Dr.

Sami Muhaidat
Email: sami.muhaidat@kustar.ac.ae
Tel: +971.(0)2.401-8118
Sami Muhaidat CMME 300 2013 Page 1
Sami Muhaidat CMME 300 2013 Page 2
For a real value signal x(t), its energy E
x
is given as
follows:
For a complex value signal x(t), its energy E
x
is
given as follows:
The signal energy is finite, if x(t) 0 when t .
dt t x E
x
) (
2
}

=
dt t x E
x
2
) (
}

=
Signal Classifications:
Energy Signals vs Power Signals
Sami Muhaidat CMME 300 2013
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e 3
For a real value signal x(t), its power S
x
is given as
follows:
For a complex value signal x(t), its power S
x
is given
as follows:
The signal power represents time average of the
signal amplitude squared. It is finite only if the
signal is periodic or has statistical regularity.
dt t x S
T
T
T
T
x
) ( lim
2
2 /
2 /
1
}

=
dt t x S
T
T
T
T
x
2
) ( lim
2 /
2 /
1
}

=
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Classification of Signals:
Periodic signal & aperiodic (non-periodic) signal
Power signal & energy signal
Symmetric signal & asymmetric signal
Even symmetric signal & odd symmetric signal
Analog signal & digital signal
Continuous time signal & discrete time signal
Causal signal & anti-causal signal
Deterministic signal & random (stochastic) signal
Orthogonal signal & non-orthogonal signal
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Periodic signal & aperiodic (non-periodic) signal:
A signal x(t) is periodic, if x(t) = x(t + T
0
) for all t
and for some positive constant T
0
. Otherwise, it is
aperiodic (non-periodic).
x(t)
0
time
T
0
periodic signal
x(t)
0
time
aperiodic signal
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Properties of periodic signals:
Periodic signal must start at t = - and continues
forever.
Periodic signal shifted by an integer multiple of T
0
remains unchanged.
Periodic signal x(t) can be generated by periodic
extension of any segment of x(t) with duration T
0
.
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Power signal & energy signal:
A signal x(t) is called an energy signal if it has finite
energy, E
x
.
A signal x(t) is called a power signal if it has finite
and positive power, S
x
.
< =
}

dt t x E
x
) (
2
< = <
}

dt t x S
T
T
T
T
x
) ( lim 0
2
1
2 /
2 /
x(t)
0
time
energy signal
x(t)
0 time
power signal
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A signal with finite energy has zero power.
A signal can be either energy signal or power
signal, not both.
A signal can be neither energy nor power, for
example ramp signal, r(t).
where k is the rate of ramping.

<
>
=
0 , 0
0 ,
) (
t
t kt
t r
0
r(t)
time
ramp signal
slope = k
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Symmetric signal & asymmetric signal:
Symmetric signal has same magnitude on both
sides of y-axis. Specifically, |x(-t)| = |x(t)|.
Symmetric signals can be further classified into
even symmetric signal or odd symmetric signal.
A signal that is not symmetric is asymmetric signal
such that |x(-t)| |x(t)|.
x(t)
0
time
symmetric signal
x(t)
0
time
asymmetric signal
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Even symmetric signal & odd symmetric signal:
Even symmetric signal x
e
(t) is defined as follows:
x
e
(-t) = x
e
(t).
Odd symmetric signal x
o
(t) is defined as follows:
x
o
(-t) = -x
o
(t).
If the signal is even, it is composed of cosine
waves. If the signal is odd, it is composed of sine
waves.
odd symmetric signal even symmetric signal
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Analog signal & digital signal:
Analog signal varies with time in a smooth and
continuous fashion.
Digital signal is an ordered sequence of symbols
selected from a finite set of discrete elements.
time
time
s
i
g
n
a
l

a
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
analog signal
digital signal
s
i
g
n
a
l

a
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
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Continuous time signal & discrete time signal:
Continuous time signals take on real or complex
values as a function of an independent variable that
ranges over the real numbers and are denoted as
x(t).
Discrete time signals take on real or complex
values as a function of an independent variable that
ranges over the integers and are denoted as x[n].
Note the use of parentheses and square brackets to
distinguish between continuous time signal and
discrete time signal.
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Analog continuous time and discrete time signals:
Digital continuous time and discrete time signals:
x(t)
X[n]
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Causal signal & anti-causal signal:
A causal signal is any signal that is zero prior to
time zero. Thus, if x(t) denotes the signal amplitude
at time t, the signal x(t) is said to be causal if x(t)
= 0 for all t < 0. Simply, a causal signal is zero for
t < 0.
An anti-causal signal is zero for t > 0.
causal signal
anti-causal signal
x(t)
0
time
x(t)
0
time
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By left-shifting causal signal by as much as T in
time, where T can be any real number, we get
right-sided signal, x(t). A right-sided signal is zero
for t < T.
By right-shifting anti-causal signal by as much as T
in time, where T can be any real number, we get
left-sided signal, x(t). A left-sided signal is zero for
t > T.
right-sided signal
left-sided signal
x(t)
0
time
x(t)
0
time
T T
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Deterministic signal & random (stochastic) signal:
A signal x(t) is called deterministic, if it is
completely known and can be described
mathematically. There is no uncertainty at all.
A signal x(t) is called random, if it takes random
value at any time. Random signal can be described
only by terms of probabilistic and statistic
description, such as
Distribution
Mean value
Squared mean value
Standard deviation
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Orthogonal signal & non-orthogonal signal:
Two signals x(t) and y(t) are orthogonal over a
given interval T if
Orthogonal signals include those, which are disjoint
in time and/or frequency.
Two signal are non-orthogonal if they are not
orthogonal.
0 ) ( ) (
2 /
2 /
=
}

dt t y t x
T
T
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Example:
Show that cos(t) and sin(t) are orthogonal within
interval [-T/2, T/2], where T is the period.
Poof orthogonality by showing
0 ) sin( ) cos(
2 /
2 /
=
}

dt t t
T
T
0
) 2 cos(
4
1
) 2 sin(
2
1
) sin( ) cos(
2 /
2 /
2 /
2 /
2 /
2 /
=

=
=

} }
T
T
T
T
T
T
t
dt t dt t t
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Signal Operations:
Time-shifting
Time-scaling
Time-inversion / Time-reversal / Reflection
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Time-shifting:
Time-shifting a signal x(t) by T means the time
parameter is replaced by t-T, where T can be a
positive or negative number. The time-shifted
signal g(t) = x(t-T).
The signal is shifted to
the right if T is positive.
Hence, the signal is
delayed.
The signal is shifted to
the left if T is negative.
Hence the signal is
advanced.
x(t)
0
time
g(t) = x(t-|T|)
0
time
delayed signal
g(t) = x(t+|T|)
0
time
advanced signal
T T
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Time-scaling:
Time-scaling a signal x(t) by a factor k means the
time parameter is replaced by kt, where k is a
positive real number. The time-scaled signal g(t) =
x(kt).
If k > 1, the signal
is compressed in
time.
If k < 1, the signal
is expanded in
time.
x(t)
0
time
g(t) = x(2t)
0
time
compressed signal
g(t) = x(t/2)
0
time
expanded signal
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Time-inversion / Time-reversal / Reflection:
Time-inversing (Time-reversing or Reflection) a
signal x(t) means the time parameter t is replaced
by -t. The time-inversed (time-reversed) signal g(t)
= x(-t).
x(t)
0
time
x(t)
0 time
time-inversed signal
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Mathematical Signals:
Unit step signal
Unit rectangular pulse
Unit impulse
Unit triangular pulse
Unit signum signal
Unit sinc pulse
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Unit step signal:
Unit step signal u(t) is defined as follows:
It is a signal that transits from zero to unit height
at time t = 0.

<
=
>
=
0 , 0
0 , 2 1
0 , 1
) (
t
t
t
t u

<
>
=
0 , 0
0 , 1
) (
t
t
t u
,or
t
0
1
u(t)
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Unit rectangular pulse:
Unit rectangular pulse rect(t) is a simple step
function with a unit height and a limited unit width.
,or

<
>
=
2 / 1 | | , 1
2 / 1 | | , 0
) rect(
t
t
t
rect(t)
t 1/2 -1/2
1

<
=
>
=
2 / 1 | | , 1
2 / 1 | | , 2 / 1
2 / 1 | | , 0
) rect(
t
t
t
t
Symbol H(t) are sometime
used in the literature to
represent rectangular
pulse, such that H(t) =
rect(t).
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Unit rectangular pulse rect(t) can be expanded by a
factor t. The expanded signal is represented by
rect(t/t), and illustrated below:
Note that the expansion factor t is the pulse width.

<
=
>
=
|
.
|

\
|
2 / | | , 1
2 / | | , 2 / 1
2 / | | , 0
rect
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
+ =
|
.
|

\
|
2 2
rect
t t
t
t u t u
t
,or

<
>
=
|
.
|

\
|
2 / | | , 1
2 / | | , 0
rect
t
t
t t
t
t
rect(t/t)
t t/2 -t/2
1
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Unit impulse:
Unit impulse is also called Dirac delta function o(t)
is defined as follows:
where v(t) is any function that is continuous at t =
0.
Practically, o(t) = 0 for t 0, and

< <
=
}
otherwise , 0
0 ), 0 (
) ( ) (
b a v
dt t t v
b
a
o
1 ) ( =
}

dt t o
o(t)
0
time
o(t)
time t/2 -t/2
1/t
o(t) can be seen as
a rectangular pulse
with very small
width t and height
1/t, for t 0.
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Unit triangular pulse:
Unit triangular pulse tria(t) is a triangle with unit
height and unit area, as illustrated below:
Symbol A(t) are sometime used in the literature to
represent triangular pulse, such that A(t) = tria(t).
tri(t)
t 1 -1
1

<
>
=
1 | | |, | 1
1 | | , 0
) tria(
t t
t
t
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Unit triangular pulse tria(t) can be expanded by a
factor t. The expanded signal is represented by
tria(t/t), and illustrated below:
Note that the expansion factor t is half the pulse
width.

<
>
=
t
t
t
t
| | ,
| |
1
| | , 0
) / tria(
t
t
t
t
tria(t/t)
t t -t
1
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Unit signum signal:
The signum function is also known as the sign
function, because if t is positive, the signum
function is +1; if t is negative, the signum function
is -1.
Signum function sgn(t) is defined as follows:
t
0
1
sgn(t)
-
1

<
=
>
=
0 , 1
0 , 0
0 , 1
) sgn(
t
t
t
t
sgn(t) is related to
u(t). Comparing u(t)
to 0.5 sgn(t), they
are the same but
only with 0.5 offset
in magnitude.

<
>
=
0 , 1
0 , 1
) sgn(
t
t
t ,or
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Unit sinc pulse:
Sinc pulse sinc(t) is a mathematical function defined
as follows:
Some properties of sinc(t):
Crossings occur at nonzero integer values of t.
It has unit area.
It is even symmetric.
. 1 ) ( sinc =
}

dt t
t
sinc(t)

=
=
=
0 ,
) sin(
0 , 1
) ( sinc
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
There is another definition of
sinc pulse as follow, which
we do not use in the lecture
notes.

=
=
=
0 ,
) sin(
0 , 1
) ( sinc
t
t
t
t
t
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Signal Representation:
Signals can be represented in time domain &
frequency domain.
Oscilloscope provides time domain view.
Spectrum analyzer provides frequency domain
view.
In time domain, signals are represented by:
Trigonometry (sinusoidal), OR
Phasor (complex exponential, complex sinusoidal).
In frequency domain, signals are represented by:
Amplitude spectrum, AND
Phase spectrum.
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A sinusoidal waveform x(t) = A cos (2tf
0
t + |)
1/f
0
|/(2tf
0
)
A
-A
A cos(|)
t
The simplest form of a signal is a single-tone
sinusoidal,
A is amplitude, | is phase angle, and w
0
is radian
frequency. Radian frequency is related to cyclical
frequency f
o
, such that w
0
= 2tf
0
.
) cos( ) (
0
| + = t w A t x
Trigonometric representation:
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In trigonometric representation, the phase angle |
is always in degree regardless of either 2tf
0
t is in
degree or radian.
Trigonometric representation of signals is always in
the terms of cosine. When a signal is given in terms
of sine, we need to convert sine to cosine: sin (u) =
cos (u - 90).
The sinusoidal signal in trigonometric form can be
alternatively represented by phasor.
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Phasor representation:
Phasor representation eases frequency analysis of
the signal. Frequency spectrum consists: (a)
Amplitude spectrum, and (b) Phase spectrum.
] Re[
] Re[ ) cos(
0
0
2
) (
0
t f j j
t w j
e Ae
Ae t w A
t |
|
|
=
= +
+
This is a phasor diagram that sho
rotating vector in a complex plan
This is called one-sided line spectrum. It covers
only positive frequency.
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Signal Spectrum:
Line spectrum vs continuous spectrum.
Spectrum components exist only at discrete
values of frequencies.
Spectrum components exist over a continuous
range of frequencies.
One-sided spectrum vs two-sided spectrum.
One-sided spectrum: Spectrum components
exist only in positive frequencies.
Two-sided spectrum: Spectrum components
exists in both positive and negative frequencies.
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Two-sided line spectrum:
( )
t jw j t jw j
t w j t w j t w j
o o
o o o
e e
A
e e
A
Ae Ae Ae

+ + +
+ =
+ =
| |
| | |
2 2

2
1
] Re[
) ( ) ( ) (
Phasor diagram
Amplitude spectrum is even
symmetry. Phase spectrum is
odd symmetry.