Introduction

A power system is an interconnected electric network which makes available, electric power generated by the generating plants to the loads, through the transmission and distribution network. The network is essentially an AC network, which supplies sinusoidal voltage at the rated voltage magnitude and frequency to the loads. The major components of the power system are generators, loads, transformers, transmission network and protection equipment called switchgear. Modern power systems are large, highly complex and organized in the form of regional grids, which are interconnected to facilitate power transfer between areas via tielines. Interconnections make the system more reliable, since in the event of demand exceeding supply in an area, power can be borrowed from the neighboring area. Interconnection also helps to reduce the reserve capacity in each area and makes the system more flexible. However, stable operation of the system is more difficult in the event of faults, in large interconnected systems. Further, faults in one area, are likely to affect adjoining areas. Due to the large size and interconnection between various regions, modern power systems are controlled from an Energy Control Center (ECC). These control centers permit a hierarchical control over the system operation, to coordinate various areas, both under normal operating conditions and under emergency conditions. Modern control centers use Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA), where the data is accessed centrally via remote acquisition systems. Computers are extensively used for data acquisition, data processing, analysis of system operating condition, control and for warning the operator of deviations from normal conditions. Since their first application in late 40s, digital computers have become an indispensable part of the power system, both for analysis as well as for operation and control. Power Systems Analysis: Some important analysis of the power system is necessary to be carried out, for continuous evaluation of the system. These studies are carried out on-line for operation and control, as well as off-line to help in future planning and expansion. Some of the important studies carried out are:

(i) Load flow studies : The load flow analysis provides the complex voltages at all the buses and the power flows in all lines, under specified operating conditions like generation capability, reactive power limits, taps of transformers etc. This is a steady state solution. The study is needed for a continuous evaluation of the performance of the systems. The study also helps to identify Overloading of transmission lines Voltage limit violations at the buses Requirements of reactive power support Alternative plans for expansion to meet increased load demand.

(ii) Economic Dispatch: The power system is fed from several generating plants, which have varied cost characteristics, like thermal plants, hydel plants, nuclear plants etc. The economic dispatch problem is useful in deciding the generation schedule needed to meet the required load, so as to minimize the total cost of generation. (iii) Fault analysis: The power system is subjected to a number of faults. The protection scheme is designed to protect the power system in the event of faults. Relays are used to sense the faults and circuit breakers isolate the faulty part of the system. Symmetrical faults affect all the three phases in a similar manner. Unsymmetrical faults, on the other hand, cause unbalance in an otherwise balanced system. Fault analysis provides information on the fault levels in various parts of the system and is vital for deciding the rating of the circuit breakers to be used. It will not be possible to protect the system for all faults. A few major contingencies are identified and the protection scheme is designed to protect the power system against these faults. (iv) Stability analysis: Stability is the ability of the system to remain in synchronism in the event of disturbances. The power system being dynamic is constantly subject to disturbances in the form of load changes. The small signal stability study deals with the behaviour of the system under minor disturbances. Transient stability deals with the behaviour of the system under large disturbances. Stability studies are carried out on-line continuously, to assess the margin of stability. Off-line studies are also required for contingency analysis and planning of the expansion. (v) Automatic Generation Control(AGC): This is an on-line control to maintain the system frequency and the net tie-line interchange between interconnected power systems.

As the system load changes continuously, the generator governor is controlled so as to control the generation to restore the frequency to its rated value. During large disturbances, AGC is bypassed and other emergency controls are activated. The mathematical formulation to perform the above studies, often leads to nonlinear differential and/or algebraic equations. Non-linear equations require the application of numerical methods to solve them. Earlier network analyzers were used. Today digital computers are used widely for the solution of the equations. Some important aspects in the application of computers is next discussed. Application of Computers: In application of computers for the solution of power system problems, certain steps are involved. They are (i) (ii) Defining the problem and the objectives of the analysis/study Assessment of data available and preparation of the input data in proper format. This step also involves methods to synthesize or estimate missing data. (iii) Development of suitable mathematical models to represent the power system and various components. This step would also involve integrating the models of various components and formulating the mathematical equations to be solved. (iv) Selection of a suitable technique to solve the mathematical equations. In most of the analysis, the equations are non-linear and a suitable numerical method has to be chosen. The choice of the method depends on the computation time involved, accuracy of the method, memory required, reliability of the method and the convergence characteristics of the method. Modern digital computers have very high computation speeds and large memory. These two aspects are no longer a major criterion in selecting the method for solution, except for real time applications where computation time is important. (v) Develop the flow chart/algorithm for the solution of the equations. The development of the algorithm will have to take care of all the operational limitations of the power system.

(vi)

The last step involves actual development of the computer programs in a high level language . FORTRAN, C++ and MATLAB are extensively used for programming. The program developed should be flexible and reliable and capable of handling diverse data.

COMPLEX POWER In all the studies we use the complex power. The complex power is considered to be injected into a network. The complex power S is defined as

S VI * VI cos jVI sin P jQ

The magnitude of the complex power given by

(1.5)

p 2 Q 2 is called as the apparent

power. When the power flow of a system is considered, it is important to know whether the real and reactive powers are being generated or absorbed. The current is taken to enter the network at the positive terminal. The injected complex power is given by S P jQ. VI * .We have the following cases: P is positive means the network is absorbing real power P is negative means the network is absorbing negative real power, which means delivering real power. Q is positive means network is absorbing reactive power. This means that the network is inductive in nature. Q is negative means the network is generating or supplying reactive power.

CONSERVATIOIN OF COMPLEX POWER The theorem of conservation of complex power states that For a network supplied by independent sources all at the same frequency, the sum of the complex power supplied by the independent sources equals the sum of the complex power absorbed by all other branches of the network. It follows that the sum of complex power injections at any bus is zero. This concept is made use of in framing the load flow equations.

Per-Unit System Per-unit (pu) quantities: In power engineering we express currents, voltages, impedances and power in per-unit rather than in actual amperes, volts, ohms or Megawatts. The per-unit value of any quantity is defined as pu value = Actual value / base value For example a voltage of 11kV, has a pu value of 1 pu on a base of 11kV and 0.1pu on a base of 110kV. The percentage value is the pu value multiplied by 100. Some of the advantages of the pu system are: Equipment impedance is normally specified by manufacturers in pu on the base of the equipment rating. The pu values of impedances lie in a narrow range even though the ohmic values may differ widely for machines of different ratings. Pu data yields information on relative magnitudes of various parameters. When transformers are present in the circuit, all impedances have to be referred to same side of the transformer. The pu impedance of the transformer, however is same when referred to either side, if proper bases are chosen. The pu impedance of transformers in three phase circuits is not affected by the connection of the transformer. The voltage, current, power and impedance in a circuit are related to each other, so that the selection of base values of any two of them, determines the base values of the other two.

Selection of base values in single phase circuits It is customary to select the base value of the power and voltage and obtain the base values of current and impedance from these. Suffix 1 is used to denote single phase systems. The relationships between the base values are as follows: Base current(in amperes) = base MVA1 103/ base kV1 Base impedance(in Ohms) = (base kV1) /base MVA1
2

(1.18) (1.19)

If the above equations are used for the single phase equivalent of a three-phase system, base MVA1 stands for the base MVA per phase and kV1 stands for the line-to-neutral voltage.

Selection of base values in three phase circuits Data for three phase equipment normally specify the three phase MVA and the line-toline voltage. This may lead to confusion in obtaining the pu values, especially for the line-to-line voltages and the line-to-neutral voltages. If the line-to-neutral base voltage is taken to be 1/ 3 times that of the line-to-line base voltage, then in balanced three phase systems the pu value of the line-to-neutral voltage on the line-to-neutral voltage base will be equal to the pu value of the line-to-line voltage on the line-to-line voltage base. For example consider a 3- alternator, rated at 11 kV, whose terminal voltage is 10.8 kV. If the line-to-line voltage base is taken to be 11kV, then the line-to neutral voltage base is 11/ 3 =6.35 kV. pu line-to-line voltage = 10.8/11= 0.981. The line-to-neutral terminal voltage is 10.8/ 3 =6.235 kV. Hence, the pu line-to-neutral voltage is 6.235/6.35 =0.981. Similarly, the pu value of the three phase power on three phase MVA base is identical to the pu value of the single phase power on the single phase MVA base. For example consider a 3- alternator, rated at 75 MVA. The per phase power is 75/3=25 MVA. If we choose the three phase base MVA to be 100 MVA, then the single phase base MVA is given by 100/3=33.33 MVA. The three phase pu power is 75/100=0.75 and single phase pu power is 25/33.33 =0.75. Base current(in amperes) = base MVA3 103/

3 base kVLL

(1.18) (1.19)

Base impedance(in Ohms) = (base kVLL)2 /base MVA3 In the above equations, kVLL stands for the line-to-line voltage. Change of base

Normally the impedances are specified on the rating of the equipment. Hence, there is a need to change the pu values from the base of the equipment rating to that of the chosen system base. Let MVAB1 and kVB1 be the base values and let Zpu1 be the pu value of impedance on this base. The actual impedance is given by Zac = pu impedance base impedance = Zpu1 (kVB1)2/MVAB1

If now the new base is MVAB2 and kVB2, the pu value on this base is given by Zpu2 = Zac / ZB2 = Zpu1 (kVB12/MVAB1) (MVAB2/kVB22 ) = Zpu1 (KVB1/kVB2)2 (MVAB2/MVAB1) can be used to find the pu value of the impedance on one base given the pu value on another base.