tn s qu cao ( di gigahertz), nn cc tn s cao s c o bng k thut chia thang trc, tc l tn s tn hiu s c chia 2, 4, 8, v. v. . . sao cho tn s sau khi chia thang trc ph hp vi thang o ca b m tn. S khi b m tn c mch chia tn s xung nhp (mch chia gc thi gian) nh hnh 3.17. o chu k: o chu k, xung tn hiu vo c tc dng nh mt xung nh thi dng m cng truyn cc xung nhp qua cng AND. Tn hiu vo s m v ng cng AND, nn s m l s lng xung nhp c truyn qua cng s cho bit chu k thi gian ca xung tn hiu cn o. S khi ca mch o chu k nh hnh 3.18a v b. o khong thi gian gia hai xung: C th o khong thi gian gia hai xung bng cch s dng mt tn hiu m cng v tn hiu cn li ng cng AND. Tn hiu xung nhp dng o khong thi gian khi m v ng cng. Php o c th hin hnh 3.19. Xung 1 lm cho u vo S = 1 v R = 0, nn Q = 1, khi xung 2 xut hin lm cho S = 0 v R = 1, nn Q = 0.

o t s tn s ca hai tn hiu: Nu c hai tn hiu, th tn hiu tn s thp c s dng lm xung nh thi, cn tn hiu tn s cao s c m trong khong thi gian ca xung nh thi. Php o cho bit t s ca hai tn s trn khi hin th nh s khi hnh 3.20.

m xung: Mch n gin nh hnh 3.21, s cho bit l b m s m tng s xung truyn qua cng trong sut khong thi gian chuyn mch gi trng thi kn mch.

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c) B m tn s a nng. B m tn s a nng kt hp tt c cc php o trong thit b o n nh cc v tr t ca mch chuyn mch. Mch o c bn theo cc v tr chuyn mch nh hnh 3.22.

d) Cc u im ca b m tn s kiu s. Cc u im ca b m tn kiu s gm: 1. r cao (6 n 8 digit) 2. chnh xc cao (do s n nh ca mch dao ng bng tinh th) 3. Tc o cao. 4. ng h o s khng p ng i vi nhiu v tp m mc thp khi t mc kch khi cao. 5. D c s ch th. e) S dng my m tn s d tm trng thi hng ca thit b. Tn s ca cc b to xung nhp (trong my tnh), cc b dao ng ni (trong cc my thu) v cc b dao ng cao tn (RF) (trong cc my pht tn hiu v trong cc my thu pht), c th c o kim tra nu cc tng c h hng. My to xung v my to hm c th c kim tra tm sai hng bng cch o tn s, rng xung v khong thi gian ca cc xung c to ra. Cc im o th thng c sn trn bng mch ca thit b in t c th ly tn hiu cn o bng ng h o tn s. 3.6 MY PHT TN HIU CAO TN (RF) My pht tn hiu cao tn s to ra tn hiu tn s radio dng iu ch tn hiu cao tn vi tn hiu m tn theo kiu iu bin hay iu tn. Vic iu ch tn hiu m tn s c to ra bi thit b o. Cng c th cung cp tn hiu iu ch ngoi. S khi ca my to tn hiu RF nh hnh 3.23. B suy gim s c nh chun cho mc suy gim mi nc l 20dB tng ng vi 1V. Tn hiu m tn cng c th ly ra thng qua mch suy gim khc kim tra cc tng m tn. a) S dng my pht tn hiu RF

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My pht tn hiu RF phi c ni vi my thu cn o thng qua cp c bo v chng nhiu. Chn bng tn v tn s dao ng. Chn kiu iu ch v su iu ch. B suy gim t ti v tr mc ra ca php o yu cu. u ra ca my to sng phi c ni vi u vo ca thit b cn o th. Ni ngun cung cp v tip theo bt cng tc ngun ca my pht tn hiu [ON]. My thu c iu chnh thu tn hiu. C th mc voltmeter in t (EVM), hay ng h o mc cng sut m tn ti u ra ca my thu. Nu khng c tn hiu ra my thu, th mc ra ca my pht tn hiu cn phi c tng thm, sao cho my thu c th nhn c tn hiu ra khng mo. Tt c cc php o thc hin vi mc ra mc khng i v mc ra thay i ca my pht tn hiu. b) S dng my to tn hiu trong vic chn on hng. My to tn hiu cao tn c s dng ph bin chn on tnh trng hng trong cc my thu. Tn hiu phi c cung cp n my thu v s dng my hin sng quan st dng sng tn hiu c u vo v u ra ca cc tng khc nhau. Nu mt tng th hin tn hiu ra bnh thng, th tt c cc tng trc tng l bnh thng v sai hng c th tng sau k tip. Theo cch ny c th xc nh tng hng. My to tn hiu cng cn cho vic cn chnh my thu tn s dao ng ni v tn s tn hiu RF l bng nhau (cng tn s) ti tt c mc thit lp trn nm tinh chnh trong bng tn. Th tc v trnh t cn chnh o cc thng s ca my thu s c gii thch mc 5.4, chng 5. 3.7 MY TO TN HIU M TN. My to tn hiu m tn bao gm b dao ng m tn (thng s dng b dao ng kiu cu Wien), b khuych i m v b khuych i cng sut kt ni vi b suy gim nh chun nh s khi hnh 3.24.

S dng my to sng m tn chn on tnh trng hng trong cc mch khuych i. My to tn hiu m tn dng cung cp tn hiu chun, khng nhiu o th hiu
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sut v o cc thng s ca mch khuych i m tn (nh h s khuych i, rng bng tn cng nh mo dng). Cch thit lp php o nh hnh 3.24. Trnh t cc bc thc hin php o nh sau: 1. Ni my to tn hiu m tn vi b khuych i. Mc ng h o mc cng sut m tn ti u ra ca b khuych i. 2. iu chnh tn s ca my to tn hiu mc 1000Hz, v iu chnh suy gim ca tn hiu ra ca my to sng mc m b khuych i c th cho tn hiu ra khng mo. Ghi nhn mc ch th suy gim l x1, v mc ch th ca ng h o cng sut pht ra l w1. 3. Tip theo, mc my pht tn hiu trc tip vi ng h o cng sut song song vi b khuych i cn o th. Mc ch th trn ng h c th gim. Tng dn mc cng sut pht ra ca my to tn hiu cho n khi s ch th ca ng h o bng tr li tr s w1. Ghi nhn s ch th mi ca my pht tn hiu l x2. Tnh t s ca hai s ch th ca my pht tn hiu x2/x1, biu din theo dB, s cho h s khuych i ca mch khuych i. 4. o rng bng tn, h s khuych i ca mch khuych i phi c o ti cc tn s khc nhau, t 20Hz n 20kHz, v v c tuyn gia tn s (trn trc - x theo thang logarithmic) theo h s khuych i theo dB (trn trc - y tuyn tnh), t c tuyn ta c th xc nh rng bng tn mc 3dB. 5. o mo, cn phi s dng ng h o mo dng, nh c gii thch mc 3.4. ng h o mo dng s o mo hi tng to ra do mch khuych i i vi tn hiu cung cp t my to tn hiu. (phi m bo rng tn hiu pht ra ca my to tn hiu khng b mo). Php o ny cng s cho bit mc tn hiu ra m tn ln nht c th nhn c t mch khuych i trong gii hn mo cho php. 3.8 MY PHT XUNG. My pht xung phc tp hn so vi my to sng sin. Mt sng sin ch c hai thng s l bin v tn s, trong khi sng xung c hng lot cc thng s nh bin xung, rng xung, tn s lp li ca xung, chu k, cng sut xung, chu k chuyn trng thi (qu ) v. v. . . S khi ca my pht xung nh hnh 3.25.

B to xung B to xung gm mch dao ng cu Wien c ghp vi mch kch khi Schmitt. Tn s xung to ra ca mch kch khi Schmitt c th c iu khin hoc bn trong (iu khin trong - Int. control), hoc iu khin bn ngoi (iu khin ngoi - Ext. control). Xung n [Single] s iu khin cc thng s ca xung bng tay. Cng ngoi [Ext. gate] s to ra cc cm xung. Khi nh thi Khi nh thi thc hin cc chc nng nh sau: 1. Lm tr hay lm sm pha ca xung so vi xung kch khi.
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2. Mi xung s c to ra hai xung. Xung th nht s trng vi xung kch khi, xung th hai s thay i theo thi gian. B pht t s My pht xung c s dng ph bin trong cc php o th v chn on hng trong cc mch s. My pht t s thay th khi nh thi to ra d liu. B iu khin dng xung B iu khin dng xung s iu khin rng xung, chu k chuyn trng thi (thi gian tng v thi gian gim ca cc cnh xung), cc tnh ca xung, bin xung v dch xung (t 0Vdc). My pht xung c tr khng ra c trng l 50. My pht xung s ngn chn s hnh thnh sng dng trn ng truyn. My pht xung loi tt s to ra xung mn vi nh xung ngang v cc cnh ng. Tuy nhin, nu kho st h hng, cc xung c th b suy bin th hin preshoot, qu mc trn [overshoot], dao ng tt dn [ringing], khng tuyn tnh [non linearity] v suy gim [droop] hay nghing [sag]. Cc du hiu trn th hin hnh 3.26. Cc sai hng xung c th quan st bng my hin sng.

Cc cng dng ca my to xung. 1. o th cc mch s bng cch cung cp cc xung th nghim cc cng logic. 2. o nhy v t l bit li trong h thng thng tin s liu. 3. My to xung dng pht hin li trn cc ng dy in thoi. Xung s truyn qua ng dy in thoi tc nh sng (3 x 105km/s). Khi gp ng dy h mch, xung s c phn x v my pht. o khong thi gian trng nh trong radar, th c th tnh c chiu di ca cp khi b t. 4. Cc xung t my to xung c th c s dng o th h s khuych i v p ng tn s ca cc b khych i. Cc xung vung ngn s lm gim s tiu tn cng sut cho mch. 5. My to xung cng c th c dng lm tn hiu iu ch n cc b dao ng vi ba, radar. 6. Thng s thi gian hi phc ngc ca cc diode c th xc nh bng cch s dng cc xung t my to xung. 3.9 MY TO HM FUNCTION GENERATOR. Trong khi cc my to tn hiu ch to ra cc sng sin, v cc my to xung to ra cc xung vung hoc ch nht, th my to hm s to ra cc loi dng sng khc nhau. Cc dng sng m my to hm c th to ra l sng sin, cc xung vung hoc ch nht, cc sng tam gic v cc tn hiu rng ca. Cc dng sng khc nhau c to ra bng my to hm c th c ly ra ng thi. My to hm cng c th c kha pha vi tn hiu ngoi. Mch dao ng c bn ca thit b c th l mch dao ng a hi hay mch dao ng
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to sng sin nh kiu cu Wien. Cc dng dao ng, nu khng phi l sng sin c th c bin i t sng sin bng mch sa dng kiu in tr - diode. Cc dao ng c dng bt k c th bin i thnh cc xung bng mch kch khi Schmitt. Hnh 3.27, l s khi ca my to hm c bn.

Mch dao ng cu Wien c th to ra tn hiu sng sin c bng tn rng, t vi hertz n di megahertz. B khuych i m s m bo tn hiu dao ng khng b suy gim. Mch khuych i cng sut v mch suy gim mc tn hiu (cc hp suy gim dB) s to ra sng sin ti u ra A. (mt s my to hm s dng cc mch a hi, tn hiu ra s c sa dng bang mch sa dng diode v in tr c sng sin). B to xung s dng mch kch khi Schmitt bin i sng sin thnh xung. B iu chnh dng xung to ra cc xung c rng , p.r.f, v cng sut xung theo yu cu ti u ra B. Tn hiu ra ca mch kch khi Schmitt s c cung cp n mch tch phn bng op amp v tip theo n mch iu ha tn hiu c sng tam gic ti u ra C. Chuyn mch bng UJT c th bin i sng tam gic thnh tn hiu rng ca, sau khi iu ha tn hiu s c ti u ra D. Cc cng dng ca my to hm. 1. Tn hiu sng sin c th dng o th h s khuych i ca mch khuych i. 2. Sng vung c th o th p ng tn s thp v tn s cao ca mch khuych i nh my hin sng. nghing no ca phn nh ngang ca xung s cho bit p ng tn s thp ca mch khuych i km. S thay i thi gian tng v thi gian gim (tc sn xung) ca cc cnh xung s cho bit p ng tn s cao ca mch khuych i km. Cc xung cng c th s dng o th cc cng s. 3. Cc sng tam gic c th dng o th tuyn tnh ca cc mch m sng tam gic truyn qua. Bt k s mo dng ca cc cnh tam gic, khi quan st trn mn hnh ca my hin sng, s cho bit khng tuyn tnh c to ra bi mch khuych i. 4. Tn hiu rng ca c th c dng o th cc b to sng qut v cc mch khuych i qut trong cc my thu hnh, cc my hin sng v cc monitor.

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CHNG III: THIT B O IN T A NNG